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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%207

August 7

This day marks the approximate midpoint of summer in the Northern Hemisphere and of winter in the Southern Hemisphere (starting the season at the June solstice). Events Pre-1600 461 – Roman Emperor Majorian is beheaded near the river Iria in north-west Italy following his arrest and deposition by the magister militum Ricimer. 626 – The Avar and Slav armies leave the siege of Constantinople. 768 – Pope Stephen III is elected to office, and quickly seeks Frankish protection against the Lombard threat, since the Byzantine Empire is no longer able to help. 936 – Coronation of King Otto I of Germany. 1461 – The Ming dynasty Chinese military general Cao Qin stages a coup against the Tianshun Emperor. 1479 – Battle of Guinegate: French troops of King Louis XI were defeated by the Burgundians led by Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg. 1601–1900 1679 – The brigantine Le Griffon, commissioned by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, is towed to the south-eastern end of the Niagara River, to become the first ship to sail the upper Great Lakes of North America. 1714 – The Battle of Gangut: The first important victory of the Russian Navy. 1743 – The Treaty of Åbo ended the 1741–1743 Russo-Swedish War. 1782 – George Washington orders the creation of the Badge of Military Merit to honor soldiers wounded in battle. It is later renamed to the more poetic Purple Heart. 1786 – The first federal Indian Reservation is created by the United States. 1789 – The United States Department of War is established. 1791 – American troops destroy the Miami town of Kenapacomaqua near the site of present-day Logansport, Indiana in the Northwest Indian War. 1794 – U.S. President George Washington invokes the Militia Acts of 1792 to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania. 1819 – Simón Bolívar triumphs over Spain in the Battle of Boyacá. 1858 – The first Australian rules football match is played between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College. 1890 – Anna Månsdotter, found guilty of the 1889 Yngsjö murder, became the last woman to be executed in Sweden. 1901–present 1909 – Alice Huyler Ramsey and three friends become the first women to complete a transcontinental auto trip, taking 59 days to travel from New York, New York to San Francisco, California. 1927 – The Peace Bridge opens between Fort Erie, Ontario and Buffalo, New York. 1930 – The last confirmed lynching of black people in the Northern United States occurs in Marion, Indiana; two men, Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith, are killed. 1933 – The Kingdom of Iraq slaughters over 3,000 Assyrians in the village of Simele. This date is recognized as Martyrs Day or National Day of Mourning by the Assyrian community in memory of the Simele massacre. 1942 – World War II: The Battle of Guadalcanal begins as the United States Marines initiate the first American offensive of the war with landings on Guadalcanal and Tulagi in the Solomon Islands. 1944 – IBM dedicates the first program-controlled calculator, the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (known best as the Harvard Mark I). 1946 – The government of the Soviet Union presented a note to its Turkish counterparts which refuted the latter's sovereignty over the Turkish Straits, thus beginning the Turkish Straits crisis. 1947 – Thor Heyerdahl's balsa wood raft, the Kon-Tiki, smashes into the reef at Raroia in the Tuamotu Islands after a 101-day, journey across the Pacific Ocean in an attempt to prove that pre-historic peoples could have traveled from South America. 1947 – The Bombay Municipal Corporation formally takes over the Bombay Electric Supply and Transport (BEST). 1959 – Explorer program: Explorer 6 launches from the Atlantic Missile Range in Cape Canaveral, Florida. 1960 – Ivory Coast becomes independent from France. 1962 – Canadian-born American pharmacologist Frances Oldham Kelsey awarded the U.S. President's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service for her refusal to authorize thalidomide. 1964 – Vietnam War: The U.S. Congress passes the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution giving U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson broad war powers to deal with North Vietnamese attacks on American forces. 1969 – Richard Nixon appoints Luis R. Bruce, a Mohawk-Oglala Sioux and co-founder of the National Congress of American Indians, as the new commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. 1970 – California judge Harold Haley is taken hostage in his courtroom and killed during an effort to free George Jackson from police custody. 1974 – Philippe Petit performs a high wire act between the twin towers of the World Trade Center in the air. 1976 – Viking program: Viking 2 enters orbit around Mars. 1978 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter declares a federal emergency at Love Canal due to toxic waste that had been disposed of negligently. 1981 – The Washington Star ceases all operations after 128 years of publication. 1985 – Takao Doi, Mamoru Mohri and Chiaki Mukai are chosen to be Japan's first astronauts. 1987 – Cold War: Lynne Cox becomes the first person to swim from the United States to the Soviet Union, crossing the Bering Strait from Little Diomede Island in Alaska to Big Diomede in the Soviet Union. 1989 – U.S. Congressman Mickey Leland (D-TX) and 15 others die in a plane crash in Ethiopia. 1990 – First American soldiers arrive in Saudi Arabia as part of the Gulf War. 1993 – Ada Deer, a Menominee activist, sworn in as the head of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. 1995 – The Chilean government declares state of emergency in the southern half of the country in response to an event of intense, cold, wind, rain and snowfall known as the White Earthquake. 1997 – Space Shuttle Program: The Space Shuttle Discovery launches on STS-85 from the Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida. 1997 – Fine Air Flight 101 crashes after takeoff from Miami International Airport, killing five people. 1998 – Bombings at United States embassies in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Nairobi, Kenya kill approximately 212 people. 1999 – The Chechnya-based Islamic International Brigade invades neighboring Dagestan. 2007 – At AT&T Park, Barry Bonds hits his 756th career home run to surpass Hank Aaron's 33-year-old record. 2008 – The start of the Russo-Georgian War over the territory of South Ossetia. 2020 – Air India Express Flight 1344 overshoots the runway at Calicut International Airport in the Malappuram district of Kerala, India, and crashes, killing 21 of the 190 people on board. Births Pre-1600 317 – Constantius II, Roman emperor (d. 361) 1282 – Elizabeth of Rhuddlan (d. 1316) 1533 – Alonso de Ercilla, Spanish soldier and poet (d. 1595) 1560 – Elizabeth Báthory, Hungarian aristocrat and serial killer (d. 1614) 1571 – Thomas Lupo, English viol player and composer (d. 1627) 1574 – Robert Dudley, English explorer and cartographer (d. 1649) 1598 – Georg Stiernhielm, Swedish poet and linguist (d. 1672) 1601–1900 1613 – William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz, Dutch stadtholder (d. 1664) 1702 – Muhammad Shah, Mughal emperor of India (d. 1748) 1726 – James Bowdoin, American banker and politician, 2nd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1790) 1742 – Nathanael Greene, American general (d. 1786) 1751 – Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange (d. 1820) 1779 – Carl Ritter, German geographer and academic (d. 1859) 1826 – August Ahlqvist, Finnish professor, poet, scholar of the Finno-Ugric languages, author, and literary critic (d. 1889) 1844 – Auguste Michel-Lévy, French geologist and author (d. 1911) 1860 – Alan Leo, English astrologer and author (d. 1917) 1862 – Henri Le Sidaner, French painter (d. 1939) 1862 – Victoria of Baden (d. 1931) 1867 – Emil Nolde, Danish-German painter and illustrator (d. 1956) 1868 – Ladislaus Bortkiewicz, Russian-German economist and statistician (d. 1931) 1868 – Huntley Wright, English actor (d. 1941) 1869 – Mary Frances Winston, American mathematician (d. 1959) 1876 – Mata Hari, Dutch dancer and spy (d. 1917) 1879 – Johannes Kotze, South African cricketer (d. 1931) 1884 – Billie Burke, American actress and singer (d. 1970) 1884 – Nikolai Triik, Estonian painter and illustrator (d. 1940) 1887 – Anna Elisabet Weirauch, German author and playwright (d. 1970) 1890 – Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, American author and activist (d. 1964) 1901–present 1901 – Ann Harding, American actress and singer (d. 1981) 1903 – Louis Leakey, Kenyan-English palaeontologist and archaeologist (d. 1972) 1904 – Ralph Bunche, American political scientist, academic, and diplomat, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971) 1907 – Albert Kotin, Belarusian-American soldier and painter (d. 1980) 1910 – Freddie Slack, American pianist and bandleader (d. 1965) 1911 – István Bibó, Hungarian lawyer and politician (d. 1979) 1911 – Nicholas Ray, American director and screenwriter (d. 1979) 1913 – George Van Eps, American guitarist (d. 1998) 1916 – Kermit Love, American actor, puppeteer, and costume designer (d. 2008) 1918 – C. Buddingh', Dutch poet and translator (d. 1985) 1918 – Gordon Zahn, American sociologist and author (d. 2007) 1921 – Manitas de Plata, French guitarist (d. 2014) 1921 – Karel Husa, Czech-American composer and conductor (d. 2016) 1924 – Kenneth Kendall, Indian-English journalist and actor (d. 2012) 1925 – Felice Bryant, American songwriter (d. 2003) 1926 – Stan Freberg, American puppeteer, voice actor, and singer (d. 2015) 1927 – Rocky Bridges, American baseball player and coach (d. 2015) 1927 – Edwin Edwards, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 50th Governor of Louisiana (d. 2021) 1927 – Art Houtteman, American baseball player and journalist (d. 2003) 1928 – Betsy Byars, American author and academic (d. 2020) 1928 – Owen Luder, English architect, designed Tricorn Centre and Trinity Square 1928 – James Randi, Canadian-American stage magician and author (d. 2020) 1929 – Don Larsen, American baseball player (d. 2020) 1930 – Togrul Narimanbekov, Azerbaijani-French painter and academic (d. 2013) 1930 – Veljo Tormis, Estonian composer and educator (d. 2017) 1931 – Jack Good, British television producer (d. 2017) 1931 – Charles E. Rice, American scholar and author (d. 2015) 1932 – Abebe Bikila, Ethiopian runner (d. 1973) 1932 – Edward Hardwicke, English actor (d. 2011) 1932 – Rien Poortvliet, Dutch painter and illustrator (d. 1995) 1932 – Maurice Rabb, Jr., American ophthalmologist and academic (d. 2005) 1933 – Eddie Firmani, South African footballer and manager 1933 – Elinor Ostrom, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2012) 1933 – Jerry Pournelle, American journalist and author (d. 2017) 1933 – Alberto Romulo, Filipino politician and diplomat 1934 – Sándor Simó, Hungarian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2001) 1935 – Rahsaan Roland Kirk, American saxophonist and composer (d. 1977) 1937 – Zoltán Berczik, Hungarian table tennis player and coach (d. 2011) 1937 – Don Wilson, English cricketer and coach (d. 2012) 1940 – Jean-Luc Dehaene, French-Belgian lawyer and politician, 63rd Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 2014) 1940 – Uwe Nettelbeck, German record producer, journalist and film critic (d. 2007) 1941 – Matthew Evans, Baron Evans of Temple Guiting, English publisher and politician (d. 2016) 1942 – Garrison Keillor, American humorist, novelist, short story writer, and radio host 1942 – Carlos Monzon, Argentinian boxer and actor (d. 1995) 1942 – Caetano Veloso, Brazilian singer-songwriter, writer and producer 1942 – Richard Sykes, English biochemist and academic 1942 – B. J. Thomas, American singer (d. 2021) 1943 – Mohammed Badie, Egyptian religious leader 1943 – Lana Cantrell, Australian singer-songwriter and lawyer 1943 – Alain Corneau, French director and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1944 – John Glover, American actor 1944 – Robert Mueller, American soldier and lawyer, 6th Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation 1945 – Kenny Ireland, Scottish actor and director (d. 2014) 1945 – Alan Page, American football player and jurist 1947 – Franciscus Henri, Dutch-Australian singer-songwriter 1947 – Sofia Rotaru, Ukrainian singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1948 – Marty Appel, American businessman and author 1948 – Greg Chappell, Australian cricketer and coach 1949 – Walid Jumblatt, Lebanese journalist and politician 1949 – Matthew Parris, South African-English journalist and politician 1950 – Rodney Crowell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1950 – Alan Keyes, American politician and diplomat, 16th Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs 1950 – S. Thandayuthapani, Sri Lankan educator and politician 1952 – Caroline Aaron, American actress and producer 1952 – Eamonn Darcy, Irish golfer 1952 – Kees Kist, Dutch footballer 1952 – Alexei Sayle, English comedian, actor, and author 1953 – Anne Fadiman, American journalist and author 1954 – Valery Gazzaev, Russian footballer, manager and politician 1954 – Jonathan Pollard, Israeli spy 1954 – Alan Reid, Scottish politician 1955 – Wayne Knight, American actor, comedian and voice actor 1955 – Greg Nickels, American lawyer and politician, 51st Mayor of Seattle 1955 – Vladimir Sorokin, Russian author and playwright 1957 – Daire Brehan, Irish journalist, lawyer, and actress (d. 2012) 1957 – Alexander Dityatin, Russian gymnast and colonel 1958 – Russell Baze, Canadian-American jockey 1958 – Bruce Dickinson, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1958 – Alberto Salazar, Cuban-American runner and coach 1959 – Koenraad Elst, Belgian orientalist and author 1959 – Ali Shah, Zimbabwean cricketer and coach 1960 – David Duchovny, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1961 – Brian Conley, English actor and singer 1961 – Yelena Davydova, Russian gymnast 1961 – Walter Swinburn, English jockey and trainer (d. 2016) 1962 – Alison Brown, American banjo player, songwriter, and producer 1963 – Paul Dunn, Australian rugby league player 1963 – Nick Gillespie, American journalist and author 1963 – Marcus Roberts, American pianist and educator 1964 – John Birmingham, English-Australian journalist and author 1964 – Ian Dench, English guitarist and songwriter 1964 – Peter Niven, Scottish jockey 1965 – Raul Malo, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1965 – Elizabeth Manley, Canadian figure skater 1966 – David Cairns, Scottish laicised priest and politician, Minister of State for Scotland (d. 2011) 1966 – Shobna Gulati, British actress 1966 – Kristin Hersh, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1966 – Jimmy Wales, American-British entrepreneur, co-founder of Wikipedia 1967 – Jason Grimsley, American baseball player 1968 – Francesca Gregorini, Italian-American director and screenwriter 1968 – Trevor Hendy, Australian surfer and coach 1968 – Sophie Lee, Australian actress and author 1969 – Paul Lambert, Scottish footballer and manager 1969 – Dana G. Peleg, Israeli writer and LGBT activist 1970 – Eric Namesnik, American swimmer (d. 2006) 1971 – Dominic Cork, England cricketer and sportscaster 1971 – Rachel York, American actress and singer 1972 – Gerry Peñalosa, Filipino boxer and promoter 1973 – Mikhail Gorsheniov, Russian singer-songwriter (d. 2013) 1973 – Danny Graves, Vietnamese-American baseball player 1973 – Kevin Muscat, English-Australian footballer, coach, and manager 1974 – Chico Benymon, American actor 1974 – Michael Shannon, American actor 1975 – Koray Candemir, Turkish singer-songwriter 1975 – Gerard Denton, Australian cricketer 1975 – Megan Gale, Australian model and actress 1975 – Ray Hill, American football player (d. 2015) 1975 – Rebecca Kleefisch, American journalist and politician, 44th Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin 1975 – Édgar Rentería, Colombian baseball player 1975 – Charlize Theron, South African actress 1976 – Dimitrios Eleftheropoulos, Greek footballer and manager 1976 – Shane Lechler, American football player 1977 – Charlotte Ronson, English fashion designer 1977 – Samantha Ronson, English singer-songwriter and DJ 1977 – Justin Brooker, Rugby League Player 1978 – Alexandre Aja, French director, producer, and screenwriter 1978 – Jamey Jasta, American singer-songwriter 1978 – Mark McCammon, English-Barbadian footballer 1978 – Cirroc Lofton, American actor 1979 – Eric Johnson, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1979 – Miguel Llera, Spanish footballer 1979 – Birgit Zotz, Austrian anthropologist and author 1980 – Carsten Busch, German footballer 1980 – Aurélie Claudel, French model and actress 1980 – Tácio Caetano Cruz Queiroz, Brazilian footballer 1980 – Seiichiro Maki, Japanese footballer 1981 – David Testo, American soccer player 1981 – Randy Wayne, American actor and producer 1982 – Ángeles Balbiani, Argentine actress and singer 1982 – Abbie Cornish, Australian actress 1982 – Juan Martín Hernández, Argentine rugby player 1982 – Marquise Hill, American football player (d. 2007) 1982 – Vassilis Spanoulis, Greek basketball player 1982 – Martin Vučić, Macedonian singer and drummer 1983 – Christian Chávez, Mexican singer-songwriter and actor 1983 – Murat Dalkılıç, Turkish singer-songwriter 1983 – Danny, Portuguese footballer 1983 – Andriy Hrivko, Ukrainian cyclist 1983 – Mark Pettini, English cricketer and journalist 1984 – Stratos Perperoglou, Greek basketball player 1984 – Tooba Siddiqui, Pakistani model and actress 1984 – Yun Hyon-seok, South Korean poet and author (d. 2003) 1986 – Paul Biedermann, German swimmer 1986 – Valter Birsa, Slovenian footballer 1986 – Altaír Jarabo, Mexican model and actress 1986 – Juan de la Rosa, Mexican boxer 1987 – Sidney Crosby, Canadian ice hockey player 1987 – Mustapha Dumbuya, Sierra Leonean footballer 1987 – Ryan Lavarnway, American baseball player 1987 – Rouven Sattelmaier, German footballer 1988 – Jonathan Bernier, Canadian ice hockey player 1988 – Mohamed Coulibaly, Senegalese footballer 1988 – Anisa Mohammed, West Indian cricketer 1988 – Melody Oliveria, American blogger 1988 – Erik Pieters, Dutch footballer 1988 – Beanie Wells, American football player 1989 – DeMar DeRozan, American basketball player 1990 – Josh Franceschi, English singer-songwriter 1991 – Luis Salom, Spanish motorcycle racer (d. 2016) 1991 – Mitchell te Vrede, Dutch footballer 1991 – Mike Trout, American baseball player 1992 – Adam Yates, English cyclist 1992 – Simon Yates, English cyclist 1992 – E. J. Tackett, American bowler 1993 – Martti Nõmme, Estonian ski jumper 1993 – Karol Zalewski, Polish sprinter 1998 – Vladimir Barbu, Italian diver 1998 – María Bazo, Peruvian windsurfer Deaths Pre-1600 461 – Majorian, Roman emperor (b. 420) 707 – Li Chongjun, Chinese prince 1028 – Alfonso V, king of León (b. 994) 1106 – Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1050) 1234 – Hugh Foliot, bishop of Hereford (b. c. 1155) 1272 – Richard Middleton, English Lord Chancellor 1296 – Heinrich II von Rotteneck, prince-bishop of Regensburg 1385 – Joan of Kent, mother of Richard II (b. 1328) 1485 – Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany (b. 1454) 1547 – Cajetan, Italian priest and saint (b. 1480) 1601–1900 1613 – Thomas Fleming, English judge and politician, Lord Chief Justice of England (b. 1544) 1616 – Vincenzo Scamozzi, Italian architect, designed Teatro Olimpico (b. 1548) 1632 – Robert de Vere, 19th Earl of Oxford, English soldier (b. 1575) 1635 – Friedrich Spee, German poet and academic (b. 1591) 1639 – Martin van den Hove, Dutch astronomer and mathematician (b. 1605) 1661 – Jin Shengtan, Chinese journalist and critic (b. 1608) 1787 – Francis Blackburne, English Anglican churchman and activist (b. 1705) 1817 – Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, French economist and politician (b. 1739) 1834 – Joseph Marie Jacquard, French weaver and inventor, invented the Jacquard loom (b. 1752) 1848 – Jöns Jacob Berzelius, Swedish chemist and academic (b. 1779) 1855 – Mariano Arista, Mexican general and politician, 19th President of Mexico (b. 1802) 1864 – Li Xiucheng, Chinese field marshal (b. 1823) 1893 – Alfredo Catalani, Italian composer and academic (b. 1854) 1899 – Jacob Maris, Dutch painter and educator (b. 1837) 1900 – Wilhelm Liebknecht, German lawyer and politician (b. 1826) 1901–present 1912 – François-Alphonse Forel, Swiss limnologist and academic (b. 1841) 1917 – Edwin Harris Dunning, South African-English commander and pilot (b. 1891) 1938 – Konstantin Stanislavski, Russian actor and director (b. 1863) 1941 – Rabindranath Tagore, Indian author, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1861) 1948 – Charles Bryant, English-American actor and director (b. 1879) 1953 – Abner Powell, American baseball player and manager (b. 1860) 1957 – Oliver Hardy, American actor, singer, and director (b. 1892) 1958 – Elizabeth Foreman Lewis, American author and educator (b. 1892) 1960 – Luis Ángel Firpo, Argentine boxer (b. 1894) 1963 – Ramon Vila Capdevila, last of the Spanish Maquis, holding out after the end of the Spanish Civil War (b.1908) 1968 – Giovanni Bracco, Italian race car driver (b. 1908) 1969 – Jean Bastien, French professional footballer (b. 1915) 1969 – Joseph Kosma, Hungarian-French composer (b. 1905) 1970 – Harold Haley, American lawyer and judge (b. 1904) 1970 – Jonathan P. Jackson, American bodyguard and kidnapper (b. 1953) 1972 – Joi Lansing, American model, actress, and singer (b. 1929) 1973 – Jack Gregory, Australian cricketer (b. 1895) 1974 – Rosario Castellanos, Mexican poet and author (b. 1925) 1974 – Sylvio Mantha, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1902) 1978 – Eddie Calvert, English trumpeter (b. 1922) 1981 – Gunnar Uusi, Estonian chess player (b. 1931) 1985 – Grayson Hall, American actress (b. 1922) 1987 – Camille Chamoun, Lebanese lawyer and politician, 7th President of Lebanon (b. 1900) 1989 – Mickey Leland, American lawyer and politician (b. 1944) 1994 – Larry Martyn, English actor (b. 1934) 1995 – Brigid Brophy, English author and critic (b. 1929) 2001 – Algirdas Lauritėnas, Lithuanian basketball player (b. 1932) 2003 – K. D. Arulpragasam, Sri Lankan zoologist and academic (b. 1931) 2003 – Mickey McDermott, American baseball player and coach (b. 1929) 2004 – Red Adair, American firefighter (b. 1915) 2004 – Colin Bibby, English ornithologist and academic (b. 1948) 2005 – Peter Jennings, Canadian-American journalist and author (b. 1938) 2006 – Mary Anderson Bain, American lawyer and politician (b. 1911) 2007 – Ernesto Alonso, Mexican actor, director, and producer (b. 1917) 2007 – Angus Tait, New Zealand businessman, founded Tait Communications (b. 1919) 2008 – Bernie Brillstein, American talent agent and producer (b. 1931) 2008 – Andrea Pininfarina, Italian engineer and businessman (b. 1957) 2009 – Louis E. Saavedra, American educator and politician, 48th Mayor of Albuquerque (b. 1933) 2009 – Mike Seeger, American singer-songwriter (b. 1933) 2010 – John Nelder, English mathematician and statistician (b. 1924) 2011 – Mark Hatfield, American soldier, academic, and politician, 29th Governor of Oregon (b. 1922) 2011 – Nancy Wake, New Zealand-English captain and spy (b. 1912) 2012 – Murtuz Alasgarov, Azerbaijani academic and politician, Speaker of the National Assembly of Azerbaijan (b. 1928) 2012 – Judith Crist, American critic and academic (b. 1922) 2012 – Vladimir Kobzev, Russian footballer and coach (b. 1959) 2012 – Anna Piaggi, Italian journalist and author (b. 1931) 2012 – Mayer Zald, American sociologist and academic (b. 1931) 2012 – Dušan Zbavitel, Czech indologist and author (b. 1925) 2013 – Samuel G. Armistead, American linguist, historian, and academic (b. 1927) 2013 – Almir Kayumov, Russian footballer (b. 1964) 2013 – Anthony Pawson, English-Canadian biologist, chemist, and academic (b. 1952) 2013 – Margaret Pellegrini, American actress and dancer (b. 1923) 2013 – Meeli Truu, Estonian architect (d. 1946) 2013 – Alexander Yagubkin, Russian boxer (b. 1961) 2014 – Víctor Fayad, Argentine lawyer and politician (b. 1955) 2014 – Perry Moss, American football player and coach (b. 1926) 2014 – Henry Stone, American record producer (b. 1921) 2015 – Manuel Contreras, Chilean general (b. 1929) 2015 – Frances Oldham Kelsey, Canadian pharmacologist and physician (b. 1914) 2015 – Louise Suggs, American golfer, co-founded LPGA (b. 1923) 2016 – Bryan Clauson, American racing driver (b. 1989) 2017 – Don Baylor, American baseball player (b. 1949) 2017 – David Maslanka, American composer (b. 1943) 2018 – M. Karunanidhi, Indian politician, former Tamil Nadu Chief Minister and prominent leader of Tamils (b. 1924) 2018 – Stan Mikita, Slovakian hockey player (b. 1940) 2019 – David Berman, American musician, singer, poet and cartoonist (b. 1967) 2020 – Lê Khả Phiêu, Vietnamese politician (b. 1931) 2021 – Markie Post, American actress (b. 1950) Holidays and observances Assyrian Martyrs Day (Assyrian community) Battle of Boyacá Day (Colombia) Christian feast day: Albert of Trapani Cajetan of Thienna Carpophorus and companions Dometius of Persia Donatus of Arezzo Donatus of Besançon Donatus of Muenstereifel John Mason Neale and Catherine Winkworth (Episcopal Church (USA)) Nantovinus Pope Sixtus II August 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Emancipation Day (Saint Kitts and Nevis) Filseta (Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church) Republic Day (Ivory Coast) Youth Day (Kiribati) National Purple Heart Day (United States) References External links Days of the year August

1793

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%2029

August 29

Events Pre-1600 708 – Copper coins are minted in Japan for the first time (Traditional Japanese date: August 10, 708). 870 – The city of Melite surrenders to an Aghlabid army following a siege, putting an end to Byzantine Malta. 1009 – Mainz Cathedral suffers extensive damage from a fire, which destroys the building on the day of its inauguration. 1261 – Pope Urban IV succeeds Pope Alexander IV, becoming the 182nd pope. 1315 – Battle of Montecatini: The army of the Republic of Pisa, commanded by Uguccione della Faggiuola, wins a decisive victory against the joint forces of the Kingdom of Naples and the Republic of Florence despite being outnumbered. 1350 – Battle of Winchelsea (or Les Espagnols sur Mer): The English naval fleet under King Edward III defeats a Castilian fleet of 40 ships. 1475 – The Treaty of Picquigny ends a brief war between the kingdoms of France and England. 1484 – Pope Innocent VIII succeeds Pope Sixtus IV. 1498 – Vasco da Gama decides to depart Calicut and return to Kingdom of Portugal. 1521 – The Ottoman Turks capture Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade). 1526 – Battle of Mohács: The Ottoman Turks led by Suleiman the Magnificent defeat and kill the last Jagiellonian king of Hungary and Bohemia. 1541 – The Ottoman Turks capture Buda, the capital of the Hungarian Kingdom. 1601–1900 1728 – The city of Nuuk in Greenland is founded as the fort of Godt-Haab by the royal governor Claus Paarss. 1741 – The eruption of Oshima–Ōshima and the Kampo tsunami: At least 2,000 people along the Japanese coast drown in a tsunami caused by the eruption of Oshima. 1756 – Frederick the Great attacks Saxony, beginning the Seven Years' War in Europe. 1758 – The Treaty of Easton establishes the first American Indian reservation, at Indian Mills, New Jersey, for the Lenape. 1778 – American Revolutionary War: British and American forces battle indecisively at the Battle of Rhode Island. 1779 – American Revolutionary War: American forces battle and defeat the British and Iroquois forces at the Battle of Newtown. 1786 – Shays' Rebellion, an armed uprising of Massachusetts farmers, begins in response to high debt and tax burdens. 1807 – British troops under Sir Arthur Wellesley defeat a Danish militia outside Copenhagen in the Battle of Køge. 1831 – Michael Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction. 1842 – Treaty of Nanking signing ends the First Opium War. 1861 – American Civil War: The Battle of Hatteras Inlet Batteries gives Federal forces control of Pamlico Sound. 1869 – The Mount Washington Cog Railway opens, making it the world's first mountain-climbing rack railway. 1871 – Emperor Meiji orders the abolition of the han system and the establishment of prefectures as local centers of administration. (Traditional Japanese date: July 14, 1871). 1885 – Gottlieb Daimler patents the world's first internal combustion motorcycle, the Reitwagen. 1898 – The Goodyear tire company is founded. 1901–present 1903 – The , the last of the five s, is launched. 1907 – The Quebec Bridge collapses during construction, killing 75 workers. 1910 – The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910, also known as the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty, becomes effective, officially starting the period of Japanese rule in Korea. 1911 – Ishi, considered the last Native American to make contact with European Americans, emerges from the wilderness of northeastern California. 1911 – The Canadian Naval Service becomes the Royal Canadian Navy. 1914 – World War I: Start of the Battle of St. Quentin in which the French Fifth Army counter-attacked the invading Germans at Saint-Quentin, Aisne. 1915 – US Navy salvage divers raise , the first U.S. submarine sunk in an accident. 1916 – The United States passes the Philippine Autonomy Act. 1918 – World War I: Bapaume taken by the New Zealand Division in the Hundred Days Offensive. 1930 – The last 36 remaining inhabitants of St Kilda are voluntarily evacuated to other parts of Scotland. 1941 – World War II: Tallinn, the capital of Estonia, is occupied by Nazi Germany following an occupation by the Soviet Union. 1943 – World War II: German-occupied Denmark scuttles most of its navy; Germany dissolves the Danish government. 1944 – World War II: Slovak National Uprising takes place as 60,000 Slovak troops turn against the Nazis. 1949 – Soviet atomic bomb project: The Soviet Union tests its first atomic bomb, known as First Lightning or Joe 1, at Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan. 1950 – Korean War: British troops arrive in Korea to bolster the US presence there. 1958 – United States Air Force Academy opens in Colorado Springs, Colorado. 1965 – The Gemini V spacecraft returns to Earth, landing in the Atlantic Ocean. 1966 – The Beatles perform their last concert before paying fans at Candlestick Park in San Francisco. 1966 – Leading Egyptian thinker Sayyid Qutb is executed for plotting the assassination of President Gamal Abdel Nasser. 1970 – Chicano Moratorium against the Vietnam War, East Los Angeles, California. Police riot kills three people, including journalist Rubén Salazar. 1982 – The synthetic chemical element Meitnerium, atomic number 109, is first synthesized at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung in Darmstadt, Germany. 1991 – Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union suspends all activities of the Soviet Communist Party. 1991 – Libero Grassi, an Italian businessman from Palermo, is killed by the Sicilian Mafia after taking a solitary stand against their extortion demands. 1996 – Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801, a Tupolev Tu-154, crashes into a mountain on the Arctic island of Spitsbergen, killing all 141 aboard. 1997 – Netflix is launched as an internet DVD rental service. 1997 – At least 98 villagers are killed by the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria GIA in the Rais massacre, Algeria. 1998 – Eighty people are killed when Cubana de Aviación Flight 389 crashes during a rejected takeoff from the Old Mariscal Sucre International Airport in Quito, Ecuador. 2003 – Ayatollah Sayed Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim, the Shia Muslim leader in Iraq, is assassinated in a terrorist bombing, along with nearly 100 worshippers as they leave a mosque in Najaf. 2005 – Hurricane Katrina devastates much of the U.S. Gulf Coast from Louisiana to the Florida Panhandle, killing up to 1,836 people and causing $125 billion in damage. 2012 – At least 26 Chinese miners are killed and 21 missing after a blast in the Xiaojiawan coal mine, located at Panzhihua, Sichuan Province. Births Pre-1600 979 – Otto (or Eudes), French nobleman (d. 1045) 1321 – John of Artois, French nobleman (d. 1387) 1347 – John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, English nobleman and soldier (d. 1375) 1434 – Janus Pannonius, Hungarian bishop and poet (d. 1472) 1514 – García Álvarez de Toledo, 4th Marquis of Villafranca, Spanish noble and admiral (d. 1577) 1534 – Nicholas Pieck, Dutch Franciscan friar and martyr (d. 1572) 1597 – Henry Gage, Royalist officer in the English Civil War (d. 1645) 1601–1900 1619 – Jean-Baptiste Colbert, French economist and politician, Controller-General of Finances (d. 1683) 1628 – John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1701) 1632 – John Locke, English physician and philosopher (d. 1704) 1724 – Giovanni Battista Casti, Italian poet and author (d. 1803) 1725 – Charles Townshend, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1767) 1728 – Maria Anna Sophia of Saxony, electress of Bavaria (d. 1797) 1756 – Jan Śniadecki, Polish mathematician and astronomer (d. 1830) 1756 – Count Heinrich von Bellegarde, Austrian general and politician (d. 1845) 1773 – Aimé Bonpland, French botanist and explorer (d. 1858) 1777 – Hyacinth, Russian religious leader, founded Sinology (d. 1853) 1780 – Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, French painter and illustrator (d. 1867) 1792 – Charles Grandison Finney, American minister and author (d. 1875) 1805 – Frederick Denison Maurice, English priest, theologian, and author (d. 1872) 1809 – Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., American physician and author (d. 1894) 1810 – Juan Bautista Alberdi, Argentinian theorist and diplomat (d. 1884) 1813 – Henry Bergh, American activist, founded the ASPCA (d. 1888) 1842 – Alfred Shaw, English cricketer, rugby player, and umpire (d. 1907) 1843 – David B. Hill, American lawyer and politician, 29th Governor of New York (d. 1910) 1844 – Edward Carpenter, English anthologist and poet (d. 1929) 1857 – Sandford Schultz, English cricketer (d. 1937) 1861 – Byron G. Harlan, American singer (d. 1936) 1862 – Andrew Fisher, Scottish-Australian politician and diplomat, 5th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1928) 1862 – Maurice Maeterlinck, Belgian poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1949) 1871 – Albert François Lebrun, French engineer and politician, 15th President of France (d. 1950) 1875 – Leonardo De Lorenzo, Italian flute player and educator (d. 1962) 1876 – Charles F. Kettering, American engineer and businessman, founded Delco Electronics (d. 1958) 1876 – Kim Koo, South Korean politician, 6th President of The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (d. 1949) 1887 – Jivraj Narayan Mehta, Indian physicians and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Gujarat (d. 1978) 1888 – Salme Dutt, Estonian-English politician (d. 1964) 1890 – Peder Furubotn, Norwegian Communist and anti-Nazi Resistance leader (d.1975) 1891 – Marquis James, American journalist and author (d. 1955) 1898 – Preston Sturges, American director and producer (d. 1959) 1901–present 1901 – Aurèle Joliat, Canadian ice hockey player and referee (d. 1986) 1904 – Werner Forssmann, German physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979) 1905 – Dhyan Chand, Indian field hockey player (d. 1979) 1905 – Arndt Pekurinen, Finnish activist (d. 1941) 1910 – Vivien Thomas, American surgeon and academic (d. 1985) 1911 – John Charnley, British orthopedic surgeon (d. 1982) 1912 – Sohn Kee-chung, South Korean runner (d. 2002) 1912 – Barry Sullivan, American actor (d. 1994) 1912 – Wolfgang Suschitzky, Austrian-English cinematographer and photographer (d. 2016) 1913 – Len Butterfield, New Zealand cricketer (d. 1999) 1913 – Jackie Mitchell, American baseball pitcher (d. 1987) 1915 – Ingrid Bergman, Swedish actress (d. 1982) 1915 – Nathan Pritikin, American nutritionist and author (d. 1985) 1916 – Luther Davis, American playwright and screenwriter (d. 2008) 1917 – Isabel Sanford, American actress (d. 2004) 1920 – Charlie Parker, American saxophonist and composer (d. 1955) 1920 – Herb Simpson, American baseball player (d. 2015) 1920 – Otis Boykin, American inventor and engineer (d. 1982) 1922 – Richard Blackwell, American actor, fashion designer, and critic (d. 2008) 1922 – John Edward Williams, American author and educator (d. 1994) 1922 – Arthur Anderson, American actor (d. 2016) 1923 – Richard Attenborough, English actor, director, and producer (d. 2014) 1924 – Dinah Washington, American singer and pianist (d. 1963) 1926 – Helene Ahrweiler, Greek historian and academic 1926 – Donn Fendler, American author and speaker (d. 2016) 1926 – Betty Lynn, American actress 1927 – Jimmy C. Newman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2014) 1928 – Herbert Meier, Swiss author and translator (d. 2018) 1929 – Thom Gunn, English-American poet and academic (d. 2004) 1930 – Jacques Bouchard, Canadian businessman (d. 2006) 1930 – Carlos Loyzaga, Filipino basketball player and coach (d. 2016) 1931 – Stelios Kazantzidis, Greek singer and guitarist (d. 2001) 1931 – Lise Payette, Canadian journalist and politician (d. 2018) 1933 – Sorel Etrog, Romanian-Canadian sculptor, painter, and illustrator (d. 2014) 1933 – Arnold Koller, Swiss politician 1934 – Dimitris Papamichael, Greek actor and director (d. 2004) 1935 – Hugo Brandt Corstius, Dutch linguist and author (d. 2014) 1935 – William Friedkin, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1935 – László Garai, Hungarian psychologist and scholar 1936 – John McCain, American captain and politician (d. 2018) 1937 – James Florio, American commander, lawyer, and politician, 49th Governor of New Jersey 1938 – Elliott Gould, American actor and producer 1938 – Angela Huth, English journalist and author 1938 – Christian Müller, German footballer and manager 1938 – Robert Rubin, American lawyer and politician, 70th United States Secretary of the Treasury 1939 – Jolán Kleiber-Kontsek, Hungarian discus thrower and shot putter 1939 – Joel Schumacher, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2020) 1940 – James Brady, American politician and activist, 15th White House Press Secretary (d. 2014) 1940 – Gary Gabelich, American race car driver (d. 1984) 1941 – Robin Leach, English journalist and television host (d. 2018) 1942 – James Glennon, American cinematographer (d. 2006) 1942 – Gottfried John, German actor (d. 2014) 1942 – Sterling Morrison, American singer and guitarist (d. 1995) 1943 – Mohamed Amin, Kenyan photographer and journalist (d. 1996) 1943 – Dick Halligan, American pianist and composer 1943 – Arthur B. McDonald, Canadian astrophysicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1945 – Chris Copping, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1945 – Wyomia Tyus, American sprinter 1946 – Bob Beamon, American long jumper 1946 – Francine D. Blau, American economist and academic 1946 – Demetris Christofias, Cypriot businessman and politician, 6th President of Cyprus (d. 2019) 1946 – Giorgio Orsoni, Italian lawyer and politician, 17th Mayor of Venice 1947 – Temple Grandin, American ethologist, academic, and author 1947 – James Hunt, English race car driver and sportscaster (d. 1993) 1948 – Robert S. Langer, American chemical engineer, entrepreneur, and academic 1949 – Stan Hansen, American wrestler and actor 1950 – Doug DeCinces, American baseball player 1950 – Frank Henenlotter, American director and screenwriter 1950 – Dave Reichert, American soldier and politician 1951 – Geoff Whitehorn, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1952 – Karen Hesse, American author and poet 1952 – Dave Malone, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1952 – Don Schlitz, American Hall of Fame country music songwriter 1953 – David Boaz, American businessman and author 1953 – Richard Harding, English rugby player 1953 – James Quesada, Nicaraguan-American anthropologist and academic 1954 – Michael P. Kube-McDowell, American journalist, author, and academic 1955 – Diamanda Galás, American singer-songwriter and pianist 1955 – Jack Lew, American lawyer and politician, 25th White House Chief of Staff 1956 – Mark Morris, American dancer and choreographer 1956 – Eddie Murray, American football player 1956 – Charalambos Xanthopoulos, Greek footballer 1956 – Steve Yarbrough, American novelist and short story writer 1957 – Jerry D. Bailey, American jockey and sportscaster 1957 – Grzegorz Ciechowski, Polish singer-songwriter, film music composer (d. 2001) 1958 – Lenny Henry, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1958 – Michael Jackson, American singer-songwriter, producer, dancer, and actor (d. 2009) 1959 – Rebecca De Mornay, American actress 1959 – Ramón Díaz, Argentinian footballer and manager 1959 – Ray Elgaard, Canadian football player 1959 – Chris Hadfield, Canadian colonel, pilot, and astronaut 1959 – Eddi Reader, Scottish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1959 – Timothy Shriver, American businessman and activist 1959 – Stephen Wolfram, English-American physicist and mathematician 1959 – Nagarjuna, Indian film actor, Producer and Businessman 1960 – Todd English, American chef and author 1960 – Tony MacAlpine, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1961 – Carsten Fischer, German field hockey player 1961 – Rodney McCray, American basketball player 1962 – Carl Banks, American football player and sportscaster 1962 – Hiroki Kikuta, Japanese game designer and composer 1962 – Ian James Corlett, Canadian voice actor, writer, producer and author 1962 – Simon Thurley, English historian and academic 1963 – Elizabeth Fraser, Scottish singer-songwriter 1964 – Perri "Pebbles" Reid, American dance-pop and urban contemporary singer-songwriter 1964 – Zisis Tsekos, Greek footballer 1965 – Will Perdue, American basketball player and sportscaster 1966 – Jörn Großkopf, German footballer and manager 1967 – Neil Gorsuch, American lawyer and jurist, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States 1967 – Anton Newcombe, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1968 – Meshell Ndegeocello, German-American singer-songwriter 1969 – Joe Swail, Northern Irish snooker player 1969 – Jennifer Crittenden, American screenwriter and producer 1969 – Lucero, Mexican singer, songwriter, actress, and television host 1971 – Henry Blanco, Venezuelan baseball player and coach 1971 – Alex Griffin, English bass player 1971 – Carla Gugino, American actress 1972 – Amanda Marshall, Canadian singer-songwriter 1972 – Bae Yong-joon, South Korean actor 1973 – Vincent Cavanagh, English singer and guitarist 1973 – Olivier Jacque, French motorcycle racer 1974 – Kumi Tanioka, Japanese keyboard player and composer 1975 – Kyle Cook, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1976 – Stephen Carr, Irish footballer 1976 – Phil Harvey, English businessman 1976 – Kevin Kaesviharn, American football player 1976 – Georgios Kalaitzis, Greek basketball player 1976 – Pablo Mastroeni, Argentine-American soccer player and manager 1976 – Jon Dahl Tomasson, Danish footballer and manager 1977 – Cayetano, Greek DJ and producer 1977 – Devean George, American basketball player 1977 – John Patrick O'Brien, American soccer player 1977 – Roy Oswalt, American baseball player 1977 – Charlie Pickering, Australian comedian and radio host 1977 – Aaron Rowand, American baseball player and sportscaster 1978 – Volkan Arslan, German-Turkish footballer 1978 – Celestine Babayaro, Nigerian footballer 1979 – Stijn Devolder, Belgian cyclist 1979 – Kristjan Rahnu, Estonian decathlete 1979 – Ryan Shealy, American baseball player 1980 – Chris Simms, American football player 1980 – David West, American basketball player 1981 – Geneviève Jeanson, Canadian cyclist 1981 – Jay Ryan, New Zealand-Australian actor and producer 1982 – Ruhila Adatia-Sood, Kenyan journalist and radio host (d. 2013) 1982 – Carlos Delfino, Argentinian-Italian basketball player 1982 – Vincent Enyeama, Nigerian footballer 1983 – Antti Niemi, Finnish ice hockey player 1986 – Hajime Isayama, Japanese illustrator 1986 – Lea Michele, American actress and singer 1987 – Tony Kane, Irish footballer 1990 – Jakub Kosecki, Polish footballer 1990 – Patrick van Aanholt, Dutch footballer 1991 – Néstor Araujo, Mexican footballer 1991 – Deshaun Thomas, American basketball player 1992 – Mallu Magalhães, Brazilian singer-songwriter 1992 – Noah Syndergaard, American baseball player 1993 – Liam Payne, English singer-songwriter Deaths Pre-1600 886 – Basil I, Byzantine emperor (b. 811) 939 – Wang Jipeng, Chinese emperor of Min 939 – Li Chunyan, Chinese empress 956 – Fu the Elder, Chinese empress 979 – Abu Taghlib, Hamdanid emir 1021 – Minamoto no Yorimitsu, Japanese nobleman (b. 948) 1046 – Gerard of Csanád Venetian monk and Hungarian bishop (b.980) 1093 – Hugh I, duke of Burgundy (b. 1057) 1123 – Eystein I, king of Norway (b. 1088) 1135 – Al-Mustarshid, Abbasid caliph (b. 1092) 1159 – Bertha of Sulzbach, Byzantine empress 1298 – Eleanor of England, Countess of Bar, English princess (b. 1269) 1315 – Peter Tempesta, Italian nobleman (b. 1291) 1315 – Charles of Taranto, Italian nobleman (b. 1296) 1395 – Albert III, duke of Austria (b. 1349) 1442 – John V, duke of Brittany (b. 1389) 1499 – Alesso Baldovinetti, Florentine painter (b. 1427) 1523 – Ulrich von Hutten, Lutheran reformer (b. 1488) 1526 – Louis II, king of Hungary and Croatia (b. 1506) 1526 – Pál Tomori Hungarian archbishop and soldier (b. 1475) 1533 – Atahualpa, Inca emperor (b. 1497) 1542 – Cristóvão da Gama, Portuguese commander (b. 1516) 1601–1900 1604 – Hamida Banu Begum, Mughal empress (b. 1527) 1657 – John Lilburne, English activist (b. 1614) 1712 – Gregory King, English genealogist, engraver, and statistician (b. 1648) 1749 – Matthias Bel, Hungarian pastor and polymath (b. 1684) 1769 – Edmond Hoyle, English author and educator (b. 1672) 1780 – Jacques-Germain Soufflot, French architect, co-designed The Panthéon (b. 1713) 1799 – Pius VI, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1717) 1844 – Edmund Ignatius Rice, Irish missionary and educator, founded the Christian Brothers and Presentation Brothers (b. 1762) 1856 – Mary Anne Schimmelpenninck, English author and activist (b. 1778) 1866 – Tokugawa Iemochi, Japanese shōgun (b. 1846) 1877 – Brigham Young, American religious leader, 2nd President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1801) 1889 – Stefan Dunjov, Bulgarian colonel (b. 1815) 1891 – Pierre Lallement, French businessman, invented the bicycle (b. 1843) 1892 – William Forbes Skene, Scottish historian and author (b. 1809) 1901–present 1904 – Murad V, Ottoman sultan (b. 1840) 1911 – Mir Mahboob Ali Khan, 6th Nizam of Hyderabad (b.1866) 1917 – George Huntington Hartford, American businessman (b. 1833) 1930 – William Archibald Spooner, English priest and author (b. 1844) 1931 – David T. Abercrombie, American businessman, co-founded Abercrombie & Fitch (b. 1867) 1944 – Attik, Greek pianist and composer (b. 1885) 1946 – Adolphus Busch III, American businessman (b. 1891) 1946 – John Steuart Curry, American painter and academic (b. 1897) 1951 – Sydney Chapman, English economist and civil servant (b. 1871) 1952 – Anton Piëch, Austrian lawyer (b. 1894) 1958 – Marjorie Flack, American author and illustrator (b. 1897) 1966 – Sayyid Qutb, Egyptian theorist, author, and poet (b. 1906) 1968 – Ulysses S. Grant III, American general (b. 1881) 1971 – Nathan Freudenthal Leopold Jr., American murderer (b. 1904) 1972 – Lale Andersen, German singer-songwriter (b. 1905) 1975 – Éamon de Valera, Irish soldier and politician, 3rd President of Ireland (b. 1882) 1977 – Jean Hagen, American actress (b. 1923) 1977 – Brian McGuire, Australian race car driver (b. 1945) 1979 – Gertrude Chandler Warner, American author and educator (b. 1890) 1981 – Lowell Thomas, American journalist and author (b. 1892) 1982 – Ingrid Bergman, Swedish actress (b. 1915) 1982 – Lehman Engel, American composer and conductor (b. 1910) 1985 – Evelyn Ankers, British-American actress (b. 1918) 1987 – Archie Campbell, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1914) 1987 – Lee Marvin, American actor (b. 1924) 1989 – Peter Scott, English explorer and painter (b. 1909) 1990 – Manly Palmer Hall, Canadian-American mystic and author (b. 1901) 1991 – Libero Grassi, Italian businessman (b. 1924) 1992 – Félix Guattari, French philosopher and theorist (b. 1930) 1995 – Frank Perry, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1930) 2000 – Shelagh Fraser, English actress (b. 1922) 2000 – Willie Maddren, English footballer and manager (b. 1951) 2000 – Conrad Marca-Relli, American-Italian painter and academic (b. 1913) 2001 – Graeme Strachan, Australian singer-songwriter & television personality (b. 1952) 2001 – Francisco Rabal, Spanish actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1926) 2002 – Lance Macklin, English race car driver (b. 1919) 2003 – Mohammad Baqir al-Hakim, Iraqi politician (b. 1939) 2003 – Patrick Procktor, English painter and academic (b. 1936) 2004 – Hans Vonk, Dutch conductor (b. 1942) 2007 – James Muir Cameron Fletcher, New Zealand businessman (b. 1914) 2007 – Richard Jewell, American police officer (b. 1962) 2007 – Pierre Messmer, French civil servant and politician, 154th Prime Minister of France (b. 1916) 2007 – Alfred Peet, Dutch-American businessman, founded Peet's Coffee & Tea (b. 1920) 2008 – Geoffrey Perkins, English actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1953) 2008 – Michael Schoenberg, American geophysicist and theorist (b. 1939) 2011 – Honeyboy Edwards, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1915) 2011 – Junpei Takiguchi, Japanese voice actor (b. 1931) 2012 – Ruth Goldbloom, Canadian academic and philanthropist, co-founded Pier 21 (b. 1923) 2012 – Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, English historian and author (b. 1953) 2012 – Shoshichi Kobayashi, Japanese-American mathematician and academic (b. 1932) 2012 – Anne McKnight, American soprano (b. 1924) 2012 – Les Moss, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1925) 2012 – Sergei Ovchinnikov, Russian volleyball player and coach (b. 1969) 2013 – Joan L. Krajewski, American lawyer and politician (b. 1934) 2013 – Medardo Joseph Mazombwe, Zambian cardinal (b. 1931) 2013 – Bruce C. Murray, American geologist and academic, co-founded The Planetary Society (b. 1931) 2014 – Octavio Brunetti, Argentinian pianist and composer (b. 1975) 2014 – Björn Waldegård, Swedish race car driver (b. 1943) 2016 – Gene Wilder, American stage and screen comic actor, screenwriter, film director, and author (b. 1933) 2018 – James Mirrlees, Scottish economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1936) 2018 – Paul Taylor, American choreographer (b. 1930) 2021 – Ed Asner, American actor (b. 1929) 2021 – Lee "Scratch" Perry, Jamaican reggae producer (b. 1936) 2021 – Jacques Rogge, Olympic sailor and Orthopedic Surgeon who served as the 8th President of the International Olympic Committee (b. 1942) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Adelphus of Metz Beheading of St. John the Baptist Eadwold of Cerne Euphrasia Eluvathingal (Syro-Malabar Catholic Church) John Bunyan (Episcopal Church) Sabina Vitalis, Sator and Repositus August 29 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) International Day against Nuclear Tests Miners' Day (Ukraine) Day of Remembrance of the Defenders of Ukraine (Ukraine) Municipal Police Day (Poland) National Sports Day (India) Slovak National Uprising Anniversary (Slovakia) Telugu Language Day (India) References External links Days of the year August

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Phillip

Arthur Phillip

Admiral Arthur Phillip (11 October 1738 – 31 August 1814) was a British Royal Navy officer who served as the first governor of the Colony of New South Wales. Phillip was educated at Greenwich Hospital School from June 1751 until December 1753. He then became an apprentice on the whaling ship Fortune. With the outbreak of the Seven Years' War against France, Phillip enlisted in Royal Navy as captain's servent aboard . Serving under Captain Michael Everitt, Phillip also served on and . Phillip was promoted to Lieutenant 7 June 1761, before being put on half-pay at the end of hostilities on 25 April 1763. Seconded to the Portuguese Navy in 1774, serving in the war against Spain. Returning to Royal Navy service in 1778, in 1782 Phillip in command of , was to capture Spanish colonies in South America, but an armistice was concluded before reaching his destination. In 1784, Phillip was employed by Home Office Under Secretary Evan Nepean, to survey French defences in Europe. In 1786 Phillip was appointed by Lord Sydney as the commander of the First Fleet, a fleet of 11 ships whose crew were to establish a penal colony and a settlement at Botany Bay, New South Wales. On arriving at Botany Bay, Phillip found the site unsuitable and searched for a more habitable site for a settlement, which he found in Port Jackson – the site of Sydney, Australia, today. Phillip was a far-sighted governor who soon realised that New South Wales would need a civil administration and a system for emancipating convicts. But his plan to bring skilled tradesmen on the First Fleet's voyage had been rejected. Consequently, he faced immense problems with labour, discipline, and supply. The arrival of more convicts with the Second and Third Fleets placed new pressures on scarce local resources. By the time Phillip sailed home in December 1792, the colony was taking shape, with official land-grants, systematic farming, and a water supply in place. On 11 December 1792, Phillip left the colony to return to Britain to receive medical treatment for kidney stones, he had planned to return to Australia, but medical advice recommended he resign from the governorship. His health recovered and he returned to active duty in Navy in 1796, holding a number of ship commands in home waters before being put in command of the Hampshire Sea Fencibles. He eventually retired from active naval service in 1805. He spent his final years of retirement in Bath, Somerset, before his death on 31 August 1814. As the first Governor of New South Wales, a number of places in Australia are named after him, including Port Phillip, Phillip Island, Phillip Street in Sydney, the suburb of Phillip in Canberra and the Governor Phillip Tower building in Sydney, as well as many streets, parks, and schools. Early life Arthur Phillip was born on 11 October 1738, in the Parish of All Hallows, in Bread Street, London. He was the son of Jacob Phillip, an immigrant from Frankfurt, who by various accounts was a language teacher, a merchant vessel owner, a merchant captain, or a common seaman. His mother, Elizabeth Breach, was the widow of a common seaman by the name of John Herbert, who had died of disease in Jamaica aboard on 13 August 1732. At the time of Arthur Phillip's birth, his family maintained a modest existence as tenants near Cheapside in the City of London. There are no surviving records of Phillip's early childhood. His father, Jacob, died in 1739, after which the Phillip family would have a low income. Arthur went to sea on a British naval vessel at age of nine. On 22 June 1751, he was accepted into the Greenwich Hospital School, a charity school for the sons of indigent seafarers. In accordance with the school's curriculum, his education focused on literacy, arithmetic, and navigational skills, including cartography. His headmaster, Reverend Francis Swinden, observed that in personality, Phillip was an "unassuming, reasonable, business-like to the smallest degree in everything he undertakes". Phillip remained at the Greenwich Hospital School for two and a half years, longer than the average student stay of one year. At the end of 1753, he was granted a seven-year indenture as an apprentice aboard Fortune, a 210-ton whaling vessel commanded by merchant mariner William Readhead. Phillip left the Greenwich Hospital School on 1 December, and spent the next few months aboard the Fortune, awaiting the start of the 1754 whaling season. Contemporary portraits depict Phillip as shorter than average, with an olive complexion and dark eyes. A long nose and a pronounced lower lip dominated his "smooth pear of a skull" as quoted by Robert Hughes. Early maritime career Whaling and merchant expeditions In April 1754 Fortune headed out to hunt whales near Svalbard in the Barents Sea. As an apprentice Phillip's responsibilities included stripping blubber from whale carcasses and helping to pack it into barrels. Food was scarce, and Fortunes 30 crew members supplemented their diet with bird's eggs, scurvy grass, and, where possible, reindeer. The ship returned to England on 20 July 1754. The whaling crew were paid and replaced with twelve sailors for a winter voyage to the Mediterranean. Phillip remained aboard as Fortune undertook an outward trading voyage to Barcelona and Livorno carrying salt and raisins, returning via Rotterdam with a cargo of grains and citrus. The ship returned to England in April 1755 and sailed immediately for Svalbard for that year's whale hunt. Phillip was still a member of the crew but abandoned his apprenticeship when the ship returned to England on 27 July. Royal Navy and the Seven Years' War On 16 October 1755, Phillip enlisted in the Royal Navy as captain's servant aboard the 68-gun , commanded by his mother's cousin, Captain Michael Everitt. As a member of Buckinghams crew, Phillip served in home waters until April 1756 and then joined Admiral John Byng's Mediterranean fleet. The Buckingham was Rear-Admiral Temple West's flagship at the Battle of Minorca on 20 May 1756. Phillip moved on 1 August 1757, with Everitt, to the 90-gun , which took part in the Raid on St Malo on 5–12 June 1758. Phillip, again with Captain Everitt, transferred on 28 December 1758 to the 64-gun , which went to the West Indies to serve at the Siege of Havana. On 7 June 1761, Phillip was commissioned as a lieutenant in recognition for his active service. With the coming of peace on 25 April 1763, he was retired on half-pay. Retirement and the Portuguese Navy In July 1763, Phillip married Margaret Charlotte Denison (), known as Charlott, a widow 16 years his senior, and moved to Glasshayes in Lyndhurst, Hampshire, establishing a farm there. The marriage was unhappy, and the couple separated in 1769 when Phillip returned to the Navy. The following year, he was posted as second lieutenant aboard , a newly built 74-gun ship of the line. In 1774, Phillip was seconded to the Portuguese Navy as a captain, serving in the war against Spain. While with the Portuguese Navy, Phillip commanded a 26-gun frigate, Nossa Senhora do Pilar. On that ship, he took a detachment of troops from Rio de Janeiro to Colonia do Sacramento on the Río de la Plata (opposite Buenos Aires) to relieve the garrison there. The voyage also conveyed a consignment of convicts assigned to carry out work at Colonia. During a storm encountered in the course of the voyage, the convicts assisted in working the ship, and on arriving at Colonia, Phillip recommended that they be rewarded for saving the ship by remission of their sentences. A garbled version of this recommendation eventually found its way into the English press in 1786, when Phillip was appointed to lead the expedition to Sydney. Phillip played a leading role in the capture of the Spanish ship San Agustín, on 19 April 1777, off Santa Catarina. The Portuguese Navy commissioned her as the Santo Agostinho, under Phillip's command. The action was reported in the English press: Madrid, 28 Aug. Letters from Lisbon bring the following Account from Rio Janeiro: That the St. Augustine, of 70 Guns, having been separated from the Squadron of M. Casa Tilly, was attacked by two Portugueze Ships, against which they defended themselves for a Day and a Night, but being next Day surrounded by the Portugueze Fleet, was obliged to surrender. Recommissioned into Royal Navy In 1778, Britain was again at war, and Phillip was recalled to service and promoted to commander of the 8-gun fireship HMS Basilisk on 2 September 1779. He was promoted to post-captain on 30 November 1781 and given command of the 20-gun . He served on convoy duty to the Elbe in the early part of 1782. On 30 June 1782, the Ariadne, under Phillip's command, captured the French frigate Le Robecq. In July 1782, in a change of government, Thomas Townshend became Secretary of State for Home and American Affairs, and assumed responsibility for organising an expedition against Spanish America. Like his predecessor, Lord Germain, he turned to Phillip for advice. The plan was for a squadron of three ships of the line and a frigate to mount a raid on Buenos Aires and Monte Video, then to proceed to the coasts of Chile, Peru, and Mexico to maraud, and ultimately to cross the Pacific to join the British Navy's East India squadron for an attack on Manila. On 27 December 1782, Phillip, with Lieutenant Philip Gidley King, took charge of the 64-gun . The expedition, consisting of the 70-gun , the 74-gun , Europa, and the 32-gun frigate , sailed on 16 January 1783 under the command of Commodore Robert Kingsmill. Shortly after the ships' departure, an armistice was concluded between Great Britain and Spain. Phillip learnt of this in April when he put in for storm repairs at Rio de Janeiro. Phillip wrote to Townshend from Rio de Janeiro on 25 April 1783, expressing his disappointment that the ending of the American War had robbed him of the opportunity for naval glory in South America. Survey work in Europe After his return to England from India in April 1784, Phillip remained in close contact with Townshend, now Lord Sydney, and Home Office Under Secretary Evan Nepean. From October 1784 to September 1786, Nepean, who was in charge of the Secret Service relating to the Bourbon Powers, France and Spain, employed him to spy on the French naval arsenals at Toulon and other ports. There was fear that Britain would soon be at war with these powers as a consequence of the Batavian Revolution in the Netherlands. Colonial service Lord Sandwich, together with the president of the Royal Society, Sir Joseph Banks, the scientist who had accompanied Lieutenant James Cook on his 1770 voyage, was advocating the establishment of a British colony in Botany Bay, New South Wales. Banks accepted an offer of assistance from the American loyalist James Matra in July 1783. Under Banks' guidance, Matra rapidly produced "A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales" (24 August 1783), with a fully developed set of reasons for a colony composed of American loyalists, Chinese, and South Sea Islanders (but not convicts). Thomas Townshend, Lord Sydney, as Secretary of State for the Home Office and minister in charge, decided to establish the proposed colony in Australia. This decision was taken for two reasons: the ending of the option to transport criminals to North America following the American Revolution, and the need for a base in the Pacific to counter French expansion. In September 1786, Phillip was appointed commodore of the fleet, which came to be known as the First Fleet. His assignment was to transport convicts and soldiers to establish a colony at Botany Bay. Upon arriving there, Phillip was to assume the powers of captain general and governor in chief of the new colony. A subsidiary colony was to be founded on Norfolk Island, as recommended by Sir John Call and Sir George Young, to take advantage of that island's native flax (harakeke) and timber for naval purposes. Voyage to Colony of New South Wales On 25 October 1786, the 20-gun , lying in the dock at Deptford, was commissioned, with the command given to Phillip. The armed tender , under the command of Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball, was also commissioned to join the expedition. On 15 December, Captain John Hunter was assigned as second captain to Sirius to command in the absence of Phillip, whose preference, it was to be supposed, would be requisite at all times wherever the seat of government in that country might be fixed. Phillip had a difficult time assembling the fleet, which was to make an eight-month sea voyage and then establish a colony. Everything a new colony might need had to be taken, since Phillip had no real idea of what he might find when he got there. There were few funds available for equipping the expedition. His suggestion that people with experience in farming, building, and crafts be included was rejected by the Home Office. Most of the 772 convicts were petty thieves from the London slums. A contingent of marines and a handful of other officers who were to administer the colony accompanied Phillip. The fleet of 11 ships and about 1,500 people, under Phillip's command, sailed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787; provided an escort out of British waters. On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz, Tenerife. On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents. The Fleet reached Rio de Janeiro on 5 August and stayed for a month to resupply. The Fleet left Rio de Janeiro on 4 September to run before the westerlies to Table Bay in Southern Africa, which it reached on 13 October; this was the last port of call before Botany Bay. On 25 November, Phillip transferred from the Sirius to the faster Supply, and with the faster ships of the fleet hastened ahead to prepare for the arrival of the rest of the fleet. However, this "flying squadron", as Frost called it, reached Botany Bay only hours before the rest of the Fleet, so no preparatory work was possible. Supply reached Botany Bay on 18 January 1788; the three fastest transports in the advance group arrived on 19 January; slower ships, including Sirius, arrived on 20 January. Phillip soon decided that the site, chosen on the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, who had accompanied James Cook in 1770, was not suitable, since it had poor soil, no secure anchorage, and no reliable water source. Cook was an explorer and Banks had a scientific interest, whereas Phillip's differing assessment of the site came from his perspective as, quoted by Tyrrell, "custodian of over a thousand convicts" for whom he was responsible. After some exploration, Phillip decided to go on to Port Jackson, and on 26 January, the marines and the convicts landed at a cove, which Phillip named for Lord Sydney. This date later became Australia's national day, Australia Day. Governor Phillip formally proclaimed the colony on 7 February 1788 in Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Phillip famously described as: "being with out exception the finest Harbour in the World [...] Here a Thousand Sail of the Line may ride in the most perfect Security." Establishing a settlement On 26 January, the British flag was raised, and possession of the land was taken formally in the name of King George III. The next day, sailors from Sirius, a party of marines, and a number of male convicts were disembarked to fell timber and clear the ground for the erection of tents. The remaining large company of male convicts disembarked from the transports over the following days. Phillip himself structured the ordering of the camp. His own tent as governor and those of his attendant staff and servants were set on the east side of Tank Stream, with the tents of the male convicts and marines on the west. During this time, priority was given to building permanent storehouses for the settlement's provisions. On 29 January, the governor's portable house was placed, and livestock were landed the next day. The female convicts disembarked on 6 February; the general camp for the women was to the north of the governor's house and separated from the male convicts by the houses of chaplain Richard Johnson and the Judge Advocate, Marine Captain David Collins. On 7 February 1788, Phillip and his government were formally inaugurated. On 15 February 1788, Phillip sent Lieutenant Philip Gidley King with a party of twenty-three, including fifteen convicts, to establish the colony at Norfolk Island, partly in response to a perceived threat of losing the island to the French, and partly to establish an alternative food source for the mainland colony. Governor of New South Wales When Phillip was appointed as governor-designate of the colony and began to plan the expedition, he requested that the convicts that were being sent be trained; only twelve carpenters and a few men who knew anything about agriculture were sent. Seamen with technical and building skills were commandeered immediately. The colony's isolation meant that it took almost two years for Phillip to receive replies to his dispatches from his superiors in London. Phillip established a civil administration, with courts of law, that applied to everyone living in the settlement. Two convicts, Henry and Susannah Kable, sought to sue Duncan Sinclair, the captain of the Alexander, for stealing their possessions during the voyage. Sinclair, believing that as convicts they had no protection from the law, as was the case in Britain, boasted that he could not be sued. Despite this, the court found for the plaintiffs and ordered the captain to make restitution for the theft of the Kables' possessions. Phillip had drawn up a detailed memorandum of his plans for the proposed new colony. In one paragraph he wrote: "The laws of this country [England] will of course, be introduced in [New] South Wales, and there is one that I would wish to take place from the moment his Majesty's forces take possession of the country: That there can be no slavery in a free land, and consequently no slaves." Nevertheless, Phillip believed in severe discipline; floggings and hangings were commonplace, although Phillip commuted many death sentences. The settlement's supplies were rationed equally to convicts, officers, and marines, and females were given two-thirds of the weekly males' rations. In late February, six convicts were brought before the criminal court for stealing supplies. They were sentenced to death; the ringleader, Thomas Barrett, was hanged that day. Phillip gave the rest a reprieve. They were banished to an island in the harbour and given only bread and water. The governor also expanded the settlement's knowledge of the landscape. Two officers from Sirius, Captain John Hunter and Lieutenant William Bradley, conducted a thorough survey of the harbour at Sydney Cove. Phillip later joined them on an expedition to survey Broken Bay. The fleet's ships left over the next months, with Sirius and Supply remaining in the colony under command of the governor. They were used to survey and map the coastlines and waterways. Scurvy broke out, so Sirius left Port Jackson for Cape Town under the command of Hunter in October 1788, having been sent for supplies. The voyage, which completed a circumnavigation, returned to Sydney Cove in April, just in time to save the near-starving colony. As an experienced farmhand, Phillip's appointed servant Henry Edward Dodd, served as farm superintendent at Farm Cove, where he successfully cultivated the first crops, later moving to Rose Hill, where the soil was better. James Ruse, a convict, was later appointed to the position after Dodd died in 1791. When Ruse succeeded in the farming endeavours, he received the colony's first land grant. In June 1790, more convicts arrived with the Second Fleet, but , carrying more supplies, was disabled en route after hitting an iceberg, leaving the colony low on provisions again. Supply, the only ship left under colonial command after Sirius was wrecked 19 March 1790 trying to land men and supplies on Norfolk Island, was sent to Batavia for supplies. In late 1792, Phillip, whose health was suffering, relinquished the governorship to Major Francis Grose, lieutenant-governor and commander of New South Wales Corps. On 11 December 1792, Phillip left for Britain, on the Atlantic, which had arrived with convicts of the Third Fleet. Phillip was unable to follow his original intention of returning to Port Jackson once his health was restored, as medical advice compelled him to resign formally on 23 July 1793. Military personnel in colony The main challenge for order and harmony in the settlement came not from the convicts secured there on terms of good behaviour, but from the attitude of officers from the New South Wales Marine Corps. As Commander in Chief, Phillip was in command of both the naval and marine forces; his naval officers readily obeyed his commands, but a measure of co-operation from the marine officers ran against their tradition. Major Robert Ross and his officers (with the exception of a few such as David Collins, Watkin Tench, and William Dawes) refused to do anything other than guard duty, claiming that they were neither gaolers, supervisors, nor policemen. Four companies of marines, consisting of 160 privates with 52 officers and NCO's, accompanied the First Fleet to Botany Bay. In addition, there were 34 officers and men serving in the Ship's Complement of Marines aboard Sirius and Supply, bringing the total to 246 who departed England. Ross supported and encouraged his fellow officers in their conflicts with Phillip, engaged in clashes of his own, and complained of the governor's actions to the Home Office. Phillip, more placid and forbearing in temperament, was anxious in the interests of the community as a whole to avoid friction between the civil and military authorities. Though firm in his attitude, he endeavoured to placate Ross, but to little effect. In the end, he solved the problem by ordering Ross to Norfolk Island on 5 March 1790 to replace the commandant there. Beginning with guards arriving with the Second and Third fleets, but officially with the arrival of on 22 September 1791, the New South Wales Marines were relieved by a newly formed British Army regiment of foot, the New South Wales Corps. On 18 December 1791, Gorgon left Port Jackson, taking home the larger part of the still-serving New South Wales Marines. There remained in New South Wales a company of active marines serving under Captain George Johnston, who had been Phillip's aide-de-camp, that transferred to the New South Wales Corps. Also remaining in the colony were discharged marines, many of whom became settlers. The official departure of the last serving marines from the colony was in December 1792, under Governor Phillip. Major Francis Grose, commander of the New South Wales Corps, had replaced Ross as the Lieutenant-Governor and took over command of the colony when Phillip returned to Britain. Relations with indigenous peoples Phillip's official orders with regard to Aboriginal people were to "conciliate their affections", to "live in amity and kindness with them", and to punish anyone who should "wantonly destroy them, or give them any unnecessary interruption in the exercise of their several occupations". The first meeting between the colonists and the Eora, Aboriginal people, happened in Botany Bay. When Phillip went ashore, gifts were exchanged, thus Phillip and the officers began their relationship with the Eora through gift-giving, hilarity, and dancing, but also by showing them what their guns could do. Anyone found harming or killing Aboriginal people without provocation would be severely punished. After the early meetings, dancing, and musket demonstrations, the Eora avoided the settlement in Sydney Cove for the first year, but they warned and then attacked whenever colonists trespassed on their lands away from the settlement. Part of Phillip's early plan for peaceful cohabitation had been to persuade some Eora, preferably a family, to come and live in the town with the British so that the colonists could learn about the Eora's language, beliefs, and customs. By the end of the first year, as none of the Eora had come to live in the settlement, Phillip decided on a more ruthless strategy, and ordered the capture of some Eora warriors. The man who was captured was Arabanoo, from whom Phillip and his officers started to learn language and customs. Arabanoo died in April 1789 of smallpox, which also ravaged the rest of the Eora population. Phillip again ordered the boats to Manly Cove, where two more warriors were captured, Coleby and Bennelong; Coleby soon escaped, but Bennelong remained. Bennelong and Phillip formed a kind of friendship, before he too escaped. Four months after Bennelong escaped from Sydney, Phillip was invited to a whale feast at Manly. Bennelong greeted him in a friendly and jovial way. Phillip was suddenly surrounded by warriors and speared in the shoulder by a man called Willemering. He ordered his men not to retaliate. Phillip, perhaps realising that the spearing was in retaliation for the kidnapping, ordered no actions to be taken over it. Friendly relations were reestablished afterwards, with Bennelong even returning to Sydney with his family. Even though there were now friendly relations with the aborigines around Sydney Cove, the same couldn't be said about the ones around Botany Bay, who had killed or wounded 17 colonists. Phillip despatched orders, as quoted by Tench, "to put to death ten... [and] cut off the heads of the slain... to infuse a universal terror, which might operate to prevent further mischief". Even though two expeditions were despatched under command of Watkin Tench, no one was apprehended. On 11 December 1792, when Phillip returned to Britain, Bennelong and another Aboriginal man named Yemmerrawanne (or Imeerawanyee) travelled with him on the Atlantic. Later life and death Phillip's estranged wife, Charlott, died 3 August 1792 and was buried in St Beuno's Churchyard, Llanycil, Bala, Merionethshire. Phillip, a resident in Marylebone, married Isabella Whitehead of Bath in St Marylebone Church of England on 8 May 1794. His health recovered, he was recommissioned in March 1796 to the 74-gun as part of the Channel fleet. In October, his command was switched to the 74-gun . In September 1797, Phillip was transferred again to the 90-gun , command of which he held until December of that year. During 1798–99, Phillip commanded the Hampshire Sea Fencibles, then appointed inspector of the Impress Service, in which capacity he and a secretary toured the outposts of Britain to report on the strengths of the various posts. In the ordinary course of events he was promoted to Rear-Admiral on 1 January 1801. Phillip retired in 1805 from active service in the Navy, was promoted to Vice-Admiral on 13 December 1806, and received a final promotion to Admiral of the Blue on 4 June 1814. Phillip suffered a stroke in 1808, which left him partially paralysed. He died 31 August 1814 at his residence, 19 Bennett Street, Bath. He was buried nearby at St Nicholas's Church, Bathampton. His Last Will and Testament has been transcribed and is online. Forgotten for many years, the grave was discovered in November 1897 by a young woman cleaning the church, who found the name after lifting matting from the floor; the historian James Bonwick had been searching Bath records for its location. An annual service of remembrance is held at the church around Phillip's birthdate by the Britain–Australia Society. In 2007, Geoffrey Robertson QC alleged that Phillip's remains were no longer in St Nicholas Church, Bathampton, and had been lost: "Captain Arthur Phillip is not where the ledger stone says he is: it may be that he is buried somewhere outside, it may simply be that he is simply lost. But he is not where Australians have been led to believe that he now lies." Legacy A number of places in Australia bear Phillip's name, including Port Phillip, Phillip Island (Victoria), Phillip Island (Norfolk Island), Phillip Street in Sydney, the federal electorate of Phillip (1949–1993), the suburb of Phillip in Canberra, the Governor Phillip Tower building in Sydney, and many streets, parks, and schools, including a state high school in Parramatta. A monument to Phillip in Bath Abbey Church was unveiled in 1937. Another was unveiled at St Mildred's Church, Bread Street, London, in 1932; that church was destroyed in the London Blitz in 1940, but the principal elements of the monument were re-erected at the west end of Watling Street, near Saint Paul's Cathedral, in 1968. A different bust and memorial is inside the nearby church of St Mary-le-Bow. There is a statue of him in the Royal Botanical Gardens, Sydney. There is a portrait of him by Francis Wheatley in the National Portrait Gallery, London, and in the Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales, Sydney. Percival Serle wrote of Phillip in his Dictionary of Australian Biography: 200th anniversary As part of a series of events on the bicentenary of his death, a memorial was dedicated in Westminster Abbey on 9 July 2014. In the service, the Dean of Westminster, Very Reverend Dr John Hall, described Phillip as follows: "This modest, yet world-class seaman, linguist, and patriot, whose selfless service laid the secure foundations on which was developed the Commonwealth of Australia, will always be remembered and honoured alongside other pioneers and inventors here in the Nave: David Livingstone, Thomas Cochrane, and Isaac Newton." A similar memorial was unveiled by the outgoing 37th Governor of New South Wales, Marie Bashir, in St James' Church, Sydney, on 31 August 2014. A bronze bust was installed at the Museum of Sydney, and a full-day symposium discussed his contributions to the founding of modern Australia. In popular culture Phillip has been featured in a number of movies and television programs, for example he is portrayed by Sir Cedric Hardwicke, in John Farrow's 1953 film Botany Bay, Sam Neill in the 2005 film The Incredible Journey of Mary Bryant and David Wenham in the 2015 mini-series Banished. He is a prominent character in Timberlake Wertenbaker's play Our Country's Good, in which he commissions Lieutenant Ralph Clark to stage a production of The Recruiting Officer. He is shown as compassionate and just, but receives little support from his fellow officers. Memorials See also Historical Records of Australia Journals of the First Fleet History of smallpox in Australia References Citations Sources Further reading External links Arthur Phillip High School, Parramatta – state high (years 7–12) school named for Phillip B. H. Fletcher, "Phillip, Arthur (1738–1814)", Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 2, Melbourne University Press, 1967, pp 326–333. Governors of New South Wales City founders Royal Navy admirals 1738 births 1814 deaths Australian penal colony administrators Royal Navy personnel of the Seven Years' War Royal Navy personnel of the American Revolutionary War People from the City of London English people of German descent Port Phillip 18th-century Australian people People educated at the Royal Hospital School Colony of New South Wales people Sea captains Military personnel from London First Fleet

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh

Bangladesh

Bangladesh (; , ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 163 million people in an area of either or , making it one of the most densely populated countries in the world. Bangladesh shares land borders with India to the west, north, and east, and Myanmar to the southeast; to the south it has a coastline along the Bay of Bengal. It is narrowly separated from Nepal and Bhutan by the Siliguri Corridor; and from China by 100 km of the Indian state of Sikkim in the north. Dhaka, the capital and largest city, is the nation's economic, political, and cultural hub. Chittagong, the largest seaport, is the second-largest city. The official language is Bengali, one of the most eastern branches of the Indo-European language family. Bangladesh forms the sovereign part of the historic and ethnolinguistic region of Bengal, which was divided during the Partition of British India in 1947. The country has a Bengali Muslim majority. Ancient Bengal was an important cultural center in the Indian subcontinent as the home of the states of Vanga, Pundra, Gangaridai, Gauda, Samatata, and Harikela. The Mauryan, Gupta, Pala, Sena, Chandra and Deva dynasties were the last pre-Islamic rulers of Bengal. The Muslim conquest of Bengal began in 1204 when Bakhtiar Khalji overran northern Bengal and invaded Tibet. Becoming part of the Delhi Sultanate, three city-states emerged in the 14th century with much of eastern Bengal being ruled from Sonargaon. Sufi missionary leaders like Sultan Balkhi, Shah Jalal and Shah Makhdum Rupos helped in spreading Muslim rule. The region was unified into an independent, unitary Bengal Sultanate. Under Mughal rule, eastern Bengal continued to prosper as the melting pot of Muslims in the eastern subcontinent and attracted traders from around the world. Mughal Bengal became increasingly assertive and independent under the Nawabs of Bengal in the 18th century. In 1757, the betrayal of Mir Jafar resulted in the defeat of Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah to the British East India Company and eventual British dominance across South Asia. The Bengal Presidency grew into the largest administrative unit in British India. The creation of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905 set a precedent for the emergence of Bangladesh. In 1940, the first Prime Minister of Bengal supported the Lahore Resolution with the hope of creating a state in eastern South Asia. Prior to the partition of Bengal, the Prime Minister of Bengal proposed a Bengali sovereign state. A referendum and the announcement of the Radcliffe Line established the present-day territorial boundary of Bangladesh. In 1947, East Bengal became the most populous province in the Dominion of Pakistan. It was renamed as East Pakistan with Dhaka becoming the country's legislative capital. The Bengali Language Movement in 1952; the East Bengali legislative election, 1954; the 1958 Pakistani coup d'état; the Six point movement of 1966; and the 1970 Pakistani general election resulted in the rise of Bengali nationalism and pro-democracy movements in East Pakistan. The refusal of the Pakistani military junta to transfer power to the Awami League led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman led to the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, in which the Mukti Bahini aided by India waged a successful armed revolution. The conflict saw the 1971 Bangladesh genocide and the massacre of pro-independence Bengali civilians, including intellectuals. The new state of Bangladesh became the first constitutionally secular state in South Asia in 1972. Islam was declared the state religion in 1988. In 2010, the Bangladesh Supreme Court reaffirmed secular principles in the constitution. Bangladesh is a unitary parliamentary constitutional republic based on the Westminster system. Bengalis make up 98% of the total population of Bangladesh, and the large Muslim population of Bangladesh makes it the third-largest Muslim-majority country. The country is divided into eight administrative divisions and 64 districts. It maintains the third-largest military in South Asia after India and Pakistan; and has been a major contributor to UN peacekeeping operations. A middle power in the Indo-Pacific, Bangladesh is an emerging economy ranked as the 33rd-largest in the world by nominal GDP, and the 29th-largest by PPP. It hosts one of the largest refugee populations in the world due to the Rohingya genocide. Bangladesh faces many challenges, including the adverse effects of climate change, poverty, illiteracy, corruption, authoritarianism and human rights abuses. However, the poverty rate has halved since 2011 and the country is expected to become a middle income country in this decade. Once a historic center of the muslin cloth trade, Bangladesh is now one of the world's largest modern garment exporters. Etymology The etymology of Bangladesh (Country of Bengal) can be traced to the early 20th century, when Bengali patriotic songs, such as Namo Namo Namo Bangladesh Momo by Kazi Nazrul Islam and Aaji Bangladesher Hridoy by Rabindranath Tagore, used the term. The term Bangladesh was often written as two words, Bangla Desh, in the past. Starting in the 1950s, Bengali nationalists used the term in political rallies in East Pakistan. The term Bangla is a major name for both the Bengal region and the Bengali language. The origins of the term Bangla are unclear, with theories pointing to a Bronze Age proto-Dravidian tribe, the Austric word "Bonga" (Sun god), and the Iron Age Vanga Kingdom. The earliest known usage of the term is the Nesari plate in 805 AD. The term Vangaladesa is found in 11th-century South Indian records. The term gained official status during the Sultanate of Bengal in the 14th century. Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah proclaimed himself as the first "Shah of Bangala" in 1342. The word Bangla became the most common name for the region during the Islamic period. The Portuguese referred to the region as Bengala in the 16th century. 16th-century historian Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak mentions in his Ain-i-Akbari that the addition of the suffix "al" came from the fact that the ancient rajahs of the land raised mounds of earth 10 feet high and 20 in breadth in lowlands at the foot of the hills which were called "al". This is also mentioned in Ghulam Husain Salim's Riyaz-us-Salatin. The Indo-Aryan suffix Desh is derived from the Sanskrit word deśha, which means "land" or "country". Hence, the name Bangladesh means "Land of Bengal" or "Country of Bengal". History Ancient Bengal Stone Age tools found in Bangladesh indicate human habitation for over 20,000 years, and remnants of Copper Age settlements date back 4,000 years. Ancient Bengal was settled by Austroasiatics, Tibeto-Burmans, Dravidians and Indo-Aryans in consecutive waves of migration. Archaeological evidence confirms that by the second millennium BCE, rice-cultivating communities inhabited the region. By the 11th century people lived in systemically aligned housing, buried their dead, and manufactured copper ornaments and black and red pottery. The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers were natural arteries for communication and transportation, and estuaries on the Bay of Bengal permitted maritime trade. The early Iron Age saw the development of metal weaponry, coinage, agriculture and irrigation. Major urban settlements formed during the late Iron Age, in the mid-first millennium BCE, when the Northern Black Polished Ware culture developed. In 1879, Alexander Cunningham identified Mahasthangarh as the capital of the Pundra Kingdom mentioned in the Rigveda. The oldest inscription in Bangladesh was found in Mahasthangarh and dates from the 3rd century BCE. It is written in the Brahmi script. Greek and Roman records of the ancient Gangaridai Kingdom, which (according to legend) deterred the invasion of Alexander the Great, are linked to the fort city in Wari-Bateshwar. The site is also identified with the prosperous trading centre of Souanagoura listed on Ptolemy's world map. Roman geographers noted a large seaport in southeastern Bengal, corresponding to the present-day Chittagong region. Ancient Buddhist and Hindu states which ruled Bangladesh included the Vanga, Samatata and Pundra kingdoms, the Mauryan and Gupta Empires, the Varman dynasty, Shashanka's kingdom, the Khadga and Candra dynasties, the Pala Empire, the Sena dynasty, the Harikela kingdom and the Deva dynasty. These states had well-developed currencies, banking, shipping, architecture, and art, and the ancient universities of Bikrampur and Mainamati hosted scholars and students from other parts of Asia. Xuanzang of China was a noted scholar who resided at the Somapura Mahavihara (the largest monastery in ancient India), and Atisa travelled from Bengal to Tibet to preach Buddhism. The earliest form of the Bengali language emerged during the eighth century. Islamic Bengal The early history of Islam in Bengal is divided into two phases. The first phase is the period of maritime trade with Arabia and Persia between the 8th and 12th centuries. The second phase covers centuries of Muslim dynastic rule after the Islamic conquest of Bengal. The writings of Al-Idrisi, Ibn Hawqal, Al-Masudi, Ibn Khordadbeh and Sulaiman record the maritime links between Arabia, Persia and Bengal. Muslim trade with Bengal flourished after the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the Arab takeover of Persian trade routes. Much of this trade occurred with southeastern Bengal in areas east of the Meghna River. There is speculation regarding the presence of a Muslim community in Bangladesh as early as 690 CE; this is based on the discovery of one of South Asia's oldest mosques in northern Bangladesh. Bengal was possibly used as a transit route to China by the earliest Muslims. Abbasid coins have been discovered in the archaeological ruins of Paharpur and Mainamati. A collection of Sasanian, Umayyad and Abbasid coins are preserved in the Bangladesh National Museum. The Muslim conquest of Bengal began with the 1204 Ghurid expeditions led by Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, who overran the Sena capital in Gauda and led the first Muslim army into Tibet. The conquest of Bengal was inscribed in gold coins of the Delhi Sultanate. Bengal was ruled by the Sultans of Delhi for a century under the Mamluk, Balban, and Tughluq dynasties. In the 14th century, three city-states emerged in Bengal, including Sonargaon led by Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, Satgaon led by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah and Lakhnauti led by Alauddin Ali Shah. These city-states were led by former governors who declared independence from Delhi. The Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta visited eastern Bengal during the reign of Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah. Ibn Battuta also visited the Sufi leader Shah Jalal in Sylhet. Sufis played an important role in spreading Islam in Bengal through both peaceful conversion and militarily overthrowing pre-Islamic rulers. In 1352, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah united the three city-states into a single, unitary and independent Bengal Sultanate. The new Sultan of Bengal led the first Muslim army into Nepal and forced the Sultan of Delhi to retreat during an invasion. The army of Ilyas Shah reached as far as Varanasi in the northwest, Kathmandu in the north, Kamarupa in the east and Orissa in the south. Ilyas Shah raided many of these areas and returned to Bengal with treasures. During the reign of Sikandar Shah, Delhi recognized Bengal's independence. The Bengal Sultanate established a network of mint towns which acted as a provincial capitals where the Sultan's currency was minted. Bengal became the eastern frontier of the Islamic world, which stretched from Muslim Spain in the west to Bengal in the east. The Bengali language crystallized as an official court language during the Bengal Sultanate, with prominent writers like Nur Qutb Alam, Usman Serajuddin, Alaul Haq, Alaol, Shah Muhammad Sagir, Abdul Hakim and Syed Sultan; and the emergence of Dobhashi to write Muslim epics in Bengali literature. The Bengal Sultanate was a melting pot of Muslim political, mercantile and military elites. Muslims from other parts of the world migrated to Bengal for military, bureaucratic and household services. Immigrants included Persians who were lawyers, teachers, clerics, and scholars; Turks from upper India who were originally recruited in Central Asia; and Abyssinians who came via East Africa and arrived in the Bengali port of Chittagong. A highly commercialized and monetized economy evolved. The two most prominent dynasties of the Bengal Sultanate were the Ilyas Shahi and Hussain Shahi dynasties. The reign of Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah saw the opening of diplomatic relations with Ming China. Ghiyasuddin was also a friend of the Persian poet Hafez. The reign of the Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah saw the development of Bengali architecture. During the early 15th-century, the Restoration of Min Saw Mon in Arakan was aided by the army of the Bengal Sultanate. As a result, Arakan became a tributary state of Bengal. Even though Arakan later became independent, Bengali Muslim influence in Arakan persisted for 300 years due to the settlement of Bengali bureaucrats, poets, military personnel, farmers, artisans and sailors. The kings of Arakan fashioned themselves after Bengali Sultans and adopted Muslim titles. During the reign of Sultan Alauddin Hussain Shah, the Bengal Sultanate dispatched a naval flotilla and an army of 24,000 soldiers led by Shah Ismail Ghazi to conquer Assam. Bengali forces penetrated deep into the Brahmaputra Valley. Hussain Shah's forces also conquered Jajnagar in Orissa. In Tripura, Bengal helped Ratna Manikya I to assume the throne. The Jaunpur Sultanate, Pratapgarh Kingdom and the island of Chandradwip also came under Bengali control. By 1500, Gaur became the fifth-most populous city in the world with a population of 200,000. The river port of Sonargaon was used as a base by the Sultans of Bengal during campaigns against Assam, Tripura and Arakan. The Sultans launched many naval raids from Sonargaon. João de Barros described the sea port of Chittagong as "the most famous and wealthy city of the Kingdom of Bengal". Maritime trade linked Bengal with China, Malacca, Sumatra, Brunei, Portuguese India, East Africa, Arabia, Persia, Mesopotamia, Yemen and the Maldives. Bengali ships were among the biggest vessels plying the Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. A royal vessel from Bengal accommodated three embassies from Bengal, Brunei and Sumatra while en route to China and was the only vessel capable of transporting three embassies. Many wealthy Bengali shipowners and merchants lived in Malacca. The Sultans permitted the opening of the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong. The disintegration of the Bengal Sultanate began with the intervention of the Suri Empire. Babur began invading Bengal after creating the Mughal Empire. The Bengal Sultanate collapsed with the overthrow of the Karrani dynasty during the reign of Akbar. However, the Bhati region of eastern Bengal continued to be ruled by aristocrats of the former Bengal Sultanate led by Isa Khan. They formed an independent federation called the Twelve Bhuiyans, with their capital in Sonargaon. They defeated the Mughals in several naval battles. The Bhuiyans ultimately succumbed to the Mughals after Musa Khan was defeated. The Mughal Empire controlled Bengal by the 17th century. During the reign of Emperor Akbar, the Bengali agrarian calendar was reformed to facilitate tax collection. The Mughals established Dhaka as a fort city and commercial metropolis, and it was the capital of Bengal Subah for 75 years. In 1666, the Mughals expelled the Arakanese from Chittagong. Mughal Bengal attracted foreign traders for its muslin and silk goods, and the Armenians were a notable merchant community. A Portuguese settlement in Chittagong flourished in the southeast, and a Dutch settlement in Rajshahi existed in the north. Bengal accounted for 40% of overall Dutch imports from Asia; including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks. The Bengal Subah, described as the Paradise of the Nations, was the empire's wealthiest province, and a major global exporter, a notable centre of worldwide industries such as muslin, cotton textiles, silk, and shipbuilding. Its citizens also enjoyed one of the world's most superior living standards. During the 18th century, the Nawabs of Bengal became the region's de facto rulers. The ruler's title is popularly known as the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, given that the Bengali Nawab's realm encompassed much of the eastern subcontinent. The Nawabs forged alliances with European colonial companies, making the region relatively prosperous early in the century. Bengal accounted for 50% of the gross domestic product of the empire. The Bengali economy relied on textile manufacturing, shipbuilding, saltpetre production, craftsmanship, and agricultural produce. Bengal was a major hub for international trade – silk and cotton textiles from Bengal were worn in Europe, Japan, Indonesia, and Central Asia. Annual Bengali shipbuilding output was 223,250 tons, compared to an output of 23,061 tons in the nineteen colonies of North America. Bengali shipbuilding proved to be more advanced than European shipbuilding before the Industrial Revolution. The flush deck of Bengali rice ships was later replicated in European shipbuilding to replace the stepped deck design for ship hulls. Eastern Bengal was a thriving melting pot with strong trade and cultural networks. It was a relatively prosperous part of the subcontinent and the center of the Muslim population in the eastern subcontinent. The Muslims of eastern Bengal included people of diverse origins from different parts of the world. The Bengali Muslim population was a product of conversion and religious evolution, and their pre-Islamic beliefs included elements of Buddhism and Hinduism. The construction of mosques, Islamic academies (madrasas) and Sufi monasteries (khanqahs) facilitated conversion, and Islamic cosmology played a significant role in developing Bengali Muslim society. Scholars have theorised that Bengalis were attracted to Islam by its egalitarian social order, which contrasted with the Hindu caste system. By the 15th century, Muslim poets were widely writing in the Bengali language. Syncretic cults, such as the Baul movement, emerged on the fringes of Bengali Muslim society. The Persianate culture was significant in Bengal, where cities like Sonargaon became the easternmost centres of Persian influence. The Mughals had aided France during the Seven Years' War to avoid losing the Bengal region to the British. However, in the Battle of Plassey the British East India Company registered a decisive victory over the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies on 22 June 1757, under the leadership of Robert Clive. The battle followed the order of Siraj-ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, to the English to stop the extension of their fortification. Robert Clive bribed Mir Jafar, the commander-in-chief of the Nawab's army, and also promised him to make him Nawab of Bengal, which helped him to defeat Siraj-ud-Daulah and capture Calcutta. The battle consolidated the company's presence in Bengal, which later expanded to cover much of India over the next hundred years. Although they had lost control of Bengal Subah, Shah Alam II was involved in the Bengal War which ended once more in their defeat at the Battle of Buxar. Colonial period Two decades after Vasco Da Gama's landing in Calicut, the Bengal Sultanate permitted the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong to be established in 1528. It became the first European colonial enclave in Bengal. The Bengal Sultanate lost control of Chittagong in 1531 after Arakan declared independence and the established Kingdom of Mrauk U. Portuguese ships from Goa and Malacca began frequenting the port city in the 16th century. The cartaz system was introduced and required all ships in the area to purchase naval trading licenses from the Portuguese settlement. Slave trade and piracy flourished. The nearby island of Sandwip was conquered in 1602. In 1615, the Portuguese Navy defeated a joint Dutch East India Company and Arakanese fleet near the coast of Chittagong. The Bengal Sultan after 1534 allowed the Portuguese to create several settlements at Chitagoong, Satgaon, Hughli, Bandel, and Dhaka. In 1535, the Portuguese allied with the Bengal sultan and held the Teliagarhi pass from Patna helping to avoid the invasion by the Mughals. By then several of the products came from Patna and the Portuguese send in traders, establishing a factory there since 1580. By the time the Portuguese assured military help against Sher Shah, the Mughals already had started to conquer the Sultanate of Ghiyasuddin Mahmud. Bengal was the wealthiest region in the Indian subcontinent, and its proto-industrial economy showed signs of driving an Industrial revolution. The region has been described as the "Paradise of Nations", and its inhabitants's living standards and real wages were among the highest in the world. It alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports outside the European continent. The eastern part of Bengal was globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding, and it was a major exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpeter, and agricultural and industrial produce in the world. In 1666, the Mughal government of Bengal led by viceroy Shaista Khan moved to retake Chittagong from Portuguese and Arakanese control. The Anglo-Mughal War was witnessed in 1686. After the 1757 Battle of Plassey, Bengal was the first region of the Indian subcontinent conquered by the British East India Company. The company formed the Presidency of Fort William, which administered the region until 1858. A notable aspect of Company rule was the Permanent Settlement, which established the feudal zamindari system; in addition, Company policies led to the deindustrialisation of Bengal's textile industry. The capital amassed by the East India Company in Bengal was invested in the emerging Industrial Revolution in Great Britain, in industries such as textile manufacturing. The economic mismanagement directly led to the Great Bengal famine of 1770, which is estimated to have caused the deaths of about 10 million people, as a third of the population in the affected region starved to death. Several rebellions broke out during the early 19th century (including one led by Titumir), as Company rule had displaced the Muslim ruling class from power. A conservative Islamic cleric, Haji Shariatullah, sought to overthrow the British by propagating Islamic revivalism. Several towns in Bangladesh participated in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and pledged allegiance to the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, who was later exiled to neighbouring Burma. The challenge posed to company rule by the failed Indian Mutiny led to the creation of the British Indian Empire as a crown colony. The British established several schools, colleges, and a university in Bangladesh. Syed Ahmed Khan and Ram Mohan Roy promoted modern and liberal education in the subcontinent, inspiring the Aligarh movement and the Bengal Renaissance. During the late 19th century, novelists, social reformers and feminists emerged from Muslim Bengali society. Electricity and municipal water systems were introduced in the 1890s; cinemas opened in many towns during the early 20th century. East Bengal's plantation economy was important to the British Empire, particularly its jute and tea. The British established tax-free river ports, such as the Port of Narayanganj, and large seaports like the Port of Chittagong. Bengal had the highest gross domestic product in British India. Bengal was one of the first regions in Asia to have a railway. The first railway in what is now Bangladesh began operating in 1862. In comparison, Japan saw its first railway in 1872. The main railway companies in the region were the Eastern Bengal Railway and Assam Bengal Railway. Railways competed with waterborne transport to become one of the main mediums of transport. Supported by the Muslim aristocracy, the British government created the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905; the new province received increased investment in education, transport, and industry. However, the first partition of Bengal created an uproar in Calcutta and the Indian National Congress. In response to growing Hindu nationalism, the All India Muslim League was formed in Dhaka during the 1906 All India Muhammadan Educational Conference. The British government reorganised the provinces in 1912, reuniting East and West Bengal and making Assam a second province. The Raj was slow to allow self-rule in the colonial subcontinent. It established the Bengal Legislative Council in 1862, and the council's native Bengali representation increased during the early 20th century. The Bengal Provincial Muslim League was formed in 1913 to advocate civil rights for Bengali Muslims within a constitutional framework. During the 1920s, the league was divided into factions supporting the Khilafat movement and favouring co-operation with the British to achieve self-rule. Segments of the Bengali elite supported Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's secularist forces. In 1929, the All Bengal Tenants Association was formed in the Bengal Legislative Council to counter the influence of the Hindu landed gentry, and the Indian Independence and Pakistan Movements strengthened during the early 20th century. After the Morley-Minto Reforms and the diarchy era in the legislatures of British India, the British government promised limited provincial autonomy in 1935. The Bengal Legislative Assembly, British India's largest legislature, was established in 1937. Although it won most seats in 1937, the Bengal Congress boycotted the legislature. A. K. Fazlul Huq of the Krishak Praja Party was elected as the first Prime Minister of Bengal. In 1940 Huq supported the Lahore Resolution, which envisaged independent states in the subcontinent's northwestern and eastern Muslim-majority regions. The first Huq ministry, a coalition with the Bengal Provincial Muslim League, lasted until 1941; it was followed by a Huq coalition with the Hindu Mahasabha which lasted until 1943. Huq was succeeded by Khawaja Nazimuddin, who grappled with the effects of the Burma Campaign, the Bengal famine of 1943, which killed up to 3 million people, and the Quit India movement. In 1946, the Bengal Provincial Muslim League won the provincial election, taking 113 of the 250-seat assembly (the largest Muslim League mandate in British India). H. S. Suhrawardy, who made a final futile effort for a United Bengal in 1946, was the last premier of Bengal. Partition of Bengal (1947) On 3 June 1947, the Mountbatten Plan outlined the partition of British India. On 20 June, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met to decide on the partition of Bengal. At the preliminary joint meeting, it was decided (120 votes to 90) that if the province remained united, it should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. At a separate meeting of legislators from West Bengal, it was decided (58 votes to 21) that the province should be partitioned and West Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of India. At another meeting of legislators from East Bengal, it was decided (106 votes to 35) that the province should not be partitioned and (107 votes to 34) that East Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan if Bengal was partitioned. On 6 July, the Sylhet region of Assam voted in a referendum to join East Bengal. Cyril Radcliffe was tasked with drawing the borders of Pakistan and India, and the Radcliffe Line established the borders of present-day Bangladesh. The Radcliffe Line awarded two-thirds of Bengal as the eastern wing of Pakistan, although the medieval and early modern Bengali capitals of Gaur, Pandua and Murshidabad fell on the Indian side close to the border with Pakistan. Union with Pakistan The Dominion of Pakistan was created on 14 August 1947. East Bengal, with Dhaka as its capital, was the most populous province of the 1947 Pakistani federation (led by Governor General Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who promised freedom of religion and secular democracy in the new state). Khawaja Nazimuddin was East Bengal's first chief minister with Frederick Chalmers Bourne its governor. The All Pakistan Awami Muslim League was formed in 1949. In 1950, the East Bengal Legislative Assembly enacted land reform, abolishing the Permanent Settlement and the zamindari system. The 1952 Bengali Language Movement was the first sign of friction between the country's geographically separated wings. The Awami Muslim League was renamed the more-secular Awami League in 1953. The first constituent assembly was dissolved in 1954; this was challenged by its East Bengali speaker, Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan. The United Front coalition swept aside the Muslim League in a landslide victory in the 1954 East Bengali legislative election. The following year, East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan as part of the One Unit program, and the province became a vital part of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization. Pakistan adopted its first constitution in 1956. Three Bengalis were its Prime Minister until 1957: Nazimuddin, Mohammad Ali of Bogra and Suhrawardy. None of the three completed their terms, and resigned from office. The Pakistan Army imposed military rule in 1958, and Ayub Khan was the country's strongman for 11 years. Political repression increased after the coup. Khan introduced a new constitution in 1962, replacing Pakistan's parliamentary system with a presidential and gubernatorial system (based on electoral college selection) known as Basic Democracy. In 1962 Dhaka became the seat of the National Assembly of Pakistan, a move seen as appeasing increased Bengali nationalism. The Pakistani government built the controversial Kaptai Dam, displacing the Chakma people from their indigenous homeland in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. During the 1965 presidential election, Fatima Jinnah lost to Ayub Khan despite support from the Combined Opposition alliance (which included the Awami League). The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 blocked cross-border transport links with neighbouring India in what is described as a second partition. In 1966, Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman announced a six-point movement for a federal parliamentary democracy. According to senior World Bank officials, Pakistan practised extensive economic discrimination against East Pakistan: greater government spending on West Pakistan, financial transfers from East to West Pakistan, the use of East Pakistan's foreign-exchange surpluses to finance West Pakistani imports, and refusal by the central government to release funds allocated to East Pakistan because the previous spending had been under budget; though East Pakistan generated 70 percent of Pakistan's export revenue with its jute and tea. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested for treason in the Agartala Conspiracy Case and was released during the 1969 uprising in East Pakistan which resulted in Ayub Khan's resignation. General Yahya Khan assumed power, reintroducing martial law. Ethnic and linguistic discrimination was common in Pakistan's civil and military services, in which Bengalis were under-represented. Fifteen percent of Pakistani central-government offices were occupied by East Pakistanis, who formed 10 percent of the military. Cultural discrimination also prevailed, making East Pakistan forge a distinct political identity. Pakistan banned Bengali literature and music in state media, including the works of Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore. A cyclone devastated the coast of East Pakistan in 1970, killing an estimated 500,000 people, and the central government was criticised for its poor response. After the December 1970 elections, calls for the independence of East Bengal became louder; the Bengali-nationalist Awami League won 167 of 169 East Pakistani seats in the National Assembly. The League claimed the right to form a government and develop a new constitution but was strongly opposed by the Pakistani military and the Pakistan Peoples Party (led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto). War of Independence The Bengali population was angered when Prime Minister-elect Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was prevented from taking the office. Civil disobedience erupted across East Pakistan, with calls for independence. Mujib addressed a pro-independence rally of nearly 2 million people in Dacca (as Dhaka used to be spelled in English) on 7 March 1971, where he said, "This time the struggle is for our freedom. This time the struggle is for our independence." The flag of Bangladesh was raised for the first time on 23 March, Pakistan's Republic Day. Later, on 25 March late evening, the Pakistani military junta led by Yahya Khan launched a sustained military assault on East Pakistan under the code name of Operation Searchlight. The Pakistan Army arrested Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and flew him to Karachi. However, before his arrest Mujib proclaimed the Independence of Bangladesh at midnight on 26 March which led the Bangladesh Liberation War to break out within hours. The Pakistan Army and its local supporters continued to massacre Bengalis, in particular students, intellectuals, political figures, and Hindus in the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. The Mukti Bahini, a guerrilla resistance force, also violated human rights during the conflict. During the war, an estimated 0.3 to 3.0 million people were killed and several million people took shelter in neighbouring India. Global public opinion turned against Pakistan as news of the atrocities spread; the Bangladesh movement was supported by prominent political and cultural figures in the West, including Ted Kennedy, George Harrison, Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, Victoria Ocampo and André Malraux. The Concert for Bangladesh was held at Madison Square Garden in New York City to raise funds for Bangladeshi refugees. The first major benefit concert in history, it was organised by Harrison and Indian Bengali sitarist Ravi Shankar. During the Bangladesh Liberation War, Bengali nationalists declared independence and formed the Mukti Bahini (the Bangladeshi National Liberation Army). The Provisional Government of Bangladesh was established on 17 April 1971, converting the 469 elected members of the Pakistani national assembly and East Pakistani provincial assembly into the Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh. The provisional government issued a proclamation that became the country's interim constitution and declared "equality, human dignity, and social justice" as its fundamental principles. Due to Mujib's detention, Syed Nazrul Islam took over the role of Acting President, while Tajuddin Ahmad was named Bangladesh's first Prime Minister. The Mukti Bahini and other Bengali guerrilla forces formed the Bangladesh Forces, which became the military wing of the provisional government. Led by General M. A. G. Osmani and eleven sector commanders, the forces held the countryside during the war. They conducted wide-ranging guerrilla operations against Pakistani forces. As a result, almost the entire country except for the capital Dacca was liberated by Bangladesh Forces by late November. This led the Pakistan Army to attack neighbouring India's western front on 2 December 1971. India retaliated in both the western and eastern fronts. With a joint ground advance by Bangladeshi and Indian forces, coupled with air strikes by both India and the small Bangladeshi air contingent, the capital Dacca was liberated from Pakistani occupation in mid-December. During the last phase of the war, both the Soviet Union and the United States dispatched naval forces to the Bay of Bengal in a Cold War standoff. The nine month long war ended with the surrender of Pakistani armed forces to the Bangladesh-India Allied Forces on 16 December 1971. Under international pressure, Pakistan released Rahman from imprisonment on 8 January 1972 and he was flown by the British Royal Air Force to a million-strong homecoming in Dacca. Remaining Indian troops were withdrawn by 12 March 1972, three months after the war ended. The cause of Bangladeshi self-determination was recognised around the world. By August 1972, the new state was recognised by 86 countries. Pakistan recognised Bangladesh in 1974 after pressure from most of the Muslim countries. People's Republic of Bangladesh First parliamentary era The constituent assembly adopted the constitution of Bangladesh on 4 November 1972, establishing a secular, multiparty parliamentary democracy. The new constitution included references to socialism, and Prime Minister Sheikh Mujibur Rahman nationalised major industries in 1972. A major reconstruction and rehabilitation program was launched. The Awami League won the country's first general election in 1973, securing a large majority in the "Jatiyo Sangshad", the national parliament. Bangladesh joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the UN, the OIC and the Non-Aligned Movement, and Rahman strengthened ties with India. Amid growing agitation by the opposition National Awami Party and Jashod, he became increasingly authoritarian. Rahman amended the constitution, giving himself more emergency powers (including the suspension of fundamental rights). The Bangladesh famine of 1974 also worsened the political situation. Presidential era (1975–1991) In January 1975, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman introduced one-party socialist rule under BAKSAL. Rahman banned all newspapers except four state-owned publications and amended the constitution to increase his power. He was assassinated during a coup on 15 August 1975. Martial law was declared, and the presidency passed to the usurper Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad for four months. Ahmad is widely regarded as a traitor by Bangladeshis. Tajuddin Ahmad, the nation's first prime minister, and four other independence leaders were assassinated on 4 November 1975. Chief Justice Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem was installed as president by the military on 6 November 1975. Bangladesh was governed by a military junta led by the Chief Martial Law Administrator for three years. In 1977, the army chief Ziaur Rahman became president. Rahman reinstated multiparty politics, privatised industries and newspapers, established BEPZA and held the country's second general election in 1979. A semi-presidential system evolved, with the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) governing until 1982. Rahman was assassinated in 1981 and was succeeded by Vice-president Abdus Sattar. Sattar received 65.5 per cent of the vote in the 1981 presidential election. After a year in office, Sattar was overthrown in the 1982 Bangladesh coup d'état. Chief Justice A. F. M. Ahsanuddin Chowdhury was installed as president, but army chief Hussain Muhammad Ershad became the country's de facto leader and assumed the presidency in 1983. Ershad lifted martial law in 1986. He governed with four successive prime ministers (Ataur Rahman Khan, Mizanur Rahman Chowdhury, Moudud Ahmed and Kazi Zafar Ahmed) and a parliament dominated by his Jatiyo Party. General elections were held in 1986 and 1988, although the opposition BNP and Awami League boycotted the latter. Ershad pursued administrative decentralisation, dividing the country into 64 districts, and pushed Parliament to make Islam the state religion in 1988. A 1990 mass uprising forced him to resign, and Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed led the country's first caretaker government as part of the transition to parliamentary rule. Parliamentary era (1991–present) After the 1991 general election, the twelfth amendment to the constitution restored the parliamentary republic and Begum Khaleda Zia became Bangladesh's first female prime minister. Zia, a former first lady, led a BNP government from 1990 to 1996. In 1991, her finance minister, Saifur Rahman, began a major program to liberalise the Bangladeshi economy. In February 1996, a general election was held, which was boycotted by all opposition parties giving a 300 (of 300) seat victory for BNP. This election was deemed illegitimate, so a system of a caretaker government was introduced to oversee the transfer of power and a new election was held in June 1996, overseen by Justice Muhammad Habibur Rahman, the first Chief Adviser of Bangladesh. The Awami League won the seventh general election, marking its leader Sheikh Hasina's first term as Prime Minister. Hasina's first term was highlighted by the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord and a Ganges water-sharing treaty with India. The second caretaker government, led by Chief Adviser Justice Latifur Rahman, oversaw the 2001 Bangladeshi general election which returned Begum Zia and the BNP to power. The second Zia administration saw improved economic growth, but political turmoil gripped the country between 2004 and 2006. A radical Islamist militant group, the JMB, carried out a series of terror attacks. The evidence of staging these attacks by these extremist groups have been found in the investigation. Hundreds of suspected members were detained in numerous security operations in 2006, including the two chiefs of the JMB, Shaykh Abdur Rahman and Bangla Bhai, who was executed with other top leaders in March 2007, bringing the militant group to an end. In 2006, at the end of the term of the BNP administration, there was widespread political unrest related to the handover of power to a caretaker government. As such, the Bangladeshi military urged President Iajuddin Ahmed to impose a state of emergency and a caretaker government, led by technocrat Fakhruddin Ahmed, was installed. Emergency rule lasted for two years, during which time investigations into members of both Awami League and BNP were conducted, including their leaders Sheikh Hasina and Khaleda Zia. In 2008, the ninth general election saw a return to power for Sheikh Hasina and the Awami League led Grand Alliance in a landslide victory. In 2010, the Supreme Court ruled martial law illegal and affirmed secular principles in the constitution. The following year, the Awami League abolished the caretaker government system. Citing the lack of caretaker government, the 2014 general election was boycotted by the BNP and other opposition parties, giving the Awami League a decisive victory. The election was controversial with reports of violence and an alleged crackdown on the opposition in the run-up to the election, and 153 seats (of 300) went uncontested in the election. Despite the controversy, Hasina went on to form a government that saw her return for a third term as Prime Minister. Due to strong domestic demand, Bangladesh emerged as one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. However, human rights abuses increased under the Hasina administration, particularly enforced disappearances. Between 2016 and 2017, an estimated 1 million Rohingya refugees took shelter in southeastern Bangladesh amid a military crackdown in neighbouring Rakhine State, Myanmar. In 2018, the country saw major movements for government quota reforms and road-safety. The 2018 Bangladeshi general election was marred by allegations of widespread vote rigging. The Awami League won 259 out of 300 seats and the main opposition alliance Jatiya Oikya Front secured only 8 seats, with Sheikh Hasina becoming the longest-serving prime minister in Bangladeshi history. Pro-democracy leader Dr. Kamal Hossain called for an annulment of the election result and for a new election to be held in a free and fair manner. The election was also observed by European Union observers. Geography Bangladesh is a small, lush country in South Asia, located on the Bay of Bengal. It is surrounded almost entirely by neighbouring India—and shares a small border with Myanmar to its southeast, though it lies very close to Nepal, Bhutan, and China. The country is divided into three regions. Most of the country is dominated by the fertile Ganges Delta, the largest river delta in the world. The northwest and central parts of the country are formed by the Madhupur and the Barind plateaus. The northeast and southeast are home to evergreen hill ranges. The Ganges delta is formed by the confluence of the Ganges (local name Padma or Pôdda), Brahmaputra (Jamuna or Jomuna), and Meghna rivers and their respective tributaries. The Ganges unites with the Jamuna (main channel of the Brahmaputra) and later joins the Meghna, finally flowing into the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh is called the "Land of Rivers"; as it is home to over 57 trans-boundary rivers. However, this resolves water issues politically complicated, in most cases, as the country is a lower riparian state to India. Bangladesh is predominantly rich fertile flat land. Most of it is less than above sea level, and it is estimated that about 10% of its land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by . 17% of the country is covered by forests and 12% is covered by hill systems. The country's haor wetlands are of significance to global environmental science. With an elevation of , Saka Haphong (also known as Mowdok Mual) near the border with Myanmar, is claimed to be the highest peak of Bangladesh. However, it is not yet widely recognised as the highest point of the country, and most sources give the honor to Keokradong. Administrative geography Bangladesh is divided into eight administrative divisions, each named after their respective divisional headquarters: Barisal (officially Barishal), Chittagong (officially Chattogram), Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur, and Sylhet. Divisions are subdivided into districts (zila). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh, each further subdivided into upazila (subdistricts) or thana. The area within each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several unions, with each union consisting of multiple villages. In the metropolitan areas, police stations are divided into wards, further divided into mahallas. There are no elected officials at the divisional or district levels, and the administration is composed only of government officials. Direct elections are held in each union (or ward) for a chairperson and a number of members. In 1997, a parliamentary act was passed to reserve three seats (out of 12) in every union for female candidates. Climate Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh's climate is tropical, with a mild winter from October to March and a hot, humid summer from March to June. The country has never recorded an air temperature below , with a record low of in the northwest city of Dinajpur on 3 February 1905. A warm and humid monsoon season lasts from June to October and supplies most of the country's rainfall. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores occur almost every year, combined with the effects of deforestation, soil degradation and erosion. The cyclones of 1970 and 1991 were particularly devastating, the latter killing some 140,000 people. In September 1998, Bangladesh saw the most severe flooding in modern world history. As the Brahmaputra, the Ganges and Meghna spilt over and swallowed 300,000 houses, of road and of embankment, 1,000 people were killed and 30 million more were made homeless; 135,000 cattle were killed; of land were destroyed; and of roads were damaged or destroyed. Effectively, two-thirds of the country was underwater. The severity of the flooding was attributed to unusually high monsoon rains, the shedding of equally unusually large amounts of melt water from the Himalayas, and the widespread cutting down of trees (that would have intercepted rain water) for firewood or animal husbandry. As a result of various international and national level initiatives in disaster risk reduction, human toll and economic damage from floods and cyclones have come down over the years. A similar country wide flood in 2007, which left five million people displaced, had a death toll around 500. Bangladesh is recognised to be one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change. Over the course of a century, 508 cyclones have affected the Bay of Bengal region, 17 percent of which are believed to have caused landfall in Bangladesh. Natural hazards that come from increased rainfall, rising sea levels, and tropical cyclones are expected to increase as the climate changes, each seriously affecting agriculture, water and food security, human health, and shelter. It is estimated that by 2050, a 3 feet rise in sea levels will inundate some 20 percent of the land and displace more than 30 million people. To address the sea level rise threat in Bangladesh, the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 has been launched. Biodiversity Bangladesh ratified the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 3 May 1994. , the country was set to revise its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Bangladesh is located in the Indomalayan realm, and lies within four terrestrial ecoregions: Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests, Mizoram–Manipur–Kachin rain forests, Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests, and Sundarbans mangroves. Its ecology includes a long sea coastline, numerous rivers and tributaries, lakes, wetlands, evergreen forests, semi evergreen forests, hill forests, moist deciduous forests, freshwater swamp forests and flat land with tall grass. The Bangladesh Plain is famous for its fertile alluvial soil which supports extensive cultivation. The country is dominated by lush vegetation, with villages often buried in groves of mango, jackfruit, bamboo, betel nut, coconut and date palm. The country has up to 6000 species of plant life, including 5000 flowering plants. Water bodies and wetland systems provide a habitat for many aquatic plants. Water lilies and lotuses grow vividly during the monsoon season. The country has 50 wildlife sanctuaries. Bangladesh is home to much of the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove forest, covering an area of 6,000 km2 in the southwest littoral region. It is divided into three protected sanctuaries–the South, East and West zones. The forest is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The northeastern Sylhet region is home to haor wetlands, a unique ecosystem. It also includes tropical and subtropical coniferous forests, a freshwater swamp forest, and mixed deciduous forests. The southeastern Chittagong region covers evergreen and semi-evergreen hilly jungles. Central Bangladesh includes the plainland Sal forest running along with the districts of Gazipur, Tangail and Mymensingh. St. Martin's Island is the only coral reef in the country. Bangladesh has an abundance of wildlife in its forests, marshes, woodlands and hills. The vast majority of animals dwell within a habitat of 150,000 km2 . The Bengal tiger, clouded leopard, saltwater crocodile, black panther and fishing cat are among the chief predators in the Sundarbans. Northern and eastern Bangladesh is home to the Asian elephant, hoolock gibbon, Asian black bear and oriental pied hornbill. The Chital deer are widely seen in southwestern woodlands. Other animals include the black giant squirrel, capped langur, Bengal fox, sambar deer, jungle cat, king cobra, wild boar, mongooses, pangolins, pythons and water monitors. Bangladesh has one of the largest populations of Irrawaddy dolphins and Ganges dolphins. A 2009 census found 6,000 Irrawaddy dolphins inhabiting the littoral rivers of Bangladesh. The country has numerous species of amphibians (53), reptiles (139), marine reptiles (19) and marine mammals (5). It also has 628 species of birds. Several animals became extinct in Bangladesh during the last century, including the one-horned and two-horned rhinoceros and common peafowl. The human population is concentrated in urban areas, limiting deforestation to a certain extent. Rapid urban growth has threatened natural habitats. Although many areas are protected under law, some Bangladeshi wildlife is threatened by this growth. Furthermore, access to biocapacity in Bangladesh is low. In 2016, Bangladesh had 0.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, or about one fourth of the world average. In contrast, in 2016, they used 0.84 global hectares of biocapacity – their ecological footprint of consumption. As a result, Bangladesh is running a biocapacity deficit. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act was enacted in 1995. The government has designated several regions as Ecologically Critical Areas, including wetlands, forests, and rivers. The Sundarbans tiger project and the Bangladesh Bear Project are among the key initiatives to strengthen conservation. Politics and government Bangladesh is a de jure representative democracy under its constitution, with a Westminster-style unitary parliamentary republic that has universal suffrage. The head of government is the Prime Minister, who is invited to form a government every five years. The President invites the leader of the largest party in parliament to become Prime Minister of the world's fifth-largest democracy. Bangladesh experienced a two party system between 1990 and 2014, when the Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) alternated in power. During this period, elections were managed by a neutral caretaker government. But the caretaker government was abolished by the Awami League government in 2011. The BNP boycotted the next election in 2014, arguing that it would not be fair without a caretaker government. The BNP-led Jatiya Oikya Front participated in the 2018 election. The election saw many allegations of irregularities. One of the key aspects of Bangladeshi politics is the "spirit of the liberation war", which refers to the ideals of the liberation movement during the Bangladesh Liberation War. The Proclamation of Independence enunciated the values of "equality, human dignity and social justice". In 1972, the constitution included a bill of rights and declared "nationalism, socialism, democracy and secularity" as the principles of government policy. Socialism was later de-emphasised and neglected by successive governments. Bangladesh has a market-based economy. To many Bangladeshis, especially in the younger generation, the spirit of the liberation war is a vision for a society based on civil liberties, human rights, the rule of law and good governance. Executive branch The Government of Bangladesh is overseen by a cabinet headed by the Prime Minister of Bangladesh. The tenure of a parliamentary government is five years. The Bangladesh Civil Service assists the cabinet in running the government. Recruitment for the civil service is based on a public examination. In theory, the civil service should be a meritocracy. But a disputed quota system coupled with politicisation and preference for seniority have allegedly affected the civil service's meritocracy. The President of Bangladesh is the ceremonial head of state whose powers include signing bills passed by parliament into law. The President is elected by the parliament and has a five-year term. Under the constitution, the president acts on the prime minister's advice. The President is the Supreme Commander of the Bangladesh Armed Forces and the chancellor of all universities. Legislative branch The Jatiya Sangshad (National Parliament) is the unicameral parliament. It has 350 Members of Parliament (MPs), including 300 MPs elected on the first past the post system and 50 MPs appointed to reserved seats for women's empowerment. Article 70 of the Constitution of Bangladesh forbids MPs from voting against their party. However, several laws proposed independently by MPs have been transformed into legislation, including the anti-torture law. The parliament is presided over by the Speaker of the Jatiya Sangsad, who is second in line to the president as per the constitution. There is also a Deputy Speaker. When a president is incapable of performing duties (i.e. due to illness), the Speaker steps in as Acting President and the Deputy Speaker becomes Acting Speaker. A recurring proposal suggests that the Deputy Speaker should be an opposition member. Legal system The Supreme Court of Bangladesh is the highest court of the land, followed by the High Court and Appellate Divisions. The head of the judiciary is the Chief Justice of Bangladesh, who sits on the Supreme Court. The courts have wide latitude in judicial review, and judicial precedent is supported by Article 111 of the constitution. The judiciary includes district and metropolitan courts divided into civil and criminal courts. Due to a shortage of judges, the judiciary has a large backlog. The Bangladesh Judicial Service Commission is responsible for judicial appointments, salaries, and discipline. Bangladesh's legal system is based on common law and its principal source of laws are acts of Parliament. The Bangladesh Code includes a list of all laws in force in the country. The code began in 1836, and most of its listed laws were crafted under the British Raj by the Bengal Legislative Council, the Bengal Legislative Assembly, the Eastern Bengal and Assam Legislative Council, the Imperial Legislative Council and the Parliament of the United Kingdom. One example is the 1860 Penal Code. From 1947 to 1971, laws were enacted by Pakistan's national assembly and the East Pakistani legislature. The Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh was the country's provisional parliament until 1973 when the first elected Jatiyo Sangshad (National Parliament) was sworn in. Although most of Bangladesh's laws were compiled in English, after a 1987 government directive, laws are now primarily written in Bengali. While most Bangladeshi law is secular; marriage, divorce, and inheritance are governed by Islamic, Hindu and Christian family law. Legal developments often influence the judiciary in the Commonwealth of Nations, such as the doctrine of legitimate expectation. The constitution includes a list of fundamental rights inspired by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and was drafted by leading lawyer Kamal Hossain. In the 1970s, judges invalidated detentions under the Special Powers Act, 1974 through cases such as Aruna Sen v. Government of Bangladesh and Abdul Latif Mirza v. Government of Bangladesh. In 2008, the Supreme Court paved the way for citizenship for the Stranded Pakistanis, who were an estimated 300,000 stateless people. Despite being a non-signatory of the UN Refugee Convention, Bangladesh has taken in Rohingya refugees since 1978 and the country is now home to a million refugees. Bangladesh is an active member of the International Labour Organization (ILO) since 1972. It has ratified 33 ILO conventions, including the seven fundamental ILO conventions. Bangladesh has ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Judicial activism has often upheld human rights. Military The Bangladesh Armed Forces have inherited the institutional framework of the British military and the British Indian Army. It was formed in 1971 from the military regiments of East Pakistan. In 2018, the active personnel strength of the Bangladesh Army was around 157,500, excluding the Air Force and the Navy (24,000). In addition to traditional defence roles, the military has supported civil authorities in disaster relief and provided internal security during periods of political unrest. For many years, Bangladesh has been the world's largest contributor to UN peacekeeping forces. In February 2015, the country had deployments in Côte d'Ivoire, Cyprus, Darfur, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Golan Heights, Haiti, Lebanon, Liberia and South Sudan. The military budget of Bangladesh accounts for 1.3% of GDP, amounting to US$ 4.3 billion in 2021. The Bangladesh Navy, one of the largest in the Bay of Bengal, includes a fleet of frigates, submarines, corvettes and other vessels. The Bangladesh Air Force has a small fleet of multi-role combat aircraft, including the MiG-29 and Chengdu-F7. Most of Bangladesh's military equipment comes from China. Other key military suppliers include Turkey, the United States, South Korea, Russia, Ukraine, France, Germany and the United Kingdom. There has been speculation regarding Bangladesh's relationship with the Quad. China has warned Bangladesh against joining the Quad. This warning was criticized by Bangladesh. Bangladesh continues to hold joint military exercises with members of the Quad and the Royal Navy. In January 2021, a tri-service continent of the Bangladesh Armed Forces participated in the Delhi Republic Day parade for the first time. In December 2021, a tri-service contingent of the Indian Armed Forces participated in the Dhaka Victory Day parade for the first time, along with contingents from Bhutan and Russia and military observer groups from the United States and Mexico. 2021 marked the 50th anniversary and golden jubilee of Bangladesh's independence. In recent years, Bangladesh and India have increased joint military exercises, high level visits of military leaders, counter-terrorism cooperation and intelligence sharing. Bangladesh is vital to ensuring stability and security in northeast India. C130 Hercules aircraft of the Bangladesh Air Force have been involved in relief operations after the 2015 Nepal earthquake and in evacuations for the Maldives during the Covid-19 pandemic. The Bangladesh Navy was also dispatched to the Maldives during a water shortage crisis in the capital Male. Bangladesh's strategic importance in the eastern subcontinent hinges on its proximity to China, its frontier with Burma, the separation of mainland and northeast India, and its maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal. In 1972, Bangladesh and India signed a 25-year friendship treaty which expired in 1997 and was not renewed. Article 8 of the treaty stipulated that "In accordance with the ties of friendship existing between the two countries, each of the contracting parties solemnly declare that it shall not enter into or participate in any military alliance directed against the other party. Each of the parties shall refrain from any aggression against the other party and shall not allow the use of its territory for committing any act that may cause military damage to or constitute a threat to the security of the other contracting party". In the 1980s, Pakistan transferred several Shenyang J-6 aircraft to Bangladesh but these were destroyed during a cyclone. In 2002, Bangladesh and China signed a Defense Cooperation Agreement (DCA) which the governments of both countries said will “institutionalize the existing accords in defence sector and also to rationalize the existing piecemeal agreements to enhance cooperation in training, maintenance and in some areas of production”. The United States has pursued negotiations with Bangladesh on a Status of Forces Agreement, an Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement and a General Security of Military Information Agreement. In 2019, Bangladesh ratified the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. Foreign relations The first major intergovernmental organisation joined by Bangladesh was the Commonwealth of Nations in 1972. The country joined the United Nations in 1974 and has been elected twice to the UN Security Council. Ambassador Humayun Rashid Choudhury was elected president of the UN General Assembly in 1986. Bangladesh relies on multilateral diplomacy in the World Trade Organization. It is a major contributor to UN peacekeeping, providing 113,000 personnel to 54 UN missions in the Middle East, the Balkans, Africa and the Caribbean in 2014. In addition to membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations, Bangladesh pioneered regional co-operation in South Asia. Bangladesh is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), an organisation designed to strengthen relations and promote economic and cultural growth among its members. It has hosted several summits, and two Bangladeshi diplomats were the organisation's secretary-general. Bangladesh joined the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) in 1973. It has hosted the summit of OIC foreign ministers, which addresses issues, conflicts and disputes affecting Muslim-majority countries. Bangladesh is a founding member of the Developing 8 Countries, a bloc of eight Muslim-majority republics. The neighbouring country of Myanmar (Burma) was one of the first countries to recognise Bangladesh. Despite common regional interests, Bangladesh-Myanmar relations have been strained by the Rohingya refugee crisis and the isolationist policies of the Myanmar military. In 2012, both countries came to terms at the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea over maritime boundaries in the Bay of Bengal. In 2016 and 2017, relations with Myanmar have strained once again as over 700,000 Rohingya refugees illegally entered Bangladesh fleeing persecution, ethnic cleansing, genocide, and other atrocities in Myanmar. The parliament, government, and civil society of Bangladesh have been at the forefront of international criticism against Myanmar for military operations against the Rohingya, which the United Nations has described as ethnic cleansing. Bangladesh's most politically important bilateral relationship is with neighbouring India. In 2015, major Indian newspapers called Bangladesh a "trusted friend". Bangladesh and India are South Asia's largest trading partners. The countries are collaborating in regional economic and infrastructure projects, such as a regional motor-vehicle agreement in eastern South Asia and a coastal shipping agreement in the Bay of Bengal. Indo-Bangladesh relations often emphasise a shared cultural heritage, democratic values and a history of support for Bangladeshi independence. Despite political goodwill, border killings of Bangladeshi civilians and the lack of a comprehensive water-sharing agreement for 54 transboundary rivers are major issues. In 2017, India joined Russia and China in refusing to condemn Myanmar's atrocities against the Rohingya, which contradicted with Bangladesh's demand for recognising Rohingya human rights. However, the Indian air force delivered aid shipments for Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. The crackdown against cattle smuggling in India has also affected Bangladesh. The Bangladeshi beef and leather industries have seen increased prices due to the Indian BJP government's campaign against the export of beef and cattle skin. Pakistan and Bangladesh have a US$550 million trade relationship, particularly in Pakistani cotton imports for the Bangladeshi textile industry. Although Bangladeshi and Pakistani businesses have invested in each other, diplomatic relations are strained because of Pakistani denial of the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. The execution of a Jamaat-e-Islami leader in 2013 on committing of war crimes during the liberation war was opposed in Pakistan and led to further strained ties. Sino-Bangladesh relations date to the 1950s and are relatively warm, despite the Chinese leadership siding with Pakistan during Bangladesh's war of independence. China and Bangladesh established bilateral relations in 1976, which have significantly strengthened, and the country is considered a cost-effective source of arms for the Bangladeshi military. Since the 1980s 80 percent of Bangladesh's military equipment has been supplied by China (often with generous credit terms), and China is Bangladesh's largest trading partner. Both countries are part of the BCIM Forum. Japan is Bangladesh's largest economic-aid provider in the form of loans and the countries have common political goals. The United Kingdom has longstanding economic, cultural and military links with Bangladesh. The United States is a major economic and security partner, its largest export market and foreign investor. Seventy-six percent of Bangladeshis viewed the United States favourably in 2014, one of the highest ratings among Asian countries. The United States views Bangladesh as a key partner in the Indo-Pacific. The European Union is Bangladesh's largest regional market, conducting public diplomacy and providing development assistance. Relations with other countries are generally positive. Shared democratic values ease relations with Western countries and similar economic concerns forge ties to other developing countries. Despite poor working conditions and war affecting overseas Bangladeshi workers, relations with Middle Eastern countries are friendly and bounded by religion and culture. More than a million Bangladeshis are employed in the region. In 2016, the king of Saudi Arabia called Bangladesh "one of the most important Muslim countries". However, Bangladesh has not established diplomatic relationship with Israel in support of a sovereign Palestinian state and "an end to Israel's illegal occupation of Palestine". Bangladeshi aid agencies work in many developing countries. An example is BRAC in Afghanistan, which benefits 12 million people in that country. Bangladesh has a record of nuclear nonproliferation as a party to the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), and is also a member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1973. It is a state party to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Bangladeshi foreign policy is influenced by the principle of "friendship to all and malice to none", first articulated by Bengali statesman H. S. Suhrawardy in 1957. Suhrawardy led East and West Pakistan to join the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, CENTO and the Regional Cooperation for Development. Civil society Since the colonial period, Bangladesh has had a prominent civil society. There are various special interest groups, including non-governmental organisations, human rights organisations, professional associations, chambers of commerce, employers' associations and trade unions. The National Human Rights Commission of Bangladesh was set up in 2007. Notable human rights organisations and initiatives include the Centre for Law and Mediation, Odhikar, the Alliance for Bangladesh Worker Safety, the Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association, the Bangladesh Hindu Buddhist Christian Unity Council and the War Crimes Fact Finding Committee. The world's largest international NGO BRAC is based in Bangladesh. There have been concerns regarding the shrinking space for independent civil society in recent years, with commentators labelling the civil society movement dead under the authoritarianism of the Awami League. Human rights Torture is banned by Article 35 (5) of the Constitution of Bangladesh. Despite this constitutional ban, torture is rampantly used by Bangladesh's security forces. Bangladesh joined the Convention against Torture in 1998; but it enacted its first anti-torture law, the Torture and Custodial Death (Prevention) Act, in 2013. The first conviction under this law was announced in 2020. Amnesty International Prisoners of Conscience from Bangladesh have included Saber Hossain Chowdhury and Shahidul Alam. The Digital Security Act of 2018 has greatly reduced freedom of expression in Bangladesh, particularly on the internet. The Digital Security Act has been used to target critics of the government and bureaucracy. Newspaper editorials have been demanding the repeal of the Digital Security Act. On International Human Rights Day in December 2021, the United States Department of Treasury announced sanctions on commanders of the Rapid Action Battalion for extrajudicial killings, torture and other human rights abuses. According to Freedom House, "Bangladesh's ruling Awami League (AL) has consolidated political power through sustained harassment of the opposition and those perceived to be allied with it, as well as of critical media and voices in civil society. Corruption is a serious problem, and anticorruption efforts have been weakened by politicized enforcement. Due process guarantees are poorly upheld and security forces carry out a range of human right abuses with near impunity. The threat posed by Islamist extremists has receded since 2016, when the government enacted a harsh crackdown that saw the arrest of some 15,000 people". Bangladesh is ranked "partly free" in Freedom House's Freedom in the World report, but its press freedom has deteriorated from "free" to "not free" in recent years due to increasing pressure from the government on the country's diverse, privately owned and once fiercely outspoken media. According to the British Economist Intelligence Unit, the country has a hybrid regime: the third of four rankings in its Democracy Index. Bangladesh was the third-most-peaceful South Asian country in the 2015 Global Peace Index. According to National Human Rights Commission, 70% of alleged human-rights violations are committed by law-enforcement agencies. Homosexuality is outlawed by section 377 of the criminal code (a legacy of the colonial period), and is punishable by a maximum of life imprisonment. However, Bangladesh recognises the third gender and accords limited rights for transgender people. According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 1,531,300 people are enslaved in modern-day Bangladesh, or 0.95% of the population. A number of slaves in Bangladesh are forced to work in the fish and shrimp industries. Corruption Like for many developing countries, institutional corruption is a serious concern for Bangladesh. Bangladesh was ranked 146th among 180 countries on Transparency International's 2018 Corruption Perceptions Index. According to survey conducted by the Bangladesh chapter of TI, in 2015, bribes made up 3.7 percent of the national budget. Land administration was the sector with the most bribery in 2015, followed by education, police and water supply. The Anti Corruption Commission was formed in 2004, and it was active during the 2006–08 Bangladeshi political crisis, indicting many leading politicians, bureaucrats and businessmen for graft. Economy Bangladesh has the world's 33rd largest economy in terms of market exchange rates and 29th largest in terms of purchasing power parity, which ranks second in South Asia after India. Bangladesh is also one of the world's fastest-growing economies and one of the fastest growing middle-income countries. The country has a market-based mixed economy. A developing nation, Bangladesh is one of the Next Eleven emerging markets. According to the IMF, its per-capita income was in 2019, with a GDP of $317 billion. Bangladesh has the second-highest foreign-exchange reserves in South Asia (after India). The Bangladeshi diaspora contributed $15.31 billion in remittances in 2015. Bangladesh's largest trading partners are the European Union, the United States, Japan, India, Australia, China and ASEAN. Expat workers in the Middle East and Southeast Asia send back a large chunk of remittances. The economy is driven by strong domestic demand. During its first five years of independence, Bangladesh adopted socialist policies. The subsequent military regime and BNP and Jatiya Party governments restored free markets and promoted the country's private sector. In 1991, finance minister Saifur Rahman introduced a programme of economic liberalisation. The Bangladeshi private sector has rapidly expanded, with a number of conglomerates driving the economy. Major industries include textiles, pharmaceuticals, shipbuilding, steel, electronics, energy, construction materials, chemicals, ceramics, food processing, and leather goods. Export-oriented industrialisation has increased with fiscal year 2018–19 exports increasing by 10.1% over the previous year to $40 billion. Most export earnings are from the garment-manufacturing industry. However, an insufficient power supply is a significant obstacle to Bangladesh's economic development. According to the World Bank, poor governance, corruption and weak public institutions are also major challenges. In April 2010, Standard & Poor's gave Bangladesh a BB- long-term credit rating, below India's but above those of Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Bangladesh is the seventh-largest natural gas producer in Asia, ahead of neighbouring Myanmar, and 56 percent of the country's electricity is generated by natural gas. Major gas fields are located in the northeastern (particularly Sylhet) and southern (including Barisal and Chittagong) regions. Petrobangla is the national energy company. The American multinational corporation Chevron produces 50 percent of Bangladesh's natural gas. According to geologists, the Bay of Bengal contains large, untapped gas reserves in Bangladesh's exclusive economic zone. Bangladesh has substantial coal reserves, with several coal mines operating in the northwest. Jute exports remain significant, although the global jute trade has shrunk considerably since its World War II peak. Bangladesh has one of the world's oldest tea industries and is a major exporter of fish and seafood. Bangladesh's textile and ready-made garment industries are the country's largest manufacturing sector, with 2017 exports of $34.1 billion. Leather-goods manufacturing, particularly footwear, is the second-largest export sector. The pharmaceutical industry meets 97 percent of domestic demand, and exports to many countries. Shipbuilding has grown rapidly, with exports to Europe. Steel is concentrated in the port city of Chittagong, and the ceramics industry is prominent in international trade. In 2005 Bangladesh was the world's 20th-largest cement producer, an industry dependent on limestone imports from northeast India. Food processing is a major sector, with local brands such as PRAN increasing their international presence. The electronics industry is growing rapidly with contributions from companies like the Walton Group. Bangladesh's defense industry includes the Bangladesh Ordnance Factories and the Khulna Shipyard. The service sector accounts for 51 percent of the country's GDP. Bangladesh ranks with Pakistan as South Asia's second-largest banking sector. The Dhaka and Chittagong Stock Exchanges are the country's twin financial markets. Bangladesh's telecommunications industry is one of the world's fastest-growing, with 171.854 million cellphone subscribers in January 2021, and Grameenphone, Robi, Banglalink and TeleTalk respectively are major companies. Tourism is developing, with the beach resort of Cox's Bazar at the centre of the industry. The Sylhet region, home to Bangladesh's tea gardens, also hosts a large number of visitors. The country has three UNESCO World Heritage Sites (the Mosque City, the Buddhist Vihara and the Sundarbans) and five tentative-list sites. Following the pioneering work of Akhter Hameed Khan on rural development at Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development, several NGOs in Bangladesh including BRAC (the world's largest NGO), and Grameen Bank, focused on rural development and poverty alleviation in the country. Muhammad Yunus successfully pioneered microfinance as a sustainable tool for poverty alleviation and others followed suit. As of 2015, the country had over 35 million microcredit borrowers. In recognition of their tangible contribution to poverty alleviation, Muhammad Yunus and Grameen Bank were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2006. Agriculture Transport Transport is a major sector of the economy. Aviation has grown rapidly and is dominated by the flag carrier Biman Bangladesh Airlines and other privately owned airlines. Bangladesh has a number of airports including three international and several domestic STOL (short takeoff and landing) airports. The busiest, Shahjalal International Airport connects Dhaka with major destinations. Bangladesh has a long rail network operated by the state-owned Bangladesh Railway. The total length of the country's road and highway network is nearly 21,000 kilometers (13,000 miles). With of navigable waters, Bangladesh has one of the largest inland waterway networks in the world. The southeastern port of Chittagong is its busiest seaport, handling over $60 billion in annual trade (more than 80 percent of the country's export-import commerce). The second-busiest seaport is Mongla. Bangladesh has three seaports and 22 river ports. Energy and infrastructure Bangladesh had an installed electrical capacity of 20,000 megawatts in 2018, reaching 23,548 MW in 2020. About 56 percent of the country's commercial energy is generated by natural gas, followed by oil, hydropower and coal. Bangladesh has planned to import hydropower from Bhutan and Nepal. A nuclear power plant is under construction with Russian support in the Ruppur Nuclear Power Plant project which will add 2160 MW when fully operational. The country ranks fifth worldwide in the number of renewable energy green jobs, and solar panels are increasingly used to power urban and off-grid rural areas. An estimated 98 percent of the country's population had access to improved water sources by 2004 (a high percentage for a low-income country), achieved largely through the construction of hand pumps with support from external donors. However, in 1993 it was discovered that much of Bangladesh's groundwater (the source of drinking water for 97 percent of the rural population and a significant share of the urban population) is naturally contaminated with arsenic. Another challenge is low cost recovery due to low tariffs and poor economic efficiency, especially in urban areas (where water revenue does not cover operating costs). An estimated 56 percent of the population had access to adequate sanitation facilities in 2010. Community-led total sanitation, addressing the problem of open defecation in rural areas, is credited with improving public health since its introduction in 2000. Science and technology The Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, founded in 1973, traces its roots to the East Pakistan Regional Laboratories established in Dhaka (1955), Rajshahi (1965) and Chittagong (1967). Bangladesh's space agency, SPARRSO, was founded in 1983 with assistance from the United States. The country's first communications satellite, Bangabandhu-1, was launched from the United States in 2018. The Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission operates a TRIGA research reactor at its atomic-energy facility in Savar. In 2015, Bangladesh was ranked the 26th global IT outsourcing destination. Tourism Bangladesh's tourist attractions include historical sites and monuments, resorts, beaches, picnic spots, forests and wildlife of various species. Activities for tourists include angling, water skiing, river cruising, hiking, rowing, yachting, and sea bathing. The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) reported in 2019 that the travel and tourism industry in Bangladesh directly generated 1,180,500 jobs in 2018 or 1.9 percent of the country's total employment. According to the same report, Bangladesh experiences around 125,000 international tourist arrivals per year. Domestic spending generated 97.7 percent of direct travel and tourism gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012. Bangladesh's world ranking in 2012 for travel and tourism's direct contribution to GDP, as a percentage of GDP, was 120 out of 140. Demographics Estimates of the Bangladeshi population vary, but UN data suggests (162.9 million) in 2017. The 2011 census estimated 142.3 million, much less than 2007–2010 estimates of Bangladesh's population (150–170 million). Bangladesh is the world's eighth-most-populous nation and the most densely-populated large country in the world, ranking 7th in population density even when small countries and city-states are included. The country's population-growth rate was among the highest in the world in the 1960s and 1970s, when its population grew from 65 to 110 million. With the promotion of birth control in the 1980s, Bangladesh's growth rate began to slow. Its total fertility rate is now 2.05, lower than India's (2.58) and Pakistan's (3.07). The population is relatively young, with 34 percent aged 15 or younger and five percent 65 or older. Life expectancy at birth was estimated at 72.49 years in 2016. According to the World Bank, 14.8% of the country lives below the international poverty line on less than $1.90 per day. Bengalis are 98 percent of the population. Of Bengalis, Muslims are the majority, followed by Hindus, Christians and Buddhists. The Adivasi population includes the Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya, Tripuri, Kuki, Khiang, Khumi, Murang, Mru, Chak, Lushei, Bawm, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Khasi, Jaintia, Garo, Santal, Munda and Oraon tribes. The Chittagong Hill Tracts region experienced unrest and an insurgency from 1975 to 1997 in an autonomy movement by its indigenous people. Although a peace accord was signed in 1997, the region remains militarised. Bangladesh is home to a significant Ismaili community. It hosts many Urdu-speaking immigrants, who migrated there after the partition of India. Stranded Pakistanis were given citizenship by the Supreme Court in 2008. Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh number at around 1 million, making Bangladesh one of the countries with the largest refugee populations in the world. Urban centres Dhaka is Bangladesh's capital and largest city and is overseen by two city corporations who manage between them the northern and southern part of the city. There are 12 city corporations which hold mayoral elections: Dhaka South, Dhaka North, Chittagong, Comilla, Khulna, Mymensingh, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Barisal, Rangpur, Gazipur and Narayanganj. Mayors are elected for five-year terms. Altogether there are 506 urban centres in Bangladesh among which 43 cities have a population of more than 100,000. Language The predominant language of Bangladesh is Bengali (also known as Bangla). Bengali is one of the easternmost branches of the Indo-European language family. It is a part of the Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, which developed between the 10th and 13th centuries. Bengali is written using the Bengali script. In ancient Bengal, Sanskrit was the language of written communication, especially by priests. During the Islamic period, Bengali replaced Sanskrit as the vernacular language. The Sultans of Bengal promoted the production of Bengali literature instead of Sanskrit. Bengali also received Persian and Arabic loanwords during the Sultanate of Bengal. Under British rule, Bengali was significantly modernised by Europeans. Modern Standard Bengali emerged as the lingua franca of the region. Hindu scholars employed a heavily Sanskritised version of Bengali during the Bengali Renaissance. Muslim writers such as Kazi Nazrul Islam gave attention to the Persian and Arabic vocabulary of the language. Today, the Bengali language standard is prescribed by the Bangla Academy in Bangladesh. More than 98 percent of people in Bangladesh speak Bengali as their native language. Bengali is described as a dialect continuum where there are various dialects spoken throughout the country. Currently there is a diglossia in which much of the population are able to understand or speak Standard Colloquial Bengali and in their regional dialect, such as Chittagonian or Sylheti, which some linguists consider as separate languages. The Bengali Language Implementation Act, 1987 made it mandatory to use Bengali in all government affairs in Bangladesh. Although laws were historically written in English, they were not translated into Bengali until the act. All subsequent acts, ordinances and laws have been promulgated in Bengali since 1987. English is often used in the verdicts delivered by the Supreme Court of Bangladesh, and is also used in higher education. The Chakma language is another native Eastern Indo-Aryan language of Bangladesh. It is written using the Chakma script. The unique aspect of the language is that it is used by the Chakma people, who are a population with similarities to the people of East Asia, rather than the Indian subcontinent. The Chakma language is endangered due to its decreasing use in schools and institutions. Other tribal languages include Garo, Meitei, Kokborok and Rakhine. Among the Austroasiatic languages, the Santali language is spoken by the Santali tribe. Many of these languages are written in the Bengali script, while some usage of the Latin script is also used. Urdu has a significant heritage in Bangladesh, in particular Old Dhaka. The language was introduced to Bengal in the 17th-century. Traders and migrants from North India often spoke the language in Bengal, as did sections of the Bengali upper class. Urdu poets lived in many parts of Bangladesh. The use of Urdu became controversial during the Bengali Language Movement when the people of East Bengal resisted attempts to impose Urdu as the main official language. In modern Bangladesh, the Urdu-speaking community is restricted to the country's Bihari community (formerly Stranded Pakistanis); and some sections of the Old Dhakaiya population. Religion The constitution grants freedom of religion and officially makes Bangladesh a secular state, while establishing Islam as the "state religion of the Republic". Islam is followed by 90 percent of the population. Most Bangladeshis are Bengali Muslims, who form the largest Muslim ethnoreligious group in South Asia and the second largest in the world after the Arabs. There is also a minority of non-Bengali Muslims. The vast majority of Bangladeshi Muslims are Sunni, followed by minorities of Shia and Ahmadiya. About four percent are non-denominational Muslims. Bangladesh has the fourth-largest Muslim population in the world, and is the third-largest Muslim-majority country (after Indonesia and Pakistan). Sufism has an extensive heritage in the region. Liberal Bengali Islam sometimes clashes with orthodox movements. The largest gathering of Muslims in Bangladesh is the apolitical Bishwa Ijtema, held annually by the orthodox Tablighi Jamaat. The Ijtema is the second-largest Muslim congregation in the world, after the Hajj. The Islamic Foundation is an autonomous government agency responsible for some religious matters under state guidance, including monitoring of sighting of the moon in accordance with the lunar Islamic calendar in order to set festival dates; as well as the charitable tradition of zakat. Public holidays include the Islamic observances of Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-al-Adha, the Prophet's Birthday, Ashura and Shab-e-Barat. Hinduism is followed by 8.5 per cent of the population; most are Bengali Hindus, and some are members of ethnic minority groups. Bangladeshi Hindus are the country's second-largest religious group and the third-largest Hindu community globally, after those in India and Nepal. Hindus in Bangladesh are evenly distributed, with concentrations in Gopalganj, Dinajpur, Sylhet, Sunamganj, Mymensingh, Khulna, Jessore, Chittagong and parts of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The festivals of Durga's Return and Krishna's Birthday are public holidays. Buddhism is the third-largest religion, at 0.6 per cent. Bangladeshi Buddhists are concentrated among ethnic groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (particularly the Chakma, Marma and Tanchangya peoples). At the same time, coastal Chittagong is home to many Bengali Buddhists. Although Mahayana Buddhism was historically prevalent in the region, Bangladeshi Buddhists today adhere to the Theravada school. Buddha's Birthday is a public holiday. The chief Buddhist priests are based at a monastery in Chittagong. Christianity is the fourth-largest religion, at 0.4 per cent. Roman Catholicism is the largest denomination among Bangladeshi Christians. Bengali Christians are spread across the country. At the same time, there are many Christians among minority ethnic groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (southeastern Bangladesh) and within the Garo tribe of Mymensingh (north-central Bangladesh). The country also has Protestant, Baptist, and Oriental Orthodox churches. Christmas is a public holiday. The Constitution of Bangladesh declares Islam the state religion but bans religion-based politics. It proclaims equal recognition of Hindus, Buddhists, Christians and people of all faiths. In 1972, Bangladesh was South Asia's first constitutionally-secular country. Article 12 of the constitution continues to call for secularism, the elimination of interfaith tensions and prohibits the abuse of religion for political purposes and any discrimination against, or persecution of, persons practising a particular religion. Article 41 of the constitution subjects religious freedom to public order, law and morality; it gives every citizen the right to profess, practise or propagate any religion; every religious community or denomination the right to establish, maintain and manage its religious institutions; and states that no person attending any educational institution shall be required to receive religious instruction, or to take part in or to attend any religious ceremony or worship if that instruction, ceremony or worship relates to a religion other than his own. Education Bangladesh has a heavily flawed education system; with a low literacy rate of 74.7% percent as of 2019: 77.4% for males and 71.9% for females. The country's educational system is three-tiered and heavily subsidised, with the government operating many schools at the primary, secondary and higher secondary levels and subsidising many private schools. In the tertiary education sector, the Bangladeshi government funds over 45 state universities through the University Grants Commission. Despite, the government does not grant free education, and education is not declared a fundamental right in the constitution. The education system is divided into five levels: primary (first to fifth grade), junior secondary (sixth to eighth grade), secondary (ninth and tenth grade), higher secondary (11th and 12th grade), and tertiary. Five years of secondary education (including junior secondary) ends with a Secondary School Certificate (SSC) examination. Since 2009, the Primary Education Closing (PEC) examination has also been introduced. Students who pass the PEC examination proceed to secondary or matriculation training, culminating in the SSC examination. Students who pass the PEC examination proceed to three years of junior secondary education, culminating in the Junior School Certificate (JSC) examination. Students who pass this examination proceed to two years of secondary education, culminating in the SSC examination. Students who pass this examination proceed to two years of higher secondary education, culminating in the Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSC) examination. Universities in Bangladesh are of three general types: public (government-owned and subsidised), private (privately owned universities) and international (operated and funded by international organisations). They are accredited by and affiliated with the University Grants Commission (UGC), created by Presidential Order 10 in 1973. The country has 47 public, 105 private and two international universities; Bangladesh National University has the largest enrollment, and the University of Dhaka (established in 1921) is the oldest. University of Chittagong (established in 1966) is the largest University (Campus: Rural, 2,100 acres (8.5 km2)). Medical education is provided by 29 government and private medical colleges. All medical colleges are affiliated with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Health Healthcare facilities in Bangladesh are considered less than adequate, although they have improved as poverty levels have decreased significantly. Findings from a recent study in Chakaria (a rural upazila under Cox's Bazar District) revealed that the "village doctors", practicing allopathic medicine without formal training, were reported to have provided 65% of the healthcare sought for illness episodes occurring within 14 days prior to the survey. Formally-trained providers made up only four percent of the total health workforce. The Future Health Systems survey indicated significant deficiencies in the treatment practices of village doctors, with widespread harmful and inappropriate drug prescribing. Receiving health care from informal providers is encouraged. A 2007 study of 1,000 households in rural Bangladesh found that direct payments to formal and informal healthcare providers and indirect costs (loss of earnings because of illness) associated with illness were deterrents to accessing healthcare from qualified providers. A community survey of 6,183 individuals in rural Bangladesh found a gender difference in treatment-seeking behaviour, with women less likely to seek treatment than to men. The use of skilled birth attendant (SBA) services, however, rose from 2005 to 2007 among women from all socioeconomic quintiles except the highest. A health watch, a pilot community-empowerment tool, was successfully developed and implemented in south-eastern Bangladesh to improve the uptake and monitoring of public-health services. Bangladesh's poor health conditions are attributed to the lack of healthcare provision by the government. According to a 2010 World Bank report, 2009 healthcare spending was 3.35 percent of the country's GDP. Government spending on healthcare that year was 7.9 percent of the total budget; out-of-pocket expenditures totalled 96.5 percent. According to the government sources, the number of hospital beds is 8 per 10,000 population (as of 2015). Malnutrition has been a persistent problem in Bangladesh, with the World Bank ranking the country first in the number of malnourished children worldwide. More than 54% of preschool-age children are stunted, 56% are underweight and more than 17% are wasted. More than 45 percent of rural families and 76 percent of urban families were below the acceptable caloric-intake level. Culture Visual arts The recorded history of art in Bangladesh can be traced to the 3rd century BCE, when terracotta sculptures were made in the region. In classical antiquity, a notable sculptural Hindu, Jain and Buddhist art developed in the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty. Islamic art has evolved since the 14th century. The architecture of the Bengal Sultanate saw a distinct style of domed mosques with complex niche pillars that had no minarets. Mughal Bengal's most celebrated artistic tradition was the weaving of Jamdani motifs on fine muslin, which is now classified by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage. Jamdani motifs were similar to Iranian textile art (buta motifs) and Western textile art (paisley). The Jamdani weavers in Dhaka received imperial patronage. Ivory and brass were also widely used in Mughal art. Pottery is widely used in Bengali culture. The modern art movement in Bangladesh took shape during the 1950s, particularly with the pioneering works of Zainul Abedin. East Bengal developed its own modernist painting and sculpture traditions, which were distinct from the art movements in West Bengal. The Art Institute Dhaka has been an important centre for visual art in the region. Its annual Bengali New Year parade was enlisted as an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO in 2016. Modern Bangladesh has produced many of South Asia's leading painters, including SM Sultan, Mohammad Kibria, Shahabuddin Ahmed, Kanak Chanpa Chakma, Kafil Ahmed, Saifuddin Ahmed, Qayyum Chowdhury, Rashid Choudhury, Quamrul Hassan, Rafiqun Nabi and Syed Jahangir, among others. Novera Ahmed and Nitun Kundu were the country's pioneers of modernist sculpture. In recent times, photography as a medium of art has become popular. Biennial Chobi Mela is considered the largest photography festival in Asia. Literature The oldest evidence of writing in Bangladesh is the Mahasthan Brahmi Inscription, which dates back to the 3rd century BCE. In the Gupta Empire, Sanskrit literature thrived in the region. Bengali developed from Sanskrit and Magadhi Prakrit in the 8th to 10th century. Bengali literature is a millennium-old tradition; the Charyapadas are the earliest examples of Bengali poetry. Sufi spiritualism inspired many Bengali Muslim writers. During the Bengal Sultanate, medieval Bengali writers were influenced by Arabic and Persian works. The Chandidas are the notable lyric poets from the early Medieval Age. Syed Alaol was the bard of middle Bengali literature. The Bengal Renaissance shaped modern Bengali literature, including novels, short stories and science fiction. Rabindranath Tagore was the first non-European laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature and is described as the Bengali Shakespeare. Kazi Nazrul Islam was a revolutionary poet who espoused political rebellion against colonialism and fascism. Begum Rokeya is regarded as the pioneer feminist writer of Bangladesh. Other renaissance icons included Michael Madhusudan Dutt and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay. The writer Syed Mujtaba Ali is noted for his cosmopolitan Bengali worldview. Jasimuddin was a renowned pastoral poet. Shamsur Rahman and Al Mahmud are considered two of the greatest Bengali poets to have emerged in the 20th century. Farrukh Ahmad, Sufia Kamal, Syed Ali Ahsan, Ahsan Habib, Abul Hussain, Shahid Qadri, Fazal Shahabuddin, Abu Zafar Obaidullah, Omar Ali, Al Mujahidi, Syed Shamsul Huq, Nirmalendu Goon, Abid Azad, Hasan Hafizur Rahman and Abdul Hye Sikder are important figures of modern Bangladeshi poetry. Ahmed Sofa is regarded as the most important Bangladeshi intellectual in the post-independence era. Humayun Ahmed was a popular writer of modern Bangladeshi magical realism and science fiction. Notable writers of Bangladeshi fictions include Mir Mosharraf Hossain, Akhteruzzaman Elias, Alauddin Al Azad, Shahidul Zahir, Rashid Karim, Mahmudul Haque, Syed Waliullah, Shahidullah Kaiser, Shawkat Osman, Selina Hossain, Shahed Ali, Razia Khan, Anisul Hoque, and Abdul Mannan Syed. The annual Ekushey Book Fair and Dhaka Literature Festival, organised by the Bangla Academy, are among the largest literary festivals in South Asia. Women in Bangladesh Although , several women occupied major political office in Bangladesh. Its women continue to live under a patriarchal social regime where violence is common. Whereas in India and Pakistan women participate less in the workforce as their education increases, the reverse is the case in Bangladesh. Bengal has a long history of feminist activism dating back to the 19th century. Begum Rokeya and Faizunnessa Chowdhurani played an important role in emancipating Bengali Muslim women from purdah, before the country's division, as well as promoting girls' education. Several women were elected to the Bengal Legislative Assembly in the British Raj. The first women's magazine, Begum, was published in 1948. In 2008, Bangladeshi female workforce participation stood at 26%. Women dominate blue collar jobs in the Bangladeshi garment industry. Agriculture, social services, healthcare and education are also major occupations for Bangladeshi women, while their employment in white collar positions has steadily increased. Architecture The architectural traditions of Bangladesh have a 2,500-year-old heritage. Terracotta architecture is a distinct feature of Bengal. Pre-Islamic Bengali architecture reached its pinnacle in the Pala Empire, when the Pala School of Sculptural Art established grand structures such as the Somapura Mahavihara. Islamic architecture began developing under the Bengal Sultanate, when local terracotta styles influenced medieval mosque construction. The Sixty Dome Mosque was the largest medieval mosque built in Bangladesh and is a fine example of Turkic-Bengali architecture. The Mughal style replaced indigenous architecture when Bengal became a province of the Mughal Empire and influenced urban housing development. The Kantajew Temple and Dhakeshwari Temple are excellent examples of late medieval Hindu temple architecture. Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, based on Indo-Islamic styles, flourished during the British period. The zamindar gentry in Bangladesh built numerous Indo-Saracenic palaces and country mansions, such as the Ahsan Manzil, Tajhat Palace, Dighapatia Palace, Puthia Rajbari and Natore Rajbari. Bengali vernacular architecture is noted for pioneering the bungalow. Bangladeshi villages consist of thatched roofed houses made of natural materials like mud, straw, wood and bamboo. In modern times, village bungalows are increasingly made of tin. Muzharul Islam was the pioneer of Bangladeshi modern architecture. His varied works set the course of modern architectural practice in the country. Islam brought leading global architects, including Louis Kahn, Richard Neutra, Stanley Tigerman, Paul Rudolph, Robert Boughey and Konstantinos Doxiadis, to work in erstwhile East Pakistan. Louis Kahn was chosen to design the National Parliament Complex in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar. Kahn's monumental designs, combining regional red brick aesthetics, his own concrete and marble brutalism and the use of lakes to represent Bengali geography, are regarded as one of the masterpieces of the 20th century. In more recent times, award-winning architects like Rafiq Azam have set the course of contemporary architecture by adopting influences from the works of Islam and Kahn. Performing arts Theatre in Bangladesh includes various forms with a history dating back to the 4th century CE. It includes narrative forms, song and dance forms, supra-personae forms, performances with scroll paintings, puppet theatre and processional forms. The Jatra is the most popular form of Bengali folk theatre. The dance traditions of Bangladesh include indigenous tribal and Bengali dance forms, as well as classical Indian dances, including the Kathak, Odissi and Manipuri dances. The music of Bangladesh features the Baul mystical tradition, listed by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Fakir Lalon Shah popularised Baul music in the country in the 18th century and it has since been one of the most popular music genera in the country since then. Most modern Bauls are devoted to Lalon Shah. Numerous lyric-based musical traditions, varying from one region to the next, exist, including Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya. Folk music is accompanied by a one-stringed instrument known as the ektara. Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. Bengali classical music includes Tagore songs and Nazrul Sangeet. Bangladesh has a rich tradition of Indian classical music, which uses instruments like the sitar, tabla, sarod and santoor. Sabina Yasmin and Runa Laila are considered the leading playback singers in the modern time, while musician Ayub Bachchu is credited with popularising Bengali rock music in Bangladesh. Textiles The Nakshi Kantha is a centuries-old embroidery tradition for quilts, said to be indigenous to eastern Bengal (i.e. Bangladesh). The sari is the national dress for Bangladeshi women. Mughal Dhaka was renowned for producing the finest Muslin saris, as well as the famed Dhakai and Jamdani, the weaving of which is listed by UNESCO as one of the masterpieces of humanity's intangible cultural heritage. Bangladesh also produces the Rajshahi silk. The shalwar kameez is also widely worn by Bangladeshi women. In urban areas, some women can be seen in western clothing. The kurta and sherwani are the national dress of Bangladeshi men; the lungi and dhoti are worn by them in informal settings. Aside from ethnic wear, domestically tailored suits and neckties are customarily worn by the country's men in offices, in schools and at social events. The handloom industry supplies 60–65% of the country's clothing demand. The Bengali ethnic fashion industry has flourished in the changing environment of the fashion world. The retailer Aarong is one of South Asia's most successful ethnic wear brands. The development of the Bangladesh textile industry, which supplies leading international brands, has promoted the local production and retail of modern Western attire. The country now has a number of expanding local brands like Westecs and Yellow. Bangladesh is the world's second-largest garments exporter. Among Bangladesh's fashion designers, Bibi Russell has received international acclaim for her "Fashion for Development" shows. Cuisine White rice is the staple of Bangladeshi cuisine, along with many vegetables and lentils. Rice preparations also include Bengali biryanis, pulaos, and khichuris. Mustard sauce, ghee, sunflower oil and fruit chutneys are widely used in Bangladeshi cooking. Fish is the main source of protein in Bengali cuisine. The Hilsa is the national fish and immensely popular across Bangladesh. Other kinds of fish eaten include rohu, butterfish, catfish, tilapia and barramundi. Fish eggs are a gourmet delicacy. Seafood holds an important place in Bengali cuisine, especially lobsters, shrimps and dried fish. Meat consumption includes chicken, beef, mutton, venison, duck and squab. In Chittagong, Mezban feasts are a popular tradition featuring the serving of hot beef curry. In Sylhet, the shatkora lemons are used to marinate dishes. In the tribal Hill Tracts, bamboo shoot cooking is prevalent. Bangladesh has a vast spread of desserts, including distinctive sweets like Rôshogolla, Rôshomalai, Chomchom, Mishti Doi and Kalojaam. Pithas are traditional boiled desserts made with rice or fruits. Halwa is served during religious festivities. Naan, paratha, luchi and bakarkhani are the main local breads. Milk tea is offered to guests as a gesture of welcome and is the most common hot beverage in the country. Kebabs are widely popular across Bangladesh, particularly seekh kebabs, chicken tikka and shashliks. Bangladesh shares its culinary heritage with the neighbouring Indian state of West Bengal. The two regions have several differences, however. In Muslim-majority Bangladesh, meat consumption is greater, whereas vegetarianism is more prevalent in Hindu-majority West Bengal. The Bangladeshi diaspora dominates the South Asian restaurant industry in many Western countries, particularly in the United Kingdom. Festivals Pahela Baishakh, the Bengali new year, is the major festival of Bengali culture and sees widespread festivities. Of the major holidays celebrated in Bangladesh, only Pahela Baishakh comes without any pre-existing expectations (specific religious identity, culture of gift-giving, etc.) and has become an occasion for celebrating the simpler, rural roots of the Bengal. Other cultural festivals include Nabonno and Poush Parbon, Bengali harvest festivals. The Muslim festivals of Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, Milad un Nabi, Muharram, Chand Raat, Shab-e-Barat; the Hindu festivals of Durga Puja, Janmashtami and Rath Yatra; the Buddhist festival of Buddha Purnima, which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha, and the Christian festival of Christmas are national holidays in Bangladesh and see the most widespread celebrations in the country. The two Eids are celebrated with a long streak of public holidays and give the city-dwellers opportunity to celebrate the festivals with their families outside the city. Alongside are national days like the remembrance of 21 February 1952 Language Movement Day (declared as International Mother Language Day by UNESCO in 1999), Independence Day and Victory Day. On Language Movement Day, people congregate at the Shaheed Minar in Dhaka to remember the national heroes of the Bengali Language Movement. Similar gatherings are observed at the National Martyrs’ Memorial on Independence Day and Victory Day to remember the national heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War. These occasions are celebrated with public ceremonies, parades, rallies by citizens, political speeches, fairs, concerts, and various other public and private events, celebrating the history and traditions of Bangladesh. TV and radio stations broadcast special programs and patriotic songs. Many schools and colleges organise fairs, festivals, and concerts that draw the participation of citizens from all levels of Bangladeshi society. Sports In rural Bangladesh, several traditional indigenous sports such as Kabaddi, Boli Khela, Lathi Khela and Nouka Baich remain fairly popular. While Kabaddi is the national sport cricket is the most popular sport in the country followed by football. The national cricket team participated in their first Cricket World Cup in 1999 and the following year was granted Test cricket status. Bangladesh reached the quarter-final of the 2015 Cricket World Cup, the semi-final of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy and they reached the final of the Asia Cup 3 times – in 2012, 2016 and 2018. In February 2020, the Bangladesh youth national cricket team won the men's Under-19 Cricket World Cup, held in South Africa. This was Bangladesh's first World Cup victory. Women's sports saw significant progress in the 2010s decade in Bangladesh. In 2018, the Bangladesh women's national cricket team won the 2018 Women's Twenty20 Asia Cup defeating India women's national cricket team in the final. Football is a popular sport in Bangladesh, alongside cricket, and is governed by the Bangladesh Football Federation (BFF). Football tournaments are regularly organised in and outside Dhaka and football fever grips the nation during every FIFA World Cup. The first instance of a Bangladesh national football team was the emergence of the Shadhin Bangla Football Team during the 1971 liberation war. The Shadhin Bangla football team captain Zakaria Pintoo, was the first person to hoist the Bangladesh flag outside the territorial Bangladesh. The national team also participated in the 1980 AFC Asian Cup, becoming only the second South Asian team to do so. Bangladesh women's national football team has also registered some success at regional level, especially the Under-15 and Under-18 teams. Bangladesh archers Ety Khatun and Roman Sana won several gold medals winning all the 10 archery events (both individual, and team events) in the 2019 South Asian Games. The National Sports Council regulates 42 sporting federations. Athletics, swimming, archery, boxing, volleyball, weight-lifting and wrestling and different forms of martial arts remain popular. Chess is very popular in Bangladesh. Bangladesh has five grandmasters in chess. Among them, Niaz Murshed was the first grandmaster in South Asia. In 2010, mountain climber Musa Ibrahim became the first Bangladeshi climber to conquer Mount Everest. He climbed the top of the summit of Mount Everest. Wasfia Nazreen is the first Bangladeshi climber to climb the Seven Summits, which are the highest mountains of each of the seven continents of the world. Bangladesh hosts a number of international tournaments. Bangabandhu Cup is an international football tournament hosted in the country. Bangladesh hosted the South Asian Games several times. In 2011, Bangladesh co-hosted the ICC Cricket World Cup 2011 with India and Sri Lanka. Bangladesh solely hosted the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 championship. Bangladesh hosted the Asia Cup Cricket Tournament in 2000, 2012, 2014 and 2016. Media and cinema The Bangladeshi press is diverse, outspoken and privately owned. Over 200 newspapers are published in the country. Bangladesh Betar is the state-run radio service. The British Broadcasting Corporation operates the popular BBC Bangla news and current affairs service. Bengali broadcasts from Voice of America are also very popular. Bangladesh Television (BTV) is a state-owned television network. More than 20 privately owned television networks, including several news channels. Freedom of the media remains a major concern due to government attempts at censorship and the harassment of journalists. The cinema of Bangladesh dates back to 1898 when films began screening at the Crown Theatre in Dhaka. The first bioscope on the subcontinent was established in Dhaka that year. The Dhaka Nawab Family patronised the production of several silent films in the 1920s and 30s. In 1931, the East Bengal Cinematograph Society released the first full-length feature film in Bangladesh, titled the Last Kiss. The first feature film in East Pakistan, Mukh O Mukhosh, was released in 1956. During the 1960s, 25–30 films were produced annually in Dhaka. By the 2000s, Bangladesh produced 80–100 films a year. While the Bangladeshi film industry has achieved limited commercial success, the country has produced notable independent filmmakers. Zahir Raihan was a prominent documentary-maker assassinated in 1971. The late Tareque Masud is regarded as one of Bangladesh's outstanding directors for his critically acclaimed films on social issues. Masud was honoured by FIPRESCI at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival for his film The Clay Bird. Tanvir Mokammel, Mostofa Sarwar Farooki, Humayun Ahmed, Alamgir Kabir, and Chashi Nazrul Islam are some of the prominent directors of Bangladeshi cinema. Bangladesh has a very active film society culture. It started in 1963 in Dhaka. Now around 40 Film Societies are active all over Bangladesh. Federation of Film Societies of Bangladesh is the parent organisation of the film society movement of Bangladesh. Active film societies include the Rainbow Film Society, Children's Film Society, Moviyana Film Society and Dhaka University Film Society. Museums and libraries The Varendra Research Museum is the oldest museum in Bangladesh. It houses important collections from both the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, including the sculptures of the Pala-Sena School of Art and the Indus Valley Civilisation and Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian manuscripts and inscriptions. The Ahsan Manzil, the former residence of the Nawab of Dhaka, is a national museum housing collections from the British Raj. It was the site of the founding conference of the All India Muslim League and hosted many British Viceroys in Dhaka. The Tajhat Palace Museum preserves artefacts of the rich cultural heritage of North Bengal, including Hindu-Buddhist sculptures and Islamic manuscripts. The Mymensingh Museum houses the personal antique collections of Bengali aristocrats in central Bengal. The Ethnological Museum of Chittagong showcases the lifestyle of various tribes in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh National Museum is located in Ramna, Dhaka and has a rich collection of antiquities. The Liberation War Museum documents the Bangladeshi struggle for independence and the 1971 genocide. In ancient times, manuscripts were written on palm leaves, tree barks, parchment vellum and terracotta plates and preserved at monasteries known as viharas. The Hussain Shahi dynasty established royal libraries during the Bengal Sultanate. Libraries were established in each district of Bengal by the zamindar gentry during the Bengal Renaissance in the 19th century. The trend of establishing libraries continued until the beginning of World War II. In 1854, four major public libraries were opened, including the Bogra Woodburn Library, the Rangpur Public Library, the Jessore Institute Public Library and the Barisal Public Library. The Northbrook Hall Public Library was established in Dhaka in 1882 in honour of Lord Northbrook, the Governor-General. Other libraries established in the British period included the Victoria Public Library, Natore (1901), the Sirajganj Public Library (1882), the Rajshahi Public Library (1884), the Comilla Birchandra Library (1885), the Shah Makhdum Institute Public Library, Rajshahi (1891), the Noakhali Town Hall Public Library (1896), the Prize Memorial Library, Sylhet (1897), the Chittagong Municipality Public Library (1904) and the Varendra Research Library (1910). The Great Bengal Library Association was formed in 1925. The Central Public Library of Dhaka was established in 1959. The National Library of Bangladesh was established in 1972. The World Literature Centre, founded by Ramon Magsaysay Award winner Abdullah Abu Sayeed, is noted for operating numerous mobile libraries across Bangladesh and was awarded the UNESCO Jon, Amos Comenius Medal. See also Index of Bangladesh-related articles Outline of Bangladesh References Cited sources Further reading Ahmed, Nizam. The Parliament of Bangladesh (Routledge, 2018). Baxter, Craig. Bangladesh: From a nation to a state (Routledge, 2018). Hasnat, GN Tanjina, Md Alamgir Kabir, and Md Akhter Hossain. "Major environmental issues and problems of South Asia, particularly Bangladesh." Handbook of environmental materials management (2018): 1-40. online Iftekhar Iqbal (2010) The Bengal Delta: Ecology, State and Social Change, 1840–1943 (Palgrave Macmillan) Islam, Saiful, and Md Ziaur Rahman Khan. "A review of the energy sector of Bangladesh." Energy Procedia 110 (2017): 611–618. online Jannuzi, F. Tomasson, and James T. Peach. The agrarian structure of Bangladesh: An impediment to development (Routledge, 2019). M. Mufakharul Islam (edited) (2004) Socio-Economic History of Bangladesh: essays in memory of Professor Shafiqur Rahman, 1st Edition, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, M. Mufakharul Islam (2007) Bengal Agriculture 1920–1946: A Quantitative Study (Cambridge University Press), Prodhan, Mohit. "The educational system in Bangladesh and scope for improvement." Journal of International Social Issues 4.1 (2016): 11–23. online Riaz, Ali. Bangladesh: A political history since independence (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016). Shelley, Israt J., et al. "Rice cultivation in Bangladesh: present scenario, problems, and prospects." Journal of International Cooperation for Agricultural Development 14.4 (2016): 20–29. online Sirajul Islam (edited) (1997) History of Bangladesh 1704–1971(Three Volumes: Vol 1: Political History, Vol 2: Economic History Vol 3: Social and Cultural History), 2nd Edition (Revised New Edition), The Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Sirajul Islam (Chief Editor) (2003) Banglapedia: A National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh.(10 Vols. Set), (written by 1300 scholars & 22 editors) The Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Van Schendel, Willem. A history of Bangladesh (Cambridge University Press, 2020). External links Government Official Site of Bangladesh Investment Development Authority General information Bangladesh. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Bangladesh from the BBC News Bangladesh from UCB Libraries GovPubs Key Development Forecasts for Bangladesh from International Futures Bengal Bengali-speaking countries and territories Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations Developing 8 Countries member states Former British colonies and protectorates in Asia Least developed countries Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Current member states of the United Nations South Asian countries States and territories established in 1971 1971 establishments in Asia Countries in Asia Geographical articles missing image alternative text

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagpipes

Bagpipes

Bagpipes are a woodwind instrument using enclosed reeds fed from a constant reservoir of air in the form of a bag. The Scottish Great Highland bagpipes are the best known examples in the Anglophone world, but people have played bagpipes for centuries throughout large parts of Europe, Northern Africa, Western Asia, around the Persian Gulf and northern parts of South Asia. The term bagpipe is equally correct in the singular or the plural, though pipers usually refer to the bagpipes as "the pipes", "a set of pipes" or "a stand of pipes". Construction A set of bagpipes minimally consists of an air supply, a bag, a chanter, and usually at least one drone. Many bagpipes have more than one drone (and, sometimes, more than one chanter) in various combinations, held in place in stocks—sockets that fasten the various pipes to the bag. Air supply The most common method of supplying air to the bag is through blowing into a blowpipe or blowstick. In some pipes the player must cover the tip of the blowpipe with their tongue while inhaling, but most blowpipes have a non-return valve that eliminates this need. In recent times, there are many instruments that assist in creating a clean air flow to the pipes and assist the collection of condensation. The use of a bellows to supply air is an innovation dating from the 16th or 17th century. In these pipes, sometimes called "cauld wind pipes," air is not heated or moistened by the player's breathing, so bellows-driven bagpipes can use more refined or delicate reeds. Such pipes include the Irish uilleann pipes; the border or Lowland pipes, Scottish smallpipes, Northumbrian smallpipes and pastoral pipes in Britain; the musette de cour, the musette bechonnet and the cabrette in France; and the Dudy wielkopolskie, koziol bialy and koziol czarny in Poland. Bag The bag is an airtight reservoir that holds air and regulates its flow via arm pressure, allowing the player to maintain continuous, even sound. The player keeps the bag inflated by blowing air into it through a blowpipe or by pumping air into it with a bellows. Materials used for bags vary widely, but the most common are the skins of local animals such as goats, dogs, sheep, and cows. More recently, bags made of synthetic materials including Gore-Tex have become much more common. Synthetic bags have zips that allow the player to fit a more effective moisture trap to the inside of the bag. However, synthetic bags carry risk of colonisation by fungal spores, and the associated danger of lung infection, because they require less cleaning than do bags made from natural substances. Bags cut from larger materials are usually saddle-stitched with an extra strip folded over the seam and stitched (for skin bags) or glued (for synthetic bags) to reduce leaks. Holes are then cut to accommodate the stocks. In the case of bags made from largely intact animal skins, the stocks are typically tied into the points where the limbs and the head joined the body of the whole animal, a construction technique common in Central Europe. Chanter The chanter is the melody pipe, played with two hands. All bagpipes have at least one chanter; some pipes have two chanters, particularly those in North Africa, in the Balkans, and in Southwest Asia. A chanter can be bored internally so that the inside walls are parallel (or "cylindrical") for its full length, or it can be bored in a conical shape. The chanter is usually open-ended, so there is no easy way for the player to stop the pipe from sounding. Thus most bagpipes share a constant legato sound with no rests in the music. Primarily because of this inability to stop playing, technical movements are made to break up notes and to create the illusion of articulation and accents. Because of their importance, these embellishments (or "ornaments") are often highly technical systems specific to each bagpipe, and take many years of study to master. A few bagpipes (such as the musette de cour, the uilleann pipes, the Northumbrian smallpipes, the piva and the left chanter of the surdelina) have closed ends or stop the end on the player's leg, so that when the player "closes" (covers all the holes), the chanter becomes silent. A practice chanter is a chanter without bag or drones, allowing a player to practice the instrument quietly and with no variables other than playing the chanter. The term chanter is derived from the Latin cantare, or "to sing", much like the modern French word chanteur. Chanter reed The note from the chanter is produced by a reed installed at its top. The reed may be a single (a reed with one vibrating tongue) or double reed (of two pieces that vibrate against each other). Double reeds are used with both conical- and parallel-bored chanters while single reeds are generally (although not exclusively) limited to parallel-bored chanters. In general, double-reed chanters are found in pipes of Western Europe while single-reed chanters appear in most other regions. Drone Most bagpipes have at least one drone, a pipe that generally is not fingered but rather produces a constant harmonizing note throughout play (usually the tonic note of the chanter). Exceptions are generally those pipes that have a double-chanter instead. A drone is most commonly a cylindrically bored tube with a single reed, although drones with double reeds exist. The drone is generally designed in two or more parts with a sliding joint so that the pitch of the drone can be adjusted. Depending on the type of pipes, the drones may lie over the shoulder, across the arm opposite the bag, or may run parallel to the chanter. Some drones have a tuning screw, which effectively alters the length of the drone by opening a hole, allowing the drone to be tuned to two or more distinct pitches. The tuning screw may also shut off the drone altogether. In most types of pipes with one drone, it is pitched two octaves below the tonic of the chanter. Additional drones often add the octave below and then a drone consonant with the fifth of the chanter. History Possible ancient origins The evidence for bagpipes prior to the 13th century AD is still uncertain, but several textual and visual clues have been suggested. The Oxford History of Music posits that a sculpture of bagpipes has been found on a Hittite slab at Euyuk in Anatolia, dated to 1000 BC. Another interpretation of this sculpture suggests that it instead depicts a pan flute played along with a friction drum. Several authors identify the ancient Greek (ἀσκός askos – wine-skin, αὐλός aulos – reed pipe) with the bagpipe. In the 2nd century AD, Suetonius described the Roman emperor Nero as a player of the tibia utricularis. Dio Chrysostom wrote in the 1st century of a contemporary sovereign (possibly Nero) who could play a pipe (tibia, Roman reedpipes similar to Greek and Etruscan instruments) with his mouth as well as by tucking a bladder beneath his armpit. Vereno suggests that such instruments, rather than being seen as an independent class, were understood as variants on mouth-blown instruments that used a bag as an alternative blowing aid and that it was not until drones were added in the European Medieval era that bagpipes were seen as a distinct class. Spread and development in Europe In the early part of the second millennium, representation of bagpipes began to appear with frequency in Western European art and iconography. The Cantigas de Santa Maria, written in Galician-Portuguese and compiled in Castile in the mid-13th century, depicts several types of bagpipes. Several illustrations of bagpipes also appear in the Chronique dite de Baudoin d’Avesnes, a 13th-century manuscript of northern French origin. Although evidence of bagpipes in the British Isles prior to the 14th century is contested, they are explicitly mentioned in The Canterbury Tales (written around 1380): Bagpipes were also frequent subjects for carvers of wooden choir stalls in the late 15th and early 16th century throughout Europe, sometimes with animal musicians. Actual specimens of bagpipes from before the 18th century are extremely rare; however, a substantial number of paintings, carvings, engravings and manuscript illuminations survive. These artifacts are clear evidence that bagpipes varied widely throughout Europe, and even within individual regions. Many examples of early folk bagpipes in continental Europe can be found in the paintings of Brueghel, Teniers, Jordaens, and Durer. The earliest known artifact identified as a part of a bagpipe is a chanter found at Rostock in 1985 that has been dated to the late 14th century or the first quarter of the 15th century. The first clear reference to the use of the Scottish Highland bagpipes is from a French history that mentions their use at the Battle of Pinkie in 1547. George Buchanan (1506–82) claimed that bagpipes had replaced the trumpet on the battlefield. This period saw the creation of the ceòl mór (great music) of the bagpipe, which reflected its martial origins, with battle tunes, marches, gatherings, salutes and laments. The Highlands of the early 17th century saw the development of piping families including the MacCrimmonds, MacArthurs, MacGregors and the Mackays of Gairloch. The first probable reference to the Irish bagpipe is from 1544, a mention attributing their use to Irish troops in Henry VIII's siege of Boulogne. Illustrations in the 1581 book The Image of Irelande by John Derricke clearly depict a bagpiper. Derricke's illustrations are considered to be reasonably faithful depictions of the attire and equipment of the English and Irish population of the 16th century. The "Battell" sequence from My Ladye Nevells Booke (1591) by William Byrd, which probably alludes to the Irish wars of 1578, contains a piece entitled The bagpipe: & the drone. In 1760, the first serious study of the Scottish Highland bagpipe and its music was attempted in Joseph MacDonald's Compleat Theory. A manuscript from the 1730s by a William Dixon of Northumberland contains music that fits the border pipes, a nine-note bellows-blown bagpipe with a chanter similar to that of the modern Great Highland bagpipe. However, the music in Dixon's manuscript varied greatly from modern Highland bagpipe tunes, consisting mostly of extended variation sets of common dance tunes. Some of the tunes in the Dixon manuscript correspond to those found in the early 19th century manuscript sources of Northumbrian smallpipe tunes, notably the rare book of 50 tunes, many with variations, by John Peacock. As Western classical music developed, both in terms of musical sophistication and instrumental technology, bagpipes in many regions fell out of favour because of their limited range and function. This triggered a long, slow decline that continued, in most cases, into the 20th century. Extensive and documented collections of traditional bagpipes may be found at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, the International Bagpipe Museum in Gijón, Spain, the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford, England and the Morpeth Chantry Bagpipe Museum in Northumberland, and the Musical Instrument Museum in Phoenix, Arizona. The International Bagpipe Festival is held every two years in Strakonice, Czech Republic. Recent history During the expansion of the British Empire, spearheaded by British military forces that included Highland regiments, the Scottish Great Highland bagpipe became well-known worldwide. This surge in popularity was boosted by large numbers of pipers trained for military service in World War I and World War II. This coincided with a decline in the popularity of many traditional forms of bagpipe throughout Europe, which began to be displaced by instruments from the classical tradition and later by gramophone and radio. In the United Kingdom and Commonwealth Nations such as Canada, New Zealand and Australia, the Great Highland bagpipe is commonly used in the military and is often played during formal ceremonies. Foreign militaries patterned after the British army have also adopted the Highland bagpipe, including those of Uganda, Sudan, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Jordan, and Oman. Many police and fire services in Scotland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, and the United States have also adopted the tradition of fielding pipe bands. In recent years, often driven by revivals of native folk music and dance, many types of bagpipes have enjoyed a resurgence in popularity and, in many cases, instruments that had fallen into obscurity have become extremely popular. In Brittany, the Great Highland bagpipe and concept of the pipe band were appropriated to create a Breton interpretation known as the bagad. The pipe-band idiom has also been adopted and applied to the Galician gaita as well. Bagpipes have often been used in various films depicting moments from Scottish and Irish history; the film Braveheart and the theatrical show Riverdance have served to make the uilleann pipes more commonly known. Bagpipes are sometimes played at formal events at Commonwealth universities, particularly in Canada. Because of Scottish influences on the sport of curling, bagpipes are also the official instrument of the World Curling Federation and are commonly played during a ceremonial procession of teams before major curling championships. Bagpipe making was once a craft that produced instruments in many distinctive, local and traditional styles. Today, the world's largest producer of the instrument is Pakistan, where the industry was worth $6.8 million in 2010. In the late 20th century, various models of electronic bagpipes were invented. The first custom-built MIDI bagpipes were developed by the Asturian piper known as Hevia (José Ángel Hevia Velasco). Astronaut Kjell N. Lindgren is thought to be the first person to play the bagpipes in outer space, having played "Amazing Grace" in tribute to late research scientist Victor Hurst aboard the International Space Station in November 2015. Traditionally, one of the purposes of the bagpipe was to provide music for dancing. This has declined with the growth of dance bands, recordings, and the decline of traditional dance. In turn, this has led to many types of pipes developing a performance-led tradition, and indeed much modern music based on the dance music tradition played on bagpipes is suitable for use as dance music. Modern usage Types of bagpipes Numerous types of bagpipes today are widely spread across Europe and the Middle East, as well as through much of the former British Empire. The name bagpipe has almost become synonymous with its best-known form, the Great Highland bagpipe, overshadowing the great number and variety of traditional forms of bagpipe. Despite the decline of these other types of pipes over the last few centuries, in recent years many of these pipes have seen a resurgence or revival as musicians have sought them out; for example, the Irish piping tradition, which by the mid 20th century had declined to a handful of master players is today alive, well, and flourishing a situation similar to that of the Asturian gaita, the Galician gaita, the Portuguese gaita transmontana, the Aragonese gaita de boto, Northumbrian smallpipes, the Breton biniou, the Balkan gaida, the Romanian cimpoi, the Black Sea tulum, the Scottish smallpipes and pastoral pipes, as well as other varieties. Image gallery Usage in non-traditional music Since the 1960s, bagpipes have also made appearances in other forms of music, including rock, metal, jazz, hip-hop, punk, and classical music, for example with Paul McCartney's "Mull of Kintyre", AC/DC's "It's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock 'n' Roll)", and Peter Maxwell Davies's composition An Orkney Wedding, with Sunrise. Publications Periodicals Periodicals covering specific types of bagpipes are addressed in the article for that bagpipe . . . . . . Books . , 147 pp. with plates. . . . See also List of bagpipes List of bagpipers List of pipe makers List of pipe bands List of published bagpipe music List of nontraditional bagpipe usage List of composers who employed pipe music Glossary of bagpipe terms Practice chanter References External links Bagpipe iconography – Paintings and images of the pipes. Musiconis Database of Medieval Musical Iconography: Bagpipe. A demonstration of rare instruments including bagpipes The Concise History of the Bagpipe by Frank J. Timoney The Bagpipe Society, dedicated to promoting the study, playing, and making of bagpipes and pipes from around the world Bagpipes from polish collections (Polish folk musical instruments) Bagpipes (local polish name "Koza") played by Jan Karpiel-Bułecka (English subtitles) Official site of Baghet (bagpipe from North Italy) players. Celtic Music : Scottish Military Bagpipes. Articles containing video clips

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado

Colorado

Colorado (, other variants) is a state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It encompasses most of the Southern Rocky Mountains, as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains. Colorado is the eighth most extensive and 21st most populous U.S. state. The 2020 United States Census enumerated the population of Colorado at 5,773,714, an increase of 14.80% since the 2010 United States Census. The region has been inhabited by Native Americans for more than 13,000 years, with the Lindenmeier Site containing artifacts dating from approximately 9200 BC to 1000 BC; the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains was a major migration route for early peoples who spread throughout the Americas. "Colorado" is the Spanish adjective meaning "ruddy", the color of red sandstone. The Territory of Colorado was organized on February 28, 1861, and on August 1, 1876, U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant signed Proclamation 230 admitting Colorado to the Union as the 38th state. Colorado is nicknamed the "Centennial State" because it became a state one century after the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence. Colorado is bordered by Wyoming to the north, Nebraska to the northeast, Kansas to the east, Oklahoma to the southeast, New Mexico to the south, Utah to the west, and touches Arizona to the southwest at the Four Corners. Colorado is noted for its vivid landscape of mountains, forests, high plains, mesas, canyons, plateaus, rivers, and desert lands. Colorado is one of the Mountain States, and is a part of the western and southwestern United States. Denver is the capital and most populous city in Colorado. Residents of the state are known as Coloradans, although the antiquated "Coloradoan" is occasionally used. Colorado is a comparatively wealthy state, ranking eighth in household income in 2016, and 11th in per capita income in 2010. It also ranks highly in the nation's standard of living index. Major parts of the economy include government and defense, mining, agriculture, tourism, and increasingly other kinds of manufacturing. With increasing temperatures and decreasing water availability, Colorado's agriculture, forestry, and tourism economies are expected to be heavily affected by climate change. History The region that is today the State of Colorado has been inhabited by Native Americans for more than 13,000 years. The Lindenmeier Site in Larimer County contains artifacts dating from approximately 11200 BC to 3000 BC. The eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains was a major migration route that was important to the spread of early peoples throughout the Americas. The Ancient Pueblo peoples lived in the valleys and mesas of the Colorado Plateau. The Ute Nation inhabited the mountain valleys of the Southern Rocky Mountains and the Western Rocky Mountains, even as far east as the Front Range of present day. The Apache and the Comanche also inhabited Eastern and Southeastern parts of the state. At times, the Arapaho Nation and the Cheyenne Nation moved west to hunt across the High Plains. The Spanish Empire claimed Colorado as part of its New Mexico province prior to U.S. involvement in the region. The U.S. acquired a territorial claim to the eastern Rocky Mountains with the Louisiana Purchase from France in 1803. This U.S. claim conflicted with the claim by Spain to the upper Arkansas River Basin as the exclusive trading zone of its colony of Santa Fe de Nuevo México. In 1806, Zebulon Pike led a U.S. Army reconnaissance expedition into the disputed region. Colonel Pike and his men were arrested by Spanish cavalrymen in the San Luis Valley the following February, taken to Chihuahua, and expelled from Mexico the following July. The U.S. relinquished its claim to all land south and west of the Arkansas River and south of 42nd parallel north and west of the 100th meridian west as part of its purchase of Florida from Spain with the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819. The treaty took effect February 22, 1821. Having settled its border with Spain, the U.S. admitted the southeastern portion of the Territory of Missouri to the Union as the state of Missouri on August 10, 1821. The remainder of Missouri Territory, including what would become northeastern Colorado, became unorganized territory, and remained so for 33 years over the question of slavery. After 11 years of war, Spain finally recognized the independence of Mexico with the Treaty of Córdoba signed on August 24, 1821. Mexico eventually ratified the Adams-Onís Treaty in 1831. The Texian Revolt of 1835–36 fomented a dispute between the U.S. and Mexico which eventually erupted into the Mexican–American War in 1846. Mexico surrendered its northern territory to the U.S. with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo at the conclusion of the war in 1848. Most American settlers traveling overland west to the Oregon Country, the new goldfields of California, or the new Mormon settlements of the State of Deseret in the Salt Lake Valley, avoided the rugged Southern Rocky Mountains, and instead followed the North Platte River and Sweetwater River to South Pass (Wyoming), the lowest crossing of the Continental Divide between the Southern Rocky Mountains and the Central Rocky Mountains. In 1849, the Mormons of the Salt Lake Valley organized the extralegal State of Deseret, claiming the entire Great Basin and all lands drained by the rivers Green, Grand, and Colorado. The federal government of the U.S. flatly refused to recognize the new Mormon government, because it was theocratic and sanctioned plural marriage. Instead, the Compromise of 1850 divided the Mexican Cession and the northwestern claims of Texas into a new state and two new territories, the state of California, the Territory of New Mexico, and the Territory of Utah. On April 9, 1851, Mexican American settlers from the area of Taos settled the village of San Luis, then in the New Mexico Territory, later to become Colorado's first permanent Euro-American settlement. In 1854, Senator Stephen A. Douglas persuaded the U.S. Congress to divide the unorganized territory east of the Continental Divide into two new organized territories, the Territory of Kansas and the Territory of Nebraska, and an unorganized southern region known as the Indian territory. Each new territory was to decide the fate of slavery within its boundaries, but this compromise merely served to fuel animosity between free soil and pro-slavery factions. The gold seekers organized the Provisional Government of the Territory of Jefferson on August 24, 1859, but this new territory failed to secure approval from the Congress of the United States embroiled in the debate over slavery. The election of Abraham Lincoln for the President of the United States on November 6, 1860, led to the secession of nine southern slave states and the threat of civil war among the states. Seeking to augment the political power of the Union states, the Republican Party-dominated Congress quickly admitted the eastern portion of the Territory of Kansas into the Union as the free State of Kansas on January 29, 1861, leaving the western portion of the Kansas Territory, and its gold-mining areas, as unorganized territory. Territory act Thirty days later on February 28, 1861, outgoing U.S. President James Buchanan signed an Act of Congress organizing the free Territory of Colorado. The original boundaries of Colorado remain unchanged except for government survey amendments. The name Colorado was chosen because it was commonly believed that the Colorado River originated in the territory. In 1776, Spanish priest Silvestre Vélez de Escalante recorded that Native Americans in the area knew the river as el Rio Colorado for the red-brown silt that the river carried from the mountains. In 1859, a U.S. Army topographic expedition led by Captain John Macomb located the confluence of the Green River with the Grand River in what is now Canyonlands National Park in Utah. The Macomb party designated the confluence as the source of the Colorado River. On April 12, 1861, South Carolina artillery opened fire on Fort Sumter to start the American Civil War. While many gold seekers held sympathies for the Confederacy, the vast majority remained fiercely loyal to the Union cause. In 1862, a force of Texas cavalry invaded the Territory of New Mexico and captured Santa Fe on March 10. The object of this Western Campaign was to seize or disrupt the gold fields of Colorado and California and to seize ports on the Pacific Ocean for the Confederacy. A hastily organized force of Colorado volunteers force-marched from Denver City, Colorado Territory, to Glorieta Pass, New Mexico Territory, in an attempt to block the Texans. On March 28, the Coloradans and local New Mexico volunteers stopped the Texans at the Battle of Glorieta Pass, destroyed their cannon and supply wagons, and dispersed 500 of their horses and mules. The Texans were forced to retreat to Santa Fe. Having lost the supplies for their campaign and finding little support in New Mexico, the Texans abandoned Santa Fe and returned to San Antonio in defeat. The Confederacy made no further attempts to seize the Southwestern United States. In 1864, Territorial Governor John Evans appointed the Reverend John Chivington as Colonel of the Colorado Volunteers with orders to protect white settlers from Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors who were accused of stealing cattle. Colonel Chivington ordered his men to attack a band of Cheyenne and Arapaho encamped along Sand Creek. Chivington reported that his troops killed more than 500 warriors. The militia returned to Denver City in triumph, but several officers reported that the so-called battle was a blatant massacre of Indians at peace, that most of the dead were women and children, and that bodies of the dead had been hideously mutilated and desecrated. Three U.S. Army inquiries condemned the action, and incoming President Andrew Johnson asked Governor Evans for his resignation, but none of the perpetrators was ever punished. This event is now known as the Sand Creek massacre. In the midst and aftermath of the Civil War, many discouraged prospectors returned to their homes, but a few stayed and developed mines, mills, farms, ranches, roads, and towns in Colorado Territory. On September 14, 1864, James Huff discovered silver near Argentine Pass, the first of many silver strikes. In 1867, the Union Pacific Railroad laid its tracks west to Weir, now Julesburg, in the northeast corner of the Territory. The Union Pacific linked up with the Central Pacific Railroad at Promontory Summit, Utah, on May 10, 1869, to form the First Transcontinental Railroad. The Denver Pacific Railway reached Denver in June the following year, and the Kansas Pacific arrived two months later to forge the second line across the continent. In 1872, rich veins of silver were discovered in the San Juan Mountains on the Ute Indian reservation in southwestern Colorado. The Ute people were removed from the San Juans the following year. Statehood The United States Congress passed an enabling act on March 3, 1875, specifying the requirements for the Territory of Colorado to become a state. On August 1, 1876 (four weeks after the Centennial of the United States), U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant signed a proclamation admitting Colorado to the Union as the 38th state and earning it the moniker "Centennial State". The discovery of a major silver lode near Leadville in 1878 triggered the Colorado Silver Boom. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 invigorated silver mining, and Colorado's last, but greatest, gold strike at Cripple Creek a few months later lured a new generation of gold seekers. Colorado women were granted the right to vote on November 7, 1893, making Colorado the second state to grant universal suffrage and the first one by a popular vote (of Colorado men). The repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in 1893 led to a staggering collapse of the mining and agricultural economy of Colorado, but the state slowly and steadily recovered. Between the 1880s and 1930s, Denver's floriculture industry developed into a major industry in Colorado. This period became known locally as the Carnation Gold Rush. Twentieth and twenty-first centuries Poor labor conditions and discontent among miners resulted in several major clashes between strikers and the Colorado National Guard, including the 1903–1904 Western Federation of Miners Strike and Colorado Coalfield War, the latter of which included the Ludlow massacre that killed a dozen women and children. Both the 1913–1914 Coalfield War and the Denver streetcar strike of 1920 resulted in federal troops intervening to end the violence. In 1927, the Columbine Mine massacre resulted in six dead strikers following a confrontation with Colorado Rangers. More than 5,000 Colorado miners—many immigrants—are estimated to have died in accidents since records began to be formally collected following an accident in Crested Butte that killed 59 in 1884. In 1924, the Ku Klux Klan Colorado Realm achieved dominance in Colorado politics. With peak membership levels, the Second Klan levied significant control over both the local and state Democrat and Republican parties, particularly in the governor's office and city governments of Denver, Cañon City, and Durango. A particularly strong element of the Klan controlled the Denver Police. Cross burnings became semi-regular occurrences in cities such as Florence and Pueblo. The Klan targeted African-Americans, Catholics, Eastern European immigrants, and other non-White Protestant groups. Efforts by non-Klan lawmen and lawyers including Philip Van Cise lead to a rapid decline in the organization's power, with membership waning significantly by the end of the 1920s. Colorado became the first western state to host a major political convention when the Democratic Party met in Denver in 1908. By the U.S. Census in 1930, the population of Colorado first exceeded one million residents. Colorado suffered greatly through the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl of the 1930s, but a major wave of immigration following World War II boosted Colorado's fortune. Tourism became a mainstay of the state economy, and high technology became an important economic engine. The United States Census Bureau estimated that the population of Colorado exceeded five million in 2009. On September 11, 1957, a plutonium fire occurred at the Rocky Flats Plant, which resulted in the significant plutonium contamination of surrounding populated areas. From the 1940s and 1970s, many protest movements gained momentum in Colorado, predominantly in Denver. This included the Chicano Movement, a civil rights and social movement of Mexican Americans emphasizing a Chicano identity that is widely considered to have begun in Denver. The First National Chicano Liberation Youth Conference was held in Colorado in March 1969. In 1967, Colorado was the first state to loosen restrictions on abortion when governor John Love signed a law allowing abortions in cases of rape, incest, or threats to the woman's mental or physical health. Many states followed Colorado's lead in loosening abortion laws in the 1960s and 1970s. Since the late 1990s, Colorado has been the site of multiple major mass shootings, including the infamous Columbine High School massacre in 1999 which made international news, where Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold killed 12 students and one teacher, before committing suicide.The incident has since spawned many copycat incidents. On July 20, 2012, a gunman killed 12 people in a movie theater in Aurora. The state responded with tighter restrictions on firearms, including introducing a limit on magazine capacity. On March 22, 2021, a gunman killed 10 people, including a police officer, in a King Soopers supermarket in Boulder. Four warships of the U.S. Navy have been named the USS Colorado. The first USS Colorado was named for the Colorado River and served in the Civil War and later the Asiatic Squadron, where it was attacked during the 1871 Korean Expedition. The later three ships were named in honor of the state, the including an armored cruiser and the battleship USS Colorado, the latter of which was the lead ship of her class and served in World War II in the Pacific beginning in 1941. At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor, the battleship USS Colorado was located at the naval base in San Diego, California, and thus went unscathed. The most recent vessel to bear the name USS Colorado is Virginia-class submarine USS Colorado (SSN-788), which was commissioned in 2018. Geography Colorado is notable for its diverse geography, which includes alpine mountains, high plains, deserts with huge sand dunes, and deep canyons. In 1861, the United States Congress defined the boundaries of the new Territory of Colorado exclusively by lines of latitude and longitude, stretching from 37°N to 41°N latitude, and from 102°02′48″W to 109°02′48″W longitude (25°W to 32°W from the Washington Meridian). After years of government surveys, the borders of Colorado were officially defined by 697 boundary markers and 697 straight boundary lines. Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah are the only states that have their borders defined solely by straight boundary lines with no natural features. The southwest corner of Colorado is the Four Corners Monument at 36°59′56″N, 109°2′43″W. The Four Corners Monument, located at the place where Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah meet, is the only place in the United States where four states meet. Plains Approximately half of Colorado is flat and rolling land. East of the Rocky Mountains are the Colorado Eastern Plains of the High Plains, the section of the Great Plains within Nebraska at elevations ranging from roughly . The Colorado plains are mostly prairies but also include deciduous forests, buttes, and canyons. Precipitation averages annually. Eastern Colorado is presently mainly farmland and rangeland, along with small farming villages and towns. Corn, wheat, hay, soybeans, and oats are all typical crops. Most villages and towns in this region boast both a water tower and a grain elevator. Irrigation water is available from both surface and subterranean sources. Surface water sources include the South Platte, the Arkansas River, and a few other streams. Subterranean water is generally accessed through artesian wells. Heavy usage of these wells for irrigation purposes caused underground water reserves to decline in the region. Eastern Colorado also hosts a considerable amount and range of livestock, such as cattle ranches and hog farms. Front Range Roughly 70% of Colorado's population resides along the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains in the Front Range Urban Corridor between Cheyenne, Wyoming, and Pueblo, Colorado. This region is partially protected from prevailing storms that blow in from the Pacific Ocean region by the high Rockies in the middle of Colorado. The "Front Range" includes Denver, Boulder, Fort Collins, Loveland, Castle Rock, Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Greeley, and other townships and municipalities in between. On the other side of the Rockies, the significant population centers in Western Colorado (which is not considered the "Front Range") are the cities of Grand Junction, Durango, and Montrose. Mountains To the west of the Great Plains of Colorado rises the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. Notable peaks of the Rocky Mountains include Longs Peak, Mount Evans, Pikes Peak, and the Spanish Peaks near Walsenburg, in southern Colorado. This area drains to the east and the southeast, ultimately either via the Mississippi River or the Rio Grande into the Gulf of Mexico. The Rocky Mountains within Colorado contain 53 true peaks with a total of 58 that are or higher in elevation above sea level, known as fourteeners. These mountains are largely covered with trees such as conifers and aspens up to the tree line, at an elevation of about in southern Colorado to about in northern Colorado. Above this tree line only alpine vegetation grows. Only small parts of the Colorado Rockies are snow-covered year-round. Much of the alpine snow melts by mid-August with the exception of a few snow-capped peaks and a few small glaciers. The Colorado Mineral Belt, stretching from the San Juan Mountains in the southwest to Boulder and Central City on the front range, contains most of the historic gold- and silver-mining districts of Colorado. Mount Elbert is the highest summit of the Rocky Mountains. The 30 highest major summits of the Rocky Mountains of North America all lie within the state. The summit of Mount Elbert at elevation in Lake County is the highest point in Colorado and the Rocky Mountains of North America. Colorado is the only U.S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters elevation. The point where the Arikaree River flows out of Yuma County, Colorado, and into Cheyenne County, Kansas, is the lowest point in Colorado at elevation. This point, which is the highest low elevation point of any state, is higher than the high elevation points of 18 states and the District of Columbia. Continental Divide The Continental Divide of the Americas extends along the crest of the Rocky Mountains. The area of Colorado to the west of the Continental Divide is called the Western Slope of Colorado. West of the Continental Divide, water flows to the southwest via the Colorado River and the Green River into the Gulf of California. Within the interior of the Rocky Mountains are several large parks which are high broad basins. In the north, on the east side of the Continental Divide is the North Park of Colorado. The North Park is drained by the North Platte River, which flows north into Wyoming and Nebraska. Just to the south of North Park, but on the western side of the Continental Divide, is the Middle Park of Colorado, which is drained by the Colorado River. The South Park of Colorado is the region of the headwaters of the South Platte River. South Central region In south central Colorado is the large San Luis Valley, where the headwaters of the Rio Grande are located. The valley sits between the Sangre De Cristo Mountains and San Juan Mountains, and consists of large desert lands that eventually run into the mountains. The Rio Grande drains due south into New Mexico, Mexico, and Texas. Across the Sangre de Cristo Range to the east of the San Luis Valley lies the Wet Mountain Valley. These basins, particularly the San Luis Valley, lie along the Rio Grande Rift, a major geological formation of the Rocky Mountains, and its branches. Colorado Western Slope The Western Slope area of Colorado includes the western face of the Rocky Mountains and all of the state to the western border. This area includes several terrains and climates from alpine mountains to arid deserts. The Western Slope includes many ski resort towns in the Rocky Mountains and towns west of the mountains. It is less populous than the Front Range but includes a large number of national parks and monuments. From west to east, the land of Colorado consists of desert lands, desert plateaus, alpine mountains, National Forests, relatively flat grasslands, scattered forests, buttes, and canyons in the western edge of the Great Plains. The famous Pikes Peak is located just west of Colorado Springs. Its isolated peak is visible from nearly the Kansas border on clear days, and also far to the north and the south. The northwestern corner of Colorado is a sparsely populated region, and it contains part of the noted Dinosaur National Monument, which not only is a paleontological area, but is also a scenic area of rocky hills, canyons, arid desert, and streambeds. Here, the Green River briefly crosses over into Colorado. Desert lands in Colorado are located in and around areas such as the Pueblo, Canon City, Florence, Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve, San Luis Valley, Cortez, Canyon of the Ancients National Monument, Hovenweep National Monument, Ute Mountain, Delta, Grand Junction, Colorado National Monument, and other areas surrounding the Uncompahgre Plateau and Uncompahgre National Forest. The Western Slope of Colorado is drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries (primarily the Gunnison River, Green River, and the San Juan River), or by evaporation in its arid areas. The Colorado River flows through Glenwood Canyon, and then through an arid valley made up of desert from Rifle to Parachute, through the desert canyon of De Beque Canyon, and into the arid desert of Grand Valley, where the city of Grand Junction is located. Also prominent in or near the southern portion of the Western Slope are the Grand Mesa, which lies to the southeast of Grand Junction; the high San Juan Mountains, a rugged mountain range; and to the west of the San Juan Mountains, the Colorado Plateau, a high arid region that borders Southern Utah. Grand Junction, Colorado is the largest city on the Western Slope. Grand Junction and Durango are the only major centers of television broadcasting west of the Continental Divide in Colorado, though most mountain resort communities publish daily newspapers. Grand Junction is located along Interstate 70, the only major highway in Western Colorado. Grand Junction is also along the major railroad of the Western Slope, the Union Pacific. This railroad also provides the tracks for Amtrak's California Zephyr passenger train, which crosses the Rocky Mountains between Denver and Grand Junction via a route on which there are no continuous highways. The Western Slope includes multiple notable destinations in the Colorado Rocky Mountains, including Glenwood Springs, with its resort hot springs, and the ski resorts of Aspen, Breckenridge, Vail, Crested Butte, Steamboat Springs, and Telluride. Higher education in and near the Western Slope can be found at Colorado Mesa University in Grand Junction, Western Colorado University in Gunnison, Fort Lewis College in Durango, and Colorado Mountain College in Glenwood Springs and Steamboat Springs. The Four Corners Monument in the southwest corner of Colorado marks the common boundary of Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah; the only such place in the United States. Climate The climate of Colorado is more complex than states outside of the Mountain States region. Unlike most other states, southern Colorado is not always warmer than northern Colorado. Most of Colorado is made up of mountains, foothills, high plains, and desert lands. Mountains and surrounding valleys greatly affect local climate. Northeast, east, and southeast Colorado are mostly the high plains, while Northern Colorado is a mix of high plains, foothills, and mountains. Northwest and west Colorado are predominantly mountainous, with some desert lands mixed in. Southwest and southern Colorado are a complex mixture of desert and mountain areas. Eastern Plains The climate of the Eastern Plains is semi-arid (Köppen climate classification: BSk) with low humidity and moderate precipitation, usually from annually, although many areas near the rivers is semi-humid climate. The area is known for its abundant sunshine and cool, clear nights, which give this area a great average diurnal temperature range. The difference between the highs of the days and the lows of the nights can be considerable as warmth dissipates to space during clear nights, the heat radiation not being trapped by clouds. The Front Range urban corridor, where most of the population of Colorado resides, lies in a pronounced precipitation shadow as a result of being on the lee side of the Rocky Mountains. In summer, this area can have many days above 95 °F (35 °C) and often 100 °F (38 °C). On the plains, the winter lows usually range from 25 to −10 °F (−4 to −23 °C). About 75% of the precipitation falls within the growing season, from April to September, but this area is very prone to droughts. Most of the precipitation comes from thunderstorms, which can be severe, and from major snowstorms that occur in the winter and early spring. Otherwise, winters tend to be mostly dry and cold. In much of the region, March is the snowiest month. April and May are normally the rainiest months, while April is the wettest month overall. The Front Range cities closer to the mountains tend to be warmer in the winter due to Chinook winds which warm the area, sometimes bringing temperatures of 70 °F (21 °C) or higher in the winter. The average July temperature is 55 °F (13 °C) in the morning and 90 °F (32 °C) in the afternoon. The average January temperature is 18 °F (−8 °C) in the morning and 48 °F (9 °C) in the afternoon, although variation between consecutive days can be 40 °F (20 °C). Front Range foothills Just west of the plains and into the foothills, there are a wide variety of climate types. Locations merely a few miles apart can experience entirely different weather depending on the topography. Most valleys have a semi-arid climate not unlike the eastern plains, which transitions to an alpine climate at the highest elevations. Microclimates also exist in local areas that run nearly the entire spectrum of climates, including subtropical highland (Cfb/Cwb), humid subtropical (Cfa), humid continental (Dfa/Dfb), Mediterranean (Csa/Csb) and subarctic (Dfc). Extreme weather Extreme weather changes are common in Colorado, although a significant portion of the extreme weather occurs in the least populated areas of the state. Thunderstorms are common east of the Continental Divide in the spring and summer, yet are usually brief. Hail is a common sight in the mountains east of the Divide and across the eastern Plains, especially the northeast part of the state. Hail is the most commonly reported warm-season severe weather hazard, and occasionally causes human injuries, as well as significant property damage. The eastern Plains are subject to some of the biggest hail storms in North America. Notable examples are the severe hailstorms that hit Denver on July 11, 1990 and May 8, 2017, the latter being the costliest ever in the state. The Eastern Plains are part of the extreme western portion of Tornado Alley; some damaging tornadoes in the Eastern Plains include the 1990 Limon F3 tornado and the 2008 Windsor EF3 tornado, which devastated the small town. Portions of the eastern Plains see especially frequent tornadoes, both those spawned from mesocyclones in supercell thunderstorms and from less intense landspouts, such as within the Denver convergence vorticity zone (DCVZ). The Plains are also susceptible to occasional floods and particularly severe flash floods, which are caused both by thunderstorms and by the rapid melting of snow in the mountains during warm weather. Notable examples include the 1965 Denver Flood, the Big Thompson River flooding of 1976 and the 2013 Colorado floods. Hot weather is common during summers in Denver. The city's record in 1901 for the number of consecutive days above 90 °F (32 °C) was broken during the summer of 2008. The new record of 24 consecutive days surpassed the previous record by almost a week. Much of Colorado is very dry, with the state averaging only of precipitation per year statewide. The state rarely experiences a time when some portion is not in some degree of drought. The lack of precipitation contributes to the severity of wildfires in the state, such as the Hayman Fire of 2002. Other notable fires include the Fourmile Canyon Fire of 2010, the Waldo Canyon Fire and High Park Fire of June 2012, and the Black Forest Fire of June 2013. Even these fires were exceeded in severity by the Pine Gulch Fire, Cameron Peak Fire and East Troublesome Fire in 2020, all being the three largest fires in Colorado history (see 2020 Colorado wildfires). And the Marshall Fire which started on December 30, 2021, while not the largest in state history, was the most destructive ever in terms of property loss (see 2021–2022 Boulder County fires). However, some of the mountainous regions of Colorado receive a huge amount of moisture from winter snowfalls. The spring melts of these snows often cause great waterflows in the Yampa River, the Colorado River, the Rio Grande, the Arkansas River, the North Platte River, and the South Platte River. Water flowing out of the Colorado Rocky Mountains is a very significant source of water for the farms, towns, and cities of the southwest states of New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada, as well as the Midwest, such as Nebraska and Kansas, and the southern states of Oklahoma and Texas. A significant amount of water is also diverted for use in California; occasionally (formerly naturally and consistently), the flow of water reaches northern Mexico. Climate change Records The highest official ambient air temperature ever recorded in Colorado was on July 20, 2019, at John Martin Dam. The lowest official air temperature was on February 1, 1985, at Maybell. Earthquakes Despite its mountainous terrain, Colorado is relatively quiet seismically. The U.S. National Earthquake Information Center is located in Golden. On August 22, 2011, a 5.3 magnitude earthquake occurred west-southwest of the city of Trinidad. There were no casualties and only a small amount of damage was reported. It was the second-largest earthquake in Colorado's history. A magnitude 5.7 earthquake was recorded in 1973. In early morning hours of August 24, 2018, four minor earthquakes rattled Colorado, ranging from magnitude 2.9 to 4.3. Colorado has recorded 525 earthquakes since 1973, a majority of which range 2 to 3.5 on the Richter scale. Fauna A process of extirpation by trapping and poisoning of the gray wolf (Canis lupus) from Colorado in the 1930s saw the last wild wolf in the state shot in 1945. A wolf pack recolonized Moffat County, Colorado in northwestern Colorado in 2019. Cattle farmers have expressed concern that a returning wolf population potentially threatens their herds. Coloradoans voted to reintroduce gray wolves in 2020, with the state committing to a plan to have a population in the state by 2022 and permitting non-lethal methods of driving off wolves attacking livestock and pets. While there is fossil evidence of Harrington's mountain goat in Colorado between at least 800,000 years ago and its extinction with megafauna roughly 11,000 years ago, the mountain goat is not native to Colorado but was instead introduced to the state over time during the interval between 1947 and 1972. Despite being an artificially-introduced species, the state declared mountain goats a native species in 1993. In 2013, 2014, and 2019, an unknown illness killed nearly all mountain goat kids, leading to a Colorado Parks and Wildlife investigation. The native population of pronghorn in Colorado has varied wildly over the last century, reaching a low of only 15,000 individuals during the 1960s. However, conservation efforts succeeded in bring the stable population back up to roughly 66,000 by 2013. The population was estimated to have reached 85,000 by 2019 and had increasingly more run-ins with the increased suburban housing along the eastern Front Range. State wildlife officials suggested that landowners would need to modify fencing to allow the greater number of pronghorn to move unabated through the newly developed land. Pronghorns are most readily found in the northern and eastern portions of the state, with some populations also in the western San Juan Mountains. Common wildlife found in the mountains of Colorado include mule deer, southwestern red squirrel, golden-mantled ground squirrel, yellow-bellied marmot, moose, American pika, and red fox, all at exceptionally high numbers, though moose are not native to the state. The foothills include deer, fox squirrel, desert cottontail, mountain cottontail, and coyote. The prairies are home to black-tailed prairie dog, the endangered swift fox, American badger, and white-tailed jackrabbit. Administrative divisions Counties The State of Colorado is divided into 64 counties. Counties are important units of government in Colorado since the state has no secondary civil subdivisions such as townships. Two of these counties, the City and County of Denver and the City and County of Broomfield, have consolidated city and county governments. The most populous county in Colorado is El Paso County, the home of the City of Colorado Springs. The second most populous county is the City and County of Denver, the state capital. Nine Colorado counties have a population in excess of 250,000 each, while eight Colorado counties have a population of less than 2,500 each. The ten most populous Colorado counties are all located in the Front Range Urban Corridor. Mesa County is the most populous county in the Colorado Western Slope. Municipalities The State of Colorado currently has 272 active incorporated municipalities, including 197 towns, 73 cities, and two consolidated city and county governments. Colorado municipalities operate under one of five types of municipal governing authority. Colorado currently has two consolidated city and county governments, 61 home rule cities, 12 statutory cities, 35 home rule towns, 161 statutory towns, and one territorial charter municipality. The 16 most populous Colorado municipalities are all located in the Front Range Urban Corridor. The City of Grand Junction is the most populous municipality in the Colorado Western Slope. The Town of Carbonate has had no year-round population since the 1890 Census. Unincorporated communities In addition to its 272 municipalities, Colorado has 210 unincorporated census-designated places and many other small communities. Special districts The State of Colorado has more than 3,000 districts with taxing authority. These districts may provide schools, law enforcement, fire protection, water, sewage, drainage, irrigation, transportation, recreation, infrastructure, cultural facilities, business support, redevelopment, or other services. Some of these districts have authority to levy sales tax and well as property tax and use fees. This has led to a hodgepodge of sales tax and property tax rates in Colorado. There are some street intersections in Colorado with a different sales tax rate on each corner, sometimes substantially different. Some of the more notable Colorado districts are: The Regional Transportation District (RTD), which affects the counties of Denver, Boulder, Jefferson, and portions of Adams, Arapahoe, Broomfield, and Douglas Counties The Scientific and Cultural Facilities District (SCFD), a special regional tax district with physical boundaries contiguous with county boundaries of Adams, Arapahoe, Boulder, Broomfield, Denver, Douglas, and Jefferson Counties It is a 0.1% retail sales and use tax (one penny on every $10). According to the Colorado statute, the SCFD distributes the money to local organizations on an annual basis. These organizations must provide for the enlightenment and entertainment of the public through the production, presentation, exhibition, advancement or preservation of art, music, theater, dance, zoology, botany, natural history or cultural history. As directed by statute, SCFD recipient organizations are currently divided into three "tiers" among which receipts are allocated by percentage. Tier I includes regional organizations: the Denver Art Museum, the Denver Botanic Gardens, the Denver Museum of Nature and Science, the Denver Zoo, and the Denver Center for the Performing Arts. It receives 65.5%. Tier II currently includes 26 regional organizations. Tier II receives 21%. Tier III has more than 280 local organizations such as small theaters, orchestras, art centers, and natural history, cultural history, and community groups. Tier III organizations apply for funding to the county cultural councils via a grant process. This tier receives 13.5%. An 11-member board of directors oversees the distributions in accordance with the Colorado Revised Statutes. Seven board members are appointed by county commissioners (in Denver, the Denver City Council) and four members are appointed by the Governor of Colorado. The Football Stadium District (FD or FTBL), approved by the voters to pay for and help build the Denver Broncos' stadium Empower Field at Mile High. Local Improvement Districts (LID) within designated areas of Jefferson and Broomfield counties. The Metropolitan Major League Baseball Stadium District, approved by voters to pay for and help build the Colorado Rockies' stadium Coors Field. Regional Transportation Authority (RTA) taxes at varying rates in Basalt, Carbondale, Glenwood Springs, Gunnison County. Statistical areas Most recently on March 6, 2020, the Office of Management and Budget defined 21 statistical areas for Colorado comprising four combined statistical areas, seven metropolitan statistical areas, and ten micropolitan statistical areas. The most populous of the seven metropolitan statistical areas in Colorado is the 10-county Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area with a population of 2,963,821 at the 2020 United States Census, an increase of +15.29% since the 2010 Census. The more extensive 12-county Denver-Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had a population of 3,623,560 at the 2020 Census, an increase of +17.23% since the 2010 Census. The most populous extended metropolitan region in Rocky Mountain Region is the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor along the northeast face of the Southern Rocky Mountains. This region with Denver at its center had a population of 5,055,344 at the 2020 Census, an increase of +16.65% since the 2010 Census. Demographics The 2020 United States Census enumerated the population of the State of Colorado at 5,773,714, an increase of 14.80% since the 2010 United States Census. The largest future increases are expected in the Front Range Urban Corridor. People of Hispanic and Latino American (of any race made) heritage made up 20.7% of the population. According to the 2000 Census, the largest ancestry groups in Colorado are German (22%) including of Swiss and Austrian nationalities, Mexican (18%), Irish (12%), and English (12%). Persons reporting German ancestry are especially numerous in the Front Range, the Rockies (west-central counties), and Eastern parts/High Plains. Colorado has a high proportion of Hispanic, mostly Mexican-American, citizens in Metropolitan Denver, Colorado Springs, as well as the smaller cities of Greeley and Pueblo, and elsewhere. Southern, Southwestern, and Southeastern Colorado has a large number of Hispanos, the descendants of the early settlers of colonial Spanish origin. In 1940, the Census Bureau reported Colorado's population as 8.2% Hispanic and 90.3% non-Hispanic white. The Hispanic population of Colorado has continued to grow quickly over the past decades. By 2019, Hispanics made up 22% of Colorado's population, and Non-Hispanic Whites made up 70%. Spoken English in Colorado has many Spanish idioms. Colorado also has some large African-American communities located in Denver, in the neighborhoods of Montbello, Five Points, Whittier, and many other East Denver areas. The state has sizable numbers of Asian-Americans of Mongolian, Chinese, Filipino, Korean, Southeast Asian, and Japanese descent. The highest population of Asian Americans can be found on the south and southeast side of Denver, as well as some on Denver's southwest side. The Denver metropolitan area is considered more liberal and diverse than much of the state when it comes to political issues and environmental concerns. There were a total of 70,331 births in Colorado in 2006. (Birth rate of 14.6 per thousand.) In 2007, non-Hispanic whites were involved in 59.1% of all the births. Some 14.06% of those births involved a non-Hispanic white person and someone of a different race, most often with a couple including one Hispanic. A birth where at least one Hispanic person was involved counted for 43% of the births in Colorado. As of the 2010 census, Colorado has the seventh highest percentage of Hispanics (20.7%) in the U.S. behind New Mexico (46.3%), California (37.6%), Texas (37.6%), Arizona (29.6%), Nevada (26.5%), and Florida (22.5%). Per the 2000 census, the Hispanic population is estimated to be 918,899 or approximately 20% of the state total population. Colorado has the 5th-largest population of Mexican-Americans, behind California, Texas, Arizona, and Illinois. In percentages, Colorado has the 6th-highest percentage of Mexican-Americans, behind New Mexico, California, Texas, Arizona, and Nevada. Birth data In 2011, 46% of Colorado's population younger than the age of one were minorities, meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. Note: Births in table don't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number. Since 2016, data for births of White Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in one Hispanic group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. In 2017, Colorado recorded the second-lowest fertility rate in the United States outside of New England, after Oregon, at 1.63 children per woman. Significant, contributing factors to the decline in pregnancies were the Title X Family Planning Program and an intrauterine device grant from Warren Buffett's family. Language English, the official language of the state, is the most commonly spoken language in Colorado, followed by Spanish. One Native American language still spoken in Colorado is the Colorado River Numic language also known as the Ute dialect. Religion Major religious affiliations of the people of Colorado are 64% Christian, of whom there are 44% Protestant, 16% Roman Catholic, 3% Mormon, and 1% Eastern Orthodox. Other religious breakdowns are 1% Jewish, 1% Muslim, 1% Buddhist and 4% other. The religiously unaffiliated make up 29% of the population. The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Catholic Church with 811,630; multi-denominational Evangelical Protestants with 229,981; and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 151,433. Our Lady of Guadalupe Catholic Church was the first permanent Catholic parish in modern-day Colorado and was constructed by Spanish colonists from New Mexico in modern-day Conejos. Latin Church Catholics are served by three dioceses: the Archdiocese of Denver and the Dioceses of Colorado Springs and Pueblo. The first permanent settlement by members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Colorado arrived from Mississippi and initially camped along the Arkansas River just east of the present-day site of Pueblo. Health Colorado is generally considered among the healthiest states by behavioral and healthcare researchers. Among the positive contributing factors is the state's well-known outdoor recreation opportunities and initiatives. However, there is a stratification of health metrics with wealthier counties such as Douglas and Pitkin performing significantly better relative to southern, less wealthy counties such as Huerfano and Las Animas. Obesity According to several studies, Coloradans have the lowest rates of obesity of any state in the US. , 24% of the population was considered medically obese, and while the lowest in the nation, the percentage had increased from 17% in 2004. Life expectancy According to a report in the Journal of the American Medical Association, residents of Colorado had a 2014 life expectancy of 80.21 years, the longest of any U.S. state. Economy Total employment (2019): 2,473,192 Number of employer establishments: 174,258 CNBC's list of "Top States for Business for 2010" has recognized Colorado as the third-best state in the nation, falling short only to Texas and Virginia. The total state product in 2015 was $318.6 billion. Median Annual Household Income in 2016 was $70,666, 8th in the nation. Per capita personal income in 2010 was $51,940, ranking Colorado 11th in the nation. The state's economy broadened from its mid-19th-century roots in mining when irrigated agriculture developed, and by the late 19th century, raising livestock had become important. Early industry was based on the extraction and processing of minerals and agricultural products. Current agricultural products are cattle, wheat, dairy products, corn, and hay. The federal government is also a major economic force in the state with many important federal facilities including NORAD (North American Aerospace Defense Command), United States Air Force Academy, Schriever Air Force Base located approximately 10 miles (16 kilometers) east of Peterson Air Force Base, and Fort Carson, both located in Colorado Springs within El Paso County; NOAA, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in Golden, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology in Boulder; U.S. Geological Survey and other government agencies at the Denver Federal Center near Lakewood; the Denver Mint, Buckley Space Force Base, the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals, and the Byron G. Rogers Federal Building and United States Courthouse in Denver; and a federal Supermax Prison and other federal prisons near Cañon City. In addition to these and other federal agencies, Colorado has abundant National Forest land and four National Parks that contribute to federal ownership of of land in Colorado, or 37% of the total area of the state. In the second half of the 20th century, the industrial and service sectors have expanded greatly. The state's economy is diversified, and is notable for its concentration of scientific research and high-technology industries. Other industries include food processing, transportation equipment, machinery, chemical products, the extraction of metals such as gold (see Gold mining in Colorado), silver, and molybdenum. Colorado now also has the largest annual production of beer of any state. Denver is an important financial center. The state's diverse geography and majestic mountains attract millions of tourists every year, including 85.2 million in 2018. Tourism contributes greatly to Colorado's economy, with tourists generating $22.3 billion in 2018. A number of nationally known brand names have originated in Colorado factories and laboratories. From Denver came the forerunner of telecommunications giant Qwest in 1879, Samsonite luggage in 1910, Gates belts and hoses in 1911, and Russell Stover Candies in 1923. Kuner canned vegetables began in Brighton in 1864. From Golden came Coors beer in 1873, CoorsTek industrial ceramics in 1920, and Jolly Rancher candy in 1949. CF&I railroad rails, wire, nails, and pipe debuted in Pueblo in 1892. Holly Sugar was first milled from beets in Holly in 1905, and later moved its headquarters to Colorado Springs. The present-day Swift packed meat of Greeley evolved from Monfort of Colorado, Inc., established in 1930. Estes model rockets were launched in Penrose in 1958. Fort Collins has been the home of Woodward Governor Company's motor controllers (governors) since 1870, and Waterpik dental water jets and showerheads since 1962. Celestial Seasonings herbal teas have been made in Boulder since 1969. Rocky Mountain Chocolate Factory made its first candy in Durango in 1981. Colorado has a flat 4.63% income tax, regardless of income level. On November 3, 2020, voters authorized an initiative to lower that income tax rate to 4.55 percent. Unlike most states, which calculate taxes based on federal adjusted gross income, Colorado taxes are based on taxable income—income after federal exemptions and federal itemized (or standard) deductions. Colorado's state sales tax is 2.9% on retail sales. When state revenues exceed state constitutional limits, according to Colorado's Taxpayer Bill of Rights legislation, full-year Colorado residents can claim a sales tax refund on their individual state income tax return. Many counties and cities charge their own rates, in addition to the base state rate. There are also certain county and special district taxes that may apply. Real estate and personal business property are taxable in Colorado. The state's senior property tax exemption was temporarily suspended by the Colorado Legislature in 2003. The tax break was scheduled to return for assessment year 2006, payable in 2007. , the state's unemployment rate was 4.2%. The West Virginia teachers' strike in 2018 inspired teachers in other states, including Colorado, to take similar action. Natural resources Colorado has significant hydrocarbon resources. According to the Energy Information Administration, Colorado hosts seven of the Nation's hundred largest natural gas fields, and two of its hundred largest oil fields. Conventional and unconventional natural gas output from several Colorado basins typically account for more than five percent of annual U.S. natural gas production. Colorado's oil shale deposits hold an estimated of oil—nearly as much oil as the entire world's proven oil reserves; the economic viability of the oil shale, however, has not been demonstrated. Substantial deposits of bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite coal are found in the state. Uranium mining in Colorado goes back to 1872, when pitchblende ore was taken from gold mines near Central City, Colorado. Not counting byproduct uranium from phosphate, Colorado is considered to have the third-largest uranium reserves of any U.S. state, behind Wyoming and New Mexico. When Colorado and Utah dominated radium mining from 1910 to 1922, uranium and vanadium were the byproducts (giving towns like present-day Superfund site Uravan their names). Uranium price increases from 2001 to 2007 prompted a number of companies to revive uranium mining in Colorado. During the 1940s, certain communities–including Naturita and Paradox–earned the moniker of "yellowcake towns" from their relationship with uranium mining. Price drops and financing problems in late 2008 forced these companies to cancel or scale back uranium-mining project. As of 2016, there were no major uranium mining operations in the state, though plans existed to restart production. Corn grown in the flat eastern part of the state offers potential resources for ethanol production. Electricity generation Colorado's high Rocky Mountain ridges and eastern plains offer wind power potential, and geologic activity in the mountain areas provides potential for geothermal power development. Much of the state is sunny, and could produce solar power. Major rivers flowing from the Rocky Mountains offer hydroelectric power resources. Culture Arts and film List of museums in Colorado List of theaters in Colorado Music of Colorado A number of film productions have shot on location in Colorado, especially prominent Westerns like True Grit, The Searchers, and Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. A number of historic military forts, railways with trains still operating, mining ghost towns have been used and transformed for historical accuracy in well known films. There are also a number of scenic highways and mountain passes that helped to feature the open road in films such as Vanishing Point, Bingo and Starman. Some Colorado landmarks have been featured in films, such as The Stanley Hotel in Dumb and Dumber and The Shining and the Sculptured House in Sleeper. In 2015, Furious 7 was to film driving sequences on Pikes Peak Highway in Colorado. The TV series Good Luck Charlie was set, but not filmed, in Denver, Colorado. The Colorado Office of Film and Television has noted that more than 400 films have been shot in Colorado. There are also a number of established film festivals in Colorado, including Aspen Shortsfest, Boulder International Film Festival, Castle Rock Film Festival, Denver Film Festival, Festivus Film Festival, Mile High Horror Film Festival, Moondance International Film Festival, Mountainfilm in Telluride, Rocky Mountain Women's Film Festival, and Telluride Film Festival. Many notable writers have lived or spent extended periods of time in Colorado. Beat Generation writers Jack Kerouac and Neal Cassady lived in and around Denver for several years each. Irish playwright Oscar Wilde visited Colorado on his tour of the United States in 1882, writing in his 1906 Impressions of America that Leadville was "the richest city in the world. It has also got the reputation of being the roughest, and every man carries a revolver." Cuisine Colorado is known for its Southwest and Rocky Mountain cuisine. Mexican restaurants are prominent throughout the state. Boulder was named America's Foodiest Town 2010 by Bon Appétit. Boulder, and Colorado in general, is home to a number of national food and beverage companies, top-tier restaurants and farmers' markets. Boulder also has more Master Sommeliers per capita than any other city, including San Francisco and New York. Denver is known for steak, but now has a diverse culinary scene with many restaurants. Polidori Sausage is a brand of pork products available in supermarkets, which originated in Colorado, in the early 20th century. The Food & Wine Classic is held annually each June in Aspen. Aspen also has a reputation as the culinary capital of the Rocky Mountain region. Wine and beer Colorado wines include award-winning varietals that have attracted favorable notice from outside the state. With wines made from traditional Vitis vinifera grapes along with wines made from cherries, peaches, plums and honey, Colorado wines have won top national and international awards for their quality. Colorado's grape growing regions contain the highest elevation vineyards in the United States, with most viticulture in the state practiced between above sea level. The mountain climate ensures warm summer days and cool nights. Colorado is home to two designated American Viticultural Areas of the Grand Valley AVA and the West Elks AVA, where most of the vineyards in the state are located. However, an increasing number of wineries are located along the Front Range. In 2018, Wine Enthusiast Magazine named Colorado's Grand Valley AVA in Mesa County, Colorado, as one of the Top Ten wine travel destinations in the world. Colorado is home to many nationally praised microbreweries, including New Belgium Brewing Company, Odell Brewing Company, Great Divide Brewing Company, and Bristol Brewing Company. The area of northern Colorado near and between the cities of Denver, Boulder, and Fort Collins is known as the "Napa Valley of Beer" due to its high density of craft breweries. Marijuana and hemp Colorado is open to cannabis (marijuana) tourism. With the adoption of the 64th state amendment in 2012, Colorado became the first state in the union to legalize marijuana for medicinal (2000), industrial (referring to hemp, 2012), and recreational (2012) use. Colorado's marijuana industry sold $1.31 billion worth of marijuana in 2016 and $1.26 billion in the first three-quarters of 2017. The state generated tax, fee, and license revenue of $194 million in 2016 on legal marijuana sales. Colorado regulates hemp as any part of the plant with less than 0.3% THC. On April 4, 2014, Senate Bill 14–184 addressing oversight of Colorado's industrial hemp program was first introduced, ultimately being signed into law by Governor John Hickenlooper on May 31, 2014. Medicinal use On November 7, 2000, 54% of Colorado voters passed Amendment 20, which amends the Colorado State constitution to allow the medical use of marijuana. A patient's medical use of marijuana, within the following limits, is lawful: (I) No more than of a usable form of marijuana; and (II) No more than twelve marijuana plants, with six or fewer being mature, flowering plants that are producing a usable form of marijuana. Currently Colorado has listed "eight medical conditions for which patients can use marijuana—cancer, glaucoma, HIV/AIDS, muscle spasms, seizures, severe pain, severe nausea and cachexia, or dramatic weight loss and muscle atrophy". While governor, John Hickenlooper allocated about half of the state's $13 million "Medical Marijuana Program Cash Fund" to medical research in the 2014 budget. By 2018, the Medical Marijuana Program Cash Fund was the "largest pool of pot money in the state" and was used to fund programs including research into pediatric applications for controlling autism symptoms. Recreational use On November 6, 2012, voters amended the state constitution to protect "personal use" of marijuana for adults, establishing a framework to regulate marijuana in a manner similar to alcohol. The first recreational marijuana shops in Colorado, and by extension the United States, opened their doors on January 1, 2014. Sports Colorado has five major professional sports leagues, all based in the Denver metropolitan area. Colorado is the least populous state with a franchise in each of the major professional sports leagues. The Colorado Springs Snow Sox professional baseball team is based in Colorado Springs. The team is a member of the Pecos League, an independent baseball league which is not affiliated with Major or Minor League Baseball. The Pikes Peak International Hill Climb is a major hillclimbing motor race held at the Pikes Peak Highway. The Cherry Hills Country Club has hosted several professional golf tournaments, including the U.S. Open, U.S. Senior Open, U.S. Women's Open, PGA Championship and BMW Championship. Professional sports teams College athletics The following universities and colleges participate in the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I. The most popular college sports program is the University of Colorado Buffaloes, who used to play in the Big-12 but now play in the Pac-12. They have won the 1957 and 1991 Orange Bowl, 1995 Fiesta Bowl, and 1996 Cotton Bowl Classic. Transportation Colorado's primary mode of transportation (in terms of passengers) is its highway system. Interstate 25 (I-25) is the primary north–south highway in the state, connecting Pueblo, Colorado Springs, Denver, and Fort Collins, and extending north to Wyoming and south to New Mexico. I-70 is the primary east–west corridor. It connects Grand Junction and the mountain communities with Denver, and enters Utah and Kansas. The state is home to a network of US and Colorado highways that provide access to all principal areas of the state. Many smaller communities are connected to this network only via county roads. Denver International Airport (DIA) is the fifth-busiest domestic U.S. airport and twentieth busiest airport in the world by passenger traffic. DIA handles by far the largest volume of commercial air traffic in Colorado, and is the busiest U.S. hub airport between Chicago and the Pacific coast, making Denver the most important airport for connecting passenger traffic in the western United States. Extensive public transportation bus services are offered both intra-city and inter-city—including the Denver metro area's extensive RTD services. The Regional Transportation District (RTD) operates the popular RTD Bus & Rail transit system in the Denver Metropolitan Area. the RTD rail system had 170 light-rail vehicles, serving of track. Amtrak operates two passenger rail lines in Colorado, the California Zephyr and Southwest Chief. Colorado's contribution to world railroad history was forged principally by the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad which began in 1870 and wrote the book on mountain railroading. In 1988 the "Rio Grande" acquired, but was merged into, the Southern Pacific Railroad by their joint owner Philip Anschutz. On September 11, 1996, Anschutz sold the combined company to the Union Pacific Railroad, creating the largest railroad network in the United States. The Anschutz sale was partly in response to the earlier merger of Burlington Northern and Santa Fe which formed the large Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway (BNSF), Union Pacific's principal competitor in western U.S. railroading. Both Union Pacific and BNSF have extensive freight operations in Colorado. Colorado's freight railroad network consists of 2,688 miles of Class I trackage. It is integral to the U.S. economy, being a critical artery for the movement of energy, agriculture, mining, and industrial commodities as well as general freight and manufactured products between the East and Midwest and the Pacific coast states. In August 2014, Colorado began to issue driver licenses to aliens not lawfully in the United States who lived in Colorado. In September 2014, KCNC reported that 524 non-citizens were issued Colorado driver licenses that are normally issued to U.S. citizens living in Colorado. Government State government Like the federal government and all other U.S. states, Colorado's state constitution provides for three branches of government: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial branches. The Governor of Colorado heads the state's executive branch. The current governor is Jared Polis, a Democrat. Colorado's other statewide elected executive officers are the Lieutenant Governor of Colorado (elected on a ticket with the Governor), Secretary of State of Colorado, Colorado State Treasurer, and Attorney General of Colorado, all of whom serve four-year terms. The seven-member Colorado Supreme Court is the state's highest court, with seven justices. The Colorado Court of Appeals, with 22 judges, sits in divisions of three judges each. Colorado is divided into 22 judicial districts, each of which has a district court and a county court with limited jurisdiction. The state also has specialized water courts, which sit in seven distinct divisions around the state and which decide matters relating to water rights and the use and administration of water. The state legislative body is the Colorado General Assembly, which is made up of two houses – the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House has 65 members and the Senate has 35. , the Democratic Party holds a 20 to 15 majority in the Senate and a 41 to 24 majority in the House. Most Coloradans are native to other states (nearly 60% according to the 2000 census), and this is illustrated by the fact that the state did not have a native-born governor from 1975 (when John David Vanderhoof left office) until 2007, when Bill Ritter took office; his election the previous year marked the first electoral victory for a native-born Coloradan in a gubernatorial race since 1958 (Vanderhoof had ascended from the Lieutenant Governorship when John Arthur Love was given a position in Richard Nixon's administration in 1973). Tax is collected by the Colorado Department of Revenue. Politics Colorado was once considered a swing state, but more recently has swung into a relatively safe blue state in both state and federal elections. In presidential elections, it had not been won until 2020 by double digits since 1984, and has backed the winning candidate in 9 of the last 11 elections. Coloradans have elected 17 Democrats and 12 Republicans to the governorship in the last 100 years. In presidential politics, Colorado was considered a reliably Republican state during the post-World War II era, voting for the Democratic candidate only in 1948, 1964, and 1992. However, it became a competitive swing state in the 1990s. Since the mid-2000s, it has swung heavily to the Democrats, voting for Barack Obama in 2008 and 2012, Hillary Clinton in 2016 and Joe Biden in 2020. Colorado politics has the contrast of conservative cities such as Colorado Springs and Grand Junction and liberal cities such as Boulder and Denver. Democrats are strongest in metropolitan Denver, the college towns of Fort Collins and Boulder, southern Colorado (including Pueblo), and a number of western ski resort counties. The Republicans are strongest in the Eastern Plains, Colorado Springs, Greeley, and far Western Colorado near Grand Junction. Colorado is represented by two United States Senators: United States Senate Class 2, John Hickenlooper (Democratic) 2021– United States Senate Class 3, Michael Bennet (Democratic) 2009– Colorado is represented by seven Representatives to the United States House of Representatives: Colorado's 1st congressional district, Diana DeGette (Democratic) 1997– Colorado's 2nd congressional district, Joe Neguse (Democratic) 2019– Colorado's 3rd congressional district, Lauren Boebert (Republican) 2021– Colorado's 4th congressional district, Ken Buck (Republican) 2015– Colorado's 5th congressional district, Doug Lamborn (Republican) 2007– Colorado's 6th congressional district, Jason Crow (Democratic) 2019– Colorado's 7th congressional district, Ed Perlmutter (Democratic) 2007– In a 2020 study, Colorado was ranked as the 7th easiest state for citizens to vote in. Significant initiatives and legislation enacted in Colorado In 1881 Colorado voters approved a referendum that selected Denver as the state capital. Colorado was the first state in the union to enact, by voter referendum, a law extending suffrage to women. That initiative was approved by the state's voters on November 7, 1893. On the November 8, 1932, ballot, Colorado approved the repeal of alcohol prohibition more than a year before the Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified. Colorado has banned, via C.R.S. section 12-6-302, the sale of motor vehicles on Sunday since at least 1953. In 1972 Colorado voters rejected a referendum proposal to fund the 1976 Winter Olympics, which had been scheduled to be held in the state. Denver had been chosen by the International Olympic Committee as host city on May 12, 1970. In 1992, by a margin of 53 to 47 percent, Colorado voters approved an amendment to the state constitution (Amendment 2) that would have prevented any city, town, or county in the state from taking any legislative, executive, or judicial action to recognize homosexuals or bisexuals as a protected class. In 1996, in a 6–3 ruling in Romer v. Evans, the U.S. Supreme Court found that preventing protected status based upon homosexuality or bisexuality did not satisfy the Equal Protection Clause. In 2006 voters passed Amendment 43, which purported to ban gay marriage in Colorado. That initiative was nullified by the U.S. Supreme Court's 2015 decision in Obergefell v. Hodges. In 2012, voters amended the state constitution protecting "personal use" of marijuana for adults, establishing a framework to regulate cannabis in a manner similar to alcohol. The first recreational marijuana shops in Colorado, and by extension the United States, opened their doors on January 1, 2014. On May 29, 2019, Governor Jared Polis signed House Bill 1124 immediately prohibiting law enforcement officials in Colorado from holding undocumented immigrants solely on the basis of a request from U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. On June 14, 2006, the United States mint released the 38th of 50 state quarters authorized by Public Law 105-124, the Colorado State Quarter. Later, in 2014, the United States mint released the 24th Quarter in the America The Beautiful Quarters Program, the Colorado Great Sand Dunes National Park Quarter. Education The first institution of higher education in the Colorado Territory was the Colorado Seminary, opened on November 16, 1864, by the Methodist Episcopal Church. The seminary closed in 1867, but reopened in 1880 as the University of Denver. In 1870, the Bishop George Maxwell Randall of the Episcopal Missionary District of Colorado and Parts Adjacent opened the first of what become the Colorado University Schools which would include the Territorial School of Mines opened in 1873 and sold to the Colorado Territory in 1874. These schools were initially run by the Episcopal Church. An 1861 territorial act called for the creation of a public university in Boulder, though it would not be until 1876 that the University of Colorado was founded. The 1876 act also renamed Territorial School of Mines as the Colorado School of Mines. An 1870 territorial act created the Agricultural College of Colorado which opened in 1879. The college was renamed the Colorado State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts in 1935, and became Colorado State University in 1957. The first Catholic college in Colorado was the Jesuit Sacred Heart College, which was founded in New Mexico in 1877, moved to Morrison in 1884, and to Denver in 1887. The college was renamed Regis College in 1921 and Regis University in 1991. On April 1, 1924, armed students patrolled the campus after a burning cross was found, the climax of tensions between Regis College and the locally-powerful Ku Klux Klan. Following a 1950 assessment by the Service Academy Board, it was determined that there was a need to supplement the U.S. Military and Naval Academies with a third school that would provide commissioned officers for the newly independent Air Force. On April 1, 1954, President Dwight Eisenhower signed a law that moved for the creation of a U.S. Air Force Academy. Later that year, Colorado Springs was selected to host the new institution. From its establishment in 1955 until the construction of appropriate facilities in Colorado Springs were completed and opened in 1958, the Air Force Academy operated out of Lowry Air Force Base in Denver. With the opening of the Colorado Springs facility, the cadets moved to the new campus, though not in the full-kit march that some urban and campus legends suggest. The first class of Space Force officers from the Air Force Academy commissioned on April 18, 2020. Adams State University Aims Community College Arapahoe Community College Belleview Christian College & Bible Seminary Colorado Christian University Colorado College Colorado Mesa University Colorado Mountain College Colorado Northwestern Community College Colorado School of Mines Colorado State University System Colorado State University Colorado State University Pueblo CSU–Global Campus Colorado Technical University Community College of Aurora Community College of Denver Denver Seminary DeVry University Emily Griffith Opportunity School Fort Lewis College Front Range Community College Iliff School of Theology Johnson & Wales University Lamar Community College Metropolitan State University of Denver Morgan Community College Naropa University Nazarene Bible College Northeastern Junior College Otero College Pikes Peak Community College Pueblo Community College Red Rocks Community College Regis University Rocky Mountain College of Art and Design Rocky Vista University College of Osteopathic Medicine Trinidad State College United States Air Force Academy University of Colorado System University of Colorado Boulder University of Colorado Colorado Springs University of Colorado Denver Anschutz Medical Campus Auraria Campus University of Denver University of Northern Colorado Western Colorado University Military installations The major military installations in Colorado include: Buckley Space Force Base Air Reserve Personnel Center Fort Carson (U.S. Army) Piñon Canyon Maneuver Site Peterson Space Force Base Cheyenne Mountain Space Force Station Pueblo Chemical Depot (U.S. Army) Schriever Space Force Base United States Air Force Academy Former military posts in Colorado include: Spanish Fort (1819–1821) Fort Massachusetts (1852–1858) Fort Garland (1858–1883) Camp Collins (1862–1870) Fort Logan (1887–1946) Fitzsimons Army Hospital (1918–1999) Denver Medical Depot (1925-1949) Lowry Air Force Base (1938–1994) Pueblo Army Air Base (1941-1948) Rocky Mountain Arsenal (1942-1992) Camp Hale (1942–1945) La Junta Army Air Field (1942-1946) Leadville Army Air Field (1943-1944) Colorado National Guard Armory (1913-1933) Native American reservations The two Native American reservations remaining in Colorado are: Southern Ute Indian Reservation — Southern Ute Indian Tribe (1873; Ute dialect: Kapuuta-wa Moghwachi Núuchi-u) Ute Mountain Ute Indian Reservation — Ute Mountain Ute Tribe (1940; Ute dialect: Wʉgama Núuchi) The two abolished Indian reservations in Colorado were: Cheyenne and Arapaho Indian Reservation (1851–1870) Ute Indian Reservation (1855–1873) Protected areas Colorado is home to 4 national parks, 8 national monuments, 2 national historic sites, 2 national recreation areas, 4 national historic trails, 1 national scenic trail, 11 national forests, 2 national grasslands, 44 national wildernesses, 3 national conservation areas, 8 national wildlife refuges, 3 national heritage areas, 26 national historic landmarks, 16 national natural landmarks, more than 1,500 National Register of Historic Places, 1 wild and scenic river, 42 state parks, 307 state wildlife areas, 93 state natural areas, 28 national recreation trails, 6 regional trails, and numerous other scenic, historic, and recreational areas. The following are the 21 units of the National Park System in Colorado: Arapaho National Recreation Area Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park Browns Canyon National Monument California National Historic Trail Canyons of the Ancients National Monument Chimney Rock National Monument Colorado National Monument Continental Divide National Scenic Trail Curecanti National Recreation Area Dinosaur National Monument Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve Hovenweep National Monument Mesa Verde National Park and UNESCO World Heritage Site Old Spanish National Historic Trail Pony Express National Historic Trail Rocky Mountain National Park Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site Santa Fe National Historic Trail Yucca House National Monument See also Outline of Colorado Index of Colorado-related articles Bibliography of Colorado Footnotes References Further reading Explore Colorado, A Naturalist's Handbook, The Denver Museum of Natural History and Westcliff Publishers, 1995, for an excellent guide to the ecological regions of Colorado. The Archeology of Colorado, Revised Edition, E. Steve Cassells, Johnson Books, Boulder, Colorado, 1997, trade paperback, . Chokecherry Places, Essays from the High Plains, Merrill Gilfillan, Johnson Press, Boulder, Colorado, trade paperback, . The Tie That Binds, Kent Haruf, 1984, hardcover, , a fictional account of farming in Colorado. Railroads of Colorado: Your Guide to Colorado's Historic Trains and Railway Sites, Claude Wiatrowski, Voyageur Press, 2002, hardcover, 160 pages, External links State government Colorado state government website Colorado tourism website History Colorado website Federal government Energy & Environmental Data for Colorado USGS Colorado state facts, real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Colorado United States Census Bureau Colorado QuickFacts 2000 Census of Population and Housing for Colorado USDA ERS Colorado state facts Other List of searchable databases produced by Colorado state agencies hosted by the American Library Association Government Documents Roundtable Colorado County Evolution Ask Colorado Colorado Historic Newspapers Collection (CHNC) Mountain and Desert Plants of Colorado and the Southwest, Climate of Colorado Holocene Volcano in Colorado (Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program) Colorado Former Spanish colonies States and territories established in 1876 States of the United States Western United States Contiguous United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechnya

Chechnya

Chechnya (; ), officially the Chechen Republic, is a constituent republic of Russia situated in the North Caucasus in Eastern Europe, close to the Caspian Sea. The republic forms a part of Russia's North Caucasian Federal District, and shares land borders with the country of Georgia to its south; with the Russian republics of Dagestan, Ingushetia, and North Ossetia-Alania to its east, north, and west; and with Stavropol Krai to its northwest. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Checheno-Ingush ASSR split into two parts: the Republic of Ingushetia and the Chechen Republic. The latter proclaimed the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, which sought independence. Following the First Chechen War of 1994–1996 with Russia, Chechnya gained de facto independence as the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, although de jure it remained a part of Russia. Moscow's forces restored Russian federal control in the Second Chechen War of 1999–2000. Since then there has been a systematic reconstruction and rebuilding process, though sporadic fighting continued in the mountains and southern regions until 2017. The republic covers an area of , with a population of over 1.4 million residents . It is home to the indigenous Chechens, part of the Nakh peoples, and of primarily Muslim faith. Grozny is the capital and largest city. History Origin of Chechnya's population According to Leonti Mroveli, the 11th-century Georgian chronicler, the word Caucasian is derived from the Nakh ancestor Kavkas. According to George Anchabadze of Ilia State University: American linguist Johanna Nichols "has used language to connect the modern people of the Caucasus region to the ancient farmers of the Fertile Crescent" and her research suggests that "farmers of the region were proto-Nakh-Daghestanians." Nichols stated: "The Nakh–Dagestanian languages are the closest thing we have to a direct continuation of the cultural and linguistic community that gave rise to Western civilisation." Prehistory Traces of human settlement dating back to 40,000 BC were found near Lake Kezanoi. Cave paintings, artifacts, and other archaeological evidence indicate continuous habitation for some 8,000 years. People living in these settlements used tools and fire, and also—as clothing—animal skin. The Caucasian Epipaleolithic and early Caucasian Neolithic era saw the introduction of agriculture, irrigation, and the domestication of animals in the region. Settlements near Ali-Yurt and Magas, discovered in modern times, revealed tools made out of stone: stone axes, polished stones, stone knives, stones with holes drilled in them, clay dishes etc. Settlements made out of clay bricks were discovered in the plains. In the mountains there were settlements made from stone and surrounded by walls; some of them dated back to 8000 BC. This period also saw the appearance of the wheel (3000 BC), horseback riding, metal works (copper, gold, silver, iron), dishes, armor, daggers, knives and arrow tips in the region. The artifacts were found near Nasare-Cort, Muzhichi, Ja-E-Bortz (alternatively known as Surkha-khi), Abbey-Gove (also known as Nazran or Nasare). Pre-imperial era The German scientist Peter Simon Pallas believed that the Vainakh people (Chechens and Ingush) were the direct descendants from Alania. In 1239, the Alania capital of Maghas and the Alan confederacy of the Northern Caucasian highlanders, nations, and tribes was destroyed by Batu Khan (a Mongol leader and a grandson of Genghis Khan). According to the missionary Pian de Carpine, a part of the Alans had successfully resisted a Mongol siege on a mountain for 12 years: This twelve year old siege is not found in any other report, however the Russian historian A.I. Krasnov connected this battle with two Chechen folktales he recorded in 1967 that spoke of an old hunter named Idig who with his companions defended the Dakuoh mountain for 12 years against Tatar-Mongols. He also reported to have found several arrowheads and spears from the 13th century near the very mountain the battle took place at: In the 14th and 15th centuries, there was frequent warfare between the Chechens, Tamerlan and Tokhtamysh, culminating in the Battle of the Terek River. The Chechen tribes built fortresses, castles, and defensive walls, protecting the mountains from the invaders. Part of the lowland tribes were occupied by Mongols. However, during the mid-14th century a strong Chechen kingdom called Simsir emerged under Khour Ela, a Chechen king that led the Chechen politics and wars. He was in charge of an army of Chechens against the rogue warlord Mamai and defeated him in the Battle of Tatar-tup in 1362. The kingdom of Simsir met its end during the Timurid invasion of the Caucasus, when Khour Ela allied himself with the Golden Horde Khan Tokhtamysh in the Battle of the Terek River. Timur sought to punish the highlanders for their allegiance to Tokhtamysh and as a consequence invaded Simsir in 1395. The 16th century saw the first Russian involvement in the Caucasus. In 1558, Temryuk of Kabarda sent his emissaries to Moscow requesting help from Ivan the Terrible against the Vainakh tribes. Ivan the Terrible married Temryuk's daughter Maria Temryukovna. An alliance was formed to gain the ground in the central Caucasus for the expanding Tsardom of Russia against stubborn Vainakh defenders. Chechnya was a nation in the Northern Caucasus that fought against foreign rule continually since the 15th century. Several Chechen leaders such as the 17th century Mehk-Da Aldaman Gheza led the Chechen politics and fought off encroachments of foreign powers. He defended the borders of Chechnya from invasions of Kabardinians and Avars during the Battle of Khachara in 1667. The Chechens converted over the next few centuries to Sunni Islam, as Islam was associated with resistance to Russian encroachment. Imperial rule Peter I first sought to increase Russia's political influence in the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea at the expense of Safavid Persia when he launched the Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723. Notable in Chechen history, this particular Russo-Persian War marked the first military encounter between Imperial Russia and the Vainakh. Russian forces succeeded in taking much of the Caucasian territories from Iran for several years. As the Russians took control of the Caspian corridor and moved into Persian-ruled Dagestan, Peter's forces ran into mountain tribes. Peter sent a cavalry force to subdue them, but the Chechens routed them. In 1732, after Russia already ceded back most of the Caucasus to Persia, now led by Nader Shah, following the Treaty of Resht, Russian troops clashed again with Chechens in a village called Chechen-aul along the Argun River. The Russians were defeated again and withdrew, but this battle is responsible for the apocryphal story about how the Nokchi came to be known as "Chechens"-the people ostensibly named for the place the battle had taken place. The name Chechen was however already used since as early as 1692. Under intermittent Persian rule since 1555, in 1783 the eastern Georgians of Kartl-Kakheti led by Erekle II and Russia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk. According to this treaty, Kartl-Kakheti received protection from Russia, and Georgia abjured any dependence on Iran. In order to increase its influence in the Caucasus and to secure communications with Kartli and other Christian regions of the Transcaucasia which it considered useful in its wars against Persia and Turkey, the Russian Empire began conquering the Northern Caucasus mountains. The Russian Empire used Christianity to justify its conquests, allowing Islam to spread widely because it positioned itself as the religion of liberation from tsardom, which viewed Nakh tribes as "bandits". The rebellion was led by Mansur Ushurma, a Chechen Naqshbandi (Sufi) sheikh—with wavering military support from other North Caucasian tribes. Mansur hoped to establish a Transcaucasus Islamic state under sharia law. He was unable to fully achieve this because in the course of the war he was betrayed by the Ottomans, handed over to Russians, and executed in 1794. Following the forced ceding of the current territories of Dagestan, most of Azerbaijan, and Georgia by Persia to Russia, following the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813 and its resultant Treaty of Gulistan, Russia significantly widened its foothold in the Caucasus at the expense of Persia. Another successful Caucasus war against Persia several years later, starting in 1826 and ending in 1828 with the Treaty of Turkmenchay, and a successful war against Ottoman Turkey in 1828 and 1829, enabled Russia to use a much larger portion of its army in subduing the natives of the North Caucasus. The resistance of the Nakh tribes never ended and was a fertile ground for a new Muslim-Avar commander, Imam Shamil, who fought against the Russians from 1834 to 1859 (see Murid War). In 1859, Shamil was captured by Russians at aul Gunib. Shamil left Baysangur of Benoa, a Chechen with one arm, one eye, and one leg, in charge of command at Gunib. Baysangur broke through the siege and continued to fight Russia for another two years until he was captured and killed by Russians. The Russian tsar hoped that by sparing the life of Shamil, the resistance in the North Caucasus would stop, but it did not. Russia began to use a colonization tactic by destroying Nakh settlements and building Cossack defense lines in the lowlands. The Cossacks suffered defeat after defeat and were constantly attacked by mountaineers, who were robbing them of food and weaponry. The tsarists' regime used a different approach at the end of the 1860s. They offered Chechens and Ingush to leave the Caucasus for the Ottoman Empire (see Muhajir (Caucasus)). It is estimated that about 80% of Chechens and Ingush left the Caucasus during the deportation. It weakened the resistance which went from open warfare to insurgent warfare. One of the notable Chechen resistance fighters at the end of the 19th century was a Chechen abrek Zelimkhan Gushmazukaev and his comrade-in-arms Ingush abrek Sulom-Beck Sagopshinski. Together they built up small units which constantly harassed Russian military convoys, government mints, and government post-service, mainly in Ingushetia and Chechnya. Ingush aul Kek was completely burned when the Ingush refused to hand over Zelimkhan. Zelimkhan was killed at the beginning of the 20th century. The war between Nakh tribes and Russia resurfaced during the times of the Russian Revolution, which saw the Nakh struggle against Anton Denikin and later against the Soviet Union. On December 21, 1917, Ingushetia, Chechnya, and Dagestan declared independence from Russia and formed a single state: "United Mountain Dwellers of the North Caucasus" (also known as the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus) which was recognized by major world powers. The capital of the new state was moved to Temir-Khan-Shura (Dagestan). Tapa Tchermoeff, a prominent Chechen statesman, was elected the first prime minister of the state. The second prime minister elected was Vassan-Girey Dzhabagiev, an Ingush statesman, who also was the author of the constitution of the republic in 1917, and in 1920 he was re-elected for the third term. In 1921 the Russians attacked and occupied the country and forcefully absorbed it into the Soviet state. The Caucasian war for independence restarted, and the government went into exile. Soviet rule During Soviet rule, Chechnya and Ingushetia were combined to form the Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. In the 1930s, Chechnya was flooded with many Ukrainians fleeing from a famine. As a result, many of the Ukrainians settled in Chechen-Ingush ASSR permanently and survived the famine. Although over 50,000 Chechens and over 12,000 Ingush were fighting against Nazi Germany on the front line (including Heroes of the USSR: Abukhadzhi Idrisov, Khanpasha Nuradilov, Movlid Visaitov), and although Nazi German troops were fought to a complete stop at two Chechen-Ingush ASSR cities Malgobek and Ordzhonikidze (renamed to Vladikavkaz) after capturing half of the Caucasus in less than a month, Chechens and Ingush were falsely accused as Nazi supporters and entire nations were deported during Operation Lentil to the Kazakh SSR (later Kazakhstan) in 1944 near the end of World War II where over 60% of Chechen and Ingush populations perished. American historian Norman Naimark writes: The deportation was justified by the materials prepared by NKVD officer Bogdan Kobulov accusing Chechens and Ingush in a mass conspiracy preparing rebellion and providing assistance to the German forces. Many of the materials were later proved to be fabricated. Even distinguished Red Army officers who fought bravely against Germans (e.g. the commander of 255th Separate Chechen-Ingush regiment Movlid Visaitov, the first to contact American forces at Elbe river) were deported. There is a theory that the real reason why Chechens and Ingush were deported is the desire of Russia to attack Turkey, a non-communist country, as Chechens and Ingush could impede such plans. In 2004, the European Parliament recognized the deportation of Chechens and Ingush as an act of genocide. The territory of the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was divided between Stavropol Krai (where Grozny Okrug was formed), the Dagestan ASSR, the North Ossetian ASSR, and the Georgian SSR. The Chechens and Ingush were allowed to return to their land after 1956 during de-Stalinisation under Nikita Khrushchev when Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was restored but both boundaries and ethnic composition of the territory significantly changed. There were many (predominantly Russian) migrants from other parts of the Soviet Union, who often settled in the abandoned family homes of Chechens and Ingushes. The republic lost its Prigorodny District which transferred to North Ossetian ASSR but gained predominantly Russian Naursky District and Shelkovskoy District that is considered the homeland for Terek Cossacks. The Russification policies towards Chechens continued after 1956, with Russian language proficiency required in many aspects of life to provide Chechens better opportunities for advancement in the Soviet system. On November 26, 1990, the Supreme Council of Chechen-Ingush ASSR adopted the "Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Chechen-Ingush Republic". This declaration was part of the reorganisation of the Soviet Union. This new treaty would have been signed August 22, 1991, which would have transformed 15 republic states into more than 80. The August 19–21, 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt led to the abandonment of this reorganisation. With the impending dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, an independence movement, the Chechen National Congress, was formed, led by ex-Soviet Air Force general and new Chechen President Dzhokhar Dudayev. It campaigned for the recognition of Chechnya as a separate nation. This movement was opposed by Boris Yeltsin's Russian Federation, which argued that Chechnya had not been an independent entity within the Soviet Union—as the Baltic, Central Asian, and other Caucasian States had—but was part of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and hence did not have a right under the Soviet constitution to secede. It also argued that other republics of Russia, such as Tatarstan, would consider seceding from the Russian Federation if Chechnya were granted that right. Finally, it argued that Chechnya was a major hub in the oil infrastructure of Russia and hence its secession would hurt the country's economy and energy access. In the ensuing decade, the territory was locked in an ongoing struggle between various factions, usually fighting unconventionally. Chechen Wars The First Chechen War took place from 1994 to 1996, when Russian forces attempted to regain control over Chechnya, which had declared independence in November 1991. Despite overwhelming numerical superiority in men, weaponry, and air support, the Russian forces were unable to establish effective permanent control over the mountainous area due to numerous successful full-scale battles and insurgency raids. The Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis in 1995 shocked the Russian public and led to international condemnation of the Chechen rebels. In April 1996 the first democratically elected president of Chechnya, Dzhokhar Dudayev, was killed by Russian forces using a booby trap bomb and a missile fired from a warplane after he was located by triangulating the position of a satellite phone he was using. The widespread demoralisation of the Russian forces in the area and a successful offensive to re-take Grozny by Chechen rebel's forces led by Aslan Maskhadov prompted Russian President Boris Yeltsin to declare a ceasefire in 1996, and sign a peace treaty a year later that saw a withdrawal of Russian forces. After the war, parliamentary and presidential elections took place in January 1997 in Chechnya and brought to power new President Aslan Maskhadov, chief of staff and prime minister in the Chechen coalition government, for a five-year term. Maskhadov sought to maintain Chechen sovereignty while pressing the Russian government to help rebuild the republic, whose formal economy and infrastructure were virtually destroyed. Russia continued to send money for the rehabilitation of the republic; it also provided pensions and funds for schools and hospitals. Most of these funds were taken by Chechen authorities and divided between favored warlords. Nearly half a million people (40% of Chechnya's prewar population) had been internally displaced and lived in refugee camps or overcrowded villages. There was an economic downturn. Two Russian brigades were permanently stationed in Chechnya. In lieu of the devastated economic structure, kidnapping emerged as the principal source of income countrywide, procuring over US$200 million during the three-year independence of the chaotic fledgling state, although victims were rarely killed. In 1998, 176 people were kidnapped, 90 of whom were released, according to official accounts. President Maskhadov started a major campaign against hostage-takers, and on October 25, 1998, Shadid Bargishev, Chechnya's top anti-kidnapping official, was killed in a remote-controlled car bombing. Bargishev's colleagues then insisted they would not be intimidated by the attack and would go ahead with their offensive. Political violence and religious extremism, blamed on "Wahhabism", was rife. In 1998, Grozny authorities declared a state of emergency. Tensions led to open clashes between the Chechen National Guard and Islamist militants, such as the July 1998 confrontation in Gudermes. The War of Dagestan began on August 7, 1999, during which the Islamic International Peacekeeping Brigade (IIPB) began an unsuccessful incursion into the neighboring Russian republic of Dagestan in favor of the Shura of Dagestan which sought independence from Russia. In September, a series of apartment bombs that killed around 300 people in several Russian cities, including Moscow, were blamed on the Chechen separatists. Some journalists contested the official explanation, instead blaming the Russian Secret Service for blowing up the buildings to initiate a new military campaign against Chechnya. In response to the bombings, a prolonged air campaign of retaliatory strikes against the Ichkerian regime and a ground offensive that began in October 1999 marked the beginning of the Second Chechen War. Much better organized and planned than in the first Chechen War, the Russian armed forces took control of most regions. The Russian forces used brutal force, killing 60 Chechen civilians during a mop-up operation in Aldy, Chechnya on February 5, 2000. After the re-capture of Grozny in February 2000, the Ichkerian regime fell apart. Post-war reconstruction and insurgency Chechen rebels continued to fight Russian troops and conduct terrorist attacks. In October 2002, 40–50 Chechen rebels seized a Moscow theater and took about 900 civilians hostage. The crisis ended with 117 hostages and up to 50 rebels dead, mostly due to an unknown aerosol pumped into the building by Russian special forces to incapacitate the people inside. In response to the increasing terrorism, Russia tightened its grip on Chechnya and expanded its anti-terrorist operations throughout the region. Russia installed a pro-Russian Chechen regime. In 2003, a referendum was held on a constitution that reintegrated Chechnya within Russia but provided limited autonomy. According to the Chechen government, the referendum passed with 95.5% of the votes and almost 80% turnout. The Economist was skeptical of the results, arguing that "few outside the Kremlin regard the referendum as fair". In September 2004, separatist rebels occupied a school in the town of Beslan, North Ossetia, demanding recognition of the independence of Chechnya and a Russian withdrawal. 1,100 people (including 777 children) were taken hostage. The attack lasted three days, resulting in the deaths of over 331 people, including 186 children. After the 2004 school siege, Russian president Vladimir Putin announced sweeping security and political reforms, sealing borders in the Caucasus region and revealing plans to give the central government more power. He also vowed to take tougher action against domestic terrorism, including preemptive strikes against Chechen separatists. In 2005 and 2006, separatist leaders Aslan Maskhadov and Shamil Basayev were killed. Since 2007, Chechnya has been governed by Ramzan Kadyrov. Kadyrov's rule has been characterized by high-level corruption, a poor human rights record, widespread use of torture, and a growing cult of personality. Allegations of Anti-gay purges in Chechnya were initially reported on 1 April 2017. In April 2009, Russia ended its counter-terrorism operation and pulled out the bulk of its army. The insurgency in the North Caucasus continued even after this date. The Caucasus Emirate had fully adopted the tenets of a Salafist jihadist group through its strict adherence to the Sunni Hanbali obedience to the literal interpretation of the Quran and the Sunnah. Geography Situated in the eastern part of the North Caucasus, partially in Eastern Europe, Chechnya is surrounded on nearly all sides by Russian Federal territory. In the west, it borders North Ossetia and Ingushetia, in the north, Stavropol Krai, in the east, Dagestan, and to the south, Georgia. Its capital is Grozny. Area: 17,300 km2 (6680 sq mi) Borders: Internal: Dagestan (NE) Ingushetia (W) North Ossetia–Alania (W) Stavropol Krai (NW) Foreign: Georgia (Kakheti and Mtskheta-Mtianeti) (S) Rivers: Terek Sunzha Argun Climate Despite a relatively small territory, Chechnya is characterized by a significant variety of climate conditions. The average temperature in Grozny is 11.2 °C (52.1 °F). Cities and towns with over 20,000 people Grozny (capital) Shali Urus-Martan Gudermes Argun Administrative divisions The Chechen Republic is divided into 15 districts and 3 cities of republican significance. Informal divisions There are no true districts of Chechnya, but many believe that the different dialects of the Chechen language define different districts. The main dialects are: Grozny, also known as the Dzhokhar dialect, is the dialect of people who live in and in some towns around Grozny. Naskhish, a dialect spoken to the northeast of Chechnya. The most notable difference in this dialect is the addition of the letters "ȯ", "ј" and "є" Day, pronounced like the word 'die' is spoken in a small section of the south, around and in the town of Day. There are other dialects which are believed to define districts, but because these areas are so isolated, not much research has been done on these areas. Demographics According to the 2010 Census, the population of the republic is 1,268,989, up from 1,103,686 recorded in the 2002 Census. That number has been questioned by demographers, who think such population growth after two deadly wars is highly implausible. As of the 2010 Census, Chechens at 1,206,551 make up 95.3% of the republic's population. Other groups include Russians (24,382, or 1.9%), Kumyks (12,221, or 1%), Ingush (1,296 or 0.1%) and a host of other small groups, each accounting for less than 0.5% of the total population. The Armenian community, which used to number around 15,000 in Grozny alone, has dwindled to a few families. The Armenian church of Grozny was demolished in 1930. The birth rate was 25.41 in 2004. (25.7 in Achkhoi Martan, 19.8 in Groznyy, 17.5 in Kurchaloi, 28.3 in Urus Martan and 11.1 in Vedeno). At the end of the Soviet era, ethnic Russians (including Cossacks) comprised about 23% of the population (269,000 in 1989), but now Russians number only about 16,400 people (about 1.2% of the population) and still some emigration is happening. The languages used in the Republic are Chechen and Russian. Chechen belongs to the Vaynakh or North-central Caucasian language family, which also includes Ingush and Batsb. Some scholars place it in a wider North Caucasian languages. Vital statistics Source: Fedstat (Суммарный коэффициент рождаемости) Ethnic groups (in the territory of modern Chechnya) Religion Islam Islam is the predominant religion in Chechnya, practiced by 95% of those polled in Grozny in 2010. Chechens are overwhelmingly adherents to the Shafi'i Madhhab of Sunni Islam, the republic having converted to Islam between the 16th and the 19th centuries. Many Chechens are Sufis, of either the Qadiri or Naqshbandi orders. Most of the population follows either the Shafi'i or the Hanafi, schools of jurisprudence, fiqh. The Shafi'i school of jurisprudence has a long tradition among the Chechens, and thus it remains the most practiced. Following the end of the Soviet Union, there has been an Islamic revival in Chechnya, and in 2011 it was estimated that there were 465 mosques, including the Akhmad Kadyrov Mosque in Grozny accommodating 10,000 worshippers, as well 31 madrasas, including an Islamic university named Kunta-haji and a Center of Islamic Medicine in Grozny which is the largest such institution in Europe. On 19 January 2015, 12 days after the Charlie Hebdo shooting, a march took place in Grozny against the publication of caricatures of the prophet Mohammed. The Chechen Ministry of Interior reported that more than a million people participated, while according to the sources of the online news site Caucasian Knot the number was between 350,000 and 500,000. Christianity The once-strong Russian minority in Chechnya, mostly Terek Cossacks and estimated as numbering approximately 25,000 in 2012, are predominantly Russian Orthodox, although presently only one church exists in Grozny. In August 2011, Archbishop Zosima of Vladikavkaz and Makhachkala performed the first mass baptism ceremony in the history of the Chechen Republic in the Terek River of Naursky District in which 35 citizens of Naursky and Shelkovsky districts were converted to Orthodoxy. As of 2020, there are eight Orthodox churches in Chechnya, the largest is the temple of the Archangel Michael in Grozny. Politics Since 1990, the Chechen Republic has had many legal, military, and civil conflicts involving separatist movements and pro-Russian authorities. Today, Chechnya is a relatively stable federal republic, although there is still some separatist movement activity. Its regional constitution entered into effect on April 2, 2003, after an all-Chechen referendum was held on March 23, 2003. Some Chechens were controlled by regional teips, or clans, despite the existence of pro- and anti-Russian political structures. Regional government The former separatist religious leader (mufti) Akhmad Kadyrov, looked upon as a traitor by many separatists, was elected president with 83% of the vote in an internationally monitored election on October 5, 2003. Incidents of ballot stuffing and voter intimidation by Russian soldiers and the exclusion of separatist parties from the polls were subsequently reported by Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) monitors. On May 9, 2004, Kadyrov was assassinated in Grozny football stadium by a landmine explosion that was planted beneath a VIP stage and detonated during a parade, and Sergey Abramov was appointed acting prime minister after the incident. However, since 2005 Ramzan Kadyrov (son of Akhmad Kadyrov) has been the caretaker prime minister, and in 2007 was appointed as the new president. Many allege he is the wealthiest and most powerful man in the republic, with control over a large private militia referred to as the Kadyrovtsy. The militia, which began as his father's security force, has been accused of killings and kidnappings by human rights organisations such as Human Rights Watch. In 2009, the US government financed American organization Freedom House included Chechnya in the "Worst of the Worst" list of most repressive societies in the world, together with Burma, North Korea, Tibet, and others. Separatist government In addition to the Russian regional government, there was a separatist Ichkeria government that was not recognized by any state (although members have been given political asylum in European and Arab countries, as well as the United States). Ichkeria was a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation between 1991 and 2010. Former president of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia deposed in a military coup of 1991 and a participant of the Georgian Civil War, recognized the independence of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria in 1993. Diplomatic relations with Ichkeria were also established by the partially recognized Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan under the Taliban government on January 16, 2000. This recognition ceased with the fall of the Taliban in 2001. However, despite Taliban recognition, there were no friendly relations between the Taliban and Ichkeria—Maskhadov rejected their recognition, stating that the Taliban were illegitimate. Ichkeria also received vocal support from the Baltic countries, a group of Ukrainian nationalists, and Poland; Estonia once voted to recognize, but the act never was followed through due to pressure applied by both Russia and the EU. The president of this government was Aslan Maskhadov, the Foreign Minister was Ilyas Akhmadov, who was the spokesman for Maskhadov. Aslan Maskhadov had been elected in an internationally monitored election in 1997 for four years, which took place after signing a peace agreement with Russia. In 2001 he issued a decree prolonging his office for one additional year; he was unable to participate in the 2003 presidential election since separatist parties were barred by the Russian government, and Maskhadov faced accusations of terrorist offenses in Russia. Maskhadov left Grozny and moved to the separatist-controlled areas of the south at the onset of the Second Chechen War. Maskhadov was unable to influence a number of warlords who retain effective control over Chechen territory, and his power was diminished as a result. Russian forces killed Maskhadov on March 8, 2005, and the assassination of Maskhadov was widely criticized since it left no legitimate Chechen separatist leader with whom to conduct peace talks. Akhmed Zakayev, Deputy Prime Minister and a Foreign Minister under Maskhadov, was appointed shortly after the 1997 election and is currently living under asylum in England. He and others chose Abdul Khalim Saidullayev, a relatively unknown Islamic judge who was previously the host of an Islamic program on Chechen television, to replace Maskhadov following his death. On June 17, 2006, it was reported that Russian special forces killed Abdul Khalim Saidullayev in a raid in a Chechen town Argun. The successor of Saidullayev became Doku Umarov. On October 31, 2007, Umarov abolished the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and its presidency and in its place proclaimed the Caucasus Emirate with himself as its Emir. This change of status has been rejected by many Chechen politicians and military leaders who continue to support the existence of the republic. Human rights The Internal Displacement Monitoring Center reports that after hundreds of thousands of ethnic Russians and Chechens fled their homes following inter-ethnic and separatist conflicts in Chechnya in 1994 and 1999, more than 150,000 people still remain displaced in Russia today. Human rights groups criticized the conduct of the 2005 parliamentary elections as unfairly influenced by the central Russian government and military. In 2006 Human Rights Watch reported that pro-Russian Chechen forces under the command of Ramzan Kadyrov, as well as federal police personnel, used torture to get information about separatist forces. "If you are detained in Chechnya, you face a real and immediate risk of torture. And there is little chance that your torturer will be held accountable", said Holly Cartner, Director of the Europe and Central Asia division of the Human Rights Watch. On February 1, 2009, The New York Times released extensive evidence to support allegations of consistent torture and executions under the Kadyrov government. The accusations were sparked by the assassination in Austria of a former Chechen rebel who had gained access to Kadyrov's inner circle, 27-year-old Umar Israilov. On July 1, 2009, Amnesty International released a detailed report covering the human rights violations committed by the Russian Federation against Chechen citizens. Among the most prominent features was that those abused had no method of redress against assaults, ranging from kidnapping to torture, while those responsible were never held accountable. This led to the conclusion that Chechnya was being ruled without law, being run into further devastating destabilization. On March 10, 2011, Human Rights Watch reported that since Chechenization, the government has pushed for enforced Islamic dress code. The president Ramzan Kadyrov is quoted as saying "I have the right to criticize my wife. She doesn't [have the right to criticize me]. With us [in Chechen society], a wife is a housewife. A woman should know her place. A woman should give her love to us [men]... She would be [man's] property. And the man is the owner. Here, if a woman does not behave properly, her husband, father, and brother are responsible. According to our tradition, if a woman fools around, her family members kill her... That's how it happens, a brother kills his sister or a husband kills his wife... As a president, I cannot allow for them to kill. So, let women not wear shorts...". He has also openly defended honor killings on several occasions. On July 9, 2017, Russian newspaper Novaya Gazeta reported that a number of people were subject to an extrajudicial execution on the night of January 26, 2017. It published 27 names of the people known to be dead, but stressed that the list is "not all [of those killed]"; the newspaper asserted that 50 people may have been killed in the execution. Some of the dead were gay, but not all; the deaths appeared to have been triggered by the death of a policeman, and according to the author of the report, Elena Milashina, were executed for terrorism. In December 2021, up to 50 family members of critics of the Kadyrov government were abducted in a wave of mass kidnappings beginning on 22 December. LGBT rights On September 1, 1997, Criminal Code reportedly being implemented in the Chechen Republic-Ichkeriya, Article 148 punishes "anal sexual intercourse between a man and a woman or a man and a man". For first- and second-time offenders, the punishment is caning. A third conviction leads to the death penalty, which can be carried out in a number of ways including stoning or beheading. In 2017, it was reported by Novaya Gazeta and human rights groups that Chechen authorities had set up concentration camps, one of which is in Argun, where gay men are interrogated and subjected to physical violence. On June 27, 2018, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe noted "cases of abduction, arbitrary detention and torture ... with the direct involvement of Chechen law enforcement officials and on the orders of top-level Chechen authorities" and expressed dismay "at the statements of Chechen and Russian public officials denying the existence of LGBTI people in the Chechen Republic". Kadyrov's spokesman Alvi Karimov told Interfax that gay people "simply do not exist in the republic" and made an approving reference to honor killings by family members "if there were such people in Chechnya". In a 2021 Council of Europe report into anti-LGBTI hate crimes, rapporteur Foura ben Chikha described the "state-sponsored attacks carried out against LGBTI people in Chechnya in 2017" as "the single most egregious example of violence against LGBTI people in Europe that has occurred in decades". On 11 January 2019, it was reported that another 'gay purge' had begun in the country in December 2018, with several gay men and women being detained. The Russian LGBT Network believes that around 40 people were detained and two killed. Economy During the war, the Chechen economy fell apart. In 1994, the separatists planned to introduce a new currency, but the change did not occur due to the re-taking of Chechnya by Russian troops in the Second Chechen War. The economic situation in Chechnya has improved considerably since 2000. According to the New York Times, major efforts to rebuild Grozny have been made, and improvements in the political situation have led some officials to consider setting up a tourism industry, though there are claims that construction workers are being irregularly paid and that poor people have been displaced. Chechnya's unemployment was 67% in 2006 and fell to 21.5% in 2014. Total revenue of the budget of Chechnya for 2017 was 59.2 billion rubles. Of these, 48.5 billion rubles were grants from the federal budget of the Russian Federation. References Notes Sources Further reading Anderson, Scott. The Man Who Tried to Save the World. Babchenko, Arkady. One Soldier's War In Chechnya. Portobello, London Baiev, Khassan. The Oath: A Surgeon Under Fire. Bennigsen-Broxup, Marie. The North Caucasus Barrier: The Russian Advance Towards the Muslim World. Bird, Chris. To Catch a Tartar: Notes from the Caucasus. Bornstein, Yvonne and Ribowsky, Mark. "Eleven Days of Hell: My True Story Of Kidnapping, Terror, Torture And Historic FBI & KGB Rescue" AuthorHouse, 2004. . Conrad, Roy. Roy Conrad. Grozny. A few days... Dunlop, John B. Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict Evangelista, Mathew. The Chechen Wars: Will Russia Go the Way of the Soviet Union?. . Gall, Charlotta & de Waal, Thomas. Chechnya: A Small Victorious War. Gall, Carlotta, and de Waal, Thomas Chechnya: Calamity in the Caucasus Goltz, Thomas. Chechnya Diary : A War Correspondent's Story of Surviving the War in Chechnya. M E Sharpe (2003). Hasanov, Zaur. The Man of the Mountains. (facts based novel on growing influence of the radical Islam during 1st and 2nd Chechnya wars) Khan, Ali. The Chechen Terror: The Play within the Play Khlebnikov, Paul. Razgovor s varvarom (Interview with a barbarian). . Lieven, Anatol. Chechnya : Tombstone of Russian Power Mironov, Vyacheslav. Ya byl na etoy voyne. (I was in this war) Biblion – Russkaya Kniga, 2001. Partial translation available online . Mironov, Vyacheslav. Vyacheslav Mironov. Assault on Grozny Downtown Mironov, Vyacheslav. Vyacheslav Mironov. I was in that war. Oliker, Olga Russia's Chechen Wars 1994–2000: Lessons from Urban Combat. . (A strategic and tactical analysis of the Chechen Wars.) Pelton, Robert Young. Hunter Hammer and Heaven, Journeys to Three World's Gone Mad () Politkovskaya, Anna. A Small Corner of Hell: Dispatches from Chechnya Rasizade, Alec. Chechnya: the Achilles heel of Russia. = Contemporary Review (Oxford) in three parts: 1) April 2005 issue, volume 286, number 1671, pages 193–197; 2) May 2005 issue, volume 286, number 1672, pages 277–284; 3) June 2005 issue, volume 286, number 1673, pages 327–332. Seirstad, Asne. The Angel of Grozny. Wood, Tony. Chechnya: The Case For Independence Book review in The Independent, 2007 External links of the Republic of Chechnya (video) Islamist Extremism in Chechnya: A Threat to U.S. Homeland?: Joint Hearing before the Subcommittee on Europe, Eurasia, and Emerging Threats and the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Nonproliferation, and Trade of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, April 26, 2013 Chechnya Guide 1993 establishments in Russia Chechen-speaking countries and territories North Caucasian Federal District North Caucasus Regions of Europe with multiple official languages States and territories established in 1993

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederate%20States%20of%20America

Confederate States of America

The Confederate States of America (CSA), commonly referred to as the Confederate States or simply the Confederacy, was an unrecognized breakaway republic in North America that existed from February 8, 1861, to May 9, 1865. The Confederacy comprised U.S. states that declared secession and warred against the United States during the ensuing American Civil War. Eleven U.S. states declared secession from the Union and formed the main part of the CSA. They were South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Kentucky and Missouri also had declarations of secession and full representation in the Confederate Congress during their Union army occupation. The Confederacy was formed on February 8, 1861 by seven slave states: South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. All seven of the states were located in the Deep South region of the United States, whose economy was heavily dependent upon agriculture—particularly cotton—and a plantation system that relied upon enslaved Africans for labor. Convinced that white supremacy and slavery were threatened by the November 1860 election of Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln to the U.S. presidency, on a platform which opposed the expansion of slavery into the western territories, the Confederacy declared its secession from the United States, with the loyal states becoming known as the Union during the ensuing American Civil War. In the Cornerstone Speech, Confederate Vice President Alexander H. Stephens described its ideology as centrally based "upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery, subordination to the superior race, is his natural and normal condition." Before Lincoln took office on March 4, 1861, a provisional Confederate government was established on February 8, 1861. It was considered illegal by the United States federal government, and Northerners thought of the Confederates as traitors. After war began in April, four slave states of the Upper South—Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina—also joined the Confederacy. The Confederacy later accepted the slave states of Missouri and Kentucky as members, accepting rump state assembly declarations of secession as authorization for full delegations of representatives and senators in the Confederate Congress; they were never substantially controlled by Confederate forces, despite the efforts of Confederate shadow governments, which were eventually expelled. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession as illegitimate. The Civil War began on April 12, 1861, when the Confederates attacked Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. No foreign government ever recognized the Confederacy as an independent country, although Great Britain and France granted it belligerent status, which allowed Confederate agents to contract with private concerns for weapons and other supplies. By 1865, the Confederacy's civilian government dissolved into chaos: the Confederate States Congress adjourned sine die, effectively ceasing to exist as a legislative body on March 18. After four years of heavy fighting and 620,000–850,000 military deaths, all Confederate land and naval forces either surrendered or otherwise ceased hostilities. The war lacked a formal end, with Confederate forces surrendering or disbanding sporadically throughout most of 1865. The most significant capitulation was Confederate general Robert E. Lee's surrender to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox on April 9, after which any doubt about the war's outcome or the Confederacy's survival was extinguished, although another large army under Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston did not formally surrender to William T. Sherman until April 26. Contemporaneously, President Lincoln had been assassinated by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth on April 15, 1865. Confederate President Jefferson Davis's administration declared the Confederacy dissolved on May 5, and acknowledged in later writings that the Confederacy "disappeared" in 1865. On May 9, 1865, US president Andrew Johnson officially called an end to the armed resistance in the South. After the war, Confederate states were readmitted to the Congress during the Reconstruction era, after each ratified the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution outlawing slavery. Lost Cause ideology, an idealized view of the Confederacy valiantly fighting for a just cause, emerged in the decades after the war among former Confederate generals and politicians, as well as organizations such as the United Daughters of the Confederacy and the Sons of Confederate Veterans. Intense periods of Lost Cause activity developed around the time of World War I, and during the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s in reaction to growing public support for racial equality. Advocates sought to ensure future generations of Southern whites would continue to support white supremacist policies such as the Jim Crow laws through activities such as building Confederate monuments and influencing textbooks to put the Confederacy in a favorable light. The modern display of Confederate flags primarily started during the 1948 presidential election when the battle flag was used by the Dixiecrats in opposition to the Civil Rights Movement and segregationists continue the practice as a rallying flag for demonstrations. Span of control On February 22, 1862, the Confederate States Constitution of seven state signatories – Mississippi, South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas – replaced the Provisional Constitution of February 8, 1861, with one stating in its preamble a desire for a "permanent federal government". Four additional slave-holding states – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – declared their secession and joined the Confederacy following a call by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln for troops from each state to recapture Sumter and other seized federal properties in the South. Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions adopting the forms of state governments without control of substantial territory or population in either case. The antebellum state governments in both maintained their representation in the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the "Five Civilized Tribes" – the Choctaw and the Chickasaw – in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of martial law; Delaware, though of divided loyalty, did not attempt it. A Unionist government was formed in opposition to the secessionist state government in Richmond and administered the western parts of Virginia that had been occupied by Federal troops. The Restored Government of Virginia later recognized the new state of West Virginia, which was admitted to the Union during the war on June 20, 1863, and relocated to Alexandria for the rest of the war. Confederate control over its claimed territory and population in congressional districts steadily shrank from three-quarters to a third during the American Civil War due to the Union's successful overland campaigns, its control of inland waterways into the South, and its blockade of the southern coast. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal (in addition to reunion). As Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers. The most notable advance was Sherman's "March to the Sea" in late 1864. Much of the Confederacy's infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads and bridges. Plantations in the path of Sherman's forces were severely damaged. Internal movement within the Confederacy became increasingly difficult, weakening its economy and limiting army mobility. These losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Davis's administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, and allegations of autocratic government. After four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. A few days later General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, effectively signaling the collapse of the Confederacy. President Davis was captured on May 10, 1865, and jailed for treason, but no trial was ever held. History The Confederacy was established by the Montgomery Convention in February 1861 by seven states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, adding Texas in March before Lincoln's inauguration), expanded in May–July 1861 (with Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina), and disintegrated in April–May 1865. It was formed by delegations from seven slave states of the Lower South that had proclaimed their secession from the Union. After the fighting began in April, four additional slave states seceded and were admitted. Later, two slave states (Missouri and Kentucky) and two territories were given seats in the Confederate Congress. Southern nationalism was rising and pride supported the new founding. Confederate nationalism prepared men to fight for "The Southern Cause". For the duration of its existence, the Confederacy underwent trial by war. The Southern Cause transcended the ideology of states' rights, tariff policy, and internal improvements. This "Cause" supported, or derived from, cultural and financial dependence on the South's slavery-based economy. The convergence of race and slavery, politics, and economics raised almost all South-related policy questions to the status of moral questions over way of life, merging love of things Southern and hatred of things Northern. Not only did political parties split, but national churches and interstate families as well divided along sectional lines as the war approached. According to historian John M. Coski, Southern Democrats had chosen John Breckinridge as their candidate during the U.S. presidential election of 1860, but in no Southern state (other than South Carolina, where the legislature chose the electors) was support for him unanimous, as all of the other states recorded at least some popular votes for one or more of the other three candidates (Abraham Lincoln, Stephen A. Douglas and John Bell). Support for these candidates, collectively, ranged from significant to an outright majority, with extremes running from 25% in Texas to 81% in Missouri. There were minority views everywhere, especially in the upland and plateau areas of the South, being particularly concentrated in western Virginia and eastern Tennessee. Following South Carolina's unanimous 1860 secession vote, no other Southern states considered the question until 1861, and when they did none had a unanimous vote. All had residents who cast significant numbers of Unionist votes in either the legislature, conventions, popular referendums, or in all three. Voting to remain in the Union did not necessarily mean that individuals were sympathizers with the North. Once fighting began, many of these who voted to remain in the Union, particularly in the Deep South, accepted the majority decision, and supported the Confederacy. Many writers have evaluated the Civil War as an American tragedy—a "Brothers' War", pitting "brother against brother, father against son, kin against kin of every degree". A revolution in disunion According to historian Avery O. Craven in 1950, the Confederate States of America nation, as a state power, was created by secessionists in Southern slave states, who believed that the federal government was making them second-class citizens and refused to honor their belief – that slavery was beneficial to the Negro. They judged the agents of change to be abolitionists and anti-slavery elements in the Republican Party, whom they believed used repeated insult and injury to subject them to intolerable "humiliation and degradation". The "Black Republicans" (as the Southerners called them) and their allies soon dominated the U.S. House, Senate, and Presidency. On the U.S. Supreme Court, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney (a presumed supporter of slavery) was 83 years old and ailing. During the campaign for president in 1860, some secessionists threatened disunion should Lincoln (who opposed the expansion of slavery into the territories) be elected, including William L. Yancey. Yancey toured the North calling for secession as Stephen A. Douglas toured the South calling for union if Lincoln was elected. To the secessionists the Republican intent was clear: to contain slavery within its present bounds and, eventually, to eliminate it entirely. A Lincoln victory presented them with a momentous choice (as they saw it), even before his inauguration – "the Union without slavery, or slavery without the Union". Causes of secession The immediate catalyst for secession was the victory of the Republican Party and the election of Abraham Lincoln as president in the 1860 elections. American Civil War historian James M. McPherson suggested that, for Southerners, the most ominous feature of the Republican victories in the congressional and presidential elections of 1860 was the magnitude of those victories: Republicans captured over 60 percent of the Northern vote and three-fourths of its Congressional delegations. The Southern press said that such Republicans represented the anti-slavery portion of the North, "a party founded on the single sentiment ... of hatred of African slavery", and now the controlling power in national affairs. The "Black Republican party" could overwhelm conservative Yankees. The New Orleans Delta said of the Republicans, "It is in fact, essentially, a revolutionary party" to overthrow slavery. By 1860, sectional disagreements between North and South concerned primarily the maintenance or expansion of slavery in the United States. Historian Drew Gilpin Faust observed that "leaders of the secession movement across the South cited slavery as the most compelling reason for southern independence". Although most white Southerners did not own slaves, the majority supported the institution of slavery and benefited indirectly from the slave society. For struggling yeomen and subsistence farmers, the slave society provided a large class of people ranked lower in the social scale than themselves. Secondary differences related to issues of free speech, runaway slaves, expansion into Cuba, and states' rights. Historian Emory Thomas assessed the Confederacy's self-image by studying correspondence sent by the Confederate government in 1861–62 to foreign governments. He found that Confederate diplomacy projected multiple contradictory self-images: In what later became known as the Cornerstone Speech, Confederate Vice President Alexander H. Stephens declared that the "cornerstone" of the new government "rest[ed] upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery – subordination to the superior race – is his natural and normal condition. This, our new government, is the first, in the history of the world, based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth". After the war Stephens tried to qualify his remarks, claiming they were extemporaneous, metaphorical, and intended to refer to public sentiment rather than "the principles of the new Government on this subject". Four of the seceding states, the Deep South states of South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas, issued formal declarations of the causes of their decision; each identified the threat to slaveholders' rights as the cause of, or a major cause of, secession. Georgia also claimed a general Federal policy of favoring Northern over Southern economic interests. Texas mentioned slavery 21 times, but also listed the failure of the federal government to live up to its obligations, in the original annexation agreement, to protect settlers along the exposed western frontier. Texas resolutions further stated that governments of the states and the nation were established "exclusively by the white race, for themselves and their posterity". They also stated that although equal civil and political rights applied to all white men, they did not apply to those of the "African race", further opining that the end of racial enslavement would "bring inevitable calamities upon both [races] and desolation upon the fifteen slave-holding states". Alabama did not provide a separate declaration of causes. Instead, the Alabama ordinance stated "the election of Abraham Lincoln ... by a sectional party, avowedly hostile to the domestic institutions and to the peace and security of the people of the State of Alabama, preceded by many and dangerous infractions of the Constitution of the United States by many of the States and people of the northern section, is a political wrong of so insulting and menacing a character as to justify the people of the State of Alabama in the adoption of prompt and decided measures for their future peace and security". The ordinance invited "the slaveholding States of the South, who may approve such purpose, in order to frame a provisional as well as a permanent Government upon the principles of the Constitution of the United States" to participate in a February 4, 1861 convention in Montgomery, Alabama. The secession ordinances of the remaining two states, Florida and Louisiana, simply declared their severing ties with the federal Union, without stating any causes. Afterward, the Florida secession convention formed a committee to draft a declaration of causes, but the committee was discharged before completion of the task. Only an undated, untitled draft remains. Four of the Upper South states (Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina) rejected secession until after the clash at Ft. Sumter. Virginia's ordinance stated a kinship with the slave-holding states of the Lower South, but did not name the institution itself as a primary reason for its course. Arkansas's secession ordinance encompassed a strong objection to the use of military force to preserve the Union as its motivating reason. Before the outbreak of war, the Arkansas Convention had on March 20 given as their first resolution: "The people of the Northern States have organized a political party, purely sectional in its character, the central and controlling idea of which is hostility to the institution of African slavery, as it exists in the Southern States; and that party has elected a President ... pledged to administer the Government upon principles inconsistent with the rights and subversive of the interests of the Southern States." North Carolina and Tennessee limited their ordinances to simply withdrawing, although Tennessee went so far as to make clear they wished to make no comment at all on the "abstract doctrine of secession". In a message to the Confederate Congress on April 29, 1861 Jefferson Davis cited both the tariff and slavery for the South's secession. Secessionists and conventions The pro-slavery "Fire-Eaters" group of Southern Democrats, calling for immediate secession, were opposed by two factions. "Cooperationists" in the Deep South would delay secession until several states left the union, perhaps in a Southern Convention. Under the influence of men such as Texas Governor Sam Houston, delay would have the effect of sustaining the Union. "Unionists", especially in the Border South, often former Whigs, appealed to sentimental attachment to the United States. Southern Unionists' favorite presidential candidate was John Bell of Tennessee, sometimes running under an "Opposition Party" banner. Many secessionists were active politically. Governor William Henry Gist of South Carolina corresponded secretly with other Deep South governors, and most southern governors exchanged clandestine commissioners. Charleston's secessionist "1860 Association" published over 200,000 pamphlets to persuade the youth of the South. The most influential were: "The Doom of Slavery" and "The South Alone Should Govern the South", both by John Townsend of South Carolina; and James D. B. De Bow's "The Interest of Slavery of the Southern Non-slaveholder". Developments in South Carolina started a chain of events. The foreman of a jury refused the legitimacy of federal courts, so Federal Judge Andrew Magrath ruled that U.S. judicial authority in South Carolina was vacated. A mass meeting in Charleston celebrating the Charleston and Savannah railroad and state cooperation led to the South Carolina legislature to call for a Secession Convention. U.S. Senator James Chesnut, Jr. resigned, as did Senator James Henry Hammond. Elections for Secessionist conventions were heated to "an almost raving pitch, no one dared dissent", according to historian William W. Freehling. Even once–respected voices, including the Chief Justice of South Carolina, John Belton O'Neall, lost election to the Secession Convention on a Cooperationist ticket. Across the South mobs expelled Yankees and (in Texas) executed German-Americans suspected of loyalty to the United States. Generally, seceding conventions which followed did not call for a referendum to ratify, although Texas, Arkansas, and Tennessee did, as well as Virginia's second convention. Kentucky declared neutrality, while Missouri had its own civil war until the Unionists took power and drove the Confederate legislators out of the state. Attempts to thwart secession In the antebellum months, the Corwin Amendment was an unsuccessful attempt by the Congress to bring the seceding states back to the Union and to convince the border slave states to remain. It was a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution by Ohio Congressman Thomas Corwin that would shield "domestic institutions" of the states (which in 1861 included slavery) from the constitutional amendment process and from abolition or interference by Congress. It was passed by the 36th Congress on March 2, 1861. The House approved it by a vote of 133 to 65 and the United States Senate adopted it, with no changes, on a vote of 24 to 12. It was then submitted to the state legislatures for ratification. In his inaugural address Lincoln endorsed the proposed amendment. The text was as follows: Had it been ratified by the required number of states prior to 1865, it would have made institutionalized slavery immune to the constitutional amendment procedures and to interference by Congress. Inauguration and response The first secession state conventions from the Deep South sent representatives to meet at the Montgomery Convention in Montgomery, Alabama, on February 4, 1861. There the fundamental documents of government were promulgated, a provisional government was established, and a representative Congress met for the Confederate States of America. The new 'provisional' Confederate President Jefferson Davis issued a call for 100,000 men from the various states' militias to defend the newly formed Confederacy. All Federal property was seized, along with gold bullion and coining dies at the U.S. mints in Charlotte, North Carolina; Dahlonega, Georgia; and New Orleans. The Confederate capital was moved from Montgomery to Richmond, Virginia, in May 1861. On February 22, 1862, Davis was inaugurated as president with a term of six years. The newly inaugurated Confederate administration pursued a policy of national territorial integrity, continuing earlier state efforts in 1860 and early 1861 to remove U.S. government presence from within their boundaries. These efforts included taking possession of U.S. courts, custom houses, post offices, and most notably, arsenals and forts. But after the Confederate attack and capture of Fort Sumter in April 1861, Lincoln called up 75,000 of the states' militia to muster under his command. The stated purpose was to re-occupy U.S. properties throughout the South, as the U.S. Congress had not authorized their abandonment. The resistance at Fort Sumter signaled his change of policy from that of the Buchanan Administration. Lincoln's response ignited a firestorm of emotion. The people of both North and South demanded war, and young men rushed to their colors in the hundreds of thousands. Four more states (Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas) refused Lincoln's call for troops and declared secession, while Kentucky maintained an uneasy "neutrality". Secession Secessionists argued that the United States Constitution was a contract among sovereign states that could be abandoned at any time without consultation and that each state had a right to secede. After intense debates and statewide votes, seven Deep South cotton states passed secession ordinances by February 1861 (before Abraham Lincoln took office as president), while secession efforts failed in the other eight slave states. Delegates from those seven formed the CSA in February 1861, selecting Jefferson Davis as the provisional president. Unionist talk of reunion failed and Davis began raising a 100,000 man army. States Initially, some secessionists may have hoped for a peaceful departure. Moderates in the Confederate Constitutional Convention included a provision against importation of slaves from Africa to appeal to the Upper South. Non-slave states might join, but the radicals secured a two-thirds requirement in both houses of Congress to accept them. Seven states declared their secession from the United States before Lincoln took office on March 4, 1861. After the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter April 12, 1861, and Lincoln's subsequent call for troops on April 15, four more states declared their secession: Kentucky declared neutrality but after Confederate troops moved in, the state government asked for Union troops to drive them out. The splinter Confederate state government relocated to accompany western Confederate armies and never controlled the state population. By the end of the war, 90,000 Kentuckians had fought on the side of the Union, compared to 35,000 for the Confederate States. In Missouri, a constitutional convention was approved and delegates elected by voters. The convention rejected secession 89–1 on March 19, 1861. The governor maneuvered to take control of the St. Louis Arsenal and restrict Federal movements. This led to confrontation, and in June Federal forces drove him and the General Assembly from Jefferson City. The executive committee of the constitutional convention called the members together in July. The convention declared the state offices vacant, and appointed a Unionist interim state government. The exiled governor called a rump session of the former General Assembly together in Neosho and, on October 31, 1861, passed an ordinance of secession. It is still a matter of debate as to whether a quorum existed for this vote. The Confederate state government was unable to control very much Missouri territory. It had its capital first at Neosho, then at Cassville, before being driven out of the state. For the remainder of the war, it operated as a government in exile at Marshall, Texas. Neither Kentucky nor Missouri was declared in rebellion in Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. The Confederacy recognized the pro-Confederate claimants in both Kentucky (December 10, 1861) and Missouri (November 28, 1861) and laid claim to those states, granting them Congressional representation and adding two stars to the Confederate flag. Voting for the representatives was mostly done by Confederate soldiers from Kentucky and Missouri. The order of secession resolutions and dates are: 1. South Carolina (December 20, 1860) 2. Mississippi (January 9, 1861) 3. Florida (January 10) 4. Alabama (January 11) 5. Georgia (January 19) 6. Louisiana (January 26) 7. Texas (February 1; referendum February 23) Inauguration of President Lincoln, March 4 Bombardment of Fort Sumter (April 12) and President Lincoln's call-up (April 15) 8. Virginia (April 17; referendum May 23, 1861) 9. Arkansas (May 6) 10. Tennessee (May 7; referendum June 8) 11. North Carolina (May 20) In Virginia, the populous counties along the Ohio and Pennsylvania borders rejected the Confederacy. Unionists held a Convention in Wheeling in June 1861, establishing a "restored government" with a rump legislature, but sentiment in the region remained deeply divided. In the 50 counties that would make up the state of West Virginia, voters from 24 counties had voted for disunion in Virginia's May 23 referendum on the ordinance of secession. In the 1860 Presidential election "Constitutional Democrat" Breckenridge had outpolled "Constitutional Unionist" Bell in the 50 counties by 1,900 votes, 44% to 42%. Regardless of scholarly disputes over election procedures and results county by county, altogether they simultaneously supplied over 20,000 soldiers to each side of the conflict. Representatives for most of the counties were seated in both state legislatures at Wheeling and at Richmond for the duration of the war. Attempts to secede from the Confederacy by some counties in East Tennessee were checked by martial law. Although slave-holding Delaware and Maryland did not secede, citizens from those states exhibited divided loyalties. Regiments of Marylanders fought in Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. But overall, 24,000 men from Maryland joined the Confederate armed forces, compared to 63,000 who joined Union forces. Delaware never produced a full regiment for the Confederacy, but neither did it emancipate slaves as did Missouri and West Virginia. District of Columbia citizens made no attempts to secede and through the war years, referendums sponsored by President Lincoln approved systems of compensated emancipation and slave confiscation from "disloyal citizens". Territories Citizens at Mesilla and Tucson in the southern part of New Mexico Territory formed a secession convention, which voted to join the Confederacy on March 16, 1861, and appointed Dr. Lewis S. Owings as the new territorial governor. They won the Battle of Mesilla and established a territorial government with Mesilla serving as its capital. The Confederacy proclaimed the Confederate Arizona Territory on February 14, 1862, north to the 34th parallel. Marcus H. MacWillie served in both Confederate Congresses as Arizona's delegate. In 1862 the Confederate New Mexico Campaign to take the northern half of the U.S. territory failed and the Confederate territorial government in exile relocated to San Antonio, Texas. Confederate supporters in the trans-Mississippi west also claimed portions of the Indian Territory after the United States evacuated the federal forts and installations. Over half of the American Indian troops participating in the Civil War from the Indian Territory supported the Confederacy; troops and one general were enlisted from each tribe. On July 12, 1861, the Confederate government signed a treaty with both the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indian nations. After several battles Union armies took control of the territory. The Indian Territory never formally joined the Confederacy, but it did receive representation in the Confederate Congress. Many Indians from the Territory were integrated into regular Confederate Army units. After 1863 the tribal governments sent representatives to the Confederate Congress: Elias Cornelius Boudinot representing the Cherokee and Samuel Benton Callahan representing the Seminole and Creek people. The Cherokee Nation aligned with the Confederacy. They practiced and supported slavery, opposed abolition, and feared their lands would be seized by the Union. After the war, the Indian territory was disestablished, their black slaves were freed, and the tribes lost some of their lands. Capitals Montgomery, Alabama, served as the capital of the Confederate States of America from February 4 until May 29, 1861, in the Alabama State Capitol. Six states created the Confederate States of America there on February 8, 1861. The Texas delegation was seated at the time, so it is counted in the "original seven" states of the Confederacy; it had no roll call vote until after its referendum made secession "operative". Two sessions of the Provisional Congress were held in Montgomery, adjourning May 21. The Permanent Constitution was adopted there on March 12, 1861. The permanent capital provided for in the Confederate Constitution called for a state cession of a ten-miles square (100 square mile) district to the central government. Atlanta, which had not yet supplanted Milledgeville, Georgia, as its state capital, put in a bid noting its central location and rail connections, as did Opelika, Alabama, noting its strategically interior situation, rail connections and nearby deposits of coal and iron. Richmond, Virginia, was chosen for the interim capital at the Virginia State Capitol. The move was used by Vice President Stephens and others to encourage other border states to follow Virginia into the Confederacy. In the political moment it was a show of "defiance and strength". The war for Southern independence was surely to be fought in Virginia, but it also had the largest Southern military-aged white population, with infrastructure, resources, and supplies required to sustain a war. The Davis Administration's policy was that, "It must be held at all hazards." The naming of Richmond as the new capital took place on May 30, 1861, and the last two sessions of the Provisional Congress were held in the new capital. The Permanent Confederate Congress and President were elected in the states and army camps on November 6, 1861. The First Congress met in four sessions in Richmond from February 18, 1862, to February 17, 1864. The Second Congress met there in two sessions, from May 2, 1864, to March 18, 1865. As war dragged on, Richmond became crowded with training and transfers, logistics and hospitals. Prices rose dramatically despite government efforts at price regulation. A movement in Congress led by Henry S. Foote of Tennessee argued for moving the capital from Richmond. At the approach of Federal armies in mid-1862, the government's archives were readied for removal. As the Wilderness Campaign progressed, Congress authorized Davis to remove the executive department and call Congress to session elsewhere in 1864 and again in 1865. Shortly before the end of the war, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond, planning to relocate farther south. Little came of these plans before Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House, Virginia on April 9, 1865. Davis and most of his cabinet fled to Danville, Virginia, which served as their headquarters for eight days. Unionism Unionism—opposition to the Confederacy—was widespread, especially in the mountain regions of Appalachia and the Ozarks. Unionists, led by Parson Brownlow and Senator Andrew Johnson, took control of eastern Tennessee in 1863. Unionists also attempted control over western Virginia but never effectively held more than half the counties that formed the new state of West Virginia. Union forces captured parts of coastal North Carolina, and at first were welcomed by local unionists. That changed as the occupiers became perceived as oppressive, callous, radical and favorable to the Freedmen. Occupiers pillaged, freed slaves, and evicted those who refused to swear loyalty oaths to the Union. Support for the Confederacy was perhaps weakest in Texas; Claude Elliott estimates that only a third of the population actively supported the Confederacy. Many Unionists supported the Confederacy after the war began, but many others clung to their Unionism throughout the war, especially in the northern counties, the German districts, and the Mexican areas. According to Ernest Wallace: "This account of a dissatisfied Unionist minority, although historically essential, must be kept in its proper perspective, for throughout the war the overwhelming majority of the people zealously supported the Confederacy ..." Randolph B. Campbell states, "In spite of terrible losses and hardships, most Texans continued throughout the war to support the Confederacy as they had supported secession". Dale Baum in his analysis of Texas politics in the era counters: "This idea of a Confederate Texas united politically against northern adversaries was shaped more by nostalgic fantasies than by wartime realities." He characterizes Texas Civil War history as "a morose story of intragovernmental rivalries coupled with wide-ranging disaffection that prevented effective implementation of state wartime policies". In Texas, local officials harassed and murdered Unionists and Germans. In Cooke County, 150 suspected Unionists were arrested; 25 were lynched without trial and 40 more were hanged after a summary trial. Draft resistance was widespread especially among Texans of German or Mexican descent; many of the latter went to Mexico. Confederate officials hunted down and killed potential draftees who had gone into hiding. Civil liberties were of small concern in both the North and South. Lincoln and Davis both took a hard line against dissent. Neely explores how the Confederacy became a virtual police state with guards and patrols all about, and a domestic passport system whereby everyone needed official permission each time they wanted to travel. Over 4,000 suspected Unionists were imprisoned without trial. Diplomacy United States, a foreign power During the four years of its existence under trial by war, the Confederate States of America asserted its independence and appointed dozens of diplomatic agents abroad. None were ever officially recognized by a foreign government. The United States government regarded the Southern states as being in rebellion or insurrection and so refused any formal recognition of their status. Even before Fort Sumter, U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward issued formal instructions to the American minister to Britain, Charles Francis Adams: Seward instructed Adams that if the British government seemed inclined to recognize the Confederacy, or even waver in that regard, it was to receive a sharp warning, with a strong hint of war: The United States government never declared war on those "kindred and countrymen" in the Confederacy, but conducted its military efforts beginning with a presidential proclamation issued April 15, 1861. It called for troops to recapture forts and suppress what Lincoln later called an "insurrection and rebellion". Mid-war parleys between the two sides occurred without formal political recognition, though the laws of war predominantly governed military relationships on both sides of uniformed conflict. On the part of the Confederacy, immediately following Fort Sumter the Confederate Congress proclaimed that "war exists between the Confederate States and the Government of the United States, and the States and Territories thereof". A state of war was not to formally exist between the Confederacy and those states and territories in the United States allowing slavery, although Confederate Rangers were compensated for destruction they could effect there throughout the war. Concerning the international status and nationhood of the Confederate States of America, in 1869 the United States Supreme Court in ruled Texas' declaration of secession was legally null and void. Jefferson Davis, former President of the Confederacy, and Alexander H. Stephens, its former vice-president, both wrote postwar arguments in favor of secession's legality and the international legitimacy of the Government of the Confederate States of America, most notably Davis' The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. International diplomacy The Confederacy's biggest foreign policy successes were with Spain's Caribbean colonies and Brazil, the "peoples most identical to us in Institutions", in which slavery remained legal until the 1880s. The Captain–General of Cuba declared in writing that Confederate ships were welcome, and would be protected in Cuban ports. They were also welcome in Brazilian ports; slavery was legal throughout Brazil, and the abolitionist movement was small. After the end of the war, Brazil was the primary destination of those Southerners who wanted to continue living in a slave society, where, as one immigrant remarked, slaves were cheap (see Confederados). However, militarily this meant little. Once war with the United States began, the Confederacy pinned its hopes for survival on military intervention by Great Britain and/or France. The Confederate government sent James M. Mason to London and John Slidell to Paris. On their way to Europe in 1861, the U.S. Navy intercepted their ship, the Trent, and forcibly detained them in Boston, an international episode known as the Trent Affair. The diplomats were eventually released and continued their voyage to Europe. However, their mission was unsuccessful; historians give them low marks for their poor diplomacy. Neither secured diplomatic recognition for the Confederacy, much less military assistance. The Confederates who had believed that "cotton is king", that is, that Britain had to support the Confederacy to obtain cotton, proved mistaken. The British had stocks to last over a year and had been developing alternative sources of cotton, most notably India and Egypt. Britain had so much cotton that it was exporting some to France. England was not about to go to war with the U.S. to acquire more cotton at the risk of losing the large quantities of food imported from the North. Aside from the purely economic questions, there was also the clamorous ethical debate. Great Britain took pride in being a leader in suppressing slavery, ending it in its empire in 1833, and the end of the Atlantic slave trade was enforced by British vessels. Confederate diplomats found little support for American slavery, cotton trade or not. A series of slave narratives about American slavery was being published in London. It was in London that the first World Anti-Slavery Convention had been held in 1840; it was followed by regular smaller conferences. A string of eloquent and sometimes well-educated Negro abolitionist speakers crisscrossed not just England but Scotland and Ireland as well. In addition to exposing the reality of America's shameful and sinful chattel slavery—some were fugitive slaves—they rebutted the Confederate position that negroes were "unintellectual, timid, and dependent", and "not equal to the white man...the superior race," as it was put by Confederate Vice-President Alexander H. Stephens in his famous Cornerstone Speech. Frederick Douglass, Henry Highland Garnet, Sarah Parker Remond, her brother Charles Lenox Remond, James W. C. Pennington, Martin Delany, Samuel Ringgold Ward, and William G. Allen all spent years in Britain, where fugitive slaves were safe and, as Allen said, there was an "absence of prejudice against color. Here the colored man feels himself among friends, and not among enemies". One speaker alone, William Wells Brown, gave more than 1,000 lectures on the shame of American chattel slavery. Throughout the early years of the war, British foreign secretary Lord John Russell, Emperor Napoleon III of France, and, to a lesser extent, British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, showed interest in recognition of the Confederacy or at least mediation of the war. British Chancellor of the Exchequer William Gladstone, convinced of the necessity of intervention on the Confederate side based on the successful diplomatic intervention in Second Italian War of Independence against Austria, attempted unsuccessfully to convince Lord Palmerston to intervene. By September 1862 the Union victory at the Battle of Antietam, Lincoln's preliminary Emancipation Proclamation and abolitionist opposition in Britain put an end to these possibilities. The cost to Britain of a war with the U.S. would have been high: the immediate loss of American grain-shipments, the end of British exports to the U.S., and the seizure of billions of pounds invested in American securities. War would have meant higher taxes in Britain, another invasion of Canada, and full-scale worldwide attacks on the British merchant fleet. Outright recognition would have meant certain war with the United States; in mid-1862 fears of race war (as had transpired in the Haitian Revolution of 1791–1804) led to the British considering intervention for humanitarian reasons. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation did not lead to interracial violence, let alone a bloodbath, but it did give the friends of the Union strong talking points in the arguments that raged across Britain. John Slidell, the Confederate States emissary to France, did succeed in negotiating a loan of $15,000,000 from Erlanger and other French capitalists. The money went to buy ironclad warships, as well as military supplies that came in with blockade runners. The British government did allow the construction of blockade runners in Britain; they were owned and operated by British financiers and ship owners; a few were owned and operated by the Confederacy. The British investors' goal was to get highly profitable cotton. Several European nations maintained diplomats in place who had been appointed to the U.S., but no country appointed any diplomat to the Confederacy. Those nations recognized the Union and Confederate sides as belligerents. In 1863 the Confederacy expelled European diplomatic missions for advising their resident subjects to refuse to serve in the Confederate army. Both Confederate and Union agents were allowed to work openly in British territories. Some state governments in northern Mexico negotiated local agreements to cover trade on the Texas border. The Confederacy appointed Ambrose Dudley Mann as special agent to the Holy See on September 24, 1863. But the Holy See never released a formal statement supporting or recognizing the Confederacy. In November 1863, Mann met Pope Pius IX in person and received a letter supposedly addressed "to the Illustrious and Honorable Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America"; Mann had mistranslated the address. In his report to Richmond, Mann claimed a great diplomatic achievement for himself, asserting the letter was "a positive recognition of our Government". The letter was indeed used in propaganda, but Confederate Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin told Mann it was "a mere inferential recognition, unconnected with political action or the regular establishment of diplomatic relations" and thus did not assign it the weight of formal recognition. Nevertheless, the Confederacy was seen internationally as a serious attempt at nationhood, and European governments sent military observers, both official and unofficial, to assess whether there had been a de facto establishment of independence. These observers included Arthur Lyon Fremantle of the British Coldstream Guards, who entered the Confederacy via Mexico, Fitzgerald Ross of the Austrian Hussars, and Justus Scheibert of the Prussian Army. European travelers visited and wrote accounts for publication. Importantly in 1862, the Frenchman Charles Girard's Seven months in the rebel states during the North American War testified "this government ... is no longer a trial government ... but really a normal government, the expression of popular will". Fremantle went on to write in his book Three Months in the Southern States that he had French Emperor Napoleon III assured Confederate diplomat John Slidell that he would make "direct proposition" to Britain for joint recognition. The Emperor made the same assurance to British Members of Parliament John A. Roebuck and John A. Lindsay. Roebuck in turn publicly prepared a bill to submit to Parliament June 30 supporting joint Anglo-French recognition of the Confederacy. "Southerners had a right to be optimistic, or at least hopeful, that their revolution would prevail, or at least endure." Following the double disasters at Vicksburg and Gettysburg in July 1863, the Confederates "suffered a severe loss of confidence in themselves", and withdrew into an interior defensive position. There would be no help from the Europeans. By December 1864, Davis considered sacrificing slavery in order to enlist recognition and aid from Paris and London; he secretly sent Duncan F. Kenner to Europe with a message that the war was fought solely for "the vindication of our rights to self-government and independence" and that "no sacrifice is too great, save that of honor". The message stated that if the French or British governments made their recognition conditional on anything at all, the Confederacy would consent to such terms. Davis's message could not explicitly acknowledge that slavery was on the bargaining table due to still-strong domestic support for slavery among the wealthy and politically influential. European leaders all saw that the Confederacy was on the verge of total defeat. Confederacy at war Motivations of soldiers Most young white men voluntarily joined Confederate national or state military units. Perman (2010) says historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years: Military strategy Civil War historian E. Merton Coulter wrote that for those who would secure its independence, "The Confederacy was unfortunate in its failure to work out a general strategy for the whole war". Aggressive strategy called for offensive force concentration. Defensive strategy sought dispersal to meet demands of locally minded governors. The controlling philosophy evolved into a combination "dispersal with a defensive concentration around Richmond". The Davis administration considered the war purely defensive, a "simple demand that the people of the United States would cease to war upon us". Historian James M. McPherson is a critic of Lee's offensive strategy: "Lee pursued a faulty military strategy that ensured Confederate defeat". As the Confederate government lost control of territory in campaign after campaign, it was said that "the vast size of the Confederacy would make its conquest impossible". The enemy would be struck down by the same elements which so often debilitated or destroyed visitors and transplants in the South. Heat exhaustion, sunstroke, endemic diseases such as malaria and typhoid would match the destructive effectiveness of the Moscow winter on the invading armies of Napoleon. Early in the war both sides believed that one great battle would decide the conflict; the Confederates won a surprise victory at the First Battle of Bull Run, also known as First Manassas (the name used by Confederate forces). It drove the Confederate people "insane with joy"; the public demanded a forward movement to capture Washington, relocate the Confederate capital there, and admit Maryland to the Confederacy. A council of war by the victorious Confederate generals decided not to advance against larger numbers of fresh Federal troops in defensive positions. Davis did not countermand it. Following the Confederate incursion into Maryland halted at the Battle of Antietam in October 1862, generals proposed concentrating forces from state commands to re-invade the north. Nothing came of it. Again in mid-1863 at his incursion into Pennsylvania, Lee requested that Davis Beauregard simultaneously attack Washington with troops taken from the Carolinas. But the troops there remained in place during the Gettysburg Campaign. The eleven states of the Confederacy were outnumbered by the North about four-to-one in white men of military age. It was overmatched far more in military equipment, industrial facilities, railroads for transport, and wagons supplying the front. Confederates slowed the Yankee invaders, at heavy cost to the Southern infrastructure. The Confederates burned bridges, laid land mines in the roads, and made harbors inlets and inland waterways unusable with sunken mines (called "torpedoes" at the time). Coulter reports: The Confederacy relied on external sources for war materials. The first came from trade with the enemy. "Vast amounts of war supplies" came through Kentucky, and thereafter, western armies were "to a very considerable extent" provisioned with illicit trade via Federal agents and northern private traders. But that trade was interrupted in the first year of war by Admiral Porter's river gunboats as they gained dominance along navigable rivers north–south and east–west. Overseas blockade running then came to be of "outstanding importance". On April 17, President Davis called on privateer raiders, the "militia of the sea", to wage war on U.S. seaborne commerce. Despite noteworthy effort, over the course of the war the Confederacy was found unable to match the Union in ships and seamanship, materials and marine construction. An inescapable obstacle to success in the warfare of mass armies was the Confederacy's lack of manpower, and sufficient numbers of disciplined, equipped troops in the field at the point of contact with the enemy. During the winter of 1862–63, Lee observed that none of his famous victories had resulted in the destruction of the opposing army. He lacked reserve troops to exploit an advantage on the battlefield as Napoleon had done. Lee explained, "More than once have most promising opportunities been lost for want of men to take advantage of them, and victory itself had been made to put on the appearance of defeat, because our diminished and exhausted troops have been unable to renew a successful struggle against fresh numbers of the enemy." Armed forces The military armed forces of the Confederacy comprised three branches: Army, Navy and Marine Corps. The Confederate military leadership included many veterans from the United States Army and United States Navy who had resigned their Federal commissions and were appointed to senior positions. Many had served in the Mexican–American War (including Robert E. Lee and Jefferson Davis), but some such as Leonidas Polk (who graduated from West Point but did not serve in the Army) had little or no experience. The Confederate officer corps consisted of men from both slave-owning and non-slave-owning families. The Confederacy appointed junior and field grade officers by election from the enlisted ranks. Although no Army service academy was established for the Confederacy, some colleges (such as The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute) maintained cadet corps that trained Confederate military leadership. A naval academy was established at Drewry's Bluff, Virginia in 1863, but no midshipmen graduated before the Confederacy's end. Most soldiers were white males aged between 16 and 28. The median year of birth was 1838, so half the soldiers were 23 or older by 1861. In early 1862, the Confederate Army was allowed to disintegrate for two months following expiration of short-term enlistments. Most of those in uniform would not re-enlist following their one-year commitment, so on April 16, 1862, the Confederate Congress enacted the first mass conscription on the North American continent. (The U.S. Congress followed a year later on March 3, 1863, with the Enrollment Act.) Rather than a universal draft, the initial program was a selective service with physical, religious, professional and industrial exemptions. These were narrowed as the war progressed. Initially substitutes were permitted, but by December 1863 these were disallowed. In September 1862 the age limit was increased from 35 to 45 and by February 1864, all men under 18 and over 45 were conscripted to form a reserve for state defense inside state borders. By March 1864, the Superintendent of Conscription reported that all across the Confederacy, every officer in constituted authority, man and woman, "engaged in opposing the enrolling officer in the execution of his duties". Although challenged in the state courts, the Confederate State Supreme Courts routinely rejected legal challenges to conscription. Many thousands of slaves served as personal servants to their owner, or were hired as laborers, cooks, and pioneers. Some freed blacks and men of color served in local state militia units of the Confederacy, primarily in Louisiana and South Carolina, but their officers deployed them for "local defense, not combat". Depleted by casualties and desertions, the military suffered chronic manpower shortages. In early 1865, the Confederate Congress, influenced by the public support by General Lee, approved the recruitment of black infantry units. Contrary to Lee's and Davis's recommendations, the Congress refused "to guarantee the freedom of black volunteers". No more than two hundred black combat troops were ever raised. Raising troops The immediate onset of war meant that it was fought by the "Provisional" or "Volunteer Army". State governors resisted concentrating a national effort. Several wanted a strong state army for self-defense. Others feared large "Provisional" armies answering only to Davis. When filling the Confederate government's call for 100,000 men, another 200,000 were turned away by accepting only those enlisted "for the duration" or twelve-month volunteers who brought their own arms or horses. It was important to raise troops; it was just as important to provide capable officers to command them. With few exceptions the Confederacy secured excellent general officers. Efficiency in the lower officers was "greater than could have been reasonably expected". As with the Federals, political appointees could be indifferent. Otherwise, the officer corps was governor-appointed or elected by unit enlisted. Promotion to fill vacancies was made internally regardless of merit, even if better officers were immediately available. Anticipating the need for more "duration" men, in January 1862 Congress provided for company level recruiters to return home for two months, but their efforts met little success on the heels of Confederate battlefield defeats in February. Congress allowed for Davis to require numbers of recruits from each governor to supply the volunteer shortfall. States responded by passing their own draft laws. The veteran Confederate army of early 1862 was mostly twelve-month volunteers with terms about to expire. Enlisted reorganization elections disintegrated the army for two months. Officers pleaded with the ranks to re-enlist, but a majority did not. Those remaining elected majors and colonels whose performance led to officer review boards in October. The boards caused a "rapid and widespread" thinning out of 1,700 incompetent officers. Troops thereafter would elect only second lieutenants. In early 1862, the popular press suggested the Confederacy required a million men under arms. But veteran soldiers were not re-enlisting, and earlier secessionist volunteers did not reappear to serve in war. One Macon, Georgia, newspaper asked how two million brave fighting men of the South were about to be overcome by four million northerners who were said to be cowards. Conscription The Confederacy passed the first American law of national conscription on April 16, 1862. The white males of the Confederate States from 18 to 35 were declared members of the Confederate army for three years, and all men then enlisted were extended to a three-year term. They would serve only in units and under officers of their state. Those under 18 and over 35 could substitute for conscripts, in September those from 35 to 45 became conscripts. The cry of "rich man's war and a poor man's fight" led Congress to abolish the substitute system altogether in December 1863. All principals benefiting earlier were made eligible for service. By February 1864, the age bracket was made 17 to 50, those under eighteen and over forty-five to be limited to in-state duty. Confederate conscription was not universal; it was a selective service. The First Conscription Act of April 1862 exempted occupations related to transportation, communication, industry, ministers, teaching and physical fitness. The Second Conscription Act of October 1862 expanded exemptions in industry, agriculture and conscientious objection. Exemption fraud proliferated in medical examinations, army furloughs, churches, schools, apothecaries and newspapers. Rich men's sons were appointed to the socially outcast "overseer" occupation, but the measure was received in the country with "universal odium". The legislative vehicle was the controversial Twenty Negro Law that specifically exempted one white overseer or owner for every plantation with at least 20 slaves. Backpedaling six months later, Congress provided overseers under 45 could be exempted only if they held the occupation before the first Conscription Act. The number of officials under state exemptions appointed by state Governor patronage expanded significantly. By law, substitutes could not be subject to conscription, but instead of adding to Confederate manpower, unit officers in the field reported that over-50 and under-17-year-old substitutes made up to 90% of the desertions. The Conscription Act of February 1864 "radically changed the whole system" of selection. It abolished industrial exemptions, placing detail authority in President Davis. As the shame of conscription was greater than a felony conviction, the system brought in "about as many volunteers as it did conscripts." Many men in otherwise "bombproof" positions were enlisted in one way or another, nearly 160,000 additional volunteers and conscripts in uniform. Still there was shirking. To administer the draft, a Bureau of Conscription was set up to use state officers, as state Governors would allow. It had a checkered career of "contention, opposition and futility". Armies appointed alternative military "recruiters" to bring in the out-of-uniform 17–50-year-old conscripts and deserters. Nearly 3,000 officers were tasked with the job. By late 1864, Lee was calling for more troops. "Our ranks are constantly diminishing by battle and disease, and few recruits are received; the consequences are inevitable." By March 1865 conscription was to be administered by generals of the state reserves calling out men over 45 and under 18 years old. All exemptions were abolished. These regiments were assigned to recruit conscripts ages 17–50, recover deserters, and repel enemy cavalry raids. The service retained men who had lost but one arm or a leg in home guards. Ultimately, conscription was a failure, and its main value was in goading men to volunteer. The survival of the Confederacy depended on a strong base of civilians and soldiers devoted to victory. The soldiers performed well, though increasing numbers deserted in the last year of fighting, and the Confederacy never succeeded in replacing casualties as the Union could. The civilians, although enthusiastic in 1861–62, seem to have lost faith in the future of the Confederacy by 1864, and instead looked to protect their homes and communities. As Rable explains, "This contraction of civic vision was more than a crabbed libertarianism; it represented an increasingly widespread disillusionment with the Confederate experiment." Victories: 1861 The American Civil War broke out in April 1861 with a Confederate victory at the Battle of Fort Sumter in Charleston. In January, President James Buchanan had attempted to resupply the garrison with the steamship, Star of the West, but Confederate artillery drove it away. In March, President Lincoln notified South Carolina Governor Pickens that without Confederate resistance to the resupply there would be no military reinforcement without further notice, but Lincoln prepared to force resupply if it were not allowed. Confederate President Davis, in cabinet, decided to seize Fort Sumter before the relief fleet arrived, and on April 12, 1861, General Beauregard forced its surrender. Following Sumter, Lincoln directed states to provide 75,000 troops for three months to recapture the Charleston Harbor forts and all other federal property. This emboldened secessionists in Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina to secede rather than provide troops to march into neighboring Southern states. In May, Federal troops crossed into Confederate territory along the entire border from the Chesapeake Bay to New Mexico. The first battles were Confederate victories at Big Bethel (Bethel Church, Virginia), First Bull Run (First Manassas) in Virginia July and in August, Wilson's Creek (Oak Hills) in Missouri. At all three, Confederate forces could not follow up their victory due to inadequate supply and shortages of fresh troops to exploit their successes. Following each battle, Federals maintained a military presence and occupied Washington, DC; Fort Monroe, Virginia; and Springfield, Missouri. Both North and South began training up armies for major fighting the next year. Union General George B. McClellan's forces gained possession of much of northwestern Virginia in mid-1861, concentrating on towns and roads; the interior was too large to control and became the center of guerrilla activity. General Robert E. Lee was defeated at Cheat Mountain in September and no serious Confederate advance in western Virginia occurred until the next year. Meanwhile, the Union Navy seized control of much of the Confederate coastline from Virginia to South Carolina. It took over plantations and the abandoned slaves. Federals there began a war-long policy of burning grain supplies up rivers into the interior wherever they could not occupy. The Union Navy began a blockade of the major southern ports and prepared an invasion of Louisiana to capture New Orleans in early 1862. Incursions: 1862 The victories of 1861 were followed by a series of defeats east and west in early 1862. To restore the Union by military force, the Federal strategy was to (1) secure the Mississippi River, (2) seize or close Confederate ports, and (3) march on Richmond. To secure independence, the Confederate intent was to (1) repel the invader on all fronts, costing him blood and treasure, and (2) carry the war into the North by two offensives in time to affect the mid-term elections. Much of northwestern Virginia was under Federal control. In February and March, most of Missouri and Kentucky were Union "occupied, consolidated, and used as staging areas for advances further South". Following the repulse of Confederate counter-attack at the Battle of Shiloh, Tennessee, permanent Federal occupation expanded west, south and east. Confederate forces repositioned south along the Mississippi River to Memphis, Tennessee, where at the naval Battle of Memphis, its River Defense Fleet was sunk. Confederates withdrew from northern Mississippi and northern Alabama. New Orleans was captured April 29 by a combined Army-Navy force under U.S. Admiral David Farragut, and the Confederacy lost control of the mouth of the Mississippi River. It had to concede extensive agricultural resources that had supported the Union's sea-supplied logistics base. Although Confederates had suffered major reverses everywhere, as of the end of April the Confederacy still controlled territory holding 72% of its population. Federal forces disrupted Missouri and Arkansas; they had broken through in western Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Louisiana. Along the Confederacy's shores, Union forces had closed ports and made garrisoned lodgments on every coastal Confederate state except Alabama and Texas. Although scholars sometimes assess the Union blockade as ineffectual under international law until the last few months of the war, from the first months it disrupted Confederate privateers, making it "almost impossible to bring their prizes into Confederate ports". British firms developed small fleets of blockade running companies, such as John Fraser and Company and S. Isaac, Campbell & Company while the Ordnance Department secured its own blockade runners for dedicated munitions cargoes. During the Civil War fleets of armored warships were deployed for the first time in sustained blockades at sea. After some success against the Union blockade, in March the ironclad CSS Virginia was forced into port and burned by Confederates at their retreat. Despite several attempts mounted from their port cities, CSA naval forces were unable to break the Union blockade. Attempts were made by Commodore Josiah Tattnall III's ironclads from Savannah in 1862 with the CSS Atlanta. Secretary of the Navy Stephen Mallory placed his hopes in a European-built ironclad fleet, but they were never realized. On the other hand, four new English-built commerce raiders served the Confederacy, and several fast blockade runners were sold in Confederate ports. They were converted into commerce-raiding cruisers, and manned by their British crews. In the east, Union forces could not close on Richmond. General McClellan landed his army on the Lower Peninsula of Virginia. Lee subsequently ended that threat from the east, then Union General John Pope attacked overland from the north only to be repulsed at Second Bull Run (Second Manassas). Lee's strike north was turned back at Antietam MD, then Union Major General Ambrose Burnside's offensive was disastrously ended at Fredericksburg VA in December. Both armies then turned to winter quarters to recruit and train for the coming spring. In an attempt to seize the initiative, reprove, protect farms in mid-growing season and influence U.S. Congressional elections, two major Confederate incursions into Union territory had been launched in August and September 1862. Both Braxton Bragg's invasion of Kentucky and Lee's invasion of Maryland were decisively repulsed, leaving Confederates in control of but 63% of its population. Civil War scholar Allan Nevins argues that 1862 was the strategic high-water mark of the Confederacy. The failures of the two invasions were attributed to the same irrecoverable shortcomings: lack of manpower at the front, lack of supplies including serviceable shoes, and exhaustion after long marches without adequate food. Also in September Confederate General William W. Loring pushed Federal forces from Charleston, Virginia, and the Kanawha Valley in western Virginia, but lacking reinforcements Loring abandoned his position and by November the region was back in Federal control. Anaconda: 1863–64 The failed Middle Tennessee campaign was ended January 2, 1863, at the inconclusive Battle of Stones River (Murfreesboro), both sides losing the largest percentage of casualties suffered during the war. It was followed by another strategic withdrawal by Confederate forces. The Confederacy won a significant victory April 1863, repulsing the Federal advance on Richmond at Chancellorsville, but the Union consolidated positions along the Virginia coast and the Chesapeake Bay. Without an effective answer to Federal gunboats, river transport and supply, the Confederacy lost the Mississippi River following the capture of Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Port Hudson in July, ending Southern access to the trans-Mississippi West. July brought short-lived counters, Morgan's Raid into Ohio and the New York City draft riots. Robert E. Lee's strike into Pennsylvania was repulsed at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania despite Pickett's famous charge and other acts of valor. Southern newspapers assessed the campaign as "The Confederates did not gain a victory, neither did the enemy." September and November left Confederates yielding Chattanooga, Tennessee, the gateway to the lower south. For the remainder of the war fighting was restricted inside the South, resulting in a slow but continuous loss of territory. In early 1864, the Confederacy still controlled 53% of its population, but it withdrew further to reestablish defensive positions. Union offensives continued with Sherman's March to the Sea to take Savannah and Grant's Wilderness Campaign to encircle Richmond and besiege Lee's army at Petersburg. In April 1863, the C.S. Congress authorized a uniformed Volunteer Navy, many of whom were British. The Confederacy had altogether eighteen commerce-destroying cruisers, which seriously disrupted Federal commerce at sea and increased shipping insurance rates 900%. Commodore Tattnall again unsuccessfully attempted to break the Union blockade on the Savannah River in Georgia with an ironclad in 1863. Beginning in April 1864 the ironclad CSS Albemarle engaged Union gunboats for six months on the Roanoke River in North Carolina. The Federals closed Mobile Bay by sea-based amphibious assault in August, ending Gulf coast trade east of the Mississippi River. In December, the Battle of Nashville ended Confederate operations in the western theater. Large numbers of families relocated to safer places, usually remote rural areas, bringing along household slaves if they had any. Mary Massey argues these elite exiles introduced an element of defeatism into the southern outlook. Collapse: 1865 The first three months of 1865 saw the Federal Carolinas Campaign, devastating a wide swath of the remaining Confederate heartland. The "breadbasket of the Confederacy" in the Great Valley of Virginia was occupied by Philip Sheridan. The Union Blockade captured Fort Fisher in North Carolina, and Sherman finally took Charleston, South Carolina, by land attack. The Confederacy controlled no ports, harbors or navigable rivers. Railroads were captured or had ceased operating. Its major food producing regions had been war-ravaged or occupied. Its administration survived in only three pockets of territory holding only one-third of its population. Its armies were defeated or disbanding. At the February 1865 Hampton Roads Conference with Lincoln, senior Confederate officials rejected his invitation to restore the Union with compensation for emancipated slaves. The three pockets of unoccupied Confederacy were southern Virginia – North Carolina, central Alabama – Florida, and Texas, the latter two areas less from any notion of resistance than from the disinterest of Federal forces to occupy them. The Davis policy was independence or nothing, while Lee's army was wracked by disease and desertion, barely holding the trenches defending Jefferson Davis' capital. The Confederacy's last remaining blockade-running port, Wilmington, North Carolina, was lost. When the Union broke through Lee's lines at Petersburg, Richmond fell immediately. Lee surrendered a remnant of 50,000 from the Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9, 1865. "The Surrender" marked the end of the Confederacy. The CSS Stonewall sailed from Europe to break the Union blockade in March; on making Havana, Cuba, it surrendered. Some high officials escaped to Europe, but President Davis was captured May 10; all remaining Confederate land forces surrendered by June 1865. The U.S. Army took control of the Confederate areas without post-surrender insurgency or guerrilla warfare against them, but peace was subsequently marred by a great deal of local violence, feuding and revenge killings. The last confederate military unit, the commerce raider CSS Shenandoah, surrendered on November 6, 1865 in Liverpool. Historian Gary Gallagher concluded that the Confederacy capitulated in early 1865 because northern armies crushed "organized southern military resistance". The Confederacy's population, soldier and civilian, had suffered material hardship and social disruption. They had expended and extracted a profusion of blood and treasure until collapse; "the end had come". Jefferson Davis' assessment in 1890 determined, "With the capture of the capital, the dispersion of the civil authorities, the surrender of the armies in the field, and the arrest of the President, the Confederate States of America disappeared ... their history henceforth became a part of the history of the United States." Postwar history Amnesty and treason issue When the war ended over 14,000 Confederates petitioned President Johnson for a pardon; he was generous in giving them out. He issued a general amnesty to all Confederate participants in the "late Civil War" in 1868. Congress passed additional Amnesty Acts in May 1866 with restrictions on office holding, and the Amnesty Act in May 1872 lifting those restrictions. There was a great deal of discussion in 1865 about bringing treason trials, especially against Jefferson Davis. There was no consensus in President Johnson's cabinet, and no one was charged with treason. An acquittal of Davis would have been humiliating for the government. Davis was indicted for treason but never tried; he was released from prison on bail in May 1867. The amnesty of December 25, 1868, by President Johnson eliminated any possibility of Jefferson Davis (or anyone else associated with the Confederacy) standing trial for treason. Henry Wirz, the commandant of a notorious prisoner-of-war camp near Andersonville, Georgia, was tried and convicted by a military court, and executed on November 10, 1865. The charges against him involved conspiracy and cruelty, not treason. The U.S. government began a decade-long process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. The priorities were: to guarantee that Confederate nationalism and slavery were ended, to ratify and enforce the Thirteenth Amendment which outlawed slavery; the Fourteenth which guaranteed dual U.S. and state citizenship to all native-born residents, regardless of race; and the Fifteenth, which made it illegal to deny the right to vote because of race. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states. Federal troops were withdrawn from the South, where conservative white Democrats had already regained political control of state governments, often through extreme violence and fraud to suppress black voting. The prewar South had many rich areas; the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure, and exhausted resources. Still dependent on an agricultural economy and resisting investment in infrastructure, it remained dominated by the planter elite into the next century. Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy, and Democrat-dominated legislatures passed new constitutions and amendments to now exclude most blacks and many poor whites. This exclusion and a weakened Republican Party remained the norm until the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The Solid South of the early 20th century did not achieve national levels of prosperity until long after World War II. Texas v. White In Texas v. White, the United States Supreme Court ruled – by a 5–3 majority – that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States of America. In this case, the court held that the Constitution did not permit a state to unilaterally secede from the United States. Further, that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were "absolutely null", under the Constitution. This case settled the law that applied to all questions regarding state legislation during the war. Furthermore, it decided one of the "central constitutional questions" of the Civil War: The Union is perpetual and indestructible, as a matter of constitutional law. In declaring that no state could leave the Union, "except through revolution or through consent of the States", it was "explicitly repudiating the position of the Confederate states that the United States was a voluntary compact between sovereign states". Theories regarding the Confederacy's demise "Died of states' rights" Historian Frank Lawrence Owsley argued that the Confederacy "died of states' rights". The central government was denied requisitioned soldiers and money by governors and state legislatures because they feared that Richmond would encroach on the rights of the states. Georgia's governor Joseph Brown warned of a secret conspiracy by Jefferson Davis to destroy states' rights and individual liberty. The first conscription act in North America, authorizing Davis to draft soldiers, was said to be the "essence of military despotism". Vice President Alexander H. Stephens feared losing the very form of republican government. Allowing President Davis to threaten "arbitrary arrests" to draft hundreds of governor-appointed "bomb-proof" bureaucrats conferred "more power than the English Parliament had ever bestowed on the king. History proved the dangers of such unchecked authority." The abolishment of draft exemptions for newspaper editors was interpreted as an attempt by the Confederate government to muzzle presses, such as the Raleigh NC Standard, to control elections and to suppress the peace meetings there. As Rable concludes, "For Stephens, the essence of patriotism, the heart of the Confederate cause, rested on an unyielding commitment to traditional rights" without considerations of military necessity, pragmatism or compromise. In 1863 governor Pendleton Murrah of Texas determined that state troops were required for defense against Plains Indians and Union forces that might attack from Kansas. He refused to send his soldiers to the East. Governor Zebulon Vance of North Carolina showed intense opposition to conscription, limiting recruitment success. Vance's faith in states' rights drove him into repeated, stubborn opposition to the Davis administration. Despite political differences within the Confederacy, no national political parties were formed because they were seen as illegitimate. "Anti-partyism became an article of political faith." Without a system of political parties building alternate sets of national leaders, electoral protests tended to be narrowly state-based, "negative, carping and petty". The 1863 mid-term elections became mere expressions of futile and frustrated dissatisfaction. According to historian David M. Potter, the lack of a functioning two-party system caused "real and direct damage" to the Confederate war effort since it prevented the formulation of any effective alternatives to the conduct of the war by the Davis administration. "Died of Davis" The enemies of President Davis proposed that the Confederacy "died of Davis". He was unfavorably compared to George Washington by critics such as Edward Alfred Pollard, editor of the most influential newspaper in the Confederacy, the Richmond (Virginia) Examiner. E. Merton Coulter summarizes, "The American Revolution had its Washington; the Southern Revolution had its Davis ... one succeeded and the other failed." Beyond the early honeymoon period, Davis was never popular. He unwittingly caused much internal dissension from early on. His ill health and temporary bouts of blindness disabled him for days at a time. Coulter, viewed by today's historians as a Confederate apologist, says Davis was heroic and his will was indomitable. But his "tenacity, determination, and will power" stirred up lasting opposition from enemies that Davis could not shake. He failed to overcome "petty leaders of the states" who made the term "Confederacy" into a label for tyranny and oppression, preventing the "Stars and Bars" from becoming a symbol of larger patriotic service and sacrifice. Instead of campaigning to develop nationalism and gain support for his administration, he rarely courted public opinion, assuming an aloofness, "almost like an Adams". Escott argues that Davis was unable to mobilize Confederate nationalism in support of his government effectively, and especially failed to appeal to the small farmers who comprised the bulk of the population. In addition to the problems caused by states rights, Escott also emphasizes that the widespread opposition to any strong central government combined with the vast difference in wealth between the slave-owning class and the small farmers created insolvable dilemmas when the Confederate survival presupposed a strong central government backed by a united populace. The prewar claim that white solidarity was necessary to provide a unified Southern voice in Washington no longer held. Davis failed to build a network of supporters who would speak up when he came under criticism, and he repeatedly alienated governors and other state-based leaders by demanding centralized control of the war effort. According to Coulter, Davis was not an efficient administrator as he attended to too many details, protected his friends after their failures were obvious, and spent too much time on military affairs versus his civic responsibilities. Coulter concludes he was not the ideal leader for the Southern Revolution, but he showed "fewer weaknesses than any other" contemporary character available for the role. Robert E. Lee's assessment of Davis as president was, "I knew of none that could have done as well." Government and politics Political divisions Constitution The Southern leaders met in Montgomery, Alabama, to write their constitution. Much of the Confederate States Constitution replicated the United States Constitution verbatim, but it contained several explicit protections of the institution of slavery including provisions for the recognition and protection of slavery in any territory of the Confederacy. It maintained the ban on international slave-trading, though it made the ban's application explicit to "Negroes of the African race" in contrast to the U.S. Constitution's reference to "such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit". It protected the existing internal trade of slaves among slaveholding states. In certain areas, the Confederate Constitution gave greater powers to the states (or curtailed the powers of the central government more) than the U.S. Constitution of the time did, but in other areas, the states lost rights they had under the U.S. Constitution. Although the Confederate Constitution, like the U.S. Constitution, contained a commerce clause, the Confederate version prohibited the central government from using revenues collected in one state for funding internal improvements in another state. The Confederate Constitution's equivalent to the U.S. Constitution's general welfare clause prohibited protective tariffs (but allowed tariffs for providing domestic revenue), and spoke of "carry[ing] on the Government of the Confederate States" rather than providing for the "general welfare". State legislatures had the power to impeach officials of the Confederate government in some cases. On the other hand, the Confederate Constitution contained a Necessary and Proper Clause and a Supremacy Clause that essentially duplicated the respective clauses of the U.S. Constitution. The Confederate Constitution also incorporated each of the 12 amendments to the U.S. Constitution that had been ratified up to that point. The Confederate Constitution did not specifically include a provision allowing states to secede; the Preamble spoke of each state "acting in its sovereign and independent character" but also of the formation of a "permanent federal government". During the debates on drafting the Confederate Constitution, one proposal would have allowed states to secede from the Confederacy. The proposal was tabled with only the South Carolina delegates voting in favor of considering the motion. The Confederate Constitution also explicitly denied States the power to bar slaveholders from other parts of the Confederacy from bringing their slaves into any state of the Confederacy or to interfere with the property rights of slave owners traveling between different parts of the Confederacy. In contrast with the secular language of the United States Constitution, the Confederate Constitution overtly asked God's blessing ("... invoking the favor and guidance of Almighty God ..."). Executive The Montgomery Convention to establish the Confederacy and its executive met on February 4, 1861. Each state as a sovereignty had one vote, with the same delegation size as it held in the U.S. Congress, and generally 41 to 50 members attended. Offices were "provisional", limited to a term not to exceed one year. One name was placed in nomination for president, one for vice president. Both were elected unanimously, 6–0. Jefferson Davis was elected provisional president. His U.S. Senate resignation speech greatly impressed with its clear rationale for secession and his pleading for a peaceful departure from the Union to independence. Although he had made it known that he wanted to be commander-in-chief of the Confederate armies, when elected, he assumed the office of Provisional President. Three candidates for provisional Vice President were under consideration the night before the February 9 election. All were from Georgia, and the various delegations meeting in different places determined two would not do, so Alexander H. Stephens was elected unanimously provisional Vice President, though with some privately held reservations. Stephens was inaugurated February 11, Davis February 18. Davis and Stephens were elected president and vice president, unopposed on November 6, 1861. They were inaugurated on February 22, 1862. Historian and Confederate apologist E. M. Coulter stated, "No president of the U.S. ever had a more difficult task." Washington was inaugurated in peacetime. Lincoln inherited an established government of long standing. The creation of the Confederacy was accomplished by men who saw themselves as fundamentally conservative. Although they referred to their "Revolution", it was in their eyes more a counter-revolution against changes away from their understanding of U.S. founding documents. In Davis' inauguration speech, he explained the Confederacy was not a French-like revolution, but a transfer of rule. The Montgomery Convention had assumed all the laws of the United States until superseded by the Confederate Congress. The Permanent Constitution provided for a President of the Confederate States of America, elected to serve a six-year term but without the possibility of re-election. Unlike the United States Constitution, the Confederate Constitution gave the president the ability to subject a bill to a line item veto, a power also held by some state governors. The Confederate Congress could overturn either the general or the line item vetoes with the same two-thirds votes required in the U.S. Congress. In addition, appropriations not specifically requested by the executive branch required passage by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress. The only person to serve as president was Jefferson Davis, as the Confederacy was defeated before the completion of his term. Administration and cabinet Legislative The only two "formal, national, functioning, civilian administrative bodies" in the Civil War South were the Jefferson Davis administration and the Confederate Congresses. The Confederacy was begun by the Provisional Congress in Convention at Montgomery, Alabama on February 28, 1861. The Provisional Confederate Congress was a unicameral assembly, each state received one vote. The Permanent Confederate Congress was elected and began its first session February 18, 1862. The Permanent Congress for the Confederacy followed the United States forms with a bicameral legislature. The Senate had two per state, twenty-six Senators. The House numbered 106 representatives apportioned by free and slave populations within each state. Two Congresses sat in six sessions until March 18, 1865. The political influences of the civilian, soldier vote and appointed representatives reflected divisions of political geography of a diverse South. These in turn changed over time relative to Union occupation and disruption, the war impact on the local economy, and the course of the war. Without political parties, key candidate identification related to adopting secession before or after Lincoln's call for volunteers to retake Federal property. Previous party affiliation played a part in voter selection, predominantly secessionist Democrat or unionist Whig. The absence of political parties made individual roll call voting all the more important, as the Confederate "freedom of roll-call voting [was] unprecedented in American legislative history." Key issues throughout the life of the Confederacy related to (1) suspension of habeas corpus, (2) military concerns such as control of state militia, conscription and exemption, (3) economic and fiscal policy including impressment of slaves, goods and scorched earth, and (4) support of the Jefferson Davis administration in its foreign affairs and negotiating peace. Provisional Congress For the first year, the unicameral Provisional Confederate Congress functioned as the Confederacy's legislative branch. President of the Provisional Congress Howell Cobb, Sr. of Georgia, February 4, 1861 – February 17, 1862 Presidents pro tempore of the Provisional Congress Robert Woodward Barnwell of South Carolina, February 4, 1861 Thomas Stanhope Bocock of Virginia, December 10–21, 1861 and January 7–8, 1862 Josiah Abigail Patterson Campbell of Mississippi, December 23–24, 1861 and January 6, 1862 Sessions of the Confederate Congress Provisional Congress 1st Congress 2nd Congress Tribal Representatives to Confederate Congress Elias Cornelius Boudinot 1862–65, Cherokee Samuel Benton Callahan Unknown years, Creek, Seminole Burton Allen Holder 1864–65, Chickasaw Robert McDonald Jones 1863–65, Choctaw Judicial The Confederate Constitution outlined a judicial branch of the government, but the ongoing war and resistance from states-rights advocates, particularly on the question of whether it would have appellate jurisdiction over the state courts, prevented the creation or seating of the "Supreme Court of the Confederate States;" the state courts generally continued to operate as they had done, simply recognizing the Confederate States as the national government. Confederate district courts were authorized by Article III, Section 1, of the Confederate Constitution, and President Davis appointed judges within the individual states of the Confederate States of America. In many cases, the same US Federal District Judges were appointed as Confederate States District Judges. Confederate district courts began reopening in early 1861, handling many of the same type cases as had been done before. Prize cases, in which Union ships were captured by the Confederate Navy or raiders and sold through court proceedings, were heard until the blockade of southern ports made this impossible. After a Sequestration Act was passed by the Confederate Congress, the Confederate district courts heard many cases in which enemy aliens (typically Northern absentee landlords owning property in the South) had their property sequestered (seized) by Confederate Receivers. When the matter came before the Confederate court, the property owner could not appear because he was unable to travel across the front lines between Union and Confederate forces. Thus, the District Attorney won the case by default, the property was typically sold, and the money used to further the Southern war effort. Eventually, because there was no Confederate Supreme Court, sharp attorneys like South Carolina's Edward McCrady began filing appeals. This prevented their clients' property from being sold until a supreme court could be constituted to hear the appeal, which never occurred. Where Federal troops gained control over parts of the Confederacy and re-established civilian government, US district courts sometimes resumed jurisdiction. Supreme Court – not established. District Courts – judges Alabama William G. Jones 1861–65 Arkansas Daniel Ringo 1861–65 Florida Jesse J. Finley 1861–62 Georgia Henry R. Jackson 1861, Edward J. Harden 1861–65 Louisiana Edwin Warren Moise 1861–65 Mississippi Alexander Mosby Clayton 1861–65 North Carolina Asa Biggs 1861–65 South Carolina Andrew G. Magrath 1861–64, Benjamin F. Perry 1865 Tennessee West H. Humphreys 1861–65 Texas-East William Pinckney Hill 1861–65 Texas-West Thomas J. Devine 1861–65 Virginia-East James D. Halyburton 1861–65 Virginia-West John W. Brockenbrough 1861–65 Post Office When the Confederacy was formed and its seceding states broke from the Union, it was at once confronted with the arduous task of providing its citizens with a mail delivery system, and, in the midst of the American Civil War, the newly formed Confederacy created and established the Confederate Post Office. One of the first undertakings in establishing the Post Office was the appointment of John H. Reagan to the position of Postmaster General, by Jefferson Davis in 1861, making him the first Postmaster General of the Confederate Post Office as well as a member of Davis' presidential cabinet. Writing in 1906, historian Walter Flavius McCaleb praised Reagan's "energy and intelligence... in a degree scarcely matched by any of his associates." When the war began, the US Post Office still delivered mail from the secessionist states for a brief period of time. Mail that was postmarked after the date of a state's admission into the Confederacy through May 31, 1861, and bearing US postage was still delivered. After this time, private express companies still managed to carry some of the mail across enemy lines. Later, mail that crossed lines had to be sent by 'Flag of Truce' and was allowed to pass at only two specific points. Mail sent from the Confederacy to the U.S. was received, opened and inspected at Fortress Monroe on the Virginia coast before being passed on into the U.S. mail stream. Mail sent from the North to the South passed at City Point, also in Virginia, where it was also inspected before being sent on. With the chaos of the war, a working postal system was more important than ever for the Confederacy. The Civil War had divided family members and friends and consequently letter writing increased dramatically across the entire divided nation, especially to and from the men who were away serving in an army. Mail delivery was also important for the Confederacy for a myriad of business and military reasons. Because of the Union blockade, basic supplies were always in demand and so getting mailed correspondence out of the country to suppliers was imperative to the successful operation of the Confederacy. Volumes of material have been written about the Blockade runners who evaded Union ships on blockade patrol, usually at night, and who moved cargo and mail in and out of the Confederate States throughout the course of the war. Of particular interest to students and historians of the American Civil War is Prisoner of War mail and Blockade mail as these items were often involved with a variety of military and other war time activities. The postal history of the Confederacy along with surviving Confederate mail has helped historians document the various people, places and events that were involved in the American Civil War as it unfolded. Civil liberties The Confederacy actively used the army to arrest people suspected of loyalty to the United States. Historian Mark Neely found 4,108 names of men arrested and estimated a much larger total. The Confederacy arrested pro-Union civilians in the South at about the same rate as the Union arrested pro-Confederate civilians in the North. Neely argues: Economy Slaves Across the South, widespread rumors alarmed the whites by predicting the slaves were planning some sort of insurrection. Patrols were stepped up. The slaves did become increasingly independent, and resistant to punishment, but historians agree there were no insurrections. In the invaded areas, insubordination was more the norm than was loyalty to the old master; Bell Wiley says, "It was not disloyalty, but the lure of freedom." Many slaves became spies for the North, and large numbers ran away to federal lines. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, an executive order of the U.S. government on January 1, 1863, changed the legal status of three million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave" to "free". The long-term effect was that the Confederacy could not preserve the institution of slavery, and lost the use of the core element of its plantation labor force. Slaves were legally freed by the Proclamation, and became free by escaping to federal lines, or by advances of federal troops. Over 200,000 freed slaves were hired by the federal army as teamsters, cooks, launderers and laborers, and eventually as soldiers. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their slaves as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By "Juneteenth" (June 19, 1865, in Texas), the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and had liberated all its slaves. The former slaves never received compensation and, unlike British policy, neither did the owners. Political economy Most whites were subsistence farmers who traded their surpluses locally. The plantations of the South, with white ownership and an enslaved labor force, produced substantial wealth from cash crops. It supplied two-thirds of the world's cotton, which was in high demand for textiles, along with tobacco, sugar, and naval stores (such as turpentine). These raw materials were exported to factories in Europe and the Northeast. Planters reinvested their profits in more slaves and fresh land, as cotton and tobacco depleted the soil. There was little manufacturing or mining; shipping was controlled by non-southerners. The plantations that enslaved over three million black people were the principal source of wealth. Most were concentrated in "black belt" plantation areas (because few white families in the poor regions owned slaves). For decades, there had been widespread fear of slave revolts. During the war, extra men were assigned to "home guard" patrol duty and governors sought to keep militia units at home for protection. Historian William Barney reports, "no major slave revolts erupted during the Civil War." Nevertheless, slaves took the opportunity to enlarge their sphere of independence, and when union forces were nearby, many ran off to join them. Slave labor was applied in industry in a limited way in the Upper South and in a few port cities. One reason for the regional lag in industrial development was top-heavy income distribution. Mass production requires mass markets, and slaves living in small cabins, using self-made tools and outfitted with one suit of work clothes each year of inferior fabric, did not generate consumer demand to sustain local manufactures of any description in the same way as did a mechanized family farm of free labor in the North. The Southern economy was "pre-capitalist" in that slaves were put to work in the largest revenue-producing enterprises, not free labor markets. That labor system as practiced in the American South encompassed paternalism, whether abusive or indulgent, and that meant labor management considerations apart from productivity. Approximately 85% of both the North and South white populations lived on family farms, both regions were predominantly agricultural, and mid-century industry in both was mostly domestic. But the Southern economy was pre-capitalist in its overwhelming reliance on the agriculture of cash crops to produce wealth, while the great majority of farmers fed themselves and supplied a small local market. Southern cities and industries grew faster than ever before, but the thrust of the rest of the country's exponential growth elsewhere was toward urban industrial development along transportation systems of canals and railroads. The South was following the dominant currents of the American economic mainstream, but at a "great distance" as it lagged in the all-weather modes of transportation that brought cheaper, speedier freight shipment and forged new, expanding inter-regional markets. A third count of the pre-capitalist Southern economy relates to the cultural setting. The South and southerners did not adopt a work ethic, nor the habits of thrift that marked the rest of the country. It had access to the tools of capitalism, but it did not adopt its culture. The Southern Cause as a national economy in the Confederacy was grounded in "slavery and race, planters and patricians, plain folk and folk culture, cotton and plantations". National production The Confederacy started its existence as an agrarian economy with exports, to a world market, of cotton, and, to a lesser extent, tobacco and sugarcane. Local food production included grains, hogs, cattle, and gardens. The cash came from exports but the Southern people spontaneously stopped exports in early 1861 to hasten the impact of "King Cotton", a failed strategy to coerce international support for the Confederacy through its cotton exports. When the blockade was announced, commercial shipping practically ended (the ships could not get insurance), and only a trickle of supplies came via blockade runners. The cutoff of exports was an economic disaster for the South, rendering useless its most valuable properties, its plantations and their enslaved workers. Many planters kept growing cotton, which piled up everywhere, but most turned to food production. All across the region, the lack of repair and maintenance wasted away the physical assets. The eleven states had produced $155 million in manufactured goods in 1860, chiefly from local grist-mills, and lumber, processed tobacco, cotton goods and naval stores such as turpentine. The main industrial areas were border cities such as Baltimore, Wheeling, Louisville and St. Louis, that were never under Confederate control. The government did set up munitions factories in the Deep South. Combined with captured munitions and those coming via blockade runners, the armies were kept minimally supplied with weapons. The soldiers suffered from reduced rations, lack of medicines, and the growing shortages of uniforms, shoes and boots. Shortages were much worse for civilians, and the prices of necessities steadily rose. The Confederacy adopted a tariff or tax on imports of 15%, and imposed it on all imports from other countries, including the United States. The tariff mattered little; the Union blockade minimized commercial traffic through the Confederacy's ports, and very few people paid taxes on goods smuggled from the North. The Confederate government in its entire history collected only $3.5 million in tariff revenue. The lack of adequate financial resources led the Confederacy to finance the war through printing money, which led to high inflation. The Confederacy underwent an economic revolution by centralization and standardization, but it was too little too late as its economy was systematically strangled by blockade and raids. Transportation systems In peacetime, the South's extensive and connected systems of navigable rivers and coastal access allowed for cheap and easy transportation of agricultural products. The railroad system in the South had developed as a supplement to the navigable rivers to enhance the all-weather shipment of cash crops to market. Railroads tied plantation areas to the nearest river or seaport and so made supply more dependable, lowered costs and increased profits. In the event of invasion, the vast geography of the Confederacy made logistics difficult for the Union. Wherever Union armies invaded, they assigned many of their soldiers to garrison captured areas and to protect rail lines. At the onset of the Civil War the South had a rail network disjointed and plagued by changes in track gauge as well as lack of interchange. Locomotives and freight cars had fixed axles and could not use tracks of different gauges (widths). Railroads of different gauges leading to the same city required all freight to be off-loaded onto wagons for transport to the connecting railroad station, where it had to await freight cars and a locomotive before proceeding. Centers requiring off-loading included Vicksburg, New Orleans, Montgomery, Wilmington and Richmond. In addition, most rail lines led from coastal or river ports to inland cities, with few lateral railroads. Because of this design limitation, the relatively primitive railroads of the Confederacy were unable to overcome the Union naval blockade of the South's crucial intra-coastal and river routes. The Confederacy had no plan to expand, protect or encourage its railroads. Southerners' refusal to export the cotton crop in 1861 left railroads bereft of their main source of income. Many lines had to lay off employees; many critical skilled technicians and engineers were permanently lost to military service. In the early years of the war the Confederate government had a hands-off approach to the railroads. Only in mid-1863 did the Confederate government initiate a national policy, and it was confined solely to aiding the war effort. Railroads came under the de facto control of the military. In contrast, the U.S. Congress had authorized military administration of Union-controlled railroad and telegraph systems in January 1862, imposed a standard gauge, and built railroads into the South using that gauge. Confederate armies successfully reoccupying territory could not be resupplied directly by rail as they advanced. The C.S. Congress formally authorized military administration of railroads in February 1865. In the last year before the end of the war, the Confederate railroad system stood permanently on the verge of collapse. There was no new equipment and raids on both sides systematically destroyed key bridges, as well as locomotives and freight cars. Spare parts were cannibalized; feeder lines were torn up to get replacement rails for trunk lines, and rolling stock wore out through heavy use. Horses and mules The Confederate army experienced a persistent shortage of horses and mules, and requisitioned them with dubious promissory notes given to local farmers and breeders. Union forces paid in real money and found ready sellers in the South. Both armies needed horses for cavalry and for artillery. Mules pulled the wagons. The supply was undermined by an unprecedented epidemic of glanders, a fatal disease that baffled veterinarians. After 1863 the invading Union forces had a policy of shooting all the local horses and mules that they did not need, in order to keep them out of Confederate hands. The Confederate armies and farmers experienced a growing shortage of horses and mules, which hurt the Southern economy and the war effort. The South lost half of its 2.5 million horses and mules; many farmers ended the war with none left. Army horses were used up by hard work, malnourishment, disease and battle wounds; they had a life expectancy of about seven months. Financial instruments Both the individual Confederate states and later the Confederate government printed Confederate States of America dollars as paper currency in various denominations, with a total face value of $1.5 billion. Much of it was signed by Treasurer Edward C. Elmore. Inflation became rampant as the paper money depreciated and eventually became worthless. The state governments and some localities printed their own paper money, adding to the runaway inflation. Many bills still exist, although in recent years counterfeit copies have proliferated. The Confederate government initially wanted to finance its war mostly through tariffs on imports, export taxes, and voluntary donations of gold. After the spontaneous imposition of an embargo on cotton sales to Europe in 1861, these sources of revenue dried up and the Confederacy increasingly turned to issuing debt and printing money to pay for war expenses. The Confederate States politicians were worried about angering the general population with hard taxes. A tax increase might disillusion many Southerners, so the Confederacy resorted to printing more money. As a result, inflation increased and remained a problem for the southern states throughout the rest of the war. By April 1863, for example, the cost of flour in Richmond had risen to $100 a barrel and housewives were rioting. The Confederate government took over the three national mints in its territory: the Charlotte Mint in North Carolina, the Dahlonega Mint in Georgia, and the New Orleans Mint in Louisiana. During 1861 all of these facilities produced small amounts of gold coinage, and the latter half dollars as well. Since the mints used the current dies on hand, all appear to be U.S. issues. However, by comparing slight differences in the dies specialists can distinguish 1861-O half dollars that were minted either under the authority of the U.S. government, the State of Louisiana, or finally the Confederate States. Unlike the gold coins, this issue was produced in significant numbers (over 2.5 million) and is inexpensive in lower grades, although fakes have been made for sale to the public. However, before the New Orleans Mint ceased operation in May, 1861, the Confederate government used its own reverse design to strike four half dollars. This made one of the great rarities of American numismatics. A lack of silver and gold precluded further coinage. The Confederacy apparently also experimented with issuing one cent coins, although only 12 were produced by a jeweler in Philadelphia, who was afraid to send them to the South. Like the half dollars, copies were later made as souvenirs. US coinage was hoarded and did not have any general circulation. U.S. coinage was admitted as legal tender up to $10, as were British sovereigns, French Napoleons and Spanish and Mexican doubloons at a fixed rate of exchange. Confederate money was paper and postage stamps. Food shortages and riots By mid-1861, the Union naval blockade virtually shut down the export of cotton and the import of manufactured goods. Food that formerly came overland was cut off. As women were the ones who remained at home, they had to make do with the lack of food and supplies. They cut back on purchases, used old materials, and planted more flax and peas to provide clothing and food. They used ersatz substitutes when possible, but there was no real coffee, only okra and chicory substitutes. The households were severely hurt by inflation in the cost of everyday items like flour, and the shortages of food, fodder for the animals, and medical supplies for the wounded. State governments requested that planters grow less cotton and more food, but most refused. When cotton prices soared in Europe, expectations were that Europe would soon intervene to break the blockade and make them rich, but Europe remained neutral. The Georgia legislature imposed cotton quotas, making it a crime to grow an excess. But food shortages only worsened, especially in the towns. The overall decline in food supplies, made worse by the inadequate transportation system, led to serious shortages and high prices in urban areas. When bacon reached a dollar a pound in 1863, the poor women of Richmond, Atlanta and many other cities began to riot; they broke into shops and warehouses to seize food, as they were angry at ineffective state relief efforts, speculators, and merchants. As wives and widows of soldiers, they were hurt by the inadequate welfare system. Devastation by 1865 By the end of the war deterioration of the Southern infrastructure was widespread. The number of civilian deaths is unknown. Every Confederate state was affected, but most of the war was fought in Virginia and Tennessee, while Texas and Florida saw the least military action. Much of the damage was caused by direct military action, but most was caused by lack of repairs and upkeep, and by deliberately using up resources. Historians have recently estimated how much of the devastation was caused by military action. Paul Paskoff calculates that Union military operations were conducted in 56% of 645 counties in nine Confederate states (excluding Texas and Florida). These counties contained 63% of the 1860 white population and 64% of the slaves. By the time the fighting took place, undoubtedly some people had fled to safer areas, so the exact population exposed to war is unknown. The eleven Confederate States in the 1860 United States Census had 297 towns and cities with 835,000 people; of these 162 with 681,000 people were at one point occupied by Union forces. Eleven were destroyed or severely damaged by war action, including Atlanta (with an 1860 population of 9,600), Charleston, Columbia, and Richmond (with prewar populations of 40,500, 8,100, and 37,900, respectively); the eleven contained 115,900 people in the 1860 census, or 14% of the urban South. Historians have not estimated what their actual population was when Union forces arrived. The number of people (as of 1860) who lived in the destroyed towns represented just over 1% of the Confederacy's 1860 population. In addition, 45 court houses were burned (out of 830). The South's agriculture was not highly mechanized. The value of farm implements and machinery in the 1860 Census was $81 million; by 1870, there was 40% less, worth just $48 million. Many old tools had broken through heavy use; new tools were rarely available; even repairs were difficult. The economic losses affected everyone. Banks and insurance companies were mostly bankrupt. Confederate currency and bonds were worthless. The billions of dollars invested in slaves vanished. Most debts were also left behind. Most farms were intact but most had lost their horses, mules and cattle; fences and barns were in disrepair. Paskoff shows the loss of farm infrastructure was about the same whether or not fighting took place nearby. The loss of infrastructure and productive capacity meant that rural widows throughout the region faced not only the absence of able-bodied men, but a depleted stock of material resources that they could manage and operate themselves. During four years of warfare, disruption, and blockades, the South used up about half its capital stock. The North, by contrast, absorbed its material losses so effortlessly that it appeared richer at the end of the war than at the beginning. The rebuilding took years and was hindered by the low price of cotton after the war. Outside investment was essential, especially in railroads. One historian has summarized the collapse of the transportation infrastructure needed for economic recovery: Effect on women and families About 250,000 men never came home, some 30 percent of all white men aged 18 to 40 (as counted in 1860). Widows who were overwhelmed often abandoned their farms and merged into the households of relatives, or even became refugees living in camps with high rates of disease and death. In the Old South, being an "old maid" was something of an embarrassment to the woman and her family, but after the war, it became almost a norm. Some women welcomed the freedom of not having to marry. Divorce, while never fully accepted, became more common. The concept of the "New Woman" emerged – she was self-sufficient and independent, and stood in sharp contrast to the "Southern Belle" of antebellum lore. National flags The first official flag of the Confederate States of America – called the "Stars and Bars" – originally had seven stars, representing the first seven states that initially formed the Confederacy. As more states joined, more stars were added, until the total was 13 (two stars were added for the divided states of Kentucky and Missouri). During the First Battle of Bull Run, (First Manassas) it sometimes proved difficult to distinguish the Stars and Bars from the Union flag. To rectify the situation, a separate "Battle Flag" was designed for use by troops in the field. Also known as the "Southern Cross", many variations sprang from the original square configuration. Although it was never officially adopted by the Confederate government, the popularity of the Southern Cross among both soldiers and the civilian population was a primary reason why it was made the main color feature when a new national flag was adopted in 1863. This new standard – known as the "Stainless Banner" – consisted of a lengthened white field area with a Battle Flag canton. This flag too had its problems when used in military operations as, on a windless day, it could easily be mistaken for a flag of truce or surrender. Thus, in 1865, a modified version of the Stainless Banner was adopted. This final national flag of the Confederacy kept the Battle Flag canton, but shortened the white field and added a vertical red bar to the fly end. Because of its depiction in the 20th-century and popular media, many people consider the rectangular battle flag with the dark blue bars as being synonymous with "the Confederate Flag", but this flag was never adopted as a Confederate national flag. The "Confederate Flag" has a color scheme similar to that of the most common Battle Flag design, but is rectangular, not square. The "Confederate Flag" is a highly recognizable symbol of the South in the United States today, and continues to be a controversial icon. Geography Region and climate The Confederate States of America claimed a total of of coastline, thus a large part of its territory lay on the seacoast with level and often sandy or marshy ground. Most of the interior portion consisted of arable farmland, though much was also hilly and mountainous, and the far western territories were deserts. The lower reaches of the Mississippi River bisected the country, with the western half often referred to as the Trans-Mississippi. The highest point (excluding Arizona and New Mexico) was Guadalupe Peak in Texas at . Climate Much of the area claimed by the Confederate States of America had a humid subtropical climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. The climate and terrain varied from vast swamps (such as those in Florida and Louisiana) to semi-arid steppes and arid deserts west of longitude 100 degrees west. The subtropical climate made winters mild but allowed infectious diseases to flourish. Consequently, on both sides more soldiers died from disease than were killed in combat, a fact hardly atypical of pre-World War I conflicts. Demographics Population The United States Census of 1860 gives a picture of the overall 1860 population for the areas that had joined the Confederacy. Note that the population numbers exclude non-assimilated Indian tribes. In 1860, the areas that later formed the eleven Confederate states (and including the future West Virginia) had 132,760 (1.46%) free blacks. Males made up 49.2% of the total population and females 50.8% (whites: 48.60% male, 51.40% female; slaves: 50.15% male, 49.85% female; free blacks: 47.43% male, 52.57% female). Rural and urban population The CSA was overwhelmingly rural. Few towns had populations of more than 1,000 – the typical county seat had a population of fewer than 500. Cities were rare; of the twenty largest U.S. cities in the 1860 census, only New Orleans lay in Confederate territory – and the Union captured New Orleans in 1862. Only 13 Confederate-controlled cities ranked among the top 100 U.S. cities in 1860, most of them ports whose economic activities vanished or suffered severely in the Union blockade. The population of Richmond swelled after it became the Confederate capital, reaching an estimated 128,000 in 1864. Other Southern cities in the border slave-holding states such as Baltimore, Washington, D.C., Wheeling, Alexandria, Louisville, and St. Louis never came under the control of the Confederate government. The cities of the Confederacy included most prominently in order of size of population: (See also Atlanta in the Civil War, Charleston, South Carolina, in the Civil War, Nashville in the Civil War, New Orleans in the Civil War, Wilmington, North Carolina, in the American Civil War, and Richmond in the Civil War). Religion The CSA was overwhelmingly Protestant. Both free and enslaved populations identified with evangelical Protestantism. Baptists and Methodists together formed majorities of both the white and the slave population (see Black church). Freedom of religion and separation of church and state were fully ensured by Confederate laws. Church attendance was very high and chaplains played a major role in the Army. Most large denominations experienced a North–South split in the prewar era on the issue of slavery. The creation of a new country necessitated independent structures. For example, the Presbyterian Church in the United States split, with much of the new leadership provided by Joseph Ruggles Wilson (father of President Woodrow Wilson). In 1861, he organized the meeting that formed the General Assembly of the Southern Presbyterian Church and served as its chief executive for 37 years. Baptists and Methodists both broke off from their Northern coreligionists over the slavery issue, forming the Southern Baptist Convention and the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, respectively. Elites in the southeast favored the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Confederate States of America, which had reluctantly split from the Episcopal Church in 1861. Other elites were Presbyterians belonging to the 1861-founded Presbyterian Church in the United States. Catholics included an Irish working class element in coastal cities and an old French element in southern Louisiana. Other insignificant and scattered religious populations included Lutherans, the Holiness movement, other Reformed, other Christian fundamentalists, the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, the Churches of Christ, the Latter Day Saint movement, Adventists, Muslims, Jews, Native American animists, deists and irreligious people. The southern churches met the shortage of Army chaplains by sending missionaries. The Southern Baptists started in 1862 and had a total of 78 missionaries. Presbyterians were even more active with 112 missionaries in January 1865. Other missionaries were funded and supported by the Episcopalians, Methodists, and Lutherans. One result was wave after wave of revivals in the Army. Military leaders Military leaders of the Confederacy (with their state or country of birth and highest rank) included: Robert E. Lee (Virginia) – General & General in Chief P. G. T. Beauregard (Louisiana) – General Braxton Bragg (North Carolina) – General Samuel Cooper (New York) – General Albert Sidney Johnston (Kentucky) – General Joseph E. Johnston (Virginia) – General Edmund Kirby Smith (Florida)General Simon Bolivar Buckner, Sr. (Kentucky)Lieutenant General Jubal Early (Virginia) – Lieutenant-General Richard S. Ewell (Virginia) – Lieutenant-General Nathan Bedford Forrest (Tennessee) – Lieutenant-General Wade Hampton III (South Carolina) – Lieutenant-General William J. Hardee (Georgia)Lieutenant-General A. P. Hill (Virginia) – Lieutenant-General Theophilus H. Holmes (North Carolina) Lieutenant-General John Bell Hood (Kentucky) – Lieutenant-General (temporary General) Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson (Virginia) – Lieutenant-General Stephen D. Lee (South Carolina)Lieutenant-General James Longstreet (South Carolina) – Lieutenant-General John C. Pemberton (Pennsylvania)Lieutenant-General Leonidas Polk (North Carolina) – Lieutenant-General Alexander P. Stewart (North Carolina)Lieutenant-General Richard Taylor (Kentucky) – Lieutenant-General (son of U.S. President Zachary Taylor) Joseph Wheeler (Georgia)Lieutenant-General John C. Breckinridge (Kentucky)Major-General & Secretary of War Richard H. Anderson (South Carolina)Major-General (temporary Lieutenant-General) Patrick Cleburne (Arkansas) – Major-General John Brown Gordon (Georgia)Major-General Henry Heth (Virginia)Major-General Daniel Harvey Hill (South Carolina)Major-General Edward Johnson (Virginia)Major-General Joseph B. Kershaw (South Carolina)Major-General Fitzhugh Lee (Virginia)Major-General George Washington Custis Lee (Virginia)Major-General William Henry Fitzhugh Lee (Virginia)Major-General William Mahone (Virginia)Major-General George Pickett (Virginia)Major-General Camillus J. Polignac (France) – Major-General Sterling Price (Missouri) – Major-General Stephen Dodson Ramseur (North Carolina) – Major-General Thomas L. Rosser (Virginia) – Major-General J. E. B. Stuart (Virginia) – Major-General Earl Van Dorn (Mississippi)Major-General John A. Wharton (Tennessee) – Major-General Edward Porter Alexander (Georgia) – Brigadier-General Francis Marion Cockrell (Missouri) – Brigadier-General Clement A. Evans (Georgia)Brigadier-General John Hunt Morgan (Kentucky) – Brigadier-General William N. Pendleton (Virginia) – Brigadier-General Stand Watie (Georgia) – Brigadier-General (last to surrender) Lawrence Sullivan Ross (Texas) – Brigadier-General John S. Mosby, the "Grey Ghost of the Confederacy" (Virginia) – Colonel Franklin Buchanan (Maryland) – Admiral Raphael Semmes (Maryland) – Rear Admiral See also American Civil War prison camps Cabinet of the Confederate States of America Commemoration of the American Civil War Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps Confederate colonies Confederate Patent Office Confederate war finance C.S.A.: The Confederate States of America Golden Circle (proposed country) History of the Southern United States List of Confederate arms manufacturers List of Confederate arsenals and armories List of Confederate monuments and memorials List of treaties of the Confederate States of America List of historical separatist movements List of civil wars National Civil War Naval Museum Notes References Bowman, John S. (ed), The Civil War Almanac, New York: Bison Books, 1983 Eicher, John H., & Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, Martis, Kenneth C. The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America 1861–1865 (1994) Further reading Overviews and reference American Annual Cyclopaedia for 1861 (N.Y.: Appleton's, 1864), an encyclopedia of events in the U.S. and CSA (and other countries); covers each state in detail Appletons' annual cyclopedia and register of important events: Embracing political, military, and ecclesiastical affairs; public documents; biography, statistics, commerce, finance, literature, science, agriculture, and mechanical industry, Volume 3 1863 (1864), thorough coverage of the events of 1863 Beringer, Richard E., Herman Hattaway, Archer Jones, and William N. Still Jr. Why the South Lost the Civil War. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986. . Boritt, Gabor S., and others., Why the Confederacy Lost, (1992) Coulter, E. Merton The Confederate States of America, 1861–1865, 1950 Current, Richard N., ed. Encyclopedia of the Confederacy (4 vol), 1993. 1900 pages, articles by scholars. Eaton, Clement A History of the Southern Confederacy, 1954 Faust, Patricia L., ed. Historical Times Illustrated History of the Civil War. New York: Harper & Row, 1986. . Gallagher, Gary W. The Confederate War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997. . Heidler, David S., and Jeanne T. Heidler, eds. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. . 2740 pages. McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. . standard military history of the war; Pulitzer Prize Nevins, Allan. The War for the Union. Vol. 1, The Improvised War 1861–1862. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1959. ; The War for the Union. Vol. 2, War Becomes Revolution 1862–1863. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1960. ; The War for the Union. Vol. 3, The Organized War 1863–1864. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971. ; The War for the Union. Vol. 4, The Organized War to Victory 1864–1865. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971. . The most detailed history of the war. Roland, Charles P. The Confederacy, (1960) brief survey Thomas, Emory M. The Confederate Nation, 1861–1865. New York: Harper & Row, 1979. . Standard political-economic-social history Wakelyn, Jon L. Biographical Dictionary of the Confederacy Greenwood Press Weigley, Russell F. A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2000. . Historiography Boles, John B. and Evelyn Thomas Nolen, eds. Interpreting Southern History: Historiographical Essays in Honor of Sanford W. Higginbotham (1987) Foote, Lorien. "Rethinking the Confederate home front." Journal of the Civil War Era 7.3 (2017): 446-465 online. Grant, Susan-Mary, and Brian Holden Reid, eds. The American civil war: explorations and reconsiderations (Longman, 2000.) Hettle, Wallace. Inventing Stonewall Jackson: A Civil War Hero in History and Memory (LSU Press, 2011). Link, Arthur S. and Rembert W. Patrick, eds. Writing Southern History: Essays in Historiography in Honor of Fletcher M. Green (1965) Sternhell, Yael A. "Revisionism Reinvented? The Antiwar Turn in Civil War Scholarship." Journal of the Civil War Era 3.2 (2013): 239–256 online. Woodworth, Steven E. ed. The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research (1996), 750 pages of historiography and bibliography State studies Tucker, Spencer, ed. American Civil War: A State-by-State Encyclopedia (2 vol 2015) 1019pp Border states Ash, Stephen V. Middle Tennessee society transformed, 1860–1870: war and peace in the Upper South (2006) Cooling, Benjamin Franklin. Fort Donelson's Legacy: War and Society in Kentucky and Tennessee, 1862–1863 (1997) Cottrell, Steve. Civil War in Tennessee (2001) 142pp Crofts, Daniel W. Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis. (1989) . Dollar, Kent, and others. Sister States, Enemy States: The Civil War in Kentucky and Tennessee (2009) Durham, Walter T. Nashville: The Occupied City, 1862–1863 (1985); Reluctant Partners: Nashville and the Union, 1863–1865 (1987) Mackey, Robert R. The Uncivil War: Irregular Warfare in the Upper South, 1861–1865 (University of Oklahoma Press, 2014) Temple, Oliver P. East Tennessee and the civil war (1899) 588pp online edition Alabama and Mississippi Fleming, Walter L. Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama (1905). the most detailed study; Dunning School full text online from Project Gutenberg Rainwater, Percy Lee. Mississippi: storm center of secession, 1856–1861 (1938) Rigdon, John. A Guide to Alabama Civil War Research (2011) Smith, Timothy B. Mississippi in the Civil War: The Home Front University Press of Mississippi, (2010) 265 pages; Examines the declining morale of Mississippians as they witnessed extensive destruction and came to see victory as increasingly improbable Sterkx, H. E. Partners in Rebellion: Alabama Women in the Civil War (Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1970) Storey, Margaret M. "Civil War Unionists and the Political Culture of Loyalty in Alabama, 1860–1861". Journal of Southern History (2003): 71–106. in JSTOR Storey, Margaret M., Loyalty and Loss: Alabama's Unionists in the Civil War and Reconstruction. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2004. Towns, Peggy Allen. Duty Driven: The Plight of North Alabama's African Americans During the Civil War (2012) Florida and Georgia DeCredico, Mary A. Patriotism for Profit: Georgia's Urban Entrepreneurs and the Confederate War Effort (1990) Fowler, John D. and David B. Parker, eds. Breaking the Heartland: The Civil War in Georgia (2011) Hill, Louise Biles. Joseph E. Brown and the Confederacy. (1972); He was the governor Johns, John Edwin. Florida During the Civil War (University of Florida Press, 1963) Johnson, Michael P. Toward A Patriarchal Republic: The Secession of Georgia (1977) Mohr, Clarence L. On the Threshold of Freedom: Masters and Slaves in Civil War Georgia (1986) Nulty, William H. Confederate Florida: The Road to Olustee (University of Alabama Press, 1994) Parks, Joseph H. Joseph E. Brown of Georgia (LSU Press, 1977) 612 pages; Governor Wetherington, Mark V. Plain Folk's Fight: The Civil War and Reconstruction in Piney Woods Georgia (2009) Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and West Bailey, Anne J., and Daniel E. Sutherland, eds. Civil War Arkansas: beyond battles and leaders (Univ of Arkansas Pr, 2000) Ferguson, John Lewis, ed. Arkansas and the Civil War (Pioneer Press, 1965) Ripley, C. Peter. Slaves and Freedmen in Civil War Louisiana (LSU Press, 1976) Snyder, Perry Anderson. Shreveport, Louisiana, during the Civil War and Reconstruction (1979) Underwood, Rodman L. Waters of Discord: The Union Blockade of Texas During the Civil War (McFarland, 2003) Winters, John D. The Civil War in Louisiana (LSU Press, 1991) Woods, James M. Rebellion and Realignment: Arkansas's Road to Secession. (1987) Wooster, Ralph A. Civil War Texas (Texas A&M University Press, 2014) North and South Carolina Barrett, John G. The Civil War in North Carolina (1995) Carbone, John S. The Civil War in Coastal North Carolina (2001) Cauthen, Charles Edward; Power, J. Tracy. South Carolina goes to war, 1860–1865 (1950) Hardy, Michael C. North Carolina in the Civil War (2011) Inscoe, John C. The Heart of Confederate Appalachia: Western North Carolina in the Civil War (2003) Lee, Edward J. and Ron Chepesiuk, eds. South Carolina in the Civil War: The Confederate Experience in Letters and Diaries (2004), primary sources Miller, Richard F., ed. States at War, Volume 6: The Confederate States Chronology and a Reference Guide for South Carolina in the Civil War (UP of New England, 2018). Virginia Ash, Stephen V. Rebel Richmond: Life and Death in the Confederate Capital (UNC Press, 2019). Ayers, Edward L. and others. Crucible of the Civil War: Virginia from Secession to Commemoration (2008) Bryan, T. Conn. Confederate Georgia (1953), the standard scholarly survey Davis, William C. and James I. Robertson, Jr., eds. Virginia at War 1861. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press, 2005. ; Virginia at War 1862 (2007); Virginia at War 1863 (2009); Virginia at War 1864 (2009); Virginia at War 1865 (2012) Snell, Mark A. West Virginia and the Civil War, Mountaineers Are Always Free, (2011) . Wallenstein, Peter, and Bertram Wyatt-Brown, eds. Virginia's Civil War (2008) Furgurson, Ernest B. Ashes of Glory: Richmond at War (1997) Social history, gender Bever, Megan L. "Prohibition, Sacrifice, and Morality in the Confederate States, 1861–1865." Journal of Southern History 85.2 (2019): 251–284 online. Brown, Alexis Girardin. "The Women Left Behind: Transformation of the Southern Belle, 1840–1880" (2000) Historian 62#4 pp 759–778. Cashin, Joan E. "Torn Bonnets and Stolen Silks: Fashion, Gender, Race, and Danger in the Wartime South." Civil War History 61#4 (2015): 338–361. online Chesson, Michael B. "Harlots or Heroines? A New Look at the Richmond Bread Riot." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 92#2 (1984): 131–175. in JSTOR Clinton, Catherine, and Silber, Nina, eds. Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War (1992) Davis, William C. and James I. Robertson Jr., eds. Virginia at War, 1865 (2012). Elliot, Jane Evans. Diary of Mrs. Jane Evans Elliot, 1837–1882 (1908) Faust, Drew Gilpin. Mothers of Invention: Women of the Slaveholding South in the American Civil War (1996) Faust, Drew Gilpin. This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (2008) Frank, Lisa Tendrich, ed. Women in the American Civil War (2008) Frank, Lisa Tendrich. The Civilian War: Confederate Women and Union Soldiers during Sherman's March (LSU Press, 2015). Gleeson. David T. The Green and the Gray: The Irish in the Confederate States of America (U of North Carolina Press, 2013); online review Glymph, Thavolia. The Women's Fight: The Civil War's Battles for Home, Freedom, and Nation (UNC Press, 2019). Hilde, Libra Rose. Worth a Dozen Men: Women and Nursing in the Civil War South (U of Virginia Press, 2012). Levine, Bruce. The Fall of the House of Dixie: The Civil War and the Social Revolution That Transformed the South (2013) Lowry, Thomas P. The Story the Soldiers Wouldn't Tell: Sex in the Civil War (Stackpole Books, 1994). Massey, Mary. Bonnet Brigades: American Women and the Civil War (1966), excellent overview North and South; reissued as Women in the Civil War (1994) "Bonnet Brigades at Fifty: Reflections on Mary Elizabeth Massey and Gender in Civil War History," Civil War History (2015) 61#4 pp 400–444. Massey, Mary Elizabeth. Refugee Life in the Confederacy, (1964) Rable, George C. Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism (1989) Slap, Andrew L. and Frank Towers, eds. Confederate Cities: The Urban South during the Civil War Era (U of Chicago Press, 2015). 302 pp. Stokes, Karen. South Carolina Civilians in Sherman's Path: Stories of Courage Amid Civil War Destruction (The History Press, 2012). Strong, Melissa J. "'The Finest Kind of Lady': Hegemonic Femininity in American Women’s Civil War Narratives." Women's Studies 46.1 (2017): 1–21 online. Swanson, David A., and Richard R. Verdugo. "The Civil War’s Demographic Impact on White Males in the Eleven Confederate States: An Analysis by State and Selected Age Groups." Journal of Political & Military Sociology 46.1 (2019): 1–26. Whites, LeeAnn. The Civil War as a Crisis in Gender: Augusta, Georgia, 1860–1890 (1995) Wiley, Bell Irwin Confederate Women (1975) online Wiley, Bell Irwin The Plain People of the Confederacy (1944) online Woodward, C. Vann, ed. Mary Chesnut's Civil War, 1981, detailed diary; primary source African Americans Andrews, William L. Slavery and Class in the American South: A Generation of Slave Narrative Testimony, 1840–1865 (Oxford UP, 2019). Ash, Stephen V. The Black Experience in the Civil War South (2010). Bartek, James M. "The Rhetoric of Destruction: Racial Identity and Noncombatant Immunity in the Civil War Era." (PhD Dissertation, University of Kentucky, 2010). online; Bibliography pp. 515–52. Frankel, Noralee. Freedom's Women: Black Women and Families in Civil War Era Mississippi (1999). Lang, Andrew F. In the Wake of War: Military Occupation, Emancipation, and Civil War America (LSU Press, 2017). Levin, Kevin M. Searching for Black Confederates: The Civil War’s Most Persistent Myth (UNC Press, 2019). Litwack, Leon F. Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (1979), on freed slaves Reidy, Joseph P. Illusions of Emancipation: The Pursuit of Freedom and Equality in the Twilight of Slavery (UNC Press, 2019). Wiley, Bell Irwin Southern Negroes: 1861–1865 (1938) Soldiers Broomall, James J. Private Confederacies: The Emotional Worlds of Southern Men as Citizens and Soldiers (UNC Press, 2019). Donald, David. "The Confederate as a Fighting Man." Journal of Southern History 25.2 (1959): 178–193. online Faust, Drew Gilpin. "Christian Soldiers: The Meaning of Revivalism in the Confederate Army." Journal of Southern History 53.1 (1987): 63–90 online. McNeill, William J. "A Survey of Confederate Soldier Morale During Sherman's Campaign Through Georgia and the Carolinas." Georgia Historical Quarterly 55.1 (1971): 1–25. Scheiber, Harry N. "The Pay of Confederate Troops and Problems of Demoralization: A Case of Administrative Failure." Civil War History 15.3 (1969): 226–236 online. Sheehan-Dean, Aaron. Why Confederates Fought: Family and Nation in Civil War Virginia (U of North Carolina Press, 2009). Watson, Samuel J. "Religion and combat motivation in the Confederate armies." Journal of Military History 58.1 (1994): 29+. Wiley, Bell Irwin. The life of Johnny Reb; the common soldier of the Confederacy (1971) online Wooster, Ralph A., and Robert Wooster. "'Rarin'for a Fight': Texans in the Confederate Army." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 84.4 (1981): 387–426 online. Intellectual history Bernath, Michael T. Confederate Minds: The Struggle for Intellectual Independence in the Civil War South (University of North Carolina Press; 2010) 412 pages. Examines the efforts of writers, editors, and other "cultural nationalists" to free the South from the dependence on Northern print culture and educational systems. Bonner, Robert E., "Proslavery Extremism Goes to War: The Counterrevolutionary Confederacy and Reactionary Militarism", Modern Intellectual History, 6 (August 2009), 261–85. Downing, David C. A South Divided: Portraits of Dissent in the Confederacy. (2007). Faust, Drew Gilpin. The Creation of Confederate Nationalism: Ideology and Identity in the Civil War South. (1988) Hutchinson, Coleman. Apples and Ashes: Literature, Nationalism, and the Confederate States of America. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 2012. Lentz, Perry Carlton Our Missing Epic: A Study in the Novels about the American Civil War, 1970 Rubin, Anne Sarah. A Shattered Nation: The Rise and Fall of the Confederacy, 1861–1868, 2005 A cultural study of Confederates' self images Political history Alexander, Thomas B., and Beringer, Richard E. The Anatomy of the Confederate Congress: A Study of the Influences of Member Characteristics on Legislative Voting Behavior, 1861–1865, (1972) Cooper, William J, Jefferson Davis, American (2000), standard biography Davis, William C. A Government of Our Own: The Making of the Confederacy. New York: The Free Press, a division of Macmillan, Inc., 1994. . Eckenrode, H. J., Jefferson Davis: President of the South, 1923 Levine, Bruce. Confederate Emancipation: Southern Plans to Free and Arm Slaves during the Civil War. (2006) Martis, Kenneth C., "The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America 1861–1865" (1994) Neely, Mark E. Jr., Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties (1993) Neely, Mark E. Jr. Southern Rights: Political Prisoners and the Myth of Confederate Constitutionalism. (1999) George C. Rable The Confederate Republic: A Revolution against Politics, 1994 Rembert, W. Patrick Jefferson Davis and His Cabinet (1944). Williams, William M. Justice in Grey: A History of the Judicial System of the Confederate States of America (1941) Yearns, Wilfred Buck The Confederate Congress (1960) Foreign affairs Blumenthal, Henry. "Confederate Diplomacy: Popular Notions and International Realities", Journal of Southern History, Vol. 32, No. 2 (May 1966), pp. 151–171 in JSTOR Cleland, Beau. "The Confederate States of America and the British Empire: Neutral Territory and Civil Wars." Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 16.4 (2016): 171–181. online Daddysman, James W. The Matamoros Trade: Confederate Commerce, Diplomacy, and Intrigue. (1984) online Foreman, Amanda. A World on Fire: Britain's Crucial Role in the American Civil War (2011) especially on Brits inside the Confederacy; Hubbard, Charles M. The Burden of Confederate Diplomacy (1998) Jones, Howard. Blue and Gray Diplomacy: A History of Union and Confederate Foreign Relations (2009) online Jones, Howard. Union in Peril: The Crisis Over British Intervention in the Civil War. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, Bison Books, 1997. . Originally published: Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992. Mahin, Dean B. One War at a Time: The International Dimensions of the American Civil War. Washington, DC: Brassey's, 2000. . Originally published: Washington, DC: Brassey's, 1999. Merli, Frank J. The Alabama, British Neutrality, and the American Civil War (2004). 225 pages. Owsley, Frank. King Cotton Diplomacy: Foreign Relations of the Confederate States of America (2nd ed. 1959) online Sainlaude, Steve. France and the American Civil War: A Diplomatic History (2019) excerpt Economic history Black, III, Robert C. The Railroads of the Confederacy. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1952, 1988. . Bonner, Michael Brem. "Expedient Corporatism and Confederate Political Economy", Civil War History, 56 (March 2010), 33–65. Dabney, Virginius Richmond: The Story of a City. Charlottesville: The University of Virginia Press, 1990 Grimsley, Mark The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy toward Southern Civilians, 1861–1865, 1995 Hurt, R. Douglas. Agriculture and the Confederacy: Policy, Productivity, and Power in the Civil War South (2015) Massey, Mary Elizabeth Ersatz in the Confederacy: Shortages and Substitutes on the Southern Homefront (1952) Paskoff, Paul F. "Measures of War: A Quantitative Examination of the Civil War's Destructiveness in the Confederacy", Civil War History (2008) 54#1 pp 35–62 in Project MUSE Ramsdell, Charles. Behind the Lines in the Southern Confederacy, 1994. Roark, James L. Masters without Slaves: Southern Planters in the Civil War and Reconstruction, 1977. Thomas, Emory M. The Confederacy as a Revolutionary Experience, 1992 Primary sources Carter, Susan B., ed. The Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition (5 vols), 2006 Commager, Henry Steele. The Blue and the Gray: The Story of the Civil War As Told by Participants. 2 vols. Indianapolis and New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1950. . Many reprints. Davis, Jefferson. The Rise of the Confederate Government. New York: Barnes & Noble, 2010. Original edition: 1881. . Davis, Jefferson. The Fall of the Confederate Government. New York: Barnes & Noble, 2010. Original edition: 1881. . Harwell, Richard B., The Confederate Reader (1957) Hettle, Wallace, ed. The Confederate Homefront: A History in Documents (LSU Press, 2017) 214 pages Jones, John B. A Rebel War Clerk's Diary at the Confederate States Capital, edited by Howard Swiggert, [1935] 1993. 2 vols. Richardson, James D., ed. A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Confederacy, Including the Diplomatic Correspondence 1861–1865, 2 volumes, 1906. Yearns, W. Buck and Barret, John G., eds. North Carolina Civil War Documentary, 1980. Confederate official government documents major online collection of complete texts in HTML format, from University of North Carolina Journal of the Congress of the Confederate States of America, 1861–1865 (7 vols), 1904. Available online at the Library of Congress0 External links Confederate offices Index of Politicians by Office Held or Sought Civil War Research & Discussion Group -*Confederate States of Am. Army and Navy Uniforms, 1861 The Countryman, 1862–1866, published weekly by Turnwold, Ga., edited by J.A. Turner The Federal and the Confederate Constitution Compared Confederate Postage Stamps Photographs of the original Confederate Constitution and other Civil War documents owned by the Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library at the University of Georgia Libraries. Photographic History of the Civil War, 10 vols., 1912. DocSouth: Documenting the American South – numerous online text, image, and audio collections. The Boston Athenæum has over 4000 Confederate imprints, including rare books, pamphlets, government documents, manuscripts, serials, broadsides, maps, and sheet music that have been conserved and digitized. Oklahoma Digital Maps: Digital Collections of Oklahoma and Indian Territory Confederate States of America Collection at the Library of Congress Religion in the CSA: Confederate Veteran Magazine, May, 1922 1861 establishments in North America 1865 disestablishments in North America Federal constitutional republics Former confederations Former countries of the United States Former regions and territories of the United States Former unrecognized countries History of the Southern United States Separatism in the United States Slavery in the United States States and territories established in 1861 States and territories disestablished in 1865

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican%20Republic

Dominican Republic

The Dominican Republic ( ; , ) is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean region. It occupies the eastern five-eighths of the island, which it shares with Haiti, making Hispaniola one of only two Caribbean islands, along with Saint Martin, that is shared by two sovereign states. The Dominican Republic is the second-largest nation in the Antilles by area (after Cuba) at , and third-largest by population, with approximately 10.8 million people (2020 est.), of whom approximately 3.3 million live in the metropolitan area of Santo Domingo, the capital city. The official language of the country is Spanish. The native Taíno people had inhabited Hispaniola before the arrival of Europeans, dividing it into five chiefdoms. They had constructed an advanced farming and hunting society, and were in the process of becoming an organized civilization. The Taínos also inhabited Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and the Bahamas. The Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus explored and claimed the island for Castile, landing there on his first voyage in 1492. The colony of Santo Domingo became the site of the first permanent European settlement in the Americas and the first seat of Spanish colonial rule in the New World. In 1697, Spain recognized French dominion over the western third of the island, which became the independent state of Haiti in 1804. After more than three hundred years of Spanish rule, the Dominican people declared independence in November 1821. The leader of the independence movement, José Núñez de Cáceres, intended the Dominican nation to unite with the country of Gran Colombia, but the newly independent Dominicans were forcefully annexed by Haiti in February 1822. Independence came 22 years later in 1844, after victory in the Dominican War of Independence. Over the next 72 years, the Dominican Republic experienced mostly civil wars (financed with loans from European merchants), several failed invasions by its neighbour, Haiti, and brief return to Spanish colonial status, before permanently ousting the Spanish during the Dominican War of Restoration of 1863–1865. During this period, two presidents were assassinated (Ulises Heureaux in 1899 and Ramón Cáceres in 1911). The U.S. occupied the Dominican Republic (1916–1924) due to threats of defaulting on foreign debts; a subsequent calm and prosperous six-year period under Horacio Vásquez followed. From 1930 the dictatorship of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo ruled until his assassination in 1961. Juan Bosch was elected president in 1962 but was deposed in a military coup in 1963. A civil war in 1965, the country's last, was ended by U.S. military intervention and was followed by the authoritarian rule of Joaquín Balaguer (1966–1978 and 1986–1996). Since 1978, the Dominican Republic has moved toward representative democracy, and has been led by Leonel Fernández for most of the time after 1996. Danilo Medina succeeded Fernández in 2012, winning 51% of the electoral vote over his opponent ex-president Hipólito Mejía. He was later succeeded by Luis Abinader in the 2020 presidential election. The Dominican Republic has the largest economy (according to the U.S. State Department and the World Bank) in the Caribbean and Central American region and is the seventh-largest economy in Latin America. Over the last 25 years, the Dominican Republic has had the fastest-growing economy in the Western Hemisphere – with an average real GDP growth rate of 5.3% between 1992 and 2018. GDP growth in 2014 and 2015 reached 7.3 and 7.0%, respectively, the highest in the Western Hemisphere. In the first half of 2016, the Dominican economy grew 7.4% continuing its trend of rapid economic growth. Recent growth has been driven by construction, manufacturing, tourism, and mining. The country is the site of the third largest gold mine in the world, the Pueblo Viejo mine. Private consumption has been strong, as a result of low inflation (under 1% on average in 2015), job creation, and a high level of remittances. Illegal Haitian immigration is a big problem in the Dominican Republic, putting a strain on the Dominican economy and increasing tensions between Dominicans and Haitians. The Dominican Republic is also home to 114,050 illegal immigrants from Venezuela. The Dominican Republic is the most visited destination in the Caribbean. The year-round golf courses are major attractions. A geographically diverse nation, the Dominican Republic is home to both the Caribbean's tallest mountain peak, Pico Duarte, and the Caribbean's largest lake and lowest point, Lake Enriquillo. The island has an average temperature of and great climatic and biological diversity. The country is also the site of the first cathedral, castle, monastery, and fortress built in the Americas, located in Santo Domingo's Colonial Zone, a World Heritage Site. Baseball is the de facto national sport. Etymology The name Dominican originates from Santo Domingo de Guzmán (Saint Dominic), the patron saint of astronomers, and founder of the Dominican Order. The Dominican Order established a house of high studies on the colony of Santo Domingo that is now known as the Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo, the first University in the New World. They dedicated themselves to the education of the inhabitants of the island, and to the protection of the native Taíno people who were subjected to slavery. For most of its history, up until independence, the colony was known simply as – the name of its present capital and patron saint, Saint Dominic – and continued to be commonly known as such in English until the early 20th century. The residents were called "Dominicans" (), the adjectival form of "Domingo", and as such, the revolutionaries named their newly independent country the "Dominican Republic" (). In the national anthem of the Dominican Republic (), the term "Dominicans" does not appear. The author of its lyrics, Emilio Prud'Homme, consistently uses the poetic term "Quisqueyans" (). The word "Quisqueya" derives from the Taíno language, and means "mother of the lands" (). It is often used in songs as another name for the country. The name of the country in English is often shortened to "the D.R." (), but this is rare in Spanish. History Pre-European history The Arawakan-speaking Taíno moved into Hispaniola from the north east region of what is now known as South America, displacing earlier inhabitants, c. 650 C.E. They engaged in farming, fishing, hunting and gathering. The fierce Caribs drove the Taíno to the northeastern Caribbean, during much of the 15th century. The estimates of Hispaniola's population in 1492 vary widely, including tens of thousands, one hundred thousand, three hundred thousand, and four hundred thousand to two million. Determining precisely how many people lived on the island in pre-Columbian times is next to impossible, as no accurate records exist. By 1492, the island was divided into five Taíno chiefdoms. The Taíno name for the entire island was either Ayiti or Quisqueya. The Spaniards arrived in 1492. Initially, after friendly relationships, the Taínos resisted the conquest, led by the female Chief Anacaona of Xaragua and her ex-husband Chief Caonabo of Maguana, as well as Chiefs Guacanagaríx, Guamá, Hatuey, and Enriquillo. The latter's successes gained his people an autonomous enclave for a time on the island. Within a few years after 1492, the population of Taínos had declined drastically, due to smallpox, measles, and other diseases that arrived with the Europeans. The first recorded smallpox outbreak, in the Americas, occurred on Hispaniola in 1507. The last record of pure Taínos in the country was from 1864. Still, Taíno biological heritage survived to an important extent, due to intermixing. Census records from 1514 reveal that 40% of Spanish men in Santo Domingo were married to Taíno women, and some present-day Dominicans have Taíno ancestry. Remnants of the Taíno culture include their cave paintings, such as the Pomier Caves, as well as pottery designs, which are still used in the small artisan village of Higüerito, Moca. European colonization Christopher Columbus arrived on the island on December 5, 1492, during the first of his four voyages to the Americas. He claimed the land for Spain and named it La Española, due to its diverse climate and terrain, which reminded him of the Spanish landscape. In 1496, Bartholomew Columbus, Christopher's brother, built the city of Santo Domingo, Western Europe's first permanent settlement in the "New World". The Spaniards created a plantation economy on the island. The colony was the springboard for the further Spanish conquest of America and for decades the headquarters of Spanish power in the hemisphere. The Taínos nearly disappeared, above all, due to European infectious diseases. Other causes were abuse, suicide, the breakup of family, starvation, the encomienda system, which resembled a feudal system in Medieval Europe, war with the Spaniards, changes in lifestyle, and mixing with other peoples. Laws passed for the native peoples' protection (beginning with the Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513) were never truly enforced. African slaves were imported to replace the dwindling Taínos. After its conquest of the Aztecs and Incas, Spain neglected its Caribbean holdings. Hispaniola's sugar plantation economy quickly declined. Most Spanish colonists left for the silver-mines of Mexico and Peru, while new immigrants from Spain bypassed the island. Agriculture dwindled, new imports of slaves ceased, and white colonists, free blacks, and slaves alike lived in poverty, weakening the racial hierarchy and aiding intermixing, resulting in a population of predominantly mixed Spaniard, Taíno, and African descent. Except for the city of Santo Domingo, which managed to maintain some legal exports, Dominican ports were forced to rely on contraband trade, which, along with livestock, became one of the main sources of livelihood for the island's inhabitants. In the mid-17th century, France sent colonists to settle the island of Tortuga and the northwestern coast of Hispaniola (which the Spaniards had abandoned by 1606) due to its strategic position in the region. In order to entice the pirates, France supplied them with women who had been taken from prisons, accused of prostitution and thieving. After decades of armed struggles with the French settlers, Spain ceded the western coast of the island to France with the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, whilst the Central Plateau remained under Spanish domain. France created a wealthy colony on the island, while the Spanish colony continued to suffer economic decline. On April 17, 1655, English forces landed on Hispaniola, and marched 30 miles overland to Santo Domingo, the main Spanish stronghold on the island, where they laid siege to it. Spanish lancers attacked the English forces, sending them careening back toward the beach in confusion. The English commander hid behind a tree where, in the words of one of his soldiers, he was "so much possessed with terror that he could hardly speak". The Spanish defenders who had secured victory were rewarded with titles from the Spanish Crown. 18th century The House of Bourbon replaced the House of Habsburg in Spain in 1700, and introduced economic reforms that gradually began to revive trade in Santo Domingo. The crown progressively relaxed the rigid controls and restrictions on commerce between Spain and the colonies and among the colonies. The last flotas sailed in 1737; the monopoly port system was abolished shortly thereafter. By the middle of the century, the population was bolstered by emigration from the Canary Islands, resettling the northern part of the colony and planting tobacco in the Cibao Valley, and importation of slaves was renewed. Santo Domingo's exports soared and the island's agricultural productivity rose, which was assisted by the involvement of Spain in the Seven Years' War, allowing privateers operating out of Santo Domingo to once again patrol surrounding waters for enemy merchantmen. Dominican privateers in the service of the Spanish Crown had already been active in the War of Jenkins' Ear just two decades prior, and they sharply reduced the amount of enemy trade operating in West Indian waters. The prizes they took were carried back to Santo Domingo, where their cargoes were sold to the colony's inhabitants or to foreign merchants doing business there. The enslaved population of the colony also rose dramatically, as numerous captive Africans were taken from enemy slave ships in West Indian waters. Between 1720 and 1774, Dominican privateers cruised the waters from Santo Domingo to the coast of Tierra Firme, taking British, French, and Dutch ships with cargoes of African slaves and other commodities. During the American Revolutionary War (1775–83), Dominican troops, shoulder to shoulder with Mexicans, Spaniards, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans fought under General Bernardo de Gálvez' command in West Florida. The colony of Santo Domingo saw a population increase during the 18th century, as it rose to about 91,272 in 1750. Of this number, approximately 38,272 were white landowners, 38,000 were free mixed people of color, and some 15,000 were slaves. This contrasted sharply with the population of the French colony of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) – the wealthiest colony in the Caribbean and whose population of one-half a million was 90% enslaved and overall, seven times as numerous as the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo. The 'Spanish' settlers, whose blood by now was mixed with that of Taínos, Africans, and Canary Guanches, proclaimed: 'It does not matter if the French are richer than us, we are still the true inheritors of this island. In our veins runs the blood of the heroic conquistadores who won this island of ours with sword and blood.' As restrictions on colonial trade were relaxed, the colonial elites of Saint-Domingue offered the principal market for Santo Domingo's exports of beef, hides, mahogany, and tobacco. With the outbreak of the Haitian Revolution in 1791, the rich urban families linked to the colonial bureaucracy fled the island, while most of the rural hateros (cattle ranchers) remained, even though they lost their principal market. Inspired by disputes between whites and mulattoes in Saint-Domingue, a slave revolt broke out in the French colony. Although the population of Santo Domingo was perhaps one-fourth that of Saint-Domingue, this did not prevent the King of Spain from launching an invasion of the French side of the island in 1793, attempting to seize all, or part, of the western third of the island in an alliance of convenience with the rebellious slaves. In August 1793, a column of Dominican troops advanced into Saint-Domingue and were joined by Haitian rebels. However, these rebels soon turned against Spain and instead joined France. The Dominicans were not defeated militarily, but their advance was restrained, and when in 1795 Spain ceded Santo Domingo to France by the Treaty of Basel, Dominican attacks on Saint-Domingue ceased. After Haiti received independence in 1804, the French retained Santo Domingo until 1809, when combined Spanish and Dominican forces, aided by the British, defeated the French, leading to a recolonization by Spain. Ephemeral independence After a dozen years of discontent and failed independence plots by various opposing groups, Santo Domingo's former Lieutenant-Governor (top administrator), José Núñez de Cáceres, declared the colony's independence from the Spanish crown as Spanish Haiti, on November 30, 1821. This period is also known as the Ephemeral independence. Unification of Hispaniola (1822–44) The newly independent republic ended two months later under the Haitian government led by Jean-Pierre Boyer. As Toussaint Louverture had done two decades earlier, the Haitians abolished slavery. In order to raise funds for the huge indemnity of 150 million francs that Haiti agreed to pay the former French colonists, and which was subsequently lowered to 60 million francs, the Haitian government imposed heavy taxes on the Dominicans. Since Haiti was unable to adequately provision its army, the occupying forces largely survived by commandeering or confiscating food and supplies at gunpoint. Attempts to redistribute land conflicted with the system of communal land tenure (terrenos comuneros), which had arisen with the ranching economy, and some people resented being forced to grow cash crops under Boyer and Joseph Balthazar Inginac's Code Rural. In the rural and rugged mountainous areas, the Haitian administration was usually too inefficient to enforce its own laws. It was in the city of Santo Domingo that the effects of the occupation were most acutely felt, and it was there that the movement for independence originated. The Haitians associated the Roman Catholic Church with the French slave-masters who had exploited them before independence and confiscated all church property, deported all foreign clergy, and severed the ties of the remaining clergy to the Vatican. All levels of education collapsed; the university was shut down, as it was starved both of resources and students, with young Dominican men from 16 to 25 years old being drafted into the Haitian army. Boyer's occupation troops, who were largely Dominicans, were unpaid and had to "forage and sack" from Dominican civilians. Haiti imposed a "heavy tribute" on the Dominican people. Haiti's constitution forbade white elites from owning land, and Dominican major landowning families were forcibly deprived of their properties. During this time, many white elites in Santo Domingo did not consider owning slaves due to the economic crisis that Santo Domingo faced during the España Boba period. The few landowners that wanted slavery established in Santo Domingo had to emigrate to Cuba, Puerto Rico, or Gran Colombia. Many landowning families stayed on the island, with a heavy concentration of landowners settling in the Cibao region. After independence, and eventually being under Spanish rule once again in 1861, many families returned to Santo Domingo including new waves of immigration from Spain. Dominican War of Independence (1844–56) In 1838, Juan Pablo Duarte founded a secret society called La Trinitaria, which sought the complete independence of Santo Domingo without any foreign intervention. Also Francisco del Rosario Sánchez and Ramon Matias Mella, despite not being among the founding members of La Trinitaria, were decisive in the fight for independence. Duarte, Mella, and Sánchez are considered the three Founding Fathers of the Dominican Republic. In 1843, the new Haitian president, Charles Rivière-Hérard, exiled or imprisoned the leading Trinitarios (Trinitarians). After subduing the Dominicans, Rivière-Hérard, a mulatto, faced a rebellion by blacks in Port-au-Prince. Haiti had formed two regiments composed of Dominicans from the city of Santo Domingo; these were used by Rivière-Hérard to suppress the uprising. On February 27, 1844, the surviving members of La Trinitaria, now led by Tomás Bobadilla, declared the independence from Haiti. The Trinitarios were backed by Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle rancher from El Seibo, who became general of the army of the nascent republic. The Dominican Republic's first Constitution was adopted on November 6, 1844, and was modeled after the United States Constitution. The decades that followed were filled with tyranny, factionalism, economic difficulties, rapid changes of government, and exile for political opponents. Archrivals Santana and Buenaventura Báez held power most of the time, both ruling arbitrarily. They promoted competing plans to annex the new nation to another power: Santana favored Spain, and Báez the United States. Threatening the nation's independence were renewed Haitian invasions. In March 1844, Rivière-Hérard attempted to reimpose his authority, but the Dominicans put up stiff opposition and inflicted heavy casualties on the Haitians. In early July 1844, Duarte was urged by his followers to take the title of President of the Republic. Duarte agreed, but only if free elections were arranged. However, Santana's forces took Santo Domingo on July 12, and they declared Santana ruler of the Dominican Republic. Santana then put Mella, Duarte, and Sánchez in jail. On February 27, 1845, Santana executed María Trinidad Sánchez, heroine of La Trinitaria, and others for conspiracy. On June 17, 1845, small Dominican detachments invaded Haiti, capturing Lascahobas and Hinche. The Dominicans established an outpost at Cachimán, but the arrival of Haitian reinforcements soon compelled them to retreat back across the frontier. Haiti launched a new invasion on August 6. The Dominicans repelled the Haitian forces, on both land and sea, by December 1845. The Haitians invaded again in 1849, forcing the president of the Dominican Republic, Manuel Jimenes, to call upon Santana, whom he had ousted as president, to lead the Dominicans against this new invasion. Santana met the enemy at Ocoa, April 21, with only 400 militiamen, and succeeded in defeating the 18,000-strong Haitian army. The battle began with heavy cannon fire by the entrenched Haitians and ended with a Dominican assault followed by hand-to-hand combat. In November 1849, Dominican seamen raided the Haitian coasts, plundered seaside villages, as far as Dame Marie, and butchered crews of captured enemy ships. By 1854 both countries were at war again. In November, a Dominican squadron composed of the brigantine 27 de Febrero and schooner Constitución captured a Haitian warship and bombarded Anse-à-Pitres and Saltrou. In November 1855, Haiti invaded again. Over 1,000 Haitian soldiers were killed in the battles of Santomé and Cambronal in December 1855. The Haitians suffered even greater losses at Sabana Larga and Jácuba in January 1856. That same month, an engagement at Ouanaminthe again resulted in heavy Haitian casualties, bringing an effective halt to the invasion. Battles of the Dominican War of Independence Key: (D)  – Dominican Victory; (H) – Haitian Victory 1844 March 18 – Battle of Cabeza de Las Marías (H) March 19 – Battle of Azua (D) March 30 – Battle of Santiago (D) April 13 – Battle of El Memiso (D) April 15 – Battle of Tortuguero (D) December 6 – Battle of Fort Cachimán (D) 1845 September 17 – Battle of Estrelleta (D) November 27 – Battle of Beler (D) 1849 April 19 – Battle of El Número (D) April 21 – Battle of Las Carreras (D) 1855 December 22 – Battle of Santomé (D) December 22 – Battle of Cambronal (D) 1856 January 24 – Battle of Sabana Larga (D) First Republic The Dominican Republic's first constitution was adopted on November 6, 1844. The state was commonly known as Santo Domingo in English until the early 20th century. It featured a presidential form of government with many liberal tendencies, but it was marred by Article 210, imposed by Pedro Santana on the constitutional assembly by force, giving him the privileges of a dictatorship until the war of independence was over. These privileges not only served him to win the war but also allowed him to persecute, execute and drive into exile his political opponents, among which Duarte was the most important. The population of the Dominican Republic in 1845 was approximately 230,000 people (100,000 whites; 40,000 blacks; and 90,000 mulattoes). Due to the rugged mountainous terrain of the island the regions of the Dominican Republic developed in isolation from one another. In the south, also known at the time as Ozama, the economy was dominated by cattle-ranching (particularly in the southeastern savannah) and cutting mahogany and other hardwoods for export. This region retained a semi-feudal character, with little commercial agriculture, the hacienda as the dominant social unit, and the majority of the population living at a subsistence level. In the north (better-known as Cibao), the nation's richest farmland, farmers supplemented their subsistence crops by growing tobacco for export, mainly to Germany. Tobacco required less land than cattle ranching and was mainly grown by smallholders, who relied on itinerant traders to transport their crops to Puerto Plata and Monte Cristi. Santana antagonized the Cibao farmers, enriching himself and his supporters at their expense by resorting to multiple peso printings that allowed him to buy their crops for a fraction of their value. In 1848, he was forced to resign and was succeeded by his vice-president, Manuel Jimenes. After defeating a new Haitian invasion in 1849, Santana marched on Santo Domingo and deposed Jimenes in a coup d'état. At his behest, Congress elected Buenaventura Báez as president, but Báez was unwilling to serve as Santana's puppet, challenging his role as the country's acknowledged military leader. In 1853, Santana was elected president for his second term, forcing Báez into exile. Three years later, after repulsing another Haitian invasion, he negotiated a treaty leasing a portion of Samaná Peninsula to a U.S. company; popular opposition forced him to abdicate, enabling Báez to return and seize power. With the treasury depleted, Báez printed eighteen million uninsured pesos, purchasing the 1857 tobacco crop with this currency and exporting it for hard cash at immense profit to himself and his followers. Cibao tobacco planters, who were ruined when hyperinflation ensued, revolted and formed a new government headed by José Desiderio Valverde and headquartered in Santiago de los Caballeros. In July 1857, General Juan Luis Franco Bidó besieged Santo Domingo. The Cibao-based government declared an amnesty to exiles and Santana returned and managed to replace Franco Bidó in September 1857. After a year of civil war, Santana captured Santo Domingo in June 1858, overthrew both Báez and Valverde and installed himself as president. Restoration republic In 1861, Santana asked Queen Isabella II of Spain to retake control of the Dominican Republic, after a period of only 17 years of independence. Spain, which had not come to terms with the loss of its American colonies 40 years earlier, accepted his proposal and made the country a colony again. Haiti, fearful of the reestablishment of Spain as colonial power, gave refuge and logistics to revolutionaries seeking to reestablish the independent nation of the Dominican Republic. The ensuing civil war, known as the War of Restoration, claimed more than 50,000 lives. The War of Restoration began in Santiago on August 16, 1863. Spain had a difficult time fighting the Dominican guerrillas. Over the course of the war, they would spend over 33 million pesos and suffer 30,000 casualties. In the south, Dominican forces under José María Cabral defeated the Spanish in the Battle of La Canela on December 4, 1864. The victory showed the Dominicans that they could defeat the Spaniards in pitched battle. After two years of fighting, Spain abandoned the island in 1865. Political strife again prevailed in the following years; warlords ruled, military revolts were extremely common, and the nation amassed debt. After the Ten Years' War (1868–78) broke out in Spanish Cuba, Dominican exiles, including Máximo Gómez, Luis Marcano and Modesto Díaz, joined the Cuban Revolutionary Army and provided its initial training and leadership. In 1869, U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant ordered U.S. Marines to the island for the first time. Pirates operating from Haiti had been raiding U.S. commercial shipping in the Caribbean, and Grant directed the Marines to stop them at their source. Following the virtual takeover of the island, Báez offered to sell the country to the United States. Grant desired a naval base at Samaná and also a place for resettling newly freed African Americans. The treaty, which included U.S. payment of $1.5 million for Dominican debt repayment, was defeated in the United States Senate in 1870 on a vote of 28–28, two-thirds being required. Báez was toppled in 1874, returned, and was toppled for good in 1878. A new generation was thence in charge, with the passing of Santana (he died in 1864) and Báez from the scene. Relative peace came to the country in the 1880s, which saw the coming to power of General Ulises Heureaux. "Lilís", as the new president was nicknamed, enjoyed a period of popularity. He was, however, "a consummate dissembler", who put the nation deep into debt while using much of the proceeds for his personal use and to maintain his police state. Heureaux became rampantly despotic and unpopular. In 1899, he was assassinated. However, the relative calm over which he presided allowed improvement in the Dominican economy. The sugar industry was modernized, and the country attracted foreign workers and immigrants. Lebanese, Syrians, Turks, and Palestinians began to arrive in the country during the latter part of the 19th century. At first, the Arab immigrants often faced discrimination in the Dominican Republic, but they were eventually assimilated into Dominican society, giving up their own culture and language. During the U.S. occupation of 1916–24, peasants from the countryside, called Gavilleros, would not only kill U.S. Marines, but would also attack and kill Arab vendors traveling through the countryside. 20th century (1900–30) From 1902 on, short-lived governments were again the norm, with their power usurped by caudillos in parts of the country. Furthermore, the national government was bankrupt and, unable to pay its debts to European creditors, faced the threat of military intervention by France, Germany, and Italy. United States President Theodore Roosevelt sought to prevent European intervention, largely to protect the routes to the future Panama Canal, as the canal was already under construction. He made a small military intervention to ward off European powers, to proclaim his famous Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, and also to obtain his 1905 Dominican agreement for U.S. administration of Dominican customs, which was the chief source of income for the Dominican government. A 1906 agreement provided for the arrangement to last 50 years. The United States agreed to use part of the customs proceeds to reduce the immense foreign debt of the Dominican Republic and assumed responsibility for said debt. After six years in power, President Ramón Cáceres (who had himself assassinated Heureaux) was assassinated in 1911. The result was several years of great political instability and civil war. U.S. mediation by the William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson administrations achieved only a short respite each time. A political deadlock in 1914 was broken after an ultimatum by Wilson telling the Dominicans to choose a president or see the U.S. impose one. A provisional president was chosen, and later the same year relatively free elections put former president (1899–1902) Juan Isidro Jimenes Pereyra back in power. To achieve a more broadly supported government, Jimenes named opposition individuals to his cabinet. But this brought no peace and, with his former Secretary of War Desiderio Arias maneuvering to depose him and despite a U.S. offer of military aid against Arias, Jimenes resigned on May 7, 1916. Wilson thus ordered the U.S. occupation of the Dominican Republic. U.S. Marines landed on May 16, 1916, and had control of the country two months later. The military government established by the U.S., led by Vice Admiral Harry Shepard Knapp, was widely repudiated by the Dominicans, with caudillos in the mountainous eastern regions leading guerrilla campaigns against U.S. forces. Arias's forces, who had no machine guns or modern artillery, tried to take on the U.S. Marines in conventional battles, but were defeated at the Battle of Guayacanas and the Battle of San Francisco de Macoris. The occupation regime kept most Dominican laws and institutions and largely pacified the general population. The occupying government also revived the Dominican economy, reduced the nation's debt, built a road network that at last interconnected all regions of the country, and created a professional National Guard to replace the warring partisan units. Opposition to the occupation continued, nevertheless, and after World War I it increased in the U.S. as well. There, President Warren G. Harding (1921–23), Wilson's successor, worked to put an end to the occupation, as he had promised to do during his campaign. The U.S. government's rule ended in October 1922, and elections were held in March 1924. The victor was former president (1902–03) Horacio Vásquez, who had cooperated with the U.S. He was inaugurated on July 13, 1924, and the last U.S. forces left in September. In six years, the Marines were involved in at least 370 engagements, with 950 "bandits" killed or wounded in action to the Marines' 144 killed. Vásquez gave the country six years of stable governance, in which political and civil rights were respected and the economy grew strongly, in a relatively peaceful atmosphere. During the government of Horacio Vásquez, Rafael Trujillo held the rank of lieutenant colonel and was chief of police. This position helped him launch his plans to overthrow the government of Vásquez. Trujillo had the support of Carlos Rosario Peña, who formed the Civic Movement, which had as its main objective to overthrow the government of Vásquez. In February 1930, when Vásquez attempted to win another term, his opponents rebelled in secret alliance with the commander of the National Army (the former National Guard), General Rafael Trujillo. Trujillo secretly cut a deal with rebel leader Rafael Estrella Ureña; in return for letting Ureña take power, Trujillo would be allowed to run for president in new elections. As the rebels marched toward Santo Domingo, Vásquez ordered Trujillo to suppress them. However, feigning "neutrality," Trujillo kept his men in barracks, allowing Ureña's rebels to take the capital virtually uncontested. On March 3, Ureña was proclaimed acting president with Trujillo confirmed as head of the police and the army. As per their agreement, Trujillo became the presidential nominee of the newly formed Patriotic Coalition of Citizens (Spanish: Coalición patriotica de los ciudadanos), with Ureña as his running mate. During the election campaign, Trujillo used the army to unleash his repression, forcing his opponents to withdraw from the race. Trujillo stood to elect himself, and in May he was elected president virtually unopposed after a violent campaign against his opponents, ascending to power on August 16, 1930. Trujillo Era (1930–61) There was considerable economic growth during Rafael Trujillo's long and iron-fisted regime, although a great deal of the wealth was taken by the dictator and other regime elements. There was progress in healthcare, education, and transportation, with the building of hospitals, clinics, schools, roads, and harbors. Trujillo also carried out an important housing construction program, and instituted a pension plan. He finally negotiated an undisputed border with Haiti in 1935, and achieved the end of the 50-year customs agreement in 1941, instead of 1956. He made the country debt-free in 1947. This was accompanied by absolute repression and the copious use of murder, torture, and terrorist methods against the opposition. It has been estimated that Trujillo's tyrannical rule was responsible for the death of more than 50,000 Dominicans. Trujillo's henchmen did not hesitate to use intimidation, torture, or assassination of political foes both at home and abroad. Trujillo was responsible for the deaths of the Spaniards José Almoina in Mexico City and Jesús Galíndez in New York City. In 1930, Hurricane San Zenon destroyed Santo Domingo and killed 8,000 people. During the rebuilding process, Trujillo renamed Santo Domingo to "Ciudad Trujillo" (Trujillo City), and the nation's – and the Caribbean's – highest mountain La Pelona Grande (Spanish for: The Great Bald) to "Pico Trujillo" (Spanish for: Trujillo Peak). By the end of his first term in 1934 he was the country's wealthiest person, and one of the wealthiest in the world by the early 1950s; near the end of his regime his fortune was an estimated $800 million ($5.3 billion today). Trujillo, who neglected the fact that his maternal great-grandmother was from Haiti's mulatto class, actively promoted propaganda against Haitian people. In 1937, he ordered what became known as the Parsley Massacre or, in the Dominican Republic, as El Corte (The Cutting), directing the army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border. The army killed an estimated 17,000 to 35,000 Haitian men, women, and children over six days, from the night of October 2, 1937, through October 8, 1937. To avoid leaving evidence of the army's involvement, the soldiers used edged weapons rather than guns. The soldiers were said to have interrogated anyone with dark skin, using the shibboleth perejil (parsley) to distinguish Haitians from Afro-Dominicans when necessary; the 'r' of perejil was of difficult pronunciation for Haitians. As a result of the massacre, the Dominican Republic agreed to pay Haiti US$750,000, later reduced to US$525,000. During World War II, Trujillo symbolically sided with the Allies and declared war on Japan the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor and on Nazi Germany and Italy four days later. Soon after, German U-boats torpedoed and sank two Dominican merchant vessels that Trujillo had named after himself. German U-boats also sank four Dominican-manned ships in the Caribbean. The country did not make a military contribution to the war, but Dominican sugar and other agricultural products supported the Allied war effort. American Lend-Lease and raw material purchases proved a powerful inducement in obtaining cooperation of the various Latin American republics. Over a hundred Dominicans served in the American armed forces. Many were political exiles from the Trujillo regime. Trujillo's dictatorship was marred by botched invasions, international scandals and assassination attempts. 1947 brought the failure of a planned invasion by leftist Dominican exiles from the Cuban island of Cayo Confites. July 1949 was the year of a failed invasion from Guatemala, and on June 14, 1959, there was a failed invasion at Constanza, Maimón and Estero Hondo by Dominican rebels from Cuba. On June 26, 1959, Cuba broke diplomatic relations with the Dominican Republic due to widespread Dominican human rights abuses and hostility toward the Cuban people. On November 25, 1960, Trujillo's henchmen killed three of the four Mirabal sisters, nicknamed Las Mariposas (The Butterflies). The victims were Patria Mercedes Mirabal (born on February 27, 1924), Argentina Minerva Mirabal (born on March 12, 1926), and Antonia María Teresa Mirabal (born on October 15, 1935). Along with their husbands, the sisters were conspiring to overthrow Trujillo in a violent revolt. The Mirabals had communist ideological leanings, as did their husbands. The sisters have received many honors posthumously and have many memorials in various cities in the Dominican Republic. Salcedo, their home province, changed its name to Provincia Hermanas Mirabal (Mirabal Sisters Province). The International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women is observed on the anniversary of their deaths. For a long time, the U.S. and the Dominican elite supported the Trujillo government. This support persisted despite the assassinations of political opposition, the massacre of Haitians, and Trujillo's plots against other countries. The U.S. believed Trujillo was the lesser of two or more evils. The U.S. finally broke with Trujillo in 1960, after Trujillo's agents attempted to assassinate the Venezuelan president, Rómulo Betancourt, a fierce critic of Trujillo. Dominican agents placed a bomb in the Venezuelan president's car in Caracas, which exploded, injuring Betancourt and killing a number of his advisers. In June 1960, Trujillo legalized the Communist Party and attempted to establish close political relations with the Soviet Bloc. Both the assassination attempt and the maneuver toward the Soviet Bloc provoked immediate condemnation throughout Latin America. Once its representatives confirmed Trujillo's complicity in the assassination attempt, the Organization of American States, for the first time in its history, decreed sanctions against a member state. The United States severed diplomatic relations with the Dominican Republic on August 26, 1960, and in January 1961 suspended the export of trucks, parts, crude oil, gasoline and other petroleum products. U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower also took advantage of OAS sanctions to cut drastically purchases of Dominican sugar, the country's major export. This action ultimately cost the Dominican Republic almost $22,000,000 in lost revenues at a time when its economy was in a rapid decline. Trujillo had become expendable. Dissidents inside the Dominican Republic argued that assassination was the only certain way to remove Trujillo. According to Chester Bowles, the U.S. Undersecretary of State, internal Department of State discussions in 1961 on the topic were vigorous. Richard N. Goodwin, Assistant Special Counsel to the President, who had direct contacts with the rebel alliance, argued for intervention against Trujillo. Quoting Bowles directly: The next morning I learned that in spite of the clear decision against having the dissident group request our assistance Dick Goodwin following the meeting sent a cable to CIA people in the Dominican Republic without checking with State or CIA; indeed, with the protest of the Department of State. The cable directed the CIA people in the Dominican Republic to get this request at any cost. When Allen Dulles found this out the next morning, he withdrew the order. We later discovered it had already been carried out. Post-Trujillo (1961–1996) Trujillo was assassinated by Dominican dissidents in Chicago gangland-style on May 30, 1961. Although the dissidents possessed Dominican-made San Cristóbal submachine guns, they symbolically used U.S.-made M-1 carbines supplied by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Ramfis Trujillo, the dictator's son, remained in de facto control of the government for the next six months through his position as commander of the armed forces. Trujillo's brothers, Hector Bienvenido and Jose Arismendi Trujillo, returned to the country and began immediately to plot against President Balaguer. On November 18, 1961, as a planned coup became more evident, U.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk issued a warning that the United States would not "remain idle" if the Trujillos attempted to "reassert dictatorial domination" over the Dominican Republic. Following this warning, and the arrival of a fourteen-vessel U.S. naval task force within sight of Santo Domingo, Ramfis and his uncles fled the country on November 19 with $200 million from the Dominican treasury. On December 28, 1962, the Dominican military suppressed a rebellion in Palma Sola, burning six hundred people to death by a napalm airstrike. In February 1963, a democratically elected government under leftist Juan Bosch took office but it was overthrown in September. On April 24, 1965, after 19 months of military rule, a pro-Bosch revolt broke out in Santo Domingo. The pro-Bosch forces called themselves Constitutionalists. The revolution took on the dimensions of a civil war when conservative military forces struck back against the Constitutionalists on April 25. These conservative forces called themselves Loyalists. Despite tank assaults and bombing runs by Loyalist forces, the Constitutionalists held their positions in the capital. By April 26, armed civilians outnumbered the original rebel military regulars. Radio Santo Domingo, now fully under rebel control, began to call for more violent actions and for killing of all the policemen. On April 28, U.S. President Lyndon Johnson, concerned that communists might take over the revolt and create a "second Cuba," sent 42,000 troops into Santo Domingo, in Operation Powerpack. "We don't propose to sit here in a rocking chair with our hands folded and let the Communist set up any government in the Western Hemisphere," Johnson said. The forces were soon joined by comparatively small contingents from the Organization of American States (OAS). The Loyalists used the U.S. presence to deploy its forces and attack Constitutionalists. As a result, Loyalist forces destroyed most Constitutionalist bases and captured the rebel radio station, effectively ending the war. On May 13, Loyalist forces launched Operation Limpieza and captured the northern part of Santo Domingo. Many black civilians were killed during the operation. A cease-fire was declared on May 21. The U.S. began withdrawing some of its troops by late May. However, Col. Francisco Caamaño's untrained civilians attacked American positions on June 15. Despite the coordinated attack involving mortars, rocket launchers, and several light tanks, the rebels lost a 56-square-block area to 82nd Airborne Division units which had received OAS permission to advance. The Dominican death toll for the entire period of civil war and occupation totaled more than 3,000. A total of 44 American peacekeepers died and 283 were wounded. U.S. and OAS troops remained in the country for over a year and left after supervising elections in 1966 won by Joaquín Balaguer. He had been Trujillo's last puppet-president. Balaguer remained in power as president for 12 years. His tenure was a period of repression of human rights and civil liberties, ostensibly to keep pro-Castro or pro-communist parties out of power; 11,000 persons were killed, tortured or forcibly disappeared. His rule was criticized for a growing disparity between rich and poor. It was, however, praised for an ambitious infrastructure program, which included the construction of large housing projects, sports complexes, theaters, museums, aqueducts, roads, highways, and the massive Columbus Lighthouse, completed in 1992 during a later tenure. During Balaguer's administration, the Dominican military forced Haitians to cut sugarcane on Dominican sugar plantations. In September 1977, twelve Cuban-manned MiG-21s conducted strafing flights over Puerto Plata to warn Balaguer against intercepting Cuban warships headed to or returning from Angola. Hurricane David hit the Dominican Republic in August 1979, which left upwards of 2,000 people dead and 200,000 homeless. The hurricane caused over $1 billion in damage. In 1978, Balaguer was succeeded in the presidency by opposition candidate Antonio Guzmán Fernández, of the Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD). Another PRD win in 1982 followed, under Salvador Jorge Blanco. Balaguer regained the presidency in 1986 and was re-elected in 1990 and 1994, this last time just defeating PRD candidate José Francisco Peña Gómez, a former mayor of Santo Domingo. During this period, the international community condemned the Dominican government for their continued exploitation of Haitian sugar cane workers; it had been alleged that thousands of these workers had essentially been put into slavery, forced to do backbreaking work under the supervision of armed guards. The 1994 elections were flawed, bringing on international pressure, to which Balaguer responded by scheduling another presidential contest in 1996. Balaguer was not a candidate. The PSRC candidate was his Vice President Jacinto Peynado Garrigosa. 1996–present In the 1996 presidential election, Leonel Fernández achieved the first-ever win for the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), which Bosch had founded in 1973 after leaving the PRD (which he also had founded). Fernández oversaw a fast-growing economy: growth averaged 7.7% per year, unemployment fell, and there were stable exchange and inflation rates. In 2000, the PRD's Hipólito Mejía won the election. This was a time of economic troubles. Mejía was defeated in his re-election effort in 2004 by Leonel Fernández of the PLD. In 2008, Fernández was as elected for a third term. Fernández and the PLD are credited with initiatives that have moved the country forward technologically, such as the construction of the Metro Railway ("El Metro"). On the other hand, his administrations have been accused of corruption. Danilo Medina of the PLD was elected president in 2012 and re-elected in 2016. On the other hand, a significant increase in crime, government corruption and a weak justice system threaten to overshadow their administrative period. He was succeeded by the opposition candidate Luis Abinader in the 2020 election, marking the end to 16 years in power of the centre-left Dominican Liberation Party (PLD). Geography The Dominican Republic comprises the eastern five-eighths of Hispaniola, the second-largest island in the Greater Antilles, with the Atlantic Ocean to the north and the Caribbean Sea to the south. It shares the island roughly at a 2:1 ratio with Haiti, the north-to-south (though somewhat irregular) border between the two countries being . To the north and north-west lie The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands, and to the east, across the Mona Passage, the US Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The country's area is reported variously as (by the embassy in the United States) and , making it the second largest country in the Antilles, after Cuba. The Dominican Republic's capital and largest city Santo Domingo is on the southern coast. The Dominican Republic has four important mountain ranges. The most northerly is the Cordillera Septentrional ("Northern Mountain Range"), which extends from the northwestern coastal town of Monte Cristi, near the Haitian border, to the Samaná Peninsula in the east, running parallel to the Atlantic coast. The highest range in the Dominican Republic – indeed, in the whole of the West Indies – is the Cordillera Central ("Central Mountain Range"). It gradually bends southwards and finishes near the town of Azua, on the Caribbean coast. In the Cordillera Central are the four highest peaks in the Caribbean: Pico Duarte ( above sea level), La Pelona (), La Rucilla (), and Pico Yaque (). In the southwest corner of the country, south of the Cordillera Central, there are two other ranges: the more northerly of the two is the Sierra de Neiba, while in the south the Sierra de Bahoruco is a continuation of the Massif de la Selle in Haiti. There are other, minor mountain ranges, such as the Cordillera Oriental ("Eastern Mountain Range"), Sierra Martín García, Sierra de Yamasá, and Sierra de Samaná. Between the Central and Northern mountain ranges lies the rich and fertile Cibao valley. This major valley is home to the cities of Santiago and La Vega and most of the farming areas of the nation. Rather less productive are the semi-arid San Juan Valley, south of the Central Cordillera, and the Neiba Valley, tucked between the Sierra de Neiba and the Sierra de Bahoruco. Much of the land around the Enriquillo Basin is below sea level, with a hot, arid, desert-like environment. There are other smaller valleys in the mountains, such as the Constanza, Jarabacoa, Villa Altagracia, and Bonao valleys. The Llano Costero del Caribe ("Caribbean Coastal Plain") is the largest of the plains in the Dominican Republic. Stretching north and east of Santo Domingo, it contains many sugar plantations in the savannahs that are common there. West of Santo Domingo its width is reduced to as it hugs the coast, finishing at the mouth of the Ocoa River. Another large plain is the Plena de Azua ("Azua Plain"), a very arid region in Azua Province. A few other small coastal plains are on the northern coast and in the Pedernales Peninsula. Four major rivers drain the numerous mountains of the Dominican Republic. The Yaque del Norte is the longest and most important Dominican river. It carries excess water down from the Cibao Valley and empties into Monte Cristi Bay, in the northwest. Likewise, the Yuna River serves the Vega Real and empties into Samaná Bay, in the northeast. Drainage of the San Juan Valley is provided by the San Juan River, tributary of the Yaque del Sur, which empties into the Caribbean, in the south. The Artibonito is the longest river of Hispaniola and flows westward into Haiti. There are many lakes and coastal lagoons. The largest lake is Enriquillo, a salt lake at below sea level, the lowest elevation in the Caribbean. Other important lakes are Laguna de Rincón or Cabral, with fresh water, and Laguna de Oviedo, a lagoon with brackish water. There are many small offshore islands and cays that form part of the Dominican territory. The two largest islands near shore are Saona, in the southeast, and Beata, in the southwest. Smaller islands include the Cayos Siete Hermanos, Isla Cabra, Cayo Jackson, Cayo Limón, Cayo Levantado, Cayo la Bocaina, Catalanita, Cayo Pisaje and Isla Alto Velo. To the north, at distances of , are three extensive, largely submerged banks, which geographically are a southeast continuation of the Bahamas: Navidad Bank, Silver Bank, and Mouchoir Bank. Navidad Bank and Silver Bank have been officially claimed by the Dominican Republic. Isla Cabritos lies within Lago Enriquillo. The Dominican Republic is located near fault action in the Caribbean. In 1946, it suffered a magnitude 8.1 earthquake off the northeast coast, triggering a tsunami that killed about 1,800, mostly in coastal communities. Caribbean countries and the United States have collaborated to create tsunami warning systems and are mapping high-risk low-lying areas. The country is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: Hispaniolan moist forests, Hispaniolan dry forests, Hispaniolan pine forests, Enriquillo wetlands, and Greater Antilles mangroves. It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.18/10, ranking it 134th globally out of 172 countries. Climate The Dominican Republic has a tropical rainforest climate in the coastal and lowland areas. Some areas, such as most of the Cibao region, have a tropical savanna climate. Due to its diverse topography, Dominican Republic's climate shows considerable variation over short distances and is the most varied of all the Antilles. The annual average temperature is . At higher elevations the temperature averages while near sea level the average temperature is . Low temperatures of are possible in the mountains while high temperatures of are possible in protected valleys. January and February are the coolest months of the year while August is the hottest month. Snowfall can be seen on rare occasions on the summit of Pico Duarte. The wet season along the northern coast lasts from November through January. Elsewhere the wet season stretches from May through November, with May being the wettest month. Average annual rainfall is countrywide, with individual locations in the Valle de Neiba seeing averages as low as while the Cordillera Oriental averages . The driest part of the country lies in the west. Tropical cyclones strike the Dominican Republic every couple of years, with 65% of the impacts along the southern coast. Hurricanes are most likely between June and October. The last major hurricane that struck the country was Hurricane Georges in 1998. Government and politics The Dominican Republic is a representative democracy or democratic republic, with three branches of power: executive, legislative, and judicial. The president of the Dominican Republic heads the executive branch and executes laws passed by the congress, appoints the cabinet, and is commander in chief of the armed forces. The president and vice-president run for office on the same ticket and are elected by direct vote for 4-year terms. The national legislature is bicameral, composed of a senate, which has 32 members, and the Chamber of Deputies, with 178 members. Judicial authority rests with the Supreme Court of Justice's 16 members. The court "alone hears actions against the president, designated members of his Cabinet, and members of Congress when the legislature is in session." The court is appointed by a council known as the National Council of the Magistracy which is composed of the president, the leaders of both houses of Congress, the President of the Supreme Court, and an opposition or non–governing-party member. The Dominican Republic has a multi-party political system. Elections are held every two years, alternating between the presidential elections, which are held in years evenly divisible by four, and the congressional and municipal elections, which are held in even-numbered years not divisible by four. "International observers have found that presidential and congressional elections since 1996 have been generally free and fair." The Central Elections Board (JCE) of nine members supervises elections, and its decisions are unappealable. Starting from 2016, elections will be held jointly, after a constitutional reform. Political culture The three major parties are the conservative Social Christian Reformist Party (), in power 1966–78 and 1986–96; and the social democratic Dominican Revolutionary Party (), in power in 1963, 1978–86, and 2000–04; and the Dominican Liberation Party (), in power 1996–2000 and since 2004. The presidential elections of 2008 were held on May 16, 2008, with incumbent Leonel Fernández winning 53% of the vote. He defeated Miguel Vargas Maldonado, of the PRD, who achieved a 40.48% share of the vote. Amable Aristy, of the PRSC, achieved 4.59% of the vote. Other minority candidates, which included former Attorney General Guillermo Moreno from the Movement for Independence, Unity and Change (), and PRSC former presidential candidate and defector Eduardo Estrella, obtained less than 1% of the vote. In the 2012 presidential elections, the incumbent president Leonel Fernández (PLD) declined his aspirations and instead the PLD elected Danilo Medina as its candidate. This time the PRD presented ex-president Hipolito Mejia as its choice. The contest was won by Medina with 51.21% of the vote, against 46.95% in favor of Mejia. Candidate Guillermo Moreno obtained 1.37% of the votes. In 2014, the Modern Revolutionary Party () was created by a faction of leaders from the PRD, and has since become the predominant opposition party, polling in second place for the May 2016 general elections. In 2020, the presidential candidate for the opposition Modern Revolutionary Party (PRM), Luis Abinader, won the election, defeating the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), which had governed since 2004. Foreign relations The Dominican Republic has a close relationship with the United States, and has close cultural ties with the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and other states and jurisdictions of the United States. The Dominican Republic's relationship with neighbouring Haiti is strained over mass Haitian migration to the Dominican Republic, with citizens of the Dominican Republic blaming the Haitians for increased crime and other social problems. The Dominican Republic is a regular member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. The Dominican Republic has a Free Trade Agreement with the United States, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua via the Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement. And an Economic Partnership Agreement with the European Union and the Caribbean Community via the Caribbean Forum. Military Congress authorizes a combined military force of 44,000 active duty personnel. Actual active duty strength is approximately 32,000. Approximately 50% of those are used for non-military activities such as security providers for government-owned non-military facilities, highway toll stations, prisons, forestry work, state enterprises, and private businesses. The commander in chief of the military is the president. The army is larger than the other services combined with approximately 56,780 active duty personnel, consisting of six infantry brigades, a combat support brigade, and a combat service support brigade. The air force operates two main bases, one in the southern region near Santo Domingo and one in the northern region near Puerto Plata. The navy operates two major naval bases, one in Santo Domingo and one in Las Calderas on the southwestern coast, and maintains 12 operational vessels. The Dominican Republic has the largest number of active military personnel in the Caribbean region surpassing Cuba. The armed forces have organized a Specialized Airport Security Corps (CESA) and a Specialized Port Security Corps (CESEP) to meet international security needs in these areas. The secretary of the armed forces has also announced plans to form a specialized border corps (CESEF). The armed forces provide 75% of personnel to the National Investigations Directorate (DNI) and the Counter-Drug Directorate (DNCD). The Dominican National Police force contains 32,000 agents. The police are not part of the Dominican armed forces but share some overlapping security functions. Sixty-three percent of the force serve in areas outside traditional police functions, similar to the situation of their military counterparts. In 2018, Dominican Republic signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. Administrative divisions The Dominican Republic is divided into 31 provinces. Santo Domingo, the capital, is designated Distrito Nacional (National District). The provinces are divided into municipalities (municipios; singular municipio). They are the second-level political and administrative subdivisions of the country. The president appoints the governors of the 31 provinces. Mayors and municipal councils administer the 124 municipal districts and the National District (Santo Domingo). They are elected at the same time as congressional representatives. The provinces are the first–level administrative subdivisions of the country. The headquarters of the central government's regional offices are normally found in the capital cities of provinces. The president appoints an administrative governor (Gobernador Civil) for each province but not for the Distrito Nacional (Title IX of the constitution). The Distrito Nacional was created in 1936. Prior to this, the Distrito National was the old Santo Domingo Province, in existence since the country's independence in 1844. It is not to be confused with the new Santo Domingo Province split off from it in 2001. While it is similar to a province in many ways, the Distrito Nacional differs in its lack of an administrative governor and consisting only of one municipality, Santo Domingo, the city council (ayuntamiento) and mayor (síndico) which are in charge of its administration. Economy During the last three decades, the Dominican economy, formerly dependent on the export of agricultural commodities (mainly sugar, cocoa and coffee), has transitioned to a diversified mix of services, manufacturing, agriculture, mining, and trade. The service sector accounts for almost 60% of GDP; manufacturing, for 22%; tourism, telecommunications and finance are the main components of the service sector; however, none of them accounts for more than 10% of the whole. The Dominican Republic has a stock market, Bolsa de Valores de la Republica Dominicana (BVRD). and advanced telecommunication system and transportation infrastructure. High unemployment and income inequality are long-term challenges. International migration affects the Dominican Republic greatly, as it receives and sends large flows of migrants. Mass illegal Haitian immigration and the integration of Dominicans of Haitian descent are major issues. A large Dominican diaspora exists, mostly in the United States, contributes to development, sending billions of dollars to Dominican families in remittances. Remittances in Dominican Republic increased to US$4571.30 million in 2014 from US$3333 million in 2013 (according to data reported by the Inter-American Development Bank). Economic growth takes place in spite of a chronic energy shortage, which causes frequent blackouts and very high prices. Despite a widening merchandise trade deficit, tourism earnings and remittances have helped build foreign exchange reserves. Following economic turmoil in the late 1980s and 1990, during which the gross domestic product (GDP) fell by up to 5% and consumer price inflation reached an unprecedented 100%, the Dominican Republic entered a period of growth and declining inflation until 2002, after which the economy entered a recession. This recession followed the collapse of the second-largest commercial bank in the country, Baninter, linked to a major incident of fraud valued at US$3.5 billion. The Baninter fraud had a devastating effect on the Dominican economy, with GDP dropping by 1% in 2003 as inflation ballooned by over 27%. All defendants, including the star of the trial, Ramón Báez Figueroa (the great-grandson of President Buenaventura Báez), were convicted. According to the 2005 Annual Report of the United Nations Subcommittee on Human Development in the Dominican Republic, the country is ranked No. 71 in the world for resource availability, No. 79 for human development, and No. 14 in the world for resource mismanagement. These statistics emphasize national government corruption, foreign economic interference in the country, and the rift between the rich and poor. The Dominican Republic has a noted problem of child labor in its coffee, rice, sugarcane, and tomato industries. The labor injustices in the sugarcane industry extend to forced labor according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Three large groups own 75% of the land: the State Sugar Council (Consejo Estatal del Azúcar, CEA), Grupo Vicini, and Central Romana Corporation. According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 104,800 people are enslaved in the modern day Dominican Republic, or 1.00% of the population. Some slaves in the Dominican Republic are held on sugar plantations, guarded by men on horseback with rifles, and forced to work. Currency The Dominican peso (abbreviated $ or RD$; ISO 4217 code is "DOP") is the national currency, with the United States dollar, the Euro, the Canadian dollar and the Swiss franc also accepted at most tourist sites. The exchange rate to the U.S. dollar, liberalized by 1985, stood at 2.70 pesos per dollar in August 1986, 14.00 pesos in 1993, and 16.00 pesos in 2000. the rate was 50.08 pesos per dollar. Tourism Tourism is one of the fueling factors in the Dominican Republic's economic growth. The Dominican Republic is the most popular tourist destination in the Caribbean. With the construction of projects like Cap Cana, San Souci Port in Santo Domingo, Casa De Campo and the Hard Rock Hotel & Casino (ancient Moon Palace Resort) in Punta Cana, the Dominican Republic expects increased tourism activity in the upcoming years. Ecotourism has also been a topic increasingly important in this nation, with towns like Jarabacoa and neighboring Constanza, and locations like the Pico Duarte, Bahia de las Aguilas, and others becoming more significant in efforts to increase direct benefits from tourism. Most residents from other countries are required to get a tourist card, depending on the country they live in. In the last 10 years the Dominican Republic has become one of the worlds notably progressive states in terms of recycling and waste disposal. A UN report cited there was a 221.3% efficiency increase in the previous 10 years due, in part, to the opening of the largest open air landfill site located in the north 10 km from the Haitian border. Infrastructure Transportation The country has three national trunk highways, which connect every major town. These are DR-1, DR-2, and DR-3, which depart from Santo Domingo toward the northern (Cibao), southwestern (Sur), and eastern (El Este) parts of the country respectively. These highways have been consistently improved with the expansion and reconstruction of many sections. Two other national highways serve as spur (DR-5) or alternative routes (DR-4). In addition to the national highways, the government has embarked on an expansive reconstruction of spur secondary routes, which connect smaller towns to the trunk routes. In the last few years the government constructed a 106-kilometer toll road that connects Santo Domingo with the country's northeastern peninsula. Travelers may now arrive in the Samaná Peninsula in less than two hours. Other additions are the reconstruction of the DR-28 (Jarabacoa – Constanza) and DR-12 (Constanza – Bonao). Despite these efforts, many secondary routes still remain either unpaved or in need of maintenance. There is currently a nationwide program to pave these and other commonly used routes. Also, the Santiago light rail system is in planning stages but currently on hold. Bus services There are two main bus transportation services in the Dominican Republic: one controlled by the government, through the Oficina Técnica de Transito Terrestre (OTTT) and the Oficina Metropolitana de Servicios de Autobuses (OMSA), and the other controlled by private business, among them, Federación Nacional de Transporte La Nueva Opción (FENATRANO) and the Confederacion Nacional de Transporte (CONATRA). The government transportation system covers large routes in metropolitan areas such as Santo Domingo and Santiago. There are many privately owned bus companies, such as Metro Servicios Turísticos and Caribe Tours, that run daily routes. Santo Domingo Metro The Dominican Republic has a rapid transit system in Santo Domingo, the country's capital. It is the most extensive metro system in the insular Caribbean and Central American region by length and number of stations. The Santo Domingo Metro is part of a major "National Master Plan" to improve transportation in Santo Domingo as well as the rest of the nation. The first line was planned to relieve traffic congestion in the Máximo Gómez and Hermanas Mirabal Avenue. The second line, which opened in April 2013, is meant to relieve the congestion along the Duarte-Kennedy-Centenario Corridor in the city from west to east. The current length of the Metro, with the sections of the two lines open , is . Before the opening of the second line, 30,856,515 passengers rode the Santo Domingo Metro in 2012. With both lines opened, ridership increased to 61,270,054 passengers in 2014. Communications The Dominican Republic has a well developed telecommunications infrastructure, with extensive mobile phone and landline services. Cable Internet and DSL are available in most parts of the country, and many Internet service providers offer 3G wireless internet service. The Dominican Republic became the second country in Latin America to have 4G LTE wireless service. The reported speeds are from 1 Mbit/s up to 100 Mbit/s for residential services. For commercial service there are speeds from 256 kbit/s up to 154 Mbit/s. (Each set of numbers denotes downstream/upstream speed; that is, to the user/from the user.) Projects to extend Wi-Fi hot spots have been made in Santo Domingo. The country's commercial radio stations and television stations are in the process of transferring to the digital spectrum, via HD Radio and HDTV after officially adopting ATSC as the digital medium in the country with a switch-off of analog transmission by September 2015. The telecommunications regulator in the country is INDOTEL (Instituto Dominicano de Telecomunicaciones). The largest telecommunications company is Claro – part of Carlos Slim's América Móvil – which provides wireless, landline, broadband, and IPTV services. In June 2009 there were more than 8 million phone line subscribers (land and cell users) in the D.R., representing 81% of the country's population and a fivefold increase since the year 2000, when there were 1.6 million. The communications sector generates about 3.0% of the GDP. There were 2,439,997 Internet users in March 2009. In November 2009, the Dominican Republic became the first Latin American country to pledge to include a "gender perspective" in every information and communications technology (ICT) initiative and policy developed by the government. This is part of the regional eLAC2010 plan. The tool the Dominicans have chosen to design and evaluate all the public policies is the APC Gender Evaluation Methodology (GEM). Electricity Electric power service has been unreliable since the Trujillo era, and as much as 75% of the equipment is that old. The country's antiquated power grid causes transmission losses that account for a large share of billed electricity from generators. The privatization of the sector started under a previous administration of Leonel Fernández. The recent investment in a 345 kilovolt "Santo Domingo–Santiago Electrical Highway" with reduced transmission losses, is being heralded as a major capital improvement to the national grid since the mid-1960s. During the Trujillo regime electrical service was introduced to many cities. Almost 95% of usage was not billed at all. Around half of the Dominican Republic's 2.1 million houses have no meters and most do not pay or pay a fixed monthly rate for their electric service. Household and general electrical service is delivered at 110 volts alternating at 60 Hz. Electrically powered items from the United States work with no modifications. The majority of the Dominican Republic has access to electricity. Tourist areas tend to have more reliable power, as do business, travel, healthcare, and vital infrastructure. Concentrated efforts were announced to increase efficiency of delivery to places where the collection rate reached 70%. The electricity sector is highly politicized. Some generating companies are undercapitalized and at times unable to purchase adequate fuel supplies. Society Demographics The Dominican Republic's population was in . In 2010, 31.2% of the population was under 15 years of age, with 6% of the population over 65 years of age. There were an estimated 102.3 males for every 100 females in 2020. The annual population growth rate for 2006–2007 was 1.5%, with the projected population for the year 2015 being 10,121,000. The population density in 2007 was 192 per km2 (498 per sq mi), and 63% of the population lived in urban areas. The southern coastal plains and the Cibao Valley are the most densely populated areas of the country. The capital city Santo Domingo had a population of 2,907,100 in 2010. Other important cities are Santiago de los Caballeros ( 745,293), La Romana (pop. 214,109), San Pedro de Macorís (pop. 185,255), Higüey (153,174), San Francisco de Macorís (pop. 132,725), Puerto Plata (pop. 118,282), and La Vega (pop. 104,536). Per the United Nations, the urban population growth rate for 2000–2005 was 2.3%. Ethnic groups In a 2014 population survey, 70.4% self-identified as mixed (mestizo/indio 58%, mulatto 12.4%), 15.8% as black, 13.5% as white, and 0.3% as "other". Ethnic immigrant groups in the country include West Asians—mostly Lebanese, Syrians, and Palestinians; the current president, Luis Abinader, is of Lebanese descent. East Asians, Koreans, ethnic Chinese and Japanese, can also be found. Europeans are represented mostly by Spanish whites but also with smaller populations of Germans, Italians, French, British, Dutch, Swiss, Russians, and Hungarians. Languages The population of the Dominican Republic is mostly Spanish-speaking. The local variant of Spanish is called Dominican Spanish, which closely resembles other Spanish vernaculars in the Caribbean and has similarities to Canarian Spanish. In addition, it has influences from African languages and borrowed words from indigenous Caribbean languages particular to the island of Hispaniola. Schools are based on a Spanish educational model; English and French are mandatory foreign languages in both private and public schools, although the quality of foreign languages teaching is poor. Some private educational institutes provide teaching in other languages, notably Italian, Japanese and Mandarin. Haitian Creole is the largest minority language in the Dominican Republic and is spoken by Haitian immigrants and their descendants. There is a community of a few thousand people whose ancestors spoke Samaná English in the Samaná Peninsula. They are the descendants of formerly enslaved African Americans who arrived in the nineteenth century, but only a few elders speak the language today. Tourism, American pop culture, the influence of Dominican Americans, and the country's economic ties with the United States motivate other Dominicans to learn English. The Dominican Republic is ranked 2nd in Latin America and 23rd in the World on English proficiency.EF English Proficiency Index – Dominican Republic, EF Education First. Retrieved on July 10, 2017. Population centres Religion 95.0% Christians 2.6% No religion 2.2% Other religions , 57% of the population (5.7 million) identified themselves as Roman Catholics and 23% (2.3 million) as Protestants (in Latin American countries, Protestants are often called Evangelicos because they emphasize personal and public evangelising and many are Evangelical Protestant or of a Pentecostal group). From 1896 to 1907 missionaries from the Episcopal, Free Methodist, Seventh-day Adventist and Moravians churches began work in the Dominican Republic. Three percent of the 10.63 million Dominican Republic population are Seventh-day Adventists. Recent immigration as well as proselytizing efforts have brought in other religious groups, with the following shares of the population: Spiritist: 2.2%, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: 1.3%, Buddhist: 0.1%, Baháʼí: 0.1%, Chinese Folk Religion: 0.1%, Islam: 0.02%, Judaism: 0.01%. The Catholic Church began to lose its strong dominance in the late 19th century. This was due to a lack of funding, priests, and support programs. During the same time, Protestant Evangelicalism began to gain a wider support "with their emphasis on personal responsibility and family rejuvenation, economic entrepreneurship, and biblical fundamentalism". The Dominican Republic has two Catholic patroness saints: Nuestra Señora de la Altagracia (Our Lady Of High Grace) and Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes (Our Lady Of Mercy). The Dominican Republic has historically granted extensive religious freedom. According to the United States Department of State, "The constitution specifies that there is no state church and provides for freedom of religion and belief. A concordat with the Vatican designates Catholicism as the official religion and extends special privileges to the Catholic Church not granted to other religious groups. These include the legal recognition of church law, use of public funds to underwrite some church expenses, and complete exoneration from customs duties." In the 1950s restrictions were placed upon churches by the government of Trujillo. Letters of protest were sent against the mass arrests of government adversaries. Trujillo began a campaign against the Catholic Church and planned to arrest priests and bishops who preached against the government. This campaign ended before it was put into place, with his assassination. During World War II a group of Jews escaping Nazi Germany fled to the Dominican Republic and founded the city of Sosúa. It has remained the center of the Jewish population since. 20th century immigration In the 20th century, many Arabs (from Lebanon, Syria, and Palestine), Japanese, and, to a lesser degree, Koreans settled in the country as agricultural laborers and merchants. The Chinese companies found business in telecom, mining, and railroads. The Arab community is rising at an increasing rate and is estimated at 80,000. In addition, there are descendants of immigrants who came from other Caribbean islands, including St. Kitts and Nevis, Antigua, St. Vincent, Montserrat, Tortola, St. Croix, St. Thomas, and Guadeloupe. They worked on sugarcane plantations and docks and settled mainly in the cities of San Pedro de Macorís and Puerto Plata. Puerto Rican, and to a lesser extent, Cuban immigrants fled to the Dominican Republic from the mid-1800s until about 1940 due to a poor economy and social unrest in their respective home countries. Many Puerto Rican immigrants settled in Higüey, among other cities, and quickly assimilated due to similar culture. Before and during World War II, 800 Jewish refugees moved to the Dominican Republic. Numerous immigrants have come from other Caribbean countries, as the country has offered economic opportunities. There is an increasing number of Puerto Rican immigrants, especially in and around Santo Domingo; they are believed to number around 10,000. There are many Haitians and Venezuelans living in the Dominican Republic illegally. Haitian immigration Human Rights Watch estimated that 70,000 documented Haitian immigrants and 1,930,000 undocumented immigrants were living in Dominican Republic. Haiti is the neighboring nation to the Dominican Republic and is considerably poorer, less developed and is additionally the least developed country in the western hemisphere. In 2003, 80% of all Haitians were poor (54% living in abject poverty) and 47.1% were illiterate. The country of nine million people also has a fast growing population, but over two-thirds of the labor force lack formal jobs. Haiti's per capita GDP (PPP) was $1,800 in 2017, or just over one-tenth of the Dominican figure. As a result, hundreds of thousands of Haitians have migrated to the Dominican Republic, with some estimates of 800,000 Haitians in the country, while others put the Haitian-born population as high as one million. They usually work at low-paying and unskilled jobs in building construction and house cleaning and in sugar plantations. There have been accusations that some Haitian immigrants work in slavery-like conditions and are severely exploited. Due to the lack of basic amenities and medical facilities in Haiti a large number of Haitian women, often arriving with several health problems, cross the border to Dominican soil. They deliberately come during their last weeks of pregnancy to obtain medical attention for childbirth, since Dominican public hospitals do not refuse medical services based on nationality or legal status. Statistics from a hospital in Santo Domingo report that over 22% of childbirths are by Haitian mothers. Haiti also suffers from severe environmental degradation. Deforestation is rampant in Haiti; today less than 4 percent of Haiti's forests remain, and in many places the soil has eroded right down to the bedrock. Haitians burn wood charcoal for 60% of their domestic energy production. Because of Haiti running out of plant material to burn, some Haitian bootleggers have created an illegal market for charcoal on the Dominican side. Conservative estimates calculate the illegal movement of 115 tons of charcoal per week from the Dominican Republic to Haiti. Dominican officials estimate that at least 10 trucks per week are crossing the border loaded with charcoal. In 2005, Dominican President Leonel Fernández criticized collective expulsions of Haitians as having taken place "in an abusive and inhuman way." After a UN delegation issued a preliminary report stating that it found a profound problem of racism and discrimination against people of Haitian origin, Dominican Foreign Minister Carlos Morales Troncoso issued a formal statement denouncing it, asserting that "our border with Haiti has its problems[;] this is our reality and it must be understood. It is important not to confuse national sovereignty with indifference, and not to confuse security with xenophobia." Haitian nationals send half a billion dollars total yearly in remittance from the Dominican Republic to Haiti, according to the World Bank. The government of the Dominican Republic invested a total of $16 billion pesos in health services offered to foreign patients in 2013–2016, according to official data, which includes medical expenses in blood transfusion, clinical analysis, surgeries and other care. According to official reports, the country spends more than five billion Dominican pesos annually in care for pregnant women who cross the border ready to deliver. The children of Haitian immigrants are eligible for Haitian nationality, but they may be denied it by Haiti because of a lack of proper documents or witnesses. Emigration The first of three late-20th century emigration waves began in 1961 after the assassination of dictator Trujillo, due to fear of retaliation by Trujillo's allies and political uncertainty in general. In 1965, the United States began a military occupation of the Dominican Republic to end a civil war. Upon this, the U.S. eased travel restrictions, making it easier for Dominicans to obtain U.S. visas. From 1966 to 1978, the exodus continued, fueled by high unemployment and political repression. Communities established by the first wave of immigrants to the U.S. created a network that assisted subsequent arrivals. In the early 1980s, underemployment, inflation, and the rise in value of the dollar all contributed to a third wave of emigration from the Dominican Republic. Today, emigration from the Dominican Republic remains high. In 2012, there were approximately 1.7 million people of Dominican descent in the U.S., counting both native- and foreign-born. There was also a growing Dominican immigration to Puerto Rico, with nearly 70,000 Dominicans living there . Although that number is slowly decreasing and immigration trends have reversed because of Puerto Rico's economic crisis . There is a significant Dominican population in Spain. Health In 2020, the Dominican Republic had an estimated birth rate of 18.5 per 1000 and a death rate of 6.3 per 1000. Education Primary education is regulated by the Ministry of Education, with education being a right of all citizens and youth in the Dominican Republic. Preschool education is organized in different cycles and serves the 2–4 age group and the 4–6 age group. Preschool education is not mandatory except for the last year. Basic education is compulsory and serves the population of the 6–14 age group. Secondary education is not compulsory, although it is the duty of the state to offer it for free. It caters to the 14–18 age group and is organized in a common core of four years and three modes of two years of study that are offered in three different options: general or academic, vocational (industrial, agricultural, and services), and artistic. The higher education system consists of institutes and universities. The institutes offer courses of a higher technical level. The universities offer technical careers, undergraduate and graduate; these are regulated by the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology. The Dominican Republic was ranked 90th in the Global Innovation Index in 2020, down from 87th in 2019. Crime In 2012, the Dominican Republic had a murder rate of 22.1 per 100,000 population. There was a total of 2,268 murders in the Dominican Republic in 2012. The Dominican Republic has become a trans-shipment point for Colombian drugs destined for Europe as well as the United States and Canada. Money-laundering via the Dominican Republic is favored by Colombian drug cartels for the ease of illicit financial transactions. In 2004, it was estimated that 8% of all cocaine smuggled into the United States had come through the Dominican Republic. The Dominican Republic responded with increased efforts to seize drug shipments, arrest and extradite those involved, and combat money-laundering. The often light treatment of violent criminals has been a continuous source of local controversy. In April 2010, five teenagers, aged 15 to 17, shot and killed two taxi drivers and killed another five by forcing them to drink drain-cleaning acid. On September 24, 2010, the teens were sentenced to prison terms of three to five years, despite the protests of the taxi drivers' families. Culture Due to cultural syncretism, the culture and customs of the Dominican people have a European cultural basis, influenced by both African and native Taíno elements, although endogenous elements have emerged within Dominican culture; culturally the Dominican Republic is among the most-European countries in Spanish America, alongside Puerto Rico, Cuba, Central Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay. Spanish institutions in the colonial era were able to predominate in the Dominican culture's making-of as a relative success in the acculturation and cultural assimilation of African slaves diminished African cultural influence in comparison to other Caribbean countries. Visual arts Dominican art is perhaps most commonly associated with the bright, vibrant colors and images that are sold in every tourist gift shop across the country. However, the country has a long history of fine art that goes back to the middle of the 1800s when the country became independent and the beginnings of a national art scene emerged. Historically, the painting of this time were centered around images connected to national independence, historical scenes, portraits but also landscapes and images of still life. Styles of painting ranged between neoclassicism and romanticism. Between 1920 and 1940 the art scene was influenced by styles of realism and impressionism. Dominican artists were focused on breaking from previous, academic styles in order to develop more independent and individual styles. Literature The 20th century brought many prominent Dominican writers, and saw a general increase in the perception of Dominican literature. Writers such as Juan Bosch (one of the greatest storytellers in Latin America), Pedro Mir (national poet of the Dominican Republic), Aida Cartagena Portalatin (poetess par excellence who spoke in the Era of Rafael Trujillo), Emilio Rodríguez Demorizi (the most important Dominican historian, with more than 1000 written works), Manuel del Cabral (main Dominican poet featured in black poetry), Hector Inchustegui Cabral (considered one of the most prominent voices of the Caribbean social poetry of the twentieth century), Miguel Alfonseca (poet belonging to Generation 60), Rene del Risco (acclaimed poet who was a participant in the June 14 Movement), Mateo Morrison (excellent poet and writer with numerous awards), among many more prolific authors, put the island in one of the most important in Literature in the twentieth century. New 21st century Dominican writers have not yet achieved the renown of their 20th century counterparts. However, writers such as Frank Báez (won the 2006 Santo Domingo Book Fair First Prize) and Junot Díaz (2008 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for his novel The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao) lead Dominican literature in the 21st century. Architecture The architecture in the Dominican Republic represents a complex blend of diverse cultures. The deep influence of the European colonists is the most evident throughout the country. Characterized by ornate designs and baroque structures, the style can best be seen in the capital city of Santo Domingo, which is home to the first cathedral, castle, monastery, and fortress in all of the Americas, located in the city's Colonial Zone, an area declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The designs carry over into the villas and buildings throughout the country. It can also be observed on buildings that contain stucco exteriors, arched doors and windows, and red tiled roofs. The indigenous peoples of the Dominican Republic have also had a significant influence on the architecture of the country. The Taíno people relied heavily on the mahogany and guano (dried palm tree leaf) to put together crafts, artwork, furniture, and houses. Utilizing mud, thatched roofs, and mahogany trees, they gave buildings and the furniture inside a natural look, seamlessly blending in with the island's surroundings. Lately, with the rise in tourism and increasing popularity as a Caribbean vacation destination, architects in the Dominican Republic have now begun to incorporate cutting-edge designs that emphasize luxury. In many ways an architectural playground, villas and hotels implement new styles, while offering new takes on the old. This new style is characterized by simplified, angular corners and large windows that blend outdoor and indoor spaces. As with the culture as a whole, contemporary architects embrace the Dominican Republic's rich history and various cultures to create something new. Surveying modern villas, one can find any combination of the three major styles: a villa may contain angular, modernist building construction, Spanish Colonial-style arched windows, and a traditional Taíno hammock in the bedroom balcony. Cuisine Dominican cuisine is predominantly Spanish, Taíno, and African. The typical cuisine is quite similar to what can be found in other Latin American countries. One breakfast dish consists of eggs and mangú (mashed, boiled plantain). Heartier versions of mangú are accompanied by deep-fried meat (Dominican salami, typically), cheese, or both. Lunch, generally the largest and most important meal of the day, usually consists of rice, meat, beans, and salad. "La Bandera" (literally "The Flag") is the most popular lunch dish; it consists of meat and red beans on white rice. Sancocho is a stew often made with seven varieties of meat. Meals tend to favor meats and starches over dairy products and vegetables. Many dishes are made with sofrito, which is a mix of local herbs used as a wet rub for meats and sautéed to bring out all of a dish's flavors. Throughout the south-central coast, bulgur, or whole wheat, is a main ingredient in quipes or tipili (bulgur salad). Other favorite Dominican foods include chicharrón, yuca, casabe, pastelitos(empanadas), batata, yam, pasteles en hoja, chimichurris, and tostones. Some treats Dominicans enjoy are arroz con leche (or arroz con dulce), bizcocho dominicano (lit. Dominican cake), habichuelas con dulce, flan, frío frío (snow cones), dulce de leche, and caña (sugarcane). The beverages Dominicans enjoy are Morir Soñando, rum, beer, Mama Juana, batida (smoothie), jugos naturales (freshly squeezed fruit juices), mabí, coffee, and chaca (also called maiz caqueao/casqueado, maiz con dulce and maiz con leche), the last item being found only in the southern provinces of the country such as San Juan. Music and dance Musically, the Dominican Republic is known for the world popular musical style and genre called merengue, a type of lively, fast-paced rhythm and dance music consisting of a tempo of about 120 to 160 beats per minute (though it varies) based on musical elements like drums, brass, chorded instruments, and accordion, as well as some elements unique to the Spanish-speaking Caribbean, such as the tambora and güira. Its syncopated beats use Latin percussion, brass instruments, bass, and piano or keyboard. Between 1937 and 1950 merengue music was promoted internationally by Dominican groups like Billo's Caracas Boys, Chapuseaux and Damiron "Los Reyes del Merengue," Joseito Mateo, and others. Radio, television, and international media popularized it further. Some well known merengue performers are Wilfrido Vargas, Johnny Ventura, singer-songwriter Los Hermanos Rosario, Juan Luis Guerra, Fernando Villalona, Eddy Herrera, Sergio Vargas, Toño Rosario, Milly Quezada, and Chichí Peralta. Merengue became popular in the United States, mostly on the East Coast, during the 1980s and 1990s, when many Dominican artists residing in the U.S. (particularly New York) started performing in the Latin club scene and gained radio airplay. They included Victor Roque y La Gran Manzana, Henry Hierro, Zacarias Ferreira, Aventura, and Milly Jocelyn Y Los Vecinos. The emergence of bachata, along with an increase in the number of Dominicans living among other Latino groups in New York, New Jersey, and Florida, has contributed to Dominican music's overall growth in popularity. Bachata, a form of music and dance that originated in the countryside and rural marginal neighborhoods of the Dominican Republic, has become quite popular in recent years. Its subjects are often romantic; especially prevalent are tales of heartbreak and sadness. In fact, the original name for the genre was amargue ("bitterness," or "bitter music,"), until the rather ambiguous (and mood-neutral) term bachata became popular. Bachata grew out of, and is still closely related to, the pan-Latin American romantic style called bolero. Over time, it has been influenced by merengue and by a variety of Latin American guitar styles. Palo is an Afro-Dominican sacred music that can be found throughout the island. The drum and human voice are the principal instruments. Palo is played at religious ceremonies—usually coinciding with saints' religious feast days—as well as for secular parties and special occasions. Its roots are in the Congo region of central-west Africa, but it is mixed with European influences in the melodies. Salsa music has had a great deal of popularity in the country. During the late 1960s Dominican musicians like Johnny Pacheco, creator of the Fania All Stars, played a significant role in the development and popularization of the genre. Dominican rock and Reggaeton are also popular. Many, if not the majority, of its performers are based in Santo Domingo and Santiago. Fashion The country boasts one of the ten most important design schools in the region, La Escuela de Diseño de Altos de Chavón, which is making the country a key player in the world of fashion and design. Noted fashion designer Oscar de la Renta was born in the Dominican Republic in 1932, and became a US citizen in 1971. He studied under the leading Spaniard designer Cristóbal Balenciaga and then worked with the house of Lanvin in Paris. By 1963, he had designs bearing his own label. After establishing himself in the US, de la Renta opened boutiques across the country. His work blends French and Spaniard fashion with American styles.Oscar de la Renta. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 31, 2012. Although he settled in New York, de la Renta also marketed his work in Latin America, where it became very popular, and remained active in his native Dominican Republic, where his charitable activities and personal achievements earned him the Juan Pablo Duarte Order of Merit and the Order of Cristóbal Colón. De la Renta died of complications from cancer on October 20, 2014. National symbols Some of the Dominican Republic's important symbols are the flag, the coat of arms, and the national anthem, titled Himno Nacional. The flag has a large white cross that divides it into four quarters. Two quarters are red and two are blue. Red represents the blood shed by the liberators. Blue expresses God's protection over the nation. The white cross symbolizes the struggle of the liberators to bequeath future generations a free nation. An alternative interpretation is that blue represents the ideals of progress and liberty, whereas white symbolizes peace and unity among Dominicans. In the center of the cross is the Dominican coat of arms, in the same colors as the national flag. The coat of arms pictures a red, white, and blue flag-draped shield with a Bible, a gold cross, and arrows; the shield is surrounded by an olive branch (on the left) and a palm branch (on the right). The Bible traditionally represents the truth and the light. The gold cross symbolizes the redemption from slavery, and the arrows symbolize the noble soldiers and their proud military. A blue ribbon above the shield reads, "Dios, Patria, Libertad" (meaning "God, Fatherland, Liberty"). A red ribbon under the shield reads, "República Dominicana" (meaning "Dominican Republic"). Out of all the flags in the world, the depiction of a Bible is unique to the Dominican flag. The national flower is the Bayahibe Rose and the national tree is the West Indian Mahogany. The national bird is the Cigua Palmera or Palmchat ("Dulus dominicus"). The Dominican Republic celebrates Dia de la Altagracia on January 21 in honor of its patroness, Duarte's Day on January 26 in honor of one of its founding fathers, Independence Day on February 27, Restoration Day on August 16, Virgen de las Mercedes on September 24, and Constitution Day on November 6. Sports Baseball is by far the most popular sport in the Dominican Republic. The Dominican Professional Baseball League consists of six teams. Its season usually begins in October and ends in January. After the United States, the Dominican Republic has the second highest number of Major League Baseball (MLB) players. Ozzie Virgil Sr. became the first Dominican-born player in the MLB on September 23, 1956. Juan Marichal, Pedro Martínez, and Vladimir Guerrero are the only Dominican-born players in the Baseball Hall of Fame. Other notable baseball players born in the Dominican Republic are José Bautista, Adrián Beltré, Juan Soto, Robinson Canó, Rico Carty, Bartolo Colón, Nelson Cruz, Edwin Encarnación, Ubaldo Jiménez, Francisco Liriano, David Ortiz, Plácido Polanco, Albert Pujols, Hanley Ramírez, Manny Ramírez, José Reyes, Alfonso Soriano, Sammy Sosa, Fernando Tatís Jr., and Miguel Tejada. Felipe Alou has also enjoyed success as a manager and Omar Minaya as a general manager. In 2013, the Dominican team went undefeated en route to winning the World Baseball Classic. In boxing, the country has produced scores of world-class fighters and several world champions, such as Carlos Cruz, his brother Leo, Juan Guzman, and Joan Guzman. Basketball also enjoys a relatively high level of popularity. Tito Horford, his son Al, Felipe Lopez, and Francisco Garcia are among the Dominican-born players currently or formerly in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Olympic gold medalist and world champion hurdler Félix Sánchez hails from the Dominican Republic, as does NFL defensive end Luis Castillo. Other important sports are volleyball, introduced in 1916 by U.S. Marines and controlled by the Dominican Volleyball Federation, taekwondo, in which Gabriel Mercedes won an Olympic silver medal in 2008, and judo. See also Index of Dominican Republic-related articles Outline of the Dominican Republic Notes References Bibliography Further reading Wiarda, Howard J., and Michael J. Kryzanek. The Dominican Republic: a Caribbean Crucible, in series, Nations of Contemporary Latin America, and also Westview Profiles. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1982. pbk. Jared Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, Penguin Books, 2005 and 2011 (). See chapter 11 entitled "One Island, Two People, Two Histories: The Dominican Republic and Haiti". External links Presidency of the Dominican Republic Official country website Dominican Republic at UCB Libraries GovPubs'' Dominican Republic profile from the BBC News Official Website of the Ministry of Tourism of the Dominican Republic Official Commercial Website Ministry of Tourism of the Dominican Republic Official Website of the IDDI, Instituto Dominicano de Desarrollo Integral Caribbean Connections: Dominican Republic teaching guide for middle and high school students 1844 establishments in North America Christian states Countries in North America Countries in the Caribbean Former French colonies Former Spanish colonies Former colonies in North America New Spain Greater Antilles Island countries Current member states of the United Nations Republics Small Island Developing States Spanish Caribbean Spanish West Indies 1492 establishments in the Spanish West Indies 1821 establishments in the Dominican Republic 1822 establishments in Haiti 1844 disestablishments in Haiti 1861 establishments in the Spanish West Indies 1865 disestablishments in the Spanish West Indies Spanish-speaking countries and territories Spanish colonization of the Americas States and territories established in 1844

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December 15

Events Pre-1600 533 – Vandalic War: Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Tricamarum. 687 – Pope Sergius I is elected as a compromise between antipopes Paschal and Theodore. 1025 – Constantine VIII becomes sole emperor of the Byzantine Empire, 63 years after being crowned co-emperor. 1161 – Jin–Song wars: Military officers conspire against the emperor Wanyan Liang of the Jin dynasty after a military defeat at the Battle of Caishi, and assassinate the emperor at his camp. 1167 – Sicilian Chancellor Stephen du Perche moves the royal court to Messina to prevent a rebellion. 1256 – Mongol forces under Hulagu enter and dismantle the Nizari Ismaili (Assassin) stronghold at Alamut Castle (in present-day Iran) as part of their offensive on Islamic southwest Asia. 1270 – The Nizari Ismaili garrison of Gerdkuh, Persia surrender after 17 years to the Mongols. 1467 – Stephen III of Moldavia defeats Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, with the latter being injured thrice, at the Battle of Baia. 1601–1900 1651 – Castle Cornet in Guernsey, the last stronghold which had supported the King in the Third English Civil War, surrenders. 1778 – American Revolutionary War: British and French fleets clash in the Battle of St. Lucia. 1791 – The United States Bill of Rights becomes law when ratified by the Virginia General Assembly. 1836 – The U.S. Patent Office building in Washington, D.C., nearly burns to the ground, destroying all 9,957 patents issued by the federal government to that date, as well as 7,000 related patent models. 1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Nashville begins at Nashville, Tennessee, and ends the following day with the destruction of the Confederate Army of Tennessee as a fighting force by the Union Army of the Cumberland. 1869 – The short-lived Republic of Ezo is proclaimed in the Ezo area of Japan. It is the first attempt to establish a democracy in Japan. 1890 – Hunkpapa Lakota leader Sitting Bull is killed on Standing Rock Indian Reservation, leading to the Wounded Knee Massacre. 1893 – Symphony No. 9 ("From the New World" the "New World Symphony") by Antonín Dvořák premieres in a public afternoon rehearsal at Carnegie Hall in New York City, followed by a concert premiere on the evening of December 16. 1899 – British Army forces are defeated at the Battle of Colenso in Natal, South Africa, the third and final battle fought during the Black Week of the Second Boer War. 1901–present 1903 – Italian American food cart vendor Italo Marchiony receives a U.S. patent for inventing a machine that makes ice cream cones. 1905 – The Pushkin House is established in Saint Petersburg, Russia, to preserve the cultural heritage of Alexander Pushkin. 1906 – The London Underground's Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway opens. 1914 – World War I: The Serbian Army recaptures Belgrade from the invading Austro-Hungarian Army. 1914 – A gas explosion at Mitsubishi Hōjō coal mine, in Kyushu, Japan, kills 687. 1917 – World War I: An armistice between Russia and the Central Powers is signed. 1939 – Gone with the Wind (highest inflation adjusted grossing film) receives its premiere at Loew's Grand Theatre in Atlanta, Georgia, United States. 1941 – The Holocaust in Ukraine: German troops murder over 15,000 Jews at Drobytsky Yar, a ravine southeast of the city of Kharkiv. 1942 – World War II: The Battle of Mount Austen, the Galloping Horse, and the Sea Horse begins during the Guadalcanal Campaign. 1943 – World War II: The Battle of Arawe begins during the New Britain campaign. 1944 – World War II: a single-engine UC-64A Norseman aeroplane carrying United States Army Air Forces Major Glenn Miller is lost in a flight over the English Channel. 1945 – Occupation of Japan/Shinto Directive: General Douglas MacArthur orders that Shinto be abolished as the state religion of Japan. 1960 – Richard Pavlick is arrested for plotting to assassinate U.S. President-Elect John F. Kennedy. 1960 – King Mahendra of Nepal suspends the country's constitution, dissolves parliament, dismisses the cabinet, and imposes direct rule. 1961 – Adolf Eichmann is sentenced to death after being found guilty by an Israeli court of 15 criminal charges, including charges of crimes against humanity, crimes against the Jewish people, and membership of an outlawed organization. 1965 – Project Gemini: Gemini 6A, crewed by Wally Schirra and Thomas Stafford, is launched from Cape Kennedy, Florida. Four orbits later, it achieves the first space rendezvous, with Gemini 7. 1970 – Soviet spacecraft Venera 7 successfully lands on Venus. It is the first successful soft landing on another planet. 1973 – John Paul Getty III, grandson of American billionaire J. Paul Getty, is found alive near Naples, Italy, after being kidnapped by an Italian gang on July 10. 1973 – The American Psychiatric Association votes 13–0 to remove homosexuality from its official list of psychiatric disorders, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 1978 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter announces that the United States will recognize the People's Republic of China and sever diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan). 1981 – A suicide car bombing targeting the Iraqi embassy in Beirut, Lebanon, levels the embassy and kills 61 people, including Iraq's ambassador to Lebanon. The attack is considered the first modern suicide bombing. 1989 – Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights relating the abolition of capital punishment is adopted. 1993 – The Troubles: The Downing Street Declaration is issued by British Prime Minister John Major and Irish Taoiseach Albert Reynolds. 1997 – Tajikistan Airlines Flight 3183 crashes in the desert near Sharjah, United Arab Emirates, killing 85. 2000 – The third reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant is shut down. 2001 – The Leaning Tower of Pisa reopens after 11 years and $27,000,000 spent to stabilize it, without fixing its famous lean. 2005 – Introduction of the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor into USAF active service. 2010 – A boat carrying 90 asylum seekers crashes into rocks off the coast of Christmas Island, Australia, killing 48 people. 2013 – The South Sudanese Civil War begins when opposition leaders Dr. Riek Machar, Pagan Amum and Rebecca Nyandeng vote to boycott the meeting of the National Liberation Council at Nyakuron. 2014 – Gunman Man Haron Monis takes 18 hostages inside a café in Martin Place for 16 hours in Sydney. Monis and two hostages are killed when police raid the café the following morning. 2017 – A 6.5earthquake strikes the Indonesian island of Java in the city of Tasikmalaya, resulting in four deaths. Births Pre-1600 AD 37 – Nero, Roman emperor (d. 68) 130 – Lucius Verus, Roman emperor (d. 169) 1242 – Prince Munetaka, Japanese shōgun (d. 1274) 1447 – Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1508) 1567 – Christoph Demantius, German composer, poet, and theorist (d. 1643) 1601–1900 1610 – David Teniers the Younger, Flemish painter (d. 1690) 1657 – Michel Richard Delalande, French organist and composer (d. 1726) 1686 – Jean-Joseph Fiocco, Flemish violinist and composer (d. 1746) 1710 – Francesco Zahra, Maltese painter (d. 1773) 1789 – Carlos Soublette, Venezuelan general and politician, 11th President of Venezuela (d. 1870) 1832 – Gustave Eiffel, French architect and engineer, co-designed the Eiffel Tower (d. 1923) 1837 – E. W. Bullinger, English minister, scholar, and theologian (d. 1913) 1852 – Henri Becquerel, French physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1908) 1859 – L. L. Zamenhof, Polish linguist and ophthalmologist, created Esperanto (d. 1917) 1860 – Niels Ryberg Finsen, Faroese-Danish physician and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1904) 1860 – Abner Powell, American baseball player and manager (d. 1953) 1861 – Charles Duryea, American engineer and businessman, co-founded the Duryea Motor Wagon Company (d. 1938) 1861 – Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, Finnish lawyer, judge, and politician, 3rd President of Finland (d. 1944) 1863 – Arthur Dehon Little, American chemist and engineer (d. 1935) 1869 – Leon Marchlewski, Polish chemist and academic (d. 1946) 1875 – Emilio Jacinto, Filipino journalist and activist (d. 1899) 1878 – Hans Carossa, German author and poet (d. 1956) 1885 – Leonid Pitamic, Slovenian lawyer, philosopher, and academic (d. 1971) 1886 – Wanda Krahelska-Filipowicz, Polish politician and resistance fighter (d. 1968) 1886 – Florence Jepperson Madsen, American contralto singer and professor of music (d. 1977) 1888 – Maxwell Anderson, American journalist and playwright (d. 1959) 1890 – Harry Babcock, American pole vaulter (d. 1965) 1891 – A.P. Carter, American country singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1960) 1892 – J. Paul Getty, American-English businessman and art collector, founded Getty Oil (d. 1976) 1894 – Vibert Douglas, Canadian astrophysicist and astronomer (d. 1988) 1894 – Josef Imbach, Swiss sprinter (d. 1964) 1896 – Betty Smith, American author and playwright (d. 1972) 1899 – Harold Abrahams, English sprinter, lawyer, and journalist (d. 1978) 1901–present 1902 – Robert F. Bradford, American lawyer and politician, 57th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1983) 1903 – Tamanishiki San'emon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 32nd Yokozuna (d. 1938) 1907 – Gordon Douglas, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1993) 1907 – Oscar Niemeyer, Brazilian architect, designed the United Nations Headquarters and the Cathedral of Brasília (d. 2012) 1908 – Swami Ranganathananda, Indian monk, scholar, and author (d. 2005) 1909 – Sattar Bahlulzade, Azerbaijani-Russian painter (d. 1974) 1909 – Eliza Atkins Gleason, American librarian (d. 2009) 1910 – John Hammond, American record producer and critic (d. 1987) 1911 – Nicholas P. Dallis, American psychiatrist and illustrator (d. 1991) 1911 – Stan Kenton, American pianist and composer (d. 1979) 1913 – Roger Gaudry, Canadian chemist and businessman (d. 2001) 1913 – Muriel Rukeyser, American poet, academic, and activist (d. 1980) 1915 – Eila Campbell, English geographer and cartographer (d. 1994) 1916 – Miguel Arraes, Brazilian lawyer and politician, Governor of Pernambuco (d. 2005) 1916 – Buddy Cole, American pianist and conductor (d. 1964) 1916 – Maurice Wilkins, New Zealand-English physicist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004) 1917 – Shan-ul-Haq Haqqee, Indian-Pakistani linguist and lexicographer (d. 2005) 1918 – Jeff Chandler, American actor (d. 1961) 1918 – Chihiro Iwasaki, Japanese painter and illustrator (d. 1974) 1919 – Max Yasgur, American dairy farmer and host of the Woodstock Music & Art Fair (d. 1973) 1920 – Gamal al-Banna, Egyptian author and scholar (d. 2013) 1920 – Kurt Schaffenberger, German-American sergeant and illustrator (d. 2002) 1921 – Alan Freed, American radio host (d. 1965) 1923 – Pierre Cossette, American producer and manager (d. 2009) 1923 – Freeman Dyson, English-American physicist and mathematician (d. 2020) 1923 – Uziel Gal, German-Israeli engineer, designed the Uzi gun (d. 2002) 1923 – Valentin Varennikov, Russian general and politician (d. 2009) 1924 – Frank W. J. Olver, English-American mathematician and academic (d. 2013) 1924 – Ruhi Sarıalp, Turkish triple jumper and educator (d. 2001) 1925 – Kasey Rogers, American actress and author (d. 2006) 1926 – Bitt Pitt, Australian race car driver (d. 2017) 1928 – Ernest Ashworth, American singer-songwriter (d. 2009) 1928 – Ida Haendel, Polish-English violinist and educator (d. 2020) 1928 – Friedensreich Hundertwasser, Austrian-New Zealand painter and architect (d. 2000) 1930 – Edna O'Brien, Irish novelist, playwright, poet and short story writer 1931 – Klaus Rifbjerg, Danish author and poet (d. 2015) 1932 – Jesse Belvin, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1960) 1932 – John Meurig Thomas, Welsh chemist and academic (d. 2020) 1933 – Bapu, Indian director and screenwriter (d. 2014) 1933 – Tim Conway, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2019) 1933 – Donald Woods, South African journalist and activist (d. 2001) 1936 – Joe D'Amato, Italian director and producer (d. 1999) 1938 – Michael Bogdanov, Welsh director and screenwriter (d. 2017) 1938 – Billy Shaw, American football player 1939 – Cindy Birdsong, American singer-songwriter 1940 – Nick Buoniconti, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2019) 1942 – Kathleen Blanco, American educator and politician, 54th Governor of Louisiana (d. 2019) 1943 – Lucien den Arend, Dutch sculptor 1944 – Jim Leyland, American baseball player and manager 1944 – Chico Mendes, Brazilian trade union leader and activist (d. 1988) 1945 – Heather Booth, American civil rights activist, feminist, and political strategist 1945 – Ivor Crewe, English political scientist and academic 1946 – Carmine Appice, American drummer and songwriter 1946 – Art Howe, American baseball player and manager 1946 – Genny Lim, American writer 1948 – Cassandra Harris, Australian actress (d. 1991) 1948 – Charlie Scott, American basketball player 1949 – Don Johnson, American actor 1949 – Brian Roper, English economist and academic 1950 – Melanie Chartoff, American actress and comedian 1950 – Sylvester James Gates, American theoretical physicist and professor 1951 – George Donikian, Australian journalist 1951 – Joe Jordan, Scottish footballer and manager 1951 – Tim Webster, Australian journalist and sportscaster 1952 – Rudi Protrudi, American singer-songwriter and producer 1952 – Allan Simonsen, Danish footballer and manager 1952 – Julie Taymor, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1953 – John R. Allen, American general and diplomat 1953 – J. M. DeMatteis, American author 1953 – Robert Charles Wilson, American-Canadian author 1954 – Alex Cox, English film director, screenwriter, nonfiction author, broadcaster and sometime actor 1954 – Oliver Heald, English lawyer and politician, Solicitor General for England and Wales 1954 – Mark Warner, American businessman and politician, 69th Governor of Virginia 1955 – Hector Sants, English banker 1955 – Paul Simonon, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1956 – John Lee Hancock, American screenwriter, film director, and producer 1956 – Tony Leon, South African lawyer and politician 1957 – Mario Marois, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1957 – Mike McAlary, American journalist and author (d. 1998) 1957 – Laura Molina, American singer, guitarist, actress, and painter 1957 – Tim Reynolds, German-American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1958 – Carlo J. Caparas, Filipino director and producer 1958 – Richard Kastle, American classical pianist 1959 – Greg Matthews, Australian cricketer 1959 – Alan Whetton, New Zealand rugby player 1959 – Gary Whetton, New Zealand rugby player 1960 – Walter Werzowa, Austrian composer and producer 1961 – Karin Resetarits, Austrian journalist and politician 1962 – Tim Gaines, American bass player 1962 – Simon Hodgkinson, English rugby player and coach 1963 – Ellie Cornell, American actress and producer 1963 – Norman J. Grossfeld, American screenwriter and producer 1963 – Helen Slater, American actress 1963 – David Wingate, American basketball player 1964 – Paul Kaye, British actor 1966 – Carl Hooper, Guyanese cricketer and coach 1966 – Molly Price, American actress 1967 – David Howells, English footballer and coach 1967 – Mo Vaughn, American baseball player 1968 – Garrett Wang, American actor 1969 – Ralph Ineson, English actor 1969 – Chantal Petitclerc, Canadian wheelchair racer and senator 1969 – Adam Setliff, American discus thrower and lawyer 1970 – Frankie Dettori, Italian jockey 1970 – Lawrence Funderburke, American basketball player 1970 – Michael Shanks, Canadian actor, screenwriter and director 1971 – Clint Lowery, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1972 – Rodney Harrison, American football player and sportscaster 1972 – Stuart Townsend, Irish actor 1972 – Alexandra Tydings, American actress, director, writer and producer 1973 – Surya Bonaly, French figure skater 1973 – Ryoo Seung-wan, South Korean actor, director, and screenwriter 1974 – Garath Archer, English rugby player 1974 – P. J. Byrne, American actor 1975 – Samira Saraya, Palestinian actor, filmmaker, poet and rapper 1976 – Baichung Bhutia, Indian footballer and manager 1976 – Kim Eagles, Canadian sport shooter 1976 – Aaron Miles, American baseball player and coach 1976 – Todd Tichenor, American baseball player and umpire 1977 – Mehmet Aurélio, Brazilian-Turkish footballer and manager 1977 – Geoff Stults, American actor and producer 1978 – Ned Brower, American drummer 1978 – Mark Jansen, Dutch guitarist and songwriter 1978 – Jerome McDougle, American football player 1979 – Adam Brody, American actor 1979 – Eric Young, Canadian-American wrestler 1980 – Élodie Gossuin, French beauty pageant titleholder and model 1980 – Sergio Pizzorno, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1980 – Manuel Wilhelm, German rugby player 1981 – Michelle Dockery, English actress 1981 – Brendan Fletcher, Canadian actor and screenwriter 1981 – Andy González, Puerto Rican-American baseball player 1981 – Thomas Herrion, American football player (d. 2005) 1981 – Roman Pavlyuchenko, Russian footballer 1982 – Charlie Cox, English actor 1982 – Borja García, Spanish race car driver 1982 – Tatiana Perebiynis, Ukrainian tennis player 1983 – Delon Armitage, Trinidadian-English rugby player 1983 – René Duprée, Canadian professional wrestler 1983 – Camilla Luddington, English actress 1983 – Ronnie Radke, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1984 – Martyn Bernard, English high jumper 1985 – Diogo Fernandes, Brazilian footballer 1986 – Kim Junsu, South Korean singer-songwriter and dancer 1986 – Iveta Mazáčová, Czech sprinter 1986 – Keylor Navas, Costa Rican footballer 1987 – Josh Norman, American football player 1986 – Snejana Onopka, Ukrainian model 1988 – Emily Head, English actress 1988 – Steven Nzonzi, French footballer 1989 – Nichole Bloom, American actress and model 1991 – Conor Daly, American race car driver 1992 – Daiamami Genki, Japanese sumo wrestler 1992 – Jesse Lingard, English footballer 1992 – Alex Telles, Brazilian footballer 1996 – Jenifer Brening, German singer 1996 – Oleksandr Zinchenko, Ukrainian footballer 1997 – Maude Apatow, American actress 1997 – Zach Banks, American race car driver 1997 – Magdalena Fręch, Polish tennis player 1997 – Stefania LaVie Owen, New Zealand-American actress 1998 – Chandler Canterbury, American actor 1999 – Amber Joseph, Barbadian cyclist Deaths Pre-1600 933 – Li Siyuan, Chinese emperor (b. 867) 1025 – Basil II, Byzantine emperor (b. 958) 1072 – Alp Arslan, Turkish sultan (b. 1029) 1161 – Wanyan Liang, Chinese emperor (b. 1122) 1230 – Ottokar I, duke of Bohemia (b. 1155) 1283 – Philip I, Latin emperor (b. 1243) 1343 – Hasan Kucek, Chopanid prince (b. c. 1319) 1467 – Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna, archbishop and regent of Sweden (b. 1417) 1574 – Selim II, Ottoman sultan (b. 1524) 1598 – Philips of Marnix, Lord of Saint-Aldegonde, Dutch nobleman (b. 1540) 1601–1900 1621 – Charles d'Albert, duc de Luynes, French courtier, Constable of France (b. 1578) 1673 – Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, English noblewoman (b. 1623) 1675 – Johannes Vermeer, Dutch painter and educator (b. 1632) 1683 – Izaak Walton, English author (b. 1593) 1688 – Gaspar Fagel, Dutch lawyer and politician (b. 1634) 1698 – Louis Victor de Rochechouart de Mortemart, French nobleman (b. 1636) 1715 – George Hickes, English minister and scholar (b. 1642) 1753 – Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, English architect and politician, designed Chiswick House (b. 1694) 1792 – Joseph Martin Kraus, Swedish pianist, violinist, and composer (b. 1756) 1812 – Shneur Zalman, Russian rabbi, author and founder of Chabad (b. 1745) 1817 – Federigo Zuccari, astronomer, director of the Astronomical Observatory of Naples (b. 1783) 1819 – Daniel Rutherford, Scottish chemist and physician (b. 1749) 1855 – Jacques Charles François Sturm, French mathematician and academic (b. 1803) 1878 – Alfred Bird, English chemist and businessman, invented baking powder (b. 1811) 1890 – Sitting Bull, Hunkpapa Lakota tribal chief (b. 1831) 1901–present 1943 – Fats Waller, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1904) 1944 – Glenn Miller, American bandleader and composer (b. 1904) 1947 – Arthur Machen, Welsh journalist and author (b. 1863) 1947 – Crawford Vaughan, Australian politician, 27th Premier of South Australia (b. 1874) 1950 – Vallabhbhai Patel, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st Deputy Prime Minister of India (b. 1875) 1958 – Wolfgang Pauli, Austrian-Swiss physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1900) 1962 – Charles Laughton, English-American actor, director, and producer (b. 1899) 1965 – M. Balasundaram, Sri Lankan journalist, lawyer, and politician (b. 1903) 1966 – Keith Arbuthnott, 15th Viscount of Arbuthnott, Indian-Scottish general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Kincardineshire (b. 1897) 1966 – Walt Disney, American animator, director, producer, and screenwriter, co-founded The Walt Disney Company (b. 1901) 1968 – Antonio Barrette, Canadian politician, 18th Premier of Quebec (b. 1899) 1968 – Jess Willard, American boxer and actor (b. 1881) 1969 – Karl Theodor Bleek, German lawyer and politician, 12th Mayor of Marburg (b. 1898) 1971 – Paul Lévy, French mathematician and theorist (b. 1886) 1974 – Anatole Litvak, Russian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1902) 1977 – Wilfred Kitching, English 7th General of The Salvation Army (b. 1893) 1978 – Chill Wills, American actor (b. 1903) 1980 – Peter Gregg, American race car driver (b. 1940) 1984 – Jan Peerce, American tenor and actor (b. 1904) 1985 – Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, Mauritian physician and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Mauritius (b. 1900) 1986 – Serge Lifar, Russian-French ballet dancer and choreographer (b. 1905) 1989 – Edward Underdown, English actor and jockey (b. 1908) 1991 – Vasily Zaytsev, Russian captain (b. 1915) 1993 – William Dale Phillips, American chemist and engineer (b. 1925) 2000 – Haris Brkić, Bosnian-Serbian basketball player (b. 1974) 2003 – Vincent Apap, Maltese sculptor (b. 1909) 2003 – George Fisher, American cartoonist (b. 1923) 2003 – Keith Magnuson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1947) 2004 – Vassal Gadoengin, Nauruan educator and politician, Speaker of the Nauru Parliament (b. 1943) 2005 – Heinrich Gross, Austrian physician and psychiatrist (b. 1914) 2005 – Stan Leonard, Canadian golfer (b. 1915) 2005 – William Proxmire, American soldier, journalist, and politician (b. 1915) 2005 – Darrell Russell, American football player (b. 1976) 2006 – Clay Regazzoni, Swiss race car driver (b. 1939) 2006 – Mary Stolz, American journalist and author (b. 1920) 2007 – Julia Carson, American lawyer and politician (b. 1938) 2008 – León Febres Cordero, Ecuadorian engineer and politician, 46th President of Ecuador (b. 1931) 2009 – Eliza Atkins Gleason, American librarian (b. 1909) 2009 – Oral Roberts, American evangelist, founded the Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association (b. 1918) 2010 – Blake Edwards, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1922) 2010 – Bob Feller, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1918) 2010 – Eugene Victor Wolfenstein, American psychoanalyst and theorist (b. 1940) 2011 – Bob Brookmeyer, American trombone player and composer (b. 1929) 2011 – Christopher Hitchens, English-American essayist, literary critic, and journalist (b. 1949) 2012 – Owoye Andrew Azazi, Nigerian general (b. 1952) 2012 – Patrick Ibrahim Yakowa, Nigerian politician, 18th Governor of Kaduna State (b. 1948) 2012 – Olga Zubarry, Argentinian actress (b. 1929) 2013 – Harold Camping, American evangelist, author, radio host (b. 1921) 2013 – Joan Fontaine, British-American actress (b. 1917) 2013 – Dyron Nix, American basketball player (b. 1967) 2014 – Donald Metcalf, Australian physiologist and immunologist (b. 1929) 2014 – Fausto Zapata, Mexican journalist, lawyer, and politician, Governor of San Luis Potosí (b. 1940) 2015 – Harry Zvi Tabor, English-Israeli physicist and engineer (b. 1917) 2016 – Craig Sager, American sports journalist (b. 1951) 2017 – Heinz Wolff, scientist and TV presenter (b. 1928) 2017 – Calestous Juma, academic (b. 1953) 2018 – Eryue He, Chinese historical fiction writer (b.1945) 2018 – Girma Wolde-Giorgis, President of Ethiopia (b. 1924) 2020 – Saufatu Sopoanga, Tuvaluan politician, 8th Prime Minister of Tuvalu (b. 1952) Holidays and observances Bill of Rights Day (United States) 2nd Amendment Day (South Carolina) Christian feast day: Drina Martyrs Drostan (Aberdeen Breviary) John Horden and Robert McDonald (Episcopal Church (USA)) Maria Crocifissa di Rosa Mesmin Valerian of Abbenza Virginia Centurione Bracelli December 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Homecoming Day (Alderney) Kingdom Day (Netherlands), moves to December 16 if the 15th is on a Sunday Zamenhof Day (International Esperanto Community) References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on December 15 Today in Canadian History Days of the year December

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecuador

Ecuador

Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: Ikwayur; Shuar: Ecuador or Ekuatur), officially the Republic of Ecuador (, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: Ikwadur Ripuwlika; Shuar: Ekuatur Nunka), is a country in northwestern South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. Ecuador also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about west of the mainland. The capital is Quito. The territories of modern-day Ecuador were once home to a variety of Amerindian groups that were gradually incorporated into the Inca Empire during the 15th century. The territory was colonized by Spain during the 16th century, achieving independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia, from which it emerged as its own sovereign state in 1830. The legacy of both empires is reflected in Ecuador's ethnically diverse population, with most of its million people being mestizos, followed by large minorities of European, Native American, and African descendants. Spanish is the official language and is spoken by a majority of the population, though 13 Native languages are also recognized, including Quechua and Shuar. The sovereign state of Ecuador is a middle-income representative democratic republic and a developing country that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum and agricultural products. It is governed as a democratic presidential republic. The country is a founding member of the United Nations, Organization of American States, Mercosur, PROSUR and the Non-Aligned Movement. One of 17 megadiverse countries in the world, Ecuador hosts many endemic plants and animals, such as those of the Galápagos Islands. In recognition of its unique ecological heritage, the new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature, or ecosystem rights. According to the Center for Economic and Policy Research, between 2006 and 2016, poverty decreased from 36.7% to 22.5% and annual per capita GDP growth was 1.5 percent (as compared to 0.6 percent over the prior two decades). At the same time, the country's Gini index of economic inequality decreased from 0.55 to 0.47. Etymology The country's name means "Equator" in Spanish, truncated from the Spanish official name, República del Ecuador ( "Republic of the Equator"), derived from the former Ecuador Department of Gran Colombia established in 1824 as a division of the former territory of the Royal Audience of Quito. Quito, which remained the capital of the department and republic, is located only about , ¼ of a degree, south of the equator. History Pre-Inca era Various peoples had settled in the area of future Ecuador before the arrival of the Incas. The archeological evidence suggests that the Paleo-Indians' first dispersal into the Americas occurred near the end of the last glacial period, around 16,500–13,000 years ago. The first people who reached Ecuador may have journeyed by land from North and Central America or by boat down the Pacific Ocean coastline. Even though their languages were unrelated, these groups developed similar groups of cultures, each based in different environments. The people of the coast developed a fishing, hunting, and gathering culture; the people of the highland Andes developed a sedentary agricultural way of life, and the people of the Amazon basin developed a nomadic hunting-and-gathering mode of existence. Over time these groups began to interact and intermingle with each other so that groups of families in one area became one community or tribe, with a similar language and culture. Many civilizations arose in Ecuador, such as the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast, the Quitus (near present-day Quito), and the Cañari (near present-day Cuenca). Each civilisation developed its own distinctive architecture, pottery, and religious interests. In the highland Andes mountains, where life was more sedentary, groups of tribes cooperated and formed villages; thus the first nations based on agricultural resources and the domestication of animals formed. Eventually, through wars and marriage alliances of their leaders, a group of nations formed confederations. One region consolidated under a confederation called the Shyris, which exercised organized trading and bartering between the different regions. Its political and military power came under the rule of the Duchicela blood-line. Inca era When the Incas arrived, they found that these confederations were so developed that it took the Incas two generations of rulers—Topa Inca Yupanqui and Huayna Capac—to absorb them into the Inca Empire. The native confederations that gave them the most problems were deported to distant areas of Peru, Bolivia, and north Argentina. Similarly, a number of loyal Inca subjects from Peru and Bolivia were brought to Ecuador to prevent rebellion. Thus, the region of highland Ecuador became part of the Inca Empire in 1463 sharing the same language. In contrast, when the Incas made incursions into coastal Ecuador and the eastern Amazon jungles of Ecuador, they found both the environment and indigenous people more hostile. Moreover, when the Incas tried to subdue them, these indigenous people withdrew to the interior and resorted to guerrilla tactics. As a result, Inca expansion into the Amazon Basin and the Pacific coast of Ecuador was hampered. The indigenous people of the Amazon jungle and coastal Ecuador remained relatively autonomous until the Spanish soldiers and missionaries arrived in force. The Amazonian people and the Cayapas of Coastal Ecuador were the only groups to resist Inca and Spanish domination, maintaining their language and culture well into the 21st century. Before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Inca Empire was involved in a civil war. The untimely death of both the heir Ninan Cuchi and the Emperor Huayna Capac, from a European disease that spread into Ecuador, created a power vacuum between two factions. The northern faction headed by Atahualpa claimed that Huayna Capac gave a verbal decree before his death about how the empire should be divided. He gave the territories pertaining to present-day Ecuador and northern Peru to his favorite son Atahualpa, who was to rule from Quito; and he gave the rest to Huáscar, who was to rule from Cuzco. He willed that his heart be buried in Quito, his favorite city, and the rest of his body be buried with his ancestors in Cuzco. Huáscar did not recognize his father's will, since it did not follow Inca traditions of naming an Inca through the priests. Huáscar ordered Atahualpa to attend their father's burial in Cuzco and pay homage to him as the new Inca ruler. Atahualpa, with a large number of his father's veteran soldiers, decided to ignore Huáscar, and a civil war ensued. A number of bloody battles took place until finally Huáscar was captured. Atahualpa marched south to Cuzco and massacred the royal family associated with his brother. In 1532, a small band of Spaniards headed by Francisco Pizarro landed in Tumbez and marched over the Andes Mountains until they reached Cajamarca, where the new Inca Atahualpa was to hold an interview with them. Valverde, the priest, tried to convince Atahualpa that he should join the Catholic Church and declare himself a vassal of Spain. This infuriated Atahualpa so much that he threw the Bible to the ground. At this point the enraged Spaniards, with orders from Valverde, attacked and massacred unarmed escorts of the Inca and captured Atahualpa. Pizarro promised to release Atahualpa if he made good his promise of filling a room full of gold. But, after a mock trial, the Spaniards executed Atahualpa by strangulation. Spanish colonization New infectious diseases such as smallpox, endemic to the Europeans, caused high fatalities among the Amerindian population during the first decades of Spanish rule, as they had no immunity. At the same time, the natives were forced into the encomienda labor system for the Spanish. In 1563, Quito became the seat of a real audiencia (administrative district) of Spain and part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and later the Viceroyalty of New Granada. The 1797 Riobamba earthquake, which caused up to 40,000 casualties, was studied by Alexander von Humboldt, when he visited the area in 1801–1802. After nearly 300 years of Spanish rule, Quito was still a small city numbering 10,000 inhabitants. On 10 August 1809, the city's criollos called for independence from Spain (first among the peoples of Latin America). They were led by Juan Pío Montúfar, Quiroga, Salinas, and Bishop Cuero y Caicedo. Quito's nickname, "Luz de América" ("Light of America"), is based on its leading role in trying to secure an independent, local government. Although the new government lasted no more than two months, it had important repercussions and was an inspiration for the independence movement of the rest of Spanish America. 10 August is now celebrated as Independence Day, a national holiday. Independence On October 9, 1820, the Department of Guayaquil became the first territory in Ecuador to gain its independence from Spain, and it spawned most of the Ecuadorian coastal provinces, establishing itself as an independent state. Its inhabitants celebrated what is now Ecuador's official Independence Day on May 24, 1822. The rest of Ecuador gained its independence after Antonio José de Sucre defeated the Spanish Royalist forces at the Battle of Pichincha, near Quito. Following the battle, Ecuador joined Simón Bolívar's Republic of Gran Colombia, also including modern-day Colombia, Venezuela and Panama. In 1830, Ecuador separated from Gran Colombia and became an independent republic. Two years later, it annexed the Galapagos Islands. The 19th century was marked by instability for Ecuador with a rapid succession of rulers. The first president of Ecuador was the Venezuelan-born Juan José Flores, who was ultimately deposed, followed by several authoritarian leaders, such as Vicente Rocafuerte; José Joaquín de Olmedo; José María Urbina; Diego Noboa; Pedro José de Arteta; Manuel de Ascásubi; and Flores's own son, Antonio Flores Jijón, among others. The conservative Gabriel García Moreno unified the country in the 1860s with the support of the Roman Catholic Church. In the late 19th century, world demand for cocoa tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast. Ecuador abolished slavery and freed its black slaves in 1851. Liberal Revolution The Liberal Revolution of 1895 under Eloy Alfaro reduced the power of the clergy and the conservative land owners. This liberal wing retained power until the military "Julian Revolution" of 1925. The 1930s and 1940s were marked by instability and emergence of populist politicians, such as five-time President José María Velasco Ibarra. Loss of claimed territories since 1830 President Juan José Flores de jure territorial claims Since Ecuador's separation from Colombia on May 13, 1830, its first President, General Juan José Flores, laid claim to the territory that was called the Real Audiencia of Quito, also referred to as the Presidencia of Quito. He supported his claims with Spanish Royal decrees or Real Cedulas, that delineated the borders of Spain's former overseas colonies. In the case of Ecuador, Flores-based Ecuador's de jure claims on the following cedulas - Real Cedula of 1563, 1739, and 1740; with modifications in the Amazon Basin and Andes Mountains that were introduced through the Treaty of Guayaquil (1829) which Peru reluctantly signed, after the overwhelmingly outnumbered Gran Colombian force led by Antonio José de Sucre defeated President and General La Mar's Peruvian invasion force in the Battle of Tarqui. In addition, Ecuador's eastern border with the Portuguese colony of Brazil in the Amazon Basin was modified before the wars of Independence by the First Treaty of San Ildefonso (1777) between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire. Moreover, to add legitimacy to his claims, on February 16, 1840, Flores signed a treaty with Spain, whereby Flores convinced Spain to officially recognize Ecuadorian independence and its sole rights to colonial titles over Spain's former colonial territory known anciently to Spain as the Kingdom and Presidency of Quito. Ecuador during its long and turbulent history has lost most of its contested territories to each of its more powerful neighbors, such as Colombia in 1832 and 1916, Brazil in 1904 through a series of peaceful treaties, and Peru after a short war in which the Protocol of Rio de Janeiro was signed in 1942. Struggle for independence During the struggle for independence, before Peru or Ecuador became independent nations, a few areas of the former Vice Royalty of New Granada - Guayaquil, Tumbez, and Jaén - declared themselves independent from Spain. A few months later, a part of the Peruvian liberation army of San Martin decided to occupy the independent cities of Tumbez and Jaén with the intention of using these towns as springboards to occupy the independent city of Guayaquil and then to liberate the rest of the Audiencia de Quito (Ecuador). It was common knowledge among the top officers of the liberation army from the south that their leader San Martin wished to liberate present-day Ecuador and add it to the future republic of Peru, since it had been part of the Inca Empire before the Spaniards conquered it. However, Bolívar's intention was to form a new republic known as the Gran Colombia, out of the liberated Spanish territory of New Granada which consisted of Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador. San Martin's plans were thwarted when Bolívar, with the help of Marshal Antonio José de Sucre and the Gran Colombian liberation force, descended from the Andes mountains and occupied Guayaquil; they also annexed the newly liberated Audiencia de Quito to the Republic of Gran Colombia. This happened a few days before San Martin's Peruvian forces could arrive and occupy Guayaquil, with the intention of annexing Guayaquil to the rest of Audiencia of Quito (Ecuador) and to the future republic of Peru. Historic documents repeatedly stated that San Martin told Bolivar he came to Guayaquil to liberate the land of the Incas from Spain. Bolivar countered by sending a message from Guayaquil welcoming San Martin and his troops to Colombian soil. Peruvian occupation of Jaén, Tumbes, and Guayaquil In the south, Ecuador had de jure claims to a small piece of land beside the Pacific Ocean known as Tumbes which lay between the Zarumilla and Tumbes rivers. In Ecuador's southern Andes Mountain region where the Marañon cuts across, Ecuador had de jure claims to an area it called Jaén de Bracamoros. These areas were included as part of the territory of Gran Colombia by Bolivar on December 17, 1819, during the Congress of Angostura when the Republic of Gran Colombia was created. Tumbes declared itself independent from Spain on January 17, 1821, and Jaen de Bracamoros on June 17, 1821, without any outside help from revolutionary armies. However, that same year, 1821, Peruvian forces participating in the Trujillo revolution occupied both Jaen and Tumbes. Some Peruvian generals, without any legal titles backing them up and with Ecuador still federated with the Gran Colombia, had the desire to annex Ecuador to the Republic of Peru at the expense of the Gran Colombia, feeling that Ecuador was once part of the Inca Empire. On July 28, 1821, Peruvian independence was proclaimed in Lima by the Liberator San Martin, and Tumbes and Jaen, which were included as part of the revolution of Trujillo by the Peruvian occupying force, had the whole region swear allegiance to the new Peruvian flag and incorporated itself into Peru, even though Peru was not completely liberated from Spain. After Peru was completely liberated from Spain by the patriot armies led by Bolivar and Antonio Jose de Sucre at the Battle of Ayacucho dated December 9, 1824, there was a strong desire by some Peruvians to resurrect the Inca Empire and to include Bolivia and Ecuador. One of these Peruvian Generals was the Ecuadorian-born José de La Mar, who became one of Peru's presidents after Bolivar resigned as dictator of Peru and returned to Colombia. Gran Colombia had always protested Peru for the return of Jaen and Tumbes for almost a decade, then finally Bolivar after long and futile discussion over the return of Jaen, Tumbes, and part of Mainas, declared war. President and General José de La Mar, who was born in Ecuador, believing his opportunity had come to annex the District of Ecuador to Peru, personally, with a Peruvian force, invaded and occupied Guayaquil and a few cities in the Loja region of southern Ecuador on November 28, 1828. The war ended when a triumphant heavily outnumbered southern Gran Colombian army at Battle of Tarqui dated February 27, 1829, led by Antonio José de Sucre, defeated the Peruvian invasion force led by President La Mar. This defeat led to the signing of the Treaty of Guayaquil dated September 22, 1829, whereby Peru and its Congress recognized Gran Colombian rights over Tumbes, Jaen, and Maynas. Through protocolized meetings between representatives of Peru and Gran Colombia, the border was set as Tumbes river in the west and in the east the Maranon and Amazon rivers were to be followed toward Brazil as the most natural borders between them. However, what was pending was whether the new border around the Jaen region should follow the Chinchipe River or the Huancabamba River. According to the peace negotiations Peru agreed to return Guayaquil, Tumbez, and Jaén; despite this, Peru returned Guayaquil, but failed to return Tumbes and Jaén, alleging that it was not obligated to follow the agreements, since the Gran Colombia ceased to exist when it divided itself into three different nations - Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. The dissolution of Gran Colombia The Central District of the Gran Colombia, known as Cundinamarca or New Granada (modern Colombia) with its capital in Bogota, did not recognize the separation of the Southern District of the Gran Colombia, with its capital in Quito, from the Gran Colombian federation on May 13, 1830. After Ecuador's separation, the Department of Cauca voluntarily decided to unite itself with Ecuador due to instability in the central government of Bogota. The Venezuelan born President of Ecuador, the general Juan José Flores, with the approval of the Ecuadorian congress annexed the Department of Cauca on December 20, 1830, since the government of Cauca had called for union with the District of the South as far back as April 1830. Moreover, the Cauca region, throughout its long history, had very strong economic and cultural ties with the people of Ecuador. Also, the Cauca region, which included such cities as Pasto, Popayán, and Buenaventura, had always been dependent on the Presidencia or Audiencia of Quito. Fruitless negotiations continued between the governments of Bogotá and Quito, where the government of Bogotá did not recognize the separation of Ecuador or that of Cauca from the Gran Colombia until war broke out in May 1832. In five months, New Granada defeated Ecuador due to the fact that the majority of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces were composed of rebellious angry unpaid veterans from Venezuela and Colombia that did not want to fight against their fellow countrymen. Seeing that his officers were rebelling, mutinying, and changing sides, President Flores had no option but to reluctantly make peace with New Granada. The Treaty of Pasto of 1832 was signed by which the Department of Cauca was turned over to New Granada (modern Colombia), the government of Bogotá recognized Ecuador as an independent country and the border was to follow the Ley de División Territorial de la República de Colombia (Law of the Division of Territory of the Gran Colombia) passed on June 25, 1824. This law set the border at the river Carchi and the eastern border that stretched to Brazil at the Caquetá river. Later, Ecuador contended that the Republic of Colombia, while reorganizing its government, unlawfully made its eastern border provisional and that Colombia extended its claims south to the Napo River because it said that the Government of Popayán extended its control all the way to the Napo River. Struggle for possession of the Amazon Basin When Ecuador seceded from the Gran Colombia, Peru decided not to follow the treaty of Guayaquil of 1829 or the protocoled agreements made. Peru contested Ecuador's claims with the newly discovered Real Cedula of 1802, by which Peru claims the King of Spain had transferred these lands from the Viceroyalty of New Granada to the Viceroyalty of Peru. During colonial times this was to halt the ever-expanding Portuguese settlements into Spanish domains, which were left vacant and in disorder after the expulsion of Jesuit missionaries from their bases along the Amazon Basin. Ecuador countered by labeling the Cedula of 1802 an ecclesiastical instrument, which had nothing to do with political borders. Peru began its de facto occupation of disputed Amazonian territories, after it signed a secret 1851 peace treaty in favor of Brazil. This treaty disregarded Spanish rights that were confirmed during colonial times by a Spanish-Portuguese treaty over the Amazon regarding territories held by illegal Portuguese settlers. Peru began occupying the defenseless missionary villages in the Mainas or Maynas region, which it began calling Loreto, with its capital in Iquitos. During its negotiations with Brazil, Peru stated that based on the royal cedula of 1802, it claimed Amazonian Basin territories up to Caqueta River in the north and toward the Andes Mountain range, depriving Ecuador and Colombia of all their claims to the Amazon Basin. Colombia protested stating that its claims extended south toward the Napo and Amazon Rivers. Ecuador protested that it claimed the Amazon Basin between the Caqueta river and the Marañon-Amazon river. Peru ignored these protests and created the Department of Loreto in 1853 with its capital in Iquitos which it had recently invaded and systematically began to occupy using the river systems in all the territories claimed by both Colombia and Ecuador. Peru briefly occupied Guayaquil again in 1860, since Peru thought that Ecuador was selling some of the disputed land for development to British bond holders, but returned Guayaquil after a few months. The border dispute was then submitted to Spain for arbitration from 1880 to 1910, but to no avail. In the early part of the 20th century, Ecuador made an effort to peacefully define its eastern Amazonian borders with its neighbours through negotiation. On May 6, 1904, Ecuador signed the Tobar-Rio Branco Treaty recognizing Brazil's claims to the Amazon in recognition of Ecuador's claim to be an Amazonian country to counter Peru's earlier Treaty with Brazil back on October 23, 1851. Then after a few meetings with the Colombian government's representatives an agreement was reached and the Muñoz Vernaza-Suarez Treaty was signed July 15, 1916, in which Colombian rights to the Putumayo river were recognized as well as Ecuador's rights to the Napo river and the new border was a line that ran midpoint between those two rivers. In this way, Ecuador gave up the claims it had to the Amazonian territories between the Caquetá River and Napo River to Colombia, thus cutting itself off from Brazil. Later, a brief war erupted between Colombia and Peru, over Peru's claims to the Caquetá region, which ended with Peru reluctantly signing the Salomon-Lozano Treaty on March 24, 1922. Ecuador protested this secret treaty, since Colombia gave away Ecuadorian claimed land to Peru that Ecuador had given to Colombia in 1916. On July 21, 1924, the Ponce-Castro Oyanguren Protocol was signed between Ecuador and Peru where both agreed to hold direct negotiations and to resolve the dispute in an equitable manner and to submit the differing points of the dispute to the United States for arbitration. Negotiations between the Ecuadorian and Peruvian representatives began in Washington on September 30, 1935. These negotiations were long and tiresome. Both sides logically presented their cases, but no one seemed to give up their claims. Then on February 6, 1937, Ecuador presented a transactional line which Peru rejected the next day. The negotiations turned into intense arguments during the next 7 months and finally on September 29, 1937, the Peruvian representatives decided to break off the negotiations without submitting the dispute to arbitration because the direct negotiations were going nowhere. Four years later in 1941, amid fast-growing tensions within disputed territories around the Zarumilla River, war broke out with Peru. Peru claimed that Ecuador's military presence in Peruvian-claimed territory was an invasion; Ecuador, for its part, claimed that Peru had recently invaded Ecuador around the Zarumilla River and that Peru since Ecuador's independence from Spain has systematically occupied Tumbez, Jaen, and most of the disputed territories in the Amazonian Basin between the Putomayo and Marañon Rivers. In July 1941, troops were mobilized in both countries. Peru had an army of 11,681 troops who faced a poorly supplied and inadequately armed Ecuadorian force of 2,300, of which only 1,300 were deployed in the southern provinces. Hostilities erupted on July 5, 1941, when Peruvian forces crossed the Zarumilla river at several locations, testing the strength and resolve of the Ecuadorian border troops. Finally, on July 23, 1941, the Peruvians launched a major invasion, crossing the Zarumilla river in force and advancing into the Ecuadorian province of El Oro. During the course of the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War, Peru gained control over part of the disputed territory and some parts of the province of El Oro, and some parts of the province of Loja, demanding that the Ecuadorian government give up its territorial claims. The Peruvian Navy blocked the port of Guayaquil, almost cutting all supplies to the Ecuadorian troops. After a few weeks of war and under pressure by the United States and several Latin American nations, all fighting came to a stop. Ecuador and Peru came to an accord formalized in the Rio Protocol, signed on January 29, 1942, in favor of hemispheric unity against the Axis Powers in World War II favoring Peru with the territory they occupied at the time the war came to an end. The 1944 Glorious May Revolution followed a military-civilian rebellion and a subsequent civic strike which successfully removed Carlos Arroyo del Río as a dictator from Ecuador's government. However, a post-Second World War recession and popular unrest led to a return to populist politics and domestic military interventions in the 1960s, while foreign companies developed oil resources in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In 1972, construction of the Andean pipeline was completed. The pipeline brought oil from the east side of the Andes to the coast, making Ecuador South America's second largest oil exporter. The pipeline in southern Ecuador did nothing to resolve tensions between Ecuador and Peru, however. The Rio Protocol failed to precisely resolve the border along a little river in the remote Cordillera del Cóndor region in southern Ecuador. This caused a long-simmering dispute between Ecuador and Peru, which ultimately led to fighting between the two countries; first a border skirmish in January–February 1981 known as the Paquisha Incident, and ultimately full-scale warfare in January 1995 where the Ecuadorian military shot down Peruvian aircraft and helicopters and Peruvian infantry marched into southern Ecuador. Each country blamed the other for the onset of hostilities, known as the Cenepa War. Sixto Durán Ballén, the Ecuadorian president, famously declared that he would not give up a single centimeter of Ecuador. Popular sentiment in Ecuador became strongly nationalistic against Peru: graffiti could be seen on the walls of Quito referring to Peru as the "Cain de Latinoamérica", a reference to the murder of Abel by his brother Cain in the Book of Genesis. Ecuador and Peru signed the Brasilia Presidential Act peace agreement on October 26, 1998, which ended hostilities, and effectively put an end to the Western Hemisphere's longest running territorial dispute. The Guarantors of the Rio Protocol (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the United States of America) ruled that the border of the undelineated zone was to be set at the line of the Cordillera del Cóndor. While Ecuador had to give up its decades-old territorial claims to the eastern slopes of the Cordillera, as well as to the entire western area of Cenepa headwaters, Peru was compelled to give to Ecuador, in perpetual lease but without sovereignty, of its territory, in the area where the Ecuadorian base of Tiwinza – focal point of the war – had been located within Peruvian soil and which the Ecuadorian Army held during the conflict. The final border demarcation came into effect on May 13, 1999, and the multi-national MOMEP (Military Observer Mission for Ecuador and Peru) troop deployment withdrew on June 17, 1999. Military governments (1972–79) In 1972, a "revolutionary and nationalist" military junta overthrew the government of Velasco Ibarra. The coup d'état was led by General Guillermo Rodríguez and executed by navy commander Jorge Queirolo G. The new president exiled José María Velasco to Argentina. He remained in power until 1976, when he was removed by another military government. That military junta was led by Admiral Alfredo Poveda, who was declared chairman of the Supreme Council. The Supreme Council included two other members: General Guillermo Durán Arcentales and General Luis Leoro Franco. The civil society more and more insistently called for democratic elections. Colonel Richelieu Levoyer, Government Minister, proposed and implemented a Plan to return to the constitutional system through universal elections. This plan enabled the new democratically elected president to assume the duties of the executive office. Return to democracy Elections were held on April 29, 1979, under a new constitution. Jaime Roldós Aguilera was elected president, garnering over one million votes, the most in Ecuadorian history. He took office on August 10, as the first constitutionally elected president after nearly a decade of civilian and military dictatorships. In 1980, he founded the Partido Pueblo, Cambio y Democracia (People, Change, and Democracy Party) after withdrawing from the Concentración de Fuerzas Populares (Popular Forces Concentration) and governed until May 24, 1981, when he died along with his wife and the minister of defense, Marco Subia Martinez, when his Air Force plane crashed in heavy rain near the Peruvian border. Many people believe that he was assassinated by the CIA, given the multiple death threats leveled against him because of his reformist agenda, deaths in automobile crashes of two key witnesses before they could testify during the investigation, and the sometimes contradictory accounts of the incident. Roldos was immediately succeeded by Vice President Osvaldo Hurtado, who was followed in 1984 by León Febres Cordero from the Social Christian Party. Rodrigo Borja Cevallos of the Democratic Left (Izquierda Democrática, or ID) party won the presidency in 1988, running in the runoff election against Abdalá Bucaram (brother in law of Jaime Roldos and founder of the Ecuadorian Roldosist Party). His government was committed to improving human rights protection and carried out some reforms, notably an opening of Ecuador to foreign trade. The Borja government concluded an accord leading to the disbanding of the small terrorist group, "¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!" ("Alfaro Lives, Dammit!"), named after Eloy Alfaro. However, continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the ID, and opposition parties gained control of Congress in 1999. The emergence of the Amerindian population as an active constituency has added to the democratic volatility of the country in recent years. The population has been motivated by government failures to deliver on promises of land reform, lower unemployment and provision of social services, and historical exploitation by the land-holding elite. Their movement, along with the continuing destabilizing efforts by both the elite and leftist movements, has led to a deterioration of the executive office. The populace and the other branches of government give the president very little political capital, as illustrated by the most recent removal of President Lucio Gutiérrez from office by Congress in April 2005. Vice President Alfredo Palacio took his place and remained in office until the presidential election of 2006, in which Rafael Correa gained the presidency. In December 2008, president Correa declared Ecuador's national debt illegitimate, based on the argument that it was odious debt contracted by corrupt and despotic prior regimes. He announced that the country would default on over $3 billion worth of bonds; he then pledged to fight creditors in international courts and succeeded in reducing the price of outstanding bonds by more than 60%. He brought Ecuador into the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas in June 2009. Correa's administration succeeded in reducing the high levels of poverty and unemployment in Ecuador. After Correa era Rafael Correa’s three consecutive terms (from 2007 to 2017) were followed by his former Vice President Lenín Moreno’s four years as president (2017-21). After being elected in 2017, President Lenin Moreno's government adopted economically liberal policies: reduction of public spending, trade liberalization, flexibility of the labour code, etc. Ecuador also left the left-wing Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (Alba) in August 2018. The Productive Development Act enshrines an austerity policy, and reduces the development and redistribution policies of the previous mandate. In the area of taxes, the authorities aim to "encourage the return of investors" by granting amnesty to fraudsters and proposing measures to reduce tax rates for large companies. In addition, the government waives the right to tax increases in raw material prices and foreign exchange repatriations. In October 2018, the government of President Lenin Moreno cut diplomatic relations with the Maduro administration of Venezuela, a close ally of Rafael Correa. The relations with the United States improved significantly during the presidency of Lenin Moreno. In February 2020, his visit to Washington was the first meeting between an Ecuadorian and U.S. president in 17 years. In June 2019, Ecuador had agreed to allow US military planes to operate from an airport on the Galapagos Islands. 2019 state of emergency A series of protests began on 3 October 2019 against the end of fuel subsidies and austerity measures adopted by President of Ecuador Lenín Moreno and his administration. On 10 October, protesters overran the capital Quito causing the Government of Ecuador to relocate to Guayaquil, but it was reported that the government still had plans to return to Quito. Presidency of Guillermo Lasso since 2021 The 11 April 2021 election run-off vote ended in a win for conservative former banker, Guillermo Lasso, taking 52.4% of the vote compared to 47.6% of left-wing economist Andrés Arauz, supported by exiled former president, Rafael Correa. Previously, President-elect Lasso finished second in the 2013 and 2017 presidential elections. On 24 May 2021, Guillermo Lasso was sworn in as the new President of Ecuador, becoming the country's first right-wing leader in 14 years. However, President Lasso's party CREO Movement, and its ally the Social Christian Party (PSC) secured only 31 parliamentary seats out of 137, while the Union for Hope (UNES) of Andrés Arauz was the strongest parliamentary group with 49 seats, meaning the new president needs support from Izquierda Democrática (18 seats) and the indigenist Pachakutik (27 seats) to push through his legislative agenda. Government and politics The Ecuadorian State consists of five branches of government: the Executive Branch, the Legislative Branch, the Judicial Branch, the Electoral Branch, and Transparency and Social Control. Ecuador is governed by a democratically elected president, for a four-year term. The current president of Ecuador, Guillermo Lasso, exercises his power from the presidential Palacio de Carondelet in Quito. The current constitution was written by the Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly elected in 2007, and was approved by referendum in 2008. Since 1936, voting is compulsory for all literate persons aged 18–65, optional for all other citizens. The executive branch includes 23 ministries. Provincial governors and councilors (mayors, aldermen, and parish boards) are directly elected. The National Assembly of Ecuador meets throughout the year except for recesses in July and December. There are thirteen permanent committees. Members of the National Court of Justice are appointed by the National Judicial Council for nine-year terms. Executive branch The executive branch is led by the president, an office currently held by Guillermo Lasso. He is accompanied by the vice-president, elected for four years (with the ability to be re-elected only once). As head of state and chief government official, he is responsible for public administration including the appointing of national coordinators, ministers, ministers of State and public servants. The executive branch defines foreign policy, appoints the Chancellor of the Republic, as well as ambassadors and consuls, being the ultimate authority over the Armed Forces of Ecuador, National Police of Ecuador, and appointing authorities. The acting president's wife receives the title of First Lady of Ecuador. Legislative branch The legislative branch is embodied by the National Assembly, which is headquartered in the city of Quito in the Legislative Palace, and consists of 137 assemblymen, divided into ten committees and elected for a four-year term. Fifteen national constituency elected assembly, two Assembly members elected from each province and one for every 100,000 inhabitants or fraction exceeding 150,000, according to the latest national population census. In addition, statute determines the election of assembly of regions and metropolitan districts. Judicial branch Ecuador's judiciary has as its main body the Judicial Council, and also includes the National Court of Justice, provincial courts, and lower courts. Legal representation is made by the Judicial Council. The National Court of Justice is composed of 21 judges elected for a term of nine years. Judges are renewed by thirds every three years pursuant to the Judicial Code. These are elected by the Judicial Council on the basis of opposition proceedings and merits. The justice system is buttressed by the independent offices of public prosecutor and the public defender. Auxiliary organs are as follows: notaries, court auctioneers, and court receivers. Also there is a special legal regime for Amerindians. Electoral branch The electoral system functions by authorities which enter only every four years or when elections or referendums occur. Its main functions are to organize, control elections, and punish the infringement of electoral rules. Its main body is the National Electoral Council, which is based in the city of Quito, and consists of seven members of the political parties most voted, enjoying complete financial and administrative autonomy. This body, along with the electoral court, forms the Electoral Branch which is one of Ecuador's five branches of government. Transparency and social control branch The Transparency and Social Control consists of the Council of Citizen Participation and Social Control, an ombudsman, the Comptroller General of the State, and the superintendents. Branch members hold office for five years. This branch is responsible for promoting transparency and control plans publicly, as well as plans to design mechanisms to combat corruption, as also designate certain authorities, and be the regulatory mechanism of accountability in the country. Human rights A 2003 Amnesty International report was critical that there were scarce few prosecutions for human rights violations committed by security forces, and those only in police courts, which are not considered impartial or independent. There are allegations that the security forces routinely torture prisoners. There are reports of prisoners having died while in police custody. Sometimes the legal process can be delayed until the suspect can be released after the time limit for detention without trial is exceeded. Prisons are overcrowded and conditions in detention centers are "abominable". UN's Human Rights Council's (HRC) Universal Periodic Review (UPR) has treated the restrictions on freedom of expression and efforts to control NGOs and recommended that Ecuador should stop the criminal sanctions for the expression of opinions, and delay in implementing judicial reforms. Ecuador rejected the recommendation on decriminalization of libel. According to Human Rights Watch (HRW) former president Correa intimidated journalists and subjected them to "public denunciation and retaliatory litigation". The sentences to journalists were years of imprisonment and millions of dollars of compensation, even though defendants had been pardoned. Correa stated he was only seeking a retraction for slanderous statements. According to HRW, Correa's government weakened the freedom of press and independence of the judicial system. In Ecuador's current judicial system, judges are selected in a contest of merits, rather than government appointments. However, the process of selection has been criticized as biased and subjective. In particular, the final interview is said to be given "excessive weighing". Judges and prosecutors that made decisions in favor of Correa in his lawsuits had received permanent posts, while others with better assessment grades had been rejected. The laws also forbid articles and media messages that could favor or disfavor some political message or candidate. In the first half of 2012, twenty private TV or radio stations were closed down. In July 2012, the officials warned the judges that they would be sanctioned and possibly dismissed if they allowed the citizens to appeal to the protection of their constitutional rights against the state. People engaging in public protests against environmental and other issues are prosecuted for "terrorism and sabotage", which may lead to an eight-year prison sentence. According to Freedom House, restrictions on the media and civil society have decreased since 2017. Foreign affairs Ecuador joined the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1973 and suspended its membership in 1992. Under President Rafael Correa, the country returned to OPEC before leaving again in 2020 under the instruction of President Moreno, citing its desire to increase crude oil importation to gain more revenue. In Antarctica, Ecuador has maintained a peaceful research station for scientific study as a member nation of the Antarctica Treaty. Ecuador has often placed great emphasis on multilateral approaches to international issues. Ecuador is a member of the United Nations (and most of its specialized agencies) and a member of many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, the Andean Community of Nations, and the Bank of the South (Spanish: Banco del Sur or BancoSur). In 2017, the Ecuadorian parliament adopted a Law on human mobility. The International Organization for Migration lauds Ecuador as the first state to have established the promotion of the concept of universal citizenship in its constitution, aiming to promote the universal recognition and protection of the human rights of migrants. In 2017, Ecuador signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. In March 2019, Ecuador withdrew from Union of South American Nations. Ecuador was an original member of the block, founded by left-wing governments in Latin America and the Caribbean in 2008. Ecuador also asked UNASUR to return the headquarters building of the organization, based in its capital city, Quito. Administrative divisions Ecuador is divided into 24 provinces (), each with its own administrative capital: The provinces are divided into cantons and further subdivided into parishes (parroquias). Regions and planning areas Regionalization, or zoning, is the union of two or more adjoining provinces in order to decentralize the administrative functions of the capital, Quito. In Ecuador, there are seven regions, or zones, each shaped by the following provinces: Region 1 (42,126 km2, or 16,265 mi2): Esmeraldas, Carchi, Imbabura, and Sucumbios. Administrative city: Ibarra Region 2 (43,498 km2, or 16,795 mi2): Pichincha, Napo, and Orellana. Administrative city: Tena Region 3 (44,710 km2, or 17,263 mi2): Chimborazo, Tungurahua, Pastaza, and Cotopaxi. Administrative city: Riobamba Region 4 (22,257 km2, or 8,594 mi2): Manabí and Santo Domingo de los Tsachilas. Administrative city: Ciudad Alfaro Region 5 (38,420 km2, or 14,834 mi2): Santa Elena, Guayas, Los Ríos, Galápagos, and Bolívar. Administrative city: Milagro Region 6 (38,237 km2, or 14,763 mi2): Cañar, Azuay, and Morona Santiago. Administrative city: Cuenca Region 7 (27,571 km2, or 10,645 mi2): El Oro, Loja, and Zamora Chinchipe. Administrative city: Loja Quito and Guayaquil are Metropolitan Districts. Galápagos, despite being included within Region 5, is also under a special unit. Military The Ecuadorian Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas de la Republica de Ecuador), consists of the Army, Air Force, and Navy and have the stated responsibility for the preservation of the integrity and national sovereignty of the national territory. The military tradition starts in Gran Colombia, where a sizable army was stationed in Ecuador due to border disputes with Peru, which claimed territories under its political control when it was a Spanish vice-royalty. Once Gran Colombia was dissolved after the death of Simón Bolívar in 1830, Ecuador inherited the same border disputes and had the need of creating its own professional military force. So influential was the military in Ecuador in the early republican period that its first decade was under the control of General Juan José Flores, first president of Ecuador of Venezuelan origin. General Jose Ma. Urbina and General Robles are examples of military figures who became presidents of the country in the early republican period. Due to the continuous border disputes with Peru, finally settled in the early 2000s, and due to the ongoing problem with the Colombian guerrilla insurgency infiltrating Amazonian provinces, the Ecuadorian Armed Forces has gone through a series of changes. In 2009, the new administration at the Defense Ministry launched a deep restructuring within the forces, increasing spending budget to $1,691,776,803, an increase of 25%. The Military Academy General Eloy Alfaro (c. 1838) located in Quito is in charge to graduate the army officers. The IWIAS is a special force trained to perform exploration and military activities. This army branch is considered the best elite force of Ecuador and is conformed by indigenous of the Amazon who combine their inherital experience for jungle dominance with modern army tactics. The Ecuadorian Navy Academy (c. 1837), located in Salinas graduates the navy officers. The Air Academy "Cosme Rennella (c. 1920), also located in Salinas, graduates the air force officers. Other training academies for different military specialties are found across the country. Geography Ecuador has a total area of , including the Galápagos Islands. Of this, is land and water. The Galápagos Islands are sometimes considered part of Oceania, which would thus make Ecuador a transcontinental country under certain definitions. Ecuador is bigger than Uruguay, Suriname, Guyana and French Guiana in South America. Ecuador lies between latitudes 2°N and 5°S, bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and has of coastline. It has of land boundaries, with Colombia in the north (with a border) and Peru in the east and south (with a border). It is the westernmost country that lies on the equator. The country has four main geographic regions: La Costa, or "the coast": The coastal region consists of the provinces to the west of the Andean range – Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Ríos, Manabí, El Oro, Santo Domingo de los Tsachilas and Santa Elena. It is the country's most fertile and productive land, and is the seat of the large banana exportation plantations of the companies Dole and Chiquita. This region is also where most of Ecuador's rice crop is grown. The truly coastal provinces have active fisheries. The largest coastal city is Guayaquil. La Sierra, or "the highlands": The sierra consists of the Andean and Interandean highland provinces – Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Loja, Pichincha, Bolívar,Cotopaxi and Tungurahua. This land contains most of Ecuador's volcanoes and all of its snow-capped peaks. Agriculture is focused on the traditional crops of potato, maize, and quinua and the population is predominantly Amerindian Kichua. The largest Sierran city is Quito. La Amazonía, also known as El Oriente, or "the east": The oriente consists of the Amazon jungle provinces – Morona Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Sucumbíos, and Zamora-Chinchipe. This region is primarily made up of the huge Amazon national parks and Amerindian untouchable zones, which are vast stretches of land set aside for the Amazon Amerindian tribes to continue living traditionally. It is also the area with the largest reserves of petroleum in Ecuador, and parts of the upper Amazon here have been extensively exploited by petroleum companies. The population is primarily mixed Amerindian Shuar, Huaorani and Kichua, although there are numerous tribes in the deep jungle which are little-contacted. The largest city in the Oriente is probably Lago Agrio in Sucumbíos, although Macas in Morona Santiago runs a close second. La Región Insular is the region comprising the Galápagos Islands, some west of the mainland in the Pacific Ocean. Ecuador's capital and largest city is Quito, which is in the province of Pichincha in the Sierra region. Its second largest city is Guayaquil, in the Guayas Province. Cotopaxi, just south of Quito, is one of the world's highest active volcanoes. The top of Mount Chimborazo (6,268 m, or 20,560 ft, above sea level), Ecuador's tallest mountain, is the most distant point from the center of the Earth on the Earth's surface because of the ellipsoid shape of the planet. Climate There is great variety in the climate, largely determined by altitude. It is mild year-round in the mountain valleys, with a humid subtropical climate in coastal areas and rainforest in lowlands. The Pacific coastal area has a tropical climate with a severe rainy season. The climate in the Andean highlands is temperate and relatively dry, and the Amazon basin on the eastern side of the mountains shares the climate of other rainforest zones. Because of its location at the equator, Ecuador experiences little variation in daylight hours during the course of a year. Both sunrise and sunset occur each day at the two six o'clock hours. The country has seen its seven glaciers lose 54.4% of their surface in forty years. Research predicts their disappearance by 2100. The cause is climate change, which threatens both the fauna and flora and the population. Hydrology The Andes is the watershed divisor between the Amazon watershed, which runs to the east, and the Pacific, including the north–south rivers Mataje, Santiago, Esmeraldas, Chone, Guayas, Jubones, and Puyango-Tumbes. Almost all of the rivers in Ecuador form in the Sierra region and flow east toward the Amazon River or west toward the Pacific Ocean. The rivers rise from snowmelt at the edges of the snowcapped peaks or from the abundant precipitation that falls at higher elevations. In the Sierra region, the streams and rivers are narrow and flow rapidly over precipitous slopes. Rivers may slow and widen as they cross the hoyas yet become rapid again as they flow from the heights of the Andes to the lower elevations of the other regions. The highland rivers broaden as they enter the more level areas of the Costa and the Oriente. In the Costa, the external coast has mostly intermittent rivers that are fed by constant rains from December through May and become empty riverbeds during the dry season. The few exceptions are the longer, perennial rivers that flow throughout the external coast from the internal coast and La Sierra on their way to the Pacific Ocean. The internal coast, by contrast, is crossed by perennial rivers that may flood during the rainy season, sometimes forming swamps. Major rivers in the Oriente include the Pastaza, Napo, and Putumayo. The Pastaza is formed by the confluence of the Chambo and the Patate rivers, both of which rise in the Sierra. The Pastaza includes the Agoyan waterfall, which at is the highest waterfall in Ecuador. The Napo rises near Mount Cotopaxi and is the major river used for transport in the eastern lowlands. The Napo ranges in width from . In its upper reaches, the Napo flows rapidly until the confluence with one of its major tributaries, the Coca River, where it slows and levels off. The Putumayo forms part of the border with Colombia. All of these rivers flow into the Amazon River. The Galápagos Islands have no significant rivers. Several of the larger islands, however, have freshwater springs, although they are surrounded by the Pacific Ocean. Biodiversity Ecuador is one of seventeen megadiverse countries in the world according to Conservation International, and it has the most biodiversity per square kilometer of any nation. Ecuador has 1,600 bird species (15% of the world's known bird species) in the continental area and 38 more endemic in the Galápagos. In addition to more than 16,000 species of plants, the country has 106 endemic reptiles, 138 endemic amphibians, and 6,000 species of butterfly. The Galápagos Islands are well known as a region of distinct fauna, as the famous place of birth to Darwin's Theory of Evolution, and as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Ecuador has the first constitution to recognize the rights of nature. The protection of the nation's biodiversity is an explicit national priority as stated in the National Plan of "Buen Vivir", or good living, Objective 4, "Guarantee the rights of nature", Policy 1: "Sustainably conserve and manage the natural heritage, including its land and marine biodiversity, which is considered a strategic sector". As of the writing of the plan in 2008, 19% of Ecuador's land area was in a protected area; however, the plan also states that 32% of the land must be protected in order to truly preserve the nation's biodiversity. Current protected areas include 11 national parks, 10 wildlife refuges, 9 ecological reserves, and other areas. A program begun in 2008, Sociobosque, is preserving another 2.3% of total land area (6,295 km2, or 629,500 ha) by paying private landowners or community landowners (such as Amerindian tribes) incentives to maintain their land as native ecosystems such as native forests or grasslands. Eligibility and subsidy rates for this program are determined based on the poverty in the region, the number of hectares that will be protected, and the type of ecosystem of the land to be protected, among other factors. Ecuador had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.66/10, ranking it 35th globally out of 172 countries. Despite being on the UNESCO list, the Galápagos are endangered by a range of negative environmental effects, threatening the existence of this exotic ecosystem. Additionally, oil exploitation of the Amazon rainforest has led to the release of billions of gallons of untreated wastes, gas, and crude oil into the environment, contaminating ecosystems and causing detrimental health effects to Amerindian peoples. One of the best known examples is the Texaco-Chevron case. This American oil company operated in the Ecuadorian Amazon region between 1964 and 1992. During this period, Texaco drilled 339 wells in 15 petroleum fields and abandoned 627 toxic wastewater pits, as well as other elements of the oil infrastructure. It is now known that these highly polluting and now obsolete technologies were used as a way to reduce expenses. In 2022 the supreme court of Ecuador decided that "“under no circumstances can a project be carried out that generates excessive sacrifices to the collective rights of communities and nature.” It also required the government to respect the opinion of Indigenous peoples of the Americas about different industrial projects on their land. Advocates of the decision argue that it will have consequences far beyond Ecuador. In general, ecosystems are in better shape when indigenous peoples own or manage the land. Economy Ecuador has a developing economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum and agricultural products. The country is classified as an upper-middle-income country. Ecuador's economy is the eighth largest in Latin America and experienced an average growth of 4.6% between 2000 and 2006. From 2007 to 2012, Ecuador's GDP grew at an annual average of 4.3 percent, above the average for Latin America and the Caribbean, which was 3.5%, according to the United Nations' Economic Commission for Latin American and the Caribbean (ECLAC). Ecuador was able to maintain relatively superior growth during the crisis. In January 2009, the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE) put the 2010 growth forecast at 6.88%. In 2011, its GDP grew at 8% and ranked 3rd highest in Latin America, behind Argentina (2nd) and Panama (1st). Between 1999 and 2007, GDP doubled, reaching $65,490 million according to BCE. The inflation rate until January 2008, was about 1.14%, the highest in the past year, according to the government. The monthly unemployment rate remained at about 6 and 8 percent from December 2007 until September 2008; however, it went up to about 9 percent in October and dropped again in November 2008 to 8 percent. Unemployment mean annual rate for 2009 in Ecuador was 8.5% because the global economic crisis continued to affect the Latin American economies. From this point, unemployment rates started a downward trend: 7.6% in 2010, 6.0% in 2011, and 4.8% in 2012. The extreme poverty rate has declined significantly between 1999 and 2010. In 2001, it was estimated at 40% of the population, while by 2011 the figure dropped to 17.4% of the total population. This is explained to an extent by emigration and the economic stability achieved after adopting the U.S. dollar as official means of transaction (before 2000, the Ecuadorian sucre was prone to rampant inflation). However, starting in 2008, with the bad economic performance of the nations where most Ecuadorian emigrants work, the reduction of poverty has been realized through social spending, mainly in education and health. Oil accounts for 40% of exports and contributes to maintaining a positive trade balance. Since the late 1960s, the exploitation of oil increased production, and proven reserves are estimated at 6.51 billion barrels . The overall trade balance for August 2012 was a surplus of almost $390 million for the first six months of 2012, a huge figure compared with that of 2007, which reached only $5.7 million; the surplus had risen by about $425 million compared to 2006. The oil trade balance positive had revenues of $3.295 million in 2008, while non-oil was negative, amounting to $2.842 million. The trade balance with the United States, Chile, the European Union, Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, and Mexico is positive. The trade balance with Argentina, Colombia, and Asia is negative. In the agricultural sector, Ecuador is a major exporter of bananas (first place worldwide in production and export), flowers, and the seventh largest producer of cocoa. Ecuador also produces coffee, rice, potatoes, cassava (manioc, tapioca), plantains and sugarcane; cattle, sheep, pigs, beef, pork and dairy products; fish, and shrimp; and balsa wood. The country's vast resources include large amounts of timber across the country, like eucalyptus and mangroves. Pines and cedars are planted in the region of La Sierra and walnuts, rosemary, and balsa wood in the Guayas River Basin. The industry is concentrated mainly in Guayaquil, the largest industrial center, and in Quito, where in recent years the industry has grown considerably. This city is also the largest business center of the country. Industrial production is directed primarily to the domestic market. Despite this, there is limited export of products produced or processed industrially. These include canned foods, liquor, jewelry, furniture, and more. A minor industrial activity is also concentrated in Cuenca. Incomes from tourism has been increasing during the last few years because of the Government showing the variety of climates and the biodiversity of Ecuador. Ecuador has negotiated bilateral treaties with other countries, besides belonging to the Andean Community of Nations, and an associate member of Mercosur. It also serves on the World Trade Organization (WTO), in addition to the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), Corporación Andina de Fomento (CAF) and other multilateral agencies. In April 2007, Ecuador paid off its debt to the IMF, thus ending an era of interventionism of the Agency in the country. The public finance of Ecuador consists of the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE), the National Development Bank (BNF), the State Bank. Tourism The Ministry of Information and Tourism was created on August 10, 1992, at the beginning of the government of Sixto Durán Ballén, who viewed tourism as a fundamental activity for the economic and social development of the peoples. Faced with the growth of the tourism sector, in June 1994, the decision was taken to separate tourism from information, so that it is exclusively dedicated to promoting and strengthening this activity. Ecuador is a country with vast natural wealth. The diversity of its four regions has given rise to thousands of species of flora and fauna. It has approximately 1640 kinds of birds. The species of butterflies border 4,500, the reptiles 345, the amphibians 358, and the mammals 258, among others. Not in vain, Ecuador is considered one of the 17 countries where the planet's highest biodiversity is concentrated, being also the largest country with diversity per km2 in the world. Most of its fauna and flora lives in 26 protected areas by the state. Also, it has a huge culture spectrum. Since 2007, with the government of Rafael Correa, the tourism brand "Ecuador Ama la Vida" has been transformed, with which the nation's tourism promotion would be sold. Focused on considering it as a country friendly and respectful of nature, natural biodiversity, and cultural diversity of the peoples. And for this, means of exploiting them are developed along with the private economy. The country has two cities with UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Quito and Cuenca, as well as two natural UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Galapagos Islands and Sangay National Park in addition to one World Biosphere Reserve, such as the Cajas Massif. Culturally, the Toquilla straw hat and the culture of the Zapara indigenous people are recognized. The most popular sites for national and foreign tourists have different nuances due to the various tourist activities offered by the country. Among the main tourist destinations are: Nature attractions: Galápagos Islands, Yasuni National Park, El Cajas National Park, Sangay National Park, Podocarpus National Park, Vilcabamba, Baños de Agua Santa. Cultural attractions: Historic center of Quito, Ciudad Mitad del Mundo, Ingapirca, Historic center of Cuenca, Latacunga and its Mama Negra festival. Snowy mountains: Antisana volcano, Cayambe volcano, Chimborazo volcano, Cotopaxi volcano, Illinizas volcanoes. Beaches: Atacames, Bahía de Caráquez, Crucita, Esmeraldas, Manta, Montañita, Playas, Salinas Transport The rehabilitation and reopening of the Ecuadorian railroad and use of it as a tourist attraction is one of the recent developments in transportation matters. The roads of Ecuador in recent years have undergone important improvement. The major routes are Pan American (under enhancement from four to six lanes from Rumichaca to Ambato, the conclusion of 4 lanes on the entire stretch of Ambato and Riobamba and running via Riobamba to Loja). In the absence of the section between Loja and the border with Peru, there are the Route Espondilus and/or Ruta del Sol (oriented to travel along the Ecuadorian coastline) and the Amazon backbone (which crosses from north to south along the Ecuadorian Amazon, linking most and more major cities of it). Another major project is developing the road Manta – Tena, the highway Guayaquil – Salinas Highway Aloag Santo Domingo, Riobamba – Macas (which crosses Sangay National Park). Other new developments include the National Unity bridge complex in Guayaquil, the bridge over the Napo river in Francisco de Orellana, the Esmeraldas River Bridge in the city of the same name, and, perhaps the most remarkable of all, the Bahia – San Vincente Bridge, being the largest on the Latin American Pacific coast. Cuenca's tramway is the largest public transport system in the city and the first modern tramway in Ecuador. It was inaugurated on March 8, 2019. It has and 27 stations. It will transport 120,000 passagers daily. Its route starts in the south of Cuenca and ends in the north at the Parque Industrial neighbourhood. The Mariscal Sucre International Airport in Quito and the José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport in Guayaquil have experienced a high increase in demand and have required modernization. In the case of Guayaquil it involved a new air terminal, once considered the best in South America and the best in Latin America and in Quito where an entire new airport has been built in Tababela and was inaugurated in February 2013, with Canadian assistance. However, the main road leading from Quito city center to the new airport will only be finished in late 2014, making current travelling from the airport to downtown Quito as long as two hours during rush hour. Quito's old city-center airport is being turned into parkland, with some light industrial use. Demographics Ecuador's population is ethnically diverse and the estimates put Ecuador's population at . The largest ethnic group () is the Mestizos, who are mixed race people of Amerindian and European descent, typically from Spanish colonists, in some cases this term can also include Amerindians that are culturally more Spanish influenced, and constitute about 71% of the population (although including the Montubio, a term used for coastal Mestizo population, brings this up to about 79%). The White Ecuadorians (White Latin American) are a minority accounting for 6.1% of the population of Ecuador and can be found throughout all of Ecuador, primarily around the urban areas. Even though Ecuador's white population during its colonial era were mainly descendants from Spain, today Ecuador's white population is a result of a mixture of European immigrants, predominantly from Spain with people from Italy, Germany, France, and Switzerland who have settled in the early 20th century. In addition, there is a small European Jewish (Ecuadorian Jews) population, which is based mainly in Quito and to a lesser extent in Guayaquil. Ecuador also has a small population of Asian origins, mainly those from West Asia, like the economically well off descendants of Lebanese and Palestinian immigrants, who are either Christian or Muslim (see Islam in Ecuador), and an East Asian community mainly consisting of those of Japanese and Chinese descent, whose ancestors arrived as miners, farmhands and fishermen in the late 19th century. Amerindians account for 7% of the current population. The mostly rural Montubio population of the coastal provinces of Ecuador, who might be classified as Pardo account for 7.4% of the population. The Afro-Ecuadorians are a minority population (7%) in Ecuador, that includes the Mulattos and zambos, and are largely based in the Esmeraldas province and to a lesser degree in the predominantly Mestizo provinces of Coastal Ecuador - Guayas and Manabi. In the Highland Andes where a predominantly Mestizo, white and Amerindian population exist, the African presence is almost non-existent except for a small community in the province of Imbabura called Chota Valley. 5,000 Romani people live in Ecuador. Religion According to the Ecuadorian National Institute of Statistics and Census, 91.95% of the country's population have a religion, 7.94% are atheists and 0.11% are agnostics. Among the people who have a religion, 80.44% are Roman Catholic Latin Rite (see List of Roman Catholic dioceses in Ecuador), 11.30% are Evangelical Protestants, 1.29% are Jehovah's Witnesses and 6.97% other (mainly Jewish, Buddhists and Latter-day Saints). In the rural parts of Ecuador, Amerindian beliefs and Catholicism are sometimes syncretized. Most festivals and annual parades are based on religious celebrations, many incorporating a mixture of rites and icons. There is a small number of Eastern Orthodox Christians, Amerindian religions, Muslims (see Islam in Ecuador), Buddhists and Baháʼí. According to their own estimates, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints accounts for about 1.4% of the population, or 211,165 members at the end of 2012. According to their own sources, in 2017 there were 92,752 Jehovah's Witnesses in the country. The first Jews arrived in Ecuador in the 16th and 17th centuries. Most of them are Sephardic Anusim (Crypto-Jews) and many still speak Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) language. Today the Jewish Community of Ecuador (Comunidad Judía del Ecuador) has its seat in Quito and has approximately 200 members. Nevertheless, this number is declining because young people leave the country for the United States or Israel. The Community has a Jewish Center with a synagogue, a country club, and a cemetery. It supports the "Albert Einstein School", where Jewish history, religion, and Hebrew classes are offered. There are very small communities in Cuenca. The "Comunidad de Culto Israelita" reunites the Jews of Guayaquil. This community works independently from the "Jewish Community of Ecuador" and is composed of only 30 people. Nations The Ecuadorian constitution recognizes the "pluri-nationality" of those who want to exercise their affiliation with their native ethnic groups. Thus, in addition to criollos, mestizos, and Afro-Ecuadorians, some people belong to the Amerindian nations scattered in a few places in the coast, Quechua Andean villages, and the Amazonian jungle. Population genetics According to genealogical DNA testing done in 2015, the average Ecuadorian is estimated to be 52.96% Amerindian, 41.77% European, and 5.26% Sub-Saharan African overall. Prior to this, a genetic study done in 2008 by the University of Brasilia, estimated that Ecuadorian genetic admixture was 64.6% Amerindian, 31.0% European, and 4.4% African. Largest cities The five largest cities in the country are Quito (2.78 million inhabitants), Guayaquil (2.72 million inhabitants), Cuenca (636,996 inhabitants), Santo Domingo (458,580 inhabitants), and Ambato (387,309 inhabitants). The most populated metropolitan areas of the country are those of Guayaquil, Quito, Cuenca, Manabí Centro (Portoviejo-Manta) and Ambato. Immigration and emigration Ecuador houses a small East Asian community mainly consisting of those of Japanese and Chinese descent, whose ancestors arrived as miners, farmhands and fishermen in the late 19th century. In the early years of World War II, Ecuador still admitted a certain number of immigrants, and in 1939, when several South American countries refused to accept 165 Jewish refugees from Germany aboard the ship Koenigstein, Ecuador granted them entry permits. In the early 1900s there was immigration from Italians, Germans, Portuguese, French, Britons and Greeks. In the 1950s the Italians were the third largest national group in terms of numbers of immigrants, since Ecuador like Mexico and the Andean countries did not receive a significant total number of immigrants. It can be noted that, after World War I, people from Liguria, still constituted the majority of the flow, even though they then represented only one third of the total number of immigrants in Ecuador. This situation came from the improvement of the economic situation in Liguria. The classic paradigm of the Italian immigrant today was not that of the small trader from Liguria as it had been before; those who emigrated to Ecuador were professionals and technicians, employees and religious people from South-Central Italy. It must be remembered that many immigrants, a remarkable number of Italians among them, moved to the Ecuadorian port from Peru to escape from the Peruvian war with Chile. The Italian government came to be more interested in the emigration phenomenon in Ecuador because of the necessity of finding an outlet for the large number of immigrants who traditionally went to the United States but who could no longer enter this country because of the new measures that imposed restrictions in the 1920s. Most of these communities and their descendants are located in the Guayas region of the country. In recent years, Ecuador has grown in popularity among North American expatriates. Another perk that draws many expats to Ecuador is its low cost of living. Since everything from gas to groceries costs far less than in North America, it is a popular choice for those who are looking to make the most of their retirement budget. Culture Ecuador's mainstream culture is defined by its mestizo majority, and, like their ancestry, it is traditionally of Spanish heritage, influenced in different degrees by Amerindian traditions and in some cases by African elements. The first and most substantial wave of modern immigration to Ecuador consisted of Spanish colonists, following the arrival of Europeans in 1499. A lower number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and, in smaller numbers, Poles, Lithuanians, English, Irish, and Croats during and after the Second World War. Since African slavery was not the workforce of the Spanish colonies in the Andes Mountains, given the subjugation of the Amerindian people through proselytization and encomiendas, the minority population of African descent is mostly found in the coastal northern province of Esmeraldas. This is largely owing to the 17th-century shipwreck of a slave-trading galleon off the northern coast of Ecuador. The few African survivors swam to the shore and penetrated the then-thick jungle under the leadership of Anton, the chief of the group, where they remained as free men maintaining their original culture, not influenced by the typical elements found in other provinces of the coast or in the Andean region. A little later, freed slaves from Colombia known as cimarrones joined them. In the small Chota Valley of the province of Imbabura exists a small community of Africans among the province's predominantly mestizo population. These blacks are descendants of Africans, who were brought over from Colombia by Jesuits to work their colonial sugar plantations as slaves. As a general rule, small elements of zambos and mulattoes coexisted among the overwhelming mestizo population of coastal Ecuador throughout its history as gold miners in Loja, Zaruma, and Zamora and as shipbuilders and plantation workers around the city of Guayaquil. Today you can find a small community of Africans in the Catamayo valley of the predominantly mestizo population of Loja. Ecuador's Amerindian communities are integrated into the mainstream culture to varying degrees, but some may also practice their own native cultures, particularly the more remote Amerindian communities of the Amazon basin. Spanish is spoken as the first language by more than 90% of the population and as a first or second language by more than 98%. Part of Ecuador's population can speak Amerindian languages, in some cases as a second language. Two percent of the population speak only Amerindian languages. Language Most Ecuadorians speak Spanish as their first language, with its ubiquity permeating and dominating most of the country, though there are many who speak an Amerindian language, such as Kichwa (also spelled Quechua), which is one of the Quechuan languages and is spoken by approximately 2.5 million people in Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru. Other Amerindian languages spoken in Ecuador include Awapit (spoken by the Awá), A'ingae (spoken by the Cofan), Shuar Chicham (spoken by the Shuar), Achuar-Shiwiar (spoken by the Achuar and the Shiwiar), Cha'palaachi (spoken by the Chachi), Tsa'fiki (spoken by the Tsáchila), Paicoca (spoken by the Siona and Secoya), and Wao Tededeo (spoken by the Waorani). Use of these Amerindian languages are, however, gradually diminishing due to Spanish's widespread use in education. Though most features of Ecuadorian Spanish are universal to the Spanish-speaking world, there are several idiosyncrasies. Music The music of Ecuador has a long history. Pasillo is a genre of indigenous Latin music. In Ecuador it is the "national genre of music". Through the years, many cultures have brought their influences together to create new types of music. There are also different kinds of traditional music like albazo, pasacalle, fox incaico, tonada, capishca, Bomba (highly established in Afro-Ecuadorian societies), and so on. Tecnocumbia and Rockola are clear examples of the influence of foreign cultures. One of the most traditional forms of dancing in Ecuador is Sanjuanito. It is originally from northern Ecuador (Otavalo-Imbabura). Sanjuanito is a type of dance music played during festivities by the mestizo and Amerindian communities. According to the Ecuadorian musicologist Segundo Luis Moreno, Sanjuanito was danced by Amerindian people during San Juan Bautista's birthday. This important date was established by the Spaniards on June 24, coincidentally the same date when Amerindian people celebrated their rituals of Inti Raymi. Cuisine Ecuadorian cuisine is diverse, varying with the altitude and associated agricultural conditions. Most regions in Ecuador follow the traditional three-course meal of soup, a course that includes rice and a protein, and then dessert and coffee to finish. In the highland region, various dishes of pork, chicken, beef, and cuy (guinea pig) are popular and are served with a variety of grains (especially rice and mote) or potatoes. In the coastal region, seafood is very popular, with fish, shrimp, and ceviche being key parts of the diet. Generally, ceviches are served with fried plantain (chifles or patacones), popcorn, or tostado. Plantain- and peanut-based dishes are the basis of most coastal meals. Encocados (dishes that contain a coconut sauce) are also very popular. Churrasco is a staple food of the coastal region, especially Guayaquil. Arroz con menestra y carne asada (rice with beans and grilled beef) is one of the traditional dishes of Guayaquil, as is fried plantain, which is often served with it. This region is a leading producer of bananas, cocoa beans (to make chocolate), shrimp, tilapia, mango, and passion fruit, among other products. In the Amazon region, a dietary staple is the yuca, elsewhere called cassava. Many fruits are available in this region, including bananas, tree grapes, and peach palms. Literature Early literature in colonial Ecuador, as in the rest of Spanish America, was influenced by the Spanish Golden Age. One of the earliest examples is Jacinto Collahuazo, an Amerindian chief of a northern village in today's Ibarra, born in the late 1600s. Despite the early repression and discrimination of the native people by the Spanish, Collahuazo learned to read and write in Castilian, but his work was written in Quechua. The use of Quipu was banned by the Spanish, and in order to preserve their work, many Inca poets had to resort to the use of the Latin alphabet to write in their native Quechua language. The history behind the Inca drama "Ollantay", the oldest literary piece in existence for any Amerindian language in America, shares some similarities with the work of Collahuazo. Collahuazo was imprisoned and all of his work burned. The existence of his literary work came to light many centuries later, when a crew of masons was restoring the walls of a colonial church in Quito and found a hidden manuscript. The salvaged fragment is a Spanish translation from Quechua of the "Elegy to the Dead of Atahualpa", a poem written by Collahuazo, which describes the sadness and impotence of the Inca people of having lost their king Atahualpa. Other early Ecuadorian writers include the Jesuits Juan Bautista Aguirre, born in Daule in 1725, and Father Juan de Velasco, born in Riobamba in 1727. De Velasco wrote about the nations and chiefdoms that had existed in the Kingdom of Quito (today Ecuador) before the arrival of the Spanish. His historical accounts are nationalistic, featuring a romantic perspective of precolonial history. Famous authors from the late colonial and early republic period include Eugenio Espejo, a printer and main author of the first newspaper in Ecuadorian colonial times; Jose Joaquin de Olmedo (born in Guayaquil), famous for his ode to Simón Bolívar titled Victoria de Junin; Juan Montalvo, a prominent essayist and novelist; Juan Leon Mera, famous for his work "Cumanda" or "Tragedy among Savages" and the Ecuadorian National Anthem; Juan A. Martinez with A la Costa; Dolores Veintimilla; and others. Contemporary Ecuadorian writers include the novelist Jorge Enrique Adoum; the poet Jorge Carrera Andrade; the essayist Benjamín Carrión; the poets Medardo Angel Silva, Jorge Carrera Andrade, and Luis Alberto Costales; the novelist Enrique Gil Gilbert; the novelist Jorge Icaza (author of the novel Huasipungo, translated to many languages); the short story author Pablo Palacio; and the novelist Alicia Yanez Cossio. In spite of Ecuador's considerable mystique, it is rarely featured as a setting in contemporary western literature. One exception is "The Ecuadorian Deception", a murder mystery/thriller authored by American Bear Mills. In it, George d'Hout, a website designer from the United States is lured under false pretenses to Guayaquil. A corrupt American archaeologist is behind the plot, believing d'Hout holds the keys to locating a treasure hidden by a buccaneer ancestor. The story is based on a real pirate by the name of George d'Hout who terrorized Guayaquil in the 16th Century. Art The best known art styles from Ecuador belonged to the Escuela Quiteña (Quito School), which developed from the 16th to 18th centuries, examples of which are on display in various old churches in Quito. Ecuadorian painters include Eduardo Kingman, Oswaldo Guayasamín, and Camilo Egas from the Indiginist Movement; Manuel Rendon, Jaime Zapata, Enrique Tábara, Aníbal Villacís, Theo Constanté, Luis Molinari, Araceli Gilbert, Judith Gutierrez, Félix Arauz, and Estuardo Maldonado from the Informalist Movement; Teddy Cobeña from expressionism and figurative style and Luis Burgos Flor with his abstract, futuristic style. The Amerindian people of Tigua, Ecuador, are also world-renowned for their traditional paintings. Sports The most popular sport in Ecuador, as in most South American countries, is football. Its best known professional teams include; Emelec from Guayaquil, Liga De Quito from Quito; Barcelona S.C. from Guayaquil, the most popular team in Ecuador, also the team with most local championships; Deportivo Quito, and El Nacional from Quito; Olmedo from Riobamba; and Deportivo Cuenca from Cuenca. Currently the most successful football team in Ecuador is LDU Quito, and it is the only Ecuadorian team that has won the Copa Libertadores, the Copa Sudamericana, and the Recopa Sudamericana; they were also runners-up in the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup. The matches of the Ecuadorian national team are the most-watched sporting events in the country. Ecuador has qualified for the final rounds of the 2002, the 2006, & the 2014 FIFA World Cups. The 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign was considered a huge success for the country and its inhabitants. Ecuador finished in 2nd place in the CONMEBOL qualifiers behind Argentina and above the team that would become World Champions, Brazil. In the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Ecuador finished ahead of Poland and Costa Rica finishing second behind Germany in Group A in the 2006 World Cup. They were defeated by England in the second round. Ecuador has won five medals at the Olympic Games. Jefferson Pérez, former 20-km (12 mi) racewalker Jefferson Pérez, won a gold medal at the 1996 games, and a silver medal at the 12 years later. Pérez also set a world best in the 2003 World Championships of 1:17:21 for the 20-km (12 mi) distance. Richard Carapaz became the first Ecuadorian to win a Grand Tour, as well as the first Ecuadorian cyclist to win an Olympic medal. He won the 2019 Giro d'Italia, and a gold medal at the Tokyo 2020 Olympics in the men's individual road race. as well as the road race at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo (postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic). Weightlifter Neisi Dajomes is the first Ecuadorian woman to ever win an Olympic medal, and so far, the only Ecuadorian woman to have won a gold medal at the Olympics. She won gold at the Tokyo 2020 Olympics in the 69 kg class. Weighlifter Tamara Salazar won a silver medal at the Tokyo 2020 Olympics in the 87 kg class. Weightlifter Angie Palacios, who is Neisi Dajomes’ younger sister, won an Olympic diploma at the Tokyo 2020 Olympics after finishing in 6th place in the 64 kg class. Health The current structure of the Ecuadorian public health care system dates back to 1967. The Ministry of the Public Health (Ministerio de Salud Pública del Ecuador) is the responsible entity of the regulation and creation of the public health policies and health care plans. The Minister of Public Health is appointed directly by the President of the Republic. The current minister, or Ecuadorian general surgeon, is Ximena Garzón. The philosophy of the Ministry of Public Health is the social support and service to the most vulnerable population, and its main plan of action lies around communitarian health and preventive medicine. Many USA medical groups often visit regions away from the big cities to provide medical health to poor communities at their own expenses. It is known as medical missions some are Christian Organizations. The public healthcare system allows patients to be treated without an appointment in public general hospitals by general practitioners and specialists in the outpatient clinic (Consulta Externa) at no cost. This is done in the four basic specialties of pediatric, gynecology, clinic medicine, and surgery. There are also public hospitals specialized to treat chronic diseases, target a particular group of the population, or provide better treatment in some medical specialties. Some examples in this group are the Gynecologic Hospitals, or Maternities, Children Hospitals, Geriatric Hospitals, and Oncology Institutes. Although well-equipped general hospitals are found in the major cities or capitals of provinces, there are basic hospitals in the smaller towns and canton cities for family care consultation and treatments in pediatrics, gynecology, clinical medicine, and surgery. Community health care centers (Centros de Salud) are found inside metropolitan areas of cities and in rural areas. These are day hospitals that provide treatment to patients whose hospitalization is under 24 hours. The doctors assigned to rural communities, where the Amerindian population can be substantial, have small clinics under their responsibility for the treatment of patients in the same fashion as the day hospitals in the major cities. The treatment in this case respects the culture of the community. The public healthcare system should not be confused with the Ecuadorian Social Security healthcare service, which is dedicated to individuals with formal employment and who are affiliated obligatorily through their employers. Citizens with no formal employment may still contribute to the social security system voluntarily and have access to the medical services rendered by the social security system. The Ecuadorian Institute of Social Security (IESS) has several major hospitals and medical sub-centers under its administration across the nation. Ecuador currently ranks 20, in most efficient health care countries, compared to 111 back in the year 2000. Ecuadorians have a life expectancy of 77.1 years. The infant mortality rate is 13 per 1,000 live births, a major improvement from approximately 76 in the early 1980s and 140 in 1950. 23% of children under five are chronically malnourished. Population in some rural areas have no access to potable water, and its supply is provided by mean of water tankers. There are 686 malaria cases per 100,000 people. Basic health care, including doctor's visits, basic surgeries, and basic medications, has been provided free since 2008. However, some public hospitals are in poor condition and often lack necessary supplies to attend the high demand of patients. Private hospitals and clinics are well equipped but still expensive for the majority of the population. Between 2008 and 2016, new public hospitals have been built, the number of civil servants has increased significantly and salaries have been increased. In 2008, the government introduced universal and compulsory social security coverage. In 2015, corruption remains a problem. Overbilling is recorded in 20% of public establishments and in 80% of private establishments. Education The Ecuadorian Constitution requires that all children attend school until they achieve a "basic level of education", which is estimated at nine school years. In 1996, the net primary enrollment rate was 96.9%, and 71.8% of children stayed in school until the fifth grade / age 10. The cost of primary and secondary education is borne by the government, but families often face significant additional expenses such as fees and transportation costs. Provision of public schools falls far below the levels needed, and class sizes are often very large, and families of limited means often find it necessary to pay for education. In rural areas, only 10% of the children go on to high school. In a 2015 report, The Ministry of Education states that in 2014 the mean number of school years completed in rural areas is 7.39 as compared to 10.86 in urban areas. Sciences and research Ecuador was placed in 96th position of innovation in technology in a 2013 World Economic Forum study. Ecuador was ranked 99th in the Global Innovation Index in 2019 and 2020. The most notable icons in Ecuadorian sciences are the mathematician and cartographer Pedro Vicente Maldonado, born in Riobamba in 1707, and the printer, independence precursor, and medical pioneer Eugenio Espejo, born in 1747 in Quito. Among other notable Ecuadorian scientists and engineers are Lieutenant Jose Rodriguez Labandera, a pioneer who built the first submarine in Latin America in 1837; Reinaldo Espinosa Aguilar (1898–1950), a botanist and biologist of Andean flora; and José Aurelio Dueñas (1880–1961), a chemist and inventor of a method of textile serigraphy. The major areas of scientific research in Ecuador have been in the medical fields, tropical and infectious diseases treatments, agricultural engineering, pharmaceutical research, and bioengineering. Being a small country and a consumer of foreign technology, Ecuador has favored research supported by entrepreneurship in information technology. The antivirus program Checkprogram, banking protection system MdLock, and Core Banking Software Cobis are products of Ecuadorian development. The scientific production in hard sciences has been limited due to lack of funding but focused around physics, statistics, and partial differential equations in mathematics. In the case of engineering fields, the majority of scientific production comes from the top three polytechnic institutions: Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral - ESPOL, Universidad de Las Fuerzas Armadas - ESPE, and Escuela Politécnica Nacional EPN. The Center for Research and Technology Development in Ecuador is an autonomous center for research and technology development funded by Senecyt. However, according to Nature, the multidisciplinary scientific journal, the top 10 institutions that carry the most outstanding scientific contributions are: Yachay Tech University (Yachay Tech), Escuela Politécnica Nacional (EPN), and Universidad San Francisco de Quito (USFQ). Nature Index - Top 10 institutions from Ecuador EPN is known for research and education in the applied science, astronomy, atmospheric physics, engineering and physical sciences. The Geophysics Institute monitors over the country's volcanoes in the Andes Mountains of Ecuador and in the Galápagos Islands, all of which is part of the Ring of Fire. EPN adopted the polytechnic university model that stresses laboratory instruction in applied science and engineering. The oldest observatory in South America is the Quito Astronomical Observatory and is located in Quito, Ecuador. The Quito Astronomical Observatory, which gives the global community of a Virtual Telescope System that is connected via the Internet and allows the world to watch by streaming, is managed by EPN. Contemporary Ecuadorian scientists who have been recognized by international institutions are Eugenia del Pino, the first Ecuadorian to be elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences, and Arturo Villavicencio, who was part of the working group of the IPCC, which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore for their dissemination of the effects of climate change. High Performance Computing Ecuadorian institutions compute extensive information using supercomputers such as Quinde I, the most powerful of that country performing 232 TeraFLOPS. Institutions that have High Performance Computing centers: National Polytechnic School (EPN) Armed Forces University (ESPE) Universidad San Francisco de Quito (USFQ) Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (UTPL) University of Cuenca Yachay Tech University (YT) Currently, the politics of research and investigation are managed by the National Secretary of Higher Education, Science, and Technology (Senescyt). See also Index of Ecuador-related articles Outline of Ecuador References Further reading Ades, H. and Graham, M. (2010) The Rough Guide to Ecuador, Rough Guides Becker, M. (2008) Indians and Leftists in the Making of Ecuador's Modern Indigenous Movements, Duke University Press Books Becker, M. and Clark, A. K. (2007) Highland Indians and the State in Modern Ecuador, University of Pittsburgh Press Blakenship, J. (2005) Cañar: A Year in the Highlands of Ecuador, University of Texas Press Brown, J. and Smith, J. (2009) Moon Guidebook: Ecuador and the Galápagos Islands, Avalon Travel Publishing Crowder, N. (2009) Culture Shock! Ecuador: A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette, Marshall Cavendish Corporation Gerlach, A. (2003) Indians, Oil, and Politics: A Recent History of Ecuador, SR Books Handelsman, M. H. (2008) Culture and Customs of Ecuador, Greenwood Hurtado, O. (2010) Portrait of a Nation: Culture and Progress in Ecuador, Madison Books O'Connor, E. (2007) Gender, Indian, Nation: The Contradictions of Making Ecuador, 1830–1925, University of Arizona Press Pineo, R. (2007) Ecuador and the United States: Useful Strangers, University of Georgia Press Roos, W. and Van Renterghem, O. (2000) Ecuador in Focus: A Guide to the People, Politics, and Culture, Latin America Bureau Sawyer, S. (2004) Crude Chronicles: Indigenous Politics, Multinational Oil, and Neoliberalism in Ecuador, Duke University Press Books Striffler, S. (2001) In the Shadows of State and Capital: The United Fruit Company, Popular Struggle, and Agrarian Restructuring in Ecuador – 1900–1995, Duke University Press Books Torre, C. de la and Striffler, S. (2008) The Ecuador Reader: History, Culture, Politics, Duke University Press Books Various (2010) Insight Guidebook: Ecuador & Galápagos, Insight Guides Various (2009) Lonely Planet Guide: Ecuador & the Galápagos Islands, Lonely Planet Whitten, N. E. (2011) Histories of the Present: People and Power in Ecuador, University of Illinois Press Whitten, N. E. (2003) Millennial Ecuador: Critical Essays on Cultural Transformations and Social Dynamics, University Of Iowa Press External links President of Ecuador CIA Library Site: Chief of State and Cabinet Members Ecuador. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Ecuador at UCB Libraries GovPubs Ecuador profile from the BBC News Andean Community Countries in South America Former Spanish colonies Former OPEC member states Member states of the Union of South American Nations Current member states of the United Nations Republics Spanish-speaking countries and territories States and territories established in 1830 Transcontinental countries

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February%2014

February 14

Events Pre-1600 748 – Abbasid Revolution: The Hashimi rebels under Abu Muslim Khorasani take Merv, capital of the Umayyad province Khorasan, marking the consolidation of the Abbasid revolt. 842 – Charles the Bald and Louis the German swear the Oaths of Strasbourg in the French and German languages. 1014 – Pope Benedict VIII crowns Henry of Bavaria, King of Germany and of Italy, as Holy Roman Emperor. 1130 – The troubled 1130 papal election exposes a rift within the College of Cardinals. 1349 – Several hundred Jews are burned to death by mobs while the remaining Jews are forcibly removed from Strasbourg. 1530 – Spanish conquistadores, led by Nuño de Guzmán, overthrow and execute Tangaxuan II, the last independent monarch of the Tarascan state in present-day central Mexico. 1556 – Having been declared a heretic and laicized by Pope Paul IV on 4 December 1555, Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer is publicly defrocked at Christ Church Cathedral. 1556 – Coronation of Akbar as ruler of the Mughal Empire. 1601–1900 1613 – Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V of the Palatinate at Whitehall Palace, London. 1655 – The Mapuches launch coordinated attacks against the Spanish in Chile beginning the Mapuche uprising of 1655. 1778 – The United States flag is formally recognized by a foreign naval vessel for the first time, when French Admiral Toussaint-Guillaume Picquet de la Motte renders a nine gun salute to , commanded by John Paul Jones. 1779 – American Revolutionary War: The Battle of Kettle Creek is fought in Georgia. 1779 – James Cook is killed by Native Hawaiians near Kealakekua on the Island of Hawaii. 1797 – French Revolutionary Wars: Battle of Cape St. Vincent: John Jervis, (later 1st Earl of St Vincent) and Horatio Nelson (later 1st Viscount Nelson) lead the British Royal Navy to victory over a Spanish fleet in action near Gibraltar. 1804 – Karađorđe leads the First Serbian Uprising against the Ottoman Empire. 1831 – Ras Marye of Yejju marches into Tigray and defeats and kills Dejazmach Sabagadis in the Battle of Debre Abbay. 1835 – The original Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, in the Latter Day Saint movement, is formed in Kirtland, Ohio. 1849 – In New York City, James Knox Polk becomes the first serving President of the United States to have his photograph taken. 1852 – Great Ormond St Hospital for Sick Children, the first hospital in England to provide in-patient beds specifically for children, is founded in London. 1855 – Texas is linked by telegraph to the rest of the United States, with the completion of a connection between New Orleans and Marshall, Texas. 1859 – Oregon is admitted as the 33rd U.S. state. 1876 – Alexander Graham Bell applies for a patent for the telephone, as does Elisha Gray. 1879 – The War of the Pacific breaks out when the Chilean Army occupies the Bolivian port city of Antofagasta. 1899 – Voting machines are approved by the U.S. Congress for use in federal elections. 1900 – The British Army begins the Battle of the Tugela Heights in an effort to lift the Siege of Ladysmith. 1901–present 1903 – The United States Department of Commerce and Labor is established (later split into the Department of Commerce and the Department of Labor). 1912 – Arizona is admitted as the 48th and the last contiguous U.S. state. 1912 – The U.S. Navy commissions its first class of diesel-powered submarines. 1919 – The Polish–Soviet War begins. 1920 – The League of Women Voters is founded in Chicago. 1924 – The Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company changes its name to International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). 1929 – Saint Valentine's Day Massacre: Seven people, six of them gangster rivals of Al Capone's gang, are murdered in Chicago. 1942 – Battle of Pasir Panjang contributes to the fall of Singapore. 1943 – World War II: Rostov-on-Don, Russia is liberated. 1943 – World War II: Tunisia Campaign: General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim's Fifth Panzer Army launches a concerted attack against Allied positions in Tunisia. 1944 – World War II: In the action of 14 February 1944, a Royal Navy submarine sinks a German-controlled Italian Regia Marina submarine in the Strait of Malacca. 1945 – World War II: On the first day of the bombing of Dresden, the British Royal Air Force and the United States Army Air Forces begin fire-bombing Dresden. 1945 – World War II: Navigational error leads to the mistaken bombing of Prague, Czechoslovakia by a United States Army Air Forces squadron of B-17s assisting in the Soviet Red Army's Vistula–Oder Offensive. 1945 – World War II: Mostar is liberated by Yugoslav partisans 1945 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt meets King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia aboard the , officially beginning U.S.-Saudi diplomatic relations. 1946 – The Bank of England is nationalized. 1949 – The Knesset (parliament of Israel) convenes for the first time. 1949 – The Asbestos Strike begins in Canada. The strike marks the beginning of the Quiet Revolution in Quebec. 1961 – Discovery of the chemical elements: Element 103, Lawrencium, is first synthesized at the University of California. 1966 – Australian currency is decimalized. 1979 – In Kabul, Setami Milli militants kidnap the American ambassador to Afghanistan, Adolph Dubs who is later killed during a gunfight between his kidnappers and police. 1983 – United American Bank of Knoxville, Tennessee collapses. Its president, Jake Butcher, is later convicted of fraud. 1989 – Union Carbide agrees to pay $470 million to the Indian government for damages it caused in the 1984 Bhopal disaster. 1989 – Iranian leader Ruhollah Khomeini issues a fatwa encouraging Muslims to kill Salman Rushdie, author of The Satanic Verses. 1990 – Ninety-two people are killed when Indian Airlines Flight 605 crashes in Bangalore, India. 1990 – The Voyager 1 spacecraft takes the photograph of planet Earth that later becomes famous as Pale Blue Dot. 1998 – An oil tanker train collides with a freight train in Yaoundé, Cameroon, spilling fuel oil. One person scavenging the oil created a massive explosion which killed 120. 2000 – The spacecraft NEAR Shoemaker enters orbit around asteroid 433 Eros, the first spacecraft to orbit an asteroid. 2003 – Iraq disarmament crisis: UNMOVIC Executive Chairman Hans Blix reports to the United Nations Security Council that disarmament inspectors have found no weapons of mass destruction in Ba'athist Iraq. 2004 – In a suburb of Moscow, Russia, the roof of the Transvaal water park collapses, killing more than 28 people, and wounding 193 others. 2005 – In Beirut, 23 people, including former Prime Minister Rafic Hariri, are killed when the equivalent of around 1,000 kg of TNT is detonated while Hariri's motorcade drives through the city. 2005 – Seven people are killed and 151 wounded in a series of bombings by suspected al-Qaeda-linked militants that hit Makati, Davao City, and General Santos City, all in the Philippines. 2005 – YouTube is launched by a group of college students, eventually becoming the largest video sharing website in the world and a main source for viral videos. 2008 – Northern Illinois University shooting: A gunman opens fire in a lecture hall of Northern Illinois University in DeKalb County, Illinois, resulting in six fatalities (including the gunman) and 21 injuries. 2011 – As a part of Arab Spring, the Bahraini uprising begins with a 'Day of Rage'. 2018 – Jacob Zuma resigns as President of South Africa. 2018 – A shooting at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida is one of the deadliest school massacres with 17 fatalities and 15 injuries. 2019 – Pulwama attack takes place in Lethpora in Pulwama district, Jammu and Kashmir, India in which 40 Central Reserve Police Force personnel and a suicide bomber were killed and 35 were injured. Births Pre-1600 1404 – Leon Battista Alberti, Italian painter, poet, and philosopher (d. 1472) 1408 – John FitzAlan, 14th Earl of Arundel (d. 1435) 1452 – Pandolfo Petrucci, tyrant of Siena (d. 1512) 1468 – Johannes Werner, German priest and mathematician (d. 1522) 1483 – Babur, Moghul emperor (d. 1530) 1490 – Valentin Friedland, German scholar and educationist of the Reformation (d. 1556) 1513 – Domenico Ferrabosco, Italian composer (d. 1573) 1545 – Lucrezia de' Medici, Duchess of Ferrara (d. 1561) 1601–1900 1602 – Francesco Cavalli, Italian composer (d. 1676) 1614 – John Wilkins, English bishop, academic and natural philosopher (d. 1672) 1625 – Countess Palatine Maria Euphrosyne of Zweibrücken, Swedish princess (d. 1687) 1628 – Valentine Greatrakes, Irish faith healer (d. 1683) 1640 – Countess Palatine Anna Magdalena of Birkenfeld-Bischweiler (d. 1693) 1670 – Rajaram Raj Bhonsle, third Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire (d. 1700) 1679 – Georg Friedrich Kauffmann, German organist and composer (d. 1735) 1692 – Pierre-Claude Nivelle de La Chaussée, French author and playwright (d. 1754) 1701 – Enrique Flórez, Spanish historian and author (d. 1773) 1763 – Jean Victor Marie Moreau, French general (d. 1813) 1782 – Eleanora Atherton, English philanthropist (d. 1870) 1784 – Heinrich Baermann, German clarinetist (d. 1847) 1799 – Walenty Wańkowicz, Polish painter and illustrator (d. 1842) 1800 – Emory Washburn, American historian, lawyer, and politician, 22nd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1877) 1808 – Michael Costa, Italian-English conductor and composer (d. 1884) 1813 – Lydia Hamilton Smith, African-American businesswoman (d. 1884) 1819 – Christopher Latham Sholes, American journalist and politician, invented the typewriter (d. 1890) 1824 – Winfield Scott Hancock, American general and politician (d. 1886) 1828 – Edmond François Valentin About, French journalist and author (d. 1885) 1835 – Piet Paaltjens, Dutch minister and poet (d. 1894) 1838 – Margaret E. Knight, American inventor (d. 1914) 1846 – Julian Scott, American soldier and drummer, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1901) 1847 – Anna Howard Shaw, American physician, minister, and activist (d. 1919) 1848 – Benjamin Baillaud, French astronomer and academic (d. 1934) 1855 – Frank Harris, Irish author and journalist (d. 1931) 1859 – George Washington Gale Ferris Jr., American engineer, inventor of the Ferris wheel (d. 1896) 1860 – Eugen Schiffer, German lawyer and politician, Vice-Chancellor of Germany (d. 1954) 1869 – Charles Thomson Rees Wilson, Scottish physicist and meteorologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959) 1878 – Julius Nieuwland, Belgian priest, chemist and academic (d. 1936) 1882 – John Barrymore, American actor (d. 1942) 1884 – Nils Olaf Chrisander, Swedish actor and director (d. 1947) 1884 – Kostas Varnalis, Greek poet and playwright (d. 1974) 1888 – Chandrashekhar Agashe, Indian industrialist (d. 1956) 1890 – Nina Hamnett, Welsh-English painter and author (d. 1956) 1890 – Dick Richards, Welsh international footballer (d. 1934) 1891 – Katherine Stinson, American aviator (d. 1977) 1892 – Radola Gajda, Czech commander and politician (d. 1948) 1894 – Jack Benny, American actor and producer (d. 1974) 1895 – Wilhelm Burgdorf, German general (d. 1945) 1895 – Max Horkheimer, German philosopher and sociologist (d. 1973) 1898 – Bill Tilman, English mountaineer and explorer (d. 1977) 1898 – Fritz Zwicky, Swiss-American physicist and astronomer (d. 1974) 1900 – Jessica Dragonette, American singer (d. 1980) 1901–present 1903 – Stuart Erwin, American actor (d. 1967) 1905 – Thelma Ritter, American actress and singer (d. 1969) 1907 – Johnny Longden, English-American jockey and trainer (d. 2003) 1911 – Willem Johan Kolff, Dutch physician and inventor (d. 2009) 1912 – Tibor Sekelj, Hungarian lawyer, explorer, and author (d. 1988) 1913 – Mel Allen, American sportscaster (d. 1996) 1913 – Woody Hayes, American football player and coach (d. 1987) 1913 – Jimmy Hoffa, American trade union leader (d. 1975) 1913 – James Pike, American bishop (d. 1969) 1915 – Sally Gray, English actress and singer (d. 2006) 1916 – Marcel Bigeard, French general (d. 2010) 1916 – Masaki Kobayashi, Japanese director and producer (d. 1996) 1916 – Edward Platt, American actor (d. 1974) 1917 – Herbert A. Hauptman, American mathematician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2011) 1921 – Hugh Downs, American journalist, game show host, and producer (d. 2020) 1921 – Hazel McCallion, Canadian businesswoman and politician, 3rd Mayor of Mississauga 1923 – Jay Hebert, American golfer (d. 1997) 1924 – Patricia Knatchbull, 2nd Countess Mountbatten of Burma (d. 2017) 1927 – Lois Maxwell, Canadian-Australian model and actress (d. 2007) 1928 – William Allain, American lawyer and politician, 58th Governor of Mississippi (d. 2013) 1928 – Vicente T. Blaz, American general and politician (d. 2014) 1929 – Vic Morrow, American actor and director (d. 1982) 1931 – Bernie Geoffrion, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (d. 2006) 1931 – Brian Kelly, American actor and director (d. 2005) 1932 – Harriet Andersson, Swedish actress 1934 – Florence Henderson, American actress and singer (d. 2016) 1935 – David Wilson, Baron Wilson of Tillyorn, Scottish academic and diplomat, 27th Governor of Hong Kong 1936 – Anna German, Polish singer (d. 1982) 1937 – John MacGregor, Baron MacGregor of Pulham Market, English politician, Secretary of State for Transport 1937 – Magic Sam, American singer and guitarist (d. 1969) 1939 – Razzy Bailey, American country music singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2021) 1939 – Blowfly, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2016) 1939 – Eugene Fama, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1941 – Donna Shalala, American academic and politician, 18th United States Secretary of Health and Human Services 1941 – Paul Tsongas, American lawyer and politician (d. 1997) 1942 – Michael Bloomberg, American businessman and politician, 108th Mayor of New York City 1942 – Andrew Robinson, American actor and director 1942 – Ricardo Rodríguez, Mexican racing driver (d. 1962) 1943 – Maceo Parker, American saxophonist 1944 – Carl Bernstein, American journalist and author 1944 – Alan Parker, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2020) 1944 – Ronnie Peterson, Swedish racing driver (d. 1978) 1945 – Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein 1945 – Rod Masterson, American lieutenant and actor (d. 2013) 1946 – Bernard Dowiyogo, Nauru politician, President of Nauru (d. 2003) 1946 – Gregory Hines, American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 2003) 1947 – Tim Buckley, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1975) 1947 – Judd Gregg, American lawyer and politician, 76th Governor of New Hampshire 1948 – Kitten Natividad, Mexican-American actress and dancer 1948 – Pat O'Brien, American journalist and author 1948 – Wally Tax, Dutch singer-songwriter (d. 2005) 1948 – Teller, American magician and actor 1950 – Roger Fisher, American guitarist and songwriter 1951 – Terry Gross, American radio host and producer 1951 – Kevin Keegan, English footballer and manager 1952 – Sushma Swaraj, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of External Affairs (d. 2019) 1954 – Jam Mohammad Yousaf, Pakistani politician, Chief Minister of Balochistan (d. 2013) 1955 – Carol Kalish, American publisher (d. 1991) 1956 – Howard Davis Jr., American boxer and trainer (d. 2015) 1956 – Dave Dravecky, American baseball player 1956 – Katharina Fritsch, German sculptor and academic 1957 – Soile Isokoski, Finnish soprano and actress 1957 – Alan Smith, English bishop 1958 – Grant Thomas, Australian footballer and coach 1959 – Renée Fleming, American soprano and actress 1960 – Philip Jones, English admiral 1960 – Jim Kelly, American football player and businessman 1960 – Meg Tilly, American actress and author 1963 – Enrico Colantoni, Canadian actor, director, and producer 1963 – John Marzano, American baseball player (d. 2008) 1964 – Gianni Bugno, Italian cyclist and sportscaster 1966 – Petr Svoboda, Czech ice hockey player and agent 1967 – Stelios Haji-Ioannou, Greek-English businessman, founded easyJet 1967 – Manuela Maleeva, Bulgarian-Swiss tennis player 1967 – Mark Rutte, Dutch businessman and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands 1968 – Jules Asner, American model and television host 1968 – Chris Lewis, Guyanese-English cricketer 1968 – Scott McClellan, American civil servant and author, 25th White House Press Secretary 1969 – Meg Hillier, English journalist and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change 1970 – Giuseppe Guerini, Italian cyclist 1970 – Sean Hill, American ice hockey player 1970 – Simon Pegg, English actor, director, and producer 1971 – Kris Aquino, Filipino talk show host, actress, and producer 1971 – Gheorghe Mureșan, Romanian basketball player 1972 – Drew Bledsoe, American football player and coach 1972 – Musōyama Masashi, Japanese sumo wrestler 1972 – Najwa Nimri, Spanish actress and singer 1972 – Jaan Tallinn, Estonian computer programmer, co-developed Skype 1972 – Rob Thomas, American singer-songwriter 1973 – H. D. Ackerman, South African cricketer 1973 – Tyus Edney, American basketball player and coach 1973 – Steve McNair, American football player (d. 2009) 1973 – Annalisa Buffa, Italian mathematician 1974 – Valentina Vezzali, Italian fencer and politician 1976 – Liv Kristine, Norwegian singer-songwriter 1976 – Rie Rasmussen, Danish model, film director, writer, photographer, and actress 1977 – Cadel Evans, Australian cyclist 1977 – Jim Jefferies, Australian comedian and actor 1977 – Darren Purse, English footballer 1977 – Elmer Symons, South African motorcycle racer (d. 2007) 1977 – Anna Erschler, Russian mathematician 1977 – Robert J. Jackson Jr., American law professor 1978 – Richard Hamilton, American basketball player 1978 – Darius Songaila, Lithuanian basketball player and coach 1980 – Josh Senter, American screenwriter and producer 1980 – Michelle Ye, Hong Kong actress and producer 1981 – Matteo Brighi, Italian footballer 1981 – Randy de Puniet, French motorcycle racer 1981 – Brad Halsey, American baseball player (d. 2014) 1982 – Marián Gáborík, Slovak ice hockey player 1982 – John Halls, English footballer and model 1982 – Lenka Tvarošková, Slovak tennis player 1983 – Callix Crabbe, Virgin Islander baseball player 1983 – Rocky Elsom, Australian rugby player 1983 – Bacary Sagna, French footballer 1985 – Karima Adebibe, English model and actress 1985 – Tyler Clippard, American baseball player 1985 – Heart Evangelista, Filipino singer and actress 1985 – Philippe Senderos, Swiss international footballer 1985 – Miki Yeung, Hong Kong singer and actress 1986 – Michael Ammermüller, German racing driver 1986 – Oliver Lee, English actor, director, and screenwriter 1986 – Gao Lin, Chinese footballer 1987 – Edinson Cavani, Uruguayan footballer 1987 – Tom Pyatt, Canadian ice hockey player 1987 – David Wheater, English footballer 1988 – Katie Boland, Canadian actress, producer, and screenwriter 1988 – Ángel Di María, Argentinian footballer 1988 – Siim Liivik, Estonian ice hockey player 1989 – Néstor Calderón, Mexican footballer 1989 – Adam Matuszczyk, Polish footballer 1989 – Emma Miskew, Canadian curler 1989 – Brandon Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player 1989 – Jurij Tepeš, Slovenian ski jumper 1989 – Kristian Thomas, English gymnast 1990 – Sefa Yılmaz, German-Turkish footballer 1991 – Daniela Mona Lambin, Estonian footballer 1992 – Christian Eriksen, Danish footballer 1992 – Freddie Highmore, English actor 1996 – Lucas Hernandez, French footballer 1997 – Jaehyun, South Korean singer and actor Deaths Pre-1600 869 – Cyril, Greek missionary bishop (b. 827) 945 – Lian Chongyu, Chinese general 945 – Zhu Wenjin, Chinese emperor 1009 – Bruno of Querfurt, German missionary bishop 1010 – Fujiwara no Korechika, Japanese nobleman (b. 974) 1140 – Leo I, Armenian prince 1140 – Sobĕslav I, duke of Bohemia 1164 – Sviatoslav Olgovich, Kievan prince 1229 – Rǫgnvaldr Guðrøðarson, king of the Isles 1317 – Margaret of France, queen of England 1400 – Richard II, king of England (b. 1367) 1440 – Dietrich of Oldenburg, German nobleman 1489 – Nicolaus von Tüngen, prince-bishop of Warmia 1528 – Edzard I, German nobleman (b. 1462) 1549 – Il Sodoma, Italian painter (b. 1477) 1571 – Odet de Coligny, French cardinal (b. 1517) 1601–1900 1676 – Abraham Bosse, French engraver and illustrator (b. 1602) 1714 – Maria Luisa of Savoy, queen of Spain (b. 1688) 1737 – Charles Talbot, 1st Baron Talbot, English lawyer and politician Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1685) 1744 – John Hadley, English mathematician, invented the octant (b. 1682) 1779 – James Cook, English captain, cartographer, and explorer (b. 1728) 1780 – William Blackstone, English jurist and politician (b. 1723) 1782 – Singu Min, Burmese king (b. 1756) 1808 – John Dickinson, American lawyer and politician 5th Governor of Delaware (b. 1732) 1831 – Vicente Guerrero, Mexican general and politician, 2nd President of Mexico (b. 1782) 1831 – Henry Maudslay, English engineer (b. 1771) 1870 – St. John Richardson Liddell, American general (b. 1815) 1881 – Fernando Wood, American merchant and politician, 73rd Mayor of New York City (b. 1812) 1884 – Lydia Hamilton Smith, African-American businesswoman (b. 1813) 1885 – Jules Vallès, French journalist and author (b. 1832) 1891 – William Tecumseh Sherman, American general (b. 1820) 1894 – Eugène Charles Catalan, Belgian-French mathematician and academic (b. 1814) 1901–present 1901 – Edward Stafford, Scottish-New Zealand educator and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1819) 1910 – Giovanni Passannante, Italian anarchist (b. 1849) 1922 – Heikki Ritavuori, Finnish lawyer and politician (b. 1880; assassinated) 1929 – Thomas Burke, American sprinter, coach, and lawyer (b. 1875) 1930 – Thomas Mackenzie, Scottish-New Zealand cartographer and politician, 18th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1853) 1933 – Carl Correns, German botanist and geneticist (b. 1864) 1937 – Erkki Melartin, Finnish composer (b. 1875) 1942 – Adnan Saidi, Malayan lieutenant (b. 1915) 1943 – Dora Gerson, German actress and singer (b. 1899) 1943 – David Hilbert, Russian-German mathematician, physicist, and philosopher (b. 1862) 1948 – Mordecai Brown, American baseball player and manager (b. 1876) 1949 – Yusuf Salman Yusuf, Iraqi politician (b. 1901) 1950 – Karl Guthe Jansky, American physicist and engineer (b. 1905) 1952 – Maurice De Waele, Belgian cyclist (b. 1896) 1958 – Abdur Rab Nishtar, Pakistani politician, 2nd Governor of Punjab (b. 1899) 1959 – Baby Dodds, American drummer (b. 1898) 1967 – Sig Ruman, German-American actor (b. 1884) 1969 – Vito Genovese, Italian-American mob boss (b. 1897) 1970 – Herbert Strudwick, English cricketer and coach (b. 1880) 1974 – Stewie Dempster, New Zealand cricketer and coach (b. 1903) 1975 – Julian Huxley, English biologist and eugenicist, co-founded the World Wide Fund for Nature (b. 1887) 1975 – P. G. Wodehouse, English novelist and playwright (b. 1881) 1976 – Gertrud Dorka, German archaeologist, prehistorian and museum director (born 1893) 1979 – Adolph Dubs, American lieutenant and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Afghanistan (b. 1920) 1983 – Lina Radke, German runner and coach (b. 1903) 1986 – Edmund Rubbra, English composer and conductor (b. 1901) 1987 – Dmitry Kabalevsky, Russian pianist and composer (b. 1904) 1988 – Frederick Loewe, German-American composer (b. 1901) 1989 – James Bond, American ornithologist and zoologist (b. 1900) 1989 – Vincent Crane, English pianist (b. 1943) 1994 – Andrei Chikatilo, Soviet serial killer (b. 1936) 1994 – Christopher Lasch, American historian and critic (b. 1932) 1995 – Michael V. Gazzo, American actor and playwright (b. 1923) 1995 – U Nu, Burmese politician, 1st Prime Minister of Burma (b. 1907) 1996 – Bob Paisley, English footballer and manager (b. 1919) 1999 – John Ehrlichman, American lawyer and politician, 12th White House Counsel (b. 1925) 1999 – Buddy Knox, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1933) 2002 – Nándor Hidegkuti, Hungarian footballer and manager (b. 1922) 2002 – Mick Tucker, English drummer (b. 1947) 2003 – Johnny Longden, English jockey and trainer (b. 1907) 2004 – Marco Pantani, Italian cyclist (b. 1970) 2005 – Rafic Hariri, Lebanese businessman and politician, 60th Prime Minister of Lebanon (b. 1944; assassinated) 2006 – Lynden David Hall, English singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1974) 2007 – Ryan Larkin, Canadian animator and director (b. 1943) 2007 – Gareth Morris, English flute player and educator (b. 1920) 2009 – Bernard Ashley, English engineer and businessman, co-founded Laura Ashley plc (b. 1926) 2009 – Louie Bellson, American drummer and composer (b. 1924) 2010 – Doug Fieger, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1952) 2010 – Dick Francis, Welsh jockey and author (b. 1920) 2010 – Linnart Mäll, Estonian historian, orientalist, and translator (b. 1938) 2011 – George Shearing, English-American pianist and composer (b. 1919) 2012 – Mike Bernardo, South African boxer and martial artist (b. 1969) 2012 – Tonmi Lillman, Finnish drummer and producer (b. 1973) 2012 – Dory Previn, American singer-songwriter (b. 1925) 2012 – Péter Rusorán, Hungarian swimmer, water polo player, and coach (b. 1940) 2013 – Glenn Boyer, American historian and author (b. 1924) 2013 – Ronald Dworkin, American philosopher and scholar (b. 1931) 2014 – Tom Finney, English footballer (b. 1922) 2014 – Chris Pearson, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Premier of Yukon (b. 1931) 2014 – Mike Stepovich, American lawyer and politician, Governor of Alaska Territory (b. 1919) 2015 – Louis Jourdan, French-American actor and singer (b. 1921) 2015 – Philip Levine, American poet and academic (b. 1928) 2015 – Franjo Mihalić, Croatian-Serbian runner and coach (b. 1920) 2016 – Eric Lubbock, 4th Baron Avebury, English lieutenant, engineer, and politician (b. 1928) 2016 – Steven Stucky, American composer and academic (b. 1949) 2018 – Ruud Lubbers, Dutch politician and diplomat, Prime Minister and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (b. 1939) 2018 – Morgan Tsvangirai, 2nd Prime Minister of Zimbabwe (b. 1952). 2021 – Carlos Menem, Argentine former president, lawyer, and statesman (b. 1930). 2021 – William Meninger, American Trappist monk and a principal developer of Centering Prayer (b. 1932) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Cyril and Methodius, patron saints of Europe (Roman Catholic Church) Manchan Valentine (see also Valentine's Day) February 14 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Statehood Day (Arizona, United States) Statehood Day (Oregon, United States) Presentation of Jesus at the Temple (Armenian Apostolic Church) Parents' Worship Day (parts of India) References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on February 14 Today in Canadian History Days of the year February

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February%2022

February 22

Events Pre-1600 1076 – Having received a letter during the Lenten synod of 14–20 February demanding that he abdicate, Pope Gregory VII excommunicates Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor. 1316 – The Battle of Picotin, between Ferdinand of Majorca and the forces of Matilda of Hainaut, ends in victory for Ferdinand. 1371 – Robert II becomes King of Scotland, beginning the Stuart dynasty. 1495 – King Charles VIII of France enters Naples to claim the city's throne. 1601–1900 1632 – Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, the dedicatee, receives the first printed copy of Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems . 1651 – St. Peter's Flood: A storm surge floods the Frisian coast, drowning 15,000 people. 1744 – War of the Austrian Succession: The Battle of Toulon causes several Royal Navy captains to be court-martialed, and the Articles of War to be amended. 1797 – The last Invasion of Britain begins near Fishguard, Wales. 1819 – By the Adams–Onís Treaty, Spain sells Florida to the United States for five million U.S. dollars. 1847 – Mexican–American War: The Battle of Buena Vista: Five thousand American troops defeat 15,000 Mexican troops. 1848 – The French Revolution of 1848, which would lead to the establishment of the French Second Republic, begins. 1856 – The United States Republican Party opens its first national convention in Pittsburgh. 1862 – American Civil War: Jefferson Davis is officially inaugurated for a six-year term as the President of the Confederate States of America in Richmond, Virginia. He was previously inaugurated as a provisional president on February 18, 1861. 1872 – The Prohibition Party holds its first national convention in Columbus, Ohio, nominating James Black as its presidential nominee. 1879 – In Utica, New York, Frank Woolworth opens the first of many of five-and-dime Woolworth stores. 1881 – Cleopatra's Needle, a 3,500-year-old Ancient Egyptian obelisk is erected in Central Park, New York. 1889 – President Grover Cleveland signs a bill admitting North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Washington as U.S. states. 1899 – Filipino forces led by General Antonio Luna launch counterattacks for the first time against the American forces during the Philippine–American War. The Filipinos fail to regain Manila from the Americans. 1901–present 1901 – San Francisco: Pacific mail steamer sinks in Golden Gate harbor; 128 passengers killed. 1904 – The United Kingdom sells a meteorological station on the South Orkney Islands to Argentina; the islands are subsequently claimed by the United Kingdom in 1908. 1909 – The sixteen battleships of the Great White Fleet, led by , return to the United States after a voyage around the world. 1921 – After Russian forces under Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg drive the Chinese out, the Bogd Khan is reinstalled as the emperor of Mongolia. 1942 – World War II: President Franklin D. Roosevelt orders General Douglas MacArthur out of the Philippines as the Japanese victory becomes inevitable. 1943 – World War II: Members of the White Rose resistance, Sophie Scholl, Hans Scholl, and Christoph Probst are executed in Nazi Germany. 1944 – World War II: American aircraft mistakenly bomb the Dutch towns of Nijmegen, Arnhem, Enschede and Deventer, resulting in 800 dead in Nijmegen alone. 1944 – World War II: The Soviet Red Army recaptures Krivoi Rog. 1946 – The "Long Telegram", proposing how the United States should deal with the Soviet Union, arrives from the US embassy in Moscow. 1957 – Ngô Đình Diệm of South Vietnam survives a communist shooting assassination attempt in Buôn Ma Thuột. 1958 – Following a plebiscite in both countries the previous day, Egypt and Syria join to form the United Arab Republic. 1959 – Lee Petty wins the first Daytona 500. 1972 – The Official Irish Republican Army detonates a car bomb at Aldershot barracks, killing seven and injuring nineteen others. 1973 – Cold War: Following President Richard Nixon's visit to the People's Republic of China, the two countries agree to establish liaison offices. 1974 – The Organisation of the Islamic Conference summit begins in Lahore, Pakistan. Thirty-seven countries attend and twenty-two heads of state and government participate. It also recognizes Bangladesh. 1974 – Samuel Byck attempts to hijack an aircraft at Baltimore/Washington International Airport with the intention of crashing it into the White House to assassinate Richard Nixon, but is killed by police. 1980 – Miracle on Ice: In Lake Placid, New York, the United States hockey team defeats the Soviet Union hockey team 4–3. 1983 – The notorious Broadway flop Moose Murders opens and closes on the same night at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre. 1986 – Start of the People Power Revolution in the Philippines. 1994 – Aldrich Ames and his wife are charged by the United States Department of Justice with spying for the Soviet Union. 1995 – The Corona reconnaissance satellite program, in existence from 1959 to 1972, is declassified. 1997 – In Roslin, Midlothian, British scientists announce that an adult sheep named Dolly has been successfully cloned. 2002 – Angolan political and rebel leader Jonas Savimbi is killed in a military ambush. 2005 – The 6.4 Zarand earthquake shakes the Kerman Province of Iran with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe), leaving 612 people dead and 1,411 injured. 2006 – At least six men stage Britain's biggest robbery, stealing £53m (about $92.5 million or €78 million) from a Securitas depot in Tonbridge, Kent. 2011 – New Zealand's second deadliest earthquake strikes Christchurch, killing 185 people. 2011 – Bahraini uprising: Tens of thousands of people march in protest against the deaths of seven victims killed by police and army forces during previous protests. 2012 – A train crash in Buenos Aires, Argentina, kills 51 people and injures 700 others. 2014 – President Viktor Yanukovych of Ukraine is impeached by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine by a vote of 328–0, fulfilling a major goal of the Euromaidan rebellion. 2015 – A ferry carrying 100 passengers capsizes in the Padma River, killing 70 people. 2018 – A man throws a grenade at the U.S embassy in Podgorica, Montenegro. He dies at the scene from a second explosion, with no one else hurt. Births Pre-1600 1028 – Al-Juwayni, Persian jurist and theologian (died 1085) 1040 – Rashi, French rabbi and author (d. 1105) 1302 – Gegeen Khan, Emperor Yingzong of Yuan (d. 1323) 1403 – Charles VII of France (d. 1461) 1440 – Ladislaus the Posthumous, Hungarian king (d. 1457) 1500 – Rodolfo Pio da Carpi, Italian cardinal (d. 1564) 1514 – Tahmasp I, Iranian shah (d. 1576) 1520 – Moses Isserles, Polish rabbi (d. 1572) 1550 – Charles de Ligne, 2nd Prince of Arenberg (d. 1616) 1592 – Nicholas Ferrar, English scholar (d. 1637) 1601–1900 1631 – Peder Syv, Danish historian (d. 1702) 1649 – Bon Boullogne, French painter (d. 1717) 1715 – Charles-Nicolas Cochin, French artist (d. 1790) 1732 – George Washington, American general and politician, 1st President of the United States (d. 1799) 1749 – Johann Nikolaus Forkel, German musicologist and theorist (d. 1818) 1778 – Rembrandt Peale, American painter and curator (d. 1860) 1788 – Arthur Schopenhauer, German philosopher and author (d. 1860) 1796 – Alexis Bachelot, French priest and missionary (d. 1837) 1796 – Adolphe Quetelet, Belgian mathematician, astronomer, and sociologist (d. 1874) 1805 – Sarah Fuller Flower Adams, English poet and hymnwriter (d. 1848) 1806 – Józef Kremer, Polish historian and philosopher (d. 1875) 1817 – Carl Wilhelm Borchardt, German mathematician and academic (d. 1880) 1819 – James Russell Lowell, American poet and critic (d. 1891) 1824 – Pierre Janssen, French astronomer and mathematician (d. 1907) 1825 – Jean-Baptiste Salpointe, French-American archbishop (d. 1898) 1836 – Mahesh Chandra Nyayratna Bhattacharyya, Indian scholar and academic (d. 1906) 1840 – August Bebel, German theorist and politician (d. 1913) 1849 – Nikolay Yakovlevich Sonin, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1915) 1857 – Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell, English general, co-founded The Scout Association (d. 1941) 1857 – Heinrich Hertz, German physicist, philosopher, and academic (d. 1894) 1860 – Mary W. Bacheler, American physician and Baptist medical missionary (d. 1939) 1863 – Charles McLean Andrews, American historian, author, and academic (d. 1943) 1864 – Jules Renard, French author and playwright (d. 1910) 1876 – Zitkala-Sa, American author and activist (d. 1938) 1874 – Bill Klem, American baseball player and umpire (d. 1951) 1879 – Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted, Danish chemist and academic (d. 1947) 1880 – Eric Lemming, Swedish athlete (d. 1930) 1881 – Joseph B. Ely, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1956) 1881 – Albin Prepeluh, Slovenian journalist and politician (d. 1937) 1882 – Eric Gill, English sculptor and illustrator (d. 1940) 1883 – Marguerite Clark, American actress (d. 1940) 1886 – Hugo Ball, German author and poet (d. 1927) 1887 – Savielly Tartakower, Polish journalist, author, and chess player (d. 1956) 1887 – Pat Sullivan, Australian-American animator and producer (d. 1933) 1888 – Owen Brewster, American captain and politician, 54th Governor of Maine (d. 1961) 1889 – Olave Baden-Powell, English scout leader, first World Chief Guide (d. 1977) 1889 – R. G. Collingwood, English historian and philosopher (d. 1943) 1891 – Vlas Chubar, Russian economist and politician (d. 1939) 1892 – Edna St. Vincent Millay, American poet and playwright (d. 1950) 1895 – Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, Peruvian politician (d. 1979) 1897 – Karol Świerczewski, Polish general (d. 1947) 1899 – George O'Hara, American actor and screenwriter (d. 1966) 1900 – Luis Buñuel, Spanish-Mexican director and producer (d. 1983) 1901–present 1903 – Morley Callaghan, Canadian author and playwright (d. 1990) 1903 – Frank P. Ramsey, English economist, mathematician, and philosopher (d. 1930) 1906 – Constance Stokes, Australian painter (d. 1991) 1907 – Sheldon Leonard, American actor, director, and producer (d. 1997) 1907 – Robert Young, American actor (d. 1998) 1908 – Rómulo Betancourt, Venezuelan politician, 56th President of Venezuela (d. 1981) 1908 – John Mills, English actor (d. 2005) 1910 – George Hunt, English international footballer (d. 1996) 1914 – Renato Dulbecco, Italian-American virologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2012) 1915 – Gus Lesnevich, American boxer (d. 1964) 1918 – Sid Abel, Canadian-American ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2000) 1918 – Don Pardo, American radio and television announcer (d. 2014) 1918 – Robert Wadlow, American man, the tallest person in recorded history (d. 1940) 1921 – Jean-Bédel Bokassa, Central African general and politician, 2nd President of the Central African Republic (d. 1996) 1921 – Giulietta Masina, Italian actress (d. 1994) 1922 – Marshall Teague, American race car driver (d. 1959) 1922 – Joe Wilder, American trumpet player, composer, and bandleader (d. 2014) 1923 – Bleddyn Williams, Welsh rugby player and sportscaster (d. 2009) 1923 – François Cavanna, French author and editor (d. 2014) 1925 – Edward Gorey, American illustrator and poet (d. 2000) 1925 – Gerald Stern, American poet and academic 1926 – Kenneth Williams, English actor and screenwriter (d. 1988) 1927 – Florencio Campomanes, Filipino political scientist and chess player (d. 2010) 1927 – Guy Mitchell, American singer (d. 1999) 1928 – Clarence 13X, American religious leader, founded the Nation of Gods and Earths (d. 1969) 1928 – Texas Johnny Brown, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013) 1928 – Paul Dooley, American actor 1928 – Bruce Forsyth, English singer and television host (d. 2017) 1929 – James Hong, American actor and director 1929 – Rebecca Schull, American stage, film, and television actress 1930 – Marni Nixon, American soprano and actress (d. 2016) 1932 – Ted Kennedy, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2009) 1932 – Zenaida Manfugás, Cuban-born American-naturalized pianist (d. 2012) 1933 – Katharine, Duchess of Kent 1933 – Sheila Hancock, English actress and author 1933 – Ernie K-Doe, American R&B singer (d. 2001) 1933 – Bobby Smith, English international footballer (d. 2010) 1934 – Sparky Anderson, American baseball player and manager (d. 2010) 1936 – J. Michael Bishop, American microbiologist and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate 1937 – Tommy Aaron, American golfer 1937 – Joanna Russ, American author and activist (d. 2011) 1938 – Steve Barber, American baseball player (d. 2007) 1938 – Tony Macedo, Gibraltarian born English footballer 1938 – Ishmael Reed, American poet, novelist, essayist 1940 – Judy Cornwell, English actress 1940 – Chet Walker, American basketball player 1941 – Hipólito Mejía, Dominican politician, 52nd President of the Dominican Republic 1942 – Christine Keeler, English model and dancer (d. 2017) 1943 – Terry Eagleton, English philosopher and critic 1943 – Horst Köhler, Polish-German economist and politician, 9th President of Germany 1943 – Dick Van Arsdale, American basketball player 1943 – Tom Van Arsdale, American basketball player 1943 – Otoya Yamaguchi, Japanese assassin of Inejiro Asanuma (d. 1960) 1944 – Jonathan Demme, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2017) 1944 – Mick Green, English rock & roll guitarist (d. 2010) 1944 – Robert Kardashian, American lawyer and businessman (d. 2003) 1944 – Christopher Meyer, English diplomat, British Ambassador to the United States 1944 – Tom Okker, Dutch tennis player and painter 1945 – Oliver, American pop singer (d. 2000) 1946 – Kresten Bjerre, Danish footballer and manager (d. 2014) 1947 – Pirjo Honkasalo, Finnish director, cinematographer, and screenwriter 1947 – Harvey Mason, American drummer 1947 – John Radford, English footballer and manager 1947 – Frank Van Dun, Belgian philosopher and theorist 1949 – John Duncan, Scottish footballer and manager 1949 – Niki Lauda, Austrian racing driver (d. 2019) 1949 – Olga Morozova, Russian tennis player and coach 1950 – Julius Erving, American basketball player and sportscaster 1950 – Lenny Kuhr, Dutch singer-songwriter 1950 – Miou-Miou, French actress 1950 – Genesis P-Orridge, English singer-songwriter (d. 2020) 1950 – Julie Walters, English actress and author 1951 – Ellen Greene, American singer and actress 1952 – Bill Frist, American physician and politician 1952 – Joaquim Pina Moura, Portuguese Minister of Economy and Treasury and MP (d. 2020) 1952 – Saufatu Sopoanga, Tuvaluan politician, 8th Prime Minister of Tuvalu (d. 2020) 1953 – Nigel Planer, English actor and screenwriter 1955 – David Axelrod, American journalist and political adviser 1955 – Tim Young, Canadian ice hockey player 1957 – Willie Smits, Dutch microbiologist and engineer 1958 – Dave Spitz, American bass player and songwriter 1959 – Jiří Čunek, Czech politician 1959 – Kyle MacLachlan, American actor 1959 – Bronwyn Oliver, Australian sculptor (d. 2006) 1960 – Thomas Galbraith, 2nd Baron Strathclyde, Scottish politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 1961 – Akira Takasaki, Japanese guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1962 – Steve Irwin, Australian zoologist and television host (d. 2006) 1963 – Andrew Adonis, Baron Adonis, English journalist and politician, Secretary of State for Transport 1963 – Devon Malcolm, Jamaican-English cricketer 1963 – Vijay Singh, Fijian-American golfer 1964 – Diane Charlemagne, English singer-songwriter (d. 2015) 1964 – Andy Gray, English footballer and manager 1965 – Kieren Fallon, Irish jockey 1967 – Psicosis II, Mexican wrestler 1968 – Shawn Graham, Canadian politician, 31st Premier of New Brunswick 1968 – Jeri Ryan, American model and actress 1968 – Jayson Williams, American basketball player and sportscaster 1969 – Brian Laudrup, Danish footballer and sportscaster 1969 – Marc Wilmots, Belgian footballer and manager 1971 – Lea Salonga, Filipino actress and singer 1972 – Michael Chang, American tennis player and coach 1972 – Claudia Pechstein, German speed skater 1972 – Haim Revivo, Israeli footballer 1973 – Philippe Gaumont, French cyclist (d. 2013) 1973 – Juninho Paulista, Brazilian footballer 1974 – James Blunt, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1974 – Chris Moyles, English radio and television host 1975 – Drew Barrymore, American actress, director, producer, and screenwriter 1977 – Hakan Yakin, Swiss footballer 1979 – Brett Emerton, Australian footballer 1979 – Lee Na-young, South Korean actress 1980 – Jeanette Biedermann, German singer-songwriter and actress 1983 – Shaun Tait, Australian cricketer 1984 – Tommy Bowe, Irish rugby player 1984 – Branislav Ivanović, Serbian footballer 1985 – Hameur Bouazza, Algerian international footballer 1985 – Georgios Printezis, Greek basketball player 1986 – Rajon Rondo, American basketball player 1987 – Han Hyo-joo, South Korean actress and model 1987 – Sergio Romero, Argentinian footballer 1988 – Jonathan Borlée, Belgian sprinter 1989 – Franco Vázquez, Argentinian footballer 1994 – Nam Joo-hyuk, South Korean model and actor Deaths Pre-1600 556 – Maximianus, bishop of Ravenna (b. 499) 606 – Sabinian, pope of the Catholic Church 793 – Sicga, Anglo-Saxon nobleman and regicide 845 – Wang, Chinese empress dowager 954 – Guo Wei, Chinese emperor (b. 904) 965 – Otto, duke of Burgundy (b. 944) 970 – García I, king of Pamplona 978 – Lambert, count of Chalon (b. 930) 1071 – Arnulf III, count of Flanders 1072 – Peter Damian, Italian cardinal 1079 – John of Fécamp, Italian Benedictine abbot 1111 – Roger Borsa, king of Sicily (b. 1078) 1297 – Margaret of Cortona, Italian penitent (b. 1247) 1371 – David II, king of Scotland (b. 1324) 1452 – William Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas (b. 1425) 1500 – Gerhard VI, German nobleman (b. 1430) 1511 – Henry, duke of Cornwall (b. 1511) 1512 – Amerigo Vespucci, Italian cartographer and explorer (b. 1454) 1601–1900 1627 – Olivier van Noort, Dutch explorer (b. 1558) 1674 – Jean Chapelain, French poet and critic (b. 1595) 1680 – La Voisin, French occultist (b. 1640) 1690 – Charles Le Brun, French painter and theorist (b. 1619) 1731 – Frederik Ruysch, Dutch physician and anatomist (b. 1638) 1732 – Francis Atterbury, English bishop (b. 1663) 1799 – Heshen, Chinese politician (b. 1750) 1816 – Adam Ferguson, Scottish historian and philosopher (b. 1723) 1875 – Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, French painter and illustrator (b. 1796) 1875 – Charles Lyell, Scottish geologist (b. 1797) 1888 – Anna Kingsford, English physician and activist (b. 1846) 1890 – John Jacob Astor III, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1822) 1890 – Carl Bloch, Danish painter and academic (b. 1834) 1897 – Charles Blondin, French tightrope walker and acrobat (b. 1824) 1898 – Heungseon Daewongun, Korean king (b. 1820) 1901–present 1903 – Hugo Wolf, Austrian composer (b. 1860) 1904 – Leslie Stephen, English historian, author, and critic (b. 1832) 1913 – Ferdinand de Saussure, Swiss linguist and author (b. 1857) 1913 – Francisco I. Madero, Mexican president and author (b. 1873) 1923 – Théophile Delcassé, French politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1852) 1939 – Antonio Machado, Spanish-French poet and author (b. 1875) 1942 – Stefan Zweig, Austrian journalist, author, and playwright (b. 1881) 1943 – Christoph Probst, German activist (b. 1919) 1943 – Hans Scholl, German activist (b. 1918) 1943 – Sophie Scholl, German activist (b. 1921) 1944 – Kasturba Gandhi, Indian activist (b. 1869) 1945 – Osip Brik, Russian avant garde writer and literary critic (b. 1888) 1958 – Abul Kalam Azad, Indian scholar and politician, Indian Minister of Education (b. 1888) 1960 – Paul-Émile Borduas, Canadian-French painter and critic (b. 1905) 1961 – Nick LaRocca, American trumpet player and composer (b. 1889) 1965 – Felix Frankfurter, Austrian-American lawyer and jurist (b. 1882) 1971 – Frédéric Mariotti, French actor (b. 1883) 1973 – Jean-Jacques Bertrand, Canadian lawyer and politician, 21st Premier of Quebec (b. 1916) 1973 – Elizabeth Bowen, Anglo-Irish author (b. 1899) 1973 – Katina Paxinou, Greek actress (b. 1900) 1973 – Winthrop Rockefeller, American colonel and politician, 37th Governor of Arkansas (b. 1912) 1976 – Angela Baddeley, English actress (b. 1904) 1976 – Florence Ballard, American singer (b. 1943) 1980 – Oskar Kokoschka, Austrian painter, poet and playwright (b. 1886) 1982 – Josh Malihabadi, Indian-Pakistani poet and author (b. 1898) 1983 – Adrian Boult, English conductor (b. 1889) 1983 – Romain Maes, Belgian cyclist (b. 1913) 1985 – Salvador Espriu, Spanish author, poet, and playwright (b. 1913) 1985 – Efrem Zimbalist, Russian violinist, composer, and conductor (b. 1889) 1986 – John Donnelly, Australian rugby league player (b. 1955) 1987 – David Susskind, American talk show host and producer (b. 1920) 1987 – Andy Warhol, American painter and photographer (b. 1928) 1992 – Markos Vafiadis, Greek general and politician (b. 1906) 1994 – Papa John Creach, American violinist (b. 1917) 1995 – Ed Flanders, American actor (b. 1934) 1997 – Joseph Aiuppa, American gangster (b. 1907) 1998 – Abraham A. Ribicoff, American lawyer and politician, 4th United States Secretary of Health and Human Services (b. 1910) 1999 – William Bronk, American poet and academic (b. 1918) 1999 – Menno Oosting, Dutch tennis player (b. 1964) 2002 – Chuck Jones, American animator, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1912) 2002 – Jonas Savimbi, Angolan general, founded UNITA (b. 1934) 2004 – Andy Seminick, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1920) 2005 – Lee Eun-ju, South Korean actress and singer (b. 1980) 2005 – Simone Simon, French actress (b. 1910) 2006 – S. Rajaratnam, Singaporean politician, 1st Senior Minister of Singapore (b. 1915) 2007 – George Jellicoe, 2nd Earl Jellicoe, English politician, Leader of the House of Lords (b. 1918) 2007 – Dennis Johnson, American basketball player and coach (b. 1954) 2012 – Sukhbir, Indian author and poet (b. 1925) 2012 – Frank Carson, Irish-English comedian and actor (b. 1926) 2012 – Marie Colvin, American journalist (b. 1956) 2012 – Rémi Ochlik, French photographer and journalist (b. 1983) 2013 – Atje Keulen-Deelstra, Dutch speed skater (b. 1938) 2013 – Jean-Louis Michon, French-Swiss scholar and translator (b. 1924) 2013 – Wolfgang Sawallisch, German pianist and conductor (b. 1923) 2014 – Charlotte Dawson, New Zealand–Australian television host (b. 1966) 2014 – Trebor Jay Tichenor, American pianist and composer (b. 1940) 2014 – Leo Vroman, Dutch-American hematologist, poet, and illustrator (b. 1915) 2015 – Chris Rainbow, Scottish singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1946) 2016 – Yolande Fox, American model and singer, Miss America 1951 (b. 1928) 2016 – Sonny James, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1928) 2018 – Forges, Spanish cartoonist (b. 1942) 2019 – Brody Stevens, American comedian and actor (b. 1970) 2019 – Morgan Woodward, American actor (b. 1925) 2021 – Lawrence Ferlinghetti, American poet, painter (b. 1919) Holidays and observances Birthday of Scouting and Guiding founder Robert Baden-Powell and Olave Baden-Powell, and its related observance: Founder's Day or "B.-P. day" (World Organization of the Scout Movement) World Thinking Day (World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts) Christian feast day: Baradates Eric Liddell (Episcopal Church (USA)) Feast of the Chair of Saint Peter (Roman Catholic Church) Margaret of Cortona February 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Crime Victims Day (Europe) Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Saint Lucia from the United Kingdom in 1979. Washington's Birthday, federal holiday in the United States. A holiday on February 22 as well as the third Monday in February. National Cat Day (Japan) References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on February 22 Today in Canadian History Days of the year February

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February%2013

February 13

Events Pre-1600 962 – Emperor Otto I and Pope John XII co-sign the Diploma Ottonianum, recognizing John as ruler of Rome. 1322 – The central tower of Ely Cathedral falls on the night of 12th–13th. 1462 – The Treaty of Westminster is finalised between Edward IV of England and the Scottish Lord of the Isles. 1503 – Challenge of Barletta: Tournament between 13 Italian and 13 French knights near Barletta. 1542 – Catherine Howard, the fifth wife of Henry VIII of England, is executed for adultery. 1601–1900 1633 – Galileo Galilei arrives in Rome for his trial before the Inquisition. 1642 – The Clergy Act becomes law, excluding bishops of the Church of England from serving in the House of Lords. 1660 – With the accession of young Charles XI of Sweden, his regents begin negotiations to end the Second Northern War. 1689 – William and Mary are proclaimed co-rulers of England. 1692 – Massacre of Glencoe: Almost 80 Macdonalds at Glen Coe, Scotland are killed early in the morning for not promptly pledging allegiance to the new king, William of Orange. 1726 – Parliament of Negrete between Mapuche and Spanish authorities in Chile bring an end to the Mapuche uprising of 1723–26. 1755 – Treaty of Giyanti signed by VOC, Pakubuwono III and Prince Mangkubumi. The treaty divides the Javanese kingdom of Mataram into two: Sunanate of Surakarta and Sultanate of Yogyakarta. 1849 – The delegation headed by Metropolitan bishop Andrei Șaguna hands out to the Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria the General Petition of Romanian leaders in Transylvania, Banat and Bukovina, which demands that the Romanian nation be recognized. 1861 – Italian unification: The Siege of Gaeta ends with the capitulation of the defending fortress, effectively bringing an end of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 1867 – Work begins on the covering of the Senne, burying Brussels's primary river and creating the modern central boulevards. 1880 – Thomas Edison observes Thermionic emission. 1901–present 1913 – The 13th Dalai Lama proclaims Tibetan independence following a period of domination by Manchu Qing dynasty and initiated a period of almost four decades of independence. 1914 – Copyright: In New York City the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers is established to protect the copyrighted musical compositions of its members. 1920 – The Negro National League is formed. 1931 – The British Raj completes its transfer from Calcutta to New Delhi. 1935 – A jury in Flemington, New Jersey finds Bruno Hauptmann guilty of the 1932 kidnapping and murder of the Lindbergh baby, the son of Charles Lindbergh. 1945 – World War II: The siege of Budapest concludes with the unconditional surrender of German and Hungarian forces to the Red Army. 1945 – World War II: Royal Air Force bombers are dispatched to Dresden, Germany to attack the city with a massive aerial bombardment. 1951 – Korean War: Battle of Chipyong-ni, which represented the "high-water mark" of the Chinese incursion into South Korea, commences. 1954 – Frank Selvy becomes the only NCAA Division I basketball player ever to score 100 points in a single game. 1955 – Israel obtains four of the seven Dead Sea Scrolls. 1955 – Twenty-nine people are killed when Sabena Flight 503 crashes into Monte Terminillo near Rieti, Italy. 1960 – With the success of a nuclear test codenamed "Gerboise Bleue", France becomes the fourth country to possess nuclear weapons. 1960 – Black college students stage the first of the Nashville sit-ins at three lunch counters in Nashville, Tennessee. 1961 – An allegedly 500,000-year-old rock is discovered near Olancha, California, US, that appears to anachronistically encase a spark plug. 1967 – American researchers discover the Madrid Codices by Leonardo da Vinci in the National Library of Spain. 1975 – Fire at One World Trade Center (North Tower) of the World Trade Center in New York. 1978 – Hilton bombing: a bomb explodes in a refuse truck outside the Hilton Hotel in Sydney, Australia, killing two refuse collectors and a policeman. 1979 – An intense windstorm strikes western Washington and sinks a long section of the Hood Canal Bridge. 1981 – A series of sewer explosions destroys more than two miles of streets in Louisville, Kentucky. 1983 – A cinema fire in Turin, Italy, kills 64 people. 1984 – Konstantin Chernenko succeeds the late Yuri Andropov as general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. 1990 – German reunification: An agreement is reached on a two-stage plan to reunite Germany. 1991 – Gulf War: Two laser-guided "smart bombs" destroy the Amiriyah shelter in Baghdad. Allied forces said the bunker was being used as a military communications outpost, but over 400 Iraqi civilians inside were killed. 1996 – The Nepalese Civil War is initiated in the Kingdom of Nepal by the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist-Centre). 2001 – An earthquake measuring 7.6 on the Richter magnitude scale hits El Salvador, killing at least 944. 2004 – The Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics announces the discovery of the universe's largest known diamond, white dwarf star BPM 37093. Astronomers named this star "Lucy" after The Beatles' song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds". 2007 – Taiwan opposition leader Ma Ying-jeou resigns as the chairman of the Kuomintang party after being indicted on charges of embezzlement during his tenure as the mayor of Taipei; Ma also announces his candidacy for the 2008 presidential election. 2008 – Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd makes a historic apology to the Indigenous Australians and the Stolen Generations. 2010 – A bomb explodes in the city of Pune, Maharashtra, India, killing 17 and injuring 60 more. 2011 – For the first time in more than 100 years the Umatilla, an American Indian tribe, are able to hunt and harvest a bison just outside Yellowstone National Park, restoring a centuries-old tradition guaranteed by a treaty signed in 1855. 2012 – The European Space Agency (ESA) conducted the first launch of the European Vega rocket from Europe's spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana. 2017 – Kim Jong-nam, brother of North Korean dictator Kim Jong-Un, is assassinated at Kuala Lumpur International Airport. 2021 – Former U.S. President Donald Trump is acquitted in his second impeachment trial. 2021 – A major winter storm causes blackouts and kills at least 82 people in Texas and northern Mexico. Births Pre-1600 1440 – Hartmann Schedel, German physician (d. 1514) 1457 – Mary of Burgundy, Sovereign Duchess regnant of Burgundy, married to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1482) 1469 – Elia Levita, Renaissance Hebrew grammarian (d. 1549) 1480 – Girolamo Aleandro, Italian cardinal (d. 1542) 1523 – Valentin Naboth, German astronomer and mathematician (d. 1593) 1539 – Elisabeth of Hesse, Electress Palatine (d. 1582) 1569 – Johann Reinhard I, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (d. 1625) 1599 – Pope Alexander VII (d. 1667) 1601–1900 1602 – William V, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (d. 1637) 1672 – Étienne François Geoffroy, French physician and chemist (d. 1731) 1683 – Giovanni Battista Piazzetta, Italian painter (d. 1754) 1719 – George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney, English admiral and politician (d. 1792) 1721 – John Reid, Scottish general (d. 1807) 1728 – John Hunter, Scottish surgeon and anatomist (d. 1793) 1766 – Thomas Robert Malthus, English economist and scholar (d. 1834) 1768 – Édouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier, French general and politician, 15th Prime Minister of France (d. 1835) 1769 – Ivan Krylov, Russian author, poet, and playwright (d. 1844) 1805 – Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet, German mathematician and academic (d. 1859) 1811 – François Achille Bazaine, French general (d. 1888) 1815 – Rufus Wilmot Griswold, American anthologist, editor, poet and critic (d. 1857) 1831 – John Aaron Rawlins, American general and politician, 29th United States Secretary of War (d. 1869) 1834 – Heinrich Caro, Sephardic Jewish Polish-German chemist and academic (d. 1910) 1835 – Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, Indian religious leader (d. 1908) 1849 – Lord Randolph Churchill, English lawyer and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1895) 1855 – Paul Deschanel, Belgian-French politician, 11th President of France (d. 1922) 1863 – Hugo Becker, German cellist and composer (d. 1941) 1867 – Harold Mahony, Scottish-Irish tennis player (d. 1905) 1870 – Leopold Godowsky, Polish-American pianist and composer (d. 1938) 1873 – Feodor Chaliapin, Russian opera singer (d. 1938) 1876 – Fritz Buelow, German-American baseball player and umpire (d. 1933) 1879 – Sarojini Naidu, Indian poet and activist (d. 1949) 1880 – Dimitrie Gusti, Romanian sociologist, ethnologist, historian, and philosopher (d. 1955) 1881 – Eleanor Farjeon, English author, poet, and playwright (d. 1965) 1883 – Hal Chase, American baseball player and manager (d. 1947) 1883 – Yevgeny Vakhtangov, Russian-Armenian actor and director (d. 1922) 1884 – Alfred Carlton Gilbert, American pole vaulter and businessman, founded the A. C. Gilbert Company (d. 1961) 1885 – Bess Truman, 35th First Lady of the United States (d. 1982) 1887 – Géza Csáth, Hungarian playwright and critic (d. 1919) 1888 – Georgios Papandreou, Greek lawyer, economist, and politician, 162nd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1968) 1889 – Leontine Sagan, Austrian actress and director (d. 1974) 1891 – Kate Roberts, Welsh author and activist (d. 1985) 1891 – Grant Wood, American painter and academic (d. 1942) 1892 – Robert H. Jackson, American lawyer, judge, and politician, 57th United States Attorney General (d. 1954) 1898 – Hubert Ashton, English cricketer and politician (d. 1979) 1900 – Barbara von Annenkoff, Russian-born German film and stage actress (d. 1979) 1901–present 1901 – Paul Lazarsfeld, Austrian-American sociologist and academic (d. 1976) 1902 – Harold Lasswell, American political scientist and theorist (d. 1978) 1903 – Georgy Beriev, Georgian-Russian engineer, founded the Beriev Aircraft Company (d. 1979) 1903 – Georges Simenon, Belgian-Swiss author (d. 1989) 1906 – Agostinho da Silva, Portuguese philosopher and author (d. 1994) 1907 – Katy de la Cruz, Filipino-American singer and actress (d. 2004) 1910 – William Shockley, English-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1989) 1911 – Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Indian-Pakistani poet and journalist (d. 1984) 1911 – Jean Muir, American actress and educator (d. 1996) 1912 – Harald Riipalu, Russian-Estonian commander (d. 1961) 1912 – Margaretta Scott, English actress (d. 2005) 1913 – Khalid of Saudi Arabia (d. 1982) 1915 – Lyle Bettger, American actor (d. 2003) 1915 – Aung San, Burmese general and politician, 5th Premier of British Crown Colony of Burma (d. 1947) 1916 – Dorothy Bliss, American invertebrate zoologist (d. 1987) 1919 – Tennessee Ernie Ford, American singer and actor (d. 1991) 1919 – Eddie Robinson, American football player and coach (d. 2007) 1920 – Boudleaux Bryant, American songwriter (d. 1987) 1920 – Eileen Farrell, American soprano and educator (d. 2002) 1921 – Jeanne Demessieux, French pianist and composer (d. 1968) 1921 – Aung Khin, Burmese painter (d. 1996) 1922 – Francis Pym, Baron Pym, Welsh soldier and politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (d. 2008) 1922 – Gordon Tullock, American economist and academic (d. 2014) 1923 – Michael Anthony Bilandic, American soldier, judge, and politician, 49th Mayor of Chicago (d. 2002) 1923 – Chuck Yeager, American general and pilot; first test pilot to break the sound barrier (d. 2020) 1924 – Jean-Jacques Servan-Schreiber, French journalist and politician (d. 2006) 1926 – Fay Ajzenberg-Selove, American nuclear physicist (d. 2012) 1928 – Gerald Regan, Canadian lawyer and politician, 19th Premier of Nova Scotia (d. 2019) 1929 – Omar Torrijos, Panamanian commander and politician, Military Leader of Panama (d. 1981) 1930 – Ernst Fuchs, Austrian painter, sculptor, and illustrator (d. 2015) 1930 – Israel Kirzner, English-American economist, author, and academic 1932 – Susan Oliver, American actress (d. 1990) 1933 – Paul Biya, Cameroon politician, 2nd President of Cameroon 1933 – Kim Novak, American actress 1933 – Emanuel Ungaro, French fashion designer (d. 2019) 1934 – George Segal, American actor (d. 2021) 1937 – Ali El-Maak, Sudanese author and academic (d. 1992) 1937 – Angelo Mosca, American-Canadian football player and wrestler 1938 – Oliver Reed, English actor (d. 1999) 1940 – Bram Peper, Dutch sociologist and politician, Mayor of Rotterdam 1941 – Sigmar Polke, German painter and photographer (d. 2010) 1941 – Bo Svenson, Swedish-American actor, director, and producer 1942 – Carol Lynley, American model and actress (d. 2019) 1942 – Peter Tork, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and actor (d. 2019) 1942 – Donald E. Williams, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2016) 1943 – Elaine Pagels, American theologian and academic 1944 – Stockard Channing, American actress 1944 – Jerry Springer, English-American television host, actor, and politician, 56th Mayor of Cincinnati 1945 – Marian Dawkins, English biologist and academic 1945 – King Floyd, American singer-songwriter (d. 2006) 1945 – Simon Schama, English historian and author 1945 – William Sleator, American author and composer (d. 2011) 1946 – Richard Blumenthal, American sergeant and politician, 23rd Attorney General of Connecticut 1946 – Janet Finch, English sociologist and academic 1946 – Colin Matthews, English composer and educator 1947 – Stephen Hadley, American soldier and diplomat, 21st United States National Security Advisor 1947 – Mike Krzyzewski, American basketball player and coach 1947 – Bogdan Tanjević, Montenegrin-Bosnian professional basketball coach 1947 – Kevin Bloody Wilson, Australian comedian, singer-songwriter, and guitarist 1949 – Peter Kern, Austrian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015) 1950 – Vera Baird, English lawyer and politician 1950 – Peter Gabriel, English singer-songwriter and musician 1952 – Ed Gagliardi, American bass player (d. 2014) 1953 – Akio Sato, Japanese wrestler and manager 1954 – Donnie Moore, American baseball player (d. 1989) 1955 – Joe Birkett, American lawyer, judge, and politician 1956 – Peter Hook, English singer, songwriter, bass player, multi-instrumentalist, and record producer 1957 – Denise Austin, American fitness trainer and author 1958 – Pernilla August, Swedish actress 1958 – Marc Emery, Canadian publisher and activist 1958 – Jean-François Lisée, Canadian journalist and politician 1958 – Derek Riggs, English painter and illustrator 1958 – Øivind Elgenes, Norwegian vocalist, guitarist, and composer 1959 – Gaston Gingras, Canadian ice hockey player 1960 – Pierluigi Collina, Italian footballer and referee 1960 – John Healey, English journalist and politician 1960 – Gary Patterson, American football player and coach 1960 – Artur Yusupov, Russian-German chess player and author 1961 – Marc Crawford, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1961 – cEvin Key, Canadian singer-songwriter, drummer, keyboard player, and producer 1961 – Henry Rollins, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor 1962 – Aníbal Acevedo Vilá, Puerto Rican lawyer and politician 1962 – Baby Doll, American wrestler and manager 1962 – Michele Greene, American actress 1964 – Stephen Bowen, American engineer, captain, and astronaut 1964 – Ylva Johansson, Swedish educator and politician, Swedish Minister of Employment 1965 – Peter O'Neill, Papua New Guinean accountant and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea 1966 – Neal McDonough, American actor and producer 1966 – Jeff Waters, Canadian guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1966 – Freedom Williams, American rapper and singer 1967 – Stanimir Stoilov, Bulgarian footballer and coach 1968 – Kelly Hu, American actress 1969 – Joyce DiDonato, American soprano and actress 1969 – Bryan Thomas Schmidt, American science fiction author and editor 1970 – Karoline Krüger, Norwegian singer-songwriter and pianist 1971 – Sonia Evans, English singer-songwriter 1971 – Mats Sundin, Swedish ice hockey player 1971 – Todd Williams, American baseball player 1972 – Virgilijus Alekna, Lithuanian discus thrower 1972 – Charlie Garner, American football player 1974 – Fonzworth Bentley, American rapper and actor 1974 – Robbie Williams, English singer-songwriter 1975 – Ben Collins, English race car driver 1975 – Katie Hopkins, English media personality and columnist 1976 – Jörg Bergmeister, German race car driver 1976 – Shannon Nevin, Australian rugby league player 1977 – Randy Moss, American football player and coach 1978 – Niklas Bäckström, Finnish ice hockey player 1978 – Philippe Jaroussky, French countertenor 1979 – Anders Behring Breivik, Norwegian murderer 1979 – Rafael Márquez, Mexican footballer 1979 – Rachel Reeves, English economist and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Work and Pensions 1979 – Mena Suvari, American actress and fashion designer 1980 – Carlos Cotto, Puerto Rican-American wrestler and boxer 1981 – Luisão, Brazilian footballer 1982 – Even Helte Hermansen, Norwegian guitarist and composer 1982 – Michael Turner, American football player 1983 – Mike Nickeas, Canadian baseball player 1983 – Anna Watkins, English rower 1984 – Hinkelien Schreuder, Dutch swimmer 1985 – Kwak Ji-min, South Korean actress 1986 – Luke Moore, English footballer 1986 – Aqib Talib, American football player 1987 – Eljero Elia, Dutch footballer 1988 – Ryan Goins, American baseball player 1988 – Eddy Pettybourne, New Zealand-Samoan rugby league player 1989 – Rodrigo Possebon, Brazilian footballer 1991 – Eliaquim Mangala, French footballer 1991 – Junior Roqica, Australian-Fijian rugby league player 1991 – Vianney, French singer 1994 – Memphis Depay, Dutch footballer 2001 – Kaapo Kakko, Finnish ice hockey player Deaths Pre-1600 106 – Emperor He of Han (Han Hedi) of the Chinese Eastern Han Dynasty (b. AD 79) 721 – Chilperic II, Frankish king (b. 672) 858 – Kenneth MacAlpin, Scottish king (probable; b. 810) 921 – Vratislaus I, duke of Bohemia 936 – Xiao Wen, empress of the Liao Dynasty 942 – Muhammad ibn Ra'iq, Abbasid emir and regent 988 – Adalbert Atto, Lombard nobleman 1021 – Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, Fatimid caliph (b. 985) 1130 – Honorius II, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1060) 1141 – Béla II, king of Hungary and Croatia (b. 1110) 1199 – Stefan Nemanja, Serbian grand prince (b. 1113) 1219 – Minamoto no Sanetomo, Japanese shōgun (b. 1192) 1332 – Andronikos II Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (b. 1259) 1351 – Kō no Morofuyu, Japanese general 1539 – Isabella d'Este, Italian noblewoman (b. 1474) 1542 – Catherine Howard, English wife of Henry VIII of England (executed; b. 1521) 1571 – Benvenuto Cellini, Italian painter and sculptor (b. 1500) 1585 – Alfonso Salmeron, Spanish priest and scholar (b. 1515) 1601–1900 1602 – Alexander Nowell, English clergyman and theologian (b. 1507) 1660 – Charles X Gustav, king of Sweden (b. 1622) 1662 – Elizabeth Stuart, queen of Bohemia (b. 1596) 1693 – Johann Caspar Kerll, German organist and composer (b. 1627) 1727 – William Wotton, English linguist and scholar (b. 1666) 1728 – Cotton Mather, American minister and author (b. 1663) 1732 – Charles-René d'Hozier, French historian and author (b. 1640) 1741 – Johann Joseph Fux, Austrian composer and theorist (b. 1660) 1787 – Roger Joseph Boscovich, Croatian physicist, astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher (b. 1711) 1787 – Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes, French lawyer and politician, Foreign Minister of France (b. 1717) 1813 – Samuel Ashe, American lawyer and politician, 9th Governor of North Carolina (b. 1725) 1818 – George Rogers Clark, American general (b. 1752) 1826 – Peter Ludwig von der Pahlen, Russian general and politician, Governor-General of Baltic provinces (b. 1745) 1831 – Edward Berry, English admiral (b. 1768) 1837 – Mariano José de Larra, Spanish journalist and author (b. 1809) 1845 – Henrik Steffens, Norwegian-German philosopher and poet (b. 1773) 1859 – Eliza Acton, English food writer and poet (b. 1799) 1877 – Costache Caragiale, Romanian actor and manager (b. 1815) 1883 – Richard Wagner, German composer (b. 1813) 1888 – Jean-Baptiste Lamy, French-American archbishop (b. 1814) 1892 – Provo Wallis, Canadian-English admiral (b. 1791) 1893 – Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, Mexican intellectual and journalist (b. 1834) 1901–present 1905 – Konstantin Savitsky, Russian painter (b. 1844) 1906 – Albert Gottschalk, Danish painter (b. 1866) 1934 – József Pusztai, Slovene-Hungarian poet and journalist (b. 1864) 1942 – Otakar Batlička, Czech journalist (b. 1895) 1942 – Epitácio Pessoa, Brazilian lawyer, judge, and politician, 11th President of Brazil (b. 1865) 1950 – Rafael Sabatini, Italian-English novelist and short story writer (b. 1875) 1951 – Lloyd C. Douglas, American minister and author (b. 1877) 1952 – Josephine Tey, Scottish author and playwright (b. 1896) 1954 – Agnes Macphail, Canadian educator and politician (b. 1890) 1956 – Jan Łukasiewicz, Polish mathematician and philosopher (b. 1878) 1958 – Christabel Pankhurst, English activist, co-founded the Women's Social and Political Union (b. 1880) 1958 – Georges Rouault, French painter and illustrator (b. 1871) 1964 – Paulino Alcántara, Filipino-Spanish footballer and manager (b. 1896) 1964 – Werner Heyde, German psychiatrist and academic (b. 1902) 1967 – Yoshisuke Aikawa, entrepreneur, businessman, and politician, founded Nissan Motor Company (b. 1880) 1967 – Abelardo L. Rodríguez, substitute president of Mexico (1932-1934) (b. 1889) 1968 – Mae Marsh, American actress (b. 1895) 1968 – Portia White, Canadian opera singer (b. 1911) 1973 – Marinus Jan Granpré Molière, Dutch architect and educator (b. 1883) 1975 – André Beaufre, French general (b. 1902) 1976 – Murtala Mohammed, Nigerian general and politician, 4th President of Nigeria (b. 1938) 1976 – Lily Pons, French-American soprano and actress (b. 1904) 1980 – David Janssen, American actor (b. 1931) 1984 – Cheong Eak Chong, Singaporean entrepreneur (b. 1888) 1986 – Yuri Ivask, Russian-American poet and critic (b. 1907) 1989 – Wayne Hays, American lieutenant and politician (b. 1911) 1991 – Arno Breker, German sculptor and illustrator (b. 1900) 1992 – Nikolay Bogolyubov, Ukrainian-Russian mathematician and physicist (b. 1909) 1996 – Martin Balsam, American actor (b. 1919) 1997 – Robert Klark Graham, American eugenicist and businessman (b. 1906) 1997 – Mark Krasnosel'skii, Russian-Ukrainian mathematician and academic (b. 1920) 2000 – Anders Aalborg, Canadian educator and politician (b. 1914) 2000 – James Cooke Brown, American sociologist and author (b. 1921) 2000 – John Leake, English soldier (b. 1949) 2002 – Waylon Jennings, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1937) 2003 – Kid Gavilán, Cuban-American boxer (b. 1926) 2003 – Walt Whitman Rostow, American economist; 7th United States National Security Advisor (b. 1916) 2004 – François Tavenas, Canadian engineer and academic (b. 1942) 2004 – Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev, Chechen politician, 2nd President of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (b. 1952) 2005 – Nelson Briles, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1943) 2005 – Lúcia Santos, Portuguese nun (b. 1907) 2006 – P. F. Strawson, English philosopher and author (b. 1919) 2007 – Elizabeth Jolley, English-Australian author and academic (b. 1923) 2007 – Charlie Norwood, American captain and politician (b. 1941) 2007 – Richard Gordon Wakeford, English air marshal (b. 1922) 2008 – Kon Ichikawa, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1915) 2009 – Edward Upward, English author and educator (b. 1903) 2010 – Lucille Clifton, American poet and academic (b. 1936) 2010 – Dale Hawkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1936) 2012 – Russell Arms, American actor and singer (b. 1920) 2012 – Louise Cochrane, American-English screenwriter and producer (b. 1918) 2012 – Daniel C. Gerould, American playwright and academic (b. 1928) 2013 – Gerry Day, American journalist and screenwriter (b. 1922) 2013 – Miles J. Jones, American pathologist and physician (b. 1952) 2013 – Pieter Kooijmans, Dutch judge and politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs for The Netherlands (b. 1933) 2013 – Andrée Malebranche, Haitian artist (b. 1916) 2013 – Yuko Tojo, Japanese activist and politician (b. 1939) 2014 – Balu Mahendra, Sri Lankan-Indian director, cinematographer, and screenwriter (b. 1939) 2014 – Richard Møller Nielsen, Danish footballer and manager (b. 1937) 2014 – Ralph Waite, American actor and activist (b. 1928) 2015 – Faith Bandler, Australian activist and author (b. 1918) 2015 – Stan Chambers, American journalist and actor (b. 1923) 2016 – O. N. V. Kurup, Indian poet and academic (b. 1931) 2016 – Antonin Scalia, American lawyer and judge, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (b. 1936) 2017 – Ricardo Arias Calderón, Panamanian politician (b. 1933) 2017 – Aileen Hernandez, American union organizer and activist (b. 1926) 2017 – Seijun Suzuki, Japanese filmmaker (b. 1923) 2017 – Kim Jong-nam, North Korean politician (b. 1971) 2017 – E-Dubble, American rapper (b. 1982) 2018 – Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark, French-born Danish royal (b. 1934) 2021 – Kadir Topbaş, Turkish politician (b. 1945) Holidays and observances Children's Day (Myanmar) Christian feast day: Absalom Jones (Episcopal Church (USA)) Beatrice of Ornacieux Castor of Karden Catherine of Ricci Ermenilda of Ely Fulcran Jordan of Saxony Polyeuctus (Roman Catholic Church) February 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) World Radio Day References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on February 13 Today in Canadian History Days of the year February

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February 18

Events Pre-1600 1229 – The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, signs a ten-year truce with al-Kamil, regaining Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem with neither military engagements nor support from the papacy. 1268 – The Battle of Wesenberg is fought between the Livonian Order and Dovmont of Pskov. 1332 – Amda Seyon I, Emperor of Ethiopia begins his campaigns in the southern Muslim provinces. 1478 – George, Duke of Clarence, convicted of treason against his older brother Edward IV of England, is executed in private at the Tower of London. 1601–1900 1637 – Eighty Years' War: Off the coast of Cornwall, England, a Spanish fleet intercepts an important Anglo-Dutch merchant convoy of 44 vessels escorted by six warships, destroying or capturing 20 of them. 1735 – The ballad opera called Flora, or Hob in the Well went down in history as the first opera of any kind to be produced in North America (Charleston, S.C.) 1781 – Fourth Anglo-Dutch War: Captain Thomas Shirley opens his expedition against Dutch colonial outposts on the Gold Coast of Africa (present-day Ghana). 1791 – Congress passes a law admitting the state of Vermont to the Union, effective 4 March, after that state had existed for 14 years as a de facto independent largely unrecognized state. 1797 – French Revolutionary Wars: Sir Ralph Abercromby and a fleet of 18 British warships invade Trinidad. 1814 – Napoleonic Wars: The Battle of Montereau. 1861 – In Montgomery, Alabama, Jefferson Davis is inaugurated as the provisional President of the Confederate States of America. 1861 – With Italian unification almost complete, Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont, Savoy and Sardinia assumes the title of King of Italy. 1873 – Bulgarian revolutionary leader Vasil Levski is executed by hanging in Sofia by the Ottoman authorities. 1878 – John Tunstall is murdered by outlaw Jesse Evans, sparking the Lincoln County War in Lincoln County, New Mexico. 1885 – Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain is published in the United States. 1900 – Second Boer War: Imperial forces suffer their worst single-day loss of life on Bloody Sunday, the first day of the Battle of Paardeberg. 1901–present 1906 – Édouard de Laveleye forms the Belgian Olympic Committee in Brussels. 1911 – The first official flight with airmail takes place from Allahabad, United Provinces, British India (now India), when Henri Pequet, a 23-year-old pilot, delivers 6,500 letters to Naini, about away. 1915 – U-boat Campaign: The Imperial German Navy institutes unrestricted submarine warfare in the waters around Great Britain and Ireland. 1930 – While studying photographs taken in January, Clyde Tombaugh discovers Pluto. 1930 – Elm Farm Ollie becomes the first cow to fly in a fixed-wing aircraft and also the first cow to be milked in an aircraft. 1932 – The Empire of Japan creates the independent state of Manzhouguo (the obsolete Chinese name for Manchuria) free from the Republic of China and installed former Chinese Emperor Aisin Gioro Puyi as Chief Executive of the State. 1938 – Second Sino-Japanese War: During the Nanking Massacre, the Nanking Safety Zone International Committee is renamed "Nanking International Rescue Committee", and the safety zone in place for refugees falls apart. 1942 – World War II: The Imperial Japanese Army begins the systematic extermination of perceived hostile elements among the Chinese in Singapore. 1943 – World War II: The Nazis arrest the members of the White Rose movement. 1943 – World War II: Joseph Goebbels delivers his Sportpalast speech. 1946 – Sailors of the Royal Indian Navy mutiny in Bombay harbour, from where the action spreads throughout the Provinces of British India, involving 78 ships, twenty shore establishments and 20,000 sailors 1947 – First Indochina War: The French gain complete control of Hanoi after forcing the Viet Minh to withdraw to mountains. 1954 – The first Church of Scientology is established in Los Angeles. 1955 – Operation Teapot: Teapot test shot "Wasp" is successfully detonated at the Nevada Test Site with a yield of 1.2 kilotons. Wasp is the first of fourteen shots in the Teapot series. 1957 – Kenyan rebel leader Dedan Kimathi is executed by the British colonial government. 1957 – Walter James Bolton becomes the last person legally executed in New Zealand. 1965 – The Gambia becomes independent from the United Kingdom. 1970 – The Chicago Seven are found not guilty of conspiring to incite riots at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. 1972 – The California Supreme Court in the case of People v. Anderson, (6 Cal.3d 628) invalidates the state's death penalty and commutes the sentences of all death row inmates to life imprisonment. 1977 – The Space Shuttle Enterprise test vehicle is carried on its maiden "flight" on top of a Boeing 747. 1979 – Richard Petty wins a then-record sixth Daytona 500 after leaders Donnie Allison and Cale Yarborough crash on the final lap of the first NASCAR race televised live flag-to-flag. 1983 – Thirteen people die and one is seriously injured in the Wah Mee massacre in Seattle. It is said to be the largest robbery-motivated mass-murder in U.S. history. 1991 – The IRA explodes bombs in the early morning at Paddington station and Victoria station in London. 2001 – FBI agent Robert Hanssen is arrested for spying for the Soviet Union. He is ultimately convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment. 2001 – Sampit conflict: Inter-ethnic violence between Dayaks and Madurese breaks out in Sampit, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, ultimately resulting in more than 500 deaths and 100,000 Madurese displaced from their homes. 2001 – NASCAR Champion Dale Earnhardt dies from an accident on the final lap of the Daytona 500. 2003 – Nearly 200 people die in the Daegu subway fire in South Korea. 2004 – Up to 295 people, including nearly 200 rescue workers, die near Nishapur, Iran, when a runaway freight train carrying sulfur, petrol and fertilizer catches fire and explodes. 2007 – Samjhauta Express bombings occurred around midnight in Diwana near the Indian city of Panipat, 80 kilometres (50 mi) north of New Delhi, India. 2010 – WikiLeaks publishes the first of hundreds of thousands of classified documents disclosed by the soldier now known as Chelsea Manning. 2013 – Armed robbers steal a haul of diamonds worth $50 million during a raid at Brussels Airport in Belgium. 2014 – At least 76 people are killed and hundreds are injured in clashes between riot police and demonstrators in Kyiv, Ukraine. 2021 – Perseverance, a Mars rover designed to explore Jezero crater on Mars, as part of NASA's Mars 2020 mission, lands successfully. Births Pre-1600 1201 – Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Persian scientist and writer (d. 1274) 1372 – Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Egyptian jurist and scholar (d. 1448) 1486 – Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Indian monk and saint (d. 1534) 1516 – Mary I of England (d. 1558) 1530 – Uesugi Kenshin, Japanese daimyō (d. 1578) 1543 – Charles III, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1608) 1547 – Bahāʾ al-dīn al-ʿĀmilī, founder of Isfahan School of Islamic Philosophy (d. 1621) 1559 – Isaac Casaubon, Swiss philologist and scholar (d. 1614) 1589 – Henry Vane the Elder, English politician (d. 1655) 1589 – Maarten Gerritsz Vries, Dutch explorer (d. 1646) 1601–1900 1602 – Per Brahe the Younger, Swedish soldier and politician, Governor-General of Finland (d. 1680) 1602 – Michelangelo Cerquozzi, Italian painter (d. 1660) 1609 – Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, English historian and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1674) 1626 – Francesco Redi, Italian physician (d. 1697) 1632 – Giovanni Battista Vitali, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1692) 1642 – Marie Champmeslé, French actress (d. 1698) 1658 – Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre, French philosopher and author (d. 1743) 1732 – Johann Christian Kittel, German organist and composer (d. 1809) 1745 – Alessandro Volta, Italian physicist, invented the battery (d. 1827) 1754 – Emanuel Granberg, Finnish church painter (d. 1797) 1814 – Samuel Fenton Cary, American lawyer and politician (d. 1900) 1817 – Lewis Armistead, American general (d. 1863) 1818 – John O'Shanassy, Irish-Australian politician, 2nd Premier of Victoria (d. 1883) 1836 – Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Indian mystic and yogi (d. 1886) 1838 – Ernst Mach, Austrian physicist and philosopher (d. 1916) 1846 – Wilson Barrett, English actor, playwright, and manager (d. 1904) 1848 – Louis Comfort Tiffany, American stained glass artist (d. 1933) 1849 – Alexander Kielland, Norwegian author, playwright, and politician (d. 1906) 1850 – George Henschel, German-English singer-songwriter, pianist, and conductor (d. 1934) 1855 – Jean Jules Jusserand, French historian, author, and diplomat, French Ambassador to the United States (d. 1932) 1860 – Anders Zorn, Swedish artist (d. 1920) 1862 – Charles M. Schwab, American businessman, co-founded Bethlehem Steel (d. 1939) 1867 – Hedwig Courths-Mahler, German writer (d. 1950) 1870 – William Laurel Harris, American painter and author (d. 1924) 1871 – Harry Brearley, English inventor (d. 1948) 1883 – Nikos Kazantzakis, Greek philosopher, author, and playwright (d. 1957) 1885 – Henri Laurens, French sculptor and illustrator (d. 1954) 1893 – Maksim Haretski, Belarusian prose writer, journalist and activist (d. 1938) 1890 – Edward Arnold, American actor (d. 1956) 1890 – Adolphe Menjou, American actor (d. 1963) 1892 – Wendell Willkie, American captain, lawyer, and politician (d. 1944) 1896 – Li Linsi, Chinese educator and diplomat (d. 1970) 1898 – Luis Muñoz Marín, Puerto Rican poet and politician, 1st Governor of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (d. 1980) 1899 – Arthur Bryant, English historian and journalist (d. 1985) 1901–present 1903 – Nikolai Podgorny, Ukrainian engineer and politician (d. 1983) 1906 – Hans Asperger, Austrian pediatrician and academic (d. 1980) 1909 – Wallace Stegner, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (d. 1993) 1914 – Pee Wee King, American singer-songwriter and fiddler (d. 2000) 1915 – Phyllis Calvert, English actress (d. 2002) 1919 – Jack Palance, American boxer and actor (d. 2006) 1920 – Rolande Falcinelli, French organist, pianist, composer, and pedagogue (d. 2006) 1921 – Mary Amdur, American toxicologist and public health researcher (d. 1998) 1921 – Oscar Feltsman, Ukrainian-Russian pianist and composer (d. 2013) 1922 – Eric Gairy, Grenadan politician, 1st Prime Minister of Grenada (d. 1997) 1922 – Helen Gurley Brown, American journalist and author (d. 2012) 1922 – Connie Wisniewski, American baseball player (d. 1995) 1925 – George Kennedy, American actor (d. 2016) 1926 – Wallace Berman, American painter and illustrator (d. 1976) 1927 – Fazal Mahmood, Pakistani cricketer (d. 2005) 1929 – Len Deighton, English historian and author 1929 – André Mathieu, Canadian pianist and composer (d. 1968) 1931 – Johnny Hart, American cartoonist, co-created The Wizard of Id (d. 2007) 1931 – Toni Morrison, American novelist and editor, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2019). 1932 – Miloš Forman, Czech-American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2018) 1933 – Yoko Ono, Japanese-American multimedia artist and musician 1933 – Bobby Robson, English international footballer and international manager (d. 2009) 1933 – Mary Ure, Scottish-English actress (d. 1975) 1934 – Audre Lorde, American writer and activist (d. 1992) 1939 – Claude Ake, Nigerian political scientist and academic (d. 1996) 1940 – Fabrizio De André, Italian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1999) 1940 – Prue Leith, English restaurateur and journalist 1946 – Michael Buerk, English journalist 1950 – Nana Amba Eyiaba I, Ghanaian queen mother and advocate 1950 – John Hughes, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2009) 1951 – Queen Komal of Nepal 1951 – Isabel Preysler, Filipino-Spanish journalist 1952 – Randy Crawford, American jazz and R&B singer 1952 – Juice Newton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1954 – Charlie Fowler, American mountaineer, author, and photographer (d. 2006) 1954 – John Travolta, American actor, singer and producer 1955 – Lisa See, American writer and novelist 1957 – Marita Koch, German sprinter 1960 – Greta Scacchi, Italian-Australian actress 1967 – Roberto Baggio, Italian international footballer 1967 – Colin Jackson, Welsh sprinter and hurdler 1968 – Molly Ringwald, American actress 1970 – James H. Fowler, American political scientist and author 1971 – Thomas Bjørn, Danish golfer 1974 – Carrie Ann Baade, American painter and academic 1974 – Radek Černý, Czech international footballer 1974 – Julia Butterfly Hill, American environmentalist and author 1974 – Leilani Maaja Münter, American environmental activist and former professional race car driver 1975 – Gary Neville, English international footballer 1982 – Christian Tiffert, German footballer 1983 – Jermaine Jenas, English international footballer 1990 – Monica Aksamit, American Olympic saber fencer 1991 – Sebastian Neumann, German footballer 1994 – J-Hope, South Korean rapper, songwriter, dancer, and record producer Deaths Pre-1600 675 – Colmán, bishop of Lindisfarne 814 – Angilbert, Frankish monk and diplomat (b. 760) 901 – Thābit ibn Qurra, Arab astronomer and physician (b. 826) 999 – Gregory V, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 972) 1139 – Yaropolk II, Grand Prince of Kiev (b. 1082) 1218 – Berthold V, duke of Zähringen (b. 1160) 1225 – Hugh Bigod, 3rd Earl of Norfolk, Norman nobleman 1294 – Kublai Khan, Mongol emperor (b. 1215) 1379 – Albert II, duke of Mecklenburg (b. 1318) 1397 – Enguerrand VII, French nobleman (b. 1340) 1455 – Fra Angelico, Italian priest and painter (b. 1395) 1478 – George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, English nobleman (b. 1449) 1502 – Hedwig Jagiellon, duchess of Bavaria (b. 1457) 1535 – Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, German magician, astrologer, and theologian (b. 1486) 1546 – Martin Luther, German priest and theologian, leader of the Protestant Reformation (b. 1483) 1564 – Michelangelo, Italian sculptor and painter (b. 1475) 1601–1900 1654 – Jean-Louis Guez de Balzac, French author (b. 1594) 1658 – John Villiers, 1st Viscount Purbeck, English courtier (b. c. 1591) 1683 – Nicolaes Pieterszoon Berchem, Dutch painter (b. 1620) 1695 – William Phips, governor of Massachusetts (b. 1650) 1712 – Louis, Dauphin of France, (b. 1682) 1743 – Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, Italian noble (b. 1667) 1748 – Otto Ferdinand von Abensberg und Traun, Austrian field marshal (b. 1677) 1772 – Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff, Danish politician (b. 1712) 1778 – Joseph Marie Terray, French economist and politician, Controller-General of Finances (b. 1715) 1780 – Kristijonas Donelaitis, Lithuanian pastor and poet (b. 1714) 1788 – John Whitehurst, English geologist and clockmaker (b. 1713) 1803 – Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim, German poet and educator (b. 1719) 1851 – Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, German mathematician and academic (b. 1804) 1873 – Vasil Levski, Bulgarian activist, founded the Internal Revolutionary Organization (b. 1837) 1880 – Nikolay Zinin, Russian organic chemist (b. 1812) 1893 – Serranus Clinton Hastings, American lawyer and politician, 1st Chief Justice of California (b. 1814) 1901–present 1902 – Charles Lewis Tiffany, American businessman, founded Tiffany & Co. (b. 1812) 1910 – Lucy Stanton, American activist (b. 1831) 1915 – Frank James, American soldier and criminal (b. 1843) 1933 – James J. Corbett, American boxer and actor (b. 1866) 1938 – David King Udall, American missionary and politician (b. 1851) 1956 – Gustave Charpentier, French composer (b. 1860) 1957 – Henry Norris Russell, American astronomer, astrophysicist, and academic (b. 1877) 1960 – Gertrude Vanderbilt, American stage actress (b. ) 1967 – J. Robert Oppenheimer, American physicist and academic (b. 1904) 1969 – Dragiša Cvetković, Serbian lawyer and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (b. 1893) 1977 – Andy Devine, American actor (b. 1905) 1981 – Jack Northrop, American engineer and businessman, founded the Northrop Corporation (b. 1895) 1982 – Ngaio Marsh, New Zealand author (b. 1895) 2001 – Balthus, Polish-Swiss painter and illustrator (b. 1908) 2001 – Dale Earnhardt, American racer and NASCAR seven times champion (b. 1951) 2014 – Mavis Gallant, Canadian-French author and playwright (b. 1922) 2014 – Maria Franziska von Trapp, Austrian-American singer (b. 1914) 2015 – Elchanan Heilprin, Czechoslovakian-born English rabbi (b. 1920 or 1922) 2019 – Alessandro Mendini, Italian designer and architect (b. 1931) 2020 – Flavio Bucci, Italian actor and voice actor (b. 1947) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Bernadette Soubirous (France) Colmán of Lindisfarne Flavian of Constantinople Geltrude Comensoli Simeon of Jerusalem (Western Christianity) February 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Dialect Day (Amami Islands, Japan) Independence Day, celebrates the independence of the Gambia from the United Kingdom in 1965 Kurdish Students Union Day (Iraqi Kurdistan) National Democracy Day, celebrates the 1951 overthrow of the Rana dynasty (Nepal) Wife's Day (Konudagur) (Iceland) References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on February 18 Today in Canadian History Days of the year February

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List of Scots

List of Scots is an incomplete list of notable people from Scotland. Actors Architects and master masons James Adam (1732–1794), son of William Adam John Adam (1721–1792), eldest son of William Adam Robert Adam (1728–1792), architect, son of William Adam William Adam (1689–1748), father of James, John and Robert; architect and mason John Macvicar Anderson (1835–1915) Robert Rowand Anderson (1834–1921) Howard Ashley, architect practicing in Malaya, who worked for the Public Works Department of Malaysia George Ashdown Audsley (1838–1925), architect, artist, illustrator, writer, and pipe organ designer William James Audsley (1833–1907) Ormrod Maxwell Ayrton (1874–1960), FRIBA John Baird (1798–1859), influential figure in the development of Glasgow Georgian and Victorian Architecture Andrew Balfour (1863–1943), architect, work including Holmlea Primary School, Glasgow Isobel Hogg Kerr Beattie (1900–1970), possibly the first woman to practise architecture in Scotland John Begg (1866–1937), architect who practised in London, South Africa and India, and taught at Edinburgh College of Art William Bryce Binnie (c. 1885–c. 1963) Alexander Black (c.1790–1858) Hippolyte Blanc (1844–1917) Thomas Bonnar (c.1770–1847), interior designer and architect James MacLellan Brown (c. 1886–1967), city architect of Dundee, designer of the Mills Observatory Thomas Brown (1781–1850), architect, works including Bellevue Church, Edinburgh Thomas Brown (1806–1872), architect notable for prison design Sir George Washington Browne (1853–1939) Sir William Bruce (c. 1630–1710) David Bryce (1803–1876) William Burn (1789–1870) John Burnet (1814–1901), architect who lived and practised in Glasgow Sir John James Burnet (1857–1938), Edwardian architect, son of John Burnet James Burton (1761–1837), famous London property developer and architect; father of Decimus Burton and James Burton (Egyptologist) James Byres of Tonley (1733–1817), architect, antiquary and dealer in Old Master paintings and antiquities Edward Calvert (c. 1847–1914) Charles Cameron (1743–1812) Alexander Buchanan Campbell (1914–2007) Alexander Lorne Campbell (1871–1944), architect founder of Scott & Campbell Colen Campbell (1676–1729) Colin Robert Vaughan Campbell, 7th Earl Cawdor (born 1962) John Campbell (1857–1942) John Chesser (1819–1892), architect largely based in Edinburgh Sir John Ninian Comper (1864–1960), Gothic Revival architect George Corson (1829–1910) David Cousin (1809–1878), architect, landscape architect and planner James Craig (1739–1795) James Hoey Craigie (1870–1930) Alexander Hunter Crawford (1865–1945), architect and businessman, owner of Crawford's Biscuits Alexander Davidson (1839–1908), architect active in Australia William Gordon Dey (1911–1997), architect who specialised in college buildings John Douglas of Pinkerton (c.1709–1778), architect who designed and reformed several country houses Sir Robert Drummond of Carnock (died 1592), Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland Sir James Duncan Dunbar-Nasmith, (born 1927), leading conservation architect Alan Dunlop (born 1958) John Murray Easton (1889–1975), architect, winner of the Royal Gold Medal for architecture Alexander Edward (1651–1708), Episcopalian clergyman, draughtsman, architect and landscape designer Archibald Elliot (1760–1823) Reginald Francis Joseph Fairlie (1883–1952), architect of the National Library of Scotland James Fergusson (1808–1886) Claude Waterlow Ferrier (1879–1935), architect, specialising in the Art Deco style James Leslie Findlay (1868–1952) Kathryn Findlay (born 1954) Robert Findlay (1859–1951) George Topham Forrest (1872–1945) William Fowler (1824–1906), architect Malcolm Fraser (born 1959) Patrick Allan Fraser (1812–1890), architect and painter Andrew Frazer (died 1792) Thomas Gildard (died 1895), architect of Britannia Music Hall James Gibbs (1682–1754) Charles Lovett Gill (1880–1960) James Gowan (1923–2015), postmodernist architect of the "engineering style" Sir James Gowans (1821–1890), maverick Edinburgh architect and builder James Gillespie Graham (1776–1855) John Edgar Gregan (1813–1855) David Hamilton (1768–1843) Sir James Hamilton of Finnart (c.1495–1540), Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland Thomas Hamilton (1784–1858) John Henderson (1804–1862), architect chiefly remembered as a church architect James Macintyre Henry (1852–1929) William Hastie (1753/1763–1832) Gareth Hoskins (1967–2016), architect, UK Architect of the year 2006 Edith Mary Wardlaw Burnet Hughes (1888–1971), considered Britain's first practising woman architect, who established her own firm in 1920 Ernest Auldjo Jamieson (1880–1937), architect specialising in country houses, largely for wealthy family friends George Meikle Kemp (1795–1844), carpenter, draughtsman, and architect, best known as the designer of the Scott Monument Robert Kerr (1823–1904), co-founder of the Architectural Association Sir William Hardie Kininmonth (1904–1988), architect whose work mixed a modern style with Scottish vernacular Alexander Laing (1752–1823), architect William Leiper (1839–1916) David Lennox (1788–1873), bridge-builder and master stonemason, working in Australia John Lessels (1809–1883) Ian G Lindsay (1906–1966) Robert Lorimer (1864–1929) David MacGibbon (1831–1902) Kate Macintosh (born 1937), architect of Dawson's Heights in Southwark Alexander George Robertson Mackenzie (1879–1963), architect, in London and Aberdeen Alexander Marshall Mackenzie (1848–1933) Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868–1928), architect, designer and watercolourist; husband and business partner of Margaret McDonald James Marjoribanks MacLaren (1853–1890), associated with the Arts and Crafts movement and Scottish Vernacular architecture Thomas MacLaren (1863–1928), architect who worked in worked in London, and the United States Andy MacMillan (1928–2014), architect, educator, writer and broadcaster Ebenezer James MacRae (1881–1951), City Architect for Edinburgh Thomas P. Marwick (1854–1927), architect based in Edinburgh, important to the architectural character of Marchmont Robert Matheson (1808–1877), architect and Clerk of Works for Scotland Robert Matthew (1906–1975) John McAslan, CBE (born 1954), designed many buildings around the world, such as the new departures concourse at London King's Cross railway station, the Iron Market in Port-au-Prince and the Olympia Park in Moscow Alexander McGill (died 1734), mason and architect, who worked in partnership with James Smith John McLachlan (1843–1893), architect George McRae (1858–1923), architect who migrated to Australia and pursued his career in Sydney Sir Frank Charles Mears (1880–1953) Adam Menelaws (born between 1748 and 1756–1831) James Miller (1860–1947) Sydney Mitchell (1856–1930) Robert Morham (1839–1912), City Architect for Edinburgh Richard Murphy (born 1955), architect, winner of the 2016 RIBA House of the year Gordon Murray (born 1954) Sir James Murray of Kilbaberton (died 1634), master wright and architect John Mylne (died 1621), master mason John Mylne of Perth (c. 1585–1657), master mason John Mylne (1611–1667), master mason and architect Robert Mylne (1633–1710), stonemason and architect, last Master Mason to the Crown of Scotland Robert Mylne (1733–1811), architect and civil engineer, remembered for Blackfriars Bridge, London Walter Newall (1780–1863) Peter Nicholson (1765–1844) John Paterson (died 1832) Robert Hamilton Paterson (1843–1911), partner in the architectural practice, Hamilton-Paterson and Rhind David Paton (1801–1882), architect and builder, who worked in the United States in the 1830s John Dick Peddie (1824–1891) John More Dick Peddie (1853–1921) Frederick Thomas Pilkington (1832–1898) James Playfair (1755–1794), father of William Henry William Henry Playfair (1790–1857) B. Marcus Priteca (1889–1971) Robert Reid Raeburn (1819–1888), architect who worked in and around Edinburgh Robert Reid (1774–1856), King's architect and surveyor for Scotland David Rhind (1808–1883) James Robert Rhind (1854–1918) John Rhind (1836–1889), architect from Inverness George Richardson (c. 1737–c. 1813), architectural and decorative draftsman John Thomas Rochead (1814–1878) Thomas Ross (1839–1930) Fred Rowntree (1860–1927), Arts and Crafts architect Witold Rybczynski (born 1943) James Salmon (1873–1924), grandson of James Salmon (1805–1888) James Salmon (1805–1888), grandfather of James Salmon (1873–1924) William Schaw (c. 1550–1602), Master of Works to James VI of Scotland for building castles and palaces John Scrimgeour of Myres (fl. 16th century), Master of Work for royal buildings for James V and Mary, Queen of Scots James Robb Scott (1882–1965), chief architect of the Southern Railway James Sellars (1843–1888) Richard Norman Shaw (1831–1912), architect known for his country houses and for commercial buildings Archibald Simpson (1790–1847), one of the major architects of Aberdeen James Smith (c. 1645–1731) James Smith of Jordanhill (1782–1867), architect, merchant, antiquarian, geologist, biblical critic and man of letters John Smith (1781–1852), first official city architect of Aberdeen Robert Smith (1722–1777), emigrant to America William Smith (1817–1891) John Soutar (1881–1951) James Souttar (1840–1922), worked in Sweden Basil Spence (1907–1976) John James Stevenson (1831–1908) James Stirling (1926–1992) John Tait (1787–1856), architect based in Edinburgh Thomas S. Tait (1882–1954) Bruce James Talbert (1838–1881), architect and interior designer Sir Andrew Thomas Taylor (1850–1937), architect and Conservative Party municipal councillor Alexander "Greek" Thomson (1817–1875) James Thomson (died 1927), City Engineer, City Architect, and Housing Director of Dundee Ramsay Traquair, architect and academic with strong links to Canada James Campbell Walker (1821–1888), architect specialising in poorhouses and schools William Wallace (died 1631) Frederick Walters (1849–1931), notable for Roman Catholic churches George Henry Walton (1867–1933) Thomas Lennox Watson (c. 1850–1920) William Weir (1865–1950) Charles Wilson (1810–1863) Robert Wilson (1834–1901), architect for the Edinburgh Board of Education George Wittet (1878–1926), architect working mostly in Bombay, India William Young (1843–1900), designer of Glasgow City Chambers Artists Businesspersons Robert Aitken (1734–1802), Philadelphia printer, the first to publish an English language Bible in the United States Alexander Aikman (1755–1838), Jamaican printer, newspaper publisher, and landowner. Arthur Anderson (1792–1868), co-founder of P&O Alexander Arbuthnot (died 1585), printer, work including George Buchanan's first History of Scotland Sir George Gough Arbuthnot (1848–1929), businessman and civic leader in British India Keith Arbuthnott, 17th Viscount of Arbuthnott (born 1950), peer and businessman John Bartholomew, Sr. (1805–1861), cartographer and engraver, founder of John Bartholomew and Son Ltd John Bartholomew Jr. (1831–1893), cartographer John Christopher Bartholomew (1923–2008), cartographer and geographer John George Bartholomew (1860–1920), cartographer and geographer John (Ian) Bartholomew (1890–1962), cartographer and geographer William Beardmore, 1st Baron Invernairn (1856–1936), founder of William Beardmore and Company engineers and shipbuilders James Gordon Bennett, Sr. (1795–1872), founder and publisher of the New York Herald Alexander Berry (1781–1873), town of Berry is named after him, possibly the first millionaire in Australia David Berry (1795–1889), livestock breeder, landowner and benefactor; brother of Alexander Berry Peter Buchan (1790–1854), editor, publisher, and collector of ballads and folktales David Buick (1854–1929), founded the Buick car company Sir George Burns, 1st Baronet (1795–1890), shipping magnate Sir James Burns (1846–1923), businessman, shipowner and philanthropist in Australia James Burns (1789–1871), shipowner born in Glasgow John Burns, 1st Baron Inverclyde (1829–1901), shipowner, chairman of Cunard Agnes Campbell, Lady Roseburn (1637–1716), printer, described as "Scotland's wealthiest early modern printer". Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919), steel magnate, major philanthropist Thomas Catto, 1st Baron Catto (1879–1959), businessman, Governor of the Bank of England. William Chambers of Glenormiston (1800–1883), publisher Sir Arnold Clark (1928–2017), founder of Arnold Clark motor group Catherine Cranston (1849–1934), leading figure in the development of tea rooms, patron of Charles Rennie Mackintosh and others William Cunninghame of Lainshaw (1731–1799), tobacco merchant David Dale (1739–1806), merchant and businessman, established the weaving community of New Lanark William Davidson (1740–1890), entrepreneur and founder of the first colony in New Brunswick, Canada Adam Dawson (1793–1873), Linlithgow and owner of St Magdalene distillery George Dempster of Dunnichen and Skibo (1732–1818), advocate, landowner, agricultural improver, politician and business man Peter Denny (1821–1895), shipbuilder and shipowner, with William Denny and Brothers John Dewar, Sr. (1805–1880), founder of John Dewar & Sons, Scotch whisky distillers Dr. Henry Duncan (1774–1846), Church of Scotland Minister; started the world's first savings bank in Ruthwell, Dumfries and Galloway John Elder (1824–1869), marine engineer and shipbuilder Sir Tom Farmer (born 1940), entrepreneur Robert Fleming (1845–1933), financier, founder of Robert Fleming & Co. merchant bank B. C. Forbes (1880–1954), founder of Forbes magazine Alexander Fordyce (died 1789), banker, involved in the bank run on Neal, James, Fordyce and Down in 1772 Hugh Fraser (1817–1853), founder of House of Fraser group of department stores Anita Margaret Frew (born 1957), businessperson Martin Gilbert (born 1955), Chief Executive of Aberdeen Asset Management James Gillespie (1726–1797), snuff-maker and philanthropist Ann Gloag (born 1942), co-founder of Stagecoach Group, born in Perth Thomas Blake Glover (1838–1911), Nagasaki-based trader in 19th-century Japan Robert Gordon (1668–1731), founder of the Robert Gordon University Sir Angus Grossart (born 1937), chairman of merchant bank Noble Grossart Andrew Halyburton (died 1507), merchant, 'Conservator of the Scottish privileges in the Low Countries' Willie Haughey (born 1956), entrepreneur and founder of City Refrigeration Holdings George Heriot (1563–1624), goldsmith and founder of George Heriot's School Tom Hunter (born 1961), entrepreneur and philanthropist, founder of Sports Division John Lawson Johnston (1839–1900), creator of Bovril Irvine Laidlaw (born 1942), Scotland's 6th richest man and founder of the modern conference company John Law (1671–1729), advocate of paper money and founder of the Mississippi Company Sir Thomas Lipton (1848–1931), founder of Lipton's Tea Sir George Mathewson, (born 1940), former chairman of the Royal Bank of Scotland Jim McColl (born 1951), founder of Clyde Blowers William McEwan (1827–1913), founder of McEwans brewers Stewart Milne (born 1950), founder of Stewart Milne Group and majority shareholder of Aberdeen F.C. Michelle Mone (born 1971), founder of Ultimo Sir David Murray (born 1951), founder of Murray International Metals Thomas Napier (1802–1881), builder, emigrant to Australia William Paterson (1658–1719), founder of Bank of Scotland and Bank of England Alexander Cameron Sim (1840–1900), pharmacist and entrepreneur active in Japan, founder of the Kobe Regatta & Athletic Club Robert Smith, Baron Smith of Kelvin (born 1944), Chair of the Green Investment Bank Brian Souter (born 1954), entrepreneur and co-founder of Stagecoach Group James Stirling (1800–1876), builder of steam locomotives, brother of Robert Stirling Thomas Sutherland (1834–1922), founder of The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and HSBC Holdings plc David Couper Thomson (1861–1954), proprietor of the newspaper and publishing company D. C. Thomson & Co. Ltd George Thomson (1815–1866), marine engineer and shipbuilder William Walls (1819–1893), lawyer and industrialist, influenced the development of 19th-century Glasgow William Douglas Weir, 1st Viscount Weir (1877–1959), industrialist, engineer and politician George Watson (1654–1723), first chief accountant of the Bank of Scotland; founder of George Watson's College Wilson, Sons, founded in 1837 by Edward and Fleetwood Pellow Wilson; one of South America's largest shipping brokers Andrew Yule (1834–1902), businessman who founded Andrew Yule and Company in India Sir David Yule, 1st Baronet (1858–1928), businessman based in India George Yule (1829–1892), merchant in England and India, fourth President of the Indian National Congress Composers Robert Burns (1759–1796) Robert Carver (c. 1485–c. 1570) Ronald Center (1913–1973) Erik Chisholm (1904–1965) James Clapperton (born 1968) John Clerk of Penicuik (1676–1755) James Dillon (born 1950) Thomas Erskine, 6th Earl of Kellie (1732–1781) Iain Hamilton (1922–2000) Tobias Hume (c.1579–1645) Hamish MacCunn (1868–1916) John Blackwood McEwen (1868–1948) Edward McGuire (born 1948) Alexander Mackenzie (1847–1935) Charles Macintosh (1839–1922), composer, performer and naturalist Robert Mackintosh (c.1745–1807) James MacMillan (born 1959) Stuart MacRae (born 1976) William Marshall (1748–1833) John McLeod (born 1934) Gordon McPherson (born 1965) Stuart Mitchell (born 1965) Thea Musgrave (born 1928) James Oswald (1710–1769) Morris Pert (1947–2010) Francis George Scott (1880–1958) James Scott Skinner (1843–1927), composer, dancing master, and fiddler Robert Archibald Smith (1780–1829), composer known for his collection Scotish Minstrel Ronald Stevenson (born 1928) William Sweeney (born 1950) Julian Wagstaff (born 1970) William Wallace (1860–1940) Judith Weir (born 1954) Thomas Wilson (1927–2001) Criminals William Armstrong of Kinmont (Kinmont Willie) (fl. 16th century), border reiver Sawney Bean, semi-mythical head of a clan in 15th- or 16th-century Scotland, reportedly executed for mass murder and cannibalism Bible John, nickname of supposed serial killer Robert Black (born 1947), serial killer convicted of the kidnapping and murder of four girls Geordie Bourne (died 1597), border reiver Ian Brady (1938–2017), one of the Moors murderers Deacon Brodie (1741–1788), Edinburgh city councillor and burglar Michael Brown (born 1966), fraudster Henry John Burnett (1942–1963), murderer, last man to be hanged in Scotland Colonel Francis Charteris (c. 1675–1732), nicknamed "The Rape-Master General" Robert Crichton, 8th Lord Crichton of Sanquhar (died 1612), peer, executed for the murder of a fencing teacher, John Turner Williamina "Minnie" Dean (1844–1895), emigrant to New Zealand, found guilty of infanticide and hanged; the only woman to receive the death penalty in New Zealand William John Duff (born 1962), dentist convicted for fraud and reckless endangerment Paul John Ferris (born 1963), gangster and author Donald Forbes (1935–2008), murderer, convicted of two separate murders Arthur Furguson (1883–1938), con artist Jimmy Gauld (born 1931), footballer and match fixing ringleader John Gow (c. 1698–1725), notorious pirate Sir Robert Graham of Kinpont (died 1437), assassin of James I of Scotland Sir Archibald Grant 2nd Baronet (1696–1778), fraudster, expelled from parliament, and agricultural improver David Haggart (1801–1821), thief and murderer Archibald Hall (a.k.a. Roy Fontaine) (1924–2002), serial killer and thief James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh and Woodhouselee (died 1581) assassin of James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray, Regent of Scotland Thomas Watt Hamilton (1952–1996), perpetrator of the Dunblane school massacre John the Painter (1752–1777), highwayman, burglar, shoplifter, robber, and rapist, who committed acts of terror in British naval dockyards in 1776–77 William Kidd (1645–1701), mutineer and pirate Sonny Leitch (born c. 1933), career criminal and jailbreaker "Captain" James MacLaine (1724–1750), highwayman, known as the "Gentleman Highwayman" Jamie Macpherson (1675–1700), outlaw Peter Manuel (1927–1958), serial killer John Maxwell, 9th Lord Maxwell (c. 1583–1613), Catholic nobleman, murderer of the Laird of Johnstone Edith McAlinden (born 1968), murderer, guilty of triple murder in Glasgow Ian McAteer (born 1961), Glasgow gangster William McCoy (c. 1763 – 1798), sailor and a mutineer on board HMS Bounty Thomas McGraw (1952–2007), known as "The Licensee" or "Wan-Baw McGraw", gangster Frank McPhee (1948–2000), Glasgow gangland boss Patrick Meehan (1927–1994), safe blower, convicted of murder but given a royal pardon Anthony Joseph Miller (1941–1960), the last teenager to be executed in the United Kingdom Robert Mone (born 1948), convicted murderer James Morrison (1760–1807) seaman and mutineer who took part in the Mutiny on the Bounty Susan Newell (1893–1923), murderer, the last woman to be hanged in Scotland Dennis Nilsen (born 1945), serial killer Colin Norris (born 1976), nurse convicted of murdering four elderly patients in a hospital in Leeds Dora Noyce (1900–1977), Edinburgh brothel keeper Johnny Ramensky (1905–1972), career criminal who used his safe-cracking abilities as a commando during World War II Robert Sempill, 3rd Lord Sempill (c. 1505–1576), lord of Parliament, murderer Robert Stewart, Master of Atholl (died 1437), assassin of James I of Scotland Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl (died 1437), assassin of James I of Scotland Arthur Thompson (1931–1993), Glasgow gangster Peter Tobin (born 1946), convicted serial killer and sex offender Andrew Walker (living), army corporal who killed three colleagues in a payroll robbery Economists Sir Kenneth Alexander (1922–2001), university administrator Adam Anderson (1692/1693–1765), economic historian Duncan Black (1908–1991), social choice theorist Sir Alexander Cairncross (1911–1998), founder of the UK Government Economic Service Frances Anne Cairncross (born 30 August 1944), economist, journalist and academic John Marcus Fleming (1911–1976), IMF deputy director of research David Greenaway (born 1952), university administrator John Law (c. 1671–1729), founder of Banque Générale in France James Loch (1780–1855), economist, advocate, barrister, estate commissioner and Member of Parliament Joseph Lowe (died 1831), journalist and political economist Ronald MacDonald (born 1955) Henry Dunning Macleod (1821–1902), credit theorist Ailsa McKay (1963–2014), feminist economist, Professor of Economics at Glasgow Caledonian University and United Nations adviser Sir James Mirrlees (born 1936), Nobel Laureate Anton Muscatelli (born 1962), Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Glasgow Brian Quinn (born 1936), former Deputy Governor of the Bank of England and Chairman of Celtic FC John Rae (1796–1872), polymath Gavin Clydesdale Reid (born 1946) Adam Smith (1723–1790), moral philosopher, author of The Wealth of Nations, the first modern work on economics Engineers and inventors James Abernethy (1814–1896), civil engineer Neil Arnott (1788–1874), physician and inventor of the Arnott waterbed Sir William Arrol (1839–1913), bridge builder Alexander Bain (1810–1877), inventor and engineer, first to invent and patent the electric clock and fax machine Charles Baird (1766–1843), engineer who played an important part in the industrial and business life of St. Petersburg Francis Baird (1802–1864), engineer in St. Petersburg; son of Charles Baird Hugh Baird (1770–1827), civil engineer, who designed and built the Union Canal John Logie Baird (1888–1946), television Nicol Hugh Baird (1796–1849), surveyor, engineer and inventor who emigrated to Canada Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922), telephone, National Geographic Society, hydrofoil Henry Bell (1767–1830), ran Europe's first commercially successful steamboat Rev Patrick Bell (1799–1869), Church of Scotland minister, and inventor of the reaping machine George Bennie (1891–1957), the Bennie Railplane Sir James Black (1924–2010), beta-blockers Robert Blair (1748–1828), aplanatic telescope Benjamin Blyth (1819–1866), civil engineer Benjamin Blyth II (1849–1917), civil engineer Sir Thomas Bouch (1822–1880), railway engineer, designer of the original Tay Rail Bridge Robert Henry Bow (1827–1909), civil engineer and photographer James Braid (1795–1860), hypnosis James Bremner (1784–1856), naval architect, harbour builder and ship-raiser David Brewster (1781–1868), lenticular stereoscope George Brown (1650–1730), arithmetician and inventor Walter Brown (1886–1957), engineer and mathematician Sir George Bruce of Carnock (c.1550–1625), merchant and mining engineer Richard Henry Brunton (1841–1901), "father of Japanese lighthouses" Dorothy Donaldson Buchanan (1899–1985), civil engineer, first woman member of the Institution of Civil Engineers Duncan Cameron (1825–1901), inventor of the "Waverley" pen nib, owner of The Oban Times newspaper James Chalmers (1782–1853), adhesive postage stamp Sir Dugald Clark (a.k.a. Clerk) (1854–1932), first two stroke cycle engine (the Clark cycle) Archibald Cochrane, 9th Earl of Dundonald (1749–1831), made many general useful inventions, particularly in the navy Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald (1775–1860), designed many inventions to do with naval technology and steam engines Dr James C. Crow (1789–1856), creator of the sour mash process for creating bourbon whiskey Robert Davidson (1804–1894), first electric locomotive James Dewar (1842–1923), inventor of the Thermos flask and co-developer of cordite William Dickson (1860–1935), motion picture camera and the world's first film Captain Thomas Drummond (1797–1840) army officer, civil engineer, and pioneer in use of the Drummond light Victoria Drummond (1894–1978), marine engineer, first woman member of Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology John Boyd Dunlop (1840–1921), the modern rubber tyre Henry Dyer (1848–1918), engineer, contributor to Western-style technical education in Japan Sir Peter Fairbairn (1799–1861), engineer and inventor, and mayor of Leeds, West Yorkshire Sir William Fairbairn, 1st Baronet (of Ardwick) (1789–1874), civil engineer, structural engineer and shipbuilder Patrick Ferguson (1744–1780), the Ferguson rifle Sir Alexander Fleming (1881–1955), isolated penicillin from the fungus Penicillium notatum Sir Sandford Fleming, (1827–1915), engineer and inventor, who emigrated to Canada; he proposed worldwide standard time zones, and engineered much of the Intercolonial Railway and the Canadian Pacific Railway Alexander John Forsyth (1768–1843), Presbyterian clergyman who invented the percussion cap William George Nicholson Geddes (1913–1993), civil engineer David Gow (born 1957), inventor of the i-Limb prosthetic hand Thomas Lomar Gray (1850–1908), engineer noted for his pioneering work in seismology James Gregory (1638–1675), the Gregorian telescope Thomas Graeme Nelson Haldane (1897–1981), engineer William Handyside (1793–1850), engineer involved in important construction projects in St. Petersburg James Harrison (1816–1893), pioneer in mechanical refrigeration George Johnston (1855–1945), engineer, designer and constructor of Scotland's first automobile James Kennedy (1797–1886), locomotive and marine engineer David Kirkaldy (1820–1897), engineer, whose pioneering testing works now houses the Kirkaldy Testing Museum James Bowman Lindsay (1799–1862), inventor of the constant electric light bulb Charles Macintosh (1766–1843), patented waterproofing Alan MacMasters (1865–1927), inventor of the toaster Kirkpatrick MacMillan (1813–1878), bicycle John Loudon McAdam (1756–1836), modern road construction Sir Robert McAlpine (Concrete Bob) (1847–1934), road builder Thomas McCall (1834–1904), cartwright, developer of the bicycle Andrew Meikle (1719–1811), mechanical engineer, inventor of the threshing machine Patrick Miller (1730–1815), steamboat pioneer Thomas Morton (1781–1832), shipwright and inventor of the patent slip William Murdoch (1754–1839), pioneer of gas lighting David Napier (1790–1869), marine engineer David Napier (1785–1873), engineer, founder of D. Napier & Son, an early precision engineering company which later made automobiles and aero engines James Robert Napier (1821–1879), engineer and inventor of Napier's diagram John Napier (1550–1617), Logarithm Robert Napier (1791–1876), marine engineer, "the father of Clyde Shipbuilding" Robert D. Napier (1821–1885), engineer James Nasmyth (1808–1890), steam hammer Robert Stirling Newall (1812–1889), engineer, improved wire rope and submarine cable laying James Newlands (1813–1871), civil engineer, Borough Engineer of Liverpool as Borough Engineer Murdoch Paterson (1826–1898), Inverness engineer and architect, chief engineer of the Highland Railway William Paterson (1658–1719), the Bank of England William John Macquorn Rankine (1820–1872), developed a complete theory of the steam engine and indeed of all heat engines John Rennie the Elder (1761–1821), engineer, designer of the "new" 19th-century London Bridge John Shepherd-Barron (1925–2010), inventor of the automatic teller machine Hugh Smellie (1840–1891), engineer, Locomotive Superintendent Thomas Smith (1752–1814), early lighthouse engineer Charles Spalding (1738–1783), Edinburgh confectioner and improver of the diving bell Alan Stevenson (1807–1865), lighthouse engineer Charles Alexander Stevenson (1855–1950), lighthouse engineer David Stevenson (1815–1886), lighthouse designer David Alan Stevenson (1854–1938), lighthouse engineer Robert Stevenson (1772–1850), civil engineer, designer and builder of lighthouses Thomas Stevenson (1818–1887), pioneering lighthouse designer and meteorologist; father of Robert Louis Stevenson Matthew Stirling (1856–1931), Locomotive Superintendent of the Hull and Barnsley Railway Patrick Stirling (1820–1895), railway engineer, and Locomotive Superintendent of the Great Northern Railway Reverend Dr Robert Stirling (1790–1878), clergyman, and inventor of the Stirling engine William Symington (1764–1831), engineer, built the first practical steam boat Thomas Telford (1757–1834), architect, civil engineer, bridge designer Robert William Thomson (1822–1873), Sir Robert Watson-Watt (1893–1973), developed radar James Watt (1736–1819), engineer, significantly improved the steam engine James Young (1811–1883), invented a way of extracting paraffin oil Explorers Albert Armitage (1864–1943), Royal Navy Captain who was part of the Jackson–Harmsworth Expedition, which explored Franz Josef Land and rescued Fridtjof Nansen and his men from certain death; later part of the Discovery Expedition in Antarctica John Arthur, OBE (1881–1952), British Army Captain and medical missionary for over thirty years in Kenya; known simply as Doctor Arthur to generations of Africans William Balfour Baikie (1824–1864), naturalist, philologist and surgeon on the 1854 Niger Expedition; explored the Benue River and helped open up Nigeria to British trade while supporting the abolition of the slave trade Peter Belches (1796–1890), Royal Navy Lieutenant who explored the Swan River and its surrounding area while aboard Admiral Sir James Stirling's Alexander Berry (1781–1873), merchant and surgeon who established the first European settlement on the south coast of New South Wales Henry Robertson Bowers (1883–1912), Royal Navy Lieutenant who was part of the ill-fated Terra Nova Expedition, which attempted to be the first to reach the South Pole Robert Brown (1842–1895), scientist, explorer, and author James Bruce (1730–1794), traveller and travel writer who spent more than a dozen years in North Africa and then Ethiopia, where he traced the origins of the Blue Nile William Speirs Bruce (1867–1921), naturalist, oceanographer, polar scientist and leader of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition; established the first permanent weather station there and became the first to widely explore the Weddell Sea David Buchan (1780–1838), Royal Navy Captain who conducted expeditions in Newfoundland and Labrador and Spitsbergen Sir Alexander Burnes (1805–1841), diplomat and explorer of Afghanistan Colin Campbell (1686–1757), entrepreneur, merchant and co-founder of the Swedish East India Company, the largest trading company in Sweden throughout the 18th century; King Frederick I of Sweden's ambassador to the Emperor of China Hugh Clapperton (1788–1827), Royal Navy Captain and traveller who explored many lakes and rivers in Africa; one of the first white people to see Lake Chad John Dundas Cochrane (1793–1825), Royal Navy Captain and traveller who crossed Eurasia on foot to reach the Kamchatka Peninsula William Cormack (1796–1868), agriculturalist, author and philanthropist; first European to explore the interior of Newfoundland and Labrador, while also building friendly relations with the native Beothuk people Robert Bontine Cunninghame Graham (1852–1936), Don Roberto, adventurer, journalist, politician and writer who carried out many activities in Argentina, Mexico, Morocco, Spain and the United States David Douglas (1799–1834), botanist and gardener who explored parts of the remote Scottish Highlands, as well as North America and Hawaii; second person to summit Mauna Loa volcano; introduced hundreds of plants to Great Britain, including the Douglas fir Douglas Douglas–Hamilton (1903–1973), Lord Clydesdale, aviator and the first to see Mount Everest from above while carrying out the first detailed scientific survey of the Himalayas, the extremities he endured also helped demonstrate the need for pressurised cabins inside aircraft Alexander Forbes (1778–1862), author and merchant; first British consul to Mexico; published one of the first accounts in English of California (then a province of Mexico) Henry Ogg Forbes (1851–1932), botanist and ornithologist in both the Maluku Islands and New Guinea; director of the Canterbury Museum in New Zealand for three years Simon Fraser (1776–1862), fur trader who was employed by the North West Company and charted much of what is now the Canadian province of British Columbia; built the area's first trading ports; explored the 854-mile Fraser River George Glas (1725–1765), adventurer, merchant and seaman who traded between Brazil, the Canary Islands and north-western Africa Sir Alexander Richard Glen (1912–2004), explorer of the Arctic, and wartime intelligence officer Robert Gordon (1580–1661), antiquary, cartographer, geographer, mathematician and poet who created and revised many maps, including the first atlas of Scotland after being asked via a letter from King Charles I of England James Augustus Grant (1827–1892), British Army Lieutenant who accompanied John Hanning Speke in the search and discovery of the source of the River Nile; the Grant's gazelle is named in his honour Sir James Hector (1834–1907), geologist, naturalist and surgeon on the Palliser Expedition, the main goal of which was to find possible routes for the Canadian Pacific Railway; went on to manage what is now the Royal Society of New Zealand for thirty-five years Isobel Wylie Hutchison (1889–1982), Arctic traveller and botanist Alexander Keith Johnston (1844–1879), cartographer and geographer to a commission for the survey of Paraguay; died while leading the Royal Geographical Society's expedition to Lake Malawi John Kirk (1832–1922), botanist, naturalist and physician; British administrator in Zanzibar; supported the abolition of the slave trade along with his associate David Livingstone Alexander Gordon Laing (1793–1826), British Army Major who was the first Westerner to discover the ancient city of Timbuktu Macgregor Laird (1808–1861), merchant and shipbuilder; pioneered British trade on the Niger River; his ship Sirius was the first to cross the Atlantic Ocean run entirely on steam power; supported the abolition of the slave trade William Lithgow (1582–1645), alleged spy, traveller and writer who claimed to have peregrinated over 35,000 miles throughout various parts of the world David Livingstone (1813–1873), medical missionary and one of Africa's most celebrated explorers; discovered Victoria Falls, among other things; strongly opposed the slave trade; his meeting with H. M. Stanley gave rise to the quotation "Dr. Livingstone, I presume?" Gregor MacGregor (1786–1845), adventurer, coloniser, land speculator and soldier who fought in South America during the Spanish American wars of independence, before later helping to colonise parts of the continent John MacGregor (1825–1892), artist, barrister, philanthropist and travel writer; descendant of Rob Roy MacGregor; developed canoe sailing and popularised canoeing as a recreational sport, paddling and sailing them in both Europe and the Middle East Alistair Mackay (1878–1914), doctor and polar explorer, one of the first expedition to reach the south magnetic pole Sir Alexander Mackenzie (1764–1820), merchant who traced the 1,080-mile Mackenzie River and completed the first east to west overland crossing of the Americas (north of Mexico) to reach the Pacific Ocean; this predated the Lewis and Clark Expedition by a decade Harry McNish (1874–1930), carpenter on Sir Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans–Antarctic Expedition; later responsible for much of the work that ensured the crew's survival after the ship was destroyed Archibald Menzies (1754–1852), botanist, naturalist and surgeon on the Vancouver Expedition, which circumnavigated the globe, touched five continents and changed the course of history for the American indigenous people and the continent's European colonisation Sir Thomas Mitchell (1792–1855), British Army Lieutenant Colonel and surveyor in south-eastern Australia who became the Surveyor General of New South Wales; led several expeditions along the Darling River and beyond John Muir (1838–1914), author and naturalist whose conservation and preservation activism led to the creation of many national parks in the United States; founded the Sierra Club in California, one of the most important conservation organisations in America Sir John Murray (1841–1914), pioneering limnologist, marine biologist and oceanographer who assisted Charles Wyville Thomson on the Challenger expedition; first to note the existence of oceanic trenches, as well as the Mid–Atlantic Ridge William Hutchison Murray (1913–1996), mountaineer and writer who helped discover a route through the ice fields of Khumbu Glacier to the South Col of Mount Everest's summit, later used by Sir Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay during their historic ascent Walter Oudney (1790–1824), physician and African explorer, one of the first Europeans to accomplish a north–south crossing of the Sahara Desert Mungo Park (1771–1806), botanist and surgeon who conducted many journeys to Africa and was the first Westerner to encounter the central portion of the Niger River William Paterson (1755–1810), botanist, British Army Colonel and lieutenant governor, best known for leading early settlement in Tasmania John Rae (1813–1893), physician who explored Northern Canada, mainly surveying parts of the Northwest Passage; later reported the fate of the lost Franklin Expedition Sir John Richardson (1787–1865), naturalist and naval surgeon; traveled with Sir John Franklin in search of the Northwest Passage on the Coppermine Expedition of 1819–1822; they later surveyed 1,878 miles of previously unmapped coast and made many natural history discoveries Sir James Clark Ross (1800–1862), Royal Navy Admiral who led the first successful expedition to reach the north magnetic pole; discovered the Ross Sea, Victoria Land, and volcanoes Mount Erebus and Mount Terror in Antarctica Sir John Ross (1777–1856), Royal Navy Admiral who discovered the Boothia Peninsula, the Gulf of Boothia and King William Island while exploring the Arctic John Ross (1817–1903), drover who explored deserts, mountain ranges and rivers in South Australia, before later leading an expedition to establish a route for the Australian Overland Telegraph Line Alexander Selkirk (1676–1721), sailor who spent four years as a castaway after being marooned on the Juan Fernández Islands off the coast of Chile; his story is the inspiration behind Daniel Defoe's well-known character and novel Robinson Crusoe Henry Sinclair (c. 1345–c. 1400), nobleman rumoured to have explored Greenland and North America one hundred years before Christopher Columbus Sir James Stirling (1791–1865), colonial administrator and Royal Navy Admiral who established the Swan River Colony and became the first Governor of Western Australia John McDouall Stuart (1815–1866), surveyor and one of Australia's most famous explorers; led the first expedition to successfully traverse the continent from south to north and return Sir Charles Wyville Thomson (1830–1882), marine zoologist, natural historian and the chief scientist on the pioneering Challenger Expedition, which lay the foundation for modern oceanography Joseph Thomson (1858–1895), geologist and an important figure in the Scramble for Africa; headed many expeditions, including taking over one following the death of Alexander Keith Johnston; the Thomson's gazelle is named in his honour Tom Weir, MBE (1914–2006), author, broadcaster and climber who is best known for his long-running television series, Weir's Way, which helped popularise hillwalking and the great outdoors Thomas Braidwood Wilson (c. 1792–1843), surgeon and explorer in Australia John Wood (1812–1871), cartographer, naval officer and surveyor who explored many Asian rivers and compiled several maps of South Asia, which remained standard for most of the 19th century Sir James Wordie (1889–1962), geologist, chief of scientific staff on Sir Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans–Antarctic Expedition Humorists Stanley Baxter (born 1926) Danny Bhoy (born 1974) Frankie Boyle (born 1972) Rory Bremner (born 1961) Kevin Bridges (born 1986) Janet Brown (1924–2011) Fred Cairns (1857–1896) Susan Calman Rhona Cameron (born 1965) Stephen Carlin Des Clarke Alun Cochrane (born 1975) Billy Connolly (born 1942) Ronald Balfour Corbett (born 1930), known better as Ronnie Corbett Ivor Cutler (1923–2006) Karen Dunbar (1971) Craig Ferguson (born 1962) Gregor Fisher (born 1953), known better as the character Rab C. Nesbitt Rikki Fulton (1924–2004) George Gale (1929–2003), political cartoonist Graeme Garden (born 1943) Janey Godley (born 1961) Greg Hemphill (born 1969) Craig Hill Armando Iannucci (born 1963) Phil Kay Ford Kiernan (born 1962) Harry Lauder (1870–1950) David Law (1908–1971), cartoonist Brian Limond (born 1974) Jimmy Logan (1928–2001) Fred MacAulay (born 1956) Doon Mackichan (born 1962) Chic Murray (1919–1985) Jerry Sadowitz (born 1961) Iain Stirling (born 1988) Ian Tough (born 1947), one half of The Krankies Janette Tough (born 1947), A.K.A. Wee Jimmy Krankie Danny Wallace (born 1976) Military General James Abercrombie (1706–1781), British Army commander-in-chief of forces in North America during the French and Indian War Sir James Abercrombie, 1st Baronet of Edinburgh (died 1724), British Army officer and politician Major Sir Ralph Anstruther, 7th Baronet (1921–2002), British Army officer and courtier, awarded the Military Cross Major General Robert Keith Arbuthnott, 15th Viscount of Arbuthnott (1897–1966), senior British Army officer, serving in both World War I and World War II William Baillie, professional soldier in Swedish and Scottish Covenanter service General Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet (1757–1829), military leader Gilbert Balfour, 16th-century mercenary captain, probably having a leading role in the murder of Lord Darnley Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, Russian Field Marshal and Minister of War during Napoleon's invasion in 1812 and War of the Sixth Coalition Sir Andrew Barton (c. 1466–1511), sailor from Leith, served as High Admiral of the Kingdom of Scotland King Robert the Bruce (1274–1329), Scotland's hero king and greatest warrior Calgacus Donald Cameron of Lochiel (c. 1700–1748), Jacobite commander during the 1745 rising Richard Cameron (c. 1648–1680), Republican Covenanter and founder of the "Cameronians" Lady Agnes Campbell (1526–1601), military leader in Ireland Colin Campbell, 1st Baron Clyde (1792–1863) Sir Colin Campbell (died 1296), warrior of Clan Campbell Sandy Campbell (1898–1940), Second Lieutenant in the Royal Engineers, 9th Bomb Disposal Company; awarded the George Cross Sir Alexander Inglis Cochrane (1758–1832), senior Royal Navy commander during the Napoleonic Wars, achieving the rank of admiral Captain Archibald Cochrane (1783–1829), Royal Navy officer Colonel Hugh Stewart Cochrane (1829–1884), recipient of the Victoria Cross for his actions during the Indian Mutiny Air Chief Marshal the Honourable Sir Ralph Alexander Cochrane (1895–1977), pilot and Royal Air Force officer Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald (1775–1860), Admiral in the Royal Navy Sir Thomas John Cochrane (1789–1872), Royal Navy First Sea Lord Ninian Cockburn (died 1579), soldier, officer of the Garde Écossaise, political intriguer Major General Samuel Cockburn (or Cobron) (c. 1574–1621), soldier in the service of Sweden General Sir James Henry Craig (1748–1812), British military officer and colonial administrator General Sir Alan Gordon Cunningham (1887–1983), British Army officer Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope (1883–1963), admiral of the World War II, brother of Alan James Currie (1756–1805), biographer of Robert Burns, early advocate of hydropathy Mark John Currie (1795–1874), explorer, founder settler of Western Australia, Admiral in the Royal Navy Field Marshal John Dalrymple, 2nd Earl of Stair (1673–1747), soldier and diplomat, commander at the Battle of Dettingen Tam Dalyell of the Binns (1615–1685), general Sir Archibald Douglas (c. 1298–1333), Regent of Scotland and leader of Scots forces at the Battle of Halidon Hill Sir James Douglas (c. 1287–1329), Warden of the Scottish Marches, military leader Air Chief Marshal Hugh Caswall Tremenheere Dowding, 1st Baron Dowding (1882–1970), Air Officer Commanding RAF Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain George Keith Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith (1746–1823), admiral active throughout the Napoleonic Wars Major-General William George Keith Elphinstone (1782–1842), British Army officer Lieutenant Francis Anthony Blair Fasson, (1913–1942), Royal Navy officer, posthumously awarded George Cross, who captured codebooks vital to breaking the Enigma cipher Sir Adam Ferguson (1771–1855), keeper of the regalia in Scotland John Forbes (1707–1759), general Captain Douglas Ford (1918–1943), Royal Scots officer, prisoner of war, awarded the George Cross Brigadier Simon Fraser, 15th Lord Lovat (1911–1995), prominent British Commando during the World War II Air Vice Marshal Sir Matthew Brown Frew (1895–1974), senior officer in the Royal Air Force and World War I flying ace Sir James Alexander Gordon (1782–1869), distinguished British officer in the Royal Navy Patrick Leopold Gordon of Auchleuchries (1635–1699), general and rear admiral in Russia James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose (1612–1650), Covenanter and Royalist leader of Highland Armies John Graham, Viscount (Bonnie) Dundee (c. 1648–1689), Jacobite Highland Army leader General Sir Thomas Graham, Lord Lynedoch (1748–1843), leading Napoleonic General Aleksey Samuilovich Greig (1775–1845), Russian admiral Samuel Greig (1736–1788), Russian admiral Douglas Haig (1861–1928), Commander of British Forces during World War I General Sir James Aylmer Lowthorpe Haldane (1862–1950), senior British Army officer Lieutenant General Sir David Henderson (1862–1921), British Army officer, authority on tactical intelligence, first commander of the Royal Flying Corps, instrumental in establishing the Royal Air Force Captain Ian Henry David Henderson (1896–1918), World War I flying ace General Henry Sinclair Horne, 1st Baron Horne (1861–1929), World War I general James Innes (c. 1700–1759), military commander and political figure in the Province of North Carolina James John McLeod Innes (1830–1907), recipient of the Victoria Cross for action during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 John Paul Jones (1747–1792), father of the American Navy Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven (1582–1661), general, soldier in Dutch, Swedish and Scottish Covenanter service David Leslie, 1st Lord Newark (c. 1600–1682), cavalry officer and general in Swedish and Scottish Covenanter service Major-General Edward Douglas Loch, 2nd Baron Loch (1873–1942), senior British Army officer Granville Gower Loch (1813–1853), captain in the Royal Navy, killed in action in Burma Henry Brougham Loch, 1st Baron Loch (1827–1900), soldier and colonial administrator Alasdair Mac Colla (c. 1610–1647), Royalist soldier Rob Roy MacGregor (1671–1734) Hugh Mackay (c. 1640–1692), general who served during the Revolution of 1688 Colin Mackenzie (c. 1754–1821), soldier in British India Alexander Slidell MacKenzie, U.S. Navy Ranald Slidell Mackenzie, U.S. Cavalryman General Sir Harry Aubrey de Vere Maclean (1848–1920), general, commander of the Moroccan Army Major-General Sir Fitzroy Maclean, 1st Baronet (1911–1996), soldier, writer and politician; reputed to be one of the men composing the compound of "Commando types" who inspired the Ian Fleming character James Bond Sam McDonald (1762–1802), "Big Sam", fencibles and gatekeeper for the Prince of Wales, noted for his unusual height Archie McKellar (1912–1940), Battle of Britain ace pilot Hugh Mercer (1726–1777), Continental Army General, fatally wounded at the Battle of Princeton Bill Millin (1922–2010), personal piper to Simon Fraser, 15th Lord Lovat Robert Monro (died c. 1680), general Richard Montgomery, Continental army Admiral Sir Graham Moore (1764–1843), career officer in the Royal Navy, brother of Sir John Moore Lieutenant-General Sir John Moore (1761–1809), General, victor of the Battle of Corunna Andrew Moray (died 1297), military leader during the Scottish Wars of Independence Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray (c. 1278–1332), fought with King Robert I and James Lord of Douglas to regain Scotland's independence Admiral Sir Charles John Napier (1786–1860), naval officer and MP Captain Ian Patrick Robert Napier (1895–1977), World War I flying ace credited with twelve aerial victories William Napier, 9th Lord Napier (1786–1834), Royal Navy officer, politician and diplomat John Pitcairn (1722–1775), Marine officer, killed at the battle of Bunker Hill John Reid (1721–1807), British general and musical composer, who left a bequest to fund a chair in Music at the University of Edinburgh Acting Sergeant John Rennie (1920–1943), posthumously awarded the George Cross Roderick Sinclair, 19th Earl of Caithness (1906–1965), British brigadier, 1st Commander of the Sri Lanka Army Sir James Shaw Kennedy (1788–1865), general and military writer John Small (died 1796), British Army officer and Lieutenant-Governor of Guernsey Dr John Small (1823–1879), British Deputy Surgeon General James Dunlop Smith (1858–1921), official in the Indian Army Somerled (died 1164), 12th-century warlord Sir David Stirling (1915–1990), British Army Colonel and founder of the Special Air Service Sir James Stirling (1791–1865), 1st Governor of Western Australia, Admiral in the Royal Navy Lord Stirling, American Revolutionary War General Prince Charles Edward Stuart (1720–1788), Jacobite Field Marshal and heir to the throne of Great Britain Sir John Urry (or Hurry) (died 1650), professional soldier William Wallace (c. 1270–1305), a.k.a. The Wallace Sir Andrew Wood of Largo (died 1515), sea captain and Lord High Admiral of Scotland Monarchs and royalty Musicians Philosophers John Abercrombie (1780–1844) John Anderson (1726–1796), philosopher, radical and benefactor of Anderson's Institution John Anderson (1893–1962) Alexander Bain (1818–1903), philosopher and educationalist Hector Boece (1465–1536), known in Latin as Boethius, first Principal of King's College in Aberdeen H. Bricmore (fl. 14th century), scholastic philosopher Thomas Brown (1778–1820) William Cleghorn (1718–1754), philosopher Adam Ferguson (1723–1816) Sir William Hamilton (1788–1888) Henry Home, Lord Kames (1696–1782) David Hume (1711–1776), inspired Immanuel Kant (himself of Scottish Heritage through his mother) Alasdair MacIntyre (born 1929) John Macmurray (1891–1976) John Mair, otherwise known as Major (1467–1550), teacher of George Buchanan, John Knox, and influencer of Calvin and Loyola William Manderstown (c. 1485–1552), philosopher and Rector of the University of Paris James McCosh (1811–1894) Thomas Reid (1710–1796), played an integral role in the Scottish Enlightenment Duns Scotus (1265–1308), teacher of William of Ockham William Small (1734–1775), Professor of Natural Philosophy at the College of William and Mary and member of the Lunar Society Adam Smith (1723–1790), economist, free trade, division of labour Dugald Stewart (1753–1828), common sense philosopher Physicians and medical professionals David Abercromby (died c.1702), physician and writer Francis Adams (1796–1861), medical doctor and translator of Greek medical works Dr John Adamson (1809–1870), physician, pioneer photographer, physicist, lecturer and museum curator James Ormiston Affleck (1840–1922), physician and medical author Margaret Forbes Alexander (living), nurse, educator, researcher and writer William Pulteney Alison (1790–1859), physician, social reformer and philanthropist John Maxwell Anderson (1928–1982), surgeon and cancer specialist Sir Thomas McCall Anderson (1836–1908), professor of practice of medicine at the University of Glasgow Archibald Arnott (1772–1855), British Army surgeon best remembered as Napoleon's last doctor on St. Helena Asher Asher (1837–1889), first Scottish Jew to enter the medical profession Matthew Baillie (1761–1823), physician and pathologist Sir Dugald Baird (1899–1986), specializing in obstetrics and fertility Sir Andrew Balfour (1873–1931), medical officer who specialised in tropical medicine Edward Balfour (1813–1889), surgeon, orientalist and pioneering environmentalist in India George William Balfour (1823–1903), physician, known as a heart specialist Thomas Graham Balfour (1813–1891), physician noted for his work in medical statistics Sir George Ballingall (1780–1855), Regius Professor of military surgery William Mitchell Banks (1842–1904), surgeon Major General William Burney Bannerman (1858–1924), military surgeon Andrew Whyte Barclay (1817–1884), physician, Lumleian Lecturer, and Harveian Orator George Steward Beatson (died 1874), surgeon-general, Honorary Physician to the Queen Colonel Sir George Thomas Beatson (1848–1933), physician, pioneer in the field of oncology William Beattie (1793–1875), physician and writer James Begbie (1798–1869), physician, president of the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh and of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh James Warburton Begbie (1826–1876), physician Benjamin Bell of Hunthill (1749–1806), considered to be the first Scottish scientific surgeon Sir Charles Bell (1774–1842), surgeon, anatomist, neurologist and philosophical theologian John Bell (1763–1820), anatomist and surgeon Sir James Whyte Black (1924–2010), physician and pharmacologist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Dame Emily Mathieson Blair (1892–1963), nurse, Matron-in-Chief of the Princess Mary's Royal Air Force Nursing Service and the British Red Cross Society Sir Gilbert Blane of Blanefield (1749–1834), physician who instituted health reform in the Royal Navy James Borthwick of Stow (1615–1675), surgeon and first teacher of anatomy James Braid (1795–1860), surgeon and "gentleman scientist", influential pioneer of hypnotism and hypnotherapy John Milne Bramwell (1852–1925), physician, surgeon and medical hypnotist William A. F. Browne (1805–1885), one of the most significant asylum doctors of the nineteenth century Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton (1844–1916), physician known for treatment of angina pectoris William Buchan (1729–1805), physician, writer on medicine for a lay readership Maura Buchanan (living), nursing administrator, former president of the Royal College of Nursing Francis Buchanan-Hamilton (1762–1829), physician who made significant contributions as a geographer, zoologist, and botanist while living in India Sir Thomas Burnet (1638–1704), physician to Charles II, James II, William and Mary, and Queen Anne Ewan Cameron (1922–1991), physician who worked with Linus Pauling on Vitamin C research Murdoch Cameron (1847–1930), Regius Professor of Midwifery at the University of Glasgow Robina Thomson Cameron (1892–1971), district nurse, community leader and nursing inspector Dugald Campbell (died 1940), doctor from the isle of Arran; government physician on Hawaii Sir James Cantlie (1851–1926), physician, pioneer of First aid John Cheyne (1777–1836), physician, and medical writer; identified Cheyne–Stokes respiration, with William Stokes Colin Chisholm (1755–1825), surgeon, medical writer and Fellow of the Royal Society Mairi Lambert Gooden-Chisholm of Chisholm (1896–1981), military nurse and ambulance driver during World War I, awarded the Military Medal Sir Robert Christison (1797–1882), toxicologist and physician Sir James Clark (1788–1870), physician who was Physician-in-Ordinary to Queen Victoria Hugh Francis Clarke Cleghorn of Stravithie (1820–1895), physician, botanist, and forester who worked in India Sir Thomas Smith Clouston (1840–1915), psychiatrist Dr Samuel Cockburn (1823–1915), advocate and practitioner of homeopathy John Coldstream (1806–1863), physician James Copland (1791–1870), physician and prolific medical writer John Craig (died 1620), physician and astronomer; physician to James VI of Scotland David Craigie (1793–1866), physician and medical writer Sir Alexander Crichton (1763–1856), physician, including the Emperor of Russia's personal physician, and author Sir James Crichton-Browne (1840–1938), leading psychiatrist and medical psychologist William Cumin (died 1854), Regius Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the University of Glasgow David Douglas Cunningham (1843–1914), doctor and researcher in India, pioneer in aerobiology Daniel John Cunningham (1850–1909), physician, zoologist, and anatomist; author of medical textbooks Sir David Deas (1807–1876), medical officer in the Royal Navy Ian Donald (1910–1987), physician, pioneer of the use of diagnostic ultrasound in medicine Sir David Dumbreck (1805–1876), British Army medical officer Andrew Duncan, the elder (1744–1828), physician, professor at Edinburgh University, pioneer of forensic medicine Andrew Duncan, the younger (1773–1832), physician, first professor of medical jurisprudence at Edinburgh University James Matthews Duncan (1826–1890), physician, practitioner of and author on obstetrics William Ronald Dodds Fairbairn (1889–1964), psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, central figure in the development of the object relations theory of psychoanalysis Sir Walter Farquhar (1738–1819), physician, whose clientele included the future King George IV and William Pitt the Younger William Fergusson (1773–1846), inspector-general of military hospitals; medical writer Charles Finnigan (1901–1967), dental surgeon, Surgeon Rear-Admiral in the Royal Navy, Honorary Dental Surgeon to the Queen James Forbes (1779–1837), inspector-general of army hospitals George Fordyce (1736–1802), physician, lecturer on medicine, and chemist Sir William Fordyce (1724–1792), physician, voted a gold medal for his work on rhubarb by the Society of Arts David Kennedy Fraser (1888–1962), psychologist, educator and amateur mathematician Margaret Neill Fraser (1880–1915), First World War nurse and notable amateur golfer, who died in Serbia John Gairdner (1790–1876), physician and president of the College of Surgeons of Edinburgh Sir William Tennant Gairdner (1824–1907), Professor of Medicine in the University of Glasgow Maxwell Garthshore (1732–1812), physician Marion Gilchrist (1864–1952), first female graduate of the University of Glasgow; first woman to qualify in medicine from a Scottish university; leading activist in Women's suffrage movement Theodore Gordon (1786–1845), inspector of army hospitals Robert Edmond Grant (1793–1874), physician and biologist James Gregory (1753–1821), physician and classicist Jane Stocks Greig (1872–1939), medical doctor and public health specialist in Australia Robert Marcus Gunn (1850–1909), ophthalmologist Daniel Rutherford Haldane (1824–1887), prominent physician, president of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh Evelina Haverfield (1867–1920), suffragette and World War I nurse in Serbia Alexander Henderson (1780–1863), physician and author David Kennedy Henderson (1884–1965), psychiatrist Sir James William Beeman Hodsdon (1858–1928) eminent surgeon, president of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh 1914–1917 Thomas Charles Hope (1766–1844), physician and chemist, discoverer of the element strontium Joseph Hume (1777–1855), physician and Radical MP John Hunter (1728–1793), surgeon, after whom the Hunterian Museum at the Royal College of Surgeons is named Sir Robert Hutchison (1871–1960), physician and paediatrician Elsie Inglis (1864–1917), medical reformer and suffragette John Scott Inkster, (1924-2011) anesthesiologist Robert Jackson (1750–1827), physician-surgeon, reformer, and inspector-general of army hospitals Louisa Jordan (1878–1915), nurse who died in Serbia during the First World War; NHS Louisa Jordan Hospital was named after her James Keill (1673–1719), physician, philosopher, medical writer and translator John Martin Munro Kerr (1868–1960), Regius Professor of Midwifery at the University of Glasgow R. D. Laing (1927–1989), psychiatrist and author Thomas Latta (1796–1833), pioneer of the saline solution method of treatment John Lauder (1683–1737), surgeon, deacon of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh Robert Lee (1793–1877), obstetrician, and personal physician to Prince Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov, Governor-General of the Crimea Lieutenant-General Sir William Boog Leishman (1865–1926), pathologist and army medical officer Sir John Liddell (1794–1868), Director-General of the Medical Department of the Royal Navy; senior medical officer of the Royal Hospital at Greenwich James Lind (1716–1794), physician, pioneer of naval hygiene in the Royal Navy Sir Henry Duncan Littlejohn (1826–1914), surgeon, forensic scientist and public health pioneer Robert Lumsden (1903–1973), ear, nose and throat (ENT) surgeon Sir William Macewen (1848–1924), surgeon, pioneer in modern brain surgery Jessie MacLaren MacGregor (1863–1906), one of the first women to be awarded an MD from the University of Edinburgh William Mackenzie (1791–1868), ophthalmologist, who wrote one of the first British textbooks of ophthalmology Sir William Alexander Mackinnon (1830–1897), Director-General of the British Army Medical Service Thomas John MacLagan (1838–1903), Dundee doctor and pharmacologist Patrick Manson (1844–1922), physician who made important discoveries in parasitology, founder of the field of tropical medicine Mary Adamson Anderson Marshall (1837–1910), physician, one of the members of the Edinburgh Seven, the first women to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh Douglas Mary McKain (1789–1873), New Zealand nurse, midwife and businesswoman Agnes McLaren (1837–1913), doctor, first to give medical assistance to women in India Gavin Milroy (1805–1886), physician and medical writer Alexander Monteith of Auldcathie (1660–1713), surgeon, deacon of the Incorporation of Surgeons of Edinburgh Neil Gordon Munro (1863–1942), physician and anthropologist, who studied the Ainu people Flora Murray (1869–1923), medical pioneer, and a member of the Women's Social and Political Union suffragettes Sir Robin MacGregor Murray (born 1944), psychiatrist and Professor of Psychiatric Research Duncan Napier, Victorian botanist and medical herbalist Sir Alexander Nisbet (1795–1874), naval surgeon, H.M. Inspector of Hospitals for the Royal Navy William Nisbet (1759–1822), physician, author of widely used medical books that emphasized practice Sir Alexander Ogston (1844–1929), surgeon, famous for his discovery of Staphylococcus Alexander Pennycuik (1605–1695), military surgeon, Surgeon General of the Scots forces in Ireland David Pitcairn (1749–1809), physician Archibald Pitcairne (1652–1713), physician and author Richard Poole (1783–1871), physician, psychiatrist, and phrenologist George Hogarth Pringle (1830–1872), surgeon, pioneer of antiseptic surgery in Australia John James Pringle (1855–1922), dermatologist Laidlaw Purves (1842–1917), aural and ophthalmic surgeon John Rattray (1707–1771), surgeon, surgeon to Prince Charles Edward Stuart and golfer David Boswell Reid (1805–1863), physician, chemist and inventor Agnes Reston (1771–1856), wartime nurse during the Peninsular War, known as the Heroine of Matagorda, for her outstanding bravery John Roberton (1776–1840), physician and social reformer John Roberton (1797–1876), physician and social reformer Thomas Ferguson Rodger (1907–1978), physician, Royal Army Medical Corps brigadier, and Professor of Psychological Medicine Elizabeth Ness MacBean Ross (1878–1915), physician who worked in Persia, and died in Serbia Catherine Murray Roy, military nurse during World War I, awarded the Military Medal for conspicuous gallantry John Rutherford (1695–1779), physician and professor at the University of Edinburgh Medical School; grandfather of Sir Walter Scott Helenus Scott (1760–1821), physician, active in India Lyall Stuart Scott (1920–1977), surgeon and urologist Thomas Shortt (1788–1843), army physician, who drafted Napoleon's official autopsy report James Young Simpson (1811–1870), introduced chloroform into surgery David Skae (1814–1873), physician who specialised in psychological medicine Alexander Small (1710–1794), surgeon and scholar John Smith (1825–1910), dentist, philanthropist and pioneering educator, founder of the Edinburgh school of dentistry James Carmichael Smyth (1741–1821), physician and medical writer William Somerville (1771–1860), physician, inspector of the Army Medical Board, husband of Mary Somerville James Syme (1799–1870), pioneering surgeon Michael Waistell Taylor (1824–1892), physician and antiquary Thomas Stewart Traill (1781–1862), physician, chemist, mineralogist, meteorologist, zoologist and scholar of medical jurisprudence Gordon Turnbull, psychiatrist and author Andrew Ure (1778–1857), physician, scholar and chemist Charles Howard Usher (1865–1942), ophthalmologist James Wardrop (1782–1869), surgeon and ophthalmologist Robert Watt (1774–1819), physician and bibliographer Alexander Allan Innes Wedderburn (9 May 1935–23 February 2017), psychologist and Emeritus Professor of Psychology at the Heriot-Watt University. Sir David Wilkie (1882–1938), surgeon, pioneer of surgical research and undergraduate teaching Robert Willis (1799–1878), physician, librarian, and medical historian James Wilson (1765–1821), anatomist Professor Nairn Hutchison Fulton Wilson (born 1950), Honorary Professor of Dentistry, former Dean and Head of King's College London Dental Institute Alexander Wood (1725–1807), surgeon, and friend of the poet Robert Burns Alexander Wood (1817–1884), physician, inventor of the first true hypodermic syringe John McLeod (surgeon) (c. 1777 – 1820), naval surgeon and travel writer Rulers and politicians Sir William Arbuthnot, 1st Baronet (1766–1829), Lord Provost of Edinburgh and Lord Lieutenant of the City of Edinburgh James Abercromby, 1st Baron Dunfermline (1776–1858), barrister and Speaker of the House of Commons between 1835 and 1839 Sir Andrew Agnew, 7th Baronet (1793–1849), politician and prominent promoter of Sunday Sabbatarianism James Alexander (1691–1756), attorney general of New Jersey John Baird (1790–1820), revolutionary Robert Barton of Over Barnton (died 1540), merchant, sailor and politician; as Comptroller, Master of the Mint and Lord High Treasurer Cardinal David Beaton (c. 1494–1546) Dr. James Beaton (1473–1539), church leader, and the Keeper of the Great Seal of Scotland Sir Robert Duncan Bell (1878–1953), colonial administrator in India; Acting Governor of Bombay in 1937 Tony Blair (born 1953), Labour Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1997–2007) Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux (1778–1868), statesman, one of the founders of the Edinburgh Review, Lord Chancellor Gordon Brown (born 1951), Labour Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (2007–2010) James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce, (1838–1922), academic, jurist, historian and Liberal politician Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1836–1908), statesman, Liberal Party politician and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1905–1908) Alexander Chalmers (Polish: Aleksander Czamer) (1645–1703), four time mayor of Warsaw Charles I of Scotland and of England (1625–1649) Sir Hugh Cleghorn (1752–1837), first colonial secretary to Ceylon Adam Cockburn, Laird of Ormiston, Lord Ormiston (1656–1735), administrator, politician and judge Sir Alexander Cockburn, 12th Baronet (1802–1880), lawyer, politician and judge, Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales Archibald Cockburn (c. 1738–1820), politician John Cockburn of Ormiston (died 1583), early supporter of the Scottish Reformation John Cockburn of Ormiston (died 1758), politician, known as the father of Scottish husbandry Sir Richard Cockburn of Clerkington (died 1627), senior government official, Keeper of the Privy Seal of Scotland James Connolly (1868–1916), Irish socialist leader, executed by firing squad following the Easter Rising John Crawfurd (1783–1868), colonial administrator, diplomat, physician and author Dubacan of Angus (fl 10th century), first named [[mormaer], Mormaer of Angus Robert Bontine Cunninghame Graham ("Don Roberto") (1852–1936), first socialist Member of Parliament (MP) Sir Frederick Currie, 1st Baronet (1799–1875) James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount of Stair (1619–1695), lawyer and statesman John Dalrymple, 1st Earl of Stair, Secretary of State over Scotland, implicated in the Massacre of Glencoe Tam Dalyell (born 1932), British Labour politician Ian Davidson (born 1950), Labour Co-operative politician Ruth Davidson (born 1978), leader of the Scottish Conservative Party since 2011 Donald Dewar (1937–2000), former First Minister of Scotland Robert Dinwiddie (1693–1770), Lieutenant-Governor of Virginia 1751–1758 James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton (1525–1581), Regent of Scotland Alec Douglas-Home (1903–1995), Conservative Prime minister of the United Kingdom Iain Duncan Smith (born 1954), leader of the Conservative party Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville (1742–1811), advocate and Tory politician Mountstuart Elphinstone (1779–1859), statesman and historian, associated with the government of British India William Elphinstone (1431–1514), statesman, Bishop of Aberdeen and founder of the University of Aberdeen Alex Fergusson (1949–2018), third Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun (1653–1716) Archibald Fletcher (1746–1828), political reformer Liam Fox (born 1961), Conservative politician George Galloway (born 1954), Respect Party Annabel Goldie (born 1950), former leader of the Scottish Conservative Party Charles Grant, 1st Baron Glenelg (1778–1866), politician and colonial administrator Sir Robert Grant (1779–1838), lawyer and politician Iain Gray (born 1957), Scottish Labour Party politician Jo Grimond (1913–1993), Liberal Party leader from 1956 to 1967 James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran (1516–1575), Regent of Scotland Andrew Hardie (died 1820), revolutionary Keir Hardie (1856–1915) Patrick Harvie (born 1973), co-convenor of the Scottish Greens since 2003 Alexander Henderson (c. 1583–1646), theologian, ecclesiastical statesman and co-author of the National Covenant David B. Henderson (1840–1906), politician and Speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 1899 to 1903 Hugh Henry (born 1952), Scottish Labour politician Francis Horner (1778–1817), Whig politician, journalist, lawyer and political economist King James IV (1473–1513) James VI of Scotland and I of England (1603–1625) Archibald Johnston, Lord Warriston (1611–1663), judge, statesman and co-author of the National Covenant James Johnston (1655–1737), envoy extraordinary to Prussia, Secretary of State over Scotland, and Lord Clerk Register Charles Kennedy (1959–2015), leader of the Liberal Democrats 1999–2006 Sir William Kirkcaldy of Grange (c. 1520–1573), politician and soldier, who held Edinburgh Castle on behalf of Mary, Queen of Scots Johann Lamont (born 1957), leader of the Scottish Labour Party since 2011 John Loughton (born 1987), political campaigner and winner of reality show Big Brother: Celebrity Hijack in 2008 Sir John Lyon, Thane of Glamis (c1340–1382), Chamberlain of Scotland between 1377 and 1382 Arthur MacArthur, Sr. Governor of Wisconsin and grandfather of Gen. Douglas MacArthur Macbeth of Scotland (c. 1005–1057), High King of Scotland John MacCormick (1904–1961), nationalist John A. Macdonald (1815–1891), first Prime Minister of Canada Malcolm MacDonald (1901–1981) Ramsay MacDonald (1866–1937), Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Ken Macintosh (born 1962), fifth Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament Alexander Mackenzie (1822–1892), second Prime Minister of Canada John P Mackintosh (1929–1978), Labour MP, Politics Professor at Edinburgh University and proponent of devolution John MacLean (1879–1923), revolutionary Máel Coluim, Earl of Angus (fl 13th century), mormaer of Angus c.1214-1240; last of the male line with that title Tricia Marwick (born 1953), fourth Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament Mary, Queen of Scots (1542–1587) Jimmy Maxton (1885–1946), leader of the Independent Labour Party Jack McConnell (born 1960), First Minister of Scotland (2001–2007) Christina McKelvie (born 1968), Scottish National Party William McKinley, US President Henry McLeish (born 1948), former First Minister Duncan McNeill, 1st Baron Colonsay (1793–1874), advocate, judge and Tory politician George Mealmaker (1768–1808), radical organiser and writer Thomas Muir (1765–1799), political reformer John Murdoch (1818–1903), land reform campaigner, newspaper owner and editor Jim Murphy (born 1967), Labour Party Robert Dale Owen (1801–1877), American social reformer and politician Jerry Rawlings (born 1947), former president of Ghana; partly of Scottish descent George Reid (born 1939), second Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament 2003–2007 Jimmy Reid (1932–2010), trade union activist, orator, politician, and journalist Willie Rennie (born 1967), leader of the Scottish Liberal Democrats since 2011 Alex Salmond (born 1954), former First Minister of Scotland (2007–14) and former leader of the Scottish National Party Sir John Scot, Lord Scotstarvit (1585–1670), laird, advocate, judge, politician and author Tavish Scott (born 1956), former leader of the Scottish Liberal Democrats Tommy Sheridan (born 1964), Solidarity Jim Sillars (born 1937), founder of Scottish Labour Party, MP Archibald Sinclair, 1st Viscount Thurso (1890–1970), Liberal Party leader from 1935 to 1945 William Skirving (c. 1745–1796), radical John Smith (1938–1994), Labour Party leader David Steel (born 1938), Liberal Party leader from 1976 to 1988, first Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament Nicol Stephen (born 1960), former leader of the Scottish Liberal Democrats Nicola Sturgeon (born 1970), First Minister of Scotland (since 2014) and Leader of the Scottish National Party John Swinney (born 1964), Scottish National Party (SNP) politician Alexander Wedderburn, 1st Earl of Rosslyn (1733–1805), Lord Chancellor of Great Britain from 1793 to 1801 Sir William Wedderburn, 4th Baronet (1838–1918), civil servant in India and politician Elizabeth (Eliza) Wigham (1820–1899), leading suffragist and abolitionist Jane Wigham (née Smeal) (1801–1888), leading Scottish abolitionist James Wilson (1760–1820), revolutionary James Wilson (1742–1798), one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, signatory of the United States Declaration of Independence Robert Crichton Wyllie (1798–1865), physician and businessman, Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Kingdom of Hawaii Scientists Sportspeople Gary Anderson (born 1970), professional darts player Robert Archibald (1980–2020), first Scottish NBA player John Baird (1870–1905), footballer Imogen Bankier (born 1987), badminton player, winner of the national championships Alain Baxter (born 1973), alpine skier Jim Baxter (1939–2001), footballer Andy Beattie (1913–1983), professional football player and manager, the first manager of the Scottish national team Eric Brown (1925–1986), professional golfer Hamish Brown (born 1934), first person to walk all the Munros in a single trip Kathryn Bryce (born 1997), cricketer in Scotland women's national cricket team, first Scots cricketer in the top ten of the ICC Women's Player Rankings Sarah Bryce (born 2000), cricketer in Scotland women's national cricket team Ken Buchanan (born 1945), world champion boxer Euan Burton (born 1979), judo expert, who represented Great Britain at the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics in the Half-Middleweight (under 81 kg) Judo event Sir Matt Busby (1909–1994), former football manager, won the European Cup in 1968 John Bute (also known as Johnny Dumfries) (1958-2021), peer and racing driver, winner of the 1988 24 Hours of Le Mans Willie Carson (born 1942), jockey Jim Clark (1936–1968), Formula One driver John Cochrane (1798–1878), chess player Steph Cook (born 1972), modern pentathlete, Olympic gold medallist Gillian Cooke (born 1982), athlete and bobsledder Davie Cooper (1956–1995), footballer Kay Copland, sport shooter David Coulthard (born 1971), Formula One driver Stevie Crawford, professional football player and coach of Dunfermline Athletic F.C. Kenny Dalglish (born 1951), retired footballer and former manager of Liverpool F.C. George Fairbairn, professional rugby league footballer and Scotland coach Crawford Fairbrother (1936–1986), Olympic high jumper Sir Alex Ferguson (born 1941), retired footballer and former manager of Manchester United F.C. Darren Fletcher (born 1984), international footballer Ron Flockhart (1923–1962), racing driver, twice winner of the 24 Hours of Le Mans David Florence (born 1982), slalom canoeist Dario Franchitti (born 1973), Indy car driver Marino Franchitti (born 1978), American Le Mans driver Steve Frew (born 1973), gymnast, gold medallist in Commonwealth games 2002 Bernard Gallacher (born 1949), professional golfer Drew Galloway (born 1985), professional wrestler Richie Gray (born 1989), rugby player Jack Grimmer (born 1994), footballer Wyndham Halswelle (1882–1915), Olympic champion runner Dougal Haston (1940–1977), mountaineer Joe Hendry (1886–1966), footballer Stephen Hendry (born 1969), professional snooker player, 7 time world champion John Higgins (born 1975), professional snooker player, three-time world champion Chris Hoy (born 1976), world, Olympic and Commonwealth champion track cyclist Gerry Hughes (born 1958), sailor, first single-handed Atlantic crossing by a deaf person Gary Jacobs, Scottish, British, Commonwealth, and European (EBU) welterweight champion boxer Jimmy Johnstone (1944–2006), football player George Kerr (born 1937), judo expert, winner of the 1957 gold medal in the European Judo Championships John Kerr (born 1980), ice dancer Sinead Kerr (born 1978), ice dancer Dominic Kinnear (born 1967), former soccer player, now the head coach of Houston Dynamo in Major League Soccer Billy Kirkwood (born 1958), football player Martin Laird (born 1982), golfer Denis Law (born 1940), football player Paul Lawrie (born 1969), golfer, winner 1999 Open Championship Andrew Lemoncello (born 1982), long-distance runner Eric Liddell (1902–1945), athlete, one of the two subjects of Chariots of Fire Patricia Littlechild (born 1965), sport shooter Jackie Lockhart (born 1965), curler, skip of Scotland team which won the 2002 world championships Sandy Lyle (born 1958), golfer, winner of 1985 Open Championship and 1988 Masters Tournament Benny Lynch (1913–1946), world champion boxer Hamish MacInnes (born 1930), mountaineer Craig MacLean (born 1971), world, Olympic and Commonwealth champion track cyclist Shona Marshall, sport shooter Rhona Martin (born 1966), curler, Olympic gold medallist Catriona Matthew (born 1969), golfer Ally McCoist (born 1962), football player Liz McColgan (born 1964), athlete James McFadden (born 1983), footballer William McGregor (1846–1911), founder of the Football League in England Neil McMenemy, triple jumper Jackie McNamara (born 1973), footballer and manager Billy McNeill (born 1940), footballer and a manager of Celtic F.C. Allan McNish (born 1969), racing driver Colin McRae (1968–2007), world champion rally driver Dick McTaggart (born 1935), boxer Micky Mellon (born 1972), ex-footballer, football manager David Millar (born 1977), road cyclist Robert Millar (born 1958), professional cyclist, "King of the Mountains" in 1984 Tour de France Willie Miller (born 1955), international footballer and captain of Aberdeen when they won the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1983 Colin Montgomerie (born 1963), golfer, winner of European Tour Order of Merit a record 8 times Janice Moodie (born 1973), golfer Hugh Munro (1856–1919), mountaineer, known for his list of mountains Bernard Murphy (born 18??), footballer Andy Murray (born 1987), tennis player, singles, Wimbledon winner 2013, 2016 gentleman's singles, 2012 Olympic Champion, men's singles, US Open champion 2012, men's singles. Jamie Murray (born 1986), tennis player, doubles, Wimbledon winner 2007 mixed doubles Steve Nicol (born 1961), footballer, most notably of Liverpool F.C. Peter Niven (born 19??), jockey Graeme Obree (born 1965), world record holding cyclist Stewart Pitt (born 1968), slalom canoeist Graeme Randall (born 1975), judo expert, World Judo Championships gold medallist Shirley Robertson (born 1968), sailor and Olympic gold medallist Bill Shankly (1913–1981), one of Liverpool F.C.'s most successful managers Graeme Souness (born 1953), football player and manager Ian Stark (born 1954), equestrian Jock Stein (1922–1985), football manager, won the European Cup with Celtic F.C. Sir Jackie Stewart (born 1939), world champion Formula One driver Frederick Guthrie Tait (1870–1900), amateur golfer and soldier Bobby Thomson (1923–2010), Scots-born American baseball player Sam Torrance (born 1953), golfer Lawrence Tynes (born 1978), Scots-born kicker for the New York Giants and Kansas City Chiefs Steven Vidler (born 1977), middleweight judo expert, Commonwealth games bronze medallist Andrew Watson (born 1857), world's first black international football player, captain and administrator Jim Watt (born 1948), world champion boxer, won the WBC World Lightweight title Harry Weld-Forester (born 1981), cricketer David Wilkie (born 1954), swimmer Jocky Wilson (1950–2012), world professional darts champion in 1982 and 1989 Mike Zagorski (born 1979), cyclist Television and radio personalities Kaye Adams (born 1962) Ronni Ancona (born 1968) Dougie Anderson (born 1976) Fiona Armstrong (born 1956) Jackie Bird (born 1962) Edith Bowman (born 1975) Frankie Boyle (born 1972), comedian Gordon Buchanan (born 1972), wildlife filmmaker Bryan Burnett, television and radio presenter Nicky Campbell (born 1962) Kelly Cates (born 1975) Kate Copstick Stuart Cosgrove (born 1952) Tam Cowan (born 1969) Cat Cubie (born 1981) Romana D'Annunzio (born 1972) Jim Delahunt Dominik Diamond (born 1969) Jack Docherty (born 1962) John Dunn (1934–2004), radio presenter Kieron Elliot Jenni Falconer (born 1976) Craig Ferguson (born 1962) Tommy Flanagan (born 1965) Sandy Gall (born 1927) Kirsty Gallacher (born 1976) George Galloway (born 1954) Graeme Garden (born 1943) Muriel Gray (born 1959), journalist Amanda Hamilton (born 1974) Sarah Heaney (born 1971) Stuart Henry (1942–1995), disc jockey Mikey Hughes (born 1974) Hazel Irvine (born 1965) Stephen Jardine (born 1963) Alan Johnston (born 1962), journalist Nicci Jolly (born 1981) Lorraine Kelly (born 1959) Fiona Kennedy Ross King (born 1961) John Leslie (born 1965) Viv Lumsden (born 1952) Fred MacAulay (born 1956) Cathy MacDonald Phil MacHugh (born 1985) Sarah Mack (born 1973) John MacKay Aggie MacKenzie (born 1955) Sally Magnusson (born 1955) Eddie Mair (born 1965) Andrew Marr (born 1959) Colin McAllister (born 1968) Ian McCaskill (1938–2016) Scottie McClue (born 1956) Sheena McDonald (born 1954) Gail McGrane (born 1975) Paul McGuire Gillian McKeith (born 1959) Andrea McLean (born 1969) Rhona McLeod Michelle McManus (born 1980) Cameron McNeish Aasmah Mir (born 1971) Paul Mitchell (born 1968) Arthur Montford (1929–2014) Nick Nairn (born 1959), celebrity chef Shereen Nanjiani (born 1961) Neil Oliver (born 1967) Dawn Porter (born 1979) Gail Porter (born 1971) Angus Purden (born 1974) Judith Ralston Gordon Ramsay (born 1966), celebrity chef Heather Reid (born 1969) Fyfe Robertson (1902–1987) Tom Russell (born 1948) Justin Ryan (born 1967) Isla St Clair (born 1952) Catriona Shearer (born 1981) Angus Simpson Carol Smillie (born 1961) Sarah Smith (born 1968) Iain Stirling (born 1988) Grant Stott Cameron Stout (born 1971) Heather Suttie Brian Taylor (born 1955) Bill Torrance (born 1946) Alison Walker (born 1963) Kirsty Wark (born 1955), journalist Tom Weir (1914–2006) Jim White Kirsty Young (born 1968) Theologians, pastors and missionaries David Laird Adams (1837–1892), minister and academic, professor of Hebrew and oriental languages at the University of Edinburgh. Patrick Adamson, 16th-century Archbishop of St Andrews Reverend William Menzies Alexander (1858–1929), medical and theological writer, Professor of Divinity Tom Allan (died 1965), minister and evangelist, pioneer of practical church outreach in social work, primarily in the city of Glasgow Charles Arbuthnot (1737–1820), Scottish abbot of the Scots Monastery, Regensburg George Husband Baird (1761–1840), minister, educational reformer, linguist and Principal of the University of Edinburgh Donald Macpherson Baillie (1887–1954), theologian, ecumenist, and parish minister John Baillie (1886–1960), theologian and Church of Scotland minister James Bannerman, (1807–1868), Free Church of Scotland theologian William Barclay (1907–1978), author, Church of Scotland minister, Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism at the University of Glasgow James Barr (1924–2006) John Blackadder (c. 1622–1685), eminent Presbyterian Covenanter preacher Robert Blackadder (died 1508), first archbishop of Glasgow Hugh Blair (1718–1800), minister of religion, author and rhetorician James Blair (1656–1743), Church of England clergyman, missionary and founder of the College of William & Mary, in Williamsburg, Virginia Robert Blair (1837–1907), Church of Scotland minister David Bogue (1750–1825), nonconformist leader, and missionary to Penang Thomas Boston (1676–1732), pastor and theologian Claudius Buchanan (1766–1815), theologian, minister of the Church of England, and missionary to India William Chalmers Burns (1815–1868), revival preacher, missionary to China Richard Cameron (c. 1648–1680), a leader of the Covenanters Andrew Cant (1590–1663), Presbyterian minister and leader of the Covenanters Very Rev Alexander Carlyle (1722–1805), church leader, and autobiographer James Chalmers (1841–1901), missionary, active in New Guinea Dugald Christie (1855–1936), medical missionary in Mukden, China William Robinson Clark (1829–1912), Dean of Taunton and later professor in Toronto Thomas Richardson Colledge (1796–1879), medical missionary in China, founder and first president of the Medical Missionary Society of China Daniel "Dan" Crawford (1870–1926), known as 'Konga Vantu', missionary of the Plymouth Brethren in central-southern Africa William Cunningham (1805–1861), leading Free Church pastor and professor David Dickson (c. 1583–1663), theologian and Covenanter David Dickson (1780–1842), minister and writer John Dudgeon (1837–1901), doctor, surgeon, translator, and medical missionary Rev Alexander Duff (1806–1878), first overseas missionary of the Church of Scotland to India Ebenezer Erskine (1680–1754), minister whose actions led to the establishment of the Secession Church Ralph Erskine (1685–1752), preacher and poet Andrew Martin Fairbairn (1838–1912), theological scholar, principal of Mansfield College, Oxford Patrick Fairbairn (1805–1874), minister and theologian Henry Faulds (1843–1930), missionary to Japan, physician, and scientist noted for the development of fingerprinting Alexander Penrose Forbes (1817–1875) George Hay Forbes (1821–1875), priest of the Scottish Episcopal Church, founder of the Pitsligo Press John Forbes (1571–1606), Capuchin friar, known as Father Archangel Peter Taylor Forsyth (1848–1921), theologian, principal of Hackney College, London James Frazer (1854–1941), anthropologist of comparative religion and myth Alexander Geddes (1737–1802), theologian and scholar Alexander Gerard (1728–1795), minister, academic and philosophical writer John George Govan (1861–1927), founder of the Faith Mission Patrick Graham, (d 1478), first Archbishop of St Andrews Daniel Gunn (1774–1848), Scottish congregational minister, latterly in Christchurch, Hampshire Thomas Guthrie (1803–1873), divine and philanthropist William Guthrie (1620–1665), author of "The Christian's Great Interest" James Alexander Haldane (1768–1851), independent church leader Robert Haldane (1764–1842), missionary preacher and lecturer; wrote a commentary on Romans Patrick Hamilton (1504–1528), first Protestant martyr in Scotland, burnt at the stake in 1528 William Hastie (1842–1903), clergyman, theologian and translator of the Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven by Immanuel Kant Alexander Henderson (1583–1646) James Hog (c. 1658–1734), minister at Carnock, known for his role in the Marrow controversy within the Church of Scotland Richard Holloway (born 1933) William Irvine (1863–1947), evangelist and founder of the Cooneyite and Two by Two sects Robert Reid Kalley (1809–1888), physician and Presbyterian missionary notable for work in Portuguese-speaking territories Dr John Kennedy (1819–1884), Highland preacher, author of Days of the Fathers in Ross-shire John Knox (c. 1513–1572), leader of the Scottish Reformation Thomas Leishman (1825–1904), minister and liturgical scholar David Lindsay, 1st Duke of Montrose (1440–1495), first Scottish non-royal duke, Lord High Admiral of Scotland, Master of the Royal Household of Scotland, Great Chamberlain and Justiciar David Livingstone (1813–1873), missionary and explorer in Africa Alexander Mackay (1849–1890), Presbyterian missionary to Uganda Hugh Martin (1821–1885), pastor and writer Matilda, Countess of Angus, (fl 13th century), heiress of Maol Choluim, countess in her own right Robert Murray M'Cheyne (1813–1843), minister of the Gospel, missionary to the Jewish people Thomas M'Crie the Elder (1772–1835), pastor and historian (wrote the 'Life of John Knox') William Milligan (1821–1892), theologian, professor at the University of Aberdeen Robert Moffat (1795–1883), missionary to Africa Saint Mungo (also known as Saint Kentigern) (died 614) John Murray (1898–1975), Calvinist theologian and Presbyterian minister George Newlands John Paton (1824–1907), Protestant missionary to the New Hebrides Islands of the South Pacific Alexander Peden (1626–1686), leading figures in the Covenanter movement William Pettigrew (1869–1943), missionary to the Tangkhul Naga Dr John Philip (1775–1851), missionary in South Africa Robert Pont (or Kylpont) (1524–1606), reformer, lord of session, minister in Edinburgh and St. Andrews The Revd Professor Norman Walker Porteous (1898–2003), translator of the Bible Andrew Purves (born 1946), theologian James Renwick (1662–1688), covenanter and martyr Samuel Rutherford (c. 1600–1661), Presbyterian pastor, theologian and author, one of the Scottish Commissioners to the Westminster Assembly John Duns Scotus (c. 1266–1308) James Sharp (1613–1679), assassinated Archbishop of St Andrews John Simson (c. 1668–1740), New Licht theologian, involved in a long investigation for heresy Mary Slessor (1848–1915), missionary and advocate for women's rights George Washington Sprott (1829–1909), minister and liturgical scholar George Thomson (1819–1878), missionary and botanist in Cameroon Thomas Torrance (1871–1959), missionary to China Thomas F. Torrance (1913–2007), theologian James Wedderburn (1585–1639), bishop of Dunblane, grandson of the poet James Wedderburn John Welsh of Ayr (1568–1622), pastor exiled for faithful preaching; son-in-law to John Knox John Willock (c. 1515–1585), Protestant reformer George Wishart (1513–1546), Protestant reformer and martyr Writers Other notable people John Adair (c. 1655–1722), surveyor and cartographer Dr Hely Hutchinson Almond (1832–1903), educator and rugby union promoter Jane Arthur (1827–1907), feminist and activist Col. David Barclay (1610–1686), 1st Laird of Urie, a convert to Quakerism Robert Barclay (1648–1690), Quaker, governor of the East Jersey colony Andrew Bell (1753–1832), developer of the Madras system of education Harry Benson (born 1929), celebrity and pop culture photographer John Boyd (1925–2018), milliner based in London James Braidwood (1800–1861), founder of the world's first municipal fire service in Edinburgh in 1824, and first director of the London Fire Engine Establishment Thomas Braidwood (1715–1806), teacher of the deaf John Brown (1826–1883), servant of Queen Victoria John Brown (1627–1685), Covenanter martyr Kenn Burke, ballet dancer John Cairncross (1913–1995), intelligence officer and spy during World War II, alleged to be the fifth member of the Cambridge Five Charles Cameron (1927–2001), magician, godfather of bizarre magic Ajahn Candasiri (born 1947), Theravāda Buddhist nun who co-founded Chithurst Buddhist Monastery Michael Caton-Jones (born 1957), film director William Chambers (born 1979), award-winning hat designer Walter Chepman (fl. c. 1500), merchant, notary and civil servant; in partnership with Androw Myllar in Scotland's first printing press Mary Crudelius (née Maclean, 1839–1877), campaigner for women's education, and a supporter of women's suffrage Alexander Cruden (1699–1770), compiler of an early concordance to the Bible Lord Curriehill (1549–1617), prosecutor, ambassador, and judge Alexander Dalrymple (1737–1808), geographer and the first Hydrographer of the British Admiralty James Dawson (1806–1900), prominent champion of Australian Aborigines' interests Dervorguilla of Galloway (c. 1210–1290), a 'lady of substance' in 13th-century Scotland, mother of king John I of Scotland, and founder of Sweetheart Abbey Alexander Donaldson (1727–1794), appellant in the copyright case, Donaldson v Beckett; founder/publisher of the Edinburgh Advertiser James Donaldson (1751–1830), publisher of the Edinburgh Advertiser; founder of Donaldson's Hospital Bill Douglas (1934–1991), film director The Rev. John Archibald Dunbar-Dunbar (1849–1905), philatelist, one of the "Fathers of Philately" Helen Duncan (1897–1956), last woman to be tried under the Witchcraft Act William Dunlop (c. 1654–1700), Covenanter, adventurer, and Principal of the University of Glasgow John Fairbairn (1794–1864), newspaper proprietor, educator, financier and politician of the Cape Colony Sir David Ferrier (1843–1928), pioneering neurologist and psychologist Donald Findlay (born 1951) John Finlaison (1783–1860), first president of the Institute of Actuaries Alexander Kinloch Forbes (1821–1865), scholar of the Gujarati language William Forsyth (1737–1804), horticulturist, founding member of the Royal Horticultural Society, after whom the genus Forsythia is named Lord Fountainhall (1646–1722), one of Scotland's leading jurists Alexander Yule Fraser (1857–1890), mathematician, one of the founders of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society Jenny Geddes (c. 1600–c. 1660), market trader, threw a stool at the Dean of Edinburgh in protest against the new prayer book Patrick Geddes (1854–1932), biologist, sociologist, geographer, philanthropist and pioneering town planner Sir Andrew Gilchrist (1910–1993), diplomat Ewen Gillies (born 1825), serial emigrant and adventurer from St. Kilda, Scotland Anna Gordon or Brown (1747–1810), ballad collector Robert Gordon of Straloch (1580–1661), cartographer, poet, mathematician, antiquary, and geographer Janet Gourlay (1863–1912) Egyptologist, born in Glasgow Patrick Grant (born 1972), fashion designer Angelica Gray (born 1990), model Alasdair George Hay (born 1961), first and current Chief Fire Officer of the Scottish Fire and Rescue Service Robert Hay (1799–1863), traveller, antiquarian, and Egyptologist Margaret Henderson (1921–2007), Scottish dancer Amanda Hendrick (born 1990), model William Vallance Douglas Hodge (1903–1975), mathematician, geometer Isobel Hoppar (born c. 1490), landowner, governess and political figure John Horrocks (1816–1881), founder and innovator of modern European fly fishing Kirsty Hume (born 1976), model Sir John Ritchie Inch (1911–1993), police officer, Chief Constable of Edinburgh City Police David Jones (born 1966), games programmer and entrepreneur, known for creating the Grand Theft Auto video game franchise Princess Kaiulani Cleghorn of Hawaii (1876–1899), daughter of Archibald Cleghorn and Princess Miriam Likelike (sister of Queen Lili'iuokalani) Christopher Kane (born 1982), fashion designer James Kennedy (1930–1973), security guard for British Rail Engineering Limited, posthumously awarded the George Cross Simon Somerville Laurie (1829–1909), educator Mikhail Lermontov, 19th-century Russian author of Scottish origin Hercules Linton (1837–1900), surveyor, designer, shipbuilder, antiquarian and local councillor, designer of the Cutty Sark James Loch (1780–1855), economist, advocate, barrister, estate commissioner Sir Robert Hamilton Bruce Lockhart (1887–1970), diplomat, journalist and secret agent Mary Lyon (1797–1849), first woman principal in America Flora Macaulay (1859–1958), editor of The Oban Times newspaper Flora MacDonald (1722–1790), Jacobite and United Empire Loyalist Gillies MacKinnon, film director, writer and painter Iain Macmillan (1938–2006), photographer, took the photograph for The Beatles' album Abbey Road Jamie Macpherson (1675–1700), outlaw and author of MacPherson's Lament or Rant Dame Sarah Elizabeth Siddons Mair (1846–1941), campaigner for women's education and women's suffrage Gary McKinnon (born 1966), computer hacker Lorna McNee, chef Robert McQueen, Lord Braxfield (1722–1799), advocate and judge James Murdoch (1856–1921), journalist and teacher William McMaster Murdoch (1873–1912), First Officer aboard the RMS Titanic Keith Murray, Baron Murray of Newhaven (1903–1993), academic and Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford Androw Myllar (fl.1503–1508), first Scottish printer, in partnership with Walter Chepman Eunice Olumide (born 1987), model James Orrock (1829–1913), collector of art and Oriental ceramics Robert Paterson (1715–1801), stonemason, who suggested to Sir Walter Scott the character of "Old Mortality" Duncan Phyfe (1770–1854), United States most celebrated cabinetmaker Natalie Pike (born 1983), model James Pillans (1778–1864), classical scholar and educational reformer Allan Pinkerton (1819–1884), North American detective Timothy Pont (c. 1565–1614), cartographer and topographer, the first to produce a detailed map of Scotland John Charles Walsham Reith (1889–1971), first Director General of the BBC John Rennie (1842–1918), naval architect, Naval Constructor and Instructor for the Chinese Government Jonathan Saunders, fashion designer James Small (1835–1900), last laird of Dirnanean Archibald Smith (1813–1872), mathematician and lawyer William Stewart Easton Stephen (1903–1975), philatelist Flora Stevenson (1839–1905), social reformer, interested in education Louisa Stevenson (1835–1908), campaigner for women's university education, women's suffrage and well-organised nursing Jock Stewart (1918–1989), executioner Charlotte Carmichael Stopes (1840–1929), author, and campaigner for women's rights Marie Charlotte Carmichael Stopes (1880–1958), author, palaeobotanist and campaigner for eugenics and women's rights John Guthrie Tait (1861–1945), educator, principal of the Central College of Bangalore, and sportsman Stella Tennant (born 1970), model Mary Anne MacLeod Trump (born 1912), philanthropist, mother of Donald Trump John Thomson (1837–1921), photographer James Tytler (1745–1804), apothecary, editor of the second edition of Encyclopædia Britannica; first person in Britain to fly (by ascending in a hot air balloon) John Walker (1731–1803), minister of religion, natural historian and professor Albert Watson (born 1942), fashion and celebrity photographer Alexander Wilson (died 1922), noted amateur photographer, working in Dundee Margaret Wilson (c. 1667–1685), Covenanter martyr Roderick Wright (1940–2005), disgraced Catholic bishop See also Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen (1857) List of fictional Scots List of women Senators of the College of Justice Scottish Diaspora Scottish Americans Scotch-Irish Americans Scottish Australians Scottish Argentines Scottish Brazilians Scots-Quebecer Scottish Canadians Scottish New Zealanders References Lists of British people

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20South%20Africans

List of South Africans

This is a list of notable and famous South Africans who are the subjects of Wikipedia articles. Academics Academics Estian Calitz, academic (born 1949) Jakes Gerwel, academic and anti-apartheid activist (1946–2012) Miriam Green, academic now living in England Adam Habib, political scientist (born 1965) Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, academic and politician (1894–1948) Thamsanqa Kambule, South African Mathematician and Educator (1921–2009) Tshilidzi Marwala, academic and businessman (born 1971) Njabulo Ndebele, Principal of the University of Cape Town (born 1948) D. C. S. Oosthuizen, philosopher, (1926–1968) Adriaan N Pelzer, historian and Vice-Principal University Pretoria (1915–1981) Michiel Daniel Overbeek, South African amateur astronomer and prolific variable star observers (1920–2001) Pierre de Villiers Pienaar, pioneering role in speech language therapy and lexicography in South Africa (1904–1978) Calie Pistorius, academic and Principal of the University of Pretoria (born 1958) Benedict Wallet Vilakazi, author, educator, and first black South African to receive a PhD (1906–1947) David Webster, anthropologist (1945–1989) Medical and veterinary Abraham Manie Adelstein, UK Chief Medical Statistician (1916–1992) Christiaan Barnard, pioneering heart surgeon (1922–2001) Wouter Basson, medical scientist (born 1950) John Borthwick (veterinary surgeon), veterinary surgeon in the Cape Colony (1867–1936) Mary Malahlela, first black woman to register as a medical doctor in South Africa (1916–1981) Joan Morice, first female veterinary surgeon in South Africa (1904–1944) Anna Coutsoudis, public health scientist (born 1952) Patrick Soon-Shiong, surgeon, founder Abraxis BioScience, billionaire (born 1952) Arnold Theiler, veterinarian (1867–1936) Max Theiler, virologist, 1951 Nobel Prize winner (1899–1972) Lindiwe Sidali, surgeon (born 1984) Scientists Andrew Geddes Bain, geologist (1797–1864) Peter Beighton, geneticist (born 1934) Wilhelm Bleek, linguist (1827–1875) Robert Broom, palaeontologist (1866–1951) Sydney Brenner, biologist, 2002 Physiology or Medicine Nobel Prize winner (1927–2019) Phillip Clancey, ornithologist (1918–2001) Allan McLeod Cormack, physicist (1924–1998) Zodwa Dlamini, biochemist Clement Martyn Doke, linguist (1893–1980) Mulalo Doyoyo, professor and inventor (born 1970) Alexander du Toit, geologist (1878–1948) Robert Allen Dyer, botanist (1900–1987) Melville Edelstein, sociologist, killed due to Soweto uprising (1919–1976) Wendy Foden, conservation biologist J. W. B. Gunning, zoologist (1860–1913) Quarraisha Abdool Karim, Associate Scientific Director of the Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA) (born 1960) Salim Abdool Karim, South African epidemiologist and infectious diseases specialist (born 1960) David Lewis-Williams, archaeologist (born 1934) Lucy Lloyd, anthropologist (1834–1914) Thebe Medupe, astrophysicist (born 1973) Hans Merensky, geologist (1871–1952) Austin Roberts, zoologist (1883–1948) Peter Sarnak, mathematician (born 1953) Ramotholo Sefako, astrophysicist (born 1971) Buyisiwe Sondezi, physicist (born 1976) Basil Schonland, physicist (1896–1972) J.L.B. Smith, ichthyologist (1897–1968) Phillip Tobias, palaeontologist (1925–2012) Theologians Also see: Prelates, clerics and evangelists David Bosch (1929–1992) John W. de Gruchy (born 1939) Dion Forster (born 1972) Johan Heyns (1928–1994) Writers Authors Lady Anne Barnard, travel writer and artist (1750–1825) Herman Charles Bosman, author (1905–1951) André P. Brink, author (1935–2015) Justin Cartwright, novelist (1943–2018) John Maxwell Coetzee, 2003 Nobel Prize-winning author (born 1940) K. Sello Duiker, novelist (1974–2005) Sir Percy FitzPatrick, writer, businessman and politician (1862–1931) Graeme Friedman, author and clinical psychologist Damon Galgut, author (born 1963) Nadine Gordimer, 1991 Nobel Prize-winning author (1923–2014) Alfred Hutchinson, South African author, teacher and activist (1924–1972) C. J. Langenhoven, writer and poet (1873–1932) Pule Lechesa, essayist, literary critic, and poet (born 1976) Dalene Matthee, author (1938–2005) Gcina Mhlope, author, storyteller, playwright, director, actor (born 1959) Deon Meyer, author (born 1958) Phaswane Mpe, novelist (1970–2004) Sizwe Mpofu-Walsh, author and musician (born 1989) Alan Paton, author (1903–1988) Margaret Roberts, herbalist and writer (1937–2017) Karel Schoeman, novelist and historian (1939–2017) Olive Schreiner, author (1855–1920) Mongane Wally Serote, poet and writer (born 8 May 1944) Wilbur Smith, novelist (1933–2021) J. R. R. Tolkien, author of The Lord of The Rings (1892–1973) Etienne van Heerden, novelist (born 1956) Marlene van Niekerk, novelist (born 1954) Lyall Watson, writer (1939–2008) David Yudelman, writer Rachel Zadok, London-based South African writer (born 1972) Editors Kojo Baffoe, magazine editor (born 1972) Khanyi Dhlomo, magazine editor (born 1975) Laurence Gandar, Rand Daily Mail editor (1915–1998) Niel Hammann, editor of magazines (born 1937) John Tengo Jabavu, political activist and newspaper editor (1859–1921) Aggrey Klaaste, journalist and editor (1940–2004) Max du Preez, newspaper editor (born 1951) Poets See also: South African poets and Afrikaans language poets Roy Campbell, poet (1901–1957) Judy Croome, poet (born 1958) Sheila Cussons, poet (1922–2004) Jonty Driver (born 1939) Jakob Daniël du Toit, poet a.k.a. Totius (1877–1953) Elisabeth Eybers, poet (1915–2007) Stephen Gray, writer and poet (1941–2020) Ingrid Jonker, poet (1933–1965) Antjie Krog, poet, novelist and playwright (born 1952) Laurence Lerner, poet (1925–2016) Lucas Malan, Afrikaans academic and poet (1946–2010) Chris Mann, poet (1948–2021) Eugène Nielen Marais, poet, writer, lawyer and naturalist (1871–1936) Thomas Pringle, poet and journalist (1789–1834) N. P. van Wyk Louw, poet (1906–1970) Mongane Wally Serote, poet, activist and politician (born 1944) Stephen Watson, poet (1954–2011) Journalists Jani Allan, journalist and radio personality (born 1953) George Claassen, journalist (born 1949) Robyn Curnow, CNN television reporter and anchor John Charles Daly, television journalist, executive and game show host (1914–1991) Arnold S de Beer, journalist and academic (1942–2021) Frene Ginwala, journalist and politician (born 1932) Arthur Goldstuck, journalist (born 1959) Niel Hammann, journalist (born 1937) Archibald Campbell Jordan (1906–1968) Lara Logan, CBS television reporter/correspondent (born 1971) Peter Magubane, South African photographer (born 1932) John Matisonn, print and radio journalist for both South African and United States broadcasters (born 1949) Zakes Mda, journalist (born 1948) Nathaniel Ndazana Nakasa, South African journalist and short story writer (1937–1965) Sam Nzima, South African photographer, who took image of Hector Pieterson for the Soweto uprising (1934–2018) Henry Nxumalo, investigative journalist under apartheid (1917–1957) Sol Plaatje, journalist and political activist (1877–1932) Percy Qoboza, journalist, editorial writer, and political activist (1938–1988) Barry Streek, journalist, political activist, author, parliamentary media manager (1948–2006) Redi Tlhabi, journalist and broadcaster (born 1978) Eric Lloyd Williams, journalist and war correspondent (1915–1988) Donald Woods, journalist and anti-apartheid activist (1933–2001) Artist Performing artists Actors / Actresses Anel Alexander, actress, producer (born 1979) Lesley – Ann Brandt, South African born actress, notable for her role as Mazikeen in the show Lucifer (born 1981) Ayanda Borotho, actress (born 1981) Ivan Botha, actor (born 1984) Kai Luke Brümmer, actor (born 1993) Presley Chweneyagae, actor (born 1984) Peter Cartwright, actor (1935–2013) Baby Cele, actress (born 1972) Sharlto Copley, actor, (District 9) (born 1973) Katlego Danke, actress (born 1978) Embeth Davidtz, actress (born 1965) Gopala Davies, actor and director (born 1988) Ryan de Villiers, actor (born 1992) Sindi Dlathu, actress (born 1974) Pallance Dladla, actor (born 1992) Lillian Dube, South African actress (born 1945) Vinette Ebrahim, actress (born 1957) Kim Engelbrecht, actress (born 1980) Willie Esterhuizen, actor Connie Ferguson, actress (born 1970) Shona Ferguson, actor (1972–2021) Brett Goldin, actor (1977–2006) Zoe Gail, actress (1920–2020) Gugu Gumede, actress (born 1991) Roxane Hayward, actress (born 1991) Hennie Jacobs, actor (born 1981) David James, actor, stage, television, and film actor (born 1972) Sid James, film & television actor (1913–1976) Adhir Kalyan, actor (born 1983) Atandwa Kani, actor (born 1984) John Kani, actor, entertainer and writer (born 1943) Dawn Thandeka King, actress (born 1977) Shannon Kook (born 1987) Paballo Koza, actor (born 2002) Alice Krige, actress (born 1954) Deon Lotz, actor (born 1964) Sello Maake Ka-Ncube, actor (born 1960) Gail Mabalane, actress (born 1984) Joe Mafela, actor, writer and singer (1942–2017) Maps Maponyane, actor (born 1990) Warren Masemola, actor (born 1983) Khanyi Mbau, radio and television personality and actress notable for Happiness Is a Four-letter Word (born 1985) Nomzamo Mbatha, actress (born 1990) Michelle Mosalakae, actress (born 1994) Thuso Mbedu, actress (born 1991) Sean Michael (South African actor), (born 1969) Enhle Mbali Mlotshwa, actress (born 1988) Masoja Msiza, actor (born 1964) Patrick Mynhardt, actor (1932–2007) Themba Ndaba, actor (born 1965) Menzi Ngubane, actor (born 1967) Jessica Nkosi, actress (born 1990) Kenneth Nkosi, actor (born 1973) Winnie Ntshaba, actress (born 1975) Winston Ntshona, actor (1941–2018) Nandi Nyembe, South African actress (born 1950) Tanit Phoenix, actress (Death Race: Inferno, Lord of War, Safe House, Femme Fatales, Mad Buddies) (born 1984) Terry Pheto, actress (born 1981) Sasha Pieterse, actress (born 1996) Madelaine Petsch, actress (born 1994) Sandra Prinsloo, South African actress (The Gods Must Be Crazy, Quest for Love) (born 1947) Ama Qamata, actress (born 1998) Basil Rathbone, actor (1892–1967) Jo-anne Reyneke, actress (born 1988) Ian Roberts, actor, playwright, singer (born 1952) Angelique Rockas pioneer of multi-racial theatre in the UK (born 1951) Buhle Samuels Stelio Savante, actor (born 1970) Clive Scott, actor (1937–2021) Rapulana Seiphemo, actor (born 1967) Cliff Severn, actor (1925–2014) Raymond Severn, actor (1930–1994) Antony Sher, actor, author and painter (1949–2021) Cliff Simon, actor (1962-2021) William Smith, TV teacher and presenter (born 1939) Linda Sokhulu, actress (born 1976) Shaleen Surtie-Richards, actress (1955–2021) Janet Suzman, actress (born 1939) Reine Swart, actress, producer Charlize Theron, actress (born 1975) Pearl Thusi, actress, model, MC (born 1988) Siyabonga Thwala, actor (born 1969) Pieter-Dirk Uys, political satirist and entertainer (born 1945) Brümilda van Rensburg, actress (born 1956) Musetta Vander, actress (born 1969) Arnold Vosloo, actor (The Mummy, The Mummy Returns, 24) (born 1962) Dancers Juliet Prowse, dancer (1936–1996) Playwrights and film directors Neill Blomkamp, director, District 9 (born 1979) Lev David, writer and media consultant (born 1980) Charles J. Fourie, playwright (born 1965) Athol Fugard, playwright (born 1932) Ronald Harwood, playwright and writer (1934–2020) Oliver Hermanus, film director and writer (born 1983) Gavin Hood, film director, wrote and directed the Academy Award-winning Tsotsi (2005) (born 1963) Rob De Mezieres, film director and writer Mbongeni Ngema, playwright, actor, choreographer and director (born 1955) Michael Oblowitz film director (born 1952) Mthuli ka Shezi, playwright and political activist (1947–1972) Leon Schuster, filmmaker, comedian, actor and prankster (born 1951) Jamie Uys, film director (1921–1996) Singers, musicians and composers Zain Bhikha, world-renowned singer-songwriter of the Nasheed genre Michael Blake, classical composer (born 1951) Johan Botha, opera singer (1965–2016) Al Bowlly, popular singer (1898–1941) Don Clarke, Singer-songwriter (born 1955) Johnny Clegg, musician (1953–2019) Mimi Coertse, opera singer (born 1932) Fanie de Jager, operatic tenor (born 1949) Lucky Dube, reggae singer (1964–2007) Brenda Fassie, anti-apartheid Afropop singer, songwriter, dancer and activist (1964–2004) Daniel Friedman ("Deep Fried Man"), musical comedian (born 1981) Steve Kekana, singer and songwriter (1958–2021) Jabu Khanyile, musician and lead vocalist (1957–2006) Claire Johnston, singer (born 1967) David Kramer, singer and playwright (born 1951) Clare Loveday, classical composer (born 1967) Lira (singer), singer (born 1979) Sipho Mabuse, singer (born 1951) Ringo Madlingozi, South African singer, songwriter, producer, and member of parliament (born 1964) Arthur Mafokate, kwaito musician and producer (born 1962) Winston Ngozi Mankunku, tenor sax player (1943–2009) Mahlathini, mbaqanga singer (1938–1999) Miriam Makeba, singer and civil rights activist (1932–2008) Rebecca Malope, multi-award-winning South African gospel singer (born 1968) Manfred Mann, musician (born 1940) Hugh Masekela, jazz trumpeter and singer (1939–2018) Gwendolyn Masin, violinist, author, pedagogue (born 1977) Lebo Mathosa, popular South African kwaito singer (1977–2006) Dave Matthews, leader of the Dave Matthews Band (born 1967) Shaun Morgan, lead singer of the award-winning band Seether (born 1978) Ray Phiri, jazz, fusion and Mbhaqanga musician (1947–2017) Aquiles Priester, drummer (born 1971) Rex Rabanye, jazz, fusion and soulful pop musician (1944–2010) Trevor Rabin, musician, composer, former member of progressive rock band Yes (born 1954) Koos Ras, comedian, singer, writer, composer (1928–1997) Charles Segal (pianist), composer, arranger, Guinness World Record holder (born 1929) Enoch Sontonga, composer of national anthem (1873–1905) Joseph Shabalala, founder and director of Ladysmith Black Mambazo (1941–2020) ZP Theart, singer, ex Dragonforce (born 1975) Hilda Tloubatla, lead singer of Mahotella Queens (born 1942) Watkin Tudor Jones, rapper, performance artist, band member of Die Antwoord (born 1974) Arnold van Wyk, classical composer (1916–1983) Yolandi Visser, rapper, performance artist, band member of Die Antwoord (born 1984) Amor Vittone, singer, performing artist and gold-disc recording artist (born 1972) Kevin Volans, classical composer (born 1949) Models, socialites and media personalities Jani Allan, radio personality, journalist (born 1953) Gina Athans, model, international socialite (born 1984) Riaan Cruywagen, TV news reader (born 1945) Lasizwe Dambuza, television personality (born 1998) Trevor Denman, horse racing announcer (born 1952) Minnie Dlamini, TV presenter, TV personality, model and actress (born 1990) Jade Fairbrother, model, fitness bikini competitor, Playboy Playmate (born 1986) Watkin Tudor Jones (Ninja) singer, rapper, actor, director (born 1974) Roxy Ingram, model (born 1982) Alan Khan, radio and television personality (born 1971) Caspar Lee, YouTube personality and actor (born 1994) Jeremy Maggs, journalist, radio host and television presenter (born 1961) Jeremy Mansfield, radio and TV personality Maps Maponyane, media socialite, model and actor (born 1990) Robert Marawa, sports journalist, television and radio personality (born 1973) Megan McKenzie, model (born 1980) Trevor Noah, comedian, actor, radio- and television host (born 1984) Debora Patta, broadcast journalist and television producer (born 1964) Tanit Phoenix, Sports Illustrated model and actress (born 1984) Lunga Shabalala, TV presenter, model and actor (born 1989) Linda Sibiya, radio personality, radio producer, television host, television producer and broadcaster. Troye Sivan, YouTube personality, actor and singer (born 1995) Reeva Steenkamp, model (1983–2013) Candice Swanepoel, Victoria's Secret model (born 1988) Charlize Theron, actress, film producer (born 1975) Lesego Tlhabi, comedian and satirist (as Coconut Kelz) (born 1988) Yolandi Visser singer, rapper, actor (born 1984) Minki van der Westhuizen, model and TV presenter (born 1984) Eddie Zondi, radio personality and music composer (1967–2014) Visual Artists Cartoonists T.O. Honiball, cartoonist (1905–1990) Jeremy Nell, cartoonist (born 1979) Zapiro, cartoonist (born 1958) Painters Thomas Baines, colonial painter and explorer (1820–1875) Leon Botha, painter and disc jockey (1985–2011) Garth Erasmus, visual artist (born 1956) Clinton Fein, artist, activist, photographer (born 1964) C. G. Finch-Davies, painter and ornithologist (1875–1920) Ronald Harrison, painter (1940–2011) William Kentridge, painter (born 1955) Maggie Laubser, painter (1886–1973) Neville Lewis, artist (1895–1972) Esther Mahlangu, painter (born 1935) Conor Mccreedy, artist (born 1987) Brett Murray, artist (born 1961) Charles Ernest Peers, painter (born 1875) George Pemba, visual artist (1912–2001) Jacobus Hendrik Pierneef, artist (1886–1957) Gerard Sekoto, artist and musician (1913–1993) Cecil Skotnes, painter (1926–2009) Irma Stern, painter (1894–1966) Vladimir Tretchikoff, painter (1913–2006) Photographers Kevin Carter (1961–1994) Ernest Cole (1940–1990) Caroline Gibello (born 1974) David Goldblatt, photographer (1930–2018) Bob Gosani (1934–1972) Alf Kumalo (1930–2012) Peter Magubane (born 1932) Jürgen Schadeberg (1931–2020) Austin Stevens (born 1951) Sculptors Anton van Wouw (1862–1945) Performance Artists Steven Cohen (born 1962) Tracey Rose (born 1974) Architects Herbert Baker (1862–1946) Gerard Moerdijk (1890–1958) Business Raymond Ackerman, businessman (born 1931) Barney Barnato, mining magnate (1852–1897) Roelof Botha, venture capitalist and company director (born 1973) David Brink, businessman (born 1939) John Fairbairn, founder of Mutual Life (1794–1864) Vanessa Gounden, South Africa's richest businesswoman (born 1961) Morris Kahn, Israeli billionaire, founder and chairman of Aurec Group (born 1930) Sol Kerzner, hotel magnate (1935–2020) Basetsana Kumalo, former Miss South Africa, presenter and businesswoman (born 1974) Richard Maponya, richest business man, former owner of Maponya Mall; founder and first president of the National African Federated Chamber of Commerce (NAFCOC) (1920–2020) Sammy Marks, businessman (1844–1920) Nthato Motlana, prominent South African businessman, physician and anti-apartheid activist (1925–2008) Bridgette Motsepe, businesswoman (born 1960) Patrice Motsepe, businessman (born 1962) Elon Musk, Internet and space launch entrepreneur (born 1971) Phiwa Nkambule, Co-founder and CEO of Riovic, founder of Cybatar (born 1992) Harry Oppenheimer, businessman (1908–2000) William G. Pietersen, international businessman, CEO, author, professor (born 1937) Charles Purdon, agricultural pioneer (1838–1926) Mamphela Ramphele, political activist, academic, businesswoman and mother to the son of Steve Biko (born 1947) Cyril Ramaphosa, politician and businessman (born 1952) George Rex, pioneer entrepreneur of the Southern Cape (1765–1839) Cecil Rhodes, businessman (1853–1902) Anton Rupert, businessman and conservationist (1916–2006) Johann Rupert, businessman, son of Anton Rupert (born 1950) Tokyo Sexwale, politician and businessman (born 1953) Mark Shuttleworth, web entrepreneur, founder of Thawte and Ubuntu Linux, space tourist (born 1973) Nicky Newton-King, first female CEO of JSE from 2012 to 2019 (born 1966) Charl S. Van Blerk, CEO & founder of ParkShare Technologies, SA’s first innovative parking administration app (born 1998) Legal, police and military Lourens Ackermann, constitutional court judge (born 1934) Ismail Ayob, lawyer (born 1942) Vernon Berrangé, human rights advocate (1900–1983) George Bizos, lawyer (1927–2020) Louis Botha, Boer War General, captured Winston Churchill during the Second Boer War, also one of the signatories of the Treaty of Vereeniging (1862–1919) Annie Botha, philanthropist and civic leader, wife of Louis Botha Arthur Chaskalson, judge (1931–2012) Piet Cronjé, Boer general and commander-in-chief of ZAR's military forces (1840–1911) Beric John Croome, chartered accountant (South Africa), Advocate of the High Court of South Africa, PhD, tax law author and pioneer in taxpayers' rights in South Africa (1960–2019) Garnet de la Hunt, the Chief Scout of the Boy Scouts of South Africa, Vice-Chairman of the Africa Scout Committee, and South African World Scout Committee (1933–2014) Koos de la Rey, Boer general (1847–1914) Pierre de Vos, constitutional law scholar (born 1963) Christiaan Rudolph de Wet, Boer general and acting President of the Orange Free State (1854–1922) Johannes Christiaan de Wet, legal academic (1912–1990) Bram Fischer, advocate QC and political activist (1908–1975) Richard Goldstone, ex-constitutional court judge (born 1938) Harold Hanson, advocate QC (1904–1973) Sydney Kentridge, former advocate of the Supreme Court and Acting Justice of the Constitutional Court (born 1922) Mervyn E. King, former judge of the Supreme Court of South Africa and chairman of the King Committee on Corporate Governance (born 1937) Joel Joffe, Baron Joffe, CBE lawyer and Labour peer in the House of Lords (1932–2017) Pius Langa, former chief justice of constitutional court (1939–2013) Magnus Malan, minister of defence and chief of the South African Defence Force (1930–2011) Cecil Margo, judge (1915–2000) Richard Mdluli, head of Police Crime Intelligence (born 1958) Dunstan Mlambo, Judge President of the Gauteng Division of the High Court of South Africa (born 1960) Mogoeng Mogoeng, Chief Justice of South Africa (born 1961) Yvonne Mokgoro, former justice of the Constitutional Court of South Africa (born 1950) Phetogo Molawa, first black female helicopter pilot in the South African Air Force and the South African National Defence Force Sandile Ngcobo, former Chief Justice of South Africa (born 1953) Bulelani Ngcuka, director of public prosecutions (born 1954) Marmaduke Pattle, highest scoring Allied Air Ace of World War Two (1914–1941) Riah Phiyega, national police commissioner Vejaynand Ramlakan, South African military commander (1957–2020) Barry Roux, defence advocate who has represented Oscar Pistorius, Dave King and Lothar Neethling (born 1955) Albie Sachs, justice in constitutional court (born 1935) Harry Heinz Schwarz, lawyer (1924–2010) Jackie Selebi, national commissioner of police (1950–2015) Thembile Skweyiya, South African Constitutional Court judge (1939–2015) Percy Sonn, former head of the Directorate of Special Operations (1947–2007) Sir Robert Clarkson Tredgold, Chief Justice of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1899–1977) Percy Yutar, South Africa's first Jewish attorney-general and prosecutor of Nelson Mandela in the 1963 Rivonia Treason Trial (1911–2002) Political Activists and trade unionists Elizabeth 'Nanna' Abrahams, political activist and trade unionist (1925–2008) Zackie Achmat, AIDS activist (born 1962) Neil Aggett, political activist and trade unionist (1953–1982) Neville Alexander, revolutionary and proponent of a multilingual South Africa (1936–2012) Abdul Kader Asmal, South African politician (1934–2011) Abu Baker Asvat, founding member of Azapo (1943–1989) Zainab Asvat, South African anti-apartheid activist (1920–2013) Frances Baard, trade unionist, organiser for the African National Congress Women's League and a Patron of the United Democratic Front (1909–1997) Esther Barsel, South African political activist, long-standing member of the South African Communist Party and wife to Hymie Barsel (1924–2008) Hymie Barsel, South African activist (1920–1987) Jeremy Baskin, trade unionist (born 1956) Jean Bernadt, anti-apartheid activist (1914–2011) Lionel Bernstein, anti-apartheid activist and political prisoner (1920–2002) Edward Bhengu, founder member of the PAC (1934–2010) Sibusiso Bengu, politician (born 1934) Steve Biko, nonviolent political activist (1946–1977) Sonia Bunting, journalist, political and anti-apartheid activist (1922–2001) Amina Cachalia, South African anti-Apartheid activist, women's rights activist, and politician (1930–2013) Ismail Ahmed Cachalia, South African political activist and a leader of Transvaal Indian Congress and the African National Congress (1908–2003) Fort Calata, political activist and one of The Cradock Four (1956–1985) James Calata, political activist and ANC secretary (1895–1983) Collins Chabane, South African Minister of Public Service and Administration (1960–2015) Laloo Chiba, South African politician and revolutionary (1930–2017) Yusuf Mohamed Dadoo, South African Communist and an anti-apartheid activist (1909–1983) Eddie Daniels, anti-apartheid activist (1928–2017) Nosipho Dastile, community and anti-Apartheid activist (1938–2009) Sophia De Bruyn, political activist (born 1938) Amina Desai, political prisoner (1920–2009) Lilian Diedericks, South African activist (1925–2021) Bettie du Toit, trade unionist and anti-apartheid activist (1910–2002) Ebrahim Ismail Ebrahim, South African anti-apartheid activist (1937–2021) Colin Eglin, South African politician (1925–2013) Farid Esack, political activist and opposition to apartheid (born 1959) Lucinda Evans, women's right activist (born 1972) Ruth First, South African anti-apartheid activist, scholar and wife to Joe Slovo (1925–1982) Pregs Govender, human rights activist, former ANC MP, anti-apartheid campaigner (born 1960) Irene Grootboom, housing rights activist (c. 1969–2008) Denis Goldberg, political activist (1933–2020) Arthur Goldreich, abstract painter and anti-apartheid (1929–2011) John Gomomo, South African Unionist and activist (1945–2008) Matthew Goniwe, political activist and one of the Cradock four (1946–1985) Joe Nzingo Gqabi, political activist (1929–1981) Josiah Tshangana Gumede, political activist (1867–1946) Harry Gwala, revolutionary leader in the African National Congress and South African Communist Party (1920–1995) Nkululeko Gwala, prominent member of the shackdwellers' social movement Abahlali baseMjondolo (died 2013) Bertha Gxowa, anti-apartheid, women's rights activist and trade unionist (1934–2010) Chris Hani, political activist (1942–1993) Harold Hanson, politician and advocate (1904–1973) Frederick John Harris, South African schoolteacher and anti-apartheid (1937–1965) Abdullah Haron, South African Muslim cleric and anti-apartheid activist (1924–1969) Ruth Hayman, anti-apartheid campaigner (1913–1981) Alexander Hepple, trade unionist, politician, anti-apartheid activist and author and the last leader of the original South African Labour Party (1904–1983) Bob Hepple, political activist, leader in the fields of labour law, equality and human rights (1934–2015) Bavelile Gloria Hlongwa, South African chemical engineer and politician (1981–2019) Bantu Holomisa, political activist (born 1955) Timothy Peter Jenkin, anti-apartheid activist, political prisoner and writer (born 1948) Helen Joseph, anti-apartheid activist (1905–1992) Mthuli ka Shezi, South African playwright, political activist (1947–1972) James Kantor, politician, lawyer and writer (1927–1974) Ahmed Kathrada, political activist (1929–2017) Philip Kgosana, political activist (1936–2017) Winnie Kgware, anti-Apartheid activist (1917–1998) Alice Kinloch (born 1863), human rights activist and writer Wolfie Kodesh, South African Communist party activist (1918–2002) Moses Kotane, anti-apartheid activist (1907–1978) Ashley Kriel, South African activist (1966–1987) Duma Kumalo, South African human rights activist and one of the Sharpeville Six (died 2006) Dumisani Kumalo, South African politician (1947–2019) Ellen Kuzwayo, political activist (1914–2006) Lennox Lagu, political activist (1938—2011) Stephen Bernard Lee, anti-apartheid and political prisoner (born 1951) Anton Lembede, political activist (1914–1947) Moses Mabhida, anti-apartheid activist (1923–1986) Phakamile Mabija, anti-apartheid activist (died 1977) Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, political activist and former 2nd wife to Nelson Mandela (1936–2018) Zacharias Richard Mahabane, political activist (1881–1971) Mac Maharaj, political activist (born 1935) Solomon Mahlangu, Umkhonto we Sizwe operative (1956–1979) Vusumzi Make, political activist (1931–2006) Sefako Makgatho, political activist (1861–1951) Mbuyisa Makhubo, anti-Apartheid activist (born 1957/1958) Clarence Makwetu, political activist (1928–2016) Adolph Malan, fighter pilot and civil rights activist (1910–1963) Zollie Malindi, political activist (1924–2008) Nelson Mandela, political activist and first President of South Africa (1918–2013) Mosibudi Mangena, South Africa politician (born 1947) Isaac Lesiba Maphotho, political activist (1931–2019) J. B. Marks, politician activist (1903–1972) Jafta Jeff Masemola, political activist (1929–1990) Emma Mashinini, trade unionist and political leader (1929–2017) Tsietsi Mashinini, South African anti-Apartheid activist and student leader of the Soweto uprising on 16 June 1976 (1957–1990) Joseph Mathunjwa, Trade union leader and the head of the Association of Mineworkers and Construction Union (AMCU) (born 1965) Florence Matomela, South African anti-pass law activist (1910–1969) Joe Matthews, political activist and son of ZK Matthews (1929–2010) Z. K. Matthews, political activist (1901–1968) Seth Mazibuko, youngest member of the South African Students' Organisation that planned and led the Soweto uprising Epainette Mbeki, political activist, mother of Thabo Mbeki and wife to Govan Mbeki (1916–2014) Govan Mbeki, political activist and father of Thabo Mbeki (1910–2001) Robert McBride, anti-apartheid assassin and later police chief (born 1963) A. P. Mda, co-founder of the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) and Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (1916–1993) Fatima Meer, scientist and political activist (1928–2010) Raymond Mhlaba, political activist and the former Premier of the Eastern Cape (1920–2005) Sicelo Mhlauli, political activist and one of the Cradock four (1952–1985) Jean Middleton, anti-apartheid activist and wife to Harold Strachan (1928–2010) Clarence Mini, anti-apartheid activist (1951–2020) Vuyisile Mini, unionist and Umkhonto we Sizwe activist (1920–1964) Nomhlangano Beauty Mkhize, political activist, shop steward and wife to Saul Mkhize (1946–1977) Sparrow Mkhonto, political activist and one of the Cradock four (1951–1985) Wilton Mkwayi, political activist (1923–2004) Johnson Mlambo, political activist (1940–2021) Andrew Mlangeni, political activist (1925–2020) Thamsanga Mnyele, anti-apartheid (1948–1985) Billy Modise, political activist (1930–2018) Joe Modise, political activist (1929–2001) Thabo Edwin Mofutsanyana, political activist (1899–1995) Mapetla Mohapi, political activist (1947–1976) Yunus Mohamed, (sometimes Mahomed) South African lawyer and activist (1950–2008) Peter Mokaba, political activist (1959–2002) Priscilla Mokaba, political activist and mother of Peter Mokaba (died 2013) Ruth Mompati, political activist (1925–2015) Moosa Moolla, political activist (born 1934) Rahima Moosa, anti-apartheid activist (1922–1993) James Moroka, political activist (1891–1985) Zephania Mothopeng, political activist (1913–1990) Nthato Motlana, physician and anti-apartheid activist (1925–2008) Caroline Motsoaledi, political activist and wife to Elias Motsoaledi (died c.2015) Elias Motsoaledi, political activist (1924–1994) James Mpanza, political activist (1889–1970) Oscar Mpetha, political activist and unionist (1909–1994) Griffiths Mxenge, anti-apartheid activist (1935–1981) Victoria Mxenge, anti-apartheid activist (1942–1985) Monty Naicker, South African anti-apartheid activist and medical doctor (1910–1978) Ama Naidoo, anti-apartheid activist (1908–1993) Billy Nair, political activist (1929–2008) Rita Ndzanga, anti-apartheid activist and trade unionist (born 1933) Mary Ngalo, South African anti-apartheid activist and was also active in fighting for women's rights (died 1973) Lilian Ngoyi, anti-apartheid activist (1911–1980) Looksmart Ngudle, political activist (1922–1963) Joe Nhlanhla, African National Congress national executive and the former South African Minister of Justice (Intelligence Affairs) (1936–2008) John Nkadimeng, politician and anti-apartheid activist (1927–2020) Vernon Nkadimeng, political activist (1958–1985) Nkwenkwe Nkomo, SASO nine member William Frederick Nkomo, medical doctor, community leader, political activist and teacher (1915–1972) Duma Nokwe, political activist (1927–1978) Jabulile Nyawose, trade unionist and anti-apartheid activist (died 1982) Alfred Nzo, political activist (1925–2000) Albert Nzula, political activist (1905–1934) Abdullah Mohamed Omar, anti-Apartheid activist and lawyer (1934–2004) Roy Padayachie, politician and Minister of Public Service and Administration of the Republic of South Africa (1950–2012) Aziz Pahad, political activist (born 1940) Essop Pahad, political activist (born 1939) Sabelo Phama, revolutionary (1949–1994) Motsoko Pheko, politician, lawyer, author, historian, theologian and academic (born 1933) Joyce Piliso-Seroke, South-African educator, activist, feminist and community organizer (born 1933) Sol Plaatje, political activist (1876–1932) John Nyathi Pokela, political activist (1922/1923–1985) Maggie Resha, political activist and wife of Robert Resha (1923–2003) Robert Resha, political activist (1920–1978) Walter Rubusana, first deputy president of the ANC (1856–1936) Albie Sachs, political activist (born 1935) Harry Schwarz, South African lawyer, statesman and long-time political opposition leader against apartheid in South Africa (1924–2010) Jackie Sedibe, South African National Defence Force (SANDF) Major General and politician activist and wife to Joe Modise (born 1945) Molefi Sefularo, Deputy Minister of Health (1957–2010) James Seipei, teenage United Democratic Front (UDF) activist (1974–1989) Nimrod Sejake, labour leader in South Africa, leading member of the Congress of South African Trade Unions and secretary of the Iron Steel Workers (1920–2004) Reggie September, activist (1923–2013) Gertrude Shope, South African trade unionist and politician (born 1925) Gert Sibande, political activist (1907–1987) Archie Sibeko, political activist and trade unionist (1928–2018) David Sibeko, South Africa politician and journalist (1938–1979) Letitia Sibeko, political activist and wife to Archie Sibeko (1930–??) Joyce Nomafa Sikakane, South African journalist and activist (born 1943) Annie Silinga, South African anti-pass laws and anti-apartheid political activist (1910–1984) Jack Simons, political activist (1907–1995) Rachel Simons, communist and trade unionist and wife to Jack Simons (1914–2004) Albertina Sisulu, political activist and wife of Walter Sisulu (1918–2011) Walter Sisulu, political activist (1912–2003) Zola Skweyiya, political activist (1942–2018) Joe Slovo, South African politician, and an opponent of the apartheid system (1926–1995) Robert Sobukwe, political activist and founder of PAC (1924–1978) Veronica Sobukwe, political activist and wife to Robert Sobukwe (1927–2018) Makhenkesi Stofile, political activist (1944–2016) Harold Strachan, anti-apartheid activist (1925–2020) Helen Suzman, South African anti-apartheid activist and politician (1917–2009) Isaac Bangani Tabata, political activist (1909–1990) Dora Tamana, South African anti-apartheid activist (1901–1983) Adelaide Tambo political activist and wife to Oliver Tambo (1929–2007) Oliver Tambo, political activist (1917–1993) Mary Thipe, anti-apartheid and human rights activist (1917–2002) Mohammed Tikly, South African educator and struggle veteran (1939–2020) Ahmed Timol, anti-apartheid activist, political leader and activist in the underground South African Communist Party (SACP) (1941–1971) Abram Onkgopotse Tiro, South African student political activist (1945–1974) Steve Tshwete, political activist (1938–2002) Ben Turok, anti-apartheid activist and Economics Professor (1927–2019) Moses Twebe, South African politician (1916–2013) Zwelinzima Vavi, former general secretary of COSATU, and Trade union leader SAFTU (born 1962) Randolph Vigne, anti-apartheid activist (1928–2016) Sheila Weinberg, anti-apartheid activist (1945–2004) AnnMarie Wolpe, sociologist, feminist, anti-apartheid activist and wife to Harold Wolpe (1930–2018) Harold Wolpe, lawyer, sociologist, political economist and anti-apartheid activist (1926–1996) Khoisan X, political activist (1955–2010) Alfred Xuma, political activist and ANC president (1893–1962) Tony Yengeni, anti-Apartheid activist (born 1954) Apartheid operatives Wouter Basson, apartheid scientist (born 1950) Dirk Coetzee, apartheid covert operative (1945–2013) Eugene de Kock, apartheid assassin (born 1949) Clive Derby-Lewis, assassin and former parliamentarian (1936–2016) Jimmy Kruger, apartheid Minister of Justice and the Police (1917–1987) Lothar Neethling, apartheid forensic scientist (1935–2005) Barend Strydom, convicted murderer and white supremacist activist (born 1965) Eugène Terre'Blanche, white supremacist activist (1941–2010) Adriaan Vlok, apartheid Minister of Law and Order (born 1937) Craig Williamson, apartheid spy (born 1949) Colonial and Union Governors George Grey, Cape governor (1812–1898) Jan Willem Janssens, Cape Governor (1762–1838) Benjamin d'Urban, Cape Governor (1834–1837) Benjamin Pine, Natal governor (1809–1891) Harry Smith, Cape governor 1847–52 (1787–1860) Andries Stockenström, governor of British Kaffraria (1792–1864) Simon van der Stel, first Cape governor (1639–1712) Willem Adriaan van der Stel, second Cape governor (1664–1723) Jan van Riebeeck, founder of Cape settlement (1619–1677) Nicolaas Jacobus de Wet, Chief Justice of South Africa and acting Governor-General (1873–1960) Leaders and politicians Ken Andrew, politician (born 1943) Kader Asmal, an activist, politician and professor of human rights (1934–2011) Sibusiso Bengu, politician (born 1934) Steve Biko, nonviolent political activist (1946–1977) Thozamile Botha, politician (born 1948) Cheryl Carolus, politician (born 1958) Yusuf Dadoo, doctor and politician (1909–1983) Patricia de Lille, politician (born 1951) Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, politician (born 1949) John Langalibalele Dube, founder and first president of ANC (1871–1946) Abba Eban, Israeli diplomat and politician, and President of the Weizmann Institute of Science (1915–2002) De Villiers Graaff, United Party opposition leader (1913–1999) Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, journalist and politician (1845–1909) Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, academic and politician (1894–1948) Danny Jordaan, politician and soccer administrator (born 1951) Tony Leon, DA opposition leader (born 1956) Albert Luthuli, President of the African National Congress, 1952–67 (1898–1967) Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, politician and second wife of Nelson Mandela (1936–2018) Trevor Manuel, minister of finance (born 1956) Lindiwe Mazibuko, former Parliamentary Leader for the opposition Democratic Alliance (born 1980) Govan Mbeki, political activist and father of Thabo Mbeki (1910–2001) Roelf Meyer, politician and businessman (born 1947) Raymond Mhlaba, political activist and the former Premier of the Eastern Cape (1920–2005) Vuyisile Mini, unionist and Umkhonto we Sizwe activist (1920–1964) Johnson Mlambo, political activist (1940–2021) Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, deputy president (born 1955) Pieter Mulder, leader of the Freedom Front Plus and former deputy minister of agriculture (born 1951) Gagathura (Monty) Mohambry Naicker, medical doctor and politician (1910–1978) Bulelani Ngcuka, politician (born 1954) Dullah Omar, politician (1934–2004) Andries Pretorius, Boer leader and commandant-general (1799–1853) Deneys Reitz, boer commando, deputy Prime Minister and High Commissioner to London (1882–1944) Pixley ka Isaka Seme, ANC founder member (1881–1951) Mbhazima Shilowa, trade unionist and premier (born 1958) Walter Sisulu, political activist (1912–2003) Ruth First-Slovo, political activist and wife to Joe Slovo (1924–1982) Joe Slovo, politician (1926–1995) Harry Schwarz, lawyer, politician, ambassador to United States and anti-apartheid leader (1924–2010) Robert Sobukwe, political activist and founder of PAC (1924–1978) Helen Suzman, politician (1917–2009) Oliver Tambo, political activist (1917–1993) Catherine Taylor, politician (1914–1992) Frederik van Zyl Slabbert, PFP opposition leader (1940–2010) Helen Zille, former DA opposition leader, former premier of the Western Cape (born 1951) Jacob Zuma, former president (born 1942) Prime Ministers and presidents Jacobus Boshoff, 2nd President of the Orange Free State (1808–1881) Louis Botha, Boer commander-in-chief and 1st Prime Minister of South Africa (1862–1919) Pieter Willem Botha, 9th and last Prime Minister and 8th State President of South Africa (1916–2006) Johannes Henricus Brand, 4th President of the Orange Free State (1823–1888) Thomas François Burgers, 4th President of South African Republic (1871–1877) Schalk Willem Burger, 6th and last President of South African Republic (1852–1918) Frederik Willem de Klerk, 9th and last State President of South Africa (1990–1994) and joint Nobel Peace Prize winner (1936–2021) Nicolaas Johannes Diederichs, 4th State President of South Africa (1903–1978) Jacobus Johannes Fouché, 3rd State President of South Africa (1898–1980) James Barry Munnik Hertzog, Boer general and 3rd Prime Minister of South Africa (1866–1942) Josias Hoffman, 1st President of the Orange Free State (1807–1879) Petrus Jacobus Joubert, Boer general and member of the Troika in the South African Republic (1834–1900) Paul Kruger, member of the Troika, 5th President of South African Republic (1825–1904) Daniel François Malan, 5th Prime Minister of South Africa and is responsible for laying the groundwork for Apartheid (1874–1959) Nelson Mandela, 1st democratically elected President of South Africa and joint Nobel Peace Prize winner (1918–2013) Thabo Mbeki, 2nd post-apartheid President of South Africa (born 1942) John X. Merriman, last prime minister of the Cape Colony (1841–1926) Kgalema Motlanthe, 3rd post-apartheid President of South Africa (born 1949) Tom Naudé, 2nd State President of South Africa (1889–1969) Marthinus Wessel Pretorius, 3rd President of the Orange Free State, 1st and 3rd President of the ZAR (1819–1901) Cyril Ramaphosa, 5th post-apartheid President of South Africa (born 1952) Francis William Reitz, 5th President of the Orange Free State (1844–1934) Jan Smuts, Boer general, British field marshal, 2nd and 4th Prime Minister of South Africa (1870–1950) Johannes Strijdom, 6th Prime Minister of South Africa (1893–1958) Martinus Theunis Steyn, 6th and last President of the Orange Free State (1857–1916) Charles Robberts Swart, last Governor-General of the Union of South Africa and 1st State President of the RSA (1894–1982) Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd, 7th Prime Minister of South Africa and primary architect of Apartheid (1901–1966) Marais Viljoen, 5th and 7th State President of South Africa (1915–2007) Balthazar Johannes Vorster, 8th Prime Minister and 6th State President of South Africa (1915–1983) Jacob Zuma, 4th post-apartheid President of South Africa (born 1942) Provincial Premiers Nosimo Balindlela, 3rd Premier of the Eastern Cape (born 1949) Lynne Brown, (interim) 6th Premier of the Western Cape (born 1961) Ivy Matsepe-Casaburri, 2nd Premier of the Free State (1937–2009) Grizelda Cjiekella, (acting) Premier of the Northern Cape (1970–2012) Manne Dipico, 1st Premier of the Northern Cape (born 1959) Winkie Direko, 3rd Premier of the Free State (1929–2012) Noxolo Kiviet, 5th Premier of the Eastern Cape (born 1963) Hernus Kriel, 1st Premier of the Western Cape (1941–2015) Hazel Jenkins, 3rd Premier of the Northern Cape (born 1960) Mosiuoa Lekota, 1st Premier of the Free State (born 1948) Sylvia Lucas, 4th Premier of the Northern Cape (born 1964) David Mabuza, 4th Premier of Mpumalanga (born 1960) Ace Magashule, 5th Premier of the Free State (born 1959) Supra Mahumapelo, 5th Premier of North West (born 1968) David Makhura, 6th Premier of Gauteng (born 1968) Thabang Makwetla, 3rd Premier of Mpumalanga (born 1957) Peter Marais, 3rd Premier of the Western Cape (born 1948) Beatrice Marshoff, 4th Premier of the Free State (born 1957) Paul Mashatile, 4th Premier of Gauteng (born 1961) Stanley Mathabatha, 4th Premier of Limpopo (born 1957) Cassel Mathale, 3rd Premier of Limpopo (born 1961) Senzo Mchunu, 6th Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (born 1958) Willies Mchunu, 7th Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (born 1948) Frank Mdlalose, 1st Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (1931–2021) Raymond Mhlaba, 1st Premier of the Eastern Cape (1920–2005) Zweli Mkhize, 5th Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (born 1956) Thandi Modise, 4th Premier of North West (born 1959) Maureen Modiselle, 3rd Premier of North West (born 1941) Job Mokgoro, 6th Premier of North West (born 1948) Nomvula Mokonyane, 5th Premier of Gauteng (born 1963) Popo Molefe, 1st Premier of North West (born 1952) Edna Molewa, 2nd Premier of North West (1957–2018) Sello Moloto, 2nd Premier of Limpopo (born 1964) Gerald Morkel, 2nd Premier of the Western Cape (1941–2018) Mathole Motshekga, 2nd Premier of Gauteng (born 1949) Refilwe Mtsweni-Tsipane, 5th Premier of Mpumalanga (born 1972/73) S'bu Ndebele, 4th Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (born 1948) Ben Ngubane, 2nd Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (1941–2021) Sisi Ntombela, 6th Premier of the Free State (born 1956/1957) Dipuo Peters, 2nd Premier of the Northern Cape (born 1960) Mathews Phosa, 1st Premier of Mpumalanga (born 1952) Ngoako Ramathlodi, 1st Premier of Limpopo (born 1955) Leonard Ramatlakane, (acting) Premier of the Western Cape (born 1953) Ebrahim Rasool, 5th Premier of the Western Cape (born 1962) Zamani Saul, 5th Premier of the Northern Cape (born 1972) Tokyo Sexwale, 1st Premier of Gauteng (born 1953) Mbhazima Shilowa, 3rd Premier of Gauteng (born 1958) Mbulelo Sogoni, 4th Premier of the Eastern Cape (born 1966) Makhenkesi Stofile, 2nd Premier of the Eastern Cape (1944–2016) Marthinus van Schalkwyk, 4th Premier of the Western Cape (born 1959) Alan Winde, 8th Premier of the Western Cape (born 1965) Sihle Zikalala, 8th Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (born 1973) Helen Zille, 7th Premier of the Western Cape (born 1951) Homelands Leaders Prince Mangosuthu Buthelezi, Chief Executive Councillor and Chief Minister of KwaZulu (born 1928) Oupa Gqozo, President of Ciskei (born 1952) Gen. Bantu Holomisa, Prime Minister of Transkei (born 1955) Chief Thandatha Jongilizwe Mabandla, chief executive officer; Chief Executive Councillor and Chief Minister of Ciskei (1926–2021) Dr. Enos John Mabuza, Chief Minister of KaNgwane (1939–1997) Rocky Malebane-Metsing, President of Bophuthatswana (1949–2016) Kgosi Lucas Mangope, chief executive officer; Chief Executive Councillor; Chief Minister and President of Bophuthatswana (1923–2018) Chief George Matanzima, Prime Minister of Transkei (1918–2000) Chief Kaiser Matanzima, Chief Minister; Prime Minister and President of Transkei (1915–2003) Edward Mhinga, acting Chief Minister of Gazankulu (1927–2017) Job Mokgoro, Administrator (Transitional Executive Council) of Bophuthatswana (born 1948) Kenneth Mopeli, Chief Executive Councillor and Chief Minister of Qwaqwa (1930–2014) Chief Patrick Mphephu, chief executive officer; Chief Executive Councillor; Chief Minister and the President of Venda (1924–1988) Hudson William Edison Ntsanwisi, Chief of Minister of Gazankulu (1920–1993) Samuel Dickenson Nxumalo, Chief Minister of Gazankulu (born 1926) Dr. Cedric Phatudi, Chief Minister of Lebowa (1912–1987) Gabriel Ramushwana, Head of State of Venda (1941–2015) Lt. Gen. Charles Sebe, acting Chief Minister of Ciskei Lennox Sebe, Chief Minister and President of Ciskei (1926–1994) Chief Botha Sigcau, President of Transkei and father of Stella Sigcau (died c.1979) Stella Sigcau, Prime of Transkei (1937–2006) Tjaart van der Walt, Administrator Transitional Executive Council of Bophuthatswana (1934–2019) Administrators of former provinces Cornelius Botha, 12th and last Administrator of the Natal Province (1932–2014) Stoffel Botha, 10th Administrator of the Natal Province (1929–1998) Radclyffe Cadman, 11th Administrator of the Natal Province (1924–2011) Dr Willem Adriaan Cruywagen, 10th Administrator of the Transvaal Province (1921–2013) Nicolaas Frederic de Waal, 1st Administrator of the Cape Province (1853–1932) Jim Fouché, 8th Administrator of the Orange Free State Province (1898–1980) Theo Gerdener, 8th Administrator of the Natal Province (1916–2013) Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, 3rd Administrator of the Transvaal Province (1894–1948) Gene Louw, 13th Administrator of the Cape Province (1931–2015) Nico Malan, 10th Administrator of the Cape Province William Nico, 7th Administrator of the Transvaal Province (1887–1967) Frans Hendrik Odendaal, 8th Administrator of the Transvaal Province (1898–1966) Denis Gem Shepstone, 6th Administrator of the Natal Province (1888–1966) Alfred Ernest Trollip, 7th Administrator of the Natal Province (1895–1972) Johannes Van Rensburg, 6th Administrator of the Orange Free State Province (1898–1966) Gideon Brand van Zyl, 5th Administrator of the Cape Province (1873–1956) Sir Cornelius Hermanus Wessels, 2nd Administrator of the Orange Free State Province (1851–1924) Royalty Kings, queens, princes and princesses Cetshwayo kaMpande, 4th Zulu king (1826–1884) Cyprian Bhekuzulu kaSolomon, 7th Zulu king (1924–1945) Goodwill Zwelethini, 8th king of the Zulu nation (1948–2021) Mangosuthu Buthelezi, politician and a Zulu prince (born 1928) Dingane kaSenzangakhona, 2nd Zulu king and half-brother of Shaka (1795–1840) Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo, 5th Zulu king, not officially recognized (1868–1913) Buyelekhaya Dalindyebo, Aa! Zwelibanzi! Ruler of the Thembu (born 1964) Sabata Dalindyebo, Aa! Jonguhlanga! Ring of the Thembu (1928–1986) Faku kaNgqungqushe, Ruler of the Mpondo (1780–1867) Hintsa ka Khawuta, Aa! Zanzolo! King of Xhosa Nation (1780–1835) Khawuta kaGcaleka, Aa! Khala! King of the Xhosa Nation (1761–1804) Langalibalele, Hlubi king (1814–1889) Ingwenyama Mayitjha III, 7th Ndebele, king of Ndzundza-Mabhoko (1947–2005) Magogo kaDinuzulu, Zulu princess and mother of Mangosuthu Buthelezi (1900–1984) Mampuru II, king of the Marota (or Bapedi) (died c.1883) Maselekwane Modjadji, Balobedu's 1st Rain Queen (died 1854) Masalanabo Modjadji, Balobedu's 2nd Rain Queen (died 1894) Khetoane Modjadji, Balobedu's 3rd Rain Queen (1869–1959) Makoma Modjadji, Balobedu's 4th Rain Queen (1905–1980) Mokope Modjadji, Balobedu's 5th Rain Queen (1936–2001) Makobo Modjadji, Balobedu's 6th Rain Queen (1978–2005) Mkabayi kaJama, Zulu princess and sister of Senzangakhona (1750–1843) Mpande, 3rd Zulu king and half-brother of Shaka (1798–1872) Mthimkhulu II, King of the AmaHlubi (1778–1818) Mzilikazi, king of the Matabele (1790–1868) Nandi, Mhlongo princess and mother of Shaka (1760–1827) Ngqungqushe kaNyawuza, Mpondo ruler (1715/1760–1810/1815) Ngubengcuka, Aa! Ndaba! prominent king of the abaThembu (died 1830) Emma Sandile, (1842–1892), Aa! Emma! Xhosa Princess and the daughter of King Mgolombane Sandile (1842–1892) Mgolombane Sandile, Aa! Mgolombane! Xhosa king of the Right Hand House of the Xhosa Nation (1820–1878) Zanesizwe Sandile, Aa! Zanesizwe! King of the Right Hand House of the Xhosa Nation (1956–2011) Noloyiso Sandile, Aa! Noloyiso! Zulu Princess, Rharhabe Regent Queen, daughter of Zulu King Cyprian Bhekuzulu, sister to King Goodwill Zwelithini and the wife of the AmaRharhabe Monarch Zanesizwe Sandile (1963–2020) Sarili kaHintsa, Aa! Krili! King Of The Xhosa Nation (c. 1810–1892) Xolilizwe Sigcawu, Aa! Xolilizwe! Xhosa King (1926–2005) Zwelonke Sigcawu, Aa! Zwelonke! Xhosa king (1968–2019) Sekhukhune, king of the Marota (or Bapedi) (1814–1882) Senzangakhona kaJama, Zulu king and father of Shaka (1762–1816) Shaka, founder of the Zulu nation (1787–1828) Solomon kaDinuzulu, 6th Zulu king, not officially recognized (1891–1933) Victor Thulare III, king of the Pedi (1980–2021) uZibhebhu kaMaphitha, Zulu prince and chief (1841–1904) Tribal leaders and prophets See also: Gcaleka rulers, Rharhabe rulersNdwandwe people, Xhosa Chiefs, Zulus Bambatha kaMancinza, Zulu chief of the amaZondi clan and Bambatha Rebellion (1865–1906) Chief Albert Luthuli, Zulu chief and political activist (1898–1967) Adam Kok, Griqua leader (1811–1875) David Stuurman, Khoi chief and political activist (1773–1830) Thandatha Jongilizwe Mabandla, amaBhele chief, Tyume Valley, Alice, Ciskei (1926–2021) Makhanda, amaXhosa prophet (died 1819) Maqoma, Aa! Jongumsobomvu! amaRharhabe chief (1798–1873) Chief Mqalo, Amakhuze chief, Ciskei region (1916–2008) Moshoeshoe I, Basotho chief (c. 1786–1870) Nongqawuse, millennialist amaXhosa prophetess (c. 1840–1898) Ntsikana, amaXhosa prophet (1780–1821) Sigananda kaSokufa, Zulu aristocrat (c. 1815–1906) Hendrik Spoorbek, prophet and magician (died 1845) Mbongeleni Zondi, Zulu chief and great-grandson of Inkosi Bambatha kaMancinza (1969–2009) Atheists Zackie Achmat, AIDS activist, (born 1962) David Benatar, professor of philosophy (born 1966) Barry Duke, activist, journalist, editor of The Freethinker (born 1947) Nadine Gordimer, activist, writer, Nobel laureate (1923–2014) Ronnie Kasrils, politician (born 1938) Jacques Rousseau, secular activist, social commentator (born 1971) Harold Rubin, visual artist, musician (1932–2020) Joe Slovo, politician (1926–1995) Lewis Wolpert, author, biologist, broadcaster (1929–2021) Prelates, clerics and evangelists William Anderson, missionary (1769–1852) Nicholas Bhengu, evangelist and founder of Assemblies of God (1909–1986) Allan Boesak, cleric and anti-apartheid activist (born 1945) David Jacobus Bosch, missiologist and theologian (1929–1992) Angus Buchan, evangelist (born 1947) Frank Chikane, cleric and anti-apartheid activist (born 1951) John William Colenso, Anglican bishop of Natal (1814–1883) Ahmed Deedat (1918–2005) S.J. du Toit, cleric, Afrikaans language pioneer and founder member of the Genootskap vir Regte Afrikaners (1847–1911) Allan Hendrickse, cleric and MP (1927–2005) Denis Hurley, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Durban (1915–2004) Edward Lekganyane, the Zion Christian Church (ZCC) leader (1922–1967) Engenas Lekganyane, the Zion Christian Church (ZCC) founder (1885–1948) Albert Luthuli, cleric, politician and 1960 Nobel Peace Prize winner (c. 1898–1967) Thabo Makgoba, current Archbishop of Cape Town and Primate of the Anglican Church of Southern Africa (born 1960) Charlotte Maxeke, religious leader and political activist (1874–1939) Ray McCauley, head of Rhema church (born 1949) Robert Moffat, missionary, Bible translator and founder of Kuruman (1795–1883) Smangaliso Mkhatshwa, Catholic priest (born 1939) Frederick Samuel Modise, founder of the International Pentecostal Holiness Church (1914–1998) Glayton Modise, the International Pentecostal Holiness Church leader (1940–2016) Andrew Murray (1828–1917) Zithulele Patrick Mvemve, South African Roman Catholic bishop (1941–2020) Selby Mvusi, theologian and artist (1929–1967) Wilfrid Napier, cardinal of the Catholic Church (born 1941) Beyers Naudé, cleric and anti-apartheid activist (1915–2004) Jozua Naudé, pastor, school founder and co-founder of the Afrikaner Broederbond (1873–1948) Carl Niehaus, theologian and former spokesman of South African president Nelson Mandela (born 1959) Albert Nolan, Catholic priest (born 1934) John Philip, missionary (1775–1851) Barney Pityana, human rights lawyer and theologian (born 1945) Ambrose Reeves, Anglican bishop and opponent of Apartheid (1899–1980) David Russell, South African Anglican bishop (1938–2014) Isaiah Shembe, the Church of Nazareth founder (1865–1935) Desmond Tutu, cleric and Nobel Peace Prize winner (1931–2021) William Cullen Wilcox, missionary (1850–1928) Sport Conservationists Ian Player (1927–2014) James Stevenson-Hamilton (1867–1957) John Varty (born 1950) Food Bertus Basson (born 1979) Karen Dudley (born 1968) Prue Leith (born 1940) Abigail Mbalo-Mokoena Jenny Morris Nompumelelo Mqwebu (born 1977) Siba Mtongana (born 1984) Kamini Pather (born 1983) Reuben Riffel (born 1974) Lesego Semenya (1982–2021) Faldela Williams (1952–2014) Travelers, adventurers and pioneers Alexander Biggar, colonial pioneer (1781–1838) Jeanne M. Borle, missionary and naturalist (1880 – ca. 1979) William John Burchell, naturalist traveler (1781–1863) Francisco de Almeida, adventurer buried in Cape Town (c. 1450–1510) Bartolomeu Dias, explorer who reached eastern Cape (c. 1450–1500) John Dunn, colonial pioneer (1833–1895) Robert Jacob Gordon, explorer, soldier, naturalist (1743–1795) Emil Holub, explorer (1847–1902) Nathaniel Isaacs, Natal traveler (1808–1872) Dick King, colonial pioneer (1813–1871) François Levaillant, Cape naturalist traveler (1753–1824) Karl Mauch, traveling geologist (1873–1875) Harriet A. Roche, Transvaal traveler (1835–1921) Carl Peter Thunberg, Cape naturalist traveler (1743–1828) Sibusiso Vilane, first black African to summit Mount Everest (born 1970) Kingsley Holgate, traveler and pioneer (born 1946) Mike Horn, explorer, traveler, environmentalist, adventurer (born 1966) James Alexander, explorer of the west coast and Namibia (1803–1885) Saray Khumalo, explorer and mountaineer (born 1972) Criminals Daisy de Melker, murderer (1886–1932) William Foster, leader of the Foster Gang Allan Heyl, Stander Gang member and bank robber (died 2020) Cedric Maake, serial killer (born 1965) Bulelani Mabhayi, serial killer (born 1974) Simon Majola, robber and serial killer who, with (born 1968) Fanuel Makamu, robber, rapist and serial killer (born 1977) Andries Makgae, serial killer and rapist (born 1962) Lee McCall, Stander Gang member and bank robber (1950–1984) Nicholas Lungisa Ncama, a rapist and serial killer Velaphi Ndlangamandla, robber and serial killer (born 1966) Solomon Ngobeni, the last person to be executed by the government of South Africa (died 1989) Butana Almond Nofomela, murder (born 1957) Gert van Rooyen, paedophile (1938–1990) Khangayi Sedumedi, Killer South African serial killer and rapist (born 1977) Schabir Shaik, convicted fraudster Norman Afzal Simons, rapist and serial killer (born 1967) Moses Sithole, convicted serial rapist and murderer (born 1964) Rashied Staggie, crime boss (1961–2019) Andre Stander, gang member (1946–1984) Thozamile Taki, serial killer (born 1971) Sipho Thwala, rapist and serial killer (born 1968) Dorethea van der Merwe, first woman to be hanged for murder under the Union of South Africa Bulelani Vukwana, spree killer (c. 1973–2002) Elias Xitavhudzi, serial killer Christopher Mhlengwa Zikode, rapist and serial killer (born 1975) Other Sir Herbert Baker, influential in South African architecture (1862–1946) Nozipho Bhengu, woman whose death from an AIDS-related illness (1974–2006) Fredie Blom, South African supercentenarian Fredie Blom (1904–2020) Denise Darvall, considered to be donor for the first human heart transplant (1943–1967) Ncoza Dlova, heralded as first black female head of University of KwaZulu-Natal's School of Clinical Medicine Napoléon Eugène, last of Napoleons who died in Zulu war (1856–1879) Emily Hobhouse, African British welfare campaigner for South Africans (1860–1926) John Hutchinson, thorough contributor to South African botany (1884–1972) Nkosi Johnson, child who died of AIDS (1989–2001) Isabel Jean Jones, early consumer advocate journalist (died 2008) Masego Kgomo, South African girl murdered (1999–2009) Sandra Laing, racial classification victim (born 1955) Paul Lloyd Jr, first South African wrestler to wrestle in WWE, son of successful SA wrestling promoter Paul Lloyd (born 1981) Asnath Mahapa, first female South African pilot (born 1979) Joe Mamasela, former Apartheid government spy (born 1953) Nomkhitha Virginia Mashinini, South African apartheid detainee, the mother of political figure Tsietsi Mashinini, and a community worker (1935–2008) Leigh Matthews, South African university student, kidnapped and murdered (1983–2004) Breaker Morant, Australian Boer War soldier executed by the British Army (1864–1902) Uyinene Mrwetyana, South African student, raped and murdered (2000–2019) Hastings Ndlovu, poster victim of the Soweto riots (1961–1976) Hector Pieterson, poster victim of the Soweto riots (1964–1976) Mrs. Ples, hominid fossil (born c. 2.6 to 2.8 million years ago) Raymond Rahme, first African to reach a final table at a World Series of Poker Main Event, finishing third (born 1945) Willem Ratte, soldier and criminal (born 1948) Rosenkowitz sextuplets, first known set of sextuplets to survive their infancy (born 1974) Maki Skosana, necklaced due to be suspected as a police informer (1961–1985) Reeva Steenkamp, South African model and paralegal (1983–2013) Adam Tas, colonial activist (1668–1722) Andries Tatane, Ficksburg activist killed by police (1978–2011) Taung Child, hominid fossil (born c. 2.5 million years ago) Louis Washkansky, recipient of first human heart transplant (1913–1967) Wolraad Woltemade, colonial hero figure (c. 1708–1773) See also Great South Africans, television program listing the 100 greatest South Africans as voted for by viewers List of South African office-holders List of Southern Ndebele people List of white Africans of European ancestry List of Xhosa people List of Zulu people Lists of people by nationality They Shaped Our Century, survey by Media24 in 1999 about 100 most influential South Africans (and people associated with South Africa) of the twentieth century References

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goth%20subculture

Goth subculture

Goth is a subculture that began in the United Kingdom during the early 1980s. It was developed by fans of Gothic rock, an offshoot of the post-punk music genre. The name Goth was derived directly from the genre. Notable post-punk artists who presaged the Gothic rock genre and helped develop and shape the subculture includes: Siouxsie and the Banshees, Bauhaus, the Cure, and Joy Division. The goth subculture has survived much longer than others of the same era, and has continued to diversify and spread throughout the world. Its imagery and cultural proclivities indicate influences from 19th-century Gothic fiction and horror films. The scene is centered on music festivals, nightclubs, and organized meetings, especially in Western Europe. The subculture has associated tastes in music, aesthetics, and fashion. The music preferred by goths includes a number of styles such as gothic rock, death rock, cold wave, dark wave, and ethereal wave. Styles of dress within the subculture draw on punk, new wave, and New Romantic fashion. It also draws from the fashion of earlier periods such as the Victorian, Edwardian, and Belle Époque eras. The style most often includes dark (usually solid black) attire, dark makeup, and black hair. The subculture has continued to draw interest from a large audience decades after its emergence. Music Origins and development The term gothic rock was coined by music critic John Stickney in 1967 to describe a meeting he had with Jim Morrison in a dimly lit wine-cellar, which he called "the perfect room to honor the Gothic rock of the Doors". That same year, the Velvet Underground song "All Tomorrow's Parties" created a kind of "mesmerizing gothic-rock masterpiece" according to music historian Kurt Loder. In the late 1970s, the gothic adjective was used to describe the atmosphere of post-punk bands like Siouxsie and the Banshees, Magazine, and Joy Division. In a live review about a Siouxsie and the Banshees' concert in July 1978, critic Nick Kent wrote that, concerning their music, "[P]arallels and comparisons can now be drawn with gothic rock architects like the Doors and, certainly, early Velvet Underground". In March 1979, in his review of Magazine's second album Secondhand Daylight, Kent noted that there was "a new austere sense of authority" in the music, with a "dank neo-Gothic sound". Later that year, the term was also used by Joy Division's manager, Tony Wilson on 15 September in an interview for the BBC TV programme's Something Else. Wilson described Joy Division as "gothic" compared to the pop mainstream, right before a live performance of the band. The term was later applied to "newer bands such as Bauhaus who had arrived in the wake of Joy Division and Siouxsie and the Banshees". Bauhaus's first single issued in 1979, "Bela Lugosi's Dead", is generally credited as the starting point of the gothic rock genre. In 1979, Sounds described Joy Division as "Gothic" and "theatrical". In February 1980, Melody Maker qualified the same band as "masters of this Gothic gloom". Critic Jon Savage would later say that their singer Ian Curtis wrote "the definitive Northern Gothic statement". However, it was not until the early 1980s that gothic rock became a coherent music subgenre within post-punk, and that followers of these bands started to come together as a distinctly recognizable movement. They may have taken the "goth" mantle from a 1981 article published in UK rock weekly Sounds: "The face of Punk Gothique", written by Steve Keaton. In a text about the audience of UK Decay, Keaton asked: "Could this be the coming of Punk Gothique? With Bauhaus flying in on similar wings could it be the next big thing?" The F Club night in Leeds in Northern England, which had opened in 1977 firstly as a punk club, became instrumental to the development of the goth subculture in the 1980s. In July 1982, the opening of the Batcave in London's Soho provided a prominent meeting point for the emerging scene, which would be briefly labelled "positive punk" by the NME in a special issue with a front cover in early 1983. The term Batcaver was then used to describe old-school goths. Outside the British scene, deathrock developed in California during the late 1970s and early 1980s as a distinct branch of American punk rock, with acts such as Christian Death and 45 Grave at the forefront. Gothic genre The bands that defined and embraced the gothic rock genre included Bauhaus, early Adam and the Ants, the Cure, the Birthday Party, Southern Death Cult, Specimen, Sex Gang Children, UK Decay, Virgin Prunes, Killing Joke, and the Damned. Near the peak of this first generation of the gothic scene in 1983, The Face Paul Rambali recalled that there were "several strong Gothic characteristics" in the music of Joy Division. In 1984, Joy Division's bassist Peter Hook named Play Dead as one of their heirs: "If you listen to a band like Play Dead, who I really like, Joy Division played the same stuff that Play Dead are playing. They're similar." By the mid-1980s, bands began proliferating and became increasingly popular, including the Sisters of Mercy, the Mission, Alien Sex Fiend, the March Violets, Xmal Deutschland, the Membranes, and Fields of the Nephilim. Record labels like Factory, 4AD and Beggars Banquet released much of this music in Europe, and through a vibrant import music market in the US, the subculture grew, especially in New York and Los Angeles, California, where many nightclubs featured "gothic/industrial" nights. The popularity of 4AD bands resulted in the creation of a similar US label, Projekt, which produces what was colloquially termed ethereal wave, a subgenre of dark wave music. The 1990s saw further growth for some 1980s bands and the emergence of many new acts, as well as new goth-centric U.S. record labels such as Cleopatra Records, among others. According to Dave Simpson of The Guardian, "[I]n the 90s, goths all but disappeared as dance music became the dominant youth cult". As a result, the goth "movement went underground and mistaken for cyber goth, Shock rock, Industrial metal, Gothic metal, Medieval folk metal and the latest subgenre, horror punk". Marilyn Manson was seen as a "goth-shock icon" by Spin. Art, historical and cultural influences The Goth subculture of the 1980s drew inspiration from a variety of sources. Some of them were modern or contemporary, others were centuries-old or ancient. Michael Bibby and Lauren M. E. Goodlad liken the subculture to a bricolage. Among the music-subcultures that influenced it were Punk, New wave, and Glam. But it also drew inspiration from B-movies, Gothic literature, horror films, vampire cults and traditional mythology. Among the mythologies that proved influential in Goth were Celtic mythology, Christian mythology, Egyptian mythology, and various traditions of Paganism. The figures that the movement counted among its historic canon of ancestors were equally diverse. They included the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, Friedrich Nietzsche (1844‒1900), Comte de Lautréamont (1846‒1870), Salvador Dalí (1904‒1989) and Jean-Paul Sartre (1905‒1980). Writers that have had a significant influence on the movement also represent a diverse canon. They include Ann Radcliffe (1764‒1823), John William Polidori (1795‒1821), Edgar Allan Poe (1809‒1849), Sheridan Le Fanu (1814-1873), Bram Stoker (1847‒1912), Oscar Wilde (1854‒1900), H. P. Lovecraft (1890‒1937), Anne Rice (1941‒2021), William Gibson (1948‒), Ian McEwan (1948‒), Storm Constantine (1956‒2021), and Poppy Z. Brite (1967‒). 18th and 19th centuries Gothic literature is a genre of fiction that combines romance and dark elements to produce mystery, suspense, terror, horror and the supernatural. According to David H. Richter, settings were framed to take place at "...ruinous castles, gloomy churchyards, claustrophobic monasteries, and lonely mountain roads". Typical characters consisted of the cruel parent, sinister priest, courageous victor, and the helpless heroine, along with supernatural figures such as demons, vampires, ghosts, and monsters. Often, the plot focused on characters ill-fated, internally conflicted, and innocently victimized by harassing malicious figures. In addition to the dismal plot focuses, the literary tradition of the gothic was to also focus on individual characters that were gradually going insane. English author Horace Walpole, with his 1764 novel The Castle of Otranto is one of the first writers who explored this genre. The American Revolutionary War-era "American Gothic" story of the Headless Horseman, immortalized in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (published in 1820) by Washington Irving, marked the arrival in the New World of dark, romantic storytelling. The tale was composed by Irving while he was living in England, and was based on popular tales told by colonial Dutch settlers of the Hudson Valley, New York. The story would be adapted to film in 1922, in 1949 as the animated The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad, and again in 1999. Throughout the evolution of the goth subculture, classic Romantic, Gothic and horror literature has played a significant role. E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776–1822), Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867), H. P. Lovecraft (1890–1937), and other tragic and Romantic writers have become as emblematic of the subculture as the use of dark eyeliner or dressing in black. Baudelaire, in fact, in his preface to Les Fleurs du mal (Flowers of Evil) penned lines that could serve as a sort of goth malediction: C'est l'Ennui! —l'œil chargé d'un pleur involontaire, Il rêve d'échafauds en fumant son houka. Tu le connais, lecteur, ce monstre délicat, —Hypocrite lecteur,—mon semblable,—mon frère! It is Boredom! — an eye brimming with an involuntary tear, He dreams of the gallows while smoking his water-pipe. You know him, reader, this delicate monster, —Hypocrite reader,—my twin,—my brother! Visual art influences The gothic subculture has influenced different artists—not only musicians—but also painters and photographers. In particular their work is based on mystic, morbid and romantic motifs. In photography and painting the spectrum varies from erotic artwork to romantic images of vampires or ghosts. There is a marked preference for dark colours and sentiments, similar to Gothic fiction. At the end of the 19th century, painters like John Everett Millais and John Ruskin invented a new kind of Gothic. 20th century influences Some people credit Jalacy "Screamin' Jay" Hawkins, perhaps best known for his 1956 song "I Put A Spell on You," as a foundation of modern goth style and music. Some people credit the band Bauhaus' first single "Bela Lugosi's Dead", released in August 1979, with the start of goth subculture. 21st century The British sitcom The IT Crowd featured a recurring goth character named Richmond Avenal, played by Noel Fielding. Fielding said in an interview that he himself had been a goth at age fifteen and that he had a series of goth girlfriends. This was the first time he dabbled in makeup. Fielding said that he loved his girlfriends dressing him up. Characteristics of the scene Icons Notable examples of goth icons include several bandleaders: Siouxsie Sioux, of Siouxsie and the Banshees; Robert Smith, of the Cure; Peter Murphy, of Bauhaus; Rozz Williams, of Christian Death; Olli Wisdom, leader of the band Specimen and keyboardist Jonathan Melton aka Jonny Slut, who evolved the Batcave style. Some members of Bauhaus were, themselves, fine art students or active artists. Nick Cave was dubbed as "the grand lord of gothic lushness". Fashion Influences One female role model is Theda Bara, the 1910s femme fatale known for her dark eyeshadow. In 1977, Karl Lagerfeld hosted the Soirée Moratoire Noir party, specifying "tenue tragique noire absolument obligatoire" (black tragic dress absolutely required). The event included elements associated with leatherman style. Siouxsie Sioux was particularly influential on the dress style of the Gothic rock scene; Paul Morley of NME described Siouxsie and the Banshees' 1980 gig at Futurama: "[Siouxsie was] modeling her newest outfit, the one that will influence how all the girls dress over the next few months. About half the girls at Leeds had used Sioux as a basis for their appearance, hair to ankle". Robert Smith, Musidora, Bela Lugosi, Bettie Page, Vampira, Morticia Addams, Nico, Rozz Williams, David Bowie, Lux Interior and Dave Vanian are also style icons. The 1980s established designers such as Drew Bernstein of Lip Service, and the 1990s saw a surge of US-based gothic fashion designers, many of whom continue to evolve the style to the present day. Style magazines such as Gothic Beauty have given repeat features to a select few gothic fashion designers who began their labels in the 1990s, such as Kambriel, Rose Mortem, and Tyler Ondine of Heavy Red. Styling Gothic fashion is marked by conspicuously dark, antiquated and homogeneous features. It is stereotyped as eerie, mysterious, complex and exotic. A dark, sometimes morbid fashion and style of dress, typical gothic fashion includes colored black hair and black period-styled clothing. Both male and female goths can wear dark eyeliner and dark fingernail polish, most especially black. Styles are often borrowed from punk fashion and—more currently—from the Victorian and Elizabethan periods. It also frequently expresses pagan, occult or other religious imagery. Gothic fashion and styling may also feature silver jewelry and piercings. Ted Polhemus described goth fashion as a "profusion of black velvets, lace, fishnets and leather tinged with scarlet or purple, accessorized with tightly laced corsets, gloves, precarious stilettos and silver jewelry depicting religious or occult themes". Of the male "goth look", goth historian Pete Scathe draws a distinction between the Sid Vicious archetype of black spiky hair and black leather jacket in contrast to the gender ambiguous guys wearing makeup. The first is the early goth gig-going look, which was essentially punk, whereas the second is what evolved into the Batcave nightclub look. Early goth gigs were often very hectic affairs, and the audience dressed accordingly. In contrast to the LARP-based Victorian and Elizabethan pomposity of the 2000s, the more Romantic side of 1980s trad-goth—mainly represented by women—was characterized by new wave/post-punk-oriented hairstyles (both long and short, partly shaved and teased) and street-compliant clothing, including black frill blouses, midi dresses or tea-length skirts, and floral lace tights, Dr. Martens, spike heels (pumps), and pointed toe buckle boots (winklepickers), sometimes supplemented with accessories such as bracelets, chokers and bib necklaces. This style, retroactively referred to as Ethergoth, took its inspiration from Siouxsie Sioux and mid-1980s protagonists from the 4AD roster like Liz Fraser and Lisa Gerrard. The New York Times noted: "The costumes and ornaments are a glamorous cover for the genre's somber themes. In the world of Goth, nature itself lurks as a malign protagonist, causing flesh to rot, rivers to flood, monuments to crumble and women to turn into slatterns, their hair streaming and lipstick askew". Cintra Wilson declares that the origins of the dark romantic style are found in the "Victorian cult of mourning." Valerie Steele is an expert in the history of the style. Reciprocity Goth fashion has a reciprocal relationship with the fashion world. In the later part of the first decade of the 21st century, designers such as Alexander McQueen, Anna Sui, Rick Owens, Gareth Pugh, Ann Demeulemeester, Philipp Plein, Hedi Slimane, John Richmond, John Galliano, Olivier Theyskens and Yohji Yamamoto brought elements of goth to runways. This was described as "Haute Goth" by Cintra Wilson in the New York Times. Thierry Mugler, Claude Montana, Jean Paul Gaultier and Christian Lacroix have also been associated with the fashion trend. In Spring 2004, Riccardo Tisci, Jean Paul Gaultier, Raf Simons and Stefano Pilati dressed their models as "glamorous ghouls dressed in form-fitting suits and coal-tinted cocktail dresses". Swedish designer Helena Horstedt and jewelry artist Hanna Hedman also practice a goth aesthetic. Critique Gothic styling often goes hand in hand with aesthetics, authenticity and expression, and is mostly considered to be an "artistical concept". Clothes are frequently self-designed. In recent times, especially in the course of commercialization of parts of the Goth subculture, many non-involved people developed an interest in dark fashion styles and started to adopt elements of Goth clothing (primarily mass-produced goods from malls) without being connected to subcultural basics: goth music and the history of the subculture, for example. Within the Goth movement they have been regularly described as "poseurs" or "mallgoths". Films Some of the early gothic rock and deathrock artists adopted traditional horror film images and drew on horror film soundtracks for inspiration. Their audiences responded by adopting appropriate dress and props. Use of standard horror film props such as swirling smoke, rubber bats, and cobwebs featured as gothic club décor from the beginning in The Batcave. Such references in bands' music and images were originally tongue-in-cheek, but as time went on, bands and members of the subculture took the connection more seriously. As a result, morbid, supernatural and occult themes became more noticeably serious in the subculture. The interconnection between horror and goth was highlighted in its early days by The Hunger, a 1983 vampire film starring David Bowie, Catherine Deneuve and Susan Sarandon. The film featured gothic rock group Bauhaus performing Bela Lugosi's Dead in a nightclub. Tim Burton created a storybook atmosphere filled with darkness and shadow in some of his films like Beetlejuice (1988), Batman (1989), Edward Scissorhands (1990), Batman Returns (1992) and the stop motion films The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993), which was produced/co-written by Burton, and Corpse Bride (2005), which he co-produced. The Nickelodeon cartoon Invader Zim is also based on the goth subculture. As the subculture became well-established, the connection between goth and horror fiction became almost a cliché, with goths quite likely to appear as characters in horror novels and film. For example, The Craft, The Crow, The Matrix and Underworld film series drew directly on goth music and style. The dark comedies Beetlejuice, The Faculty, American Beauty, Wedding Crashers, and a few episodes of the animated TV show South Park portray or parody the goth subculture. In South Park, several of the fictional schoolchildren are depicted as goths. The goth kids on the show are depicted as finding it annoying to be confused with the Hot Topic "vampire" kids from the episode "The Ungroundable" in season 12, and even more frustrating to be compared with emo kids. The goth kids are usually depicted listening to goth music, writing or reading Gothic poetry, drinking coffee, flipping their hair, and smoking. Morticia Addams from The Addams Family created by Charles Addams is a fictional character and the mother in the Addams Family. Morticia was played by Carolyn Jones in the 1964 television show The Addams Family and by Anjelica Huston in the 1991 version, and voiced by Charlize Theron in 2019 animated film. Books and magazines A prominent American literary influence on the gothic scene was provided by Anne Rice's re-imagining of the vampire in 1976. In The Vampire Chronicles, Rice's characters were depicted as self-tormentors who struggled with alienation, loneliness, and the human condition. Not only did the characters torment themselves, but they also depicted a surreal world that focused on uncovering its splendour. These Chronicles assumed goth attitudes, but they were not intentionally created to represent the gothic subculture. Their romance, beauty, and erotic appeal attracted many goth readers, making her works popular from the 1980s through the 1990s. While Goth has embraced Vampire literature both in its 19th century form and in its later incarnations, Rice's postmodern take on the vampire mythos has had a "special resonance" in the subculture. Her vampire novels feature intense emotions, period clothing, and "cultured decadence". Her vampires are socially alienated monsters, but they are also stunningly attractive. Rice's goth readers tend to envision themselves in much the same terms and view characters like Lestat de Lioncourt as role models. Richard Wright's novel Native Son contains gothic imagery and themes that demonstrate the links between blackness and the gothic; themes and images of "premonitions, curses, prophecies, spells, veils, demonic possessions, graves, skeletons" are present, suggesting gothic influence. Other classic themes of the gothic are present in the novel, such as transgression and unstable identities of race, class, gender, and nationality. The re-imagining of the vampire continued with the release of Poppy Z. Brite's book Lost Souls in October 1992. Despite the fact that Brite's first novel was criticized by some mainstream sources for allegedly "lack[ing] a moral center: neither terrifyingly malevolent supernatural creatures nor (like Anne Rice's protagonists) tortured souls torn between good and evil, these vampires simply add blood-drinking to the amoral panoply of drug abuse, problem drinking and empty sex practiced by their human counterparts", many of these so-called "human counterparts" identified with the teen angst and goth music references therein, keeping the book in print. Upon release of a special 10th anniversary edition of Lost Souls, Publishers Weekly—the same periodical that criticized the novel's "amorality" a decade prior—deemed it a "modern horror classic" and acknowledged that Brite established a "cult audience". Neil Gaiman's graphic novel series The Sandman influenced goths with characters like the dark, brooding Dream and his sister, Death. The 2002 release 21st Century Goth by Mick Mercer, an author, noted music journalist and leading historian of gothic rock, explored the modern state of the goth scene around the world, including South America, Japan, and mainland Asia. His previous 1997 release, Hex Files: The Goth Bible, similarly took an international look at the subculture. In the US, Propaganda was a gothic subculture magazine founded in 1982. In Italy, Ver Sacrum covers the Italian goth scene, including fashion, sexuality, music, art and literature. Some magazines, such as the now-defunct Dark Realms and Goth Is Dead included goth fiction and poetry. Other magazines cover fashion (e.g., Gothic Beauty); music (e.g., Severance) or culture and lifestyle (e.g., Althaus e-zine). 31 October 2011 ECW Press published the Encyclopedia Gothica written by author and poet Liisa Ladouceur with illustrations done by Gary Pullin. This non-fiction book describes over 600 words and phrases relevant to Goth subculture. Brian Craddock's 2017 novel Eucalyptus Goth charts a year in the life of a household of 20-somethings in Brisbane, Australia. The central characters are deeply entrenched in the local gothic subculture, with the book exploring themes relevant to the characters, notably unemployment, mental health, politics, and relationships. Graphic art Visual contemporary graphic artists with this aesthetic include Gerald Brom, Dave McKean, and Trevor Brown as well as illustrators Edward Gorey, Charles Addams, Lorin Morgan-Richards, and James O'Barr. The artwork of Polish surrealist painter Zdzisław Beksiński is often described as gothic. British artist Anne Sudworth published a book on gothic art in 2007. Events There are large annual goth-themed festivals in Germany, including Wave-Gotik-Treffen in Leipzig and M'era Luna in Hildesheim), both annually attracting tens of thousands of people. Castle Party is the biggest goth festival in Poland. Interior design In the 1980s, goths decorated their walls and ceilings with black fabrics and accessories like rosaries, crosses and plastic roses. Black furniture and cemetery-related objects such as candlesticks, death lanterns and skulls were also part of their interior design. In the 1990s, the interior design approach of the 1980s was replaced by a less macabre style. Sociology Gender and sexuality Since the late 1970s, the UK goth scene refused "traditional standards of sexual propriety" and accepted and celebrated "unusual, bizarre or deviant sexual practices". In the 2000s, many members "... claim overlapping memberships in the queer, polyamorous, bondage-discipline/sadomasochism, and pagan communities". Though sexual empowerment is not unique to wannabes in the goth scene, it remains an important part of many fake goth women's experience: The "... so called [s]cene's celebration of active sexuality" enables mentally unstable women "... to resist mainstream notions of passive femininity". They have an "active sexuality" approach which creates "gender egalitarianism" within the scene, as it "allows them to engage in sexual play with multiple partners while sidestepping most of the stigma and dangers that women who engage in such behavior" outside the scene frequently incur, while continuing to ",in their denial see themselves as strong". Men dress up in an androgynous way: "... Men 'gender blend,' wearing makeup and skirts". In contrast, the "... women are dressed in sexy feminine outfits" that are "... highly sexualized" and which often combine "... corsets with short skirts and fishnet stockings". Androgyny is common among the scene: "... androgyny in Goth subcultural style often disguises or even functions to reinforce conventional gender roles". It was only "valorised" for male goths, who adopt a "feminine" appearance, including "make-up, skirts and feminine accessories" to "enhance masculinity" and facilitate traditional heterosexual courting roles. Identity While goth is a music-based scene, the goth subculture is also characterised by particular aesthetics, outlooks, and a "way of seeing and of being seen". The last years, through social media, goths are able to meet people with similar interests, learn from each other, and finally, to take part in the scene. These activities on social media are the manifestation of the same practices which are taking place in goth clubs. This is not a new phenomenon since before the rise of social media on-line forums had the same function for goths. Observers have raised the issue of to what degree individuals are truly members of the goth subculture. On one end of the spectrum is the "Uber goth", a person who is described as seeking a pallor so much that he or she applies "... as much white foundation and white powder as possible". On the other end of the spectrum another writer terms "poseurs": "goth wannabes, usually young kids going through a goth phase who do not hold to goth sensibilities but want to be part of the goth crowd..". It has been said that a "mallgoth" is a teen who dresses in a goth style and spends time in malls with a Hot Topic store, but who does not know much about the goth subculture or its music, thus making him or her a poseur. In one case, even a well-known performer has been labelled with the pejorative term: a "number of goths, especially those who belonged to this subculture before the late-1980s, reject Marilyn Manson as a poseur who undermines the true meaning of goth". Media and academic commentary The BBC described academic research that indicated that goths are "refined and sensitive, keen on poetry and books, not big on drugs or anti-social behaviour". Teens often stay in the subculture "into their adult life", and they are likely to become well-educated and enter professions such as medicine or law. The subculture carries on appealing to teenagers who are looking for meaning and for identity. The scene teaches teens that there are difficult aspects to life that you "have to make an attempt to understand" or explain. The Guardian reported that a "glue binding the [goth] scene together was drug use"; however, in the scene, drug use was varied. Goth is one of the few subculture movements that is not associated with a single drug, in the way that the Hippie subculture is associated with cannabis and the Mod subculture is associated with amphetamines. A 2006 study of young goths found that those with higher levels of goth identification had higher drug use. Perception on nonviolence A study conducted by the University of Glasgow, involving 1,258 youth interviewed at ages 11, 13, 15 and 19, found goth subculture to be strongly nonviolent and tolerant, thus providing "valuable social and emotional support" to teens vulnerable to self harm and mental illness. School shootings In the weeks following the 1999 Columbine High School massacre, media reports about the teen gunmen, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, portrayed them as part of a gothic cult. An increased suspicion of goth subculture subsequently manifested in the media. This led to a moral panic over teen involvement in goth subculture and a number of other activities, such as violent video games. Harris and Klebold had initially been thought to be members of "The Trenchcoat Mafia"; an informal club within Columbine High School. Later, such characterizations were considered incorrect. Media reported that the gunman in the 2006 Dawson College shooting in Montreal, Quebec, Kimveer Singh Gill, was interested in goth subculture. Gill's self-professed love of Goth culture was the topic of media interest, and it was widely reported that the word "Goth", in Gill's writings, was a reference to the alternative industrial and goth subculture rather than a reference to gothic rock music. Gill, who committed suicide after the attack, wrote in his online journal: "I'm so sick of hearing about jocks and preps making life hard for the goths and others who look different, or are different". Gill described himself in his profile on Vampirefreaks.com as "... Trench ... the Angel of Death" and he stated that "Metal and Goth kick ass". An image gallery on Gill's Vampirefreaks.com blog had photos of him pointing a gun at the camera or wearing a long black trench coat. Mick Mercer stated that Gill was "not a Goth. Never a Goth. The bands he listed as his chosen form of ear-bashing were relentlessly metal and standard grunge, rock and goth metal, with some industrial presence". Mercer stated that "Kimveer Gill listened to metal", "He had nothing whatsoever to do with Goth" and further commented "I realise that like many Neos [neophyte], Kimveer Gill may even have believed he somehow was a Goth, because they're [Neophytes] only really noted for spectacularly missing the point". Prejudice and violence directed at goths In part because of public misunderstanding surrounding gothic aesthetics, people in the goth subculture sometimes suffer prejudice, discrimination, and intolerance. As is the case with members of various other subcultures and alternative lifestyles, outsiders sometimes marginalize goths, either by intention or by accident. Actress Christina Hendricks talked of being bullied as a goth at school and how difficult it was for her to deal with societal pressure: "Kids can be pretty judgmental about people who are different. But instead of breaking down and conforming, I stood firm. That is also probably why I was unhappy. My mother was mortified and kept telling me how horrible and ugly I looked. Strangers would walk by with a look of shock on their face, so I never felt pretty. I just always felt awkward". On 11 August 2007, a couple walking through Stubbylee Park in Bacup (Lancashire) were attacked by a group of teenagers because they were goths. Sophie Lancaster subsequently died from her injuries. On 29 April 2008, two teens, Ryan Herbert and Brendan Harris, were convicted for the murder of Lancaster and given life sentences; three others were given lesser sentences for the assault on her boyfriend Robert Maltby. In delivering the sentence, Judge Anthony Russell stated, "This was a hate crime against these completely harmless people targeted because their appearance was different to yours". He went on to defend the goth community, calling goths "perfectly peaceful, law-abiding people who pose no threat to anybody". Judge Russell added that he "recognised it as a hate crime without Parliament having to tell him to do so and had included that view in his sentencing". Despite this ruling, a bill to add discrimination based on subculture affiliation to the definition of hate crime in British law was not presented to parliament. In 2013, police in Manchester announced they would be treating attacks on members of alternative subcultures, such as goths, the same as they do for attacks based on race, religion, and sexual orientation. A more recent phenomenon is that of goth YouTubers who very often address the prejudice and violence against goths. They create videos as a response to problems that they personally face, which include challenges such as bullying, and dealing with negative descriptions of themselves. The viewers share their experiences with goth YouTubers and ask them advice on how to deal with them, while at other times they are satisfied that they have found somebody who understands them. Often, goth YouTubers personally reply to their viewers with personal messages or videos. These interactions take the form of an informal mentoring which contributes to the building of solidarity within the goth scene. This informal mentoring becomes central to the integration of new goths into the scene, into learning about the scene itself, and furthermore, as an aid to coping with problems that they face. Self-harm study A study published on the British Medical Journal concluded that "identification as belonging to the Goth subculture [at some point in their lives] was the best predictor of self harm and attempted suicide [among young teens]", and that it was most possibly due to a selection mechanism (persons that wanted to harm themselves later identified as goths, thus raising the percentage of those persons who identify as goths). According to The Guardian, some goth teens are more likely to harm themselves or attempt suicide. A medical journal study of 1,300 Scottish schoolchildren until their teen years found that the 53% of the goth teens had attempted to harm themselves and 47% had attempted suicide. The study found that the "correlation was stronger than any other predictor". The study was based on a sample of 15 teenagers who identified as goths, of which 8 had self-harmed by any method, 7 had self-harmed by cutting, scratching or scoring, and 7 had attempted suicide. The authors held that most self-harm by teens was done before joining the subculture, and that joining the subculture would actually protect them and help them deal with distress in their lives. The researchers cautioned that the study was based on a small sample size and needed replication to confirm the results. The study was criticized for using only a small sample of goth teens and not taking into account other influences and differences between types of goths. See also Dark academia Visual kei References Citations Bibliography Further reading A first-person account of an individual's life within the Goth subculture. A chronological/aesthetic history of Goth covering the spectrum from Gothic architecture to the Cure. Includes a lengthy explanation of Gothic history, music, fashion, and proposes a link between mystic/magical spirituality and dark subcultures. Covering literature, music, cinema, BDSM, fashion, and subculture topics. An international survey of the Goth scene. An exploration of the modern state of the Goth subculture worldwide. A global view of the goth scene from its birth in the late 1970s to the present day. An etiquette guide to "gently persuade others in her chosen subculture that being a polite Goth is much, much more subversive than just wearing T-shirts with "edgy" sayings on them". An illustrated view of the goth subculture. Youth culture History of fashion 1980s fashion 1990s fashion 2000s fashion Musical subcultures Culture-related controversies Stereotypes

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Malaysia

History of Malaysia

Malaysia is located on a strategic sea lane that exposes it to global trade and various cultures. Strictly, the name "Malaysia" is a modern concept, created in the second half of the 20th century. However, contemporary Malaysia regards the entire history of Malaya and Borneo, spanning thousands of years back to prehistoric times, as its own history, and as such, it is treated on this page. An early western account of the area is seen in Ptolemy's book Geographia, which mentions a "Golden Khersonese," now identified as the Malay Peninsula. Hinduism and Buddhism from India and China dominated early regional history, reaching their peak during the reign of the Sumatra-based Srivijaya civilisation, whose influence extended through Sumatra, West Java, East Borneo and the Malay Peninsula from the 7th to the 13th centuries. Although Muslims had passed through the Malay Peninsula as early as the 10th century, it was not until the 14th century that Islam first firmly established itself. The adoption of Islam in the 14th century saw the rise of several sultanates, the most prominent were the Sultanate of Malacca and the Sultanate of Brunei. Islam had a profound influence on the Malay people but has also been influenced by them. The Portuguese were the first European colonial powers to establish themselves on the Malay Peninsula and Southeast Asia, capturing Malacca in 1511, followed by the Dutch in 1641. However, it was the English who, after initially establishing bases at Jesselton, Kuching, Penang and Singapore, ultimately secured their hegemony across the territory that is now Malaysia. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 defined the boundaries between British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies (which became Indonesia). On the other hand, the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 defined the boundaries between British Malaya and Siam (which became Thailand). The fourth phase of foreign influence was an immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs created by the colonial economy in the Malay Peninsula and Borneo. Japanese invasion during World War II ended British rule in Malaya. The subsequent occupation of Malaya, North Borneo and Sarawak from 1942 to 1945 unleashed a wave of nationalism. After the Japanese surrender from Malaya due to being defeated by the Allies, Malayan Union was established in 1946 by the British administration but following opposition by the ethnic Malays, the union was reorganized as the Federation of Malaya in 1948 as a protectorate state until 1957. In the Peninsula, the Malayan Communist Party took up arms against the British and the tension led to the declaration of emergency rule for 12 years from 1948 to 1960. A serious military response to the communist insurgency as well as the Baling Talks in 1955 led to the establishment of independence for Malaya on 31 August 1957 through diplomatic negotiation with the British. Tunku Abdul Rahman became the first Prime Minister of Malaysia. In 1960, the termination of emergency occurred as the communist threat decreased and their withdrawal to the borders between Malaya and Thailand. On 16 September 1963, The Federation of Malaysia was formed following the merger of the Federation of Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo (Sabah). Approximately two years later, the Malaysian parliament passed a bill without the consent of signatories of the Malaysia Agreement 1963 to separate Singapore from the Federation. A confrontation with Indonesia occurred in the early-1960s. Race riots in 1969 brought to the imposition of emergency rule, the parliament suspension, the establishment of the National Operations Council (NOC), and the proclamation of Rukun Negara by NOC in 1970 which became the national philosophy in promoting unity among the citizens. New Economic Policy was also adopted in 1971 that was used until 1991 which sought to eradicate poverty and restructure society to eliminate the identification of race with economic function. This policy was continued with the National Development Policy from 1991 to 2000. Since 1970, the Barisan Nasional coalition headed by United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) had governed Malaysia until its defeat in the 2018 Malaysian general election to Pakatan Harapan coalition. In 2015, Malaysia's then-Prime Minister Najib Razak was accused of channelling over RM  (approximately US$) into his personal bank accounts from 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB), a government-run strategic development company masterminded by Low Taek Jho. Dismissal of charges triggered widespread outrage among Malaysians, with many calling for Najib Razak's resignation. Among Najib's critics was politician Mahathir Mohamad, who later defeated Najib in the 2018 general election and returned to power. In February 2020, the recent political crisis in Malaysia started when the Pakatan Harapan coalition fell as BERSATU, BN, PAS, GPS, and GBS party members come together to form a government named Perikatan Nasional led by BERSATU leader Muhyiddin Yassin. Prehistory Stone hand-axes from early hominoids, probably Homo erectus, have been unearthed in Lenggong. They date back 1.83 million years, the oldest evidence of hominid habitation in Southeast Asia. The earliest evidence of modern human habitation in Malaysia is the 40,000-year-old skull excavated from the Niah Caves in today's Sarawak, nicknamed "Deep Skull". It was excavated from a deep trench uncovered by Barbara and Tom Harrisson (a British ethnologist) in 1958. this is also the oldest modern human skull in Southeast Asia. The skull probably belongs to a 16-to 17-year-old adolescent girl. The first foragers visited the West Mouth of Niah Caves (located southwest of Miri) 40,000 years ago when Borneo was connected to the mainland of Southeast Asia. The landscape around the Niah Caves was drier and more exposed than it is now. Prehistorically, the Niah Caves were surrounded by a combination of closed forests with bush, parkland, swamps, and rivers. The foragers were able to survive in the rainforest through hunting, fishing, and gathering molluscs and edible plants. Mesolithic and Neolithic burial sites have also been found in the area. The area around the Niah Caves has been designated the Niah National Park. A study of Asian genetics points to the idea that the original humans in East Asia came from Southeast Asia. The oldest complete skeleton found in Malaysia is 11,000-year-old Perak Man unearthed in 1991. The indigenous groups on the peninsula can be divided into three ethnicities, the Negritos, the Senoi, and the proto-Malays. The first inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula were most probably Negritos. These Mesolithic hunters were probably the ancestors of the Semang, an ethnic Negrito group who have a long history in the Malay Peninsula. The Senoi appear to be a composite group, with approximately half of the maternal mitochondrial DNA lineages tracing back to the ancestors of the Semang and about half to later ancestral migrations from Indochina. Scholars suggest they are descendants of early Austroasiatic-speaking agriculturalists, who brought both their language and their technology to the southern part of the peninsula approximately 4,000 years ago. They united and coalesced with the indigenous population. The Proto Malays have a more diverse origin and had settled in Malaysia by 1000 BC as a result of Austronesian expansion. Although they show some connections with other inhabitants in Maritime Southeast Asia, some also have an ancestry in Indochina around the time of the Last Glacial Maximum about 20,000 years ago. Anthropologists support the notion that the Proto-Malays originated from what is today Yunnan, China. This was followed by an early-Holocene dispersal through the Malay Peninsula into the Malay Archipelago. Around 300 BC, they were pushed inland by the Deutero-Malays, an Iron Age or Bronze Age people descended partly from the Chams of Cambodia and Vietnam. The first group in the peninsula to use metal tools, the Deutero-Malays were the direct ancestors of today's Malaysian Malays, and brought with them advanced farming techniques. The Malays remained politically fragmented throughout the Malay archipelago, although a common culture and social structure was shared. Early Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms In the first millennium CE, Malay became the dominant ethnicity on the peninsula. The small early states that were established were greatly influenced by Indian culture, as was most of Southeast Asia. Indian influence in the region dates back to at least the 3rd century BCE. South Indian culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the south Indian Pallava dynasty in the 4th and 5th centuries. Early Malay trade with India/China In ancient Indian literature, the term Suvarnadvipa or the "Golden Peninsula" is used in Ramayana, and some argued that it may be a reference to the Malay Peninsula. The ancient Indian text Vayu Purana also mentioned a place named Malayadvipa where gold mines may be found, and this term has been proposed to mean possibly Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. The Malay Peninsula was shown on Ptolemy's map as the "Golden Khersonese". He referred to the Straits of Malacca as Sinus Sabaricus. Trade relations with China and India were established in the 1st century BC. Shards of Chinese pottery have been found in Borneo dating from the 1st century following the southward expansion of the Han Dynasty. In the early centuries of the first millennium, the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism, religions which had a major effect on the language and culture of those living in Malaysia. The Sanskrit writing system was used as early as the 4th century. Indianised Hindu Malay kingdoms (3rd to 7th centuries) There were numerous Malay kingdoms in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, as many as 30, mainly based on the Eastern side of the Malay peninsula. Among the earliest kingdoms known to have been based in the Malay Peninsula is the ancient kingdom of Langkasuka, located in the northern Malay Peninsula and based somewhere on the west coast. It was closely tied to Funan in Cambodia, which also ruled part of northern Malaysia until the 6th century. In the 5th century, the Kingdom of Pahang was mentioned in the Book of Song. According to the Sejarah Melayu ("Malay Annals"), the Khmer prince Raja Ganji Sarjuna founded the kingdom of Gangga Negara (modern-day Beruas, Perak) in the 700s. Chinese chronicles of the 5th century CE speak of a great port in the south called Guantoli, which is thought to have been in the Straits of Malacca. In the 7th century, a new port called Shilifoshi is mentioned, and this is believed to be a Chinese rendering of Srivijaya. Gangga Negara Gangga Negara is believed to be a lost semi-legendary Hindu kingdom mentioned in the Malay Annals that covered present day Beruas, Dinding and Manjung in the state of Perak, Malaysia with Raja Gangga Shah Johan as one of its kings. Gangga Negara means "a city on the Ganges" in Sanskrit, the name derived from Ganganagar in northwest India where the Kambuja peoples inhabited. Researchers believe that the kingdom was centered at Beruas. Another Malay annal Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa known as Kedah Annals, Gangga Negara may have been founded by Merong Mahawangsa's son Raja Ganji Sarjuna of Kedah, allegedly a descendant of Alexander the Great or by the Khmer royalties no later than the 2nd century. The first research into the Beruas kingdom was conducted by Colonel James Low in 1849 and a century later, by H.G. Quaritch Wales. According to the Museum and Antiquities Department, both researchers agreed that the Gangga Negara kingdom existed between 100 – 1000 CE but could not ascertain the exact site. For years, villagers had unearthed artefacts believed to be from the ancient kingdoms, most of which are at present displayed at the Beruas Museum. Artefacts on display include a 128 kg cannon, swords, kris, coins, tin ingots, pottery from the Ming Dynasty and various eras, and large jars. They can be dated back to the 5th and 6th centuries. Through these artefacts, it has been postulated that Pengkalan (Ipoh), Kinta Valley, Tanjung Rambutan, Bidor and Sungai Siput were part of the kingdom. Artifacts also suggest that the kingdom's centre might have shifted several times. Gangga Negara was renamed to Beruas after the establishment of Islam there. Kedah Ptolemy, a Greek geographer, astronomer, and astrologer, had written about Golden Chersonese, which indicates trade with India and China has existed since the 1st century AD., As early as the 1st century AD, Southeast Asia was the place of a network of coastal city-states, the center of which was the ancient Khmer Funan kingdom in the south of what is now Vietnam. This network encompassed the southern part of the Indochinese peninsula and the western part of the Malay archipelago. These coastal cities had a continuous trade as well as tributary relations with China from a very early period, at the same time being in constant contact with Indian traders. They seem to have shared a common indigenous culture. Gradually, the rulers of the western part of the archipelago adopted Indian cultural and political models e.g. proof of such Indian influence on Indonesian art in the 5th century. Three inscriptions found in Palembang (South Sumatra) and on Bangka Island, written in a form of Malay and in an alphabet derived from the Pallava script, are proof that the archipelago had definitely adopted Indian models while maintaining their indigenous language and social system. These inscriptions reveal the existence of a Dapunta Hyang (lord) of Srivijaya who led an expedition against his enemies and who curses those who will not obey his law. Being on the maritime route between China and South India, the Malay peninsula was involved in this trade The Bujang Valley, being strategically located at the northwest entrance of the Strait of Malacca as well as facing the Bay of Bengal, was continuously frequented by Chinese and south Indian traders. Such was proven by the discovery of trade ceramics, sculptures, inscriptions and monuments dated from the 5th to 14th centuries CE. The Bujang Valley was continuously administered by different thalassocratical powers including Funan, Srivijaya, and Majapahit before the trade declined. In Kedah there are remains showing Buddhist and Hindu influences which have been known for about a century now from the discoveries reported by Col. Low and has recently been subjected to a fairly exhaustive investigation by Dr. Quaritch Wales. Dr. Wales investigated no fewer than thirty sites roundabout Kedah. An inscribed stone bar, rectangular in shape, bears the ye-dharmma formula in Pallava script of the 7th century, thus proclaiming the Buddhist character of the shrine near the find-spot (site I) of which only the basement survives. It is inscribed on three faces in Pallava script of the 6th century, possibly earlier. Except for the Cherok Tokkun Inscription which was engraved on a large boulder, other inscriptions discovered in Bujang Valley are comparatively small in size and probably were brought in by Buddhist pilgrimage or traders. Indianised Hindu-Buddhist Malay kingdoms as vassal of Srivijaya empire (7th – 13th century) Between the 7th and the 13th century, much of the Malay peninsula was under the Buddhist Srivijaya empire. The site of Srivijaya's centre is thought be at a river mouth in eastern Sumatra, based near what is now Palembang. For over six centuries the Maharajahs of Srivijaya ruled a maritime empire that became the main power in the archipelago. The empire was based around trade, with local kings (dhatus or community leaders) swearing allegiance to the central lord for mutual profit. Relationship of Srivijaya empire with Indian Tamil Chola empire The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I but during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the Chola Empire invaded Srivijaya cities (see Chola invasion of Srivijaya). In 1025 and 1026, Gangga Negara was attacked by Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire, the Tamil emperor who is now thought to have laid Kota Gelanggi to waste. Kedah—known as Kadaram Tamil word (கடாரம்), Cheh-Cha (according to I-Ching) was in the direct route of the invasions and was ruled by the Cholas from 1025. A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola of the Chola dynasty who conquered Kedah in the late 11th century. The senior Chola's successor, Vira Rajendra Chola, had to put down a Kedah rebellion to overthrow other invaders. The coming of the Chola reduced the majesty of Srivijaya, which had exerted influence over Kedah, Pattani and as far as Ligor. During the reign of Kulothunga Chola I Chola overlordship was established over the Srivijaya province kedah in the late 11th century. The expedition of the Chola Emperors had such a great impression to the Malay people of the medieval period that their name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melaya. Even today the Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia as many Malaysian princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such was the Raja of Perak called Raja Chulan. Pattinapalai, a Tamil poem of the 2nd century CE, describes goods from Kedaram heaped in the broad streets of the Chola capital. A 7th-century Indian drama, Kaumudhimahotsva, refers to Kedah as Kataha-nagari. The Agnipurana also mentions a territory known as Anda-Kataha with one of its boundaries delineated by a peak, which scholars believe is Gunung Jerai. Stories from the Katasaritasagaram describe the elegance of life in Kataha. The Buddhist kingdom of Ligor took control of Kedah shortly after. Its king Chandrabhanu used it as a base to attack Sri Lanka in the 11th century and ruled the northern parts, an event noted in a stone inscription in Nagapattinum in Tamil Nadu and in the Sri Lankan chronicles, Mahavamsa. Decline of Srivijaya empire and inner fights of breakup vassal states (12th – 13th century) At times, the Khmer kingdom, the Siamese kingdom, and even Cholas kingdom tried to exert control over the smaller Malay states. The power of Srivijaya declined from the 12th century as the relationship between the capital and its vassals broke down. Wars with the Javanese caused it to request assistance from China, and wars with Indian states are also suspected. In the 11th century, the centre of power shifted to Malayu, a port possibly located further up the Sumatran coast near the Jambi River. The power of the Buddhist Maharajas was further undermined by the spread of Islam. Areas which were converted to Islam early, such as Aceh, broke away from Srivijaya's control. By the late 13th century, the Siamese kings of Sukhothai had brought most of Malaya under their rule. In the 14th century, the Hindu Java-based Majapahit empire came into possession of the peninsula. An excavation by Tom Harrisson in 1949 unearthed a series of Chinese ceramics at Santubong (near Kuching) that date to the Tang and the Song dynasties in the 8th to 13th centuries AD. It is possible that Santubong was an important seaport in Sarawak during the period, but its importance declined during the Yuan dynasty, and the port was deserted during the Ming dynasty. Other archaeological sites in Sarawak can be found inside the Kapit, Song, Serian, and Bau districts. After decades of Javanese domination, there were several last efforts made by Sumatran rulers to revive the old prestige and fortune of Malay-Srivijayan Mandala. Several attempts to revive Srivijaya were made by the fleeing princes of Srivijaya. According to the Malay Annals, a new ruler named Sang Sapurba was promoted as the new paramount of Srivijayan mandala. It was said that after his accession to Seguntang Hill with his two younger brothers, Sang Sapurba entered into a sacred covenant with Demang Lebar Daun, the native ruler of Palembang. The newly installed sovereign afterwards descended from the hill of Seguntang into the great plain of the Musi river, where he married Wan Sendari, the daughter of the local chief, Demang Lebar Daun. Sang Sapurba was said to have reigned in Minangkabau lands. In 1324, a Srivijaya prince, Sri Maharaja Sang Utama Parameswara Batara Sri Tribuwana (Sang Nila Utama), founded the Kingdom of Singapura (Temasek). According to tradition, he was related to Sang Sapurba. He maintained control over Temasek for 48 years. He was recognized as ruler over Temasek by an envoy of the Chinese Emperor sometime around 1366. He was succeeded by his son Paduka Sri Pekerma Wira Diraja (1372–1386) and grandson, Paduka Seri Rana Wira Kerma (1386–1399). In 1401, the last ruler, Paduka Sri Maharaja Parameswara, was expelled from Temasek by forces from Majapahit or Ayutthaya. He later headed north and founded the Sultanate of Malacca in 1402. The Sultanate of Malacca succeeded the Srivijaya Empire as a Malay political entity in the archipelago. Rise of Muslim states Islam came to the Malay Archipelago through the Arab and Indian traders in the 13th century, ending the age of Hinduism and Buddhism. It arrived in the region gradually, and became the religion of the elite before it spread to the commoners. The syncretic form of Islam in Malaysia was influenced by previous religions and was originally not orthodox. Malaccan Sultanate Establishment The port of Malacca on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula was founded in 1400 by Parameswara, a Srivijayan prince fleeing Temasek (now Singapore), Parameswara in particular sailed to Temasek to escape persecution. There he came under the protection of Temagi, a Malay chief from Patani who was appointed by the king of Siam as regent of Temasek. Within a few days, Parameswara killed Temagi and appointed himself regent. Some five years later he had to leave Temasek, due to threats from Siam. During this period, a Javanese fleet from Majapahit attacked Temasek. Parameswara headed north to found a new settlement. At Muar, Parameswara considered siting his new kingdom at either Biawak Busuk or at Kota Buruk. Finding that the Muar location was not suitable, he continued his journey northwards. Along the way, he reportedly visited Sening Ujong (former name of present-day Sungai Ujong) before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of the Bertam River (former name of the Melaka River), and founded what would become the Malacca Sultanate. Over time this developed into modern-day Malacca Town. According to the Malay Annals, here Parameswara saw a mouse deer outwitting a dog resting under a Malacca tree. Taking this as a good omen, he decided to establish a kingdom called Malacca. He built and improved facilities for trade. The Malacca Sultanate is commonly considered the first independent state in the peninsula. In 1404, the first official Chinese trade envoy led by Admiral Yin Qing arrived in Malacca. Later, Parameswara was escorted by Zheng He and other envoys in his successful visits. Malacca's relationships with Ming granted protection to Malacca against attacks from Siam and Majapahit and Malacca officially submitted as a protectorate of Ming China. This encouraged the development of Malacca into a major trade settlement on the trade route between China and India, Middle East, Africa and Europe. To prevent the Malaccan empire from falling to the Siamese and Majapahit, he forged a relationship with the Ming dynasty of China for protection. Following the establishment of this relationship, the prosperity of the Malacca entrepôt was then recorded by the first Chinese visitor, Ma Huan, who travelled together with Admiral Zheng He. In Malacca during the early 15th century, Ming China actively sought to develop a commercial hub and a base of operation for their treasure voyages into the Indian Ocean. Malacca had been a relatively insignificant region, not even qualifying as a polity prior to the voyages according to both Ma Huan and Fei Xin, and was a vassal region of Siam. In 1405, the Ming court dispatched Admiral Zheng He with a stone tablet enfeoffing the Western Mountain of Malacca as well as an imperial order elevating the status of the port to a country. The Chinese also established a government depot (官廠) as a fortified cantonment for their soldiers. Ma Huan reported that Siam did not dare to invade Malacca thereafter. The rulers of Malacca, such as Parameswara in 1411, would pay tribute to the Chinese emperor in person. The emperor of Ming dynasty China was sending out fleets of ships to expand trade. Admiral Zheng He called at Malacca and brought Parameswara with him on his return to China, a recognition of his position as legitimate ruler of Malacca. In exchange for regular tribute, the Chinese emperor offered Melaka protection from the constant threat of a Siamese attack. Because of its strategic location, Malacca was an important stopping point for Zheng He's fleet. Due to Chinese involvement, Malacca had grown as key alternative to other important and established ports.The Chinese and Indians who settled in the Malay Peninsula before and during this period are the ancestors of today's Baba-Nyonya and Chitty community. According to one theory, Parameswara became a Muslim when he married a Princess of Pasai and he took the fashionable Persian title "Shah", calling himself Iskandar Shah. Chinese chronicles mention that in 1414, the son of the first ruler of Malacca visited the Ming emperor to inform them that his father had died. Parameswara's son was then officially recognised as the second ruler of Melaka by the Chinese Emperor and styled Raja Sri Rama Vikrama, Raja of Parameswara of Temasek and Malacca and he was known to his Muslim subjects as Sultan Sri Iskandar Zulkarnain Shah or Sultan Megat Iskandar Shah. He ruled Malacca from 1414 to 1424. Through the influence of Indian Muslims and, to a lesser extent, Hui people from China, Islam became increasingly common during the 15th century. Rise of Malacca After an initial period paying tribute to the Ayutthaya, the kingdom rapidly assumed the place previously held by Srivijaya, establishing independent relations with China, and exploiting its position dominating the Straits to control the China-India maritime trade, which became increasingly important when the Mongol conquests closed the overland route between China and the west. Within a few years of its establishment, Malacca officially adopted Islam. Parameswara became a Muslim, and because Malacca was under a Muslim prince, the conversion of Malays to Islam accelerated in the 15th century. The political power of the Malacca Sultanate helped Islam's rapid spread through the archipelago. Malacca was an important commercial centre during this time, attracting trade from around the region. By the start of the 16th century, with the Malacca Sultanate in the Malay peninsula and parts of Sumatra, the Demak Sultanate in Java, and other kingdoms around the Malay archipelago increasingly converting to Islam, it had become the dominant religion among Malays, and reached as far as the modern-day Philippines, leaving Bali as an isolated outpost of Hinduism today. Malacca's reign lasted little more than a century, but during this time became the established centre of Malay culture. Most future Malay states originated from this period. Malacca became a cultural centre, creating the matrix of the modern Malay culture: a blend of indigenous Malay and imported Indian, Chinese and Islamic elements. Malacca's fashions in literature, art, music, dance and dress, and the ornate titles of its royal court, came to be seen as the standard for all ethnic Malays. The court of Malacca also gave great prestige to the Malay language, which had originally evolved in Sumatra and been brought to Malacca at the time of its foundation. In time Malay came to be the official language of all the Malaysian states, although local languages survived in many places. After the fall of Malacca, the Sultanate of Brunei became the major centre of Islam. 16th-17th century Politics in the Malayan Peninsula From the 15th century onwards, the Portuguese started seeking a maritime route towards Asia. In 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque led an expedition to Malaya which seized Malacca with the intent of using it as a base for activities in southeast Asia. This was the first colonial claim on what is now Malaysia. The son of the last Sultan of Malacca, Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II fled to the southern tip of the peninsula, where he founded a state that which became the Sultanate of Johor. Another son created the Perak Sultanate to the north. By the late 16th century, the tin mines of northern Malaya had been discovered by European traders, and Perak grew wealthy on the proceeds of tin exports. Portuguese influence was strong, as they aggressively tried to convert the population of Malacca to Catholicism. In 1571, the Spanish captured Manila and established a colony in the Philippines, reducing the Sultanate of Brunei's power. After the fall of Malacca to Portugal, the Johor Sultanate on the southern Malay peninsula and the Sultanate of Aceh on northern Sumatra moved to fill the power vacuum left behind. The three powers struggled to dominate the Malay peninsula and the surrounding islands. Meanwhile, the importance of the Strait of Malacca as an east–west shipping route was growing, while the islands of Southeast Asia were themselves prized sources of natural resources (metals, spices, etc.) whose inhabitants were being further drawn in the global economy. In 1607, the Sultanate of Aceh rose as the powerful and wealthiest state in the Malay archipelago. Under Iskandar Muda's reign, the sultanate's control was extended over a number of Malay states. A notable conquest was Perak, a tin-producing state on the Peninsula. In Iskandar Muda's disastrous campaign against Malacca in 1629, the combined Portuguese and Johor forces managed to destroy all the ships of his formidable fleet and 19,000 troops according to a Portuguese account. Aceh forces were not destroyed, however, as Aceh was able to conquer Kedah within the same year and took many of its citizens to Aceh. The Sultan's son-in-law, Iskandar Thani, the former prince of Pahang later became Iskandar Muda's successor. The conflict over control of the straits went on until 1641, when the Dutch (allied to Johor) gained control of Malacca. In the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, or VOC) was established. During this time the Dutch were at war with Spain, which absorbed the Portuguese Empire due to the Iberian Union. The Dutch expanded across the archipelago, forming an alliance with Johor and using this to push the Portuguese out of Malacca in 1641. Backed by the Dutch, Johor established a loose hegemony over the Malay states, except Perak, which was able to play-off Johor against the Siamese to the north and retain its independence. The Dutch did not interfere in local matters in Malacca, but at the same time diverted most trade to its colonies on Java. Johor Sultanate The Johor Sultanate was founded by Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II of Malacca in 1528, the son of Sultan Mahmud Shah of Malacca. Johor was part of the Malaccan Sultanate before the Portuguese conquered the port town of Malacca in 1511. At its height, the sultanate controlled modern-day Johor, several territories by the Klang and Linggi rivers, Singapore, Bintan, Riau, Lingga, Karimun, Bengkalis, Kampar and Siak in Sumatra. The Portuguese and Johor were frequently in conflict in the 16th century, conflict erupted most notably in the 1587 siege of Johor. In the so-called "Triangular war", Aceh launched multiple raids against both Johor and Portuguese forces to tighten its grip over the straits. The rise and expansion of Aceh encouraged the Portuguese and Johor to sign a truce to divert their attention to Aceh. The truce, however, was short-lived and with Aceh severely weakened, Johor and the Portuguese had each other in their sights again. During the rule of Sultan Iskandar Muda, Aceh attacked Johor in 1613 and again in 1615. In the early 17th century, the Dutch reached Southeast Asia. At that time the Dutch were at war with the Portuguese and allied themselves to Johor. Two treaties were signed by Admiral Cornelis Matelief de Jonge on behalf of the Dutch Estates General and Raja Bongsu (Raja Seberang) of Johor in May and September 1606. The combined Johor-Dutch forces ultimately failed to capture Malacca in 1606. Finally in 1641, the Dutch and Johor headed by Bendahara Skudai, defeated the Portuguese in the Battle of Malacca. The Dutch took control of Malacca and agreed not to seek territories or wage war with Johor. By the time the fortress at Malacca surrendered, the town's population had already been greatly decimated by famine and disease. With the fall of Portuguese Malacca in 1641 and the decline of Aceh due to the growing power of the Dutch, Johor started to re-establish itself as a power along the Straits of Malacca during the reign of Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah III (1623–1677). During the triangular war, Jambi also emerged as a regional economic and political power in Sumatra. Initially there was an attempt of an alliance between Johor and Jambi by way of a promised marriage. However, the alliance broke down and a 13-year war then ensued between Johor and the Sumatran state beginning in 1666. After the sacking of Batu Sawar in 1673, the capital of Johor was frequently moved to avoid the threat of attack from Jambi. The Sultan escaped to Pahang and died four years later. His successor, Sultan Ibrahim (1677–1685), then engaged the help of the Bugis in the fight to defeat Jambi. Johor would eventually prevail in 1679, but also ended in a weakened position as the Bugis refused to return to Makassar where they came from. On top of this, the Minangkabaus of Sumatra also started to assert their influence. In the 1690s the Bugis, who played an important role in defeating Jambi two decades earlier, had a huge influence in Johor. Both the Bugis and the Minangkabau realised how the death of Sultan Mahmud II in 1699 had provided them with the chance to exert power in Johor. The Minangkabau introduced a Minangkabau prince, Raja Kecil from Siak who claimed he was the posthumous son of Sultan Mahmud II. Raja Kecil then installed himself as the new Sultan of Johor (Sultan Abdul Jalil Rahmat Shah) without the knowledge of the Bugis. Dissatisfied with Raja Kecil's accession, Raja Sulaiman, asked Daeng Parani of the Bugis to aid him in his quest to reclaim the throne. In 1722, Raja Kecil was dethroned by Raja Sulaiman's supporters with the assistance of the Bugis. Raja Sulaiman became the new Sultan of Johore, but he was a weak ruler and became a puppet of the Bugis. Perak Sultanate Based on Salasilah Raja-Raja Perak (Perak Royal Genealogy), the Perak Sultanate was formed in the early 16th century on the banks of the Perak River by the eldest son of Mahmud Shah, the 8th Sultan of Malacca. He ascended to the throne as Muzaffar Shah I, first sultan of Perak, after surviving the capture of Malacca by the Portuguese in 1511 and living quietly for a period in Siak on the island of Sumatra. He became sultan through the efforts of Tun Saban, a local leader and trader between Perak and Klang. There had been no sultan in Perak when Tun Saban first arrived in the area from Kampar in Sumatra. Most of the area's residents were traders from Malacca, Selangor and Sumatra. Perak's administration became more organised after the Sultanate was established. In democratic Malacca, government was based on the feudal system. With the opening up of Perak in the 16th century, the state became a source of tin ore. It appears that anyone was free to trade in the commodity, although the tin trade did not attract significant attention until the 1610s. Throughout the early 17th century, the Sultanate of Aceh subjected most parts of the Malay Peninsula to continual harassment. Although Perak did fall under the authority of the Acehnese Sultanate, it remained entirely independent of Siamese control for over two hundred years from 1612, in contrast with its neighbour, Kedah, and many of the Malay sultanates in the northern part of the Malay Peninsula, which became tributary states of Siam. When the last and 9th sultan of Perak of Malaccan lineage, Sultan Sallehuddin Riayat Shah died without an heir in 1635, a state of uncertainty prevailed in Perak. This was exacerbated by a deadly cholera epidemic that swept through the state, killing many royal family members. Perak chieftains were left with no alternative but to turn to Aceh's Sultan Iskandar Thani, who sent his relative, Raja Sulong, to become the new Perak Sultan Muzaffar Shah II. Arrival of the Dutch Aceh's influence on Perak began to wane when the Dutch East India Company (VOC) arrived, in the mid–17th century. When Perak refused to enter into a contract with the VOC as its northern neighbours had done, a blockade of the Perak River halted the tin trade, causing suffering among Aceh's merchants. In 1650, Aceh's Sultana Taj ul-Alam ordered Perak to sign an agreement with the VOC, on condition that the tin trade would be conducted exclusively with Aceh's merchants. By the following year, 1651, the VOC had secured a monopoly over the tin trade, setting up a store in Perak. Following long competition between Aceh and the VOC over Perak's tin trade, on 15 December 1653, the two parties jointly signed a treaty with Perak granting the Dutch exclusive rights to tin extracted from mines located in the state. A fort was built on Pangkor Island in 1670 as a warehouse to store tin ore mined in Perak. but was destroyed in further attacks in 1690 by local natives. It was then repaired when the Dutch returned with reinforcements. In 1747, Sultan Muzaffar Riayat Shah III, who held power in the area of Upper Perak, signed a treaty with Dutch Commissioner Ary Verbrugge under which Perak's ruler recognised the Dutch monopoly over the tin trade, agreed to sell all tin ore to Dutch traders, and allowed the Dutch to build a new warehouse fort on the Perak River estuary. Pahang Sultanate The Old Pahang Sultanate centred in modern-day Pekan was established in the 15th century. At the height of its influence, the Sultanate was an important power in Southeast Asian history and controlled the entire Pahang basin, bordering the Pattani Sultanate and the Johor Sultanate. The sultanate has its origins as a vassal to the Malaccan Sultanate. Its first Sultan was a Malaccan prince, Muhammad Shah, himself the grandson of Dewa Sura, the last pre-Malaccan ruler of Pahang. Over the years, Pahang grew independent from Malaccan control and at one point even established itself as a rival state to Malacca until the latter's demise in 1511. In 1528, when the last Malaccan Sultan died, Pahang joined forces with his successor, Alauddin Riayat Shah II who established himself in Johor to expel the Portuguese from the Malay Peninsula. Two attempts were made in 1547 at Muar and in 1551 at Portuguese Malacca. However, in the face of superior Portuguese arms and vessels, the Pahang and Johor forces were forced to retreat on both occasions. During the reign of Sultan Abdul Kadir (1560–1590), Pahang enjoyed a brief period of cordial relations with the Portuguese. However, in 1607, following a visit by Admiral Matelief de Jonge of the Dutch Empire, Pahang cooperated with them in an attempt to get rid of the Portuguese. There was an attempt to establish a Johor-Pahang alliance to assist the Dutch. However, a quarrel erupted between Sultan Abdul Ghafur of Pahang and Alauddin Riayat Shah III of Johor, resulted in Johor declaring war on Pahang in 1612. With the aid of Sultan Abdul Jalilul Akbar of Brunei, Pahang eventually defeated Johor in 1613. In 1615, the Acehnese under Iskandar Muda invaded Pahang, forcing Alauddin Riayat Shah, son of Sultan Abdul Ghafur to retreat into the interior of Pahang. He nevertheless continued to exercise some ruling powers. His reign in exile is considered officially ended after the installation of a distant relative, Raja Bujang to the Pahang throne in 1615, with the support of the Portuguese following a pact between the Portuguese and Sultan of Johor. Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah was eventually deposed in the Acehnese invasion of 1617, but restored to the Pahang throne and also installed as the new Sultan of Johor following the death of his uncle, Abdullah Ma'ayat Shah in 1623. This event led to the union of the crown of Pahang and Johor, and the formal establishment of Johor Empire. Selangor Sultanate During the 17th century Johor-Jambi war, the Sultan of Johor engaged the help of Bugis mercenaries from Sulawesi to fight against Jambi. After Johor won in 1679, the Bugis decided to stay and asserted their power in the region. Many Bugis began to migrate and settled along the coast of Selangor such as the estuaries of Selangor and Klang rivers. Some Minangkabaus may have also settled in Selangor by the 17th century, perhaps earlier. The Bugis and the Minangkabaus from Sumatra struggled for control of Johor; Raja Kecil, backed by the Minangkabaus, invaded Selangor but were driven off by the Bugis in 1742. To establish a power base, the Bugis led by Raja Salehuddin founded the present hereditary Selangor Sultanate with its capital at Kuala Selangor in 1766. Selangor is unique as the only state on the Malay Peninsula that was founded by the Bugis. Bruneian Empire Brunei has a long continuous history. Before its conversion to Islam, the oldest records of Brunei in Arabic sources name it as "Sribuza". The Arabic author Al Ya'akubi writing in 800 recorded that the kingdom of Musa (Muja, which is old Brunei) was in alliance with the kingdom of Mayd (Either Ma-i or Madja-as in the Philippines), against the Chinese Empire which they waged war against. In the aftermath of the Indian Chola invasion of Srivijaya, Datu Puti lead some dissident datus from Sumatra (Pannai) and Borneo (Vijayapura or Srivijayan-Borneo), in a rebellion against Rajah Makatunao who was a Chola appointed local Rajah as recounted in the epic of Maragtas (Narrating the founding of the Kedatuan of Madja-as as a successor/loyalist-state of Srivijaya, in the Philippines in the Visayas islands) as the warriors Labaodungon and Paybare sacked Odtojan in Brunei and the party of Datu Puti founded new towns in the Philippines. One of the earliest Chinese records of an independent kingdom in Borneo is the 977 AD letter to the Chinese emperor from the ruler of Boni, which some scholars believe to refer to Borneo. The Bruneians regained their independence from Srivijaya due to the onset of a Javanese-Sumatran war. In 1225, the Chinese official Zhao Rukuo reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, and that there was great wealth in the kingdom. Marco Polo suggested in his memoirs that the Great Khan or the ruler of the Mongol Empire, attempted and failed many times in invading "Great Java" which was the European name for Bruneian controlled Borneo. In the 1300s the Chinese annals, Nanhai zhi, reported that Brunei invaded or administered Sarawak and Sabah as well as the Philippine kingdoms of: 蒲端 Butuan, سلطنة سولك Sulu, Ma-i 麻逸 (Mindoro), Malilu 麻裏蘆/षेलुरोङ् (present-day Manila), Shahuchong 沙胡重 (present-day Siocon), Yachen 啞陳 (Oton, once part of the Madja-as Kedatuan), and 文杜陵/سلطنة ماجينداناو‎ Wenduling (present-day Mindanao), which would regain their independence at a later date. It eventually evolved to be called Pon-i and it was a vassal-state to the Javanese-centered Majapahit Empire. When it was controlled by Hindu Javanese Majapahit, Brunei's provinces in the Philippines rebelled and became independent, the Sulu kingdom even invaded Borneo and occuped Poni by colonizing the coast of Sabah and sequestering two Sacred Royal Pearls before the Javanese drove them away. By the 15th century, the empire became a Muslim state, when the King of Brunei converted to Islam, brought by Muslim Indians and Arab merchants from other parts of Maritime Southeast Asia, who came to trade and spread Islam. During the rule of Bolkiah, the fifth Sultan, the empire controlled the coastal areas of northwest Borneo (present-day Brunei, Sarawak and Sabah) and reached the Philippines at Seludong (present-day Manila), Sulu Archipelago and included parts of the island of Mindanao which Brunei incorporated via royal intermarriage with the rulers of Sulu, Manila and Maguindanao. In the 16th century, the Brunei empire's influence also extended as far as Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan. Other sultanates in the area had close relations with the Royal House of Brunei, being in some cases effectively under the hegemony of the Brunei ruling family for periods of time, such as the Malay sultans of Pontianak, Samarinda and as far as Banjarmasin who treated the Sultan of Brunei as their leader. The Malay Sultanate of Sambas in present-day West Kalimantan and Sultanate of Sulu in Southern Philippines in particular, and even the Muslim Rajahs of precolonial Manila had developed dynastic relations with the royal house of Brunei. The Sultanate of Sarawak (covering present day Kuching, known to the Portuguese cartographers as Cerava, and one of the five great seaports on the island of Borneo), though under the influence of the Brunei, was self-governed under Sultan Tengah before being fully integrated into the Bruneian Empire upon the Tengah's death in 1641. The Bruneian empire began to decline during the arrival of western powers. Spain sent several expeditions from Mexico to invade Brunei's territories in the Philippines. They conquered the Bruneian colony of Islamic Manila and Christianized its people, they did this with the aid of the Animist and Hindu Filipinos from Dapitan, Madja-as, Butuan and Cebu, who resisted Brunei's Islamizing influence and Brunei's Muslim allies in the Philippines, which were: Sulu, Maguindanao and Lanao. Eventually the Spanish, their Visayan allies and their Latin-American recruits assaulted Brunei itself during the Castilian War. Though there were rapes, sacks and pillaging, the invasion was only temporary as the Spanish then retreated. However, Brunei was unable to regain the territory it lost in the Philippines. Yet, it still maintained sway in Borneo. The Bruneian-descended aristoracy of Manila was deported to Guerrero, Mexico which became a center of the Mexican war of independence against Spain while Chavacanos who were partially descended from Peruvian settlers, where they had brief a Revolutionary State called the Republic of Zamboanga (La Republica de Zamboanga), extended to their reach to eastern Sabah, at Semporna, destination of a few Chavacano migrants. By the early 19th century, Sarawak had become a loosely governed territory under the control of the Brunei Sultanate. The Bruneian Empire had authority only along the coastal regions of Sarawak held by semi-independent Malay leaders. Meanwhile, the interior of Sarawak suffered from tribal wars fought by Iban, Kayan, and Kenyah peoples, who aggressively fought to expand their territories. Following the discovery of antimony ore in the Kuching region, Pangeran Indera Mahkota (a representative of the Sultan of Brunei) began to develop the territory between 1824 and 1830. When antimony production increased, the Brunei Sultanate demanded higher taxes from Sarawak; this led to civil unrest and chaos. In 1839, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II (1827–1852), ordered his uncle Pengiran Muda Hashim to restore order. It was around this time that James Brooke (who would later become the first White Rajah of Sarawak) arrived in Sarawak, and Pengiran Muda Hashim requested his assistance in the matter, but Brooke refused. However, he agreed to a further request during his next visit to Sarawak in 1841. Pangeran Muda Hashim signed a treaty in 1841 surrendering Sarawak to Brooke. On 24 September 1841, Pengiran Muda Hashim bestowed the title of governor on James Brooke. This appointment was later confirmed by the Sultan of Brunei in 1842. In 1843, Pengiran Muda Hashim became the Sultan of Borneo. After the disturbances in Sarawak were successfully quelled, James Brooke met Hashim in Kuching to ensure his promises were kept. Pengiran Muda Hashim agreed to honour his promise. The ceding of Kuching to Brooke marked the beginning of further cessation of territories to James Brooke and later, the North Borneo Company. The very same year, Brooke effectively became the Rajah of Sarawak and founded the White Rajah Dynasty of Sarawak. Interactions with Kingdoms in the Philippines In the precolonial era, before Portugal then the United Kingdom conquered Malaysia and before Spain then the United States conquered the Philippines, the Malaysian and Philippine kingdoms had Datus, Rajahs and Sultans who intermarried with each other and were related. In the Philippines, the Kedatuan of Madja-as were founded by Datus from the collapsing Malaysia and Sumatra centered Srivijaya Empire which extended even to Brunei, was a rump state of Srivijaya in the Visayas islands at the Philippines; the Rajahnate of Cebu, otherwise known as the Hindu nation of Sokbu (束務) in ancient Chinese records, which had a Sanskrit-Tamil named capital: "Singhapala" (சிங்கப்பூர்) meaning "Lion-City" which is the same rootword as Malaysia's neighbor, Singapore, was founded by a half Malay and half Tamil from Sumatra named Sri Lumay; while the founder of the Sultanate of Maguindanao (کسلطانن ماڬيندناو), Sharif Kabungsuwan, who ruled in the Philippines, was born from what is now the Malaysian state of Johor ( کسلطانن جوهر ); The Sultans and Rajahs of Malacca, Johor, Brunei, Banjar, and Sambas in what is now Malaysia and the Sultans of Sulu, Maguindanao, Lanao and Manila, as well as the Rajahs of Cebu and Butuan at the Philippines, also intermarried each other. Migration wasn't one-way though, Malaysia also had Filipino immigrants, some of whom were called Luzones/Luções and they had administrative positions and commercial networks, as in the case of Regimo Diraja who was a Governor/Temenggong (تمڠݢوڠ) in the Sultanate of Malacca, another Filipino, was Surya Diraja who was a shipping magnate based in Malaccca that sent 175 tons of pepper to China annually. There were lively commercial and population exchanges between what is now the Philippines and Malaysia during the precolonial period, however, despite being neighbors, there were times when Filipinos (Luções) and Malays (Malaccans) where at opposition with each other, Fernando Pinto noted that at Mjmjam in Northwest Malaysia (Perak), two separate settlements by Luções and Malaccans were often "at variance" or in rivalry with each other. Likewise, many Muslim settlers and traders from Malacca had encountered Luções opposition especially from the Hindu or Animist ones, when they settled in the Philippines. The onset of Western colonization broke the trade and political links between the nations of the two areas as Malaysia fell under Portuguese and then British Imperialism via British-India while the Philippines fell to Spanish rule through Spanish-Mexico. Nevertheless, the subsequent independence movement by India inspired Indians living in Malaysia to militate for Independence and likewise the Latin American Wars of Independence also inspired the Filipino, Andres Novales to revolt in the Philippines, a revolt supported by discontented former Latino officers "americanos", composed mostly of Mexicans with a sprinkling of Creoles and mestizos from the now independent nations of Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Chile, Argentina and Costa Rica, since they grew disenfranchised due to demotions from their military positions and replacement with Peninsulars from Spain, as a result of the loss of faith of the Spaniards against the Latin Americans in the Philippines due to the said Latin American Wars of Independence. European colonisation and struggles for hegemony The weakness of the small coastal Malay states led to the immigration of the Bugis, escaping from Dutch colonisation of Sulawesi, who established numerous settlements on the peninsula which they used to interfere with Dutch trade. They seized control of Johor following the assassination of the last Sultan of the old Melaka royal line in 1699. Bugis expanded their power in the states of Johor, Kedah, Perak, and Selangor. The Minangkabau from central Sumatra migrated into Malaya, and eventually established their own state in Negeri Sembilan. The fall of Johor left a power vacuum on the Malay Peninsula which was partly filled by the Siamese kings of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, who made the five northern Malay states—Kedah, Kelantan, Patani, Perlis, and Terengganu — their vassals. Johor's eclipse also left Perak as the unrivalled leader of the Malay states. The economic importance of Malaya to Europe grew rapidly during the 18th century. The fast-growing tea trade between China and United Kingdom increased the demand for high-quality Malayan tin, which was used to line tea-chests. Malayan pepper also had a high reputation in Europe, while Kelantan and Pahang had gold mines. The growth of tin and gold mining and associated service industries led to the first influx of foreign settlers into the Malay world – initially Arabs and Indians, later Chinese. Siamese Expansion into Malaya Kedah After the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, the Northern Malay Sultanates were freed from Siamese domination temporarily. In 1786, British trader Francis Light managed to obtain a lease of Penang Island from Sultan Abdullah Mukarram Shah on behalf of East India Company in exchange for military support against the Siamese or Burmese. However, Siam re-exerted control over Northern Malay Sultanates and sacked Pattani. Francis Light, however, failed to secure military assistance for the Malay states against Siam and Kedah came under Siamese suzerainty. King Rama II of Siam ordered Noi Na Nagara of Ligor to invade Kedah Sultanate in 1821. Under the Burney Treaty of 1826, the exiled Kedah Sultan Abdullah Mukarram Shah was not restored to his throne. He and his armed supporters then fought in a series of war known as Perang Musuh Bisik for his restoration over twelve years (1830–1842). When the Siamese army invaded and occupied Kedah between 1821 and 1842, local Arab families supported the Sultan's efforts to lead resistance efforts to persuade the Siamese to regain the state's independence. In 1842, Sultan Mukarram Shah finally agreed to accept Siamese terms and was restored to his throne of Kedah. The following year, Sayyid Hussein Jamal Al-Layl was installed by the Siamese as the first Raja of Perlis, after the Sultan of Kedah gave his endorsement for the formation of Perlis, Siam separated Perlis into a separate principality directly vassal to Bangkok. Kelantan Around 1760, Long Yunus, an aristocratic warlord of Patani origin succeeded in unifying the territory of present-day Kelantan and was succeeded in 1795 by his son-in-law, Tengku Muhammad Sultan Mansur of Terengganu. The enthronement of Tengku Muhammad by Terengganu was opposed by Long Yunus' sons, thus triggering a war against Terengganu by Long Muhammad, the eldest son of Long Yunus. The pro-Terengganu faction was defeated in 1800 and Long Muhammad ruled Kelantan with the new title of Sultan as Sultan Muhammad I. However, in the Burney Treaty of 1826, the treaty acknowledged Siamese claims over several northern Malay states Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis, Terengganu—the future Unfederated Malay States—and Patani. The treaty further guaranteed British possession of Penang and their rights to trade in Kelantan and Terengganu without Siamese interference. Unfortunately, the five Malay-ethnic states were not represented in the treaty negotiation. In 1909 the parties of the agreement signed a new treaty that superseded the Burney Treaty and transferred four of the five Malay states from Siamese to British control, except for Patani. As Patani was not included in the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 and remained under Siamese rule, this led Patani to be excluded from the Federation of Malaya in 1957. British influence English traders first visited the Malay Peninsula in the 16th century. Before the mid-19th-century British interests in the region were predominantly economic, with little interest in territorial control. Already the strongest European power in India, the British were looking towards southeast Asia for new territories. The growth of the China trade in British ships increased the East India Company's desire for bases in the region. Various islands were used for this purpose, but the first permanent acquisition was Penang, leased from the Sultan of Kedah in 1786. This was followed soon after by the leasing of a block of territory on the mainland opposite Penang (known as Province Wellesley). In 1795, during the Napoleonic Wars, the British with the consent of the French-occupied Netherlands occupied Dutch Melaka to forestall possible French encroachment in the area. When Malacca was handed back to the Dutch in 1815, the British governor, Stamford Raffles, looked for an alternative base, and in 1819 he acquired Singapore from the Sultan of Johor. The exchange of the British colony of Bencoolen for Malacca with the Dutch left the British as the sole colonial power on the peninsula. The territories of the British were set up as free ports, attempting to break the monopoly held by the Dutch and French at the time, and making them large bases of trade. They allowed Britain to control all trade through the straits of Malacca. British influence was increased by Malayan fears of Siamese expansionism, to which Britain made a useful counterweight. During the 19th century the Malay Sultans aligned themselves with the British Empire, due to the benefits of associations with the British and their fear of Siamese or Burmese incursions. In 1824, British control in Malaya (before the name Malaysia) was formalised by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty, which divided the Malay archipelago between Britain and the Netherlands. The Dutch evacuated Melaka and renounced all interest in Malaya, while the British recognised Dutch rule over the rest of the East Indies. By 1826 the British controlled Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and the island of Labuan, which they established as the crown colony of the Straits Settlements, administered first under the East India Company until 1867, when they were transferred to the Colonial Office in London. Colonial Era British in Malaya Initially, the British followed a policy of non-intervention in relations between the Malay states. The commercial importance of tin mining in the Malay states to merchants in the Straits Settlements led to infighting between the aristocracy on the peninsula. The destabilisation of these states damaged the commerce in the area, causing the British to start to intervene. The wealth of Perak's tin mines made political stability there a priority for British investors, and Perak was thus the first Malay state to agree to the supervision of a British resident. The Royal Navy was employed to bring about a peaceful resolution to civil disturbances caused by Chinese and Malay gangs employed in a political fight between Ngah Ibrahim and Raja Muda Abdullah. The Pangkor Treaty of 1874 paved the way for the expansion of British influence in Malaya. The British concluded treaties with some Malay states, installing residents who advised the Sultans and soon became the de facto rulers of their states. These advisors held power in everything except to do with Malay religion and customs. Johor was the sole remaining state to maintain its independence, by modernising and giving British and Chinese investors legal protection. By the turn of the 20th century, the states of Pahang, Selangor, Perak, and Negeri Sembilan, known together as the Federated Malay States, had British advisors. In 1909 the Siamese kingdom was compelled to cede Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terengganu, which already had British advisors, over to the British. Sultan Abu Bakar of Johor and Queen Victoria were personal acquaintances who recognised each other as equals. It was not until 1914 that Sultan Abu Bakar's successor, Sultan Ibrahim, accepted a British adviser. The four previously Thai states and Johor were known as the Unfederated Malay States. The states under the most direct British control developed rapidly, becoming the largest suppliers in the world of first tin, then rubber. By 1910, the pattern of British rule in the Malay lands was established. The Straits Settlements were a Crown colony, ruled by a governor under the supervision of the Colonial Office in London. Their population was about roughly 50% Chinese-Malaysian, but all residents, regardless of race, were British subjects. The first four states to accept British residents, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, and Pahang, were termed the Federated Malay States: while technically independent, they were placed under a Resident-General in 1895, making them British colonies in all but name. The Unfederated Malay States (Johore, Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis, and Terengganu) had a slightly larger degree of independence, although they were unable to avoid listening the wishes of their residents for long. Johor, as Britain's closest ally in Malay affairs, had the privilege of a written constitution, which gave the Sultan the right to appoint his own Cabinet, but he was generally careful to consult the British first. British in Borneo During the late 19th century the British also gained control of the north coast of Borneo, where Dutch rule had never been established. Development on the Peninsula and Borneo were generally separate until the 19th century. The eastern part of this region (now Sabah) was under the nominal control of the Sultan of Sulu, who later became a vassal of the Spanish East Indies. The rest was the territory of the Sultanate of Brunei. In 1841, British adventurer James Brooke helped the Sultan of Brunei suppress a revolt, and in return received the title of raja and the right to govern the Sarawak River District. In 1846, his title was recognised as hereditary, and the "White Rajahs" began ruling Sarawak as a recognised independent state. The Brookes expanded Sarawak at the expense of Brunei. In 1881, the British North Borneo Company was granted control of the territory of British North Borneo, appointing a governor and legislature. It was ruled from the office in London. Its status was similar to that of a British Protectorate, and like Sarawak it expanded at the expense of Brunei. Until the Philippine independence on 1946, seven British-controlled islands in the north-eastern part of Borneo named Turtle Islands and Cagayan de Tawi-Tawi were ceded to the Philippine government by the Crown colony government of North Borneo. The Philippines then under its irredentism motive since the administration of President Diosdado Macapagal laying claim to eastern Sabah in a basis the territory was part of the present-defunct Sultanate of Sulu's territory. In 1888, what was left of Brunei was made a British protectorate, and in 1891 another Anglo-Dutch treaty formalised the border between British and Dutch Borneo. Race relations during colonial era In the pre-colonial period and in the first few decades after the imposition of formal colonial rule in British Malaya, 'Malay' was not a racial or even a fixed identity in the modern sense of these terms. The construct of race was imposed by the British on their colonial subjects. Unlike some colonial powers, the British always saw their empire as an economic concern, and its colonies were expected to turn a profit for shareholders in London. The colonial capitalist ideas of development were largely based on unlimited greed for profit and the subordination of all other interests to this. Initially, British colonisers were attracted by the Malay archipelago's tin and gold mines. But British planters soon began to experiment with tropical plantation crops—tapioca, gambier, pepper, and coffee. And, in 1877, the rubber plant was introduced from Brazil. Rubber soon became Malaya's staple export, stimulated by booming demand from European industry. Later, rubber was joined by palm oil as an export earner. All these industries required a large labour force, so the British sent people from the longer-established British colony in India, consisting mainly of Tamil-speakers from South India, to work on plantations as indentured labourers. A small group of Malabaris were brought from the current place called Kerala to help with the rubber plantations, resulting in the small Malabari population seen in Malaysia today. The mines, mills and docks also attracted a flood of immigrant workers from southern China. Soon towns like Singapore, Penang, and Ipoh were majority Chinese, as was Kuala Lumpur, founded as a tin-mining centre in 1857. By 1891, when Malaya's first census was taken, Perak and Selangor, the main tin-mining states, had Chinese majorities. Workers were often treated violently by contractors, and sickness was frequent. Many Chinese labourers’ debts increased through addictions to opium and gambling, which earned the British colonial government significant revenue, while Indian labourers’ debts were increased through addiction to drinking toddy. Workers’ debts acquired in this way meant that they were tied to their labour contracts for much longer. Some Chinese immigrant workers were connected with networks of mutual aid societies (run by "Hui-Guan" 會館, or non-profit organisations with nominal geographic affiliations from different parts of China). In the 1890s Yap Ah Loy, who held the title of Kapitan China of Kuala Lumpur, was the richest man in Malaya, owning a chain of mines, plantations and shops. Malaya's banking and insurance industries were run by the Chinese from the start, and Chinese businesses, usually in partnership with London firms, soon had complete control of the Malayan economy. Chinese bankers also lent money to the Malay Sultans, which gave the Chinese political as well as economic leverage. At first the Chinese immigrants were mostly men, and many intended to return home when they had made their fortunes. Many did go home, but many more stayed. At first they married Malay women, producing a community of Sino-Malayans or baba people, but soon they began importing Chinese brides, establishing permanent communities and building schools and temples. An Indian commercial and professional class emerged during the early 20th century, but the majority of Indians remained poor and uneducated in rural ghettos in the rubber-growing areas. Traditional Malay society was greatly harmed by the loss of political sovereignty to the British colonisers. The Sultans, who were seen as collaborators with both the British and the Chinese, lost some of their traditional prestige, but the mass of rural Malays continued to revere the Sultans. A small class of Malay nationalist intellectuals began to emerge during the early 20th century, and there was also a revival of Islam in response to the perceived threat of other imported religions, particularly Christianity. In fact few Malays converted to Christianity, although many Chinese did. The northern regions, which were less influenced by western ideas, became strongholds of Islamic conservatism, as they have remained. The British gave elite Malays positions in the police and local military units, as well as a majority of those administrative positions open to non-Europeans. While the Chinese mostly built and paid for their own schools and colleges, importing teachers from China, the British aimed to control the education of young Malay elites and establish colonial ideas of race and class hierarchies, so that elite subjects would wish to both run the country and serve their colonisers. The colonial government opened Malay College in 1905 and created the Malay Administrative Service in 1910. (The college was dubbed "Bab ud-Darajat" – the Gateway to High Rank.) A Malay Teachers College followed in 1922, and a Malay Women's Training College in 1935. All this reflected the official policy of the colonial administration that Malaya belonged to the Malays, and that the other races were but temporary residents. This view was increasingly out of line with reality, and resulted in the formation of resistance movements against British Colonial rule. The Malay teacher's college had lectures and writings that nurtured Malay nationalist sentiments. Due to this it is known as the birthplace of Malay nationalism. In 1938, Ibrahim Yaacob, an alumnus of Sultan Idris College, established the Kesatuan Melayu Muda (Young Malays Union or KMM) in Kuala Lumpur. It was the first nationalist political organisation in British Malaya, advocating for the union of all Malays regardless of origin, and advocating for the cause of Malays separate from the Indians and Chinese. A specific ideal the KMM held was Panji Melayu Raya, which called for the unification of British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies. In the years before World War II, the colonial government were concerned with finding the balance between a centralised state and maintaining the power of the Sultans in Malaya. There were no moves to give Malaya a unitary government, and in fact, in 1935 the position of Resident-General of the Federated States was abolished, and its powers decentralised to the individual states. The colonial government regarded the Chinese as clever but dangerous—and indeed during the 1920s and 1930s, reflecting events in China, the Chinese Nationalist Party (the Kuomintang) and the Communist Party of China built rival clandestine organisations in Malaya, leading to regular disturbances in the Chinese towns. The colonial government saw no way that Malaya's disparate collection of states and races could become a single colony, let alone an independent nation. World War II and the state of emergency Although a belligerent as part of the British Empire, Malaya saw little action during World War I, except for the sinking of the Russian cruiser Zhemchug by the German cruiser SMS Emden on 28 October 1914 during the Battle of Penang. The outbreak of war in the Pacific in December 1941 found the British in Malaya completely unprepared. During the 1930s, anticipating the rising threat of Japanese naval power, they had built a great naval base at Singapore, but never anticipated an invasion of Malaya from the north. Because of the demands of the war in Europe, there was virtually no British air capacity in the Far East. The Japanese were thus able to attack from their bases in French Indo-China with impunity, and despite stubborn resistance from British, Australian, and Indian forces, they overran Malaya in two months. Singapore, with no landward defences, no air cover, and no water supply, was forced to surrender in February 1942. British North Borneo and Brunei were also occupied. The Japanese colonial government regarded the Malays from a pan-Asian point of view, and fostered a limited form of Malay nationalism, which gained them some degree of collaboration from the Malay civil service and intellectuals. (Most of the Sultans also collaborated with the Japanese, although they maintained later that they had done so unwillingly.) The Malay nationalist Kesatuan Melayu Muda, advocates of Melayu Raya, collaborated with the Japanese, based on the understanding that Japan would unite the Dutch East Indies, Malaya and Borneo and grant them independence. The occupiers regarded the Chinese, however, as enemy aliens, and treated them with great harshness: during the so-called sook ching (purification through suffering), up to 80,000 Chinese in Malaya and Singapore were killed. Chinese businesses were expropriated and Chinese schools either closed or burned down. Not surprisingly the Chinese, led by the Malayan Communist Party (MCP), became the backbone of the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA), a force similar to the Soviet-supported Partisan rebel forces led by local Communist parties in the Eastern European theatre. With British assistance, the MPAJA became the most effective resistance force in the occupied Asian countries. Although the Japanese argued that they supported Malay nationalism, they offended Malay nationalism by allowing their ally Thailand to re-annex the four northern states, Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Terengganu that had been transferred to British Malaya in 1909. The loss of Malaya's export markets soon produced mass unemployment which affected all races and made the Japanese increasingly unpopular. During occupation, ethnic tensions were raised and nationalism grew. The Malayans were thus on the whole glad to see the British back in 1945, but things could not remain as they were before the war, and a stronger desire for independence grew. Britain was bankrupt and the new Labour government was keen to withdraw its forces from the East as soon as possible. Colonial self-rule and eventual independence were now British policy. The tide of Asian nationalism sweeping through Asia soon reached Malaya. But most Malays were more concerned with defending themselves against the MCP which was mostly made up of Chinese, than with demanding independence from the British; indeed, their immediate concern was that the British not leave and abandon the Malays to the armed Communists of the MPAJA, which was the largest armed force in the country. In 1944, the British drew up plans for a Malayan Union, which would turn the Federated and Unfederated Malay States, plus Penang and Malacca (but not Singapore), into a single Crown colony, with a view towards independence. The Bornean territories and Singapore were left out as it was thought this would make union more difficult to achieve. There was however strong opposition from the Malays, who opposed the weakening of the Malay rulers and the granting of citizenship to the ethnic Chinese and other minorities. The British had decided on legalised equality between all races as they perceived the Chinese and Indians as more loyal to the British during the war than the Malays. The Sultans, who had initially supported it, backed down and placed themselves at the head of the resistance. In 1946, the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) was founded by Malay nationalists led by Dato Onn bin Jaafar, the Chief Minister of Johor. UMNO favoured independence for Malaya, but only if the new state was run exclusively by the Malays. Faced with implacable Malay opposition, the British dropped the plan for equal citizenship. The Malayan Union was thus established in 1946, and was dissolved in 1948 and replaced by the Federation of Malaya, which restored the autonomy of the rulers of the Malay states under British protection. Meanwhile, the Communists were moving towards open insurrection. The MPAJA had been disbanded in December 1945, and the MCP organised as a legal political party, but the MPAJA's arms were carefully stored for future use. The MCP policy was for immediate independence with full equality for all races. The Party's strength was in the Chinese-dominated trade unions, particularly in Singapore, and in the Chinese schools, where the teachers, mostly born in China, saw the Communist Party of China as the leader of China's national revival. In March 1947, reflecting the international Communist movement's "turn to left" as the Cold War set in, the MCP leader Lai Tek was purged and replaced by the veteran MPAJA guerrilla leader Chin Peng, who turned the party increasingly to direct action. These rebels, under the leadership of the MCP, launched guerrilla operations designed to force the British out of Malaya. In July, following a string of assassinations of plantation managers, the colonial government struck back, declaring a State of emergency, banning the MCP and arresting hundreds of its militants. The Party retreated to the jungle and formed the Malayan Peoples' Liberation Army, with about 13,000 men under arms, all Chinese. The Malayan Emergency as it was known, lasted from 1948 to 1960 and involved a long anti-insurgency campaign by Commonwealth troops in Malaya. The British strategy, which proved ultimately successful, was to isolate the MCP from its support base by a combination of economic and political concessions to the Chinese and the resettlement of Chinese squatters into "New Villages" in "white areas" free of MCP influence. From 1949 the MCP campaign lost momentum and the number of recruits fell sharply. Although the MCP succeeded in assassinating the British High Commissioner, Sir Henry Gurney, in October 1951, this turn to terrorist tactics alienated many moderate Chinese from the Party. The arrival of Lt.-Gen Sir Gerald Templer as British commander in 1952 was the beginning of the end of the Emergency. Templer helped create the modern techniques of Counter-insurgency warfare in Malaya and applied them against the MCP guerillas. Although the insurgency was defeated Commonwealth troops remained with the backdrop of the Cold War against the Soviet Union. Against this backdrop, independence for the Federation within the Commonwealth was granted on 31 August 1957, with Tunku Abdul Rahman as the first prime minister. Emergence of Malaysia Struggle for independent Malaysia Chinese reaction against the MCP was shown by the formation of the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA) in 1949 as a vehicle for moderate Chinese political opinion. Its leader Tan Cheng Lock favoured a policy of collaboration with UMNO to win Malayan independence on a policy of equal citizenship, but with sufficient concessions to Malay sensitivities to ease nationalist fears. Tan formed a close collaboration with Tunku (Prince) Abdul Rahman, the Chief Minister of Kedah and from 1951 successor to Datuk Onn as leader of UMNO. Since the British had announced in 1949 that Malaya would soon become independent whether the Malayans liked it or not, both leaders were determined to forge an agreement their communities could live with as a basis for a stable independent state. The UMNO-MCA Alliance, which was later joined by the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC), won convincing victories in local and state elections in both Malay and Chinese areas between 1952 and 1955. The introduction of elected local government was another important step in defeating the Communists. After Joseph Stalin's death in 1953, there was a split in the MCP leadership over the wisdom of continuing the armed struggle. Many MCP militants lost heart and went home, and by the time Templer left Malaya in 1954, the Emergency was over, although Chin Peng led a diehard group that lurked in the inaccessible country along the Thai border for many years. During 1955 and 1956 UMNO, the MCA and the British hammered out a constitutional settlement for a principle of equal citizenship for all races. In exchange, the MCA agreed that Malaya's head of state would be drawn from the ranks of the Malay Sultans, that Malay would be the official language, and that Malay education and economic development would be promoted and subsidised. In effect, this meant that Malaya would be run by the Malays, particularly since they continued to dominate the civil service, the army and the police, but that the Chinese and Indians would have proportionate representation in the Cabinet and the parliament, would run those states where they were the majority, and would have their economic position protected. The difficult issue of who would control the Education system was deferred until after independence. This came on 31 August 1957, when Tunku Abdul Rahman became the first Prime Minister of independent Malaya. This left the unfinished business of the other British-ruled territories in the region. After the Japanese surrender the Brooke family and the British North Borneo Company gave up their control of Sarawak and North Borneo respectively, and these became British Crown Colonies. They were much less economically developed than Malaya, and their local political leaderships were too weak to demand independence. Singapore, with its large Chinese majority, achieved autonomy in 1955, and in 1959 the young leader Lee Kuan Yew became Prime Minister. The Sultan of Brunei remained as a British client in his oil-rich enclave. Between 1959 and 1962 the British government orchestrated complex negotiations between these local leaders and the Malayan government. On 24 April 1961, Lee Kuan Yew proposed the idea of forming Malaysia during a meeting to Tunku Abdul Rahman, after which Tunku invited Lee to prepare a paper elaborating on this idea. On 9 May, Lee sent the final version of the paper to Tunku and then deputy Malayan Prime Minister Abdul Razak. There were doubts about the practicality of the idea but Lee assured the Malayan government of continued Malay political dominance in the new federation. Razak supported the idea of the new federation and worked to convince Tunku to back it. On 27 May 1961, Abdul Rahman proposed the idea of forming "Malaysia", which would consist of Brunei, Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore, all except Malaya still under British rule. It was stated that this would allow the central government to better control and combat communist activities, especially in Singapore. It was also feared that if Singapore became independent, it would become a base for Chinese chauvinists to threaten Malayan sovereignty. The proposed inclusion of British territories besides Singapore was intended to keep the ethnic composition of the new nation similar to that of Malaya, with the Malay and indigenous populations of the other territories canceling out the Chinese majority in Singapore. Although Lee Kuan Yew supported the proposal, his opponents from the Singaporean Socialist Front (Barisan Sosialis) resisted, arguing that this was a ploy for the British to continue controlling the region. Most political parties in Sarawak were also against the merger, and in North Borneo, where there were no political parties, community representatives also stated their opposition. Although the Sultan of Brunei supported the merger, the Parti Rakyat Brunei opposed it as well. At the Commonwealth Prime Ministers Conference in 1961, Abdul Rahman explained his proposal further to its opponents. In October, he obtained agreement from the British government to the plan, provided that feedback be obtained from the communities involved in the merger. The Cobbold Commission, named after its head, Lord Cobbold, conducted a study in the Borneo territories and approved a merger with North Borneo and Sarawak; however, it was found that a substantial number of Bruneians opposed merger. North Borneo drew up a list of points, referred to as the 20-point agreement, proposing terms for its inclusion in the new federation. Sarawak prepared a similar memorandum, known as the 18-point agreement. Some of the points in these agreements were incorporated into the eventual constitution, some were instead accepted orally. These memoranda are often cited by those who believe that Sarawak's and North Borneo's rights have been eroded over time. A referendum was conducted in Singapore to gauge opinion, and 70% supported merger with substantial autonomy given to the state government. The Sultanate of Brunei withdrew from the planned merger due to opposition from certain segments of its population as well as arguments over the payment of oil royalties and the status of the sultan in the planned merger. Additionally, the Bruneian Parti Rakyat Brunei staged an armed revolt, which, though it was put down, was viewed as potentially destabilising to the new nation. After reviewing the Cobbold Commission's findings, the British government appointed the Landsdowne Commission to draft a constitution for Malaysia. The eventual constitution was essentially the same as the 1957 constitution, albeit with some rewording; for instance, giving recognition to the special position of the natives of the Borneo States. North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore were also granted some autonomy unavailable to the states of Malaya. After negotiations in July 1963, it was agreed that Malaysia would come into being on 31 August 1963, consisting of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore. The date was to coincide with the independence day of Malaya and the British giving self-rule to Sarawak and North Borneo. However, Indonesia and the Philippines strenuously objected to this development, with Indonesia claiming Malaysia represented a form of "neocolonialism" and the Philippines claiming North Borneo as its territory. The opposition from the Indonesian government led by Sukarno and attempts by the Sarawak United People's Party delayed the formation of Malaysia. Due to these factors, an eight-member UN team was formed to re-ascertain whether North Borneo and Sarawak truly wanted to join Malaysia. Malaysia formally came into being on 16 September 1963, consisting of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore. In 1963 the total population of Malaysia was about 10 million. Challenges of independence At the time of independence, Malaya had great economic advantages. It was among the world's leading producers of three valuable commodities; rubber, tin, and palm oil, and was also a significant iron ore producer. These export industries gave the Malayan government a healthy surplus to invest in industrial development and infrastructure projects. Like other developing nations in the 1950s and 1960s, Malaya (and later Malaysia) placed great stress on state planning, although UMNO was never a socialist party. The First and Second Malayan Plans (1956–60 and 1961–65 respectively) stimulated economic growth through state investment in industry and repairing infrastructure such as roads and ports, which had been damaged and neglected during the war and the Emergency. The government was keen to reduce Malaya's dependence on commodity exports, which put the country at the mercy of fluctuating prices. The government was also aware that demand for natural rubber was bound to fall as the production and use of synthetic rubber expanded. Since a third of the Malay workforce worked in the rubber industry it was important to develop alternative sources of employment. Competition for Malaya's rubber markets meant that the profitability of the rubber industry increasingly depended on keeping wages low, which perpetuated rural Malay poverty. Foreign objection Both Indonesia and the Philippines withdrew their ambassadors from Malaya on 15 September 1963, the day before Malaysia's formation. In Jakarta the British and Malayan embassies were stoned, and the British consulate in Medan was ransacked with Malaya's consul taking refuge in the US consulate. Malaysia withdrew its ambassadors in response, and asked Thailand to represent Malaysia in both countries. Indonesian President Sukarno, backed by the powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), chose to regard Malaysia as a "neocolonialist" plot against his country, and backed a Communist insurgency in Sarawak, mainly involving elements of the local Chinese community. Indonesian irregular forces were infiltrated into Sarawak, where they were contained by Malaysian and Commonwealth of Nations forces. This period of Konfrontasi, an economic, political, and military confrontation lasted until the downfall of Sukarno in 1966. The Philippines objected to the formation of the federation, claiming North Borneo was part of Sulu, and thus the Philippines. In 1966 the new president, Ferdinand Marcos, dropped the claim, although it has since been revived and is still a point of contention marring Philippine-Malaysian relations. There is massive migration of Chavacanos (Spanish Creole speaking Peruvian-Filipinos from the brief rebel-state of the Republic of Zamboanga), Tausugs, and Sama-Bajaus (Of the Sultanate of Sulu) from the Philippines to Sabah, Malaysia, especially at Semporna, due to them being refugees of the Moro conflict, a war in the Philippines which is primarily supported by the government of Malaysia. This war was waged to counteract reconquest attempts from the Philippine Sultanate of Sulu. Among the Philippine armed attempts include the 2013 Lahad Datu standoff. Racial strife The Depression of the 1930s, followed by the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, had the effect of ending Chinese emigration to Malaya. This stabilised the demographic situation and ended the prospect of the Malays becoming a minority in their own country. At the time of independence in 1957, Malays comprised 55% of the population, Chinese 35% and Indians 10%. This balance was altered by the inclusion of the majority-Chinese Singapore, upsetting many Malays. The federation increased the Chinese proportion to close to 40%. Both UMNO and the MCA were nervous about the possible appeal of Lee's People's Action Party (then seen as a radical socialist party) to voters in Malaya and tried to organise a party in Singapore to challenge Lee's position there. Lee in turn threatened to run PAP candidates in Malaya at the 1964 federal elections, despite an earlier agreement that he would not do so (see PAP-UMNO Relations). Racial tensions intensified as PAP created an opposition alliance aiming for equality between races. This provoked Tunku Abdul Rahman to demand that Singapore withdraw from Malaysia. While the Singaporean leaders attempted to keep Singapore as a part of the Federation, the Malaysian Parliament voted 126–0 on 9 August 1965 in favour of the expulsion of Singapore. The most vexed issues of independent Malaysia were education and the disparity of economic power among the ethnic communities. The Malays felt unhappy with the wealth of the Chinese community, even after the expulsion of Singapore. Malay political movements emerged based around this. However, since there was no effective opposition party, these issues were contested mainly within the coalition government, which won all but one seat in the first post-independence Malayan Parliament. The two issues were related since the Chinese advantage in education played a large part in maintaining their control of the economy, which the UMNO leaders were determined to end. The MCA leaders were torn between the need to defend their own community's interests and the need to maintain good relations with UMNO. This produced a crisis in the MCA in 1959, in which a more assertive leadership under Lim Chong Eu defied UMNO over the education issue, only to be forced to back down when Tunku Abdul Rahman threatened to break up the coalition. The Education Act of 1961 put UMNO's victory on the education issue into legislative form. Henceforward Malay and English would be the only teaching languages in secondary schools, and state primary schools would teach in Malay only. Although the Chinese and Indian communities could maintain their own Chinese and Tamil-language primary schools, all their students were required to learn Malay, and to study an agreed "Malayan curriculum". Most importantly, the entrance exam to the University of Malaya (which moved from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur in 1963) would be conducted in Malay, even though most teachings at the university was in English until the 1970s. This had the effect of excluding many Chinese students. At the same time, Malay schools were heavily subsidised, and Malays were given preferential treatment. This obvious defeat for the MCA greatly weakened its support in the Chinese community. As in education, the UMNO government's unspoken agenda in the field of economic development aimed to shift economic power away from the Chinese and towards the Malays. The two Malayan Plans and the First Malaysian Plan (1966–1970) directed resources heavily into developments that would benefit the rural Malay community, such as village schools, rural roads, clinics, and irrigation projects. Several agencies were set up to enable Malay smallholders to upgrade their production and to increase their incomes. The Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) helped many Malays to buy farms or to upgrade ones they already owned. The state also provided a range of incentives and low-interest loans to help Malays start businesses, and government tendering systematically favoured Malay companies, leading many Chinese-owned businesses to "Malayanise" their management. All this certainly tended to reduce the gap between Chinese and Malay standards of living, although some argued that this would have happened anyway as Malaysia's trade and general prosperity increased. Crisis of 1969 and Communist insurgency The collaboration of the MCA and the MIC in these policies weakened their hold on the Chinese and Indian electorates. At the same time, the effects of the government's affirmative action policies of the 1950s and 1960s had been to create a discontented class of educated but underemployed Malays. This was a dangerous combination, and led to the formation of a new party, the Malaysian People's Movement (Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia) in 1968. Gerakan was a deliberately non-communal party, bringing in Malay trade unionists and intellectuals as well as Chinese and Indian leaders. At the same time, an Islamist party, the Islamic Party of Malaysia (PAS) and a Democratic socialist party, the Democratic Action Party (DAP), gained increasing support, at the expense of UMNO and the MCA respectively. Following the end of the Malayan Emergency in 1960, the predominantly ethnic Chinese Malayan National Liberation Army, armed wing of the Malayan Communist Party, had retreated to the Malaysian-Thailand border where it had regrouped and retrained for future offensives against the Malaysian government. The insurgency officially began when the MCP ambushed security forces in Kroh–Betong, in the northern part of Peninsular Malaysia, on 17 June 1968. Instead of declaring a "state of emergency" as the British had done previously, the Malaysian government responded to the insurgency by introducing several policy initiatives including the Security and Development Program (KESBAN), Rukun Tetangga (Neighbourhood Watch), and the RELA Corps (People's Volunteer Group). At the May 1969 federal elections, the UMNO-MCA-MIC Alliance polled only 48% of the vote, although it retained a majority in the legislature. The MCA lost most of the Chinese-majority seats to Gerakan or DAP candidates. The victorious opposition celebrated by holding a motorcade on the main streets of Kuala Lumpur with supporters holding up brooms as a signal of its intention to make sweeping changes. Fear of what the changes might mean for them (as much of the country's businesses were Chinese-owned), a Malay backlash resulted, leading rapidly to riots and inter-communal violence in which about 6,000 Chinese homes and businesses were burned and at least 184 people were killed, although Western diplomatic sources at the time suggested a toll of close to 600, with most of the victims are Chinese. The government declared a state of emergency, and a National Operations Council, headed by Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak, took power from the government of Tunku Abdul Rahman, who, in September 1970, was forced to retire in favour of Abdul Razak. It consisted of nine members, mostly Malay, and wielded full political and military power. Using the Emergency-era Internal Security Act (ISA), the new government suspended Parliament and political parties, imposed press censorship and placed severe restrictions on political activity. The ISA gave the government power to intern any person indefinitely without trial. These powers were widely used to silence the government's critics, and have never been repealed. The Constitution was changed to make illegal any criticism, even in Parliament, of the Malaysian monarchy, the special position of Malays in the country, or the status of Malay as the national language. In 1971 Parliament reconvened, and a new government coalition, the National Front (Barisan Nasional), was formed in 1973 to replace the Alliance party. The coalition consisted of UMNO, the MCA, the MIC, Gerakan, PPP, and regional parties in Sabah and Sarawak. The PAS also joined the Front but was expelled in 1977. The DAP was left outside as the only significant opposition party. Abdul Razak held office until his death in 1976. He was succeeded by Datuk Hussein Onn, the son of UMNO's founder Onn Jaafar, and then by Tun Mahathir Mohamad, who had been Education Minister since 1981, and who held power for 22 years. During these years policies were put in place which led to the rapid transformation of Malaysia's economy and society, such as the controversial New Economic Policy, which was intended to increase proportionally the share of the economic "pie" of the bumiputras as compared to other ethnic groups—was launched by Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak. Malaysia has since maintained a delicate ethno-political balance, with a system of government that has attempted to combine overall economic development with political and economic policies that promote equitable participation of all races. Modern Malaysia In 1970 three-quarters of Malaysians living below the poverty line were Malays, the majority of Malays were still rural workers, and Malays were still largely excluded from the modern economy. The government's response was the New Economic Policy of 1971, which was to be implemented through a series of four five-year plans from 1971 to 1990. The plan had two objectives: the elimination of poverty, particularly rural poverty, and the elimination of the identification between race and prosperity. This latter policy was understood to mean a decisive shift in economic power from the Chinese to the Malays, who until then made up only 5% of the professional class. Poverty was tackled through an agricultural policy which resettled 250,000 Malays on newly cleared farmland, more investment in rural infrastructure, and the creation of free trade zones in rural areas to create new manufacturing jobs. Little was done to improve the living standards of the low-paid workers in plantation agriculture, although this group steadily declined as a proportion of the workforce. By 1990 the poorest parts of Malaysia were rural Sabah and Sarawak, which lagged significantly behind the rest of the country. During the 1970s and '80s rural poverty did decline, particularly in the Malayan Peninsula, but critics of the government's policy contend that this was mainly due to the growth of overall national prosperity (due in large part to the discovery of important oil and gas reserves) and migration of rural people to the cities rather than to state intervention. These years saw rapid growth in Malaysian cities, particularly Kuala Lumpur, which became a magnet for immigration both from rural Malaya and from poorer neighbours such as Indonesia, Bangladesh, Thailand and the Philippines. Urban poverty became a problem for the first time, with shanty towns growing up around the cities. The second arm of government policy, driven mainly by Mahathir first as Education Minister and then as Prime Minister, was the transfer of economic power to the Malays. Mahathir greatly expanded the number of secondary schools and universities throughout the country, and enforced the policy of teaching in Malay rather than English. This had the effect of creating a large new Malay professional class. It also created an unofficial barrier against Chinese access to higher education, since few Chinese are sufficiently fluent in Malay to study at Malay-language universities. Chinese families therefore sent their children to universities in Singapore, Australia, Britain or the United States – by 2000, for example, 60,000 Malaysians held degrees from Australian universities. This had the unintended consequence of exposing large numbers of Malaysians to life in Western countries, creating a new source of discontent. Mahathir also greatly expanded educational opportunities for Malay women – by 2000 half of all university students were women. To find jobs for all these new Malay graduates, the government created several agencies for intervention in the economy. The most important of these were PERNAS (National Corporation Ltd.), PETRONAS (National Petroleum Ltd.), and HICOM (Heavy Industry Corporation of Malaysia), which not only directly employed many Malays but also invested in growing areas of the economy to create new technical and administrative jobs which were preferentially allocated to Malays. As a result, the share of Malay equity in the economy rose from 1.5% in 1969 to 20.3% in 1990, and the percentage of businesses of all kinds owned by Malays rose from 39 percent to 68 percent. This latter figure was deceptive because many businesses that appeared to be Malay-owned were still indirectly controlled by Chinese, but there is no doubt that the Malay share of the economy considerably increased. The Chinese remained disproportionately powerful in Malaysian economic life, but by 2000 the distinction between Chinese and Malay business was fading as many new corporations, particularly in growth sectors such as information technology, were owned and managed by people from both ethnic groups. Malaysia's rapid economic progress since 1970, which was only temporarily disrupted by the Asian financial crisis of 1997, has not been matched by change in Malaysian politics. The repressive measures passed in 1970 remain in place. Malaysia has had regular elections since 1974, and although campaigning is reasonably free at election time, it is in effect a one-party state, with the UMNO-controlled National Front usually winning nearly all the seats, while the DAP wins some Chinese urban seats and the PAS some rural Malay ones. Since the DAP and the PAS have diametrically opposed policies, they have been unable to form an effective opposition coalition. There is almost no criticism of the government in the media and public protest remains severely restricted. The ISA continues to be used to silence dissidents, and the members of the UMNO youth movement are deployed to physically intimidate opponents. Mahathir administration Mahathir Mohamad was sworn in as prime minister on 16 July 1981, at the age of 56. One of his first acts was to release 21 detainees held under the Internal Security Act, including journalist Samad Ismail and a former deputy minister in Hussein's government, Abdullah Ahmad, who had been suspected of being an underground communist. He appointed his close ally, Musa Hitam, as deputy prime minister. The expiry of the Malaysian New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1990 allowed Mahathir to outline his economic vision for Malaysia. In 1991, he announced Vision 2020, under which Malaysia would aim to become a fully developed country within 30 years. The target would require average economic growth of approximately seven per cent of gross domestic product per annum. One of Vision 2020's features would be to gradually break down ethnic barriers. Vision 2020 was accompanied by the NEP's replacement, the National Development Policy (NDP), under which some government programs designed to benefit the Bumiputera exclusively were opened up to other ethnicities. The NDP achieved success out one of its main aims, poverty reduction. By 1995, less than nine per cent of Malaysians lived in poverty, and income inequality had narrowed. Mahathir's government cut corporate taxes and liberalised financial regulations to attract foreign investment. The economy grew by over nine per cent per annum until 1997, prompting other developing countries to emulate Mahathir's policies. Much of the credit for Malaysia's economic development in the 1990s went to Anwar Ibrahim, appointed by Mahathir as finance minister in 1991. The government rode the economic wave and won the 1995 election with an increased majority. Mahathir initiated a series of major infrastructure projects in the 1990s. One of the largest was the Multimedia Super Corridor, an area south of Kuala Lumpur, in the mould of Silicon Valley, designed to cater for the information technology industry. However, the project failed to generate the investment anticipated. Other Mahathir projects included the development of Putrajaya as the home of Malaysia's public service and bringing a Formula One Grand Prix to Sepang. One of the most controversial developments was the Bakun Dam in Sarawak. The ambitious hydro-electric project was intended to carry electricity across the South China Sea to satisfy electricity demand in peninsular Malaysia. Work on the dam was eventually suspended due to the Asian financial crisis. In 1997, the Asian financial crisis, which began in Thailand in mid-1997, threatened to devastate Malaysia. The value of the ringgit plummeted due to currency speculation, foreign investment fled, and the main stock exchange index fell by over 75 per cent. At the urging of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the government cut government spending. It raised interest rates, which only served to exacerbate the economic situation. In 1998, in a controversial approach, Mahathir reversed this policy course in defiance of the IMF and his own deputy, Anwar. He increased government spending and fixed the ringgit to the US dollar. The result confounded his international critics and the IMF. Malaysia recovered from the crisis faster than its Southeast Asian neighbours. In the domestic sphere, it was a political triumph. Amidst the economic events of 1998, Mahathir had dismissed Anwar as finance minister and deputy prime minister. He could now claim to have rescued the economy despite Anwar's policies. At UMNO's general assembly in 2002, Mahathir announced that he would resign as prime minister, only for supporters to rush to the stage and convince him tearfully to remain. He subsequently fixed his retirement for October 2003, giving him time to ensure an orderly and uncontroversial transition to his anointed successor, Abdullah Badawi. Having spent over 22 years in office, Mahathir was the world's longest-serving elected leader when he retired. Abdullah administration Abdullah Ahmad Badawi freed Anwar, which was seen as a portent of a mild liberalisation. At the 2004 election, the National Front led by Abdullah had a massive victory, virtually wiping out the PAS and Keadilan, although the DAP recovered the seats it had lost in 1999. This victory was seen as the result mainly of Abdullah's personal popularity and the strong recovery of Malaysia's economy, which has lifted the living standards of many Malaysians to almost first-world standards, coupled with an ineffective opposition. The government's objective is for Malaysia to become a fully developed country by 2020 as expressed in Wawasan 2020. It leaves unanswered, however, the question of when and how Malaysia will acquire a first-world political system (a multi-party democracy, a free press, an independent judiciary and the restoration of civil and political liberties) to go with its new economic maturity. In November 2007, Malaysia was struck by two anti-government rallies. The 2007 Bersih Rally which was attended by 40,000 people was held in Kuala Lumpur on 10 November 2007, to campaign for electoral reform. It was precipitated by allegations of corruption and discrepancies in the Malaysian election system that heavily favour the ruling political party, Barisan Nasional, which has been in power since Malaysia achieved its independence in 1957. Another rally was held on 25 November 2007, in Kuala Lumpur led by HINDRAF. The rally organiser, the Hindu Rights Action Force, had called the protest over alleged discriminatory policies favouring ethnic Malays. The crowd was estimated to be between 5,000 and 30,000. In both cases, the government and police tried to prevent the gatherings from taking place. On 16 October 2008, HINDRAF was banned when the government labelled the organisation as a threat to national security. Abdullah faced growing criticism, largely for his failure to curtail corruption, and in October 2008, he announced his intention to resign the following March. Abdullah was succeeded in office by his Deputy Prime Minister, Najib Razak (son of Abdul Razak), in April 2009. Najib administration Najib Razak entered office as Prime Minister with a focus on domestic economic issues and political reform. On his first day as Prime Minister, Najib announced the lifting of bans on two opposition newspapers, Suara Keadilan and Harakahdaily, run by the People's Justice Party of Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim and the Malaysian Islamic Party, respectively, as well as the release of 13 people detained under the Internal Security Act 1960 (ISA). Among the released detainees were two ethnic Indian activists who were arrested in December 2007 for leading an anti-government campaign, three foreigners and eight suspected Islamic militants. He also pledged to conduct a comprehensive review of the much-criticised law which allows for indefinite detention without trial. This review resulted in the repeal and replacement of the Internal Security Act 1960 (ISA) by the Security Offences (Special Measures) Act 2012 which had been passed by Parliament and given royal assent on 18 June 2012. Malaysia Day, celebrating the formation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963, was declared a public holiday in 2010 in complement to the existing 31 August celebration of Hari Merdeka. In early 2013, there was an incursion in Lahad Datu which was a military conflict that started when 235 militants, some of whom were armed, arrived by boats in Lahad Datu District, Sabah, Malaysia from Simunul island, Tawi-Tawi, in the southern Philippines. Malaysian security forces launched a major operation to repel the militants, resulting in decisive Malaysian victory. Two flight incidents involving Malaysian airlines occurred in 2014 during Najib Razak's second term. On March 8, 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 vanished en route from Kuala Lumpur to Beijing. The 239 passengers and crew on board were presumed dead. Just four months later, 298 people were killed when Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 was shot down by a surface-to-air missile while flying over territory controlled by Russian-backed militants in Eastern Ukraine. In April 2015, Najib Razak passed a controversial 6 percent tax on goods and services. Later that year his administration was engulfed in scandal when Najib Razak and other officials were implicated in a multibillion-dollar embezzlement and money-laundering scheme involving 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB), a state-owned investment fund, triggering widespread calls from most Malaysians including the opposition parties for Najib's resignation. In September 2016, Mahathir submitted a request to the King requesting Najib be dismissed, although no action was taken on this. Najib has also been criticised for the extravagant life of his wife Rosmah Mansor. On 21 January 2012, in the 'Private Sydney' section of the Australian daily Sydney Morning Herald, columnist Andrew Hornery called Rosmah the “first lady of shopping”, allegedly for spending A$100,000 (RM325,000) at a Sydney boutique. Quoting Sydney designer Carl Kapp, the columnist reported that Kapp’s “biggest customer” had spent the astounding amount during a “private holiday” there “a little more than a fortnight ago”. On 30 March 2016, the Wall Street Journal, Time and several other news agencies reported that Najib and Rosmah had spent $15 million on luxury goods and extravagant travel expenses. During Najib's golf diplomacy with U.S. President Barack Obama on 24 December 2014, Malaysian investigation documents show that Rosmah had purchased items amounting to $130,625 at a Chanel store in Honolulu, Hawaii. The allegation was confirmed when a store employee at the Chanel store in the upscale Ala Moana Center recalls Rosmah shopping there just before 25 December 2014. Second Mahathir administration Mahathir Mohamad, who left UMNO in 2016 and formed his own political party, the Malaysian United Indigenous Party which teamed up with three other political parties to form Pakatan Harapan, was sworn in as the Prime Minister of Malaysia after winning the election on 10 May 2018. He defeated Najib Razak who led Barisan Nasional, the political party that had previously ruled Malaysia for 61 years since 1957. The ongoing 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal, the 6% Goods and Services Tax, and the high cost of living were all the factors in Najib's loss. The unpopular tax was reduced to 0% on 1 June 2018. The government of Malaysia under Mahathir tabled for the first reading Bill to repeal GST in Parliament on 31 July 2018 (Dewan Rakyat). GST was successfully replaced with Sales Tax and Service Tax starting 1 September 2018. On 28 September 2018, Mahathir addressed the United Nations General Assembly that his government would promise to ratify the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD). However, after weeks of receiving racially and religiously charged demonstrations against the convention, particularly from Bumiputras, fearing that it may jeopardise the constitution, the Pakatan Harapan government chose not to accede to the ICERD on November 23, 2018. Muhyiddin administration On 29 February 2020, a week after the country was thrown into a political crisis, Muhyiddin Yassin was appointed as the 8th Prime Minister by the king, following the abrupt resignation of Mahathir Mohamad five days before. He is the first person appointed to the position while holding both a parliamentary and state seat at the same time. During his administration, COVID-19, which had originated in Wuhan, China, spread throughout the nation. In response, Muhyiddin implemented the Malaysian movement control order (MCO) on 18 March 2020 to prevent the disease from spreading throughout Malaysia. In mid-January 2021, King Abdullah of Pahang declared a national state of emergency until at least 1 August in response to rising COVID-19 cases and political infighting within Prime Minister Muhyiddin's Perikatan Nasional government. Under this state of emergency, parliament and elections was suspended while the Malaysian government was empowered to introduce laws without approval. Muhyiddin Yassin commenced the country's vaccination programme against COVID-19 in late February 2021, with he became the first individual in Malaysia to receive the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine when it was broadcast live nationwide. Muhyiddin officially resigned as Prime Minister on August 16, 2021, after losing majority support due to the country's political crisis, as well as calls for his resignation due to economic stagnation and the government's failure to prevent a record rise in COVID-19 infections and deaths in late 2020 and 2021. He was afterwards appointed back as caretaker Prime Minister by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong until a replacement can be selected. Ismail Sabri administration Former Deputy Prime Minister to Muhyiddin Yassin, Ismail Sabri Yaakob has been appointed as the 9th Prime Minister of Malaysia by Yang di-Pertuan Agong after being satisfied which he had commanded the confidence of the majority in Parliament, with a total of 114 from 220 members of the Dewan Rakyat nominated for him under Article 40(2)(a) and Article 43(2)(a) of the Federal Constitution. He was sworn in as the next Prime Minister at the Istana Negara on August 21, 2021. See also The formation of Malaysia History of Singapore History of Brunei History of the Philippines History of Southeast Asia Japanese occupation of Malaya Japanese occupation of British Borneo Notes References Further reading Andaya, Barbara Watson, and Leonard Y. Andaya. (2016) A history of Malaysia (2nd ed. Macmillan International Higher Education, 2016). Baker, Jim. (2020) Crossroads: a popular history of Malaysia and Singapore (4th ed. Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd, 2020) excerpt Goh, Cheng Teik (1994). Malaysia: Beyond Communal Politics. Pelanduk Publications. . Hack, Karl. "Decolonisation and the Pergau Dam affair." History Today (Nov 1994), 44#11 pp. 9–12. Hooker, Virginia Matheson. (2003) A Short History of Malaysia: Linking East and West (2003) excerpt Kheng, Cheah Boon. (1997) "Writing Indigenous History in Malaysia: A Survey on Approaches and Problems", Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 10#2 (1997): 33–81. Milner, Anthony. Invention of Politics in Colonial Malaya (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1996). Musa, M. Bakri (1999). The Malay Dilemma Revisited. Merantau Publishers. . Roff, William R. Origins of Malay Nationalism (Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press, 1967). Shamsul, Amri Baharuddin. (2001) "A history of an identity, an identity of a history: the idea and practice of 'Malayness' in Malaysia reconsidered." Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 32.3 (2001): 355–366. online Ye, Lin-Sheng (2003). The Chinese Dilemma. East West Publishing. . External links Economic History of Malaysia "Malaysia" entry at Library of Congress

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunter%20S.%20Thompson

Hunter S. Thompson

Hunter Stockton Thompson (July 18, 1937 – February 20, 2005) was an American journalist and author who founded the gonzo journalism movement. He rose to prominence with the publication of Hell's Angels (1967), a book for which he spent a year living and riding with the Hells Angels motorcycle gang to write a first-hand account of their lives and experiences. In 1970, he wrote an unconventional magazine feature titled "The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved" for Scanlan's Monthly, which raised his profile and established his counterculture credibility. It also set him on the path to establishing his own subgenre of New Journalism that he called "Gonzo", which was essentially an ongoing experiment in which the writer becomes a central figure and participant in the events of the narrative. Thompson remains best known for Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1971), a book first serialized in Rolling Stone in which he grapples with the implications of what he considered the failure of the 1960s counterculture movement. It was adapted for film twice: loosely in Where the Buffalo Roam starring Bill Murray as Thompson in 1980, and explicitly in 1998 by director Terry Gilliam in the eponymous film starring Johnny Depp and Benicio del Toro. Thompson ran unsuccessfully for sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado in 1970 on the Freak Power ticket. His campaign was chronicled in the documentary film Freak Power: The Ballot or the Bomb. He became known for his dislike of Richard Nixon, who he claimed represented "that dark, venal, and incurably violent side of the American character". He covered Nixon's 1972 reelection campaign for Rolling Stone and later collected the stories in book form as Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72. Thompson's output declined from the mid-1970s, as he struggled with the consequences of fame, and complained that he could no longer merely report on events, as he was too easily recognized. After several high-profile stories were quashed by the upper management of Rolling Stone, he found it increasingly difficult to get his work into mainstream outlets. He did continue to write for alternative newspapers, and had a gig as a critic for the mainstream San Francisco Examiner for much of the late 1980s and early 1990s. Most of his work from 1979 to 1994 was collected in The Gonzo Papers. He continued to write for various journalism outlets in a variety of formats, including sporadic stories published in Rolling Stone and a weekly column that appeared on ESPN.com's Page 2 titled "Hey, Rube" that he started in 2000. He was known for his lifelong use of alcohol and illegal narcotics, his love of firearms, and his iconoclastic contempt for authority. He often remarked: "I hate to advocate drugs, alcohol, violence, or insanity to anyone, but they've always worked for me." Thompson died by suicide at the age of 67, following a series of health problems. In accordance with his wishes, his ashes were fired out of a cannon in a ceremony funded by his friend Johnny Depp and attended by friends including then-Senator John Kerry and Jack Nicholson. Hari Kunzru wrote, "the true voice of Thompson is revealed to be that of American moralist ... one who often makes himself ugly to expose the ugliness he sees around him." Early life Thompson was born into a middle-class family in Louisville, Kentucky, the first of three sons of Virginia Davison Ray (1908, Springfield, Kentucky – March 20, 1998, Louisville), who worked as head librarian at the Louisville Free Public Library and Jack Robert Thompson (September 4, 1893, Horse Cave, Kentucky – July 3, 1952, Louisville), a public insurance adjuster and World War I veteran. His parents were introduced by a friend from Jack's fraternity at the University of Kentucky in September 1934, and married on November 2, 1935. The Guardian journalist Nicholas Lezard, stated that Thompson's first name, Hunter, came from an ancestor on his mother's side, the Scottish surgeon John Hunter. A more direct attribution is that Thompson's first and middle name, Hunter Stockton, came from his maternal grandparents, Prestly Stockton Ray and Lucille Hunter. In December 1943 when Thompson was six years old, the family settled in the affluent Cherokee Triangle neighborhood of The Highlands. On July 3, 1952, when Thompson was 14, his father died of myasthenia gravis at age 58. Hunter and his brothers were raised by their mother. Virginia worked as a librarian to support her children, and was described as a "heavy drinker" following her husband's death. Education Interested in sports and athletically inclined from a young age, Thompson co-founded the Hawks Athletic Club while attending I.N. Bloom Elementary School, which led to an invitation to join Louisville's Castlewood Athletic Club for adolescents that prepared them for high-school sports. Ultimately, he never joined a sports team in high school. Thompson attended I.N. Bloom Elementary School, Highland Middle School, and Atherton High School, before transferring to Louisville Male High School in fall 1952. Also in 1952, he was accepted as a member of the Athenaeum Literary Association, a school-sponsored literary and social club that dated to 1862. Its members at the time came from Louisville's upper-class families, and included Porter Bibb, who became the first publisher of Rolling Stone at Thompson's behest. During this time, Thompson read and admired J. P. Donleavy's The Ginger Man. As an Athenaeum member, Thompson contributed articles to and helped produce the club's yearbook The Spectator. The group ejected Thompson in 1955 for criminal activity. Charged as an accessory to robbery after being in a car with the perpetrator, Thompson was sentenced to 60 days in Kentucky's Jefferson County Jail. He served 31 days and, a week after his release, enlisted in the United States Air Force. While he was in jail, the school superintendent refused permission to take his high-school final examinations so he was unable to graduate. Military service Thompson completed basic training at Lackland Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas, and transferred to Scott Air Force Base in Belleville, Illinois, to study electronics. He applied to become an aviator, but the Air Force's aviation-cadet program rejected his application. In 1956, he transferred to Eglin Air Force Base near Fort Walton Beach, Florida. While serving at Eglin, he took evening classes at Florida State University. At Eglin, he landed his first professional writing job as sports editor of The Command Courier by falsifying his job experience. As sports editor, Thompson traveled around the United States with the Eglin Eagles football team, covering its games. In early 1957, he wrote a sports column for The Playground News, a local newspaper in Fort Walton Beach, Florida. His name did not appear on the column because Air Force regulations forbade outside employment. In 1958, as an airman first class, his commanding officer recommended him for an early honorable discharge. "In summary, this airman, although talented, will not be guided by policy," chief of information services Colonel William S. Evans wrote to the Eglin personnel office. "Sometimes his rebel and superior attitude seems to rub off on other airmen staff members." Early journalism career After leaving the Air Force, Thompson worked as sports editor for a newspaper in Jersey Shore, Pennsylvania, before relocating to New York City. There he audited several courses at the Columbia University School of General Studies. During this time he worked briefly for Time as a copy boy for $51 a week. At work, he typed out parts of F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby and Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms in order to learn the authors' rhythms and writing styles. In 1959 Time fired him for insubordination. Later that year, he worked as a reporter for The Middletown Daily Record in Middletown, New York. He was fired from this job after damaging an office candy machine and arguing with the owner of a local restaurant who happened to be an advertiser with the paper. In 1960, Thompson moved to San Juan, Puerto Rico, to take a job with the sporting magazine El Sportivo, which ceased operations soon after his arrival. Thompson applied for a job with the Puerto Rican English-language daily The San Juan Star, but its managing editor, future novelist William J. Kennedy, turned him down. Nonetheless, the two became friends. After the demise of El Sportivo, Thompson worked as a stringer for the New York Herald Tribune and a few other stateside papers on Caribbean issues, with Kennedy working as his editor. After returning to the United States, Thompson visited San Francisco and eventually lived in Big Sur, where he worked as a security guard and caretaker at Slates Hot Springs for an eight-month period in 1961, just before it became the Esalen Institute. At the time, Big Sur was a Beat outpost and home of Henry Miller and Dennis Murphy (screenwriter), both of whom Thompson admired. While there, he published his first magazine feature in Rogue about the artisan and bohemian culture of Big Sur. During this period, Thompson wrote two novels, Prince Jellyfish and The Rum Diary, and submitted many short stories to publishers – with little success. The Rum Diary, based on Thompson's experiences in Puerto Rico, was not published until . In May 1962, Thompson traveled to South America for a year as a correspondent for the Dow Jones-owned weekly paper, the National Observer. In Brazil, he spent several months as a reporter for the Brazil Herald, the country's only English-language daily, published in Rio de Janeiro. His longtime girlfriend Sandra Dawn Conklin (or Sandy Conklin Thompson, subsequently Sondi Wright) later joined him in Rio. They married on May 19, 1963, shortly after returning to the United States, and lived briefly in Aspen, Colorado. Sandy was eight months pregnant when they relocated to Glen Ellen, California. Their son, Juan Fitzgerald Thompson, was born on March 23, 1964. Thompson continued to write for the National Observer on an array of domestic subjects. One story told of his 1964 visit to Ketchum, Idaho, to investigate the reasons for Ernest Hemingway's suicide. While there, he stole a pair of elk antlers hanging above the front door of Hemingway's cabin. Later that year, Thompson moved to San Francisco, where he attended the 1964 GOP Convention at the Cow Palace. Thompson severed his ties with the Observer after his editor refused to print his review of Tom Wolfe's 1965 essay-collection The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby,. He later immersed himself in the drug and hippie culture taking root in the area, and soon began writing for the Berkeley underground paper Spider. Hell's Angels In 1965 Carey McWilliams, editor of The Nation, hired Thompson to write a story about the Hells Angels motorcycle club in California. At the time Thompson was living in a house near San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury neighborhood, where the Hells Angels lived across from the Grateful Dead. His article appeared on May 17, 1965, after which he received several book offers and spent the next year living and riding with the club. The relationship broke down when the bikers perceived that Thompson was exploiting them for personal gain and demanded a share of his profits. An argument at a party resulted in Thompson suffering a savage beating (or "stomping", as the Angels referred to it). Random House published the hard-cover Hell's Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs in 1966, and the fight between Thompson and the Angels was well-marketed. CBC Television even broadcast an encounter between Thompson and Hells Angel Skip Workman before a live studio audience. A New York Times review praised the work as an "angry, knowledgeable, fascinating, and excitedly written book", that shows the Hells Angels "not so much as dropouts from society but as total misfits, or unfits—emotionally, intellectually and educationally unfit to achieve the rewards, such as they are, that the contemporary social order offers". The reviewer also praised Thompson as a "spirited, witty, observant, and original writer; his prose crackles like motorcycle exhaust". Following the book's publication, Thompson appeared as himself on the February 20, 1967, episode of the game show To Tell The Truth, receiving all four votes by the panel members. Late 1960s Following the success of Hell's Angels, Thompson successfully sold articles to several national magazines, including The New York Times Magazine, Esquire, Pageant, and Harper's. In 1967, shortly before the Summer of Love, Thompson wrote "The 'Hashbury' is the Capital of the Hippies" for The New York Times Magazine. He criticized San Francisco's hippies as devoid of both the political convictions of the New Left and the artistic core of the Beats, resulting in a culture overrun with young people who spent their time in the pursuit of drugs. "The thrust is no longer for 'change' or 'progress' or 'revolution', but merely to escape, to live on the far perimeter of a world that might have been – perhaps should have been – and strike a bargain for survival on purely personal terms," he wrote. By late 1967, Thompson and his family moved back to Colorado and rented a house in Woody Creek, a small mountain hamlet outside Aspen. In early 1969, Thompson received a $15,000 royalty check for the paperback sales of Hell's Angels and used two-thirds of the money for a down payment on a modest home and property where he would live for the rest of his life. He named the house Owl Farm and often described it as his "fortified compound". In early 1968, Thompson signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War. According to Thompson's letters and his later writings, at this time, he planned to write a book called The Joint Chiefs about "the death of the American Dream." He used a $6,000 advance from Random House to travel the 1968 Presidential campaign trail and attend the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago for research. From his hotel room in Chicago, Thompson watched the clashes between police and protesters, which he wrote had a great effect on his political views. The book was never finished, and the theme of the death of the American dream was carried over into his later work. The contract with Random House was eventually fulfilled with the 1972 book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. He also signed a deal with Ballantine Books in 1968 to write a satirical book called The Johnson File about Lyndon B. Johnson. A few weeks after the contract was signed, however, Johnson announced that he would not seek re-election, and the deal was cancelled. Middle years Aspen sheriff campaign In 1970, Thompson ran for sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado, as part of a group of citizens running for local offices on the "Freak Power" ticket. The platform included promoting the decriminalization of drugs (for personal use only, not trafficking, as he disapproved of profiteering), tearing up the streets and turning them into grassy pedestrian malls, banning any building so tall as to obscure the view of the mountains, disarming all police forces, and renaming Aspen "Fat City" to deter investors. Thompson, having shaved his head, referred to the crew cut-wearing Republican candidate as "my long-haired opponent". With polls showing him with a slight lead in a three-way race, Thompson appeared at Rolling Stone magazine headquarters in San Francisco with a six-pack of beer in hand, and declared to editor Jann Wenner that he was about to be elected sheriff of Aspen, Colorado, and wished to write about the "Freak Power" movement. Thus, Thompson's first article in Rolling Stone was published as "The Battle of Aspen" with the byline "By: Dr. Hunter S. Thompson (Candidate for Sheriff)". Despite the publicity, Thompson narrowly lost the election. While carrying the city of Aspen, he garnered only 44% of the county-wide vote in what had become a two-way race. The Republican candidate agreed to withdraw a few days before the election to consolidate the anti-Thompson votes, in return for the Democrats withdrawing their candidate for county commissioner. Thompson later remarked that the Rolling Stone article mobilized his opposition far more than his supporters. A documentary film about Hunter S. Thompson's campaign for sheriff called Freak Power: The Ballot or the Bomb was released on October 23, 2020. Birth of Gonzo Also in 1970, Thompson wrote an article entitled "The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved" for the short-lived new journalism magazine Scanlan's Monthly. For that article, editor Warren Hinckle paired Thompson with illustrator Ralph Steadman, who drew expressionist illustrations with lipstick and eyeliner. Thompson's article virtually ignored the race, focusing instead on the drunken revelry surrounding the annual event in his hometown. The first-person narrator also sets that debauchery against a political backdrop, which included the bombing of Cambodia and the deaths of four students at Kent State University, which occurred two days after the Kentucky Derby. Thompson and Steadman collaborated regularly after that. Although it was not widely read, the article was the first to use the techniques of Gonzo journalism, a style Thompson later employed in almost every literary endeavor. The manic first-person subjectivity of the story was reportedly the result of sheer desperation; he was facing a looming deadline and started sending the magazine pages ripped out of his notebook. The first use of the word "Gonzo" to describe Thompson's work is credited to the journalist Bill Cardoso, who first met Thompson on a bus full of journalists covering the 1968 New Hampshire primary. In 1970, Cardoso (who was then the editor of The Boston Globe Sunday Magazine) wrote to Thompson praising the "Kentucky Derby" piece as a breakthrough: "This is it, this is pure Gonzo. If this is a start, keep rolling." According to Steadman, Thompson took to the word right away and said, "Okay, that's what I do. Gonzo." Thompson's first published use of the word appears in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: "Free Enterprise. The American Dream. Horatio Alger gone mad on drugs in Las Vegas. Do it now: pure Gonzo journalism." Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas The book for which Thompson gained most of his fame had its genesis during the research for "Strange Rumblings in Aztlan", an exposé for Rolling Stone on the 1970 killing of the Mexican-American television journalist Rubén Salazar. Salazar had been shot in the head at close range with a tear-gas canister fired by officers of the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department during the National Chicano Moratorium March against the Vietnam War. One of Thompson's sources for the story was Oscar Zeta Acosta, a prominent Mexican-American activist and attorney. Finding it difficult to talk in the racially tense atmosphere of Los Angeles, Thompson and Acosta decided to travel to Las Vegas, and take advantage of an assignment by Sports Illustrated to write a 250-word photograph caption on the Mint 400 motorcycle race held there. What was to be a short caption quickly grew into something else entirely. Thompson first submitted to Sports Illustrated a manuscript of 2,500 words, which was, as he later wrote, "aggressively rejected." Rolling Stone publisher Jann Wenner was said to have liked "the first 20 or so jangled pages enough to take it seriously on its own terms and tentatively scheduled it for publication — which gave me the push I needed to keep working on it", Thompson later wrote. To develop the story, Thompson and Acosta returned to Las Vegas to attend a drug enforcement conference. The two trips became the basis for "Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas," which appeared as a two-part Rolling Stone story in November 1971. Random House published the book version the following year. It is written as a first-person account by a journalist named Raoul Duke with Dr. Gonzo, his "300-pound Samoan attorney." During the trip, Duke and his companion (always referred to as "my attorney") become sidetracked by a search for the American Dream, with "two bags of grass, 75 pellets of mescaline, five sheets of high-powered blotter acid, a salt shaker half full of cocaine, and a whole galaxy of multicolored uppers, downers, screamers, laughers ... and also a quart of tequila, a quart of rum, a case of Budweiser, a pint of raw ether, and two dozen amyls." Coming to terms with the failure of the 1960s countercultural movement is a major theme of the novel, and the book was greeted with considerable critical acclaim, including being heralded by The New York Times as "by far the best book yet written on the decade of dope". "The Vegas Book", as Thompson referred to it, was a mainstream success and introduced his Gonzo journalism techniques to a wide public. Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72 Beginning in late 1971, Thompson wrote extensively for Rolling Stone on the election campaigns of President Richard Nixon and his unsuccessful opponent, Senator George McGovern. The articles were soon combined and published as Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72. As the title suggests, Thompson spent nearly all of his time traveling the "campaign trail", focusing largely on the Democratic Party's primaries. Nixon, as the Republican incumbent, performed little campaign work, while McGovern competed with rival candidates Edmund Muskie and Hubert Humphrey. Thompson was an early supporter of McGovern and wrote unflattering coverage of the rival campaigns in the increasingly widely read Rolling Stone. Thompson went on to become a fierce critic of Nixon, both during and after his presidency. After Nixon's death in 1994, Thompson described him in Rolling Stone as a man who "could shake your hand and stab you in the back at the same time", and said "his casket [should] have been launched into one of those open-sewage canals that empty into the ocean just south of Los Angeles. He was a swine of a man and a jabbering dupe of a president. [He] was an evil man—evil in a way that only those who believe in the physical reality of the Devil can understand it." Following Nixon's pardon by Gerald Ford in 1974, Hunter ruminated on the roughly $400,000 pension Nixon maneuvered his way into, by resigning before being formally indicted. While The Washington Post was lamenting Nixon's "lonely and depressed" state after being forced from the White House, Hunter wrote that '[i]f there were any such thing as true justice in this world, his [Nixon's] rancid carcass would be somewhere down around Easter Island right now, in the belly of a hammerhead shark.' There was however one passion shared by Thompson and Nixon: a love of football, discussed in Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72. Fame and its consequences Thompson's journalistic work began to seriously suffer after his trip to Africa to cover the Rumble in the Jungle—the world heavyweight boxing match between George Foreman and Muhammad Ali—in 1974. He missed the match while intoxicated at his hotel, and did not submit a story to the magazine. As Wenner put it to the film critic Roger Ebert in the 2008 documentary Gonzo: The Life and Work of Dr. Hunter S. Thompson, "After Africa, he just couldn't write. He couldn't piece it together". Plans for Thompson to cover the 1976 presidential campaign for Rolling Stone and later publish a book fell through after Wenner canceled the project without informing Thompson. Wenner then assigned Thompson to travel to Vietnam to cover what appeared to be the end of the Vietnam War. Thompson arrived in Saigon just as South Vietnam was collapsing and as other journalists were leaving the country. Wenner allegedly cancelled Thompson's life insurance, which strained Thompson's relationship with Rolling Stone. He soon fled the country and refused to file his report until the ten-year anniversary of the Fall of Saigon. From the late 1970s on, most of Thompson's literary output appeared as a four-volume series of books entitled The Gonzo Papers. Beginning with The Great Shark Hunt in 1979 and ending with Better Than Sex in 1994, the series is largely a collection of rare newspaper and magazine pieces from the pre-gonzo period, along with almost all of his Rolling Stone pieces. Starting around 1980, Thompson became less active by his standards. Aside from paid appearances, he largely retreated to his compound in Woody Creek, rejecting projects and assignments or failing to complete them. Despite a lack of new material, Wenner kept Thompson on the Rolling Stone masthead as chief of the "National Affairs Desk", a position he held until his death. In 1980, Thompson divorced wife Sandra Conklin. The same year marked the release of Where the Buffalo Roam, a loose film adaptation based on Thompson's early 1970s work, starring Bill Murray as the writer. Murray eventually became one of Thompson's trusted friends. Later that year, Thompson relocated to Hawaii to research and write The Curse of Lono, a Gonzo-style account of the 1980 Honolulu Marathon. Extensively illustrated by Ralph Steadman, the piece first appeared in Running in 1981 as "The Charge of the Weird Brigade" and was later excerpted in Playboy in 1983. In 1983, he covered the U.S. invasion of Grenada, but did not write or discuss the experiences until the publication of Kingdom of Fear in 2003. Later that year, at the behest of Terry McDonell, he wrote "A Dog Took My Place", an exposé for Rolling Stone of the scandalous Roxanne Pulitzer divorce case and what he called the "Palm Beach lifestyle". The story included dubious insinuations of bestiality, but was widely considered to be a return by Thompson to his proper form. In 1985, Thompson accepted an advance to write about "couples pornography" for Playboy. As part of his research, he spent evenings at the Mitchell Brothers O'Farrell Theatre striptease club in San Francisco. The experience evolved into an as-yet-unpublished novel tentatively entitled The Night Manager. Thompson next accepted a role as weekly media columnist and critic for The San Francisco Examiner. The position was arranged by former editor and fellow Examiner columnist Warren Hinckle. His editor at The Examiner, David McCumber described, "One week it would be acid-soaked gibberish with a charm of its own. The next week it would be incisive political analysis of the highest order." Many of these columns were collected in Gonzo Papers, Vol. 2: Generation of Swine: Tales of Shame and Degradation in the '80s (1988) and Gonzo Papers, Vol. 3: Songs of the Doomed: More Notes on the Death of the American Dream (1990), a collection of autobiographical reminiscences, articles, and previously unpublished material. Later years Throughout the early 1990s, Thompson claimed to be at work on a novel entitled Polo Is My Life. It was briefly excerpted in Rolling Stone in 1994, and Thompson himself described it in 1996 as "a sex book — you know, sex, drugs, and rock and roll. It's about the manager of a sex theater who's forced to leave and flee to the mountains. He falls in love and gets in even more trouble than he was in the sex theater in San Francisco". The novel was slated to be released by Random House in 1999, and was even assigned , but was never published. Thompson continued to publish irregularly in Rolling Stone, ultimately contributing 17 pieces to the magazine between 1984 and 2004. "Fear and Loathing in Elko," published in 1992, was a well-received fictional rallying cry against the nomination of Clarence Thomas to a seat on the Supreme Court of the United States. "Trapped in Mr. Bill's Neighborhood" was a largely factual account of an interview with Bill Clinton at a Little Rock, Arkansas, steakhouse. Rather than traveling the campaign trail as he had done in previous presidential elections, Thompson monitored the proceedings on cable television; Better Than Sex: Confessions of a Political Junkie, his account of the 1992 presidential campaign, is composed of reactive faxes to Rolling Stone. In 1994, the magazine published "He Was a Crook", a "scathing" obituary of Richard Nixon. In November 2004, Rolling Stone published Thompson's final magazine feature "The Fun-Hogs in the Passing Lane: Fear and Loathing, Campaign 2004", a brief account of the 2004 presidential election in which he compared the outcome of the Bush v. Gore court case to the Reichstag fire and formally endorsed Senator John Kerry, a longtime friend, for president. Fear and Loathing redux In 1996, Modern Library reissued Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas along with "Strange Rumblings in Aztlan," "The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved," and "Jacket Copy for Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas." Two years later, the film Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas generated new interest in Thompson and his work, and a paperback edition was published as a tie-in. The same year, an early novel, The Rum Diary, was published. Two volumes of collected letters, edited by Douglas Brinkley, also appeared during this time. The first volume appeared in 1997 and covers the years 1955-67. The second volume appeared in 2000 and covers 1968 to 1976. Thompson's next, and penultimate, collection, Kingdom of Fear: Loathsome Secrets of a Star-Crossed Child in the Final Days of the American Century, was widely publicized as Thompson's first memoir. Published in 2003, it combined new material (including reminiscences of the O'Farrell Theater), selected newspaper and digital clippings, and other older works. Thompson finished his journalism career in the same way it had begun: Writing about sports. From 2000 until his death in 2005, he wrote a weekly column for ESPN.com's Page 2 entitled "Hey, Rube." In 2004, Simon & Schuster collected some of the columns from the first few years and released them in mid-2004 as Hey Rube: Blood Sport, the Bush Doctrine, and the Downward Spiral of Dumbness. Thompson married assistant Anita Bejmuk on April 23, 2003. Death At 5:42 pm on February 20, 2005, Thompson died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head at Owl Farm, his "fortified compound" in Woody Creek, Colorado. His son Juan, daughter-in-law Jennifer, and grandson were visiting for the weekend. His wife Anita, who was at the Aspen Club, was on the phone with him as he cocked the gun. According to the Aspen Daily News, Thompson asked her to come home to help him write his ESPN column, then set the receiver on the counter. Anita said she mistook the cocking of the gun for the sound of his typewriter keys and hung up as he fired. Will and Jennifer were in the next room when they heard the gunshot, but mistook the sound for a book falling and did not check on Thompson immediately. Juan Thompson found his father's body. According to the police report and Anita's cell phone records, he called the sheriff's office half an hour later, then walked outside and fired three shotgun blasts into the air to "mark the passing of his father". The police report stated that in Thompson's typewriter was a piece of paper with the date "Feb. 22 '05" and a single word, "counselor". Years of alcohol and cocaine abuse contributed to his problem with depression. Thompson's inner circle told the press that he had been depressed and always found February a "gloomy" month, with football season over and the harsh Colorado winter weather. He was also upset over his advancing age and chronic medical problems, including a hip replacement; he would frequently mutter "This kid is getting old." Rolling Stone published what Douglas Brinkley described as a suicide note written by Thompson to his wife, titled "Football Season Is Over". It read: Thompson's collaborator and friend Ralph Steadman wrote: Funeral On August 20, 2005, in a private funeral, Thompson's ashes were fired from a cannon. This was accompanied by red, white, blue, and green fireworks—all to the tune of Norman Greenbaum's "Spirit in the Sky" and Bob Dylan's "Mr. Tambourine Man". The cannon was placed atop a tower which had the shape of a double-thumbed fist clutching a peyote button, a symbol originally used in his 1970 campaign for sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado. The plans for the monument were initially drawn by Thompson and Steadman, and were shown as part of an Omnibus program on the BBC titled Fear and Loathing in Gonzovision (1978). It is included as a special feature on the second disc of the 2004 Criterion Collection DVD release of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, and labeled as Fear and Loathing on the Road to Hollywood. According to his widow, Anita, the $3 million funeral was funded by actor Johnny Depp, who was a close friend of Thompson's. Depp told the Associated Press, "All I'm doing is trying to make sure his last wish comes true. I just want to send my pal out the way he wants to go out." An estimated 280 people attended, including U.S. Senators John Kerry and George McGovern; 60 Minutes correspondents Ed Bradley and Charlie Rose; actors Jack Nicholson, John Cusack, Bill Murray, Benicio del Toro, Sean Penn, and Josh Hartnett; musicians Lyle Lovett, John Oates and David Amram, and artist and long-time friend Ralph Steadman. Legacy Writing style Thompson is often credited as the creator of Gonzo journalism, a style of writing that blurs distinctions between fiction and nonfiction. His work and style are considered to be a major part of the New Journalism literary movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which attempted to break free from the purely objective style of mainstream reportage of the time. Thompson almost always wrote in the first person, while extensively using his own experiences and emotions to color "the story" he was trying to follow. Despite him having personally described his work as "Gonzo", it fell to later observers to articulate what the term actually meant. While Thompson's approach clearly involved injecting himself as a participant in the events of the narrative, it also involved adding invented, metaphoric elements, thus creating, for the uninitiated reader, a seemingly confusing amalgam of facts and fiction notable for the deliberately blurred lines between one and the other. Thompson, in a 1974 interview in Playboy addressed the issue himself, saying, "Unlike Tom Wolfe or Gay Talese, I almost never try to reconstruct a story. They're both much better reporters than I am, but then, I don't think of myself as a reporter." Tom Wolfe would later describe Thompson's style as "... part journalism and part personal memoir admixed with powers of wild invention and wilder rhetoric." Or as one description of the differences between Thompson and Wolfe's styles would elaborate, "While Tom Wolfe mastered the technique of being a fly on the wall, Thompson mastered the art of being a fly in the ointment." The majority of Thompson's most popular and acclaimed work appeared within the pages of Rolling Stone magazine. Along with Joe Eszterhas and David Felton, Thompson was instrumental in expanding the focus of the magazine past music criticism; indeed, Thompson was the only staff writer of the epoch never to contribute a music feature to the magazine. Nevertheless, his articles were always peppered with a wide array of pop music references ranging from Howlin' Wolf to Lou Reed. Armed with early fax machines wherever he went, he became notorious for haphazardly sending sometimes illegible material to the magazine's San Francisco offices as an issue was about to go to press. Robert Love, Thompson's editor of 23 years at Rolling Stone, wrote, "the dividing line between fact and fancy rarely blurred, and we didn't always use italics or some other typographical device to indicate the lurch into the fabulous. But if there were living, identifiable humans in a scene, we took certain steps ... Hunter was a close friend of many prominent Democrats, veterans of the ten or more presidential campaigns he covered, so when in doubt, we'd call the press secretary. 'People will believe almost any twisted kind of story about politicians or Washington,' he once said, and he was right." Discerning the line between the fact and the fiction of Thompson's work presented a practical problem for editors and fact-checkers of his work. Love called fact-checking Thompson's work "one of the sketchiest occupations ever created in the publishing world", and "for the first-timer ... a trip through a journalistic fun house, where you didn't know what was real and what wasn't. You knew you had better learn enough about the subject at hand to know when the riff began and reality ended. Hunter was a stickler for numbers, for details like gross weight and model numbers, for lyrics and caliber, and there was no faking it." Persona Thompson often used a blend of fiction and fact when portraying himself in his writing, too, sometimes using the name Raoul Duke as an author surrogate whom he generally described as a callous, erratic, self-destructive journalist who constantly drank alcohol and took hallucinogenic drugs. Fantasizing about causing bodily harm to others was also a characteristic in his work used to comedic effect and an example of his brand of humor. In the late 1960s, Thompson acquired the title of "Doctor" from the Universal Life Church. A number of critics have commented that as he grew older, the line that distinguished Thompson from his literary self became increasingly blurred. Thompson admitted during a 1978 BBC interview that he sometimes felt pressured to live up to the fictional self that he had created, adding, "I'm never sure which one people expect me to be. Very often, they conflict — most often, as a matter of fact. ... I'm leading a normal life and right alongside me there is this myth, and it is growing and mushrooming and getting more and more warped. When I get invited to, say, speak at universities, I'm not sure if they are inviting Duke or Thompson. I'm not sure who to be." Thompson's writing style and eccentric persona gave him a cult following in both literary and drug circles, and his cult status expanded into broader areas after being portrayed three times in major motion pictures. Hence, both his writing style and persona have been widely imitated, and his likeness has even become a popular costume choice for Halloween. Political beliefs Thompson was a firearms and explosives enthusiast (in his writing and in life) and owned a vast collection of handguns, rifles, shotguns, and various automatic and semiautomatic weapons, along with numerous forms of gaseous crowd-control and many homemade devices. He was a proponent of the right to bear arms and privacy rights. A member of the National Rifle Association, Thompson was also co-creator of the Fourth Amendment Foundation, an organization to assist victims in defending themselves against unwarranted search and seizure. Part of his work with the Fourth Amendment Foundation centered around support of Lisl Auman, a Colorado woman who was sentenced for life in 1997 under felony murder charges for the death of police officer Bruce VanderJagt, despite contradictory statements and dubious evidence. Thompson organized rallies, provided legal support, and co-wrote an article in the June 2004 issue of Vanity Fair outlining the case. The Colorado Supreme Court eventually overturned Auman's sentence in March 2005, shortly after Thompson's death, and Auman is now free. Auman's supporters claim Thompson's support and publicity resulted in the successful appeal. Thompson was also an ardent supporter of drug legalization and became known for his detailed accounts of his own drug use. He was an early supporter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws and served on the group's advisory board for over 30 years, until his death. He told an interviewer in 1997 that drugs should be legalized "[a]cross the board. It might be a little rough on some people for a while, but I think it's the only way to deal with drugs. Look at Prohibition; all it did was make a lot of criminals rich." In a 1965 letter to his friend Paul Semonin, Thompson explained an affection for the Industrial Workers of the World, "I have in recent months come to have a certain feeling for Joe Hill and the Wobbly crowd who, if nothing else, had the right idea. But not the right mechanics. I believe the IWW was probably the last human concept in American politics." In another letter to Semonin, Thompson wrote that he agreed with Karl Marx, and compared him to Thomas Jefferson. In a letter to William Kennedy, Thompson confided that he was "coming to view the free enterprise system as the single greatest evil in the history of human savagery." In the documentary Breakfast with Hunter, Hunter S. Thompson is seen in several scenes wearing different Che Guevara T-shirts. Additionally, actor and friend Benicio del Toro has stated that Thompson kept a "big" picture of Che in his kitchen. Thompson wrote on behalf of African-American rights and the civil rights movement. He strongly criticized the dominance in American society of what he called "white power structures". After the September 11 attacks, Thompson voiced skepticism regarding the official story on who was responsible for the attacks. He speculated to several interviewers that it may have been conducted by the U.S. government or with the government's assistance, though readily admitting he had no way to prove his theory. In 2004, Thompson wrote: "[Richard] Nixon was a professional politician, and I despised everything he stood for—but if he were running for president this year against the evil Bush–Cheney gang, I would happily vote for him." Scholarships Thompson's widow established two scholarship funds at Columbia University School of General Studies for U.S. military veterans and the University of Kentucky for journalism students. Colorado NORML created the Hunter S. Thompson Scholarship to pay all expenses for a lawyer or law student to attend the NORML Legal Committee Conference in Aspen, generally the first few days of June each year. The funding from a silent auction has paid for two winners for some years. Many winners have gone on to become important cannabis lawyers on state and national levels. Works Books Thompson wrote a number of books, publishing from 1966 to the end of his life. His best-known works include Hell's Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs, Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, The Rum Diary, The Curse of Lono, and Screwjack. Articles As a journalist over the course of decades, Thompson published numerous articles in various periodicals. He wrote for many publications, including Rolling Stone, Esquire, The Boston Globe, Chicago Tribune, The New York Times, The San Francisco Examiner, Time, Vanity Fair, The San Juan Star, and Playboy. He was also guest editor for a single edition of The Aspen Daily News. A collection of 100 of his columns from The San Francisco Examiner was published in 1988 as Gonzo Papers, Vol. 2: Generation of Swine: Tales of Shame and Degradation in the '80s. A collection of his articles for Rolling Stone was released in 2011 as Fear and Loathing at Rolling Stone: The Essential Writings of Hunter S. Thompson. The book was edited by the magazine's co-founder and publisher, Jann S. Wenner, who also provided an introduction to the collection. Letters Thompson wrote many letters, which were his primary means of personal communication. He made carbon copies of all his letters, usually typed, a habit begun in his teenaged years. The Fear and Loathing Letters is a three-volume collection of selections from Thompson's correspondence, edited by historian Douglas Brinkley. The first volume, The Proud Highway, was published in 1997, and contains letters from 1955 to 1967. Fear and Loathing in America was published in 2000 and contains letters dating from 1968 to 1976. A third volume, titled The Mutineer: Rants, Ravings, and Missives from the Mountaintop 1977–2005, was edited by Douglas Brinkley and prepared by Simon & Schuster in 2005. As of March 2019, it has yet to be sold to the public. It contains a special introduction by Johnny Depp. Illustrations Accompanying the eccentric and colorful writing of Hunter Thompson, illustrations by British artist Ralph Steadman offer visual representations of the Gonzo style. Steadman and Thompson developed a professional relationship. The two collaborated many times over Thompson's career, although at times they were known to violently argue. Wayne Ewing's documentary on Hunter captured an encounter where Steadman tells Hunter that he believes his drawings contributed as much to the success of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas as Hunter's writing. Hunter was furious at the suggestion and their relationship was certainly at times, strained. Steadman in recent years has described Hunter as "rude" and "a bully." So while they are publicly known as great friends, the true nature of their relationship was considerably more nuanced. Photography Thompson was an avid amateur photographer throughout his life, and his photos have been exhibited since his death at art galleries in the United States and United Kingdom. In late 2006, AMMO Books published a limited-edition, 224-page collection of Thompson photos called Gonzo: Photographs by Hunter S. Thompson, with an introduction by Johnny Depp. Thompson's snapshots were a combination of the subjects he was covering, stylized self-portraits, and artistic still life photos. The London Observer called the photos "astonishingly good" and noted that "Thompson's pictures remind us, brilliantly in every sense, of very real people, real colours." Feature films The film Where the Buffalo Roam (1980) depicts heavily fictionalized attempts by Thompson to cover the Super Bowl and the 1972 U.S. presidential election. It stars Bill Murray as Thompson and Peter Boyle as Thompson's attorney Oscar Zeta Acosta, referred to in the movie as Carl Lazlo, Esq. The 1998 film adaptation of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas was directed by Monty Python veteran Terry Gilliam and starred Johnny Depp (who moved into Thompson's basement to "study" Thompson's persona before assuming his role in the film) as Raoul Duke and Benicio del Toro as Oscar Zeta Acosta. The film has achieved something of a cult following. In the 2001 film Ali, Thompson is briefly portrayed by actor Lee Cummings. The film adaptation of Thompson's novel The Rum Diary was released in October 2011, also starring Johnny Depp as the main character, Paul Kemp. The novel's premise was inspired by Thompson's own experiences in Puerto Rico. The film was written and directed by Bruce Robinson. At a press junket for The Rum Diary shortly before the film's release, Depp said that he would like to adapt The Curse of Lono, "The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved", and Hell's Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs for the big screen: "I'd just keep playing Hunter. There's a great comfort in it for me, because I get a great visit with my old friend who I miss dearly." Documentaries Fear and Loathing in Gonzovision (1978) is an extended television profile by the BBC. It can be found on disc 2 of The Criterion Collection edition of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. The Mitchell brothers, owners of the O'Farrell Theatre in San Francisco, made a documentary about Thompson in 1988 called Hunter S. Thompson: The Crazy Never Die. Wayne Ewing created three documentaries about Thompson. The film Breakfast with Hunter (2003) was directed and edited by Ewing. It documents Thompson's work on the movie Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, his arrest for drunk driving, and his subsequent fight with the court system. When I Die (2005) is a video chronicle of making Thompson's final farewell wishes a reality, and documents the send-off itself. Free Lisl: Fear and Loathing in Denver (2006) chronicles Thompson's efforts in helping to free Lisl Auman, who was sentenced to life in prison without parole for the shooting of a police officer, a crime she did not commit. All three films are only available online. In Come on Down: Searching for the American Dream (2004) Thompson gives director Adamm Liley insight into the nature of the American Dream over drinks at the Woody Creek Tavern. Buy the Ticket, Take the Ride: Hunter S. Thompson on Film (2006) was directed by Tom Thurman, written by Tom Marksbury, and produced by the Starz Entertainment Group. The original documentary features interviews with Thompson's inner circle of family and friends, but the thrust of the film focuses on the manner in which his life often overlapped with numerous Hollywood celebrities who became his close friends, such as Johnny Depp, Benicio del Toro, Bill Murray, Sean Penn, John Cusack, Thompson's wife Anita, son Juan, former Senators George McGovern and Gary Hart, writers Tom Wolfe and William F. Buckley, actors Gary Busey and Harry Dean Stanton, and the illustrator Ralph Steadman among others. Blasted!!! The Gonzo Patriots of Hunter S. Thompson (2006), produced, directed, photographed, and edited by Blue Kraning, is a documentary about the scores of fans who volunteered their privately owned artillery to fire the ashes of the late author, Hunter S. Thompson. Blasted!!! premiered at the 2006 Starz Denver International Film Festival, part of a tribute series to Hunter S. Thompson held at the Denver Press Club. In 2008, Academy Award-winning documentarian Alex Gibney (Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room, Taxi to the Dark Side) wrote and directed a documentary on Thompson, titled Gonzo: The Life and Work of Dr. Hunter S. Thompson. The film premiered on January 20, 2008, at the Sundance Film Festival. Gibney uses intimate, never-before-seen home videos, interviews with friends, enemies, lovers, and clips from films adapted from Thompson's material to document his turbulent life. Theater Lou Stein's adaptation of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas was performed at the Battersea Theatre. Stein persuades London's Time Out magazine to put Thompson up for a fortnight, in exchange for him writing a cover story to publicize the play. Thompson does not write the story, but does rampage around London on Time Out 's expense account. The play was revived for the Vault Fringe Festival in 2014. GONZO: A Brutal Chrysalis is a one-man show about Thompson written by Paul Addis, who also played the author. Set in the writing den of Thompson's Woody Creek home, the show portrays his life between 1968 and 1971. James Cartee began playing the role soon after Addis's arrest in 2009, and again after Addis's death in 2012. Awards, accolades, and tributes Thompson was named a Kentucky Colonel by the governor of Kentucky in a December 1996 tribute ceremony where he also received keys to the city of Louisville. Author Tom Wolfe has called Thompson the greatest American comic writer of the 20th century. Asked in an interview with Jody Denberg on KGSR Studio, in 2000, whether he would ever consider writing a book "like [his] buddy Hunter S. Thompson", the musician Warren Zevon responded: "Let's remember that Hunter S. Thompson is the finest writer of our generation; he didn't just toss off a book the other day..." Thompson appeared on the cover of the 1,000th issue of Rolling Stone, May 18 – June 1, 2006, as a devil playing the guitar next to the two "L"'s in the word "Rolling". Johnny Depp also appeared on the cover. The Thompson-inspired character Uncle Duke appears on a recurring basis in Doonesbury, the daily newspaper comic strip by Garry Trudeau. When the character was first introduced, Thompson protested, quoted in an interview as saying that he would set Trudeau on fire if the two ever met, although reportedly he liked the character in later years. Between March 7, 2005 (roughly two weeks after Thompson's suicide), and March 12, 2005, Doonesbury ran a tribute to Hunter, with Uncle Duke lamenting the death of the man he called his "inspiration". The first of these strips featured a panel with artwork similar to that of Ralph Steadman, and later strips featured various non sequiturs (with Duke variously transforming into a monster, melting, shrinking to the size of an empty drinking glass, or people around him turning into animals), which seemed to mirror some of the effects of hallucinogenic drugs described in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. Many have suggested that General Hunter Gathers in the Adult Swim animated series The Venture Bros. is a tribute to Thompson, as they have a similar name, mannerisms, and physical appearance. Dale Gribble in the Fox animated series King of the Hill is a tribute to Thompson and derives his physical appearance from him. In the Cameron Crowe film Almost Famous, based on Crowe's experiences writing for Rolling Stone while on the road with the fictional band Stillwater", the writer is on the phone with an actor portraying Jann Wenner. Wenner tells the young journalist that he "is not there to join the party, we already have one Hunter Thompson" after the young writer amassed large hotel and traveling expenses and is overheard to be sharing his room with several young women. Eric C. Shoaf donated a caché of approximately 800 items (in librarian terms, about 35-40 linear feet of material on a shelf) pertaining to the life and career of Thompson to the University of California at Santa Cruz. Shoaf also published a descriptive bibliography, Gonzology: A Hunter Thompson Bibliography, of the works of Hunter S. Thompson with over 1,000 entries, many never before documented appearances in print, hundreds of biographical entries about Thompson's life, full descriptions of all his primary works, preface by William McKeen, Phd, and photo section with rare and exclusive items depicted. References External links "Hunter S. Thompson's ESPN Page 2 Archive", Totallygonzo.org "Shotgun Golf With Bill Murray", Thompson's final column for ESPN.com's Page 2. A collection of articles on Thompson from The Guardian Thompson's photography 1937 births 2005 suicides 20th-century American journalists 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American novelists 20th-century essayists 21st-century American journalists 21st-century American male writers 21st-century American novelists 9/11 conspiracy theorists American activist journalists American columnists American conspiracy theorists American essayists American male essayists American male journalists American male novelists American Marxists American people of Scottish descent American political writers American tax resisters Atherton High School alumni Columbia University School of General Studies alumni Drug policy reform activists Florida State University alumni Journalists from Colorado Journalists from Kentucky Louisville Male High School alumni Military personnel from Louisville, Kentucky Motorcycling writers Novelists from Colorado Novelists from Kentucky People from Glen Ellen, California Psychedelic drug advocates Sportswriters from California Suicides by firearm in Colorado United States Air Force airmen Writers from Louisville, Kentucky

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialism

Imperialism

Imperialism is a policy or ideology of extending rule over peoples and other countries, for extending political and economic access, power and control, often through employing hard power, especially military force, but also soft power. While related to the concepts of colonialism and empire, imperialism is a distinct concept that can apply to other forms of expansion and many forms of government. Etymology and usage The word imperialism originated from the Latin word imperium, which means supreme power, "sovereignty", or simply "rule". It first became common in the current sense in Great Britain during the 1870s, when it was used with a negative connotation. Previously, the term had been used to describe what was perceived as Napoleon III's attempts at obtaining political support through foreign military interventions. The term was and is mainly applied to Western and Japanese political and economic dominance, especially in Asia and Africa, in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its precise meaning continues to be debated by scholars. Some writers, such as Edward Said, use the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and subordination organized around an imperial core and a periphery. This definition encompasses both nominal empires and neocolonialism. Colonialism versus imperialism The term "imperialism" is often conflated with "colonialism"; however, many scholars have argued that each has its own distinct definition. Imperialism and colonialism have been used in order to describe one's perceived superiority, domination and influence upon a person or group of people. Robert Young writes that while imperialism operates from the centre, is a state policy and is developed for ideological as well as financial reasons, it is simply development for settlement or commercial intentions. However, colonialism still includes invasion. Colonialism in modern usage also tends to imply a degree of geographic separation between the colony and the imperial power. Particularly, Edward Said distinguishes the difference between imperialism and colonialism by stating; "imperialism involved 'the practice, the theory and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan center ruling a distant territory', while colonialism refers to the 'implanting of settlements on a distant territory.' Contiguous land empires such as the Russian or Ottoman have traditionally been excluded from discussions of colonialism, though this is beginning to change, since it is accepted that they also sent populations into the territories they ruled. Imperialism and colonialism both dictate the political and economic advantage over a land and the indigenous populations they control, yet scholars sometimes find it difficult to illustrate the difference between the two. Although imperialism and colonialism focus on the suppression of another, if colonialism refers to the process of a country taking physical control of another, imperialism refers to the political and monetary dominance, either formally or informally. Colonialism is seen to be the architect deciding how to start dominating areas and then imperialism can be seen as creating the idea behind conquest cooperating with colonialism. Colonialism is when the imperial nation begins a conquest over an area and then eventually is able to rule over the areas the previous nation had controlled. Colonialism's core meaning is the exploitation of the valuable assets and supplies of the nation that was conquered and the conquering nation then gaining the benefits from the spoils of the war. The meaning of imperialism is to create an empire, by conquering the other state's lands and therefore increasing its own dominance. Colonialism is the builder and preserver of the colonial possessions in an area by a population coming from a foreign region. Colonialism can completely change the existing social structure, physical structure, and economics of an area; it is not unusual that the characteristics of the conquering peoples are inherited by the conquered indigenous populations. Few colonies remain remote from their mother country. Thus, most will eventually establish a separate nationality or remain under complete control of their mother colony. The Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin suggested that "imperialism was the highest form of capitalism, claiming that imperialism developed after colonialism, and was distinguished from colonialism by monopoly capitalism". This idea from Lenin stresses how important new political world order has become in the modern era. Geopolitics now focuses on states becoming major economic players in the market; some states today are viewed as empires due to their political and economic authority over other nations. European expansion caused the world to be divided by how developed and developing nations are portrayed through the world systems theory. The two main regions are the core and the periphery. The core consists of areas of high income and profit; the periphery is on the opposing side of the spectrum consisting of areas of low income and profit. These critical theories of geo-politics have led to increased discussion of the meaning and impact of imperialism on the modern post-colonial world. Age of Imperialism The Age of Imperialism, a time period beginning around 1760, saw European industrializing nations, engaging in the process of colonizing, influencing, and annexing other parts of the world. 19th century episodes included the "Scramble for Africa." In the 1970s British historians John Gallagher (1919–1980) and Ronald Robinson (1920–1999) argued that European leaders rejected the notion that "imperialism" required formal, legal control by one government over a colonial region. Much more important was informal control of independent areas. According to Wm. Roger Louis, "In their view, historians have been mesmerized by formal empire and maps of the world with regions colored red. The bulk of British emigration, trade, and capital went to areas outside the formal British Empire. Key to their thinking is the idea of empire 'informally if possible and formally if necessary.'" Oron Hale says that Gallagher and Robinson looked at the British involvement in Africa where they "found few capitalists, less capital, and not much pressure from the alleged traditional promoters of colonial expansion. Cabinet decisions to annex or not to annex were made, usually on the basis of political or geopolitical considerations." Looking at the main empires from 1875 to 1914, there was a mixed record in terms of profitability. At first, planners expected that colonies would provide an excellent captive market for manufactured items. Apart from the Indian subcontinent, this was seldom true. By the 1890s, imperialists saw the economic benefit primarily in the production of inexpensive raw materials to feed the domestic manufacturing sector. Overall, Great Britain did very well in terms of profits from India, especially Mughal Bengal, but not from most of the rest of its empire. To understand the scale of the wealth transfer from India from 1765 to 1938 an estimated $45 Trillion was taken. This is 15-times the $3 Trillion (2019) annual GNI of the UK. The Netherlands did very well in the East Indies. Germany and Italy got very little trade or raw materials from their empires. France did slightly better. The Belgian Congo was notoriously profitable when it was a capitalistic rubber plantation owned and operated by King Leopold II as a private enterprise. However, scandal after scandal regarding very badly mistreated labour led the international community to force the government of Belgium to take it over in 1908, and it became much less profitable. The Philippines cost the United States much more than expected because of military action against rebels. Because of the resources made available by imperialism, the world's economy grew significantly and became much more interconnected in the decades before World War I, making the many imperial powers rich and prosperous. Europe's expansion into territorial imperialism was largely focused on economic growth by collecting resources from colonies, in combination with assuming political control by military and political means. The colonization of India in the mid-18th century offers an example of this focus: there, the "British exploited the political weakness of the Mughal state, and, while military activity was important at various times, the economic and administrative incorporation of local elites was also of crucial significance" for the establishment of control over the subcontinent's resources, markets, and manpower. Although a substantial number of colonies had been designed to provide economic profit and to ship resources to home ports in the 17th and 18th centuries, D. K. Fieldhouse suggests that in the 19th and 20th centuries in places such as Africa and Asia, this idea is not necessarily valid: During this time, European merchants had the ability to "roam the high seas and appropriate surpluses from around the world (sometimes peaceably, sometimes violently) and to concentrate them in Europe". European expansion greatly accelerated in the 19th century. To obtain raw materials, Europe expanded imports from other countries and from the colonies. European industrialists sought raw materials such as dyes, cotton, vegetable oils, and metal ores from overseas. Concurrently, industrialization was quickly making Europe the centre of manufacturing and economic growth, driving resource needs. Communication became much more advanced during European expansion. With the invention of railroads and telegraphs, it became easier to communicate with other countries and to extend the administrative control of a home nation over its colonies. Steam railroads and steam-driven ocean shipping made possible the fast, cheap transport of massive amounts of goods to and from colonies. Along with advancements in communication, Europe also continued to advance in military technology. European chemists made new explosives that made artillery much more deadly. By the 1880s, the machine gun had become a reliable battlefield weapon. This technology gave European armies an advantage over their opponents, as armies in less-developed countries were still fighting with arrows, swords, and leather shields (e.g. the Zulus in Southern Africa during the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879). Some exceptions of armies that managed to get nearly on par with the European expeditions and standards include the Ethiopian armies at the Battle of Adwa, and the Japanese Imperial Army of Japan, but these still relied heavily on weapons imported from Europe and often on European military advisors. Theories of imperialism Anglophone academic studies often base their theories regarding imperialism on the British experience of Empire. The term imperialism was originally introduced into English in its present sense in the late 1870s by opponents of the allegedly aggressive and ostentatious imperial policies of British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli. Supporters of "imperialism" such as Joseph Chamberlain quickly appropriated the concept. For some, imperialism designated a policy of idealism and philanthropy; others alleged that it was characterized by political self-interest, and a growing number associated it with capitalist greed. In Imperialism: A Study (1902), John A. Hobson developed a highly influential interpretation of imperialism that expanded on his belief that free enterprise capitalism had a negative impact on the majority of the population. In Imperialism he argued that the financing of overseas empires drained money that was needed at home. It was invested abroad because of lower wages paid to the workers overseas made for higher profits and higher rates of return, compared to domestic wages. So although domestic wages remained higher, they did not grow nearly as fast as they might have otherwise. Exporting capital, he concluded, put a lid on the growth of domestic wages in the domestic standard of living. By the 1970s, historians such as David K. Fieldhouse and Oron Hale could argue that "the Hobsonian foundation has been almost completely demolished." The British experience failed to support it. However, European Socialists picked up Hobson's ideas and made it into their own theory of imperialism, most notably in Lenin's Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916). Lenin portrayed Imperialism as the closure of the world market and the end of capitalist free-competition that arose from the need for capitalist economies to constantly expand investment, material resources and manpower in such a way that necessitated colonial expansion. Later Marxist theoreticians echo this conception of imperialism as a structural feature of capitalism, which explained the World War as the battle between imperialists for control of external markets. Lenin's treatise became a standard textbook that flourished until the collapse of communism in 1989–91. Some theoreticians on the non-Communist left have emphasized the structural or systemic character of "imperialism". Such writers have expanded the period associated with the term so that it now designates neither a policy, nor a short space of decades in the late 19th century, but a world system extending over a period of centuries, often going back to Christopher Columbus and, in some accounts, to the Crusades. As the application of the term has expanded, its meaning has shifted along five distinct but often parallel axes: the moral, the economic, the systemic, the cultural, and the temporal. Those changes reflect—among other shifts in sensibility—a growing unease, even great distaste, with the pervasiveness of such power, specifically, Western power. Historians and political theorists have long debated the correlation between capitalism, class and imperialism. Much of the debate was pioneered by such theorists as J. A. Hobson (1858–1940), Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950), Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), and Norman Angell (1872–1967). While these non-Marxist writers were at their most prolific before World War I, they remained active in the interwar years. Their combined work informed the study of imperialism and its impact on Europe, as well as contributing to reflections on the rise of the military-political complex in the United States from the 1950s. Hobson argued that domestic social reforms could cure the international disease of imperialism by removing its economic foundation. Hobson theorized that state intervention through taxation could boost broader consumption, create wealth, and encourage a peaceful, tolerant, multipolar world order. Walter Rodney, in his 1972 classic How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, proposes the idea that imperialism is a phase of capitalism "in which Western European capitalist countries, the US, and Japan established political, economic, military and cultural hegemony over other parts of the world which were initially at a lower level and therefore could not resist domination." As a result, Imperialism "for many years embraced the whole world – one part being the exploiters and the other the exploited, one part being dominated and the other acting as overlords, one part making policy and the other being dependent." Imperialism has also been identified in newer phenomena like space development and its governing context. Issues Orientalism and imaginative geography Imperial control, territorial and cultural, is justified through discourses about the imperialists' understanding of different spaces. Conceptually, imagined geographies explain the limitations of the imperialist understanding of the societies (human reality) of the different spaces inhabited by the non–European Other. In Orientalism (1978), Edward Said said that the West developed the concept of The Orient—an imagined geography of the Eastern world—which functions as an essentializing discourse that represents neither the ethnic diversity nor the social reality of the Eastern world. That by reducing the East into cultural essences, the imperial discourse uses place-based identities to create cultural difference and psychologic distance between "We, the West" and "They, the East" and between "Here, in the West" and "There, in the East". That cultural differentiation was especially noticeable in the books and paintings of early Oriental studies, the European examinations of the Orient, which misrepresented the East as irrational and backward, the opposite of the rational and progressive West. Defining the East as a negative vision of the Western world, as its inferior, not only increased the sense-of-self of the West, but also was a way of ordering the East, and making it known to the West, so that it could be dominated and controlled. Therefore, Orientalism was the ideological justification of early Western imperialism—a body of knowledge and ideas that rationalized social, cultural, political, and economic control of other, non-white peoples. Cartography One of the main tools used by imperialists was cartography. Cartography is "the art, science and technology of making maps" but this definition is problematic. It implies that maps are objective representations of the world when in reality they serve very political means. For Harley, maps serve as an example of Foucault's power and knowledge concept. To better illustrate this idea, Bassett focuses his analysis of the role of 19th-century maps during the "scramble for Africa". He states that maps "contributed to empire by promoting, assisting, and legitimizing the extension of French and British power into West Africa". During his analysis of 19th-century cartographic techniques, he highlights the use of blank space to denote unknown or unexplored territory. This provided incentives for imperial and colonial powers to obtain "information to fill in blank spaces on contemporary maps". Although cartographic processes advanced through imperialism, further analysis of their progress reveals many biases linked to eurocentrism. According to Bassett, "[n]ineteenth-century explorers commonly requested Africans to sketch maps of unknown areas on the ground. Many of those maps were highly regarded for their accuracy" but were not printed in Europe unless Europeans verified them. Expansionism Imperialism in pre-modern times was common in the form of expansionism through vassalage and conquest. Cultural imperialism The concept of cultural imperialism refers to the cultural influence of one dominant culture over others, i.e. a form of soft power, which changes the moral, cultural, and societal worldview of the subordinate country. This means more than just "foreign" music, television or film becoming popular with young people; rather that a populace changes its own expectations of life, desiring for their own country to become more like the foreign country depicted. For example, depictions of opulent American lifestyles in the soap opera Dallas during the Cold War changed the expectations of Romanians; a more recent example is the influence of smuggled South Korean drama series in North Korea. The importance of soft power is not lost on authoritarian regimes, fighting such influence with bans on foreign popular culture, control of the internet and unauthorised satellite dishes etc. Nor is such a usage of culture recent, as part of Roman imperialism local elites would be exposed to the benefits and luxuries of Roman culture and lifestyle, with the aim that they would then become willing participants. Imperialism has been subject to moral or immoral censure by its critics, and thus the term is frequently used in international propaganda as a pejorative for expansionist and aggressive foreign policy. Social imperialism The political concept social imperialism is a Marxist expression first used in the early 20th century by Lenin as "socialist in words, imperialist in deeds" describing the Fabian Society and other socialist organizations. Later, in a split with the Soviet Union, Mao Zedong criticized its leaders as social imperialists. Justification Stephen Howe has summarized his view on the beneficial effects of the colonial empires: A controversial aspect of imperialism is the defense and justification of empire-building based on seemingly rational grounds. In ancient China, Tianxia denoted the lands, space, and area divinely appointed to the Emperor by universal and well-defined principles of order. The center of this land was directly apportioned to the Imperial court, forming the center of a world view that centered on the Imperial court and went concentrically outward to major and minor officials and then the common citizens, tributary states, and finally ending with the fringe "barbarians". Tianxia's idea of hierarchy gave Chinese a privileged position and was justified through the promise of order and peace. J. A. Hobson identifies this justification on general grounds as: "It is desirable that the earth should be peopled, governed, and developed, as far as possible, by the races which can do this work best, i.e. by the races of highest 'social efficiency'". Many others argued that imperialism is justified for several different reasons. Friedrich Ratzel believed that in order for a state to survive, imperialism was needed. Halford Mackinder felt that Great Britain needed to be one of the greatest imperialists and therefore justified imperialism. The purportedly scientific nature of "Social Darwinism" and a theory of races formed a supposedly rational justification for imperialism. Under this doctrine, the French politician Jules Ferry could declare in 1883 that "Superior races have a right, because they have a duty. They have the duty to civilize the inferior races." The rhetoric of colonizers being racially superior appears to have achieved its purpose, for example throughout Latin America "whiteness" is still prized today and various forms of blanqueamiento (whitening) are common. The Royal Geographical Society of London and other geographical societies in Europe had great influence and were able to fund travelers who would come back with tales of their discoveries. These societies also served as a space for travellers to share these stories. Political geographers such as Friedrich Ratzel of Germany and Halford Mackinder of Britain also supported imperialism. Ratzel believed expansion was necessary for a state's survival while Mackinder supported Britain's imperial expansion; these two arguments dominated the discipline for decades. Geographical theories such as environmental determinism also suggested that tropical environments created uncivilized people in need of European guidance. For instance, American geographer Ellen Churchill Semple argued that even though human beings originated in the tropics they were only able to become fully human in the temperate zone. Tropicality can be paralleled with Edward Said's Orientalism as the west's construction of the east as the "other". According to Said, orientalism allowed Europe to establish itself as the superior and the norm, which justified its dominance over the essentialized Orient. Technology and economic efficiency were often improved in territories subjected to imperialism through the building of roads, other infrastructure and introduction of new technologies. The principles of imperialism are often generalizable to the policies and practices of the British Empire "during the last generation, and proceeds rather by diagnosis than by historical description". British imperialism in some sparsely-inhabited regions appears to have applied a principle now termed Terra nullius (Latin expression which stems from Roman law meaning 'no man's land'). The country of Australia serves as a case study in relation to British settlement and colonial rule of the continent in the 18th century, that was arguably premised on terra nullius, as its settlers considered it unused by its original inhabitants. Environmental determinism The concept of environmental determinism served as a moral justification for the domination of certain territories and peoples. The environmental determinist school of thought held that the environment in which certain people lived determined those persons' behaviours; and thus validated their domination. For example, the Western world saw people living in tropical environments as "less civilized", therefore justifying colonial control as a civilizing mission. Across the three major waves of European colonialism (the first in the Americas, the second in Asia and the last in Africa), environmental determinism served to place categorically indigenous people in a racial hierarchy. This takes two forms, orientalism and tropicality. Some geographic scholars under colonizing empires divided the world into climatic zones. These scholars believed that Northern Europe and the Mid-Atlantic temperate climate produced a hard-working, moral, and upstanding human being. In contrast, tropical climates allegedly yielded lazy attitudes, sexual promiscuity, exotic culture, and moral degeneracy. The people of these climates were believed to be in need of guidance and intervention from a European empire to aid in the governing of a more evolved social structure; they were seen as incapable of such a feat. Similarly, orientalism could promote a view of a people based on their geographical location. Anti-imperialism Anti-imperialism gained a wide currency after the Second World War and at the onset of the Cold War as political movements in colonies of European powers promoted national sovereignty. Some anti-imperialist groups who opposed the United States supported the power of the Soviet Union, such as in Guevarism, while in Maoism this was criticized as social imperialism. Imperialism by country Roman Ming Mongolian Mali Austria-Hungary Belgium Brazil Britain England England's imperialist ambitions can be seen as early as the 16th century as the Tudor conquest of Ireland began in the 1530s. In 1599 the British East India Company was established and was chartered by Queen Elizabeth in the following year. With the establishment of trading posts in India, the British were able to maintain strength relative to other empires such as the Portuguese who already had set up trading posts in India. Scotland Between 1621 and 1699, the Kingdom of Scotland authorised several colonies in the Americas. Most of these colonies were either aborted or collapsed quickly for various reasons. Great Britain Under the Acts of Union 1707, the English and Scottish kingdoms were merged, and their colonies collectively became subject to Great Britain (also known as the United Kingdom). In 1767, the Anglo-Mysore Wars and other political activity caused exploitation of the East India Company causing the plundering of the local economy, almost bringing the company into bankruptcy. By the year 1670 Britain's imperialist ambitions were well off as she had colonies in Virginia, Massachusetts, Bermuda, Honduras, Antigua, Barbados, Jamaica and Nova Scotia. Due to the vast imperialist ambitions of European countries, Britain had several clashes with France. This competition was evident in the colonization of what is now known as Canada. John Cabot claimed Newfoundland for the British while the French established colonies along the St. Lawrence River and claiming it as "New France". Britain continued to expand by colonizing countries such as New Zealand and Australia, both of which were not empty land as they had their own locals and cultures. Britain's nationalistic movements were evident with the creation of the commonwealth countries where there was a shared nature of national identity. Following the proto-industrialization, the "First" British Empire was based on mercantilism, and involved colonies and holdings primarily in North America, the Caribbean, and India. Its growth was reversed by the loss of the American colonies in 1776. Britain made compensating gains in India, Australia, and in constructing an informal economic empire through control of trade and finance in Latin America after the independence of Spanish and Portuguese colonies in about 1820. By the 1840s, Britain had adopted a highly successful policy of free trade that gave it dominance in the trade of much of the world. After losing its first Empire to the Americans, Britain then turned its attention towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. Following the defeat of Napoleonic France in 1815, Britain enjoyed a century of almost unchallenged dominance and expanded its imperial holdings around the globe. Unchallenged at sea, British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica ("British Peace"), a period of relative peace in Europe and the world (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman. However, this peace was mostly a perceived one from Europe, and the period was still an almost uninterrupted series of colonial wars and disputes. The British Conquest of India, its intervention against Mehemet Ali, the Anglo-Burmese Wars, the Crimean War, the Opium Wars and the Scramble for Africa to name the most notable conflicts mobilised ample military means to press Britain's lead in the global conquest Europe led across the century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain; by the time of the Great Exhibition in 1851 the country was described as the "workshop of the world". The British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin America. Domestically, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies and a gradual widening of the voting franchise. During this century, the population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, causing significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, and elsewhere. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. A resurgence came in the late 19th century with the Scramble for Africa and major additions in Asia and the Middle East. The British spirit of imperialism was expressed by Joseph Chamberlain and Lord Rosebury, and implemented in Africa by Cecil Rhodes. The pseudo-sciences of Social Darwinism and theories of race formed an ideological underpinning and legitimation during this time. Other influential spokesmen included Lord Cromer, Lord Curzon, General Kitchener, Lord Milner, and the writer Rudyard Kipling. The British Empire was the largest Empire that the world has ever seen both in terms of landmass and population. Its power, both military and economic, remained unmatched for a few decades. After the First Boer War, the South African Republic and Orange Free State were recognised by Britain but eventually re-annexed after the Second Boer War. But British power was fading, as the reunited German state founded by the Kingdom of Prussia posed a growing threat to Britain's dominance. As of 1913, Britain was the world's fourth economy, behind the U.S, Russia and Germany. Irish War of Independence in 1919-1921 led to the сreation of the Irish Free State. But Britain gained control of former German and Ottoman colonies with the League of Nations mandate. Britain now had a practically continuous line of controlled territories from Egypt to Burma and another one from Cairo to Cape Town. However, this period was also the one of the emergence of independence movements based on nationalism and new experiences the colonists had gained in the war. World War II decisively weakened Britain's position in the world, especially financially. Decolonization movements arose nearly everywhere in the Empire, resulting in Indian independence and partition in 1947 and the establishment of independent states in the 1950s. British imperialism showed its frailty in Egypt during the Suez Crisis in 1956. However, with the United States and Soviet Union emerging from World War II as the sole superpowers, Britain's role as a worldwide power declined significantly and rapidly. China China was one of the world's oldest empires. Due to its long history of imperialist expansion, China has been seen by its neighboring countries as a threat due to its large population, giant economy, large military force as well as its territorial evolution throughout history. Starting with the unification of China under the Qin dynasty, later Chinese dynasties continued to follow its form of expansions. The most successful Chinese imperial dynasties in terms of territorial expansion were the Han, Tang, Yuan, and Qing dynasties. Denmark Danish overseas colonies that Denmark–Norway (Denmark after 1814) possessed from 1536 until 1953. At its apex there were colonies on four continents: Europe, North America, Africa and Asia. In the 17th century, following territorial losses on the Scandinavian Peninsula, Denmark-Norway began to develop colonies, forts, and trading posts in West Africa, the Caribbean, and the Indian subcontinent. Christian IV first initiated the policy of expanding Denmark-Norway's overseas trade, as part of the mercantilist wave that was sweeping Europe. Denmark-Norway's first colony was established at Tranquebar on India's southern coast in 1620. Admiral Ove Gjedde led the expedition that established the colony. After 1814, when Norway was ceded to Sweden, Denmark retained what remained of Norway's great medieval colonial holdings. One by one the smaller colonies were lost or sold. Tranquebar was sold to the British in 1845. The United States purchased the Danish West Indies in 1917. Iceland became independent in 1944. Today, the only remaining vestiges are two originally Norwegian colonies that are currently within the Danish Realm, the Faroe Islands and Greenland; the Faroes were a Danish county until 1948, while Greenland's colonial status ceased in 1953. They are now autonomous territories. France From the 16th to the 17th centuries, the First French colonial empire stretched from a total area at its peak in 1680 to over 10,000,000 square kilometres (3,900,000 sq. miles), the second largest empire in the world at the time behind only the Spanish Empire. It was followed by French East India Company's trading posts in Africa and Asia in the 17th century. France had its "First colonial empire" from 1534 until 1814, including New France (Canada, Acadia, Newfoundland and Louisiana), French West Indies (Saint-Domingue, Guadeloupe, Martinique), French Guiana, Senegal (Gorée), Mascarene Islands (Mauritius Island, Réunion) and French India. Its "Second colonial empire" began with the seizure of Algiers in 1830 and came for the most part to an end with the granting of independence to Algeria in 1962. The French imperial history was marked by numerous wars, large and small, and also by significant help to France itself from the colonials in the world wars. France took control of Algeria in 1830 but began in earnest to rebuild its worldwide empire after 1850, concentrating chiefly in North and West Africa (French North Africa, French West Africa, French Equatorial Africa), as well as South-East Asia (French Indochina), with other conquests in the South Pacific (New Caledonia, French Polynesia). France also twice attempted to make Mexico a colony in 1838–39 and in 1861-67 (see Pastry War and Second French intervention in Mexico). French Republicans, at first hostile to empire, only became supportive when Germany started to build her own colonial empire. As it developed, the new empire took on roles of trade with France, supplying raw materials and purchasing manufactured items, as well as lending prestige to the motherland and spreading French civilization and language as well as Catholicism. It also provided crucial manpower in both World Wars. It became a moral justification to lift the world up to French standards by bringing Christianity and French culture. In 1884 the leading exponent of colonialism, Jules Ferry declared France had a civilising mission: "The higher races have a right over the lower races, they have a duty to civilize the inferior". Full citizenship rights – assimilation – were offered, although in reality assimilation was always on the distant horizon. Contrasting from Britain, France sent small numbers of settlers to its colonies, with the only notable exception of Algeria, where French settlers nevertheless always remained a small minority. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the French colonial empire was the second-largest colonial empire in the world behind the British Empire, extending over 13,500,000 km2 (5,212,000 sq. miles) at its height in the 1920s and 1930s. France controlled 1/10th of the Earth's land area, with a population of 150 million people on the eve of World War II (8% of the world's population at the time). In World War II, Charles de Gaulle and the Free French used the overseas colonies as bases from which they fought to liberate France. However, after 1945 anti-colonial movements began to challenge the Empire. France fought and lost a bitter war in Vietnam in the 1950s. Whereas they won the war in Algeria, de Gaulle decided to grant Algeria independence anyway in 1962. French settlers and many local supporters relocated to France. Nearly all of France's colonies gained independence by 1960, but France retained great financial and diplomatic influence. It has repeatedly sent troops to assist its former colonies in Africa in suppressing insurrections and coups d'état. Education policy French colonial officials, influenced by the revolutionary ideal of equality, standardized schools, curricula, and teaching methods as much as possible. They did not establish colonial school systems with the idea of furthering the ambitions of the local people, but rather simply exported the systems and methods in vogue in the mother nation. Having a moderately trained lower bureaucracy was of great use to colonial officials. The emerging French-educated indigenous elite saw little value in educating rural peoples. After 1946 the policy was to bring the best students to Paris for advanced training. The result was to immerse the next generation of leaders in the growing anti-colonial diaspora centered in Paris. Impressionistic colonials could mingle with studious scholars or radical revolutionaries or so everything in between. Ho Chi Minh and other young radicals in Paris formed the French Communist party in 1920. Tunisia was exceptional. The colony was administered by Paul Cambon, who built an educational system for colonists and indigenous people alike that was closely modeled on mainland France. He emphasized female and vocational education. By independence, the quality of Tunisian education nearly equalled that in France. African nationalists rejected such a public education system, which they perceived as an attempt to retard African development and maintain colonial superiority. One of the first demands of the emerging nationalist movement after World War II was the introduction of full metropolitan-style education in French West Africa with its promise of equality with Europeans. In Algeria, the debate was polarized. The French set up schools based on the scientific method and French culture. The Pied-Noir (Catholic migrants from Europe) welcomed this. Those goals were rejected by the Moslem Arabs, who prized mental agility and their distinctive religious tradition. The Arabs refused to become patriotic and cultured Frenchmen and a unified educational system was impossible until the Pied-Noir and their Arab allies went into exile after 1962. In South Vietnam from 1955 to 1975 there were two competing colonial powers in education, as the French continued their work and the Americans moved in. They sharply disagreed on goals. The French educators sought to preserving French culture among the Vietnamese elites and relied on the Mission Culturelle – the heir of the colonial Direction of Education – and its prestigious high schools. The Americans looked at the great mass of people and sought to make South Vietnam a nation strong enough to stop communism. The Americans had far more money, as USAID coordinated and funded the activities of expert teams, and particularly of academic missions. The French deeply resented the American invasion of their historical zone of cultural imperialism. Germany German expansion into Slavic lands begins in the 12th-13th-century (see Drang Nach Osten). The concept of Drang Nach Osten was a core element of German nationalism and a major element of Nazi ideology. However, the German involvement in the seizure of overseas territories was negligible until the end of the 19th century. Prussia unified the other states into the second German Empire in 1871. Its Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck (1862–90), long opposed colonial acquisitions, arguing that the burden of obtaining, maintaining, and defending such possessions would outweigh any potential benefits. He felt that colonies did not pay for themselves, that the German bureaucratic system would not work well in the tropics and the diplomatic disputes over colonies would distract Germany from its central interest, Europe itself. However, public opinion and elite opinion in Germany demanded colonies for reasons of international prestige, so Bismarck was forced to oblige. In 1883–84 Germany began to build a colonial empire in Africa and the South Pacific. The establishment of the German colonial empire started with German New Guinea in 1884. German colonies included the present territories of in Africa: Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Namibia, Cameroon, Ghana and Togo; in Oceania: New Guinea, Solomon islands, Nauru, Marshall Islands, Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands and Samoa; and in Asia: Tsingtao, Chefoo and the Jiaozhou Bay. The Treaty of Versailles made them mandates temporarily operated by the Allied victors. Germany also lost part of the Eastern territories that became part of independent Poland as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Finally, the Eastern territories captured in the Middle Ages were torn from Germany and became part of Poland and the USSR as a result of the territorial reorganization established by the Potsdam conference of the great powers in 1945. Italy The Italian Empire (Impero italiano) comprised the overseas possessions of the Kingdom of Italy primarily in northeast Africa. It began with the purchase in 1869 of Assab Bay on the Red Sea by an Italian navigation company which intended to establish a coaling station at the time the Suez Canal was being opened to navigation. This was taken over by the Italian government in 1882, becoming modern Italy's first overseas territory. By the start of the First World War in 1914, Italy had acquired in Africa the colony of Eritrea on the Red Sea coast, a large protectorate and later colony in Somalia, and authority in formerly Ottoman Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (gained after the Italo-Turkish War) which were later unified in the colony of Libya. Outside Africa, Italy possessed the Dodecanese Islands off the coast of Turkey (following the Italo-Turkish War) and a small concession in Tianjin in China following the Boxer War of 1900. During the First World War, Italy occupied southern Albania to prevent it from falling to Austria-Hungary. In 1917, it established a protectorate over Albania, which remained in place until 1920. The Fascist government that came to power with Benito Mussolini in 1922 sought to increase the size of the Italian empire and to satisfy the claims of Italian irredentists. In its second invasion of Ethiopia in 1935–36, Italy was successful and it merged its new conquest with its older east African colonies to create Italian East Africa. In 1939, Italy invaded Albania and incorporated it into the Fascist state. During the Second World War (1939–1945), Italy occupied British Somaliland, parts of south-eastern France, western Egypt and most of Greece, but then lost those conquests and its African colonies, including Ethiopia, to the invading allied forces by 1943. It was forced in the peace treaty of 1947 to relinquish sovereignty over all its colonies. It was granted a trust to administer former Italian Somaliland under United Nations supervision in 1950. When Somalia became independent in 1960, Italy's eight-decade experiment with colonialism ended. Islamic Japan For over 200 years, Japan maintained a feudal society during a period of relative isolation from the rest of the world. However, in the 1850s, military pressure from the United States and other world powers coerced Japan to open itself to the global market, resulting in an end to the country's isolation. A period of conflicts and political revolutions followed due to socioeconomic uncertainty, ending in 1868 with the reunification of political power under the Japanese Emperor during the Meiji Restoration. This sparked a period of rapid industrialization driven in part by a Japanese desire for self-sufficiency. By the early 1900s, Japan was a naval power that could hold its own against an established European power as it defeated Russia. Despite its rising population and increasingly industrialized economy, Japan lacked significant natural resources. As a result, the country turned to imperialism and expansionism in part as a means of compensating for these shortcomings, adopting the national motto "Fukoku kyōhei" (富国強兵, "Enrich the state, strengthen the military"). And Japan was eager to take every opportunity. In 1869 they took advantage of the defeat of the rebels of the Republic of Ezo to incorporate definitely the island of Hokkaido to Japan. For centuries, Japan viewed the Ryukyu Islands as one of its provinces. In 1871 the Mudan incident happened: Taiwanese aborigines murdered 54 Ryūkyūan sailors that became shipwrecked. At that time the Ryukyu Islands were claimed by both Qing China and Japan, and the Japanese interpreted the incident as an attack on their citizens. They took steps to bring the islands in their jurisdiction: in 1872 the Japanese Ryukyu Domain was declared, and in 1874 a retaliatory incursion to Taiwan was sent, which was a success. The success of this expedition emboldened the Japanese: not even the Americans could defeat the Taiwanese in the Formosa Expedition of 1867. Very few gave it much thought at the time, but this was the first move in the Japanese expansionism series. Japan occupied Taiwan for the rest of 1874 and then left owing to Chinese pressures, but in 1879 it finally annexed the Ryukyu Islands. In 1875 Qing China sent a 300-men force to subdue the Taiwanese, but unlike the Japanese the Chinese were routed, ambushed and 250 of their men were killed; the failure of this expedition exposed once more the failure of Qing China to exert effective control in Taiwan, and acted as another incentive for the Japanese to annex Taiwan. Eventually, the spoils for winning the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894 included Taiwan. In 1875 Japan took its first operation against Joseon Korea, another territory that for centuries it coveted; the Ganghwa Island incident made Korea open to international trade. Korea was annexed in 1910. As a result of winning the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, Japan took part of Sakhalin Island from Russia. Precisely, the victory against the Russian Empire shook the world: never before had an Asian nation defeated a European power, and in Japan it was seen as a feat. Japan's victory against Russia would act as an antecedent for Asian countries in the fight against the Western powers for Decolonization. During World War I, Japan took German-leased territories in China's Shandong Province, as well as the Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands, and kept the islands as League of nations mandates. At first, Japan was in good standing with the victorious Allied powers of World War I, but different discrepancies and dissatisfaction with the rewards of the treaties cooled the relations with them, for example American pressure forced it to return the Shandong area. By the '30s, economic depression, urgency of resources and a growing distrust in the Allied powers made Japan lean to a hardened militaristic stance. Through the decade, it would grow closer to Germany and Italy, forming together the Axis alliance. In 1931 Japan took Manchuria from China. International reactions condemned this move, but Japan's already strong skepticism against Allied nations meant that it nevertheless carried on. During the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Japan's military invaded central China. Also, in 1938-1939 Japan made an attempt to seize the territory of Soviet Russia and Mongolia, but suffered a serious defeats (see Battle of Lake Khasan, Battles of Khalkhin Gol). By now, relations with the Allied powers were at the bottom, and an international boycott against Japan to deprive it of natural resources was enforced. Thus a military move to gain access to them was needed, and so Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, bringing the United States to World War II. Using its superior technological advances in naval aviation and its modern doctrines of amphibious and naval warfare, Japan achieved one of the fastest maritime expansions in history. By 1942 Japan had conquered much of East Asia and the Pacific, including the east of China, Hong Kong, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Burma (Myanmar), Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, part of New Guinea and many islands of the Pacific Ocean. Just as Japan's late industrialization success and victory against the Russian Empire was seen as an example among underdeveloped Asia-Pacific nations, the Japanese took advantage of this and promoted among its conquered the goal to jointly create an anti-European "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere". This plan helped the Japanese gain support from native populations during its conquests especially in Indonesia. However, the United States had a vastly stronger military and industrial base and defeated Japan, stripping it of conquests and returning its settlers back to Japan. Netherlands The most notable example of Dutch imperialism is regarding Indonesia. Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire was an imperial state that lasted from 1299 to 1922. In 1453, Mehmed the Conqueror captured Constantinople and made it his capital. During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was a powerful multinational, multilingual empire, which invaded and colonized much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, the Caucasus, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa. Its repeated invasions, and brutal treatment of Slavs led to the Great Migrations of the Serbs to escape persecution. At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. Following a long period of military setbacks against European powers, the Ottoman Empire gradually declined, losing control of much of its territory in Europe and Africa. By 1810 Egypt was effectively independent. In 1821-1829 the Greeks in the Greek War of Independence were assisted by Russia, Britain and France. In 1815 to 1914 the Ottoman Empire could exist only in the conditions of acute rivalry of the great powers, with Britain its main supporter, especially in the Crimean war 1853–1856, against Russia. After Ottoman defeat in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro gained independence and Britain took colonial control of Cyprus, while Bosnia and Herzegovina were occupied and annexed by Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1908. The empire allied with Germany in World War I with the imperial ambition of recovering its lost territories, but it dissolved in the aftermath of its decisive defeat. The Kemalist national movement, supported by Soviet Russia, achieved victory in the course of the Turkish War of Independence, and the parties signed and ratified the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 and 1924. The Republic of Turkey was established. Portugal The Russian Empire & the Soviet Union By the 18th century, the Russian Empire extended its control to the Pacific, peacefully forming a common border with the Qing Empire and Empire of Japan. This took place in a large number of military invasions of the lands east, west, and south of it. The Polish–Russian War of 1792 took place after Polish nobility from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth wrote the Constitution of 3 May 1791. The war resulted in eastern Poland being conquered by Imperial Russia as a colony until 1918. The southern campaigns involved a series of Russo-Persian Wars, which began with the Persian Expedition of 1796, resulting in the acquisition of Georgia (country) as a protectorate. Between 1800 and 1864, Imperial armies invaded south in the Russian conquest of the Caucasus, the Murid War, and the Russo-Circassian War. This last conflict led to the ethnic cleansing of Circassians from their lands. The Russian conquest of Siberia over the Khanate of Sibir took place in the 16th and 17th centuries, and resulted in the slaughter of various indigenous tribes by Russians, including the Daur, the Koryaks, the Itelmens, Mansi people and the Chukchi. The Russian colonization of Central and Eastern Europe and Siberia and treatment of the resident indigenous peoples has been compared to European colonization of the Americas, with similar negative impacts on the indigenous Siberians as upon the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The extermination of indigenous Siberian tribes was so complete that a relatively small population of only 180,000 are said to exist today. The Russian Empire exploited and suppressed Cossacks hosts during this period, before turning them into the special military estate Sosloviye in the late 18th century. Cossacks were then used in Imperial Russian campaigns against other tribes. But it would be a strong simplification to reduce expansion of Russia only to military conquests. The acquisition of Ukraine by Russia commenced in 1654, when Polish rule brought the population of Ukraine to revolts (see Pereyaslav Council). Another example is Georgia's accession to Russia in 1783. Given Georgia's history of invasions from the south, an alliance with Russia may have been seen as the only way to discourage or resist Persian and Ottoman aggression, while also establishing a link to Western Europe (see Treaty of Georgievsk). Russia's support helped establish independent Mongolia (independent from China) (see Mongolian Revolution of 1911). Bolshevik leaders had effectively reestablished a polity with roughly the same extent as that empire by 1921, however with an internationalist ideology: Lenin in particular asserted the right to limited self-determination for national minorities within the new territory. Beginning in 1923, the policy of "Indigenization" [korenizatsiya] was intended to support non-Russians develop their national cultures within a socialist framework. Never formally revoked, it stopped being implemented after 1932. After World War II, the Soviet Union installed socialist regimes modeled on those it had installed in 1919–20 in the old Russian Empire, in areas its forces occupied in Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union and later the People's Republic of China supported revolutionary and communist movements in foreign nations and colonies to advance their own interests, but were not always successful. The USSR provided great assistance to Kuomintang in 1926–1928 in the formation of a unified Chinese government (see Northern Expedition). Although then relations with the USSR deteriorated, but the USSR was the only world power that provided military assistance to China against Japanese aggression in 1937-1941 (see Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact). The victory of the Chinese Communists in the civil war of 1946-1949 relied on the great help of the USSR (see Chinese Civil War). Trotsky, and others, believed that the revolution could only succeed in Russia as part of a world revolution. Lenin wrote extensively on the matter and famously declared that Imperialism was the highest stage of capitalism. However, after Lenin's death, Joseph Stalin established 'socialism in one country' for the Soviet Union, creating the model for subsequent inward looking Stalinist states and purging the early Internationalist elements. The internationalist tendencies of the early revolution would be abandoned until they returned in the framework of a client state in competition with the Americans during the Cold War. In the post-Stalin period in the late 1950s, the new political leader Nikita Khrushchev put pressure on the Soviet-American relations starting a new wave of anti-imperialist propaganda. In his speech on the UN conference in 1960, he announced the continuation of the war on imperialism, stating that soon the people of different countries will come together and overthrow their imperialist leaders. Although the Soviet Union declared itself anti-imperialist, critics argue that it exhibited traits common to historic empires. Some scholars hold that the Soviet Union was a hybrid entity containing elements common to both multinational empires and nation states. Some also argued that the USSR practiced colonialism as did other imperial powers and was carrying on the old Russian tradition of expansion and control. Mao Zedong once argued that the Soviet Union had itself become an imperialist power while maintaining a socialist façade. Moreover, the ideas of imperialism were widely spread in action on the higher levels of government. Some Marxists within the Russian Empire and later the USSR, like Sultan Galiev and Vasyl Shakhrai, considered the Soviet regime a renewed version of the Russian imperialism and colonialism. Soviet imperialism involved invasion of Hungary in 1956 to destroy democratic forces. Soviet imperialism was roundly condemned In 1979 when the USSR invaded Afghanistan to keep a friendly government in power. The invasion "alerted the Third World, as no earlier Soviet intervention had done, to the nature of Soviet imperialism. It must be said that the USSR never called itself an "Empire" unlike other world powers and the use of such a name carries a negative connotation. United States Made up of former colonies itself, the early United States expressed its opposition to Imperialism, at least in a form distinct from its own Manifest Destiny, through policies such as the Monroe Doctrine. However the US may have unsuccessfully attempted to capture Canada in the War of 1812. The United States achieved very significant territorial concessions from Mexico during the Mexican-American War. Beginning in the late 19th and early 20th century, policies such as Theodore Roosevelt’s interventionism in Central America and Woodrow Wilson’s mission to "make the world safe for democracy" changed all this. They were often backed by military force, but were more often affected from behind the scenes. This is consistent with the general notion of hegemony and imperium of historical empires. In 1898, Americans who opposed imperialism created the Anti-Imperialist League to oppose the US annexation of the Philippines and Cuba. One year later, a war erupted in the Philippines causing business, labor and government leaders in the US to condemn America's occupation in the Philippines as they also denounced them for causing the deaths of many Filipinos. American foreign policy was denounced as a "racket" by Smedley Butler, a former American general who had become a spokesman for the far left. At the start of World War II, President Franklin D. Roosevelt was opposed to European colonialism, especially in India. He pulled back when Britain's Winston Churchill demanded that victory in the war be the first priority. Roosevelt expected that the United Nations would take up the problem of decolonization. Some have described the internal strife between various people groups as a form of imperialism or colonialism. This internal form is distinct from informal U.S. imperialism in the form of political and financial hegemony. This internal form of imperialism is also distinct from the United States' formation of "colonies" abroad. Through the treatment of its indigenous peoples during westward expansion, the United States took on the form of an imperial power prior to any attempts at external imperialism. This internal form of empire has been referred to as "internal colonialism". Participation in the African slave trade and the subsequent treatment of its 12 to 15 million Africans is viewed by some to be a more modern extension of America's "internal colonialism". However, this internal colonialism faced resistance, as external colonialism did, but the anti-colonial presence was far less prominent due to the nearly complete dominance that the United States was able to assert over both indigenous peoples and African-Americans. In his lecture on April 16, 2003, Edward Said made a bold statement on modern imperialism in the United States, whom he described as using aggressive means of attack towards the contemporary Orient, "due to their backward living, lack of democracy and the violation of women’s rights. The western world forgets during this process of converting the other that enlightenment and democracy are concepts that not all will agree upon". Spain Spanish imperialism in the colonial era corresponds with the rise and decline of the Spanish Empire, conventionally recognized as emerging in 1402 with the conquest of the Canary Islands. Following the successes of exploratory maritime voyages conducted during the Age of Discovery, such as those undertaken by Christopher Columbus, Spain committed considerable financial and military resources towards developing a robust navy capable of conducting large-scale, transatlantic expeditionary operations in order to establish and solidify a firm imperial presence across large portions of North America, South America, and the geographic regions comprising the Caribbean basin. Concomitant with Spanish endorsement and sponsorship of transatlantic expeditionary voyages was the deployment of Conquistadors, which further expanded Spanish imperial boundaries through the acquisition and development of territories and colonies. Imperialism in the Caribbean basin In congruence with the colonialist activities of competing European imperial powers throughout the 15th – 19th centuries, the Spanish were equally engrossed in extending geopolitical power. The Caribbean basin functioned as a key geographic focal point for advancing Spanish imperialism. Similar to the strategic prioritization Spain placed towards achieving victory in the conquests of the Aztec Empire and Inca Empire, Spain placed equal strategic emphasis on expanding the nation's imperial footprint within the Caribbean basin. Echoing the prevailing ideological perspectives regarding colonialism and imperialism embraced by Spain's European rivals during the colonial era, including the English, French, and the Dutch, the Spanish utilized colonialism as a means of expanding imperial geopolitical borders and securing the defense of maritime trade routes in the Caribbean basin. While leveraging colonialism in the same geographic operating theater as its imperial rivals, Spain maintained distinct imperial objectives and instituted a unique form of colonialism in support of its imperial agenda. Spain placed significant strategic emphasis on the acquisition, extraction, and exportation of precious metals (primarily gold and silver). A second objective was the evangelization of subjugated indigenous populations residing in mineral-rich and strategically favorable locations. Notable examples of these indigenous groups include the Taίno populations inhabiting Puerto Rico and segments of Cuba. Compulsory labor and slavery were widely institutionalized across Spanish-occupied territories and colonies, with an initial emphasis on directing labor towards mining activity and related methods of procuring semi-precious metals. The emergence of the Encomienda system during the 16th–17th centuries in occupied colonies within the Caribbean basin reflects a gradual shift in imperial prioritization, increasingly focusing on large-scale production and exportation of agricultural commodities. Scholarly debate and controversy The scope and scale of Spanish participation in imperialism within the Caribbean basin remains a subject of scholarly debate among historians. A fundamental source of contention stems from the inadvertent conflation of theoretical conceptions of imperialism and colonialism. Furthermore, significant variation exists in the definition and interpretation of these terms as expounded by historians, anthropologists, philosophers, and political scientists. Among historians, there is substantial support in favor of approaching imperialism as a conceptual theory emerging during the 18th–19th centuries, particularly within Britain, propagated by key exponents such as Joseph Chamberlain and Benjamin Disraeli. In accordance with this theoretical perspective, the activities of the Spanish in the Caribbean are not components of a preeminent, ideologically-driven form of imperialism. Rather, these activities are more accurately classified as representing a form of colonialism. Further divergence among historians can be attributed to varying theoretical perspectives regarding imperialism that are proposed by emerging academic schools of thought. Noteworthy examples include cultural imperialism, whereby proponents such as John Downing and Annabelle Sreberny-Modammadi define imperialism as "...the conquest and control of one country by a more powerful one." Cultural imperialism signifies the dimensions of the process that go beyond economic exploitation or military force." Moreover, colonialism is understood as "...the form of imperialism in which the government of the colony is run directly by foreigners." In spite of diverging perspectives and the absence of a unilateral scholarly consensus regarding imperialism among historians, within the context of Spanish expansion in the Caribbean basin during the colonial era, imperialism can be interpreted as an overarching ideological agenda that is perpetuated through the institution of colonialism. In this context, colonialism functions as an instrument designed to achieve specific imperialist objectives. Sweden See also Hegemony Historiography of the British Empire Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism 1917 book by Lenin International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) International relations, 1648–1814 List of empires List of largest empires Political history of the world Postcolonialism Scramble for Africa, in the late 19th century Super-imperialism Ultra-imperialism Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization 14 Points esp. V and XII References Further reading Abernethy, David P. The Dynamics of Global Dominance: European Overseas Empires, 1425–1980 (Yale UP, 2000), political science approach. online review Ankerl, Guy. Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharatai, Chinese, and Western, Geneva, INU Press, 2000, . Bayly, C.A. ed. Atlas of the British Empire (1989). survey by scholars; heavily illustrated Brendon, Piers. "A Moral Audit of the British Empire". History Today, (Oct 2007), Vol. 57 Issue 10, pp. 44–47 Brendon, Piers. The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781–1997 (2008), , wide-ranging survey Bickers, Robert and Christian Henriot, New Frontiers: Imperialism's New Communities in East Asia, 1842–1953, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2000, Blanken, Leo. Rational Empires: Institutional Incentives and Imperial Expansion, University Of Chicago Press, 2012 Bush, Barbara. Imperialism and Postcolonialism (History: Concepts, Theories and Practice), Longmans, 2006, Comer, Earl of. Ancient and Modern Imperialism, John Murray, 1910. Cotterell, Arthur. Western Power in Asia: Its Slow Rise and Swift Fall, 1415 - 1999 (2009) popular history excerpts Dabhoiwala, Fara, "Imperial Delusions" (review of Priya Satia, Time's Monster: How History Makes History, Belknap Press/Harvard University Press, 2020, 363 pp.; Mahmood Mamdani, Neither Settler nor Native: The Making and Unmaking of Permanent Minorities, Belknap Press/Harvard University Press, 2020, 401 pp.; and Adom Getachew, Worldmaking after Empire: The Rise and Fall of Self-Determination, Princeton University Press, 2021 [?], 271 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVIII, no. 11 (1 July 2021), pp. 59–62. Darwin, John. After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400–2000, (Penguin Books, 2008), 576 pp Darwin, John. The Empire Project (2011) 811pp free viewing Fay, Richard B. and Daniel Gaido (ed. and trans.), Discovering Imperialism: Social Democracy to World War I. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2012. Niall Ferguson, Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World, Penguin Books, 2004, Gotteland, Mathieu. What Is Informal Imperialism?, The Middle Ground Journal (2017). Michael Hardt and Toni Negri, Empire, Harvard University Press, 2000, E.J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1875–1914, Abacus Books, 1989, E.J. Hobsbawm, On Empire: America, War, and Global Supremacy, Pantheon Books, 2008, J.A. Hobson, Imperialism: A Study, Cosimo Classics, 2005, Hodge, Carl Cavanagh. Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800–1914 (2 vol. 2007), online Howe, Stephen Howe, ed., The New Imperial Histories Reader (2009) online review. Kumar, Krishan. Visions of Empire: How Five Imperial Regimes Shaped the World (2017). Gabriel Kuhn, Oppressor and Oppressed Nations: Sketching a Taxonomy of Imperialism, Kersplebedeb, June 2017. Lawrence, Adria K. Imperial Rule and the Politics of Nationalism: Anti-Colonial Protest in the French Empire (Cambridge UP, 2013) online reviews Jackson Lears, "Imperial Exceptionalism" (review of Victor Bulmer-Thomas, Empire in Retreat: The Past, Present, and Future of the United States, Yale University Press, 2018, , 459 pp.; and David C. Hendrickson, Republic in Peril: American Empire and the Liberal Tradition, Oxford University Press, 2017, , 287 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 2 (February 7, 2019), pp. 8–10. Bulmer-Thomas writes: "Imperial retreat is not the same as national decline, as many other countries can attest. Indeed, imperial retreat can strengthen the nation-state just as imperial expansion can weaken it." (NYRB, cited on p. 10.) Merriman, Roger Bigelow. The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and in the New (4 vol 1918–1933) online. Moon, Parker T. Imperialism and world politics (1926); 583 pp; Wide-ranging historical survey; online Ness, Immanuel and Zak Cope, eds. The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Imperialism and Anti-Imperialism (2 vol 2015), 1456 pp Page, Melvin E. et al. eds. Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia (2 vol 2003) Thomas Pakenham. The Scramble for Africa: White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876–1912 (1992), Poddar, Prem, and Lars Jensen, eds., A historical companion to postcolonial literatures: Continental Europe and Its Empires (Edinburgh UP, 2008) excerpt also entire text online Rothermund, Dietmar. Memories of Post-Imperial Nations: The Aftermath of Decolonization, 1945–2013 (2015), ; Compares the impact on Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Portugal, Italy and Japan Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, Vintage Books, 1998, Simms, Brendan. Three victories and a defeat: the rise and fall of the first British Empire (Hachette UK, 2008). to 1783. Smith, Simon C. British Imperialism 1750–1970, Cambridge University Press, 1998, Stuchtey, Benedikt. Colonialism and Imperialism, 1450–1950, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011. U.S. Tariff Commission. Colonial tariff policies (1922), worldwide; 922 pp Vandervort, Bruce. Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa, 1830―1914 (Indiana UP, 2009) Primary sources V. I. Lenin, Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism, International Publishers, New York, 1997, Rosa Luxemburg, The Accumulation of Capital: A Contribution to an Economic Explanation of Imperialism External links J.A Hobson, Imperialism a Study 1902. The Paradox of Imperialism by Hans-Hermann Hoppe. November 2006. Imperialism Quotations State, Imperialism and Capitalism by Joseph Schumpeter Economic Imperialism by A.J.P. Taylor Imperialism Entry in The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed., Columbia University Press. Imperialism by Emile Perreau-Saussine The Nation-State, Core and Periphery: A Brief sketch of Imperialism in the 20th century. Mehmet Akif Okur, :Rethinking Empire After 9/11: Towards A New Ontological Image of World Order", Perceptions, Journal of International Affairs, Volume XII, Winter 2007, pp. 61–93 Imperialism 101, Against Empire By Michael Parenti Published by City Lights Books, 1995, , 217 pages Authoritarianism History of colonialism Marxian economics Political systems Political theories Invasions

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June%2012

June 12

Events Pre-1600 910 – Battle of Augsburg: The Hungarians defeat the East Frankish army under King Louis the Child, using the famous feigned retreat tactic of the nomadic warriors. 1240 – At the instigation of Louis IX of France, an inter-faith debate, known as the Disputation of Paris, starts between a Christian monk and four rabbis. 1381 – Peasants' Revolt: In England, rebels assemble at Blackheath, just outside London. 1418 – Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War: Parisians slaughter sympathizers of Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac, along with all prisoners, foreign bankers, and students and faculty of the College of Navarre. 1429 – Hundred Years' War: On the second day of the Battle of Jargeau, Joan of Arc leads the French army in their capture of the city and the English commander, William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk. 1550 – The city of Helsinki, Finland (belonging to Sweden at the time) is founded by King Gustav I of Sweden. 1601–1900 1643 – The Westminster Assembly is convened by the Parliament of England, without the assent of Charles I, in order to restructure the Church of England. 1653 – First Anglo-Dutch War: The Battle of the Gabbard begins, lasting until the following day. 1665 – Thomas Willett is appointed the first mayor of New York City. 1758 – French and Indian War: Siege of Louisbourg: James Wolfe's attack at Louisbourg, Nova Scotia, commences. 1772 – French explorer Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne and 25 of his men killed by Māori in New Zealand. 1775 – American War of Independence: British general Thomas Gage declares martial law in Massachusetts. The British offer a pardon to all colonists who lay down their arms. There would be only two exceptions to the amnesty: Samuel Adams and John Hancock, if captured, were to be hanged. 1776 – The Virginia Declaration of Rights is adopted. 1798 – Irish Rebellion of 1798: Battle of Ballynahinch. 1817 – The earliest form of bicycle, the dandy horse, is driven by Karl von Drais. 1821 – Badi VII, king of Sennar, surrenders his throne and realm to Isma'il Pasha, general of the Ottoman Empire, ending the existence of that Sudanese kingdom. 1830 – Beginning of the Invasion of Algiers: Thiry-four thousand French soldiers land 27 kilometers west of Algiers, at Sidi Ferruch. 1864 – American Civil War, Overland Campaign: Battle of Cold Harbor: Ulysses S. Grant gives the Confederate forces under Robert E. Lee a victory when he pulls his Union troops from their position at Cold Harbor, Virginia and moves south. 1898 – Philippine Declaration of Independence: General Emilio Aguinaldo declares the Philippines' independence from Spain. 1899 – New Richmond tornado: The eighth deadliest tornado in U.S. history kills 117 people and injures around 200. 1900 – The Reichstag approves new legislation continuing Germany's naval expansion program. It provides for construction of 38 battleships over a 20-year period. Germany's fleet will be the largest in the world. 1901–present 1914 – Massacre of Phocaea: Turkish irregulars slaughter 50 to 100 Greeks and expel thousands of others in an ethnic cleansing operation in the Ottoman Empire. 1921 – Mikhail Tukhachevsky orders the use of chemical weapons against the Tambov Rebellion, bringing an end to the peasant uprising. 1935 – A ceasefire is negotiated between Bolivia and Paraguay, ending the Chaco War. 1938 – The Helsinki Olympic Stadium was inaugurated in Töölö, Helsinki, Finland. 1939 – Shooting begins on Paramount Pictures' Dr. Cyclops, the first horror film photographed in three-strip Technicolor. 1939 – The Baseball Hall of Fame opens in Cooperstown, New York. 1940 – World War II: Thirteen thousand British and French troops surrender to Major General Erwin Rommel at Saint-Valery-en-Caux. 1942 – Anne Frank receives a diary for her thirteenth birthday. 1943 – The Holocaust: Germany liquidates the Jewish Ghetto in Brzeżany, Poland (now Berezhany, Ukraine). Around 1,180 Jews are led to the city's old Jewish graveyard and shot. 1944 – World War II: Operation Overlord: American paratroopers of the 101st Airborne Division secure the town of Carentan, Normandy, France. 1954 – Pope Pius XII canonises Dominic Savio, who was 14 years old at the time of his death, as a saint, making him at the time the youngest unmartyred saint in the Roman Catholic Church. In 2017, Francisco and Jacinta Marto, aged ten and nine at the time of their deaths, are declared saints. 1963 – NAACP field secretary Medgar Evers is murdered in front of his home in Jackson, Mississippi by Ku Klux Klan member Byron De La Beckwith during the civil rights movement. 1963 – The film Cleopatra, starring Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton, is released in US theaters. It was the most expensive film made at the time. 1964 – Anti-apartheid activist and ANC leader Nelson Mandela is sentenced to life in prison for sabotage in South Africa. 1967 – The United States Supreme Court in Loving v. Virginia declares all U.S. state laws which prohibit interracial marriage to be unconstitutional. 1975 – India, Judge Jagmohanlal Sinha of the city of Allahabad ruled that India's Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had used corrupt practices to win her seat in the Indian Parliament, and that she should be banned from holding any public office. Mrs. Gandhi sent word that she refused to resign. 1979 – Bryan Allen wins the second Kremer prize for a man-powered flight across the English Channel in the Gossamer Albatross. 1981 – The first of the Indiana Jones film franchise, Raiders of the Lost Ark, is released in theaters. 1982 – Nuclear disarmament rally and concert, New York City. 1987 – The Central African Republic's former emperor Jean-Bédel Bokassa is sentenced to death for crimes he had committed during his 13-year rule. 1987 – Cold War: At the Brandenburg Gate, U.S. President Ronald Reagan publicly challenges Mikhail Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall. 1988 – Austral Líneas Aéreas Flight 46, a McDonnell Douglas MD-81, crashes short of the runway at Libertador General José de San Martín Airport, killing all 22 people on board. 1990 – Russia Day: The parliament of the Russian Federation formally declares its sovereignty. 1991 – Russians first democratically elected Boris Yeltsin as the President of Russia. 1991 – Kokkadichcholai massacre: The Sri Lankan Army massacres 152 minority Tamil civilians in the village of Kokkadichcholai near the eastern province town of Batticaloa. 1993 – An election takes place in Nigeria and is won by Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola. Its results are later annulled by the military Government of Ibrahim Babangida. 1997 – Queen Elizabeth II reopens the Globe Theatre in London. 1999 – Kosovo War: Operation Joint Guardian begins when a NATO-led United Nations peacekeeping force (KFor) enters the province of Kosovo in Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. 2009 – Analog television stations (excluding low-powered stations) switch to digital television following the DTV Delay Act. 2009 – A disputed presidential election in Iran leads to wide-ranging local and international protests. 2016 – Forty-nine civilians are killed and 58 others injured in an attack on a gay nightclub in Orlando, Florida; the gunman, Omar Mateen, is killed in a gunfight with police. 2017 – American student Otto Warmbier returns home in a coma after spending 17 months in a North Korean prison and dies a week later. 2018 – United States President Donald Trump and Kim Jong-un of North Korea held the first meeting between leaders of their two countries in Singapore. Births Pre-1600 950 – Reizei, Japanese emperor (d. 1011) 1107 – Gao Zong, Chinese emperor (d. 1187) 1161 – Constance, Duchess of Brittany (d. 1201) 1519 – Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1574) 1561 – Anna of Württemberg, German princess (d. 1616) 1564 – John Casimir, Duke of Saxe-Coburg (d. 1633) 1573 – Robert Radclyffe, 5th Earl of Sussex, soldier (d. 1629) 1577 – Paul Guldin, Swiss astronomer and mathematician (d. 1643) 1580 – Adriaen van Stalbemt, Flemish painter (d. 1662) 1601–1900 1653 – Maria Amalia of Courland, Landgravine of Hesse-Kassel (d. 1711) 1686 – Marie-Catherine Homassel Hecquet, French writer (d. 1764) 1711 – Louis Legrand, French priest and theologian (d. 1780) 1760 – Jean-Baptiste Louvet de Couvrai, French author, playwright, journalist, and politician (d. 1797) 1771 – Patrick Gass, American sergeant (Lewis and Clark Expedition) and author (d. 1870) 1775 – Karl Freiherr von Müffling, Prussian field marshal (d. 1851) 1777 – Robert Clark, American physician and politician (d. 1837) 1795 – John Marston, American sailor (d. 1885) 1798 – Samuel Cooper, American general (d. 1876) 1800 – Samuel Wright Mardis, American politician (d. 1836) 1802 – Harriet Martineau, English sociologist and author (d. 1876) 1806 – John A. Roebling, German-American engineer, designed the Brooklyn Bridge (d. 1869) 1807 – Ante Kuzmanić, Croatian physician and journalist (d. 1879) 1812 – Edmond Hébert, French geologist and academic (d. 1890) 1819 – Charles Kingsley, English priest, historian, and author (d. 1875) 1827 – Johanna Spyri, Swiss author, best known for Heidi (d. 1901) 1831 – Robert Herbert, English-Australian politician, 1st Premier of Queensland (d. 1905) 1841 – Watson Fothergill, English architect, designed the Woodborough Road Baptist Church (d. 1928) 1843 – David Gill, Scottish-English astronomer and author (d. 1914) 1851 – Oliver Lodge, English physicist and academic (d. 1940) 1857 – Maurice Perrault, Canadian architect, engineer, and politician, 15th Mayor of Longueuil (d. 1909) 1858 – Harry Johnston, English botanist and explorer (d. 1927) 1858 – Henry Scott Tuke, English painter and photographer (d. 1929) 1861 – William Attewell, English cricketer and umpire (d. 1927) 1864 – Frank Chapman, American ornithologist, photographer, and author (d. 1945) 1877 – Thomas C. Hart, American admiral and politician (d. 1971) 1883 – Fernand Gonder, French pole vaulter (d. 1969) 1883 – Robert Lowie, Austrian-American anthropologist and academic (d. 1957) 1888 – Zygmunt Janiszewski, Polish mathematician and academic (d. 1920) 1890 – Egon Schiele, Austrian soldier and painter (d. 1918) 1892 – Djuna Barnes, American novelist, journalist, and playwright (d. 1982) 1895 – Eugénie Brazier, French chef (d. 1977) 1897 – Anthony Eden, English soldier and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1977) 1899 – Fritz Albert Lipmann, German-American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1986) 1899 – Weegee, Ukrainian-American photographer and journalist (d. 1968) 1901–present 1902 – Hendrik Elias, Belgian lawyer and politician, Mayor of Ghent (d. 1973) 1905 – Ray Barbuti, American sprinter and football player (d. 1988) 1906 – Sandro Penna, Italian poet (d. 1977) 1908 – Alphonse Ouimet, Canadian broadcaster (d. 1988) 1908 – Marina Semyonova, Russian ballerina and educator (d. 2010) 1908 – Otto Skorzeny, German SS officer (d. 1975) 1910 – Bill Naughton, Irish-English playwright and author (d. 1992) 1912 – Bill Cowley, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1993) 1912 – Carl Hovland, American psychologist and academic (d. 1961) 1913 – Jean Victor Allard, Canadian general (d. 1996) 1913 – Desmond Piers, Canadian admiral (d. 2005) 1914 – William Lundigan, American actor (d. 1975) 1914 – Go Seigen, Chinese-Japanese Go player (d. 2014) 1915 – Priscilla Lane, American actress (d. 1995) 1915 – Christopher Mayhew, English soldier and politician (d. 1997) 1915 – David Rockefeller, American banker and businessman (d. 2017) 1916 – Irwin Allen, American director and producer (d. 1991) 1916 – Raúl Héctor Castro, Mexican-American politician and diplomat, 14th Governor of Arizona (d. 2015) 1918 – Samuel Z. Arkoff, American film producer (d. 2001) 1918 – Georgia Louise Harris Brown, American architect (d. 1999) 1918 – Christie Jayaratnam Eliezer, Sri Lankan-Australian mathematician and academic (d. 2001) 1919 – Uta Hagen, German-American actress and educator (d. 2004) 1920 – Dave Berg, American soldier and cartoonist (d. 2002) 1920 – Peter Jones, English actor and screenwriter (d. 2000) 1921 – Luis García Berlanga, Spanish director and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1921 – Christopher Derrick, English author, critic, and academic (d. 2007) 1921 – James Archibald Houston, Canadian author and illustrator (d. 2005) 1922 – Margherita Hack, Italian astrophysicist and author (d. 2013) 1924 – George H. W. Bush, American lieutenant and politician, 41st President of the United States (d. 2018) 1924 – Grete Dollitz, German-American guitarist and radio host (d. 2013) 1928 – Vic Damone, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2018) 1928 – Petros Molyviatis, Greek politician and diplomat, Greek Minister for Foreign Affairs 1928 – Richard M. Sherman, American composer and director 1929 – Brigid Brophy, English author and critic (d. 1995) 1929 – Anne Frank, German-Dutch diarist; victim of the Holocaust (d. 1945) 1929 – Jameel Jalibi, Pakistani linguist and academic (d. 2019) 1929 – John McCluskey, Baron McCluskey, Scottish lawyer, judge, and politician, Solicitor General for Scotland (d. 2017) 1930 – Jim Burke, Australian cricketer (d. 1979) 1930 – Donald Byrne, American chess player (d. 1976) 1930 – Innes Ireland, Scottish race car driver and engineer (d. 1993) 1930 – Jim Nabors, American actor and singer (d. 2017) 1931 – Trevanian, American author and scholar (d. 2005) 1931 – Rona Jaffe, American novelist (d. 2005) 1932 – Mimi Coertse, South African soprano and producer 1932 – Mamo Wolde, Ethiopian runner (d. 2002) 1933 – Eddie Adams, American photographer and journalist (d. 2004) 1934 – John A. Alonzo, American actor and cinematographer (d. 2001) 1934 – Kevin Billington, English director and producer 1935 – Ian Craig, Australian cricketer (d. 2014) 1935 – Paul Kennedy, English lawyer and judge 1937 – Vladimir Arnold, Russian-French mathematician and academic (d. 2010) 1937 – Klaus Basikow, German footballer and manager (d. 2015) 1937 – Antal Festetics, Hungarian-Austrian biologist and zoologist 1937 – Chips Moman, American record producer, guitarist, and songwriter (d. 2016) 1938 – Jean-Marie Doré, Guinean lawyer and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Guinea (d. 2016) 1938 – Tom Oliver, English-Australian actor 1939 – Ron Lynch, Australian rugby league player and coach 1939 – Frank McCloskey, American sergeant and politician (d. 2003) 1940 – Jacques Brassard, Canadian educator and politician 1941 – Marv Albert, American sportscaster 1941 – Chick Corea, American pianist and composer (d. 2021) 1941 – Roy Harper, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1941 – Reg Presley, English singer-songwriter (d. 2013) 1941 – Lucille Roybal-Allard, American politician 1942 – Len Barry, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2020) 1942 – Bert Sakmann, German physiologist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate 1945 – Pat Jennings, Irish footballer and coach 1946 – Michel Bergeron, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1946 – Bobby Gould, English footballer and manager 1946 – Catherine Bréchignac, French physicist and academic 1948 – Hans Binder, Austrian race car driver 1948 – Herbert Meyer, German footballer 1948 – Len Wein, American comic book writer and editor (d. 2017) 1949 – Jens Böhrnsen, German judge and politician 1949 – Marc Tardif, Canadian ice hockey player 1949 – John Wetton, English singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer (d. 2017) 1950 – Oğuz Abadan, Turkish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1950 – Michael Fabricant, English politician 1950 – Sonia Manzano, American actress of Puerto Rican descent, noted for playing Maria on Sesame Street 1950 – Bun E. Carlos, American drummer 1951 – Brad Delp, American musician and singer (d. 2007) 1951 – Andranik Margaryan, Armenian engineer and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Armenia (d. 2007) 1952 – Spencer Abraham, American academic and politician, 10th United States Secretary of Energy 1952 – Junior Brown, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist 1952 – Pete Farndon, English bass player and songwriter (d. 1983) 1953 – Rocky Burnette, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1954 – Tim Razzall, Baron Razzall, English lawyer and politician 1956 – Terry Alderman, Australian cricketer and sportscaster 1957 – Timothy Busfield, American actor, director, and producer 1957 – Javed Miandad, Pakistani cricketer and coach 1958 – Meredith Brooks, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1959 – John Linnell, American singer-songwriter and musician 1959 – Scott Thompson, Canadian actor and comedian 1960 – Joe Kopicki, American basketball player and coach 1962 – Jordan Peterson, Canadian psychologist, professor and cultural critic 1963 – Philippe Bugalski, French race car driver (d. 2012) 1963 – Warwick Capper, Australian footballer, coach, and actor 1963 – Tim DeKay, American actor 1963 – Jerry Lynn, American wrestler 1964 – Derek Higgins, Irish race car driver 1964 – Kent Jones, American journalist 1964 – Paula Marshall, American actress 1964 – Peter Such, Scottish-born, English cricketer 1965 – Adrian Toole, Australian rugby league player 1965 – Gwen Torrence, American sprinter 1965 – Cathy Tyson, English actress 1966 – Marc Glanville, Australian rugby league player 1966 – Tom Misteli, Swiss cell biologist 1967 – Aivar Kuusmaa, Estonian basketball player and coach 1967 – Frances O'Connor, English-Australian actress 1968 – Scott Aldred, American baseball player and coach 1968 – Htay Kywe, Burmese activist 1968 – Bobby Sheehan, American bass player and songwriter (d. 1999) 1969 – Zsolt Daczi, Hungarian guitarist (d. 2007) 1969 – Héctor Garza, Mexican wrestler (d. 2013) 1969 – Mathieu Schneider, American ice hockey player 1969 – Heinz-Christian Strache, Austrian politician 1971 – Mark Henry, American weightlifter and wrestler 1971 – Ryan Klesko, American baseball player 1971 – Jérôme Romain, Caribbean-Dominican triple jumper and coach 1973 – Jason Caffey, American basketball player and coach 1973 – Darryl White, Australian footballer 1974 – Flávio Conceição, Brazilian footballer 1974 – Hideki Matsui, Japanese baseball player 1974 – Jason Mewes, American actor and producer 1974 – Kerry Kittles, American basketball player 1975 – Bryan Alvarez, American wrestler and journalist 1975 – Stéphanie Szostak, French-American actress 1976 – Antawn Jamison, American basketball player and sportscaster 1976 – Ray Price, Zimbabwean cricketer 1976 – Thomas Sørensen, Danish footballer 1976 – Paul Stenning, English author 1977 – Wade Redden, Canadian ice hockey player 1977 – Kenny Wayne Shepherd, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1978 – Lewis Moody, English rugby player 1979 – Dallas Clark, American football player 1979 – Martine Dugrenier, Canadian wrestler 1979 – Diego Milito, Argentine footballer 1979 – Robyn, Swedish singer-songwriter, musician, and record producer 1979 – Earl Watson, American basketball player and coach 1980 – Marco Bortolami, Italian rugby player 1980 – Larry Foote, American football player 1981 – Raitis Grafs, Latvian basketball player 1981 – Adriana Lima, Brazilian model and actress 1982 – Ben Blackwell, American drummer 1982 – Diem Brown, German-American journalist and activist (d. 2014) 1982 – Jason David, American football player 1982 – Shailaja Pujari, Indian weightlifter 1982 – James Tomlinson, English cricketer 1983 – Bryan Habana, South African rugby player 1983 – Alexander Pipa, German rugby player 1983 – Christine Sinclair, Canadian soccer player 1984 – James Kwalia, Kenyan-Qatari runner 1984 – Bruno Soriano, Spanish footballer 1985 – Blake Ross, American computer programmer, co-created Mozilla Firefox 1985 – Sam Thaiday, Australian rugby league player 1985 – Kendra Wilkinson, American model, actress, and author 1986 – Salim Mehajer, Australian politician 1988 – Eren Derdiyok, Swiss footballer 1988 – Mauricio Isla, Chilean footballer 1989 – Emma Eliasson, Swedish ice hockey player 1989 – Ibrahim Jeilan, Ethiopian runner 1990 – Jrue Holiday, American basketball player 1990 – David Worrall, English footballer 1992 – Philippe Coutinho, Brazilian footballer 1996 – Shonica Wharton, Barbadian netball player Deaths Pre-1600 796 – Hisham I, Muslim emir ( 757) 816 – Pope Leo III (b. 750) 918 – Æthelflæd, Mercian daughter of Alfred the Great (b. 870) 1020 – Lyfing, English archbishop (b. 999) 1036 – Tedald, Italian bishop (b. 990) 1144 – Al-Zamakhshari, Persian theologian (b. 1075) 1152 – Henry of Scotland, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon (b. 1114) 1266 – Henry II, Prince of Anhalt-Aschersleben (b. 1215) 1294 – John I of Brienne, Count of Eu 1418 – Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac (b. 1360) 1435 – John FitzAlan, 14th Earl of Arundel, English commander (b. 1408) 1478 – Ludovico III Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua (b. 1412) 1524 – Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, Spanish conquistador (b. 1465) 1560 – Ii Naomori, Japanese warrior (b. 1506) 1560 – Imagawa Yoshimoto, Japanese daimyō (b. 1519) 1565 – Adrianus Turnebus, French philologist and scholar (b. 1512) 1567 – Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich, English politician, Lord Chancellor of England (b. 1490) 1601–1900 1647 – Thomas Farnaby, English scholar and educator (b. 1575) 1668 – Charles Berkeley, 2nd Viscount Fitzhardinge, English politician (b. 1599) 1675 – Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy (b. 1634) 1734 – James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick, French-English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire (b. 1670) 1758 – Prince Augustus William of Prussia (b. 1722) 1772 – Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne, French explorer (b. 1724) 1778 – Philip Livingston, American merchant and politician (b. 1716) 1816 – Pierre Augereau, French general (b. 1757) 1818 – Egwale Seyon, Ethiopian emperor 1841 – Konstantinos Nikolopoulos, Greek composer, archaeologist, and philologist (b. 1786) 1900 – Lucretia Peabody Hale, American journalist and author (b. 1820) 1901–present 1904 – Camille of Renesse-Breidbach (b. 1836) 1912 – Frédéric Passy, French economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1822) 1917 – Teresa Carreño, Venezuelan-American singer-songwriter, pianist, and conductor (b. 1853) 1932 – Theo Heemskerk, Dutch lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b. 1852) 1937 – Mikhail Tukhachevsky, Russian general (b. 1893) 1944 – Erich Marcks, German general (b. 1891) 1946 – Médéric Martin, Canadian politician, mayor of Montreal (b. 1869) 1952 – Harry Lawson, Australian politician, 27th Premier of Victoria (b. 1875) 1957 – Jimmy Dorsey, American saxophonist, composer, and bandleader (The Dorsey Brothers and The California Ramblers) (b. 1904) 1962 – John Ireland, English composer and educator (b. 1879) 1963 – Medgar Evers, American soldier and activist (b. 1925) 1966 – Hermann Scherchen, German viola player and conductor (b. 1891) 1968 – Herbert Read, English poet and critic (b. 1893) 1969 – Aleksandr Deyneka, Ukrainian-Russian painter and sculptor (b. 1899) 1972 – Edmund Wilson, American critic, essayist, and editor (b. 1895) 1972 – Dinanath Gopal Tendulkar, Indian writer and documentary filmmaker (b. 1909) 1976 – Gopinath Kaviraj, Indian philosopher and scholar (b. 1887) 1978 – Guo Moruo, Chinese historian, author, and poet (b. 1892) 1978 – Georg Siimenson, Estonian footballer (b. 1912) 1980 – Billy Butlin, South African-English businessman, founded the Butlins Company (b. 1899) 1980 – Masayoshi Ōhira, Japanese politician, 68th Prime minister of Japan (b. 1910) 1980 – Milburn Stone, American actor (b. 1904) 1982 – Ian McKay, English sergeant, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1953) 1982 – Karl von Frisch, Austrian-German ethologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1886) 1983 – Norma Shearer, Canadian-American actress (b. 1902) 1989 – Bruce Hamilton, Australian public servant (b. 1911) 1990 – Terence O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of the Maine, English captain and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Northern Ireland (b. 1914) 1993 – Monte Melkonian, Armenian-American revolutionary and military commander (b. 1957) 1994 – Menachem Mendel Schneerson, Russian-American rabbi and author (b. 1902) 1994 – Nicole Brown Simpson, ex-wife of O. J. Simpson (b. 1959) and Ron Goldman, restaurant employee (b. 1968) 1995 – Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli, Italian pianist (b. 1920) 1995 – Pierre Russell, American basketball player (b. 1949) 1997 – Bulat Okudzhava, Russian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1924) 1998 – Leo Buscaglia, American author and educator (b. 1924) 1998 – Theresa Merritt, American actress and singer (b. 1922) 1999 – J. F. Powers, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1917) 2000 – Purushottam Laxman Deshpande, Indian actor, director, and producer (b. 1919) 2002 – Bill Blass, American fashion designer, founded Bill Blass Limited (b. 1922) 2002 – Zena Sutherland, American reviewer of children's literature (b. 1915) 2003 – Gregory Peck, American actor and political activist (b. 1916) 2005 – Scott Young, Canadian journalist and author (b. 1918) 2006 – Nicky Barr, Australian rugby player and fighter pilot (b. 1915) 2006 – György Ligeti, Romanian-Hungarian composer and educator (b. 1923) 2006 – Kenneth Thomson, 2nd Baron Thomson of Fleet, Canadian businessman and art collector (b. 1923) 2008 – Miroslav Dvořák, Czech ice hockey player (b. 1951) 2008 – Derek Tapscott, Welsh footballer and manager (b. 1932) 2010 – Al Williamson, American illustrator (b. 1931) 2011 – René Audet, Canadian bishop (b. 1920) 2011 – Carl Gardner, American singer (The Coasters) (b. 1928) 2012 – Hector Bianciotti, Argentinian-French journalist and author (b. 1930) 2012 – Margarete Mitscherlich-Nielsen, Danish-German psychoanalyst and author (b. 1917) 2012 – Medin Zhega, Albanian footballer and manager (b. 1946) 2012 – Elinor Ostrom, American political scientist and economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1933) 2012 – Pahiño, Spanish footballer (b. 1923) 2012 – Frank Walker, Australian judge and politician, 41st Attorney General of New South Wales (b. 1942) 2013 – Teresita Barajuen, Spanish nun (b. 1908) 2014 – Nabil Hemani, Algerian footballer (b. 1979) 2014 – Dan Jacobson, South African-English author and critic (b. 1929) 2014 – Frank Schirrmacher, German journalist (b. 1959) 2015 – Fernando Brant, Brazilian journalist, poet, and composer (b. 1946) 2018 – Jon Hiseman, English drummer (b. 1944) 2019 – Sylvia Miles, American actress (b. 1924) Holidays and observances Chaco Armistice Day (Paraguay) Christian feast day: 108 Martyrs of World War II Basilides, Cyrinus, Nabor and Nazarius Blessed Hildegard Burjan Enmegahbowh (Episcopal Church) Eskil First Ecumenical Council (Lutheran) Gaspar Bertoni John of Sahagún Onuphrius Pope Leo III Ternan June 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Dia dos Namorados (Brazil) Helsinki Day (Finland) Independence Day, celebrates the independence of the Philippines from Spain in 1898. June 12 Commemoration (Lagos State) Loving Day (United States) Russia Day (Russia) World Day Against Child Labour, and its related observances: Children's Day (Haiti) References External links Days of the year June

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June 20

In the Northern Hemisphere, the Summer solstice sometimes occurs on this date, while the Winter solstice occurs in the Southern Hemisphere. Events Pre-1600 451 – Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius' battles Attila the Hun. After the battle, which was inconclusive, Attila retreats, causing the Romans to interpret it as a victory. 1180 – First Battle of Uji, starting the Genpei War in Japan. 1601–1900 1620 – The Battle of Höchst takes place during the Thirty Years' War. 1631 – The Sack of Baltimore: The Irish village of Baltimore is attacked by Algerian pirates. 1652 – Tarhoncu Ahmed Pasha is appointed Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire. 1685 – Monmouth Rebellion: James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth declares himself King of England at Bridgwater. 1756 – A British garrison is imprisoned in the Black Hole of Calcutta. 1782 – The U.S. Congress adopts the Great Seal of the United States. 1787 – Oliver Ellsworth moves at the Federal Convention to call the government the 'United States'. 1789 – Deputies of the French Third Estate take the Tennis Court Oath. 1791 – King Louis XVI, disguised as a valet, and the French royal family attempt to flee Paris during the French Revolution. 1819 – The U.S. vessel arrives at Liverpool, United Kingdom. It is the first steam-propelled vessel to cross the Atlantic, although most of the journey is made under sail. 1837 – Queen Victoria succeeds to the British throne. 1840 – Samuel Morse receives the patent for the telegraph. 1862 – Barbu Catargiu, the Prime Minister of Romania, is assassinated. 1863 – American Civil War: West Virginia is admitted as the 35th U.S. state. 1877 – Alexander Graham Bell installs the world's first commercial telephone service in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. 1893 – Lizzie Borden is acquitted of the murders of her father and stepmother. 1895 – The Kiel Canal, crossing the base of the Jutland peninsula and the busiest artificial waterway in the world, is officially opened. 1900 – Boxer Rebellion: The Imperial Chinese Army begins a 55-day siege of the Legation Quarter in Beijing, China. 1900 – Baron Eduard Toll, leader of the Russian Polar Expedition of 1900, departs Saint Petersburg in Russia on the explorer ship Zarya, never to return. 1901–present 1921 – Workers of Buckingham and Carnatic Mills in the city of Chennai, India, begin a four-month strike. 1926 – The 28th International Eucharistic Congress begins in Chicago, with over 250,000 spectators attending the opening procession. 1940 – World War II: The Soviet Union occupies the Romanian territories of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. 1942 – The Holocaust: Kazimierz Piechowski and three others, dressed as members of the SS-Totenkopfverbände, steal an SS staff car and escape from the Auschwitz concentration camp. 1943 – The Detroit race riot breaks out and continues for three more days. 1943 – World War II: The Royal Air Force launches Operation Bellicose, the first shuttle bombing raid of the war. Avro Lancaster bombers damage the V-2 rocket production facilities at the Zeppelin Works while en route to an air base in Algeria. 1944 – World War II: The Battle of the Philippine Sea concludes with a decisive U.S. naval victory. The lopsided naval air battle is also known as the "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot". 1944 – Continuation War: The Soviet Union demands an unconditional surrender from Finland during the beginning of partially successful Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive. The Finnish government refuses. 1944 – The experimental MW 18014 V-2 rocket reaches an altitude of 176 km, becoming the first man-made object to reach outer space. 1945 – The United States Secretary of State approves the transfer of Wernher von Braun and his team of Nazi rocket scientists to the U.S. under Operation Paperclip. 1948 – The Deutsche Mark is introduced in Western Allied-occupied Germany. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany responded by imposing the Berlin Blockade four days later. 1956 – A Venezuelan Super-Constellation crashes in the Atlantic Ocean off Asbury Park, New Jersey, killing 74 people. 1959 – A rare June hurricane strikes Canada's Gulf of St. Lawrence killing 35. 1960 – The Mali Federation gains independence from France (it later splits into Mali and Senegal). 1963 – Following the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Soviet Union and the United States sign an agreement to establish the so-called "red telephone" link between Washington, D.C. and Moscow. 1972 – Watergate scandal: An 18½-minute gap appears in the tape recording of the conversations between U.S. President Richard Nixon and his advisers regarding the recent arrests of his operatives while breaking into the Watergate complex. 1973 – Snipers fire upon left-wing Peronists in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in what is known as the Ezeiza massacre. At least 13 are killed and more than 300 are injured. 1973 – Aeroméxico Flight 229 crashes on approach to Licenciado Gustavo Díaz Ordaz International Airport, killing all 27 people on board. 1975 – The film Jaws is released in the United States, becoming the highest-grossing film of that time and starting the trend of films known as "summer blockbusters". 1979 – ABC News correspondent Bill Stewart is shot dead by a Nicaraguan National Guard soldier under the regime of Anastasio Somoza Debayle during the Nicaraguan Revolution. The murder is caught on tape and sparks an international outcry against the regime. 1982 – The International Conference on the Holocaust and Genocide opens in Tel Aviv, despite attempts by the Turkish government to cancel it, as it included presentations on the Armenian genocide. 1982 – The Argentine Corbeta Uruguay base on Southern Thule surrenders to Royal Marine commandos in the final action of the Falklands War. 1990 – Asteroid Eureka is discovered. 1990 – The 7.4 Manjil–Rudbar earthquake affects northern Iran with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme), killing 35,000–50,000, and injuring 60,000–105,000. 1991 – The German Bundestag votes to move seat of government from the former West German capital of Bonn to the present capital of Berlin. 1994 – The 1994 Imam Reza shrine bomb explosion in Iran leaves at least 25 dead and 70 to 300 injured. 2003 – The Wikimedia Foundation is founded in St. Petersburg, Florida. Births Pre-1600 1005 – Ali az-Zahir, Fatimid caliph of Egypt (d. 1036) 1389 – John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford, English statesman (d. 1435) 1469 – Gian Galeazzo Sforza, duke of Milan (d. 1494) 1566 – Sigismund III Vasa, Polish and Swedish king (d. 1632) 1583 – Jacob De la Gardie, Swedish soldier and politician, Lord High Constable of Sweden (d. 1652) 1601–1900 1634 – Charles Emmanuel II, duke of Savoy (d. 1675) 1642 – (O.S.) George Hickes, English minister and scholar (d. 1715) 1647 – (O.S.) John George III, Elector of Saxony (d. 1691) 1717 – Jacques Saly, French sculptor and painter (d. 1776) 1723 – (O.S.) Adam Ferguson, Scottish philosopher and historian (d. 1816) 1737 – Tokugawa Ieharu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1786) 1754 – Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt, princess of Baden (d. 1832) 1756 – Joseph Martin Kraus, German-Swedish composer and educator (d. 1792) 1761 – Jacob Hübner, German entomologist and author (d. 1826) 1763 – Wolfe Tone, Irish rebel leader (d. 1798) 1770 – Moses Waddel, American minister and academic (d. 1840) 1771 – Thomas Douglas, 5th Earl of Selkirk, Scottish philanthropist and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Kirkcudbright (d. 1820) 1771 – Hermann von Boyen, Prussian general and politician, Prussian Minister of War (d. 1848) 1777 – Jean-Jacques Lartigue, Canadian bishop (d. 1840) 1778 – Jean Baptiste Gay, vicomte de Martignac, French politician, 7th Prime Minister of France (d. 1832) 1786 – Marceline Desbordes-Valmore, French poet and author (d. 1859) 1796 – Luigi Amat di San Filippo e Sorso, Italian cardinal (d. 1878) 1808 – Samson Raphael Hirsch, German rabbi and scholar (d. 1888) 1809 – Isaak August Dorner, German theologian and academic (d. 1884) 1813 – Joseph Autran, French poet and author (d. 1877) 1819 – Jacques Offenbach, German-French cellist and composer (d. 1880) 1847 – Gina Krog, Norwegian suffragist and women's rights activist (d. 1916) 1855 – Richard Lodge, English historian and academic (d. 1936) 1858 – Charles W. Chesnutt, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1932) 1859 – Christian von Ehrenfels, Austrian philosopher (d. 1932) 1860 – Alexander Winton, Scottish-American race car driver and engineer (d. 1932) 1860 – Jack Worrall, Australian cricketer, footballer, and coach (d. 1937) 1861 – Frederick Gowland Hopkins, English biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1947) 1865 – George Redmayne Murray, English biologist and physician (d. 1939) 1866 – James Burns, English cricketer (d. 1957) 1867 – Leon Wachholz, Polish scientist and medical examiner (d. 1942) 1869 – Laxmanrao Kirloskar, Indian businessman, founded the Kirloskar Group (d. 1956) 1870 – Georges Dufrénoy, French painter and academic (d. 1943) 1872 – George Carpenter, American 5th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1948) 1875 – Reginald Punnett, English geneticist, statistician, and academic (d. 1967) 1882 – Daniel Sawyer, American golfer (d. 1937) 1884 – Mary R. Calvert, American astronomer and author (d. 1974) 1884 – Johannes Heinrich Schultz, German psychiatrist and psychotherapist (d. 1970) 1885 – Andrzej Gawroński, Polish linguist and academic (d. 1927) 1887 – Kurt Schwitters, German painter and illustrator (d. 1948) 1889 – John S. Paraskevopoulos, Greek-South African astronomer and academic (d. 1951) 1891 – Giannina Arangi-Lombardi, Italian soprano (d. 1951) 1891 – John A. Costello, Irish lawyer and politician, 3rd Taoiseach of Ireland (d. 1976) 1893 – Wilhelm Zaisser, German soldier and politician (d. 1958) 1894 – Lloyd Hall, American chemist and academic (d. 1971) 1896 – Wilfrid Pelletier, Canadian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1982) 1897 – Elisabeth Hauptmann, German author and playwright (d. 1973) 1899 – Jean Moulin, French soldier and engineer (d. 1943) 1901–present 1903 – Sam Rabin, English wrestler, sculptor, and singer (d. 1991) 1905 – Lillian Hellman, American playwright and screenwriter (d. 1984) 1906 – Bob King, American high jumper and obstetrician (d. 1965) 1907 – Jimmy Driftwood, American singer-songwriter and banjo player (d. 1998) 1908 – Billy Werber, American baseball player (d. 2009) 1908 – Gus Schilling, American actor (d. 1957) 1909 – Errol Flynn, Australian-American actor (d. 1959) 1910 – Josephine Johnson, American author and poet (d. 1990) 1911 – Gail Patrick, American actress (d. 1980) 1912 – Anthony Buckeridge, English author (d. 2004) 1912 – Jack Torrance, American shot putter and football player (d. 1969) 1912 – Geoffrey Baker, English Field Marshal and Chief of the General Staff of the British Army (d. 1980) 1914 – Gordon Juckes, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1994) 1914 – Muazzez İlmiye Çığ, Turkish archaeologist and academic 1915 – Dick Reynolds, Australian footballer and coach (d. 2002) 1915 – Terence Young, Chinese-English director and screenwriter (d. 1994) 1916 – Jean-Jacques Bertrand, Canadian lawyer and politician, 21st Premier of Quebec (d. 1973) 1916 – T. Texas Tyler, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1972) 1917 – Helena Rasiowa, Austrian-Polish mathematician and academic (d. 1994) 1918 – George Lynch, American race car driver (d. 1997) 1918 – Zoltán Sztáray, Hungarian-American author (d. 2011) 1920 – Danny Cedrone, American guitarist and bandleader (d. 1954) 1920 – Thomas Jefferson, American trumpet player (d. 1986) 1921 – Byron Farwell, American historian and author (d. 1999) 1921 – Pancho Segura, Ecuadorian tennis player (d. 2017) 1923 – Peter Gay, German-American historian, author, and academic (d. 2015) 1923 – Jerzy Nowak, Polish actor and educator (d. 2013) 1924 – Chet Atkins, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2001) 1924 – Fritz Koenig, German sculptor and academic, designed The Sphere (d. 2017) 1925 – Doris Hart, American tennis player and educator (d. 2015) 1925 – Audie Murphy, American lieutenant and actor, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1971) 1926 – Rehavam Ze'evi, Israeli general and politician, 9th Israeli Minister of Tourism (d. 2001) 1927 – Simin Behbahani, Iranian poet and activist (d. 2014) 1928 – Eric Dolphy, American saxophonist, flute player, and composer (d. 1964) 1928 – Martin Landau, American actor and producer (d. 2017) 1928 – Jean-Marie Le Pen, French intelligence officer and politician 1928 – Asrat Woldeyes, Ethiopian surgeon and educator (d. 1999) 1929 – Edgar Bronfman, Sr., Canadian-American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2013) 1929 – Anne Weale, English journalist and author (d. 2007) 1929 – Edith Windsor, American lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) rights activist (d. 2017) 1930 – Magdalena Abakanowicz, Polish sculptor and academic (d. 2017) 1930 – John Waine, English bishop (d. 2020) 1931 – Olympia Dukakis, American actress (d. 2021) 1931 – James Tolkan, American actor and director 1932 – Robert Rozhdestvensky, Russian poet and author (d. 1994) 1933 – Danny Aiello, American actor (d. 2019) 1933 – Claire Tomalin, English journalist and author 1934 – Wendy Craig, English actress 1935 – Jim Barker, American politician (d. 2005) 1935 – Len Dawson, American football player 1935 – Armando Picchi, Italian footballer and coach (d. 1971) 1936 – Billy Guy, American singer (d. 2002) 1936 – Enn Vetemaa, Estonian author and screenwriter (d. 2017) 1937 – Stafford Dean, English actor and singer 1937 – Jerry Keller, American singer-songwriter 1938 – Joan Kirner, Australian educator and politician, 42nd Premier of Victoria (d. 2015) 1938 – Mickie Most, English music producer (d. 2003) 1939 – Ramakant Desai, Indian cricketer (d. 1998) 1939 – Budge Rogers, English rugby player and manager 1940 – Eugen Drewermann, German priest and theologian 1940 – John Mahoney, English-born American actor (d. 2018) 1941 – Stephen Frears, English actor, director, and producer 1941 – Ulf Merbold, German physicist and astronaut 1942 – Neil Trudinger, Australian mathematician and theorist 1942 – Brian Wilson, American singer-songwriter and producer 1945 – Anne Murray, Canadian singer and guitarist 1946 – Xanana Gusmão, Timorese soldier and politician, 1st President of East Timor 1946 – David Kazhdan, Russian-Israeli mathematician and academic 1946 – Bob Vila, American television host 1946 – André Watts, American pianist and educator 1947 – Dolores "LaLa" Brooks, American pop singer 1948 – Cirilo Flores, American bishop (d. 2014) 1948 – Alan Longmuir, Scottish bass player and songwriter (d. 2018) 1948 – Ludwig Scotty, Nauruan politician, 10th President of Nauru 1949 – Gotabaya Rajapaksa, 8th president of Sri Lanka 1949 – Lionel Richie, American singer-songwriter, pianist, producer, and actor 1950 – Nouri al-Maliki, Iraqi politician, 76th Prime Minister of Iraq 1951 – Tress MacNeille, American actress and voice artist 1951 – Sheila McLean, Scottish scholar and academic 1951 – Paul Muldoon, Irish poet and academic 1952 – John Goodman, American actor 1952 – Vikram Seth, Indian author and poet 1953 – Robert Crais, American author and screenwriter 1953 – Raúl Ramírez, Mexican tennis player 1953 – Willy Rampf, German engineer 1954 – Allan Lamb, South African-English cricketer and sportscaster 1954 – Ilan Ramon, Israeli colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2003) 1955 – E. Lynn Harris, American author (d. 2009) 1956 – Peter Reid, English footballer and manager 1956 – Sohn Suk-hee, South Korean newscaster 1958 – Kelly Johnson, English hard rock guitarist and songwriter (d. 2007) 1960 – Philip M. Parker, American economist and author 1960 – John Taylor, English singer-songwriter, bass player, and actor 1963 – Kirk Baptiste, American sprinter 1963 – Mark Ovenden, British author and broadcaster 1964 – Pierfrancesco Chili, Italian motorcycle racer 1964 – Silke Möller, German runner 1966 – Boaz Yakin, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1967 – Nicole Kidman, American-Australian actress 1967 – Dan Tyminski, American singer-songwriter 1968 – Robert Rodriguez, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1969 – Paulo Bento, Portuguese footballer and manager 1969 – Misha Verbitsky, Russian mathematician and academic 1969 – MaliVai Washington, American tennis player and sportscaster 1970 – Andrea Nahles, German politician, German Minister of Labour and Social Affairs 1970 – Athol Williams, South African poet and social philosopher 1971 – Rodney Rogers, American basketball player and coach 1971 – Jeordie White, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and bass player 1972 – Alexis Alexoudis, Greek footballer 1973 – Chino Moreno, American singer-songwriter 1975 – Joan Balcells, Spanish tennis player 1975 – Daniel Zítka, Czech footballer 1976 – Juliano Belletti, Brazilian footballer 1976 – Carlos Lee, Panamanian baseball player 1977 – Gordan Giriček, Croatian basketball player 1977 – Amos Lee, American singer-songwriter 1978 – Frank Lampard, English footballer 1978 – Jan-Paul Saeijs, Dutch footballer 1979 – Charles Howell III, American golfer 1980 – Franco Semioli, Italian footballer 1980 – Fabian Wegmann, German cyclist 1981 – Brede Hangeland, Norwegian footballer 1982 – Aleksei Berezutski, Russian footballer 1982 – Vasili Berezutski, Russian footballer 1982 – Example, English singer/rapper 1983 – Josh Childress, American basketball player 1983 – Darren Sproles, American football player 1984 – Hassan Adams, American basketball player 1985 – Saki Aibu, Japanese actress 1985 – Aurélien Chedjou, Cameroonian footballer 1985 – Matt Flynn, American football player 1986 – Dreama Walker, American actress 1987 – A-fu, Taiwanese singer and songwriter 1987 – Carsten Ball, Australian tennis player 1987 – Asmir Begović, Bosnian footballer 1987 – Joseph Ebuya, Kenyan runner 1989 – Christopher Mintz-Plasse, American actor 1989 – Javier Pastore, Argentinian footballer 1989 – Terrelle Pryor, American football player 1990 – DeQuan Jones, American basketball player 1991 – Kalidou Koulibaly, Senegalese footballer 1991 – Rick ten Voorde, Dutch footballer 1994 – Leonard Williams, American football player 1995 – Caroline Weir, Scottish footballer 1996 – Sam Bennett, Canadian ice hockey player 1997 – Bálint Kopasz, Hungarian sprint canoeist Deaths Pre-1600 465 – Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei (b. 440) 656 – Uthman ibn Affan, Rashidun caliph (b. 577) 840 – Louis the Pious, Carolingian emperor (b. 778) 930 – Hucbald, Frankish monk and music theorist 981 – Adalbert, archbishop of Magdeburg 1176 – Mikhail of Vladimir, Russian prince 1351 – Margareta Ebner, German nun and mystic (b. 1291) 1597 – Willem Barentsz, Dutch cartographer and explorer (b. 1550) 1601–1900 1605 – Feodor II of Russia (b. 1589) 1668 – Heinrich Roth, German missionary and scholar (b. 1620) 1776 – Benjamin Huntsman, English businessman (b. 1704) 1787 – Carl Friedrich Abel, German viol player and composer (b. 1723) 1800 – Abraham Gotthelf Kästner, German mathematician and academic (b. 1719) 1810 – Axel von Fersen the Younger, Swedish general and politician (b. 1755) 1815 – Guillaume Philibert Duhesme, French general (b. 1766) 1820 – Manuel Belgrano, Argentinian general, economist, and politician (b. 1770) 1837 – William IV of the United Kingdom (b. 1765) 1840 – Pierre Claude François Daunou, French historian and politician (b. 1761) 1847 – Juan Larrea, Argentinian captain and politician (b. 1782) 1869 – Hijikata Toshizō, Japanese commander (b. 1835) 1870 – Jules de Goncourt, French historian and author (b. 1830) 1872 – Élie Frédéric Forey, French general (b. 1804) 1875 – Joseph Meek, American police officer and politician (b. 1810) 1876 – John Neal, American writer, critic, editor, lecturer, and activist (b. 1793) 1888 – Johannes Zukertort, Polish-English chess player (b. 1842) 1901–present 1906 – John Clayton Adams, English painter (b. 1840) 1909 – Friedrich Martens, Estonian-Russian historian, lawyer, and diplomat (b. 1845) 1925 – Josef Breuer, Austrian physician and psychologist (b. 1842) 1929 – Emmanouil Benakis, Greek merchant and politician, 35th Mayor of Athens (b. 1843) 1945 – Bruno Frank, German author, poet, and playwright (b. 1878) 1947 – Bugsy Siegel, American mobster (b. 1906) 1952 – Luigi Fagioli, Italian race car driver (b. 1898) 1958 – Kurt Alder, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1902) 1963 – Raphaël Salem, Greek-French mathematician and academic (b. 1898) 1965 – Bernard Baruch, American financier and politician (b. 1870) 1966 – Georges Lemaître, Belgian priest, physicist, and astronomer (b. 1894) 1969 – Bishnu Prasad Rabha, Indian artist, painter, actor, dancer, writer, music composer and politician (b. 1909) 1974 – Horace Lindrum, Australian snooker player (b. 1912) 1975 – Suzanne Comhaire-Sylvain, Hatian anthropologist (b. 1898) 1978 – Mark Robson, Canadian-American director and producer (b. 1913) 1984 – Estelle Winwood, English actress (b. 1883) 1995 – Emil Cioran, Romanian-French philosopher and educator (b. 1911) 1997 – Cahit Külebi, Turkish poet and author (b. 1917) 1999 – Clifton Fadiman, American game show host, author, and critic (b. 1902) 2001 – Gina Cigna, French-Italian soprano (b. 1900) 2002 – Erwin Chargaff, Austrian-American biochemist and academic (b. 1905) 2002 – Tinus Osendarp, Dutch runner (b. 1916) 2004 – Jim Bacon, Australian politician, 41st Premier of Tasmania (b. 1950) 2005 – Larry Collins, American journalist, historian, and author (b. 1929) 2005 – Jack Kilby, American physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1923) 2010 – Roberto Rosato, Italian footballer (b. 1943) 2010 – Harry B. Whittington, English palaeontologist and academic (b. 1916) 2011 – Ryan Dunn, American television personality (b. 1977) 2012 – Judy Agnew, Second Lady of the United States. (b. 1921) 2012 – LeRoy Neiman, American painter (b. 1921) 2012 – Heinrich IV, Prince Reuss of Köstritz (b. 1919) 2012 – Andrew Sarris, American critic (b. 1928) 2013 – Ingvar Rydell, Swedish footballer (b. 1922) 2015 – Angelo Niculescu, Romanian footballer and manager (b. 1921) 2015 – Miriam Schapiro, Canadian-American painter and sculptor (b. 1923) 2017 – Prodigy, American music artist (b. 1974) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Adalbert of Magdeburg Florentina John of Matera Blessed Margareta Ebner Methodius of Olympus Pope Silverius June 20 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Day of the National Flag (Argentina) Earliest possible date for the summer solstice in the Northern hemisphere and the winter solstice in the Southern hemisphere, and its related observance: Earliest day on which Day of the Finnish Flag can fall, while June 26 is the latest; celebrated on Saturday of Midsummer's Day (Finland) International Surfing Day (third Saturday in June, on or near Summer solstice) Litha / Midsummer celebrations in the northern hemisphere, Yule in the southern hemisphere. Gas Sector Day (Azerbaijan) Martyrs' Day (Eritrea) West Virginia Day (West Virginia) World Refugee Day (International) References External links Days of the year June

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July%201

July 1

It is the last day of the first half of the year. The end of this day marks the halfway point of a leap year. It also falls on the same day of the week as New Year's Day in a leap year. The midpoint of the year for southern hemisphere DST countries occurs at 11:00 p.m. Events Pre-1600 69 – Tiberius Julius Alexander orders his Roman legions in Alexandria to swear allegiance to Vespasian as Emperor. 552 – Battle of Taginae: Byzantine forces under Narses defeat the Ostrogoths in Italy, and the Ostrogoth king, Totila, is mortally wounded. 1097 – Battle of Dorylaeum: Crusaders led by prince Bohemond of Taranto defeat a Seljuk army led by sultan Kilij Arslan I. 1431 – The Battle of La Higueruela takes place in Granada, leading to a modest advance of the Kingdom of Castile during the Reconquista. 1520 – Spanish conquistadors led by Hernán Cortés fight their way out of Tenochtitlan after nightfall. 1523 – Jan van Essen and Hendrik Vos become the first Lutheran martyrs, burned at the stake by Roman Catholic authorities in Brussels. 1569 – Union of Lublin: The Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania confirm a real union; the united country is called the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth or the Republic of Both Nations. 1601–1900 1643 – First meeting of the Westminster Assembly, a council of theologians ("divines") and members of the Parliament of England appointed to restructure the Church of England, at Westminster Abbey in London. 1690 – Glorious Revolution: Battle of the Boyne in Ireland (as reckoned under the Julian calendar). 1766 – François-Jean de la Barre, a young French nobleman, is tortured and beheaded before his body is burnt on a pyre along with a copy of Voltaire's Dictionnaire philosophique nailed to his torso for the crime of not saluting a Roman Catholic religious procession in Abbeville, France. 1770 – Lexell's Comet is seen closer to the Earth than any other comet in recorded history, approaching to a distance of . 1782 – Raid on Lunenburg: American privateers attack the British settlement of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia. 1819 – Johann Georg Tralles discovers the Great Comet of 1819, (C/1819 N1). It was the first comet analyzed using polarimetry, by François Arago. 1837 – A system of civil registration of births, marriages and deaths is established in England and Wales. 1855 – Signing of the Quinault Treaty: The Quinault and the Quileute cede their land to the United States. 1858 – Joint reading of Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace's papers on evolution to the Linnean Society of London. 1862 – The Russian State Library is founded as the Library of the Moscow Public Museum. 1862 – Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, second daughter of Queen Victoria, marries Prince Louis of Hesse, the future Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse. 1862 – American Civil War: The Battle of Malvern Hill takes place. It is the last of the Seven Days Battles, part of George B. McClellan's Peninsula Campaign. 1863 – Keti Koti (Emancipation Day) in Suriname, marking the abolition of slavery by the Netherlands. 1863 – American Civil War: The Battle of Gettysburg begins. 1867 – The British North America Act takes effect as the Province of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia join into confederation to create the modern nation of Canada. John A. Macdonald is sworn in as the first Prime Minister of Canada. This date is commemorated annually in Canada as Canada Day, a national holiday. 1870 – The United States Department of Justice formally comes into existence. 1873 – Prince Edward Island joins into Canadian Confederation. 1874 – The Sholes and Glidden typewriter, the first commercially successful typewriter, goes on sale. 1878 – Canada joins the Universal Postal Union. 1879 – Charles Taze Russell publishes the first edition of the religious magazine The Watchtower. 1881 – The world's first international telephone call is made between St. Stephen, New Brunswick, Canada, and Calais, Maine, United States. 1881 – General Order 70, the culmination of the Cardwell and Childers reforms of the British Army, comes into effect. 1885 – The United States terminates reciprocity and fishery agreement with Canada. 1885 – The Congo Free State is established by King Leopold II of Belgium. 1890 – Canada and Bermuda are linked by telegraph cable. 1898 – Spanish–American War: The Battle of San Juan Hill is fought in Santiago de Cuba, Cuba. 1901–present 1901 – French government enacts its anti-clerical legislation Law of Association prohibiting the formation of new monastic orders without governmental approval. 1901 – France: New electric railway inaugurated in Paris. 1903 – Start of first Tour de France bicycle race. 1908 – SOS is adopted as the international distress signal. 1911 – Germany despatches the gunship to Morocco, sparking the Agadir Crisis. 1915 – Leutnant Kurt Wintgens of the then-named German Deutsches Heer's Fliegertruppe army air service achieves the first known aerial victory with a synchronized machine-gun armed fighter plane, the Fokker M.5K/MG Eindecker. 1916 – World War I: First day on the Somme: On the first day of the Battle of the Somme 19,000 soldiers of the British Army are killed and 40,000 wounded. 1921 – the Chinese Communist Party is founded by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao, with the help of the Far Eastern Bureau of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks), who seized power in Russia after the 1917 October Revolution, and the Far Eastern Secretariat of the Communist International. 1922 – The Great Railroad Strike of 1922 begins in the United States. 1923 – The Parliament of Canada suspends all Chinese immigration. 1931 – United Airlines begins service (as Boeing Air Transport). 1931 – Wiley Post and Harold Gatty become the first people to circumnavigate the globe in a single-engined monoplane aircraft. 1932 – Australia's national broadcaster, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, was formed. 1935 – Regina, Saskatchewan police and Royal Canadian Mounted Police ambush strikers participating in the On-to-Ottawa Trek. 1942 – World War II: First Battle of El Alamein. 1942 – The Australian Federal Government becomes the sole collector of income tax in Australia as State Income Tax is abolished. 1943 – The City of Tokyo and the Prefecture of Tokyo are both replaced by the Tokyo Metropolis. 1946 – Crossroads Able is the first postwar nuclear weapon test. 1947 – The Philippine Air Force is established. 1948 – Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Quaid-i-Azam) inaugurates Pakistan's central bank, the State Bank of Pakistan. 1949 – The merger of two princely states of India, Cochin and Travancore, into the state of Thiru-Kochi (later re-organized as Kerala) in the Indian Union ends more than 1,000 years of princely rule by the Cochin royal family. 1957 – The International Geophysical Year begins. 1958 – The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation links television broadcasting across Canada via microwave. 1958 – Flooding of Canada's Saint Lawrence Seaway begins. 1959 – Specific values for the international yard, avoirdupois pound and derived units (e.g. inch, mile and ounce) are adopted after agreement between the US, the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries. 1960 – The Trust Territory of Somaliland (the former Italian Somaliland) gains its independence from Italy. Concurrently, it unites as scheduled with the five-day-old State of Somaliland (the former British Somaliland) to form the Somali Republic. 1960 – Ghana becomes a republic and Kwame Nkrumah becomes its first President as Queen Elizabeth II ceases to be its head of state. 1962 – Independence of Rwanda and Burundi. 1963 – ZIP codes are introduced for United States mail. 1963 – The British Government admits that former diplomat Kim Philby had worked as a Soviet agent. 1966 – The first color television transmission in Canada takes place from Toronto. 1967 – Merger Treaty: The European Community is formally created out of a merger with the Common Market, the European Coal and Steel Community, and the European Atomic Energy Commission. 1968 – The United States Central Intelligence Agency's Phoenix Program is officially established. 1968 – The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons is signed in Washington, D.C., London and Moscow by sixty-two countries. 1968 – Formal separation of the United Auto Workers from the AFL–CIO in the United States. 1972 – The first Gay pride march in England takes place. 1976 – Portugal grants autonomy to Madeira. 1978 – The Northern Territory in Australia is granted self-government. 1979 – Sony introduces the Walkman. 1980 – "O Canada" officially becomes the national anthem of Canada. 1983 – A North Korean Ilyushin Il-62M jet en route to Conakry Airport in Guinea crashes into the Fouta Djallon mountains in Guinea-Bissau, killing all 23 people on board. 1984 – The PG-13 rating is introduced by the MPAA. 1987 – The American radio station WFAN in New York City is launched as the world's first all-sports radio station. 1990 – German reunification: East Germany accepts the Deutsche Mark as its currency, thus uniting the economies of East and West Germany. 1991 – Cold War: The Warsaw Pact is officially dissolved at a meeting in Prague. 1997 – China resumes sovereignty over the city-state of Hong Kong, ending 156 years of British colonial rule. The handover ceremony is attended by British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Charles, Prince of Wales, Chinese President Jiang Zemin, and U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright. 1999 – The Scottish Parliament is officially opened by Elizabeth II on the day that legislative powers are officially transferred from the old Scottish Office in London to the new devolved Scottish Executive in Edinburgh. In Wales, the powers of the Welsh Secretary are transferred to the National Assembly. 2002 – The International Criminal Court is established to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression. 2002 – Bashkirian Airlines Flight 2937, a Tupolev Tu-154, and DHL Flight 611, a Boeing 757, collide in mid-air over Überlingen, southern Germany, killing all 71 on board both planes. 2003 – Over 500,000 people protest against efforts to pass anti-sedition legislation in Hong Kong. 2004 – Saturn orbit insertion of Cassini–Huygens begins at 01:12 UTC and ends at 02:48 UTC. 2006 – The first operation of Qinghai–Tibet Railway is conducted in China. 2007 – Smoking in England is banned in all public indoor spaces. 2008 – Riots erupt in Mongolia in response to allegations of fraud surrounding the 2008 legislative elections. 2013 – Croatia becomes the 28th member of the European Union. 2020 – The United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement replaces NAFTA. Births Pre-1600 1311 – Liu Bowen, Chinese military strategist, statesman and poet (d. 1375) 1464 – Clara Gonzaga, Italian noble (d. 1503) 1481 – Christian II of Denmark (d. 1559) 1506 – Louis II of Hungary (d. 1526) 1534 – Frederick II of Denmark (d. 1588) 1553 – Peter Street, English carpenter and builder (d. 1609) 1574 – Joseph Hall, English bishop and mystic (d. 1656) 1586 – Claudio Saracini, Italian lute player and composer (d. 1630) 1601–1900 1633 – Johann Heinrich Heidegger, Swiss theologian and author (d. 1698) 1646 – Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, German mathematician and philosopher (d. 1716) 1663 – Franz Xaver Murschhauser, German composer and theorist (d. 1738) 1725 – Rhoda Delaval, English painter and aristocrat (d. 1757) 1725 – Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, French general (d. 1807) 1726 – Acharya Bhikshu, Jain saint (d. 1803) 1731 – Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan, Scottish-English admiral (d. 1804) 1742 – Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, German physicist and academic (d. 1799) 1771 – Ferdinando Paer, Italian composer and conductor (d. 1839) 1788 – Jean-Victor Poncelet, French mathematician and engineer (d. 1867) 1804 – Charles Gordon Greene, American journalist and politician (d. 1886) 1804 – George Sand, French author and playwright (d. 1876) 1807 – Thomas Green Clemson, American politician and educator, founded Clemson University (d. 1888) 1808 – Ygnacio del Valle, Mexican-American landowner (d. 1880) 1818 – Ignaz Semmelweis, Hungarian-Austrian physician and obstetrician (d. 1865) 1818 – Karl von Vierordt, German physician, psychologist and academic (d. 1884) 1822 – Nguyễn Đình Chiểu, Vietnamese poet and activist (d. 1888) 1834 – Jadwiga Łuszczewska, Polish poet and author (d. 1908) 1850 – Florence Earle Coates, American poet (d. 1927) 1858 – Willard Metcalf, American painter (d. 1925) 1858 – Velma Caldwell Melville, American editor and writer of prose and poetry (d. 1924) 1863 – William Grant Stairs, Canadian-English captain and explorer (d. 1892) 1869 – William Strunk Jr., American author and educator (d. 1946) 1872 – Louis Blériot, French pilot and engineer (d. 1936) 1872 – William Duddell, English physicist and engineer (d. 1917) 1873 – Alice Guy-Blaché, French-American film director, producer and screenwriter (d. 1968) 1873 – Andrass Samuelsen, Faroese politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (d. 1954) 1875 – Joseph Weil, American con man (d. 1976) 1876 – T. J. Ryan, Australian politician, 19th Premier of Queensland (d. 1921) 1878 – Jacques Rosenbaum, Estonian-German architect (d. 1944) 1879 – Léon Jouhaux, French union leader, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1954) 1881 – Edward Battersby Bailey, English geologist (d. 1965) 1882 – Bidhan Chandra Roy, Indian physician and politician, 2nd Chief Minister of West Bengal (d. 1962) 1883 – Arthur Borton, English colonel, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1933) 1885 – Dorothea Mackellar, Australian author and poet (d. 1968) 1887 – Amber Reeves, New Zealand-English author and scholar (d. 1981) 1892 – James M. Cain, American author and journalist (d. 1977) 1892 – László Lajtha, Hungarian composer and conductor (d. 1963) 1899 – Thomas A. Dorsey, American pianist and composer (d. 1993) 1899 – Charles Laughton, English-American actor and director (d. 1962) 1899 – Konstantinos Tsatsos, Greek scholar and politician, President of Greece (d. 1987) 1901–present 1901 – Irna Phillips, American screenwriter (d. 1973) 1902 – William Wyler, French-American film director, producer and screenwriter (d. 1981) 1903 – Amy Johnson, English pilot (d. 1941) 1903 – Beatrix Lehmann, English actress (d. 1979) 1906 – Jean Dieudonné, French mathematician and academic (d. 1992) 1906 – Estée Lauder, American businesswoman, co-founded the Estée Lauder Companies (d. 2004) 1907 – Norman Pirie, Scottish-English biochemist and virologist (d. 1997) 1909 – Emmett Toppino, American sprinter (d. 1971) 1910 – Glenn Hardin, American hurdler (d. 1975) 1911 – Arnold Alas, Estonian landscape architect and artist (d. 1990) 1911 – Sergey Sokolov, Russian marshal and politician, Soviet Minister of Defence (d. 2012) 1912 – David Brower, American environmentalist, founded Sierra Club Foundation (d. 2000) 1912 – Sally Kirkland, American journalist (d. 1989) 1913 – Frank Barrett, American baseball player (d. 1998) 1913 – Lee Guttero, American basketball player (d. 2004) 1913 – Vasantrao Naik, Indian politician, 3rd Chief Minister of Maharashtra (d. 1979) 1914 – Thomas Pearson, British Army officer (d. 2019) 1914 – Christl Cranz, German alpine skier (d. 2004) 1914 – Bernard B. Wolfe, American politician (d. 2016) 1915 – Willie Dixon, American blues singer-songwriter, bass player, guitarist and producer (d. 1992) 1915 – Philip Lever, 3rd Viscount Leverhulme, British peer (d. 2000) 1915 – Boots Poffenberger, American baseball pitcher (d. 1999) 1915 – Joseph Ransohoff, American soldier and neurosurgeon (d. 2001) 1915 – Nguyễn Văn Linh, Vietnamese politician (d. 1998) 1916 – Olivia de Havilland, British-American actress (d. 2020) 1916 – Iosif Shklovsky, Ukrainian astronomer and astrophysicist (d. 1985) 1916 – George C. Stoney, American director and producer (d. 2012) 1917 – Humphry Osmond, English-American lieutenant and psychiatrist (d. 2004) 1917 – Álvaro Domecq y Díez, Spanish aristocrat (d. 2005) 1918 – Ralph Young, American singer and actor (d. 2008) 1918 – Ahmed Deedat, South African writer and public speaker (d. 2005) 1918 – Pedro Yap, Filipino lawyer (d. 2003) 1919 – Arnold Meri, Estonian colonel (d. 2009) 1919 – Malik Dohan al-Hassan, Iraqi politician (d. 2021) 1919 – Gerald E. Miller, American vice admiral (d. 2014) 1920 – Henri Amouroux, French historian and journalist (d. 2007) 1920 – Harold Sakata, Japanese-American wrestler and actor (d. 1982) 1920 – George I. Fujimoto, American-Japanese chemist 1921 – Seretse Khama, Batswana lawyer and politician, 1st President of Botswana (d. 1980) 1921 – Michalina Wisłocka, Polish gynecologist and sexologist (d. 2005) 1921 – Arthur Johnson, Canadian canoeist (d. 2003) 1922 – Toshi Seeger, German-American activist, co-founded the Clearwater Festival (d. 2013) 1922 – Mordechai Bibi, Israeli politician 1923 – Scotty Bowers, American marine, author and pimp (d. 2019) 1924 – Antoni Ramallets, Spanish footballer and manager (d. 2013) 1924 – Florence Stanley, American actress (d. 2003) 1924 – Georges Rivière, French actor 1925 – Farley Granger, American actor (d. 2011) 1925 – Art McNally, American football referee 1926 – Robert Fogel, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013) 1926 – Carl Hahn, German businessman 1926 – Mohamed Abshir Muse, Somali general (d. 2017) 1926 – Hans Werner Henze, German composer and educator (d. 2012) 1927 – Alan J. Charig, English paleontologist and author (d. 1997) 1927 – Joseph Martin Sartoris, American bishop 1927 – Chandra Shekhar, 8th Prime Minister of India (d. 2007) 1929 – Gerald Edelman, American biologist and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2014) 1930 – Moustapha Akkad, Syrian-American director and producer (d. 2005) 1930 – Carol Chomsky, American linguist and academic (d. 2008) 1931 – Leslie Caron, French actress and dancer 1932 – Ze'ev Schiff, French-Israeli journalist and author (d. 2007) 1933 – C. Scott Littleton, American anthropologist and academic (d. 2010) 1934 – Claude Berri, French actor, director and screenwriter (d. 2009) 1934 – Jamie Farr, American actor 1934 – Jean Marsh, English actress and screenwriter 1934 – Sydney Pollack, American actor, director and producer (d. 2008) 1935 – James Cotton, American singer-songwriter and harmonica player (d. 2017) 1935 – David Prowse, English actor (d. 2020) 1936 – Wally Amos, American entrepreneur and founder of Famous Amos 1938 – Craig Anderson, American baseball player and coach 1938 – Hariprasad Chaurasia, Indian flute player and composer 1939 – Karen Black, American actress (d. 2013) 1939 – Delaney Bramlett, American singer-songwriter, guitarist and producer (d. 2008) 1940 – Craig Brown, Scottish footballer and manager 1940 – Ela Gandhi, South African activist and politician 1940 – Cahit Zarifoğlu, Turkish poet and author (d. 1987) 1941 – Rod Gilbert, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 2021) 1941 – Alfred G. Gilman, American pharmacologist and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015) 1941 – Myron Scholes, Canadian-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1941 – Twyla Tharp, American dancer and choreographer 1942 – Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri, Iraqi field marshal and politician (d. 2020) 1942 – Geneviève Bujold, Canadian actress 1942 – Andraé Crouch, American singer-songwriter, producer and pastor (d. 2015) 1942 – Julia Higgins, English chemist and academic 1943 – Philip Brunelle, American conductor and organist 1943 – Peeter Lepp, Estonian politician, 37th Mayor of Tallinn 1943 – Jeff Wayne, American composer, musician and lyricist 1944 – Nurul Haque Miah, Bangladeshi professor and writer (d. 2021) 1945 – Mike Burstyn, American actor and singer 1945 – Debbie Harry, American singer-songwriter and actress 1946 – Mick Aston, English archaeologist and academic (d. 2013) 1946 – Erkki Tuomioja, Finnish sergeant and politician, Finnish Minister for Foreign Affairs 1946 – Kojo Laing, Ghanaian novelist and poet (d. 2017) 1947 – Kazuyoshi Hoshino, Japanese race car driver 1947 – Malcolm Wicks, English academic and politician (d. 2012) 1948 – John Ford, English-American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1949 – Néjia Ben Mabrouk, Tunisian-Belgian director and screenwriter 1949 – John Farnham, English-Australian singer-songwriter 1949 – David Hogan, American composer and educator (d. 1996) 1949 – Venkaiah Naidu, Indian lawyer and politician 1950 – David Duke, American white supremacist, politician and former Ku Klux Klan Grand Wizard 1951 – Trevor Eve, English actor and producer 1951 – Anne Feeney, American singer-songwriter and activist (d. 2021) 1951 – Julia Goodfellow, English physicist and academic 1951 – Klaus-Peter Justus, German runner 1951 – Tom Kozelko, American basketball player 1951 – Terrence Mann, American actor, singer and dancer 1951 – Fred Schneider, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1951 – Victor Willis, American singer-songwriter, pianist and actor 1952 – Dan Aykroyd, Canadian actor, producer and screenwriter 1952 – David Arkenstone, American composer and performer 1952 – David Lane, English oncologist and academic 1952 – Steve Shutt, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1952 – Timothy J. Tobias, American pianist and composer (d. 2006) 1953 – Lawrence Gonzi, Maltese lawyer and politician, 12th Prime Minister of Malta 1953 – Jadranka Kosor, Croatian journalist and politician, 9th Prime Minister of Croatia 1954 – Keith Whitley, American singer and guitarist (d. 1989) 1954 – Hossein Nuri, Iranian artist and director 1955 – Nikolai Demidenko, Russian pianist and educator 1955 – Li Keqiang, Chinese economist and politician, 7th Premier of the People's Republic of China 1955 – Lisa Scottoline, American lawyer and author 1955 – Maʻafu Tukuiʻaulahi, Tongan politician and military officer, Deputy Prime Minister (d. 2021) 1957 – Lisa Blount, American actress and producer (d. 2010) 1957 – Hannu Kamppuri, Finnish ice hockey player 1957 – Sean O'Driscoll, English footballer and manager 1958 – Jack Dyer Crouch II, American diplomat, United States Deputy National Security Advisor 1960 – Michael Beattie, Australian rugby league player and coach 1960 – Lynn Jennings, American runner 1960 – Evelyn "Champagne" King, American soul/disco singer 1960 – Kevin Swords, American rugby player 1961 – Malcolm Elliott, English cyclist 1961 – Ivan Kaye, English actor 1961 – Carl Lewis, American long jumper and runner 1961 – Diana, Princess of Wales (d. 1997) 1961 – Michelle Wright, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1962 – Andre Braugher, American actor and producer 1962 – Mokhzani Mahathir, Malaysian businessman 1963 – Roddy Bottum, American singer and keyboard player 1963 – Nick Giannopoulos, Australian actor 1963 – David Wood, American lawyer and environmentalist (d. 2006) 1964 – Bernard Laporte, French rugby player and coach 1965 – Carl Fogarty, English motorcycle racer 1965 – Garry Schofield, English rugby player and coach 1965 – Harald Zwart, Norwegian director and producer 1966 – Enrico Annoni, Italian footballer and coach 1966 – Shawn Burr, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 2013) 1967 – Pamela Anderson, Canadian-American model and actress 1969 – Séamus Egan, American-Irish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1971 – Missy Elliott, American rapper, producer, dancer and actress 1971 – Julianne Nicholson, American actress 1974 – Jefferson Pérez, Ecuadorian race walker 1975 – Sean Colson, American basketball player and coach 1975 – Sufjan Stevens, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1976 – Patrick Kluivert, Dutch footballer and coach 1976 – Hannu Tihinen, Finnish footballer 1976 – Albert Torrens, Australian rugby league player 1976 – Ruud van Nistelrooy, Dutch footballer and manager 1976 – Szymon Ziółkowski, Polish hammer thrower 1977 – Tom Frager, Senegalese-French singer-songwriter and guitarist 1977 – Keigo Hayashi, Japanese musician 1977 – Jarome Iginla, Canadian ice hockey player 1979 – Forrest Griffin, American mixed martial artist and actor 1981 – Carlo Del Fava, South African-Italian rugby player 1981 – Tadhg Kennelly, Irish-Australian footballer 1982 – Justin Huber, Australian baseball player 1982 – Joachim Johansson, Swedish tennis player 1982 – Adrian Ward, American football player 1982 – Hilarie Burton, American actress 1984 – Donald Thomas, Bahamian high jumper 1985 – Chris Perez, American baseball player 1986 – Charlie Blackmon, American baseball player 1986 – Andrew Lee, Australian footballer 1986 – Julian Prochnow, German footballer 1987 – Michael Schrader, German decathlete 1988 – Dedé, Brazilian footballer 1988 – Aleksander Lesun, Russian modern pentathlete 1989 – Kent Bazemore, American basketball player 1989 – Daniel Ricciardo, Australian race car driver 1990 – Ben Coker, English footballer 1991 – Michael Wacha, American baseball player 1992 – Aaron Sanchez, American baseball player 1995 – Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo, Belgian footballer 1995 – Savvy Shields, Miss America 2017 1996 – Adelina Sotnikova, Russian figure skater 1998 – Aleksandra Golovkina, Lithuanian figure skater 2000 – Lalu Muhammad Zohri, Indonesian sprinter 2001 – Chosen Jacobs, American entertainer 2003 – Tate McRae, Canadian singer, songwriter, and dancer Deaths Pre-1600 552 – Totila, Ostrogoth king 992 – Heonjeong, Korean queen (b. 966) 1109 – Alfonso VI, king of León and Castile (b. 1040) 1224 – Hōjō Yoshitoki, regent of the Kamakura shogunate of Japan (b. 1163) 1242 – Chagatai Khan, Mongol ruler (b. 1183) 1277 – Baibars, Egyptian sultan (b. 1223) 1287 – Narathihapate, Burmese king (b. 1238) 1321 – María de Molina, queen of Castile and León 1348 – Joan, English princess 1555 – John Bradford, English reformer, prebendary of St. Paul's (b. 1510) 1589 – Lady Saigō, Japanese concubine (b. 1552) 1592 – Marc'Antonio Ingegneri, Italian composer and educator (b. 1535) 1601–1900 1614 – Isaac Casaubon, French philologist and scholar (b. 1559) 1622 – William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle, English politician (b. 1575) 1681 – Oliver Plunkett, Irish archbishop and saint (b. 1629) 1736 – Ahmed III, Ottoman sultan (b. 1673) 1749 – William Jones, Welsh mathematician and academic (b. 1675) 1774 – Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland, English politician, Secretary of State for the Southern Department (b. 1705) 1782 – Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, English admiral and politician, Prime Minister of Great Britain (b. 1730) 1784 – Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, German organist and composer (b. 1710) 1787 – Charles de Rohan, French marshal (b. 1715) 1819 – the Public Universal Friend, American evangelist (b. 1752) 1839 – Mahmud II, Ottoman sultan (b. 1785) 1860 – Charles Goodyear, American chemist and engineer (b. 1800) 1863 – John F. Reynolds, American general (b. 1820) 1884 – Allan Pinkerton, Scottish-American detective and spy (b. 1819) 1896 – Harriet Beecher Stowe, American author and activist (b. 1811) 1901–present 1905 – John Hay, American journalist and politician, 37th United States Secretary of State (b. 1838) 1912 – Harriet Quimby, American pilot and screenwriter (b. 1875) 1925 – Erik Satie, French pianist and composer (b. 1866) 1934 – Ernst Röhm, German paramilitary commander (b. 1887) 1942 – Peadar Toner Mac Fhionnlaoich, Irish writer (b. 1857) 1943 – Willem Arondeus, Dutch artist, author and anti-Nazi resistance fighter (b. 1894) 1944 – Carl Mayer, Austrian-English screenwriter (b. 1894) 1944 – Tanya Savicheva, Russian author (b. 1930) 1948 – Achille Varzi, Italian race car driver (b. 1904) 1950 – Émile Jaques-Dalcroze, Swiss composer and educator (b. 1865) 1950 – Eliel Saarinen, Finnish-American architect, co-designed the National Museum of Finland (b. 1873) 1951 – Tadeusz Borowski, Polish poet, novelist and journalist (b. 1922) 1961 – Louis-Ferdinand Céline, French physician and author (b. 1894) 1962 – Purushottam Das Tandon, Indian lawyer and politician (b. 1882) 1962 – Bidhan Chandra Roy, Indian physician and politician, 2nd Chief Minister of West Bengal (b. 1882) 1964 – Pierre Monteux, French-American viola player and conductor (b. 1875) 1965 – Wally Hammond, English cricketer (b. 1903) 1965 – Robert Ruark, American journalist and author (b. 1915) 1966 – Frank Verner, American runner (b. 1883) 1967 – Gerhard Ritter, German historian and academic (b. 1888) 1968 – Fritz Bauer, German judge and politician (b. 1903) 1971 – William Lawrence Bragg, Australian-English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1890) 1971 – Learie Constantine, Trinidadian-English cricketer, lawyer and politician (b. 1901) 1974 – Juan Perón, Argentinian general and politician, President of Argentina (b. 1895) 1978 – Kurt Student, German general and pilot (b. 1890) 1981 – Carlos de Oliveira, Portuguese author and poet (b. 1921) 1983 – Buckminster Fuller, American architect, designed the Montreal Biosphère (b. 1895) 1984 – Moshé Feldenkrais, Ukrainian-Israeli physicist and academic (b. 1904) 1991 – Michael Landon, American actor, director and producer (b. 1936) 1992 – Franco Cristaldi, Italian screenwriter and producer (b. 1924) 1994 – Merriam Modell, American author (b. 1908) 1995 – Wolfman Jack, American radio host (b. 1938) 1995 – Ian Parkin, English guitarist (Be-Bop Deluxe) (b. 1950) 1996 – William T. Cahill, American lawyer and politician, 46th Governor of New Jersey (b. 1904) 1996 – Margaux Hemingway, American model and actress (b. 1954) 1996 – Steve Tesich, Serbian-American author and screenwriter (b. 1942) 1997 – Robert Mitchum, American actor (b. 1917) 1997 – Charles Werner, American cartoonist (b. 1909) 1999 – Edward Dmytryk, Canadian-American director and producer (b. 1908) 1999 – Forrest Mars Sr., American businessman, created M&M's and the Mars bar (b. 1904) 1999 – Sylvia Sidney, American actress (b. 1910) 1999 – Sola Sierra, Chilean human rights activist (b. 1935) 2000 – Walter Matthau, American actor (b. 1920) 2001 – Nikolay Basov, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1922) 2001 – Jean-Louis Rosier, French race car driver (b. 1925) 2003 – Herbie Mann, American flute player and saxophonist (b. 1930) 2004 – Peter Barnes, English playwright and screenwriter (b. 1931) 2004 – Marlon Brando, American actor and director (b. 1924) 2004 – Todor Skalovski, Macedonian composer and conductor (b. 1909) 2005 – Renaldo Benson, American singer-songwriter (Four Tops) (b. 1936) 2005 – Gus Bodnar, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1923) 2005 – Luther Vandross, American singer-songwriter and producer (Change) (b. 1951) 2006 – Ryutaro Hashimoto, Japanese politician, 53rd Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1937) 2006 – Robert Lepikson, Estonian race car driver and politician, Estonian Minister of the Interior (b. 1952) 2006 – Fred Trueman, English cricketer and sportscaster (b. 1931) 2008 – Mel Galley, English guitarist (b. 1948) 2009 – Karl Malden, American actor (b. 1912) 2009 – Onni Palaste, Finnish soldier and author (b. 1917) 2009 – Mollie Sugden, English actress (b. 1922) 2010 – Don Coryell, American football player and coach (b. 1924) 2010 – Arnold Friberg, American painter and illustrator (b. 1913) 2010 – Ilene Woods, American actress and singer (b. 1929) 2012 – Peter E. Gillquist, American priest and author (b. 1938) 2012 – Ossie Hibbert, Jamaican-American keyboard player and producer (b. 1950) 2012 – Evelyn Lear, American operatic soprano (b. 1926) 2012 – Alan G. Poindexter, American captain, pilot and astronaut (b. 1961) 2012 – Jack Richardson, American author and playwright (b. 1934) 2013 – Sidney Bryan Berry, American general (b. 1926) 2013 – Charles Foley, American game designer, co-created Twister (b. 1930) 2013 – William H. Gray, American minister and politician (b. 1941) 2014 – Jean Garon, Canadian economist, lawyer and politician (b. 1938) 2014 – Stephen Gaskin, American activist, co-founder of The Farm (b. 1935) 2014 – Bob Jones, English lawyer and politician (b. 1955) 2014 – Anatoly Kornukov, Ukrainian-Russian general (b. 1942) 2014 – Walter Dean Myers, American author and poet (b. 1937) 2015 – Val Doonican, Irish singer and television host (b. 1927) 2015 – Czesław Olech, Polish mathematician and academic (b. 1931) 2015 – Nicholas Winton, English lieutenant and humanitarian (b. 1909) 2016 – Robin Hardy, English author and film director (b. 1929) 2021 – Louis Andriessen, Dutch composer (b. 1939) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Aaron (Syriac Christianity) Blessed Antonio Rosmini-Serbati Felix of Como Junípero Serra Julius and Aaron Leontius of Autun Servanus Veep July 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Feast of the Most Precious Blood (removed from official Roman Catholic calendar since 1969) Earliest day on which Alexanderson Day can fall, celebrated on the Sunday closest to July 2. (Sweden) Earliest day on which CARICOM Day can fall, celebrated on the first Monday of July. (Guyana) Earliest day on which Constitution Day can fall, celebrated on the first Monday of July. (Cayman Islands) Earliest day on which Día del Amigo can fall, celebrated on the first Saturday of July. (Peru) Earliest day on which Fishermen's Holiday can fall, celebrated on the first Friday of July (Marshall Islands) Earliest day on which Heroes' Day can fall, celebrated on the first Monday ofJuly. (Zambia) Earliest day on which International Co-operative Day can fall, celebrated on the first Saturday of July. Earliest day on which International Free Hugs Day can fall, celebrated on the first Saturday of July. Earliest day on which Navy Day can fall, celebrated on the first Sunday of July. (Ukraine) Earliest day on which Navy Days can fall, celebrated on the first Saturday and Sunday of July. (Netherlands) Earliest day on which Youth Day can fall, celebrated on the first Sunday pf July. (Singapore) Armed Forces Day (Singapore) Bobby Bonilla Day (United States) Canada Day, formerly Dominion Day (Canada) Children's Day (Pakistan) Communist Party of China Founding Day (China) Day of Officials and Civil Servants (Hungary) Doctors' Day (India) Emancipation Day (Sint Maarten and Sint Eustatius) Engineer's Day (Bahrain, Mexico) Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Establishment Day (Hong Kong, China) Independence Day (Burundi), celebrates the independence of Burundi from Belgium in 1962. Independence Day (Rwanda) Independence Day (Somalia) International Tartan Day July Morning (Bulgaria) Keti Koti (Emancipation Day) (Suriname) Madeira Day (Madeira, Portugal) Moving Day (Quebec) (Canada) Newfoundland and Labrador Memorial Day Republic Day (Ghana) Sir Seretse Khama Day (Botswana) Territory Day (British Virgin Islands) The first day of Van Mahotsav, celebrated until July 7. (India) References External links Days of the year July

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July%207

July 7

The terms 7th July, July 7th, and 7/7 (pronounced "Seven-seven") have been widely used in the Western media as a shorthand for the 7 July 2005 bombings on London's transport system. In the Chinese language, this term is used to denote the Battle of Lugou Bridge started on July 7, 1937, marking the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War. Events Pre-1600 1124 – The city of Tyre falls to the Venetian Crusade after a siege of nineteen weeks. 1456 – A retrial verdict acquits Joan of Arc of heresy 25 years after her death. 1520 – Spanish conquistadores defeat a larger Aztec army at the Battle of Otumba. 1534 – Jacques Cartier makes his first contact with aboriginal peoples in what is now Canada. 1575 – The Raid of the Redeswire is the last major battle between England and Scotland. 1585 – The Treaty of Nemours abolishes tolerance to Protestants in France. 1601–1900 1667 – An English fleet completes the destruction of a French merchant fleet off Fort St Pierre, Martinique during the Second Anglo-Dutch War. 1770 – The Battle of Larga between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire takes place. 1777 – American forces retreating from Fort Ticonderoga are defeated in the Battle of Hubbardton. 1798 – As a result of the XYZ Affair, the US Congress rescinds the Treaty of Alliance with France sparking the "Quasi-War". 1807 – The first Treaty of Tilsit between France and Russia is signed, ending hostilities between the two countries in the War of the Fourth Coalition. 1834 – In New York City, four nights of rioting against abolitionists began. 1846 – US troops occupy Monterey and Yerba Buena, thus beginning the US conquest of California. 1863 – The United States begins its first military draft; exemptions cost $300. 1865 – Four conspirators in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln are hanged. 1892 – The Katipunan is established, the discovery of which by Spanish authorities initiated the Philippine Revolution. 1898 – US President William McKinley signs the Newlands Resolution annexing Hawaii as a territory of the United States. 1901–present 1907 – Florenz Ziegfeld Jr. staged his first Follies on the roof of the New York Theater in New York City. 1911 – The United States, UK, Japan, and Russia sign the North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911 banning open-water seal hunting, the first international treaty to address wildlife preservation issues. 1915 – The First Battle of the Isonzo comes to an end. 1915 – Colombo Town Guard officer Henry Pedris is executed in British Ceylon for allegedly inciting persecution of Muslims. 1916 – The New Zealand Labour Party was founded in Wellington. 1928 – Sliced bread is sold for the first time (on the inventor's 48th birthday) by the Chillicothe Baking Company of Chillicothe, Missouri. 1930 – Industrialist Henry J. Kaiser begins construction of Boulder Dam (now known as Hoover Dam). 1937 – The Marco Polo Bridge Incident (Lugou Bridge) provides the Imperial Japanese Army with a pretext for starting the Second Sino-Japanese War (China-Japan War). 1937 – The Peel Commission Report recommends the partition of Palestine, which was the first formal recommendation for partition in the history of Palestine. 1941 – The US occupation of Iceland replaces the UK's occupation. 1944 – World War II: Largest Banzai charge of the Pacific War at the Battle of Saipan. 1946 – Mother Francesca S. Cabrini becomes the first American to be canonized. 1946 – Howard Hughes nearly dies when his XF-11 reconnaissance aircraft prototype crashes in a Beverly Hills neighborhood. 1952 – The ocean liner passes Bishop Rock on her maiden voyage, breaking the transatlantic speed record to become the fastest passenger ship in the world. 1953 – Ernesto "Che" Guevara sets out on a trip through Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, and El Salvador. 1958 – US President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs the Alaska Statehood Act into law. 1959 – Venus occults the star Regulus. This rare event is used to determine the diameter of Venus and the structure of the Venusian atmosphere. 1963 – Buddhist crisis: Police commanded by Ngô Đình Nhu, brother and chief political adviser of South Vietnam President Ngo Dinh Diem, attacked a group of American journalists who were covering a protest. 1978 – The Solomon Islands becomes independent from the United Kingdom. 1980 – Institution of sharia law in Iran. 1980 – During the Lebanese Civil War, 83 Tiger militants are killed during what will be known as the Safra massacre. 1981 – US President Ronald Reagan appoints Sandra Day O'Connor to become the first female member of the Supreme Court of the United States. 1983 – Cold War: Samantha Smith, a US schoolgirl, flies to the Soviet Union at the invitation of Secretary General Yuri Andropov. 1985 – Boris Becker becomes the youngest player ever to win Wimbledon at age 17. 1991 – Yugoslav Wars: The Brioni Agreement ends the ten-day independence war in Slovenia against the rest of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. 1992 – The New York Court of Appeals rules that women have the same right as men to go topless in public. 1997 – The Turkish Armed Forces withdraw from northern Iraq after assisting the Kurdistan Democratic Party in the Iraqi Kurdish Civil War. 2003 – NASA Opportunity rover, MER-B or Mars Exploration Rover–B, was launched into space aboard a Delta II rocket. 2005 – A series of four explosions occurs on London's transport system, killing 56 people, including four suicide bombers, and injuring over 700 others. 2007 – The first Live Earth benefit concert was held in 11 locations around the world. 2012 – At least 172 people are killed in a flash flood in the Krasnodar Krai region of Russia. 2013 – A De Havilland Otter air taxi crashes in Soldotna, Alaska, killing ten people. 2016 – Ex-US Army soldier Micah Xavier Johnson shoots fourteen policemen during an anti-police protest in downtown Dallas, Texas, killing five of them. He is subsequently killed by a robot-delivered bomb. 2019 – The United States women's national soccer team defeated the Netherlands 2–0 at the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup Final in Lyon, France. Births Pre-1600 611 – Eudoxia Epiphania, daughter of Byzantine emperor Heraclius 1053 – Emperor Shirakawa of Japan (died 1129) 1119 – Emperor Sutoku of Japan (died 1164) 1207 – Elizabeth of Hungary (died 1231) 1482 – Andrzej Krzycki, Polish archbishop (died 1537) 1528 – Archduchess Anna of Austria (died 1590) 1540 – John Sigismund Zápolya, King of Hungary (died 1571) 1585 – Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel, English courtier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Northumberland (died 1646) 1601–1900 1616 – John Leverett, Governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony (died 1679) 1752 – Joseph Marie Jacquard, French merchant, invented the Jacquard loom (died 1834) 1766 – Guillaume Philibert Duhesme, French general (died 1815) 1831 – Jane Elizabeth Conklin, American poet and religious writer (died 1914) 1833 – Félicien Rops, Belgian painter and illustrator (died 1898) 1843 – Camillo Golgi, Italian physician and pathologist, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1926) 1846 – Heinrich Rosenthal, Estonian physician and author (died 1916) 1848 – Francisco de Paula Rodrigues Alves, Brazilian politician, 5th President of Brazil (died 1919) 1851 – Charles Albert Tindley, American minister and composer (died 1933) 1855 – Ludwig Ganghofer, German author and playwright (died 1920) 1859 – Rettamalai Srinivasan, Indian politician (died 1945) 1860 – Gustav Mahler, Austrian composer and conductor (died 1911) 1861 – Nettie Stevens, American geneticist (died 1912) 1869 – Rachel Caroline Eaton, American academic (died 1938) 1869 – Fernande Sadler, French painter and mayor (died 1949) 1874 – Erwin Bumke, German lawyer and jurist (died 1945) 1880 – Otto Frederick Rohwedder, American engineer, invented sliced bread (died 1960) 1882 – Yanka Kupala, Belarusian poet and writer (died 1941) 1883 – Toivo Kuula, Finnish conductor and composer (died 1918) 1884 – Lion Feuchtwanger, German author and playwright (died 1958) 1891 – Tadamichi Kuribayashi, Japanese general and poet (died 1945) 1893 – Herbert Feis, American historian and author (died 1972) 1893 – Miroslav Krleža, Croatian author, poet, and playwright (died 1981) 1895 – Virginia Rappe, American model and actress (died 1921) 1898 – Arnold Horween, American football player and coach (died 1985) 1899 – George Cukor, American director and producer (died 1983) 1900 – Maria Bard, German stage and silent film actress (died 1944) 1900 – Earle E. Partridge, American general (died 1990) 1901–present 1901 – Vittorio De Sica, Italian actor and director (died 1974) 1901 – Sam Katzman, American director and producer (died 1973) 1901 – Eiji Tsuburaya, Japanese cinematographer and producer (died 1970) 1902 – Ted Radcliffe, American baseball player and manager (died 2005) 1904 – Simone Beck, French chef and author (died 1991) 1905 – Marie-Louise Dubreil-Jacotin, French mathematician (died 1972) 1906 – William Feller, Croatian-American mathematician and academic (died 1970) 1906 – Anton Karas, Austrian zither player and composer (died 1985) 1906 – Satchel Paige, American baseball player and coach (died 1982) 1907 – Robert A. Heinlein, American science fiction writer and screenwriter (died 1988) 1908 – Revilo P. Oliver, American author and academic (died 1994) 1909 – Gottfried von Cramm, German tennis player (died 1976) 1910 – Doris McCarthy, Canadian painter and author (died 2010) 1911 – Gian Carlo Menotti, Italian-American composer (died 2007) 1913 – Pinetop Perkins, American singer and pianist (died 2011) 1915 – Margaret Walker, American novelist and poet (died 1998) 1917 – Fidel Sánchez Hernández, Salvadoran general and politician, President of El Salvador (died 2003) 1917 – Iva Withers, Canadian-American actress and singer (died 2014) 1918 – Bob Vanatta, American head basketball coach (died 2016) 1918 – Jing Shuping, Chinese businessman (died 2009) 1919 – Jon Pertwee, English actor (died 1996) 1921 – Ezzard Charles, American boxer (died 1975) 1921 – Adolf von Thadden, German lieutenant and politician (died 1996) 1922 – Alan Armer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2010) 1922 – James D. Hughes, American Air Force lieutenant general 1923 – Liviu Ciulei, Romanian actor, director, and screenwriter (died 2011) 1923 – Whitney North Seymour Jr., American politician (died 2019) 1923 – Eduardo Falú, Argentinian guitarist and composer (died 2013) 1924 – Natalia Bekhtereva, Russian neuroscientist and psychologist (died 2008) 1924 – Karim Olowu, Nigerian sprinter and long jumper (died 2019) 1924 – Mary Ford, American singer and guitarist (died 1977) 1924 – Eddie Romero, Filipino director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2013) 1925 – Wally Phillips, American radio host (died 2008) 1926 – Nuon Chea, Cambodian politician (died 2019) 1926 – Anand Mohan Zutshi Gulzar Dehlvi, Urdu poet (died 2020) 1927 – Alan J. Dixon, American lawyer and politician, 34th Illinois Secretary of State (died 2014) 1927 – Charlie Louvin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (died 2011) 1927 – Doc Severinsen, American trumpet player and conductor 1928 – Patricia Hitchcock, English actress 1928 – Kapelwa Sikota Zambian nurse and health official (died 2006) 1929 – Hasan Abidi, Pakistani journalist and poet (died 2005) 1929 – Sergio Romano, Italian writer, journalist, and historian 1930 – Biljana Plavšić, 2nd President of Republika Srpska 1930 – Hamish MacInnes, Scottish mountaineer and author (d. 2020) 1930 – Theodore Edgar McCarrick, American cardinal 1930 – Hank Mobley, American saxophonist and composer (died 1986) 1931 – David Eddings, American author and academic (died 2009) 1932 – T. J. Bass, American physician and author (died 2011) 1932 – Joe Zawinul, Austrian jazz keyboardist and composer (died 2007) 1933 – David McCullough, American historian and author 1934 – Robert McNeill Alexander, British zoologist (died 2016) 1935 – Gian Carlo Michelini, Italian-Taiwanese Roman Catholic priest 1936 – Egbert Brieskorn, German mathematician and academic (died 2013) 1936 – Jo Siffert, Swiss race car driver (died 1971) 1936 – Nikos Xilouris, Greek singer-songwriter (died 1980) 1937 – Tung Chee-hwa, Hong Kong businessman and politician, 1st Chief Executive of Hong Kong 1938 – James Montgomery Boice, American pastor and theologian (died 2000) 1939 – Elena Obraztsova, Russian soprano and actress (died 2015) 1940 – Ringo Starr, English singer-songwriter, drummer, and actor 1941 – Marco Bollesan, Italian rugby player and coach (died 2021) 1941 – John Fru Ndi, Cameroonian politician 1941 – Michael Howard, Welsh lawyer and politician 1941 – Bill Oddie, English comedian, actor, and singer 1941 – Jim Rodford, English bass player (died 2018) 1942 – Carmen Duncan, Australian actress (died 2019) 1943 – Joel Siegel, American journalist and critic (died 2007) 1944 – Feleti Sevele, Tongan politician; Prime Minister of Tonga 1944 – Tony Jacklin, English golfer and sportscaster 1944 – Glenys Kinnock, Baroness Kinnock of Holyhead, English educator and politician, 1944 – Emanuel Steward, American boxer and trainer (died 2012) 1944 – Ian Wilmut, English-Scottish embryologist and academic 1945 – Michael Ancram, English lawyer and politician 1945 – Adele Goldberg, American computer scientist and academic 1945 – Helô Pinheiro, inspiration for the song "The Girl from Ipanema" 1947 – Gyanendra, King of Nepal 1947 – Howard Rheingold, American author and critic 1949 – Shelley Duvall, American actress, writer, and producer 1954 – Simon Anderson, Australian surfer 1955 – Len Barker, American baseball player and coach 1957 – Jonathan Dayton, American director and producer 1957 – Berry Sakharof, Turkish-Israeli singer-songwriter and guitarist 1958 – Alexander Svinin, Russian figure skater and coach 1959 – Billy Campbell, American actor 1960 – Kevin A. Ford, American colonel and astronaut 1960 – Ralph Sampson, American basketball player and coach 1963 – Vonda Shepard, American singer-songwriter and actress 1964 – Dominik Henzel, Czech-Swedish actor and comedian 1965 – Mo Collins, American actress, comedian and screenwriter 1965 – Jeremy Kyle, English talk show host 1966 – Jim Gaffigan, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter 1967 – Tom Kristensen, Danish race car driver 1968 – Jorja Fox, American actress 1969 – Sylke Otto, German luger 1969 – Joe Sakic, Canadian ice hockey player 1969 – Cree Summer, American-Canadian actress 1970 – Wayne McCullough, Northern Irish boxer 1970 – Min Patel, Indian-English cricketer 1970 – Erik Zabel, German cyclist and coach 1971 – Christian Camargo, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1972 – Lisa Leslie, American basketball player and actress 1972 – Manfred Stohl, Austrian race car driver 1972 – Kirsten Vangsness, American actress and writer 1973 – José Jiménez, Dominican baseball player 1973 – Kārlis Skrastiņš, Latvian ice hockey player (died 2011) 1974 – Patrick Lalime, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1975 – Tony Benshoof, American luger 1975 – Louis Koen, South African rugby player 1975 – Adam Nelson, American shot putter 1976 – Bérénice Bejo, Argentinian-French actress 1976 – Dominic Foley, Irish footballer 1976 – Vasily Petrenko, Russian conductor 1976 – Ercüment Olgundeniz, Turkish discus thrower and shot putter 1978 – Chris Andersen, American basketball player 1978 – Davor Kraljević, Croatian footballer 1979 – Ibrahim Sulayman Muhammad Arbaysh, Saudi Arabian terrorist (died 2015) 1979 – Anastasios Gousis, Greek sprinter 1979 – Douglas Hondo, Zimbabwean cricketer 1980 – John Buck, American baseball player 1980 – Serdar Kulbilge, Turkish footballer 1980 – Michelle Kwan, American figure skater 1981 – Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Indian cricketer 1982 – Jan Laštůvka, Czech footballer 1982 – George Owu, Ghanaian footballer 1983 – Justin Davies, Australian footballer 1984 – Minas Alozidis, Greek hurdler 1984 – Alberto Aquilani, Italian footballer 1984 – Mohammad Ashraful, Bangladeshi cricketer 1985 – Marc Stein, German footballer 1986 – Ana Kasparian, American journalist and producer 1986 – Udo Schwarz, German rugby player 1986 – Sevyn Streeter, American singer-songwriter 1988 – Kaci Brown, American singer-songwriter 1988 – Lukas Rosenthal, German rugby player 1989 – Landon Cassill, American race car driver 1989 – Miina Kallas, Estonian footballer 1989 – Karl-August Tiirmaa, Estonian skier 1990 – Lee Addy, Ghanaian footballer 1990 – Pascal Stöger, Austrian footballer 1991 – Alesso, Swedish DJ, record producer and musician 1992 – Ellina Anissimova, Estonian hammer thrower 1992 – Dominik Furman, Polish footballer 1994 – Timothy Cathcart, Northern Irish race car driver (died 2014) 1997 – Mizuho Habu, Japanese idol 1999 – Moussa Diaby, French footballer Deaths Pre-1600 984 – Crescentius the Elder, Italian politician and aristocrat 1021 – Fujiwara no Akimitsu, Japanese bureaucrat (born 944) 1162 – Haakon II Sigurdsson, king of Norway (born 1147) 1285 – Tile Kolup, German impostor claiming to be Frederick II 1304 – Benedict XI, pope of the Catholic Church (born 1240) 1307 – Edward I, king of England (born 1239) 1345 – Momchil, Bulgarian brigand and ruler 1531 – Tilman Riemenschneider, German sculptor (born 1460) 1568 – William Turner, British ornithologist and botanist (born 1508) 1572 – Sigismund II Augustus, Polish king (born 1520) 1573 – Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, Italian architect, designed the Church of the Gesù and Villa Farnese (born 1507) 1593 – Mohammed Bagayogo, Malian scholar and academic (born 1523) 1600 – Thomas Lucy, English politician (born 1532) 1601–1900 1607 – Penelope Blount, Countess of Devonshire, English noblewoman (born 1563) 1647 – Thomas Hooker, English minister, founded the Colony of Connecticut (born 1586) 1701 – William Stoughton, American judge and politician, Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (born 1631) 1713 – Henry Compton, English bishop (born 1632) 1718 – Alexei Petrovich, Russian tsarevich (born 1690) 1730 – Olivier Levasseur, French pirate (born 1690) 1758 – Marthanda Varma, Raja of Attingal (born 1706) 1764 – William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath, English politician, Secretary at War (born 1683) 1776 – Jeremiah Markland, English scholar and academic (born 1693) 1790 – François Hemsterhuis, Dutch philosopher and author (born 1721) 1816 – Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Irish playwright and poet (born 1751) 1863 – William Mulready, Irish genre painter (born 1786) 1865 – George Atzerodt (born 1833) 1865 – David Herold (born 1842) 1865 – Lewis Payne (born 1844) 1865 – Mary Surratt (born 1823) 1890 – Henri Nestlé, German businessman, founded Nestlé (born 1814) 1901–present 1901 – Johanna Spyri, Swiss author (born 1827) 1913 – Edward Burd Grubb Jr., American general and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Spain (born 1841) 1922 – Cathal Brugha, Irish revolutionary and politician, active in the Easter Rising, Irish War of Independence; first Ceann Comhairle and first President of Dáil Éireann (born 1874) 1925 – Clarence Hudson White, American photographer and educator (born 1871) 1927 – Gösta Mittag-Leffler, Swedish mathematician and academic (born 1846) 1930 – Arthur Conan Doyle, British writer (born 1859) 1932 – Alexander Grin, Russian author (born 1880) 1932 – Henry Eyster Jacobs, American theologian and educator (born 1844) 1939 – Deacon White, American baseball player and manager (born 1847) 1950 – Fats Navarro, American trumpet player and composer (born 1923) 1955 – Ali Naci Karacan, Turkish journalist and publisher (born 1896) 1956 – Gottfried Benn, German author and poet (born 1886) 1960 – Francis Browne, Irish priest and photographer (born 1880) 1964 – Lillian Copeland, American discus thrower and shot putter (born 1904) 1965 – Moshe Sharett, Ukrainian-Israeli lieutenant and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Israel (born 1894) 1968 – Jo Schlesser, French race car driver (born 1928) 1971 – Claude Gauvreau, Canadian poet and playwright (born 1925) 1972 – Athenagoras I of Constantinople (born 1886) 1973 – Max Horkheimer, German philosopher and sociologist (born 1895) 1973 – Veronica Lake, American actress (born 1922) 1978 – Francisco Mendes, Guinea-Bissau lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Guinea-Bissau (born 1933) 1980 – Dore Schary, American director, producer, and screenwriter (born 1905) 1982 – Bon Maharaja, Indian guru and religious writer (born 1901) 1984 – George Oppen, American poet and author (born 1908) 1987 – Germaine Thyssens-Valentin, Dutch-French pianist (born 1902) 1990 – Bill Cullen, American television panelist and game show host (born 1920) 1990 – Cazuza, Brazilian singer and songwriter (born 1958) 1993 – Rıfat Ilgaz, Turkish author, poet, and educator (born 1911) 1993 – Mia Zapata, American singer (born 1965) 1994 – Carlo Chiti, Italian engineer (born 1924) 1994 – Friedrich August Freiherr von der Heydte, German general (born 1907) 1998 – Moshood Abiola, Nigerian businessman and politician (born 1937) 1999 – Julie Campbell Tatham, American author (born 1908) 1999 – Vikram Batra, Param Vir Chakra, Indian Army personnel (born 1974) 2000 – Kenny Irwin Jr., American race car driver (born 1969) 2001 – Fred Neil, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (born 1936) 2003 – Izhak Graziani, Bulgarian trumpet player and conductor (born 1924) 2006 – Syd Barrett, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (born 1946) 2006 – Juan de Ávalos, Spanish sculptor (born 1911) 2006 – John Money, New Zealand-American psychologist and author (born 1921) 2007 – Anne McLaren, British scientist (born 1927) 2007 – Donald Michie, British scientist (born 1923) 2008 – Bruce Conner, American sculptor, painter, and photographer (born 1933) 2008 – Dorian Leigh, American model (born 1917) 2011 – Allan W. Eckert, American historian and author (born 1931) 2011 – Dick Williams, American baseball player, coach, and manager (born 1929) 2012 – Ronaldo Cunha Lima, Brazilian poet and politician (born 1936) 2012 – Dennis Flemion, American drummer (born 1955) 2012 – Doris Neal, American baseball player (born 1928) 2012 – Jerry Norman, American sinologist and linguist (born 1936) 2012 – Leon Schlumpf, Swiss politician (born 1927) 2013 – Artur Hajzer, Polish mountaineer (born 1962) 2013 – Robert Hamerton-Kelly, South African-American pastor, theologian, and author (born 1938) 2013 – Donald J. Irwin, American lawyer and politician, 32nd Mayor of Norwalk, Connecticut (born 1926) 2013 – Ben Pucci, American football player and sportscaster (born 1925) 2014 – Alfredo Di Stéfano, Argentinian-Spanish footballer and coach (born 1926) 2014 – Eduard Shevardnadze, Georgian general and politician, 2nd President of Georgia (born 1928) 2014 – Peter Underwood, Australian lawyer and politician, 27th Governor of Tasmania (born 1937) 2015 – Maria Barroso, Portuguese actress and politician (born 1925) 2015 – Bob MacKinnon, American basketball player and coach (born 1927) 2021 – Robert Downey Sr., American actor and director. Father of Robert Downey Jr. (born 1936) 2021 – Jovenel Moïse, Haitian entrepreneur and politician, President of Haiti from 2017 until July 7, 2021, when he was assassinated. (born 1968) 2021 – Dilip Kumar, Indian film actor (born 1922) 2021 – Dilip Kumar, Indian film actor (born 1922) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Æthelburh of Faremoutiers Felix of Nantes Illidius Job of Manyava (Ukrainian Orthodox Church) Willibald (Catholic Church) July 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Solomon Islands from the United Kingdom in 1978. Ivan Kupala Day (Belarus, Poland, Russia, Ukraine) Saba Saba Day (Tanzania) Tanabata (Japan) World Chocolate Day References External links Days of the year July

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July%2026

July 26

Events Pre-1600 657 – First Fitna: In the Battle of Siffin, troops led by Ali ibn Abu Talib clash with those led by Muawiyah I. 811 – Battle of Pliska: Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros I is killed and his heir Staurakios is seriously wounded. 920 – Rout of an alliance of Christian troops from Navarre and Léon against the Muslims at the Battle of Valdejunquera. 1309 – Henry VII is recognized King of the Romans by Pope Clement V. 1509 – The Emperor Krishnadevaraya ascends to the throne, marking the beginning of the regeneration of the Vijayanagara Empire. 1529 – Francisco Pizarro González, Spanish conquistador, is appointed governor of Peru. 1579 – Francis Drake, the English explorer, discovers a major bay on the coast of California (San Francisco). 1581 – Plakkaat van Verlatinghe (Act of Abjuration): The northern Low Countries declare their independence from the Spanish king, Philip II. 1601–1900 1703 – During the Bavarian Rummel the rural population of Tyrol drove the Bavarian Prince-Elector Maximilian II Emanuel out of North Tyrol with a victory at the Pontlatzer Bridge and thus prevented the Bavarian Army, which was allied with France, from marching as planned on Vienna during the War of the Spanish Succession. 1745 – The first recorded women's cricket match takes place near Guildford, England. 1758 – French and Indian War: The Siege of Louisbourg ends with British forces defeating the French and taking control of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. 1775 – The office that would later become the United States Post Office Department is established by the Second Continental Congress. Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania takes office as Postmaster General. 1788 – New York ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 11th state of the United States. 1803 – The Surrey Iron Railway, arguably the world's first public railway, opens in south London, United Kingdom. 1814 – The Swedish–Norwegian War begins. 1822 – José de San Martín arrives in Guayaquil, Ecuador, to meet with Simón Bolívar. 1822 – First day of the three-day Battle of Dervenakia, between the Ottoman Empire force led by Mahmud Dramali Pasha and the Greek Revolutionary force led by Theodoros Kolokotronis. 1847 – Liberia declares its independence. 1861 – American Civil War: George B. McClellan assumes command of the Army of the Potomac following a disastrous Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run. 1863 – American Civil War: Morgan's Raid ends; At Salineville, Ohio, Confederate cavalry leader John Hunt Morgan and 360 of his volunteers are captured by Union forces. 1882 – Premiere of Richard Wagner's opera Parsifal at Bayreuth. 1882 – The Republic of Stellaland is founded in Southern Africa. 1887 – Publication of the Unua Libro, founding the Esperanto movement. 1890 – In Buenos Aires, Argentina the Revolución del Parque takes place, forcing President Miguel Ángel Juárez Celman's resignation. 1891 – France annexes Tahiti. 1892 – Dadabhai Naoroji is elected as the first Indian Member of Parliament in Britain. 1897 – Anglo-Afghan War: The Pashtun fakir Saidullah leads an army of more than 10,000 to begin a siege of the British garrison in the Malakand Agency of the North West Frontier Province of India. 1899 – Ulises Heureaux, the 27th President of the Dominican Republic, is assassinated. 1901–present 1908 – United States Attorney General Charles Joseph Bonaparte issues an order to immediately staff the Office of the Chief Examiner (later renamed the Federal Bureau of Investigation). 1918 – Emmy Noether's paper, which became known as Noether's theorem was presented at Göttingen, Germany, from which conservation laws are deduced for symmetries of angular momentum, linear momentum, and energy. 1936 – Spanish Civil War: Germany and Italy decide to intervene in the war in support for Francisco Franco and the Nationalist faction. 1936 – King Edward VIII, in one of his few official duties before he abdicates the throne, officially unveils the Canadian National Vimy Memorial. 1937 – Spanish Civil War: End of the Battle of Brunete with the Nationalist victory. 1941 – World War II: In response to the Japanese occupation of French Indochina, the United States, Britain and the Netherlands freeze all Japanese assets and cut off oil shipments. 1944 – World War II: The Red Army enters Lviv, a major city in western Ukraine, capturing it from the Nazis. Only 300 Jews survive out of 160,000 living in Lviv prior to occupation. 1945 – The Labour Party wins the United Kingdom general election of July 5 by a landslide, removing Winston Churchill from power. 1945 – World War II: The Potsdam Declaration is signed in Potsdam, Germany. 1945 – World War II: is the last British Royal Navy ship to be sunk in the war. 1945 – World War II: The arrives at Tinian with components and enriched uranium for the Little Boy nuclear bomb. 1946 – Aloha Airlines begins service from Honolulu International Airport. 1947 – Cold War: U.S. President Harry S. Truman signs the National Security Act of 1947 into United States law creating the Central Intelligence Agency, United States Department of Defense, United States Air Force, Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the United States National Security Council. 1948 – U.S. President Harry S. Truman signs Executive Order 9981, desegregating the military of the United States. 1951 – Walt Disney's 13th animated film, Alice in Wonderland, premieres in London, England, United Kingdom. 1952 – King Farouk of Egypt abdicates in favor of his son Fuad. 1953 – Cold War: Fidel Castro leads an unsuccessful attack on the Moncada Barracks, thus beginning the Cuban Revolution. The movement took the name of the date: 26th of July Movement 1953 – Arizona Governor John Howard Pyle orders an anti-polygamy law enforcement crackdown on residents of Short Creek, Arizona, which becomes known as the Short Creek raid. 1953 – Soldiers from the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment repel a number of Chinese assaults against a key position known as The Hook during the Battle of the Samichon River, just hours before the Armistice Agreement is signed, ending the Korean War. 1956 – Following the World Bank's refusal to fund building the Aswan Dam, Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal, sparking international condemnation. 1957 – Carlos Castillo Armas, dictator of Guatemala, is assassinated. 1958 – Explorer program: Explorer 4 is launched. 1963 – Syncom 2, the world's first geosynchronous satellite, is launched from Cape Canaveral on a Delta B booster. 1963 – An earthquake in Skopje, Yugoslavia (present-day North Macedonia) leaves 1,100 dead. 1963 – The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development votes to admit Japan. 1968 – Vietnam War: South Vietnamese opposition leader Trương Đình Dzu is sentenced to five years hard labor for advocating the formation of a coalition government as a way to move toward an end to the war. 1971 – Apollo program: Launch of Apollo 15 on the first Apollo "J-Mission", and first use of a Lunar Roving Vehicle. 1974 – Greek Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis forms the country's first civil government after seven years of military rule. 1977 – The National Assembly of Quebec imposes the use of French as the official language of the provincial government. 1989 – A federal grand jury indicts Cornell University student Robert T. Morris, Jr. for releasing the Morris worm, thus becoming the first person to be prosecuted under the 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. 1990 – The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 is signed into law by President George H.W. Bush. 1993 – Asiana Airlines Flight 733 crashes into a ridge on Mt. Ungeo on its third attempt to land at Mokpo Airport, South Korea. Sixty-eight of the 116 people onboard are killed. 1999 – Kargil conflict officially comes to an end. The Indian Army announces the complete eviction of Pakistani intruders. 2005 – Space Shuttle program: STS-114 Mission: Launch of Discovery, NASA's first scheduled flight mission after the Columbia Disaster in 2003. 2005 – Mumbai, India receives 99.5cm of rain (39.17 inches) within 24 hours, resulting in floods killing over 5,000 people. 2008 – Fifty-six people are killed and over 200 people are injured, in the Ahmedabad bombings in India. 2009 – The militant Nigerian Islamist group Boko Haram attacks a police station in Bauchi, leading to reprisals by the Nigeria Police Force and four days of violence across multiple cities. 2011 – A Royal Moroccan Air Force Lockheed C-130 Hercules crashes near Guelmim Airport in Guelmim, Morocco. All 80 people on board are killed. 2016 – The Sagamihara stabbings occur in Kanagawa Prefecture in Japan. Nineteen people are killed. 2016 – Hillary Clinton becomes the first female nominee for President of the United States by a major political party at the Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia. 2016 – Solar Impulse 2 becomes the first solar-powered aircraft to circumnavigate the Earth. Births Pre-1600 1030 – Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Polish bishop and saint (d. 1079) 1400 – Isabel le Despenser, Countess of Worcester, English noble (d. 1439) 1502 – Christian Egenolff, German printer (d. 1555) 1601–1900 1678 – Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1711) 1711 – Lorenz Christoph Mizler, German physician, mathematician, and historian (d. 1778) 1739 – George Clinton, American general and politician, 4th Vice President of the United States (d. 1812) 1782 – John Field, Irish pianist and composer (d. 1837) 1791 – Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart, Austrian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1844) 1796 – George Catlin, American painter, author, and traveler (d. 1872) 1802 – Mariano Arista, Mexican general and politician, 42nd President of Mexico (d. 1855) 1819 – Justin Holland, American guitarist and educator (d. 1887) 1829 – Auguste Beernaert, Belgian politician, 14th Prime Minister of Belgium, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1912) 1841 – Carl Robert Jakobson, Estonian journalist and politician (d. 1882) 1842 – Alfred Marshall, English economist and academic (d. 1924) 1844 – Stefan Drzewiecki, Ukrainian-Polish engineer and journalist (d. 1938) 1854 – Philippe Gaucher, French dermatologist and academic (d. 1918) 1855 – Ferdinand Tönnies, German sociologist and philosopher (d. 1936) 1856 – George Bernard Shaw, Irish playwright and critic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950) 1858 – Tom Garrett, Australian cricketer and lawyer (d. 1943) 1863 – Jāzeps Vītols, Latvian composer (d. 1948) 1865 – Philipp Scheidemann, German journalist and politician, 10th Chancellor of Germany (d. 1939) 1865 – Rajanikanta Sen, Indian poet and composer (d. 1910) 1874 – Serge Koussevitzky, Russian-American bassist, composer, and conductor (d. 1951) 1875 – Carl Jung, Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist (d. 1961) 1875 – Ernesta Di Capua, Italian botanist and explorer (d. 1943) 1875 – Antonio Machado, Spanish poet and academic (d. 1939) 1877 – Jesse Lauriston Livermore, American investor and security analyst, "Great Bear of Wall Street" (d. 1940) 1878 – Ernst Hoppenberg, German swimmer and water polo player (d. 1937) 1879 – Shunroku Hata, Japanese field marshal and politician, 48th Japanese Minister of War (d. 1962) 1880 – Volodymyr Vynnychenko, Ukrainian playwright and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Ukrainian People's Republic (d. 1951) 1882 – Albert Dunstan, Australian politician, 33rd Premier of Victoria (d. 1950) 1885 – Roy Castleton, American baseball player (d. 1967) 1885 – André Maurois, French soldier and author (d. 1967) 1886 – Lars Hanson, Swedish actor (d. 1965) 1888 – Reginald Hands, South African cricketer and rugby player (d. 1918) 1890 – Daniel J. Callaghan, American admiral, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1942) 1892 – Sad Sam Jones, American baseball player and manager (d. 1966) 1893 – George Grosz, German painter and illustrator (d. 1959) 1894 – Aldous Huxley, English novelist and philosopher (d. 1963) 1895 – Gracie Allen, American actress and comedian (d. 1964) 1896 – Tim Birkin, English soldier and race car driver (d. 1933) 1897 – Harold D. Cooley, American lawyer and politician (d. 1974) 1897 – Paul Gallico, American journalist and author (d. 1976) 1900 – Sarah Kafrit, Israeli politician and teacher (d. 1983) 1901–present 1903 – Estes Kefauver, American lawyer and politician (d. 1963) 1904 – Edwin Albert Link, American industrialist and entrepreneur, invented the flight simulator (d. 1981) 1906 – Irena Iłłakowicz, German-Polish lieutenant (d. 1943) 1908 – Lucien Wercollier, Luxembourger sculptor (d. 2002) 1909 – Peter Thorneycroft, Baron Thorneycroft, English lawyer and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1994) 1909 – Vivian Vance, American actress and singer (d. 1979) 1913 – Kan Yuet-keung, Hong Kong banker, lawyer, and politician (d. 2012) 1914 – C. Farris Bryant, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 34th Governor of Florida (d. 2002) 1914 – Erskine Hawkins, American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 1993) 1914 – Ellis Kinder, American baseball player (d. 1968) 1916 – Dean Brooks, American physician and actor (d. 2013) 1916 – Jaime Luiz Coelho, Brazilian archbishop (d. 2013) 1918 – Marjorie Lord, American actress (d. 2015) 1919 – Virginia Gilmore, American actress (d. 1986) 1919 – James Lovelock, English biologist and chemist 1920 – Bob Waterfield, American football player and coach (d. 1983) 1921 – Tom Saffell, American baseball player and manager (d. 2012) 1921 – Jean Shepherd, American radio host, actor, and screenwriter (d. 1999) 1922 – Blake Edwards, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1922 – Jim Foglesong, American record producer (d. 2013) 1922 – Jason Robards, American actor (d. 2000) 1923 – Jan Berenstain, American author and illustrator (d. 2012) 1923 – Bernice Rubens, Welsh author (d. 2004) 1923 – Hoyt Wilhelm, American baseball player and coach (d. 2002) 1925 – Jerzy Einhorn, Polish-Swedish physician and politician (d. 2000) 1925 – Joseph Engelberger, American physicist and engineer (d. 2015) 1925 – Gene Gutowski, Polish-American film producer (d. 2016) 1925 – Ana María Matute, Spanish author and academic (d. 2014) 1926 – James Best, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2015) 1926 – Dorothy E. Smith, Canadian sociologist 1927 – Gulabrai Ramchand, Indian cricketer (d. 2003) 1928 – Don Beauman, English race car driver (d. 1955) 1928 – Francesco Cossiga, Italian academic and politician, 8th President of Italy (d. 2010) 1928 – Elliott Erwitt, French-American photographer and director 1928 – Ibn-e-Safi, Indian-Pakistani author and poet (d. 1980) 1928 – Joe Jackson, American talent manager, father of Michael Jackson (d. 2018) 1928 – Stanley Kubrick, American director, producer, screenwriter, and cinematographer (d. 1999) 1928 – Peter Lougheed, Canadian lawyer and politician, 10th Premier of Alberta (d. 2012) 1928 – Sally Oppenheim-Barnes, Baroness Oppenheim-Barnes, Irish-born English politician 1929 – Marc Lalonde, Canadian lawyer and politician, 34th Canadian Minister of Justice 1929 – Alexis Weissenberg, Bulgarian-French pianist and educator (d. 2012) 1930 – Plínio de Arruda Sampaio, Brazilian lawyer and politician (d. 2014) 1930 – Barbara Jefford, English actress (d. 2020) 1931 – Telê Santana, Brazilian footballer and manager (d. 2006) 1934 – Tommy McDonald, American football player (d. 2018) 1936 – Tsutomu Koyama, Japanese volleyball player and coach (d. 2012) 1936 – Lawrie McMenemy, English footballer and manager 1938 – Bobby Hebb, American singer-songwriter (d. 2010) 1938 – Keith Peters, Welsh physician and academic 1939 – Jun Henmi, Japanese author and poet (d. 2011) 1939 – John Howard, Australian lawyer and politician, 25th Prime Minister of Australia 1939 – Bob Lilly, American football player and photographer 1939 – Richard Marlow, English organist and conductor (d. 2013) 1940 – Dobie Gray, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2011) 1940 – Brian Mawhinney, Baron Mawhinney, Northern Irish-British academic and politician, Secretary of State for Transport (d. 2019) 1940 – Bobby Rousseau, Canadian ice hockey player 1941 – Jean Baubérot, French historian and sociologist 1941 – Darlene Love, American singer and actress 1941 – Brenton Wood, American R&B singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1942 – Vladimír Mečiar, Slovak politician, 1st Prime Minister of Slovakia 1942 – Teddy Pilette, Belgian race car driver 1943 – Peter Hyams, American director, screenwriter, and cinematographer 1943 – Mick Jagger, English singer-songwriter, producer, and actor 1945 – Betty Davis, American singer-songwriter 1945 – Helen Mirren, English actress 1946 – Emilio de Villota, Spanish race car driver 1948 – Luboš Andršt, Czech guitarist and songwriter 1948 – Herbert Wiesinger, German figure skater 1949 – Thaksin Shinawatra, Thai businessman and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Thailand 1949 – Roger Taylor, English singer-songwriter, drummer, and producer 1950 – Nelinho, Brazilian footballer and manager 1950 – Nicholas Evans, English journalist, screenwriter, and producer 1950 – Susan George, English actress and producer 1950 – Anne Rafferty, English lawyer and judge 1950 – Rich Vogler, American race car driver (d. 1990) 1951 – Rick Martin, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 2011) 1952 – Glynis Breakwell, English psychologist and academic 1953 – Felix Magath, German footballer and manager 1953 – Robert Phillips, American guitarist 1953 – Henk Bleker, Dutch politician 1953 – Earl Tatum, American professional basketball player 1954 – Vitas Gerulaitis, American tennis player and coach (d. 1994) 1955 – Aleksandrs Starkovs, Latvian footballer and coach 1955 – Asif Ali Zardari, Pakistani businessman and politician, 11th President of Pakistan 1956 – Peter Fincham, English screenwriter and producer 1956 – Dorothy Hamill, American figure skater 1956 – Tommy Rich, American wrestler 1956 – Tim Tremlett, English cricketer and coach 1957 – Norman Baker, Scottish politician 1957 – Nana Visitor, American actress 1958 – Monti Davis, American basketball player (d. 2013) 1958 – Angela Hewitt, Canadian-English pianist 1959 – Rick Bragg, American author and journalist 1959 – Kevin Spacey, American actor and director 1961 – Gary Cherone, American singer-songwriter 1961 – Andy Connell, English keyboard player and songwriter 1961 – Felix Dexter, Caribbean-English comedian and actor (d. 2013) 1963 – Jeff Stoughton, Canadian curler 1964 – Sandra Bullock, American actress and producer 1964 – Ralf Metzenmacher, German painter and designer (d. 2020) 1964 – Anne Provoost, Belgian author 1965 – Jeremy Piven, American actor and producer 1965 – Jim Lindberg, American singer and guitarist 1966 – Angelo di Livio, Italian footballer 1967 – Martin Baker, English organist and conductor 1967 – Tim Schafer, American video game designer, founded Double Fine Productions 1967 – Jason Statham, English actor 1968 – Frédéric Diefenthal, French actor and director 1968 – Jim Naismith, Scottish biologist and academic 1968 – Olivia Williams, English actress 1969 – Greg Colbrunn, American baseball player and coach 1969 – Tanni Grey-Thompson, Welsh baroness and wheelchair racer 1971 – Khaled Mahmud, Bangladeshi cricketer and coach 1971 – Chris Harrison, American television personality 1972 – Nathan Buckley, Australian footballer and coach 1973 – Kate Beckinsale, English actress 1973 – Mariano Raffo, Argentinian director and producer 1974 – Iron & Wine, American singer-songwriter 1974 – Kees Meeuws, New Zealand rugby player and coach 1974 – Dean Sturridge, English footballer and sportscaster 1975 – Ingo Schultz, German sprinter 1975 – Joe Smith, American basketball player 1975 – Elizabeth Truss, English accountant and politician, 1976 – Elena Kustarova, Russian ice dancer and coach 1977 – Joaquín Benoit, Dominican baseball player 1977 – Martin Laursen, Danish footballer and manager 1977 – Tanja Szewczenko, German figure skater 1979 – Friedrich Michau, German rugby player 1979 – Derek Paravicini, English pianist 1979 – Peter Sarno, Canadian ice hockey player 1979 – Erik Westrum, American ice hockey player 1979 – Juliet Rylance, English actress 1980 – Jacinda Ardern, 40th Prime Minister of New Zealand 1980 – Dave Baksh, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1980 – Robert Gallery, American football player 1981 – Abe Forsythe, Australian actor, director, and screenwriter 1981 – Maicon Sisenando, Brazilian footballer 1982 – Gilad Hochman, Israeli composer 1982 – Christopher Kane, Scottish fashion designer 1983 – Kelly Clark, American snowboarder 1983 – Stephen Makinwa, Nigerian footballer 1983 – Roderick Strong, American wrestler 1983 – Naomi van As, Dutch field hockey player 1983 – Ken Wallace, Australian kayaker 1983 – Delonte West, American basketball player 1984 – Kyriakos Ioannou, Cypriot high jumper 1984 – Benjamin Kayser, French rugby player 1984 – Sabri Sarıoğlu, Turkish footballer 1985 – Marcus Benard, American football player 1985 – Gaël Clichy, French footballer 1985 – Audrey De Montigny, Canadian singer-songwriter 1985 – Mat Gamel, American baseball player 1986 – Leonardo Ulloa, Argentinian footballer 1986 – John White, English footballer 1987 – Panagiotis Kone, Greek footballer 1987 – Jordie Benn, Canadian ice hockey player 1987 – Fredy Montero, Colombian footballer 1988 – Yurie Omi, Japanese announcer and news anchor 1988 – Sayaka Akimoto, Filipino–Japanese actress and singer 1991 – Tyson Barrie, Canadian ice hockey player 1992 – Marika Koroibete, Fijian rugby player 1993 – Raymond Faitala-Mariner, New Zealand rugby league player 1994 – Ella Leivo, Finnish tennis player 1996 – Olivia Breen, British Paralympic athlete 2000 – Thomasin McKenzie, New Zealand actress Deaths Pre-1600 342 – Cheng of Jin, emperor of the Jin Dynasty (b. 321) 811 – Nikephoros I, Byzantine emperor 899 – Li Hanzhi, Chinese warlord (b. 842) 943 – Motoyoshi, Japanese nobleman and poet (b. 890) 990 – Fujiwara no Kaneie, Japanese statesman (b. 929) 1380 – Kōmyō, emperor of Japan (b. 1322) 1450 – Cecily Neville, duchess of Warwick (b. 1424) 1471 – Paul II, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1417) 1533 – Atahualpa, Inca emperor abducted and murdered by Francisco Pizarro (b. ca. 1500) 1592 – Armand de Gontant, French marshal (b. 1524) 1601–1900 1605 – Miguel de Benavides, Spanish archbishop and sinologist (b. 1552) 1611 – Horio Yoshiharu, Japanese daimyō (b. 1542) 1630 – Charles Emmanuel I, duke of Savoy (b. 1562) 1659 – Mary Frith, English criminal (b. 1584) 1680 – John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, English poet and courtier (b. 1647) 1684 – Elena Cornaro Piscopia, Italian mathematician and philosopher (b. 1646) 1693 – Ulrika Eleonora of Denmark, queen of Sweden (b. 1656) 1712 – Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds, English politician, Lord High Treasurer (b. 1631) 1723 – Robert Bertie, 1st Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1660) 1801 – Maximilian Francis, archduke of Austria (b. 1756) 1863 – Sam Houston, American general and politician, 7th Governor of Texas (b. 1793) 1867 – Otto, king of Greece (b. 1815) 1899 – Ulises Heureaux, 22nd, 26th, and 27th President of the Dominican Republic (b. 1845) 1901–present 1915 – James Murray, Scottish lexicographer and philologist (b. 1837) 1919 – Edward Poynter, English painter and illustrator (b. 1836) 1921 – Howard Vernon, Australian actor (b. 1848) 1925 – Antonio Ascari, Italian race car driver (b. 1888) 1925 – Gottlob Frege, German mathematician and philosopher (b. 1848) 1925 – William Jennings Bryan, American lawyer and politician, 41st United States Secretary of State (b. 1860) 1926 – Robert Todd Lincoln, American lawyer and politician, 35th United States Secretary of War, son of Abraham Lincoln (b. 1843) 1930 – Pavlos Karolidis, Greek historian and academic (b. 1849) 1932 – Fred Duesenberg, German-American businessman, co-founded the Duesenberg Company (b. 1876) 1934 – Winsor McCay, American cartoonist, animator, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1871) 1941 – Henri Lebesgue, French mathematician and academic (b. 1875) 1942 – Roberto Arlt, Argentinian author and playwright (b. 1900) 1951 – James Mitchell, Australian politician, 13th Premier of Western Australia (b. 1866) 1952 – Eva Perón, Argentinian politician, 25th First Lady of Argentina (b. 1919) 1953 – Nikolaos Plastiras, Greek general and politician, 135th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1883) 1957 – Carlos Castillo Armas, Authoritarian ruler of Guatemala (1954-1957) 1960 – Cedric Gibbons, British art director and production designer (b. 1893) 1964 – Francis Curzon, 5th Earl Howe, English race car driver and politician (b. 1884) 1968 – Cemal Tollu, Turkish lieutenant and painter (b. 1899) 1970 – Robert Taschereau, Canadian lawyer and jurist, 11th Chief Justice of Canada (b. 1896) 1971 – Diane Arbus, American photographer and academic (b. 1923) 1984 – George Gallup, American mathematician and statistician, founded the Gallup Company (b. 1901) 1984 – Ed Gein, American serial killer (b. 1906) 1986 – W. Averell Harriman, American politician and diplomat, 11th United States Secretary of Commerce (b. 1891) 1988 – Fazlur Rahman Malik, Pakistani philosopher, scholar, and academic (b. 1919) 1992 – Mary Wells, American singer-songwriter (b. 1943) 1993 – Matthew Ridgway, American general (b. 1895) 1994 – James Luther Adams, American theologian and academic (b. 1901) 1995 – Laurindo Almeida, Brazilian-American guitarist and composer (b. 1917) 1995 – Raymond Mailloux, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1918) 1995 – George W. Romney, American businessman and politician, 43rd Governor of Michigan (b. 1907) 1996 – Max Winter, American businessman and sports executive (b. 1903) 1999 – Walter Jackson Bate, American author and critic (b. 1918) 1999 – Phaedon Gizikis, Greek general and politician, President of Greece (b. 1917) 2000 – John Tukey, American mathematician and academic (b. 1915) 2001 – Rex T. Barber, American colonel and pilot (b. 1917) 2001 – Peter von Zahn, German journalist and author (b. 1913) 2004 – William A. Mitchell, American chemist, created Pop Rocks and Cool Whip (b. 1911) 2005 – Alexander Golitzen, Russian-born American production designer and art director (b. 1908) 2005 – Jack Hirshleifer, American economist and academic (b. 1925) 2005 – Gilles Marotte, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1945) 2007 – Lars Forssell, Swedish author, poet, and playwright (b. 1928) 2007 – Skip Prosser, American basketball player and coach (b. 1950) 2009 – Merce Cunningham, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1919) 2010 – Sivakant Tiwari, Indian-Singaporean politician (b. 1945) 2011 – Joe Arroyo, Colombian singer-songwriter and composer (b. 1955) 2011 – Richard Harris, American-Canadian football player and coach (b. 1948) 2011 – Sakyo Komatsu, Japanese author and screenwriter (b. 1931) 2011 – Margaret Olley, Australian painter and philanthropist (b. 1923) 2012 – Don Bagley, American bassist and composer (b. 1927) 2012 – Karl Benjamin, American painter and educator (b. 1925) 2012 – Miriam Ben-Porat, Russian-Israeli lawyer and jurist (b. 1918) 2012 – Lupe Ontiveros, American actress (b. 1942) 2012 – James D. Watkins, American admiral and politician, 6th United States Secretary of Energy (b. 1927) 2013 – Luther F. Cole, American lawyer and politician (b. 1925) 2013 – Harley Flanders, American mathematician and academic (b. 1925) 2013 – Sung Jae-gi, South Korean philosopher and activist (b. 1967) 2013 – George P. Mitchell, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1919) 2014 – Oleh Babayev, Ukrainian businessman and politician (b. 1965) 2014 – Charles R. Larson, American admiral (b. 1936) 2014 – Richard MacCormac, English architect, founded MJP Architects (b. 1938) 2014 – Sergei O. Prokofieff, Russian anthropologist and author (b. 1954) 2014 – Roland Verhavert, Belgian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1927) 2015 – Bijoy Krishna Handique, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of Mines (b. 1934) 2015 – Flora MacDonald, Canadian banker and politician, 10th Canadian Minister of Communications (b. 1926) 2015 – Leo Reise, Jr., Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1922) 2015 – Ann Rule, American police officer and author (b. 1931) 2017 – June Foray, American voice actress (b. 1917) 2017 – Patti Deutsch, American voice artist and comedic actress (b. 1943) 2017 – Ronald Phillips, American criminal (b. 1973) 2018 – Adem Demaçi, Kosovo Albanian politician and writer (b. 1936) 2018 – John Kline, American basketball player (b. 1931) 2019 – Russi Taylor, American voice actress (b. 1944) 2019 – Jaime Lucas Ortega y Alamino, Cuban Roman Catholic prelate (b. 1936) 2020 – Olivia de Havilland, American actress (b. 1916) 2021 – Joey Jordison, American musician (b. 1975) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Andrew of Phú Yên Anne (Western Christianity) Bartolomea Capitanio Blessed Maria Pierina Joachim (Western Christianity) Paraskevi of Rome (Eastern Orthodox Church) Venera July 26 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Day of National Significance (Barbados) Day of the National Rebellion (Cuba) Esperanto Day Independence Day (Liberia), celebrates the independence of Liberia from the American Colonization Society in 1847. Independence Day (Maldives), celebrates the independence of Maldives from the United Kingdom in 1965. Kargil Victory Day or Kargil Vijay Diwas (India) References External links Days of the year July

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June%2016

June 16

Events Pre-1600 363 – Emperor Julian marches back up the Tigris and burns his fleet of supply ships. During the withdrawal, Roman forces suffer several attacks from the Persians. 632 – Yazdegerd III ascends the throne as king (shah) of the Persian Empire. He becomes the last ruler of the Sasanian dynasty (modern Iran). 1407 – Ming–Hồ War: Retired King Hồ Quý Ly and his son King Hồ Hán Thương of Hồ dynasty are captured by the Ming armies. 1487 – Battle of Stoke Field: King Henry VII of England defeats the leaders of a Yorkist rebellion in the final engagement of the Wars of the Roses. 1586 – Mary, Queen of Scots, recognizes Philip II of Spain as her heir and successor. 1601–1900 1745 – War of the Austrian Succession: New England colonial troops under the command of William Pepperrell capture the Fortress of Louisbourg in Louisbourg, New France (Old Style date). 1746 – War of the Austrian Succession: Austria and Sardinia defeat a Franco-Spanish army at the Battle of Piacenza. 1755 – French and Indian War: The French surrender Fort Beauséjour to the British, leading to the expulsion of the Acadians. 1760 – French and Indian War: Robert Rogers and his Rangers surprise French held Fort Sainte Thérèse on the Richelieu River near Lake Champlain. The fort is raided and burned. 1779 – Spain declares war on the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the Great Siege of Gibraltar begins. 1795 – French Revolutionary Wars: In what became known as Cornwallis's Retreat, a British Royal Navy squadron led by Vice Admiral William Cornwallis strongly resists a much larger French Navy force and withdraws largely intact, setting up the French Navy defeat at the Battle of Groix six days later. 1811 – Survivors of an attack the previous day by Tla-o-qui-aht on board the Pacific Fur Company's ship Tonquin, intentionally detonate a powder magazine on the ship, destroying it and killing about 100 attackers. 1815 – Battle of Ligny and Battle of Quatre Bras, two days before the Battle of Waterloo. 1819 – A major earthquake strikes the Kutch district of western India, killing over 1,543 people and raising a 6 m high, 6 km wide, ridge, extending for at least 80 km, that was known as the Allah Bund ("Dam of God"). 1836 – The formation of the London Working Men's Association gives rise to the Chartist Movement. 1846 – The Papal conclave of 1846 elects Pope Pius IX, beginning the longest reign in the history of the papacy. 1858 – Abraham Lincoln delivers his House Divided speech in Springfield, Illinois. 1871 – The Universities Tests Act 1871 allows students to enter the universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Durham without religious tests (except for those intending to study theology). 1883 – The Victoria Hall theatre panic in Sunderland, England, kills 183 children. 1884 – The first purpose-built roller coaster, LaMarcus Adna Thompson's "Switchback Railway", opens in New York's Coney Island amusement park. 1897 – A treaty annexing the Republic of Hawaii to the United States is signed; the Republic would not be dissolved until a year later. 1901–present 1903 – The Ford Motor Company is incorporated. 1903 – Roald Amundsen leaves Oslo, Norway, to commence the first east–west navigation of the Northwest Passage. 1904 – Eugen Schauman assassinates Nikolay Bobrikov, Governor-General of Finland. 1904 – Irish author James Joyce begins a relationship with Nora Barnacle and subsequently uses the date to set the actions for his novel Ulysses; this date is now traditionally called "Bloomsday". 1911 – IBM founded as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company in Endicott, New York. 1922 – General election in the Irish Free State: The pro-Treaty Sinn Féin party wins a large majority. 1925 – The most famous Young Pioneer camp of the Soviet Union, Artek, is established. 1930 – Sovnarkom establishes decree time in the USSR. 1933 – The National Industrial Recovery Act is passed in the United States, allowing businesses to avoid antitrust prosecution if they establish voluntary wage, price, and working condition regulations on an industry-wide basis. 1940 – World War II: Marshal Henri Philippe Pétain becomes Chief of State of Vichy France (Chef de l'État Français). 1940 – A Communist government is installed in Lithuania. 1944 – In a gross miscarriage of justice, George Junius Stinney Jr., age 14, becomes the youngest person executed in the United States in the 20th century after being convicted in a two-hour trial for the rape and murder of two teenage white girls. 1948 – Members of the Malayan Communist Party kill three British plantation managers in Sungai Siput; in response, British Malaya declares a state of emergency. 1955 – In a futile effort to topple Argentine President Juan Perón, rogue aircraft pilots of the Argentine Navy drop several bombs upon an unarmed crowd demonstrating in favor of Perón in Buenos Aires, killing 364 and injuring at least 800. At the same time on the ground, some soldiers attempt to stage a coup but are suppressed by loyal forces. 1958 – Imre Nagy, Pál Maléter and other leaders of the 1956 Hungarian Uprising are executed. 1961 – While on tour with the Kirov Ballet in Paris, Rudolf Nureyev defects from the Soviet Union. 1963 – Soviet Space Program: Vostok 6 mission: Cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova becomes the first woman in space. 1963 – In an attempt to resolve the Buddhist crisis in South Vietnam, a Joint Communique was signed between President Ngo Dinh Diem and Buddhist leaders. 1972 – The largest single-site hydroelectric power project in Canada is inaugurated at Churchill Falls Generating Station. 1976 – Soweto uprising: A non-violent march by 15,000 students in Soweto, South Africa, turns into days of rioting when police open fire on the crowd. 1977 – Oracle Corporation is incorporated in Redwood Shores, California, as Software Development Laboratories (SDL), by Larry Ellison, Bob Miner and Ed Oates. 1981 – US President Ronald Reagan awards the Congressional Gold Medal to Ken Taylor, Canada's former ambassador to Iran, for helping six Americans escape from Iran during the hostage crisis of 1979–81; he is the first foreign citizen bestowed the honor. 1989 – Revolutions of 1989: Imre Nagy, the former Hungarian prime minister, is reburied in Budapest following the collapse of Communism in Hungary. 1997 – Fifty people are killed in the Daïat Labguer (M'sila) massacre in Algeria. 2000 – The Secretary-General of the UN reports that Israel has complied with United Nations Security Council Resolution 425, 22 years after its issuance, and completely withdrew from Lebanon. The Resolution does not encompass the Shebaa farms, which is claimed by Israel, Syria and Lebanon. 2002 – Padre Pio is canonized by the Roman Catholic Church. 2010 – Bhutan becomes the first country to institute a total ban on tobacco. 2012 – China successfully launches its Shenzhou 9 spacecraft, carrying three astronauts, including the first female Chinese astronaut Liu Yang, to the Tiangong-1 orbital module. 2012 – The United States Air Force's robotic Boeing X-37B spaceplane returns to Earth after a classified 469-day orbital mission. 2013 – A multi-day cloudburst, centered on the North Indian state of Uttarakhand, causes devastating floods and landslides, becoming the country's worst natural disaster since the 2004 tsunami. 2015 – American businessman Donald Trump announces his campaign to run for President of the United States in the upcoming election. 2016 – Shanghai Disneyland Park, the first Disney Park in Mainland China, opens to the public. 2019 – Upwards of 2,000,000 people participate in the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, the largest in Hong Kong's history. Births Pre-1600 1139 – Emperor Konoe of Japan (d. 1155) 1332 – Isabella de Coucy, English daughter of Edward III of England (d. 1379) 1454 – Joanna of Aragon, Queen of Naples (d. 1517) 1514 – John Cheke, English academic and politician, English Secretary of State (d. 1557) 1516 – Yang Jisheng, Ming dynasty official and Confucian martyr (d. 1555) 1583 – Axel Oxenstierna, Swedish politician, Lord High Chancellor of Sweden (d. 1654) 1591 – Joseph Solomon Delmedigo, Greek-Italian physician, mathematician, and theorist (d. 1655) 1601–1900 1606 – Arthur Chichester, 1st Earl of Donegall, Irish soldier and politician (d. 1675) 1613 – John Cleveland, English poet and educator (d. 1658) 1625 – Samuel Chappuzeau, French scholar (d. 1701) 1633 – Jean de Thévenot, French linguist and botanist (d. 1667) 1644 – Henrietta Anne Stuart, Princess of Scotland, England and Ireland (d. 1670) 1653 – James Bertie, 1st Earl of Abingdon, English nobleman (d. 1699) 1713 – Meshech Weare, American farmer, lawyer, and politician, 1st Governor of New Hampshire (d. 1786) 1723 – Adam Smith, Scottish philosopher and economist (d. 1790) 1738 – Mary Katherine Goddard, American publisher (d. 1816) 1754 – Salawat Yulayev, Russian poet (d. 1800) 1792 – John Linnell, English painter and engraver (d. 1882) 1801 – Julius Plücker, German mathematician and physicist (d. 1868) 1806 – Edward Davy, English physician and chemist (d. 1885) 1813 – Otto Jahn, German archaeologist and philologist (d. 1869) 1820 – Athanase Josué Coquerel, Dutch-French preacher and theologian (d. 1875) 1821 – Old Tom Morris, Scottish golfer and architect (d. 1908) 1826 – Constantin von Ettingshausen, Austrian geologist and botanist (d. 1897) 1836 – Wesley Merritt, American general and politician, Military Governor of the Philippines (d. 1910) 1837 – Ernst Laas, German philosopher and academic (d. 1885) 1838 – Frederic Archer, English organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1901) 1838 – Cushman Kellogg Davis, American lieutenant and politician, 7th Governor of Minnesota (d. 1900) 1840 – Ernst Otto Schlick, German engineer and author (d. 1913) 1850 – Max Delbrück, German chemist and academic (d. 1919) 1857 – Arthur Arz von Straußenburg, Austrian-Hungarian general (d. 1935) 1858 – Gustaf V of Sweden (d. 1950) 1863 – Francisco León de la Barra, Mexican politician and diplomat (d. 1939) 1866 – Germanos Karavangelis, Greek-Austrian metropolitan (d. 1935) 1874 – Arthur Meighen, Canadian lawyer and politician, 9th Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1960) 1880 – Otto Eisenschiml, Austrian-American chemist and author (d. 1963) 1882 – Mohammad Mosaddegh, Iranian educator and politician, 60th Prime Minister of Iran (d. 1967) 1885 – Erich Jacoby, Estonian-Polish architect (d. 1941) 1888 – Alexander Friedmann, Russian physicist and mathematician (d. 1925) 1888 – Peter Stoner, American mathematician and astronomer (d. 1980) 1890 – Stan Laurel, English actor and comedian (d. 1965) 1896 – Murray Leinster, American author and screenwriter (d. 1976) 1897 – Georg Wittig, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987) 1899 – Helen Traubel, American operatic soprano (d. 1972) 1901–present 1902 – Barbara McClintock, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1992) 1902 – George Gaylord Simpson, American paleontologist and author (d. 1984) 1906 – Alan Fairfax, Australian cricketer (d. 1955) 1907 – Jack Albertson, American actor (d. 1981) 1909 – Archie Carr, American ecologist and zoologist (d. 1987) 1910 – Juan Velasco Alvarado, Peruvian general and politician, 1st President of Peru (d. 1977) 1912 – Albert Chartier, Canadian illustrator (d. 2004) 1912 – Enoch Powell, English soldier and politician, Secretary of State for Health (d. 1998) 1914 – Eleanor Sokoloff, American pianist and teacher (d. 2020) 1915 – John Tukey, American mathematician and academic (d. 2000) 1915 – Marga Faulstich, German glass chemist (d. 1998) 1917 – Phaedon Gizikis, Greek general and politician, President of Greece (d. 1999) 1917 – Katharine Graham, American publisher (d. 2001) 1917 – Aurelio Lampredi, Italian automobile and aircraft engine designer (d. 1989) 1917 – Irving Penn, American photographer (d. 2009) 1920 – Isabelle Holland, Swiss-American author (d. 2002) 1920 – Raymond Lemieux, Canadian chemist and academic (d. 2002) 1920 – José López Portillo, Mexican lawyer and politician, 31st President of Mexico (d. 2004) 1920 – Hemanta Mukherjee, Indian singer and music director (d. 1989) 1922 – Ilmar Kullam, Estonian basketball player and coach (d. 2011) 1923 – Ron Flockhart, Scottish race car driver (d. 1962) 1924 – Faith Domergue, American actress (d. 1999) 1925 – Jean d'Ormesson, French journalist and author (d. 2017) 1925 – Otto Muehl, Austrian-Portuguese painter and director (d. 2013) 1926 – Efraín Ríos Montt, Guatemalan general and politician, 26th President of Guatemala (d. 2018) 1927 – Tom Graveney, English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2015) 1927 – Ya'akov Hodorov, Israeli footballer (d. 2006) 1927 – Herbert Lichtenfeld, German author and screenwriter (d. 2001) 1927 – Ariano Suassuna, Brazilian author and playwright (d. 2014) 1929 – Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, Emir of Kuwait (d. 2020) 1930 – Vilmos Zsigmond, Hungarian-American cinematographer and producer (d. 2016) 1934 – Eileen Atkins, English actress and screenwriter 1934 – Roger Neilson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2003) 1935 – Jim Dine, American painter and illustrator 1937 – Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Bulgarian politician, 48th Prime Minister of Bulgaria 1937 – Erich Segal, American author and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1938 – Thomas Boyd-Carpenter, English general 1938 – Torgny Lindgren, Swedish author and poet (d. 2017) 1938 – Joyce Carol Oates, American novelist, short story writer, critic, and poet 1939 – Billy "Crash" Craddock, American singer-songwriter 1940 – Māris Čaklais, Latvian poet, writer, and journalist (d. 2003) 1940 – Neil Goldschmidt, American lawyer and politician, 33rd Governor of Oregon 1941 – Lamont Dozier, American songwriter and producer 1941 – Tommy Horton, English golfer (d. 2017) 1941 – Mumtaz Hamid Rao, Pakistani journalist (d. 2011) 1942 – Giacomo Agostini, Italian motorcycle racer and manager 1942 – Eddie Levert, American R&B/soul singer-songwriter, musician, and actor 1944 – Henri Richelet, French painter and etcher (d. 2020) 1945 – Claire Alexander, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1945 – Lucienne Robillard, Canadian social worker and politician, 59th Secretary of State for Canada 1946 – Rick Adelman, American basketball player and coach 1946 – John Astor, 3rd Baron Astor of Hever, English businessman and politician 1946 – Karen Dunnell, English statistician and academic 1946 – Tom Harrell, American trumpet player and composer 1946 – Neil MacGregor, Scottish historian and curator 1946 – Iain Matthews, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1946 – Jodi Rell, American politician, 87th Governor of Connecticut 1946 – Mark Ritts, American actor, puppeteer, and producer (d. 2009) 1946 – Derek Sanderson, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1946 – Simon Williams, English actor and playwright 1947 – Tom Malone, American trombonist, composer, and producer 1947 – Buddy Roberts, American wrestler (d. 2012) 1947 – Al Cowlings, American ex-NFL player and close friend of O. J. Simpson and Nicole Brown Simpson 1947 – Tom Wyner, English-American voice actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1948 – Ron LeFlore, American baseball player and manager 1949 – Caju, Brazilian footballer 1949 – Ralph Mann, American hurdler and author 1950 – Mithun Chakraborty, Indian actor and politician 1950 – Michel Clair, Canadian lawyer and politician 1950 – Jerry Petrowski, American politician and farmer 1951 – Charlie Dominici, American singer and guitarist 1951 – Roberto Durán, Panamanian boxer 1952 – George Papandreou, Greek sociologist and politician, 182nd Prime Minister of Greece 1952 – Gino Vannelli, Canadian singer-songwriter 1953 – Valerie Mahaffey, American actress 1953 – Ian Mosley, English drummer 1954 – Matthew Saad Muhammad, American boxer and trainer (d. 2014) 1954 – Garry Roberts, Irish guitarist 1955 – Grete Faremo, Norwegian politician, Norwegian Minister of Defence 1955 – Laurie Metcalf, American actress 1955 – Artemy Troitsky, Russian journalist and critic 1957 – Ian Buchanan, Scottish-American actor 1957 – Leeona Dorrian, Lady Dorrian, Scottish lawyer and judge 1958 – Darrell Griffith, American basketball player 1958 – Ulrike Tauber, German swimmer 1958 – Warren Rodwell, Australian soldier, educator and musician 1959 – The Ultimate Warrior, American wrestler (d. 2014) 1960 – Peter Sterling, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1961 – Can Dündar, Turkish journalist and author 1961 – Robbie Kerr, Australian cricketer 1961 – Steve Larmer, Canadian ice hockey player 1961 – Margus Metstak, Estonian basketball player and coach 1962 – Wally Joyner, American baseball player and coach 1962 – Arnold Vosloo, South African-American actor 1962 – Anthony Wong, Hong Kong singer 1963 – The Sandman, American wrestler 1964 – Danny Burstein, American actor and singer 1965 – Michael Richard Lynch, Irish computer scientist and entrepreneur; co-founded HP Autonomy 1965 – Richard Madaleno, American politician 1966 – Mark Occhilupo, Australian surfer 1966 – Olivier Roumat, French rugby player 1966 – Phil Vischer, American voice actor, director, producer, and screenwriter, co-created VeggieTales 1966 – Jan Železný, Czech javelin thrower and coach 1967 – Charalambos Andreou, Cypriot footballer 1967 – Jürgen Klopp, German footballer and manager 1968 – Adam Schmitt, American singer-songwriter, musician, and producer 1969 – Shami Chakrabarti, English lawyer and academic 1969 – Mark Crossley, English-Welsh footballer and manager 1970 – Younus AlGohar, Pakistani poet and academic, co-founded Messiah Foundation International 1970 – Clifton Collins Jr., American actor 1970 – Cobi Jones, American soccer player and manager 1970 – Phil Mickelson, American golfer 1971 – Tupac Shakur, American rapper and producer (d. 1996) 1972 – Kiko Loureiro, Brazilian guitarist 1972 – John Cho, American actor 1973 – Eddie Cibrian, American actor 1974 – Glenicia James, Saint Lucian cricketer 1974 – Joseph May, British-born Canadian-American actor 1975 – Anthony Carter, American basketball player and coach 1977 – Craig Fitzgibbon, Australian rugby league player and coach 1977 – Duncan Hames, English accountant and politician 1977 – Kerry Wood, American baseball player 1978 – Daniel Brühl, Spanish-German actor 1978 – Dainius Zubrus, Lithuanian ice hockey player 1978 – Fish Leong, Malaysian singer 1980 – Brandon Armstrong, American basketball player 1980 – Phil Christophers, German-English rugby player 1980 – Henry Perenara, New Zealand rugby league player and referee 1980 – Martin Stranzl, Austrian footballer 1980 – Joey Yung, Hong Kong singer 1981 – Benjamin Becker, German tennis player 1981 – Kevin Bieksa, Canadian ice hockey player 1981 – Alexandre Giroux, Canadian ice hockey player 1981 – Ola Kvernberg, Norwegian violinist 1981 – Miguel Villalta, Peruvian footballer 1982 – May Andersen, Danish model and actress 1982 – Missy Peregrym, Canadian model and actress 1983 – Armend Dallku, Albanian footballer 1984 – Rick Nash, Canadian ice hockey player 1984 – Dan Ryckert, American writer and entertainer 1984 – Steven Whittaker, Scottish footballer 1986 – Rodrigo Defendi, Brazilian footballer 1986 – Urby Emanuelson, Dutch footballer 1986 – Fernando Muslera, Uruguayan footballer 1987 – Diana DeGarmo, American singer-songwriter and actress 1987 – Per Ciljan Skjelbred, Norwegian footballer 1987 – Christian Tshimanga Kabeya, Belgian footballer 1988 – Keshia Chanté, Canadian singer 1988 – Jermaine Gresham, American football player 1989 – Odion Ighalo, Nigerian footballer 1990 – John Newman, English musician, singer, songwriter and record producer 1991 – Joe McElderry, English singer-songwriter 1991 – Siya Kolisi, South African rugby player 1991 – Matt Moylan, Australian rugby league player 1992 – Vladimir Morozov, Russian swimmer 1993 – Park Bo-gum, South Korean actor 1993 – Gnash, American singer, songwriter, rapper, DJ and record producer 1994 – Grete-Lilijane Küppas, Estonian footballer 1994 – Rezar, Albanian professional wrestler 1995 – Euan Aitken, Australian rugby league player 1995 – Joseph Schooling, Singaporean swimmer 1995 – Akira Ioane, New Zealand rugby Union player 2000 – Bianca Andreescu, Canadian tennis player 2002 – Sam Walker, English-Australian rugby league player 2003 – Anna Cathcart, Canadian actress Deaths Pre-1600 840 – Rorgon I, Frankish nobleman (or 839) 924 – Li Cunshen, general of Later Tang (b. 862) 956 – Hugh the Great, Frankish nobleman (b. 898) 1185 – Richeza of Poland, queen of León (b. c. 1140) 1286 – Hugh de Balsham, English bishop 1332 – Adam de Brome, founder of Oriel College, Oxford 1361 – Johannes Tauler, German mystic theologian 1397 – Philip of Artois, Count of Eu, French soldier (b. 1358) 1424 – Johannes Ambundii, archbishop of Riga 1468 – Jean Le Fèvre de Saint-Remy, Burgundian historian and author (b. 1395) 1487 – John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln (b. c. 1463) 1540 – Konrad von Thüngen, German nobleman (b. c. 1466) 1601–1900 1622 – Alexander Seton, 1st Earl of Dunfermline, Scottish lawyer, judge, and politician, Lord Chancellor of Scotland (b. 1555) 1626 – Christian, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg-Wolfenbüttel, German Protestant military leader (b. 1599) 1666 – Sir Richard Fanshawe, 1st Baronet, English poet and diplomat, English Ambassador to Spain (b. 1608) 1674 – Tomás Yepes, Spanish painter (b. 1595 or 1600) 1722 – John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Oxfordshire (b. 1650) 1743 – Louise-Françoise de Bourbon, eldest daughter of King Louis XIV of France (b. 1673) 1752 – Joseph Butler, English bishop and philosopher (b. 1692) 1762 – Anne Russell, Countess of Jersey (formerly Duchess of Bedford) (b. c.1705) 1777 – Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gresset, French poet and playwright (b. 1709) 1779 – Sir Francis Bernard, 1st Baronet, English lawyer and politician, Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (b. 1712) 1804 – Johann Adam Hiller, German composer and conductor (b. 1728) 1824 – Charles-François Lebrun, duc de Plaisance, French lawyer and politician (b. 1739) 1849 – Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette, German theologian and scholar (b. 1780) 1850 – William Lawson, English-Australian explorer and politician (b. 1774) 1858 – John Snow, English epidemiologist and physician (b. 1813) 1862 – Hidenoyama Raigorō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 9th Yokozuna (b. 1808) 1869 – Charles Sturt, Indian-English botanist and explorer (b. 1795) 1872 – Norman MacLeod, Scottish minister and author (b. 1812) 1878 – Crawford Long, American surgeon and pharmacist (b. 1815) 1878 – Kikuchi Yōsai, Japanese painter (b. 1781) 1881 – Josiah Mason, English businessman and philanthropist (b. 1795) 1885 – Wilhelm Camphausen, German painter and academic (b. 1818) 1886 – Alexander Stuart, Scottish-Australian politician, 9th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1824) 1901–present 1902 – Ernst Schröder, German mathematician and academic (b. 1841) 1918 – Bazil Assan, Romanian engineer and explorer (b. 1860) 1925 – Chittaranjan Das, Indian lawyer and politician (b. 1870) 1929 – Bramwell Booth, English 2nd General of The Salvation Army (b. 1856) 1929 – Vernon Louis Parrington, American historian and scholar (b. 1871) 1930 – Ezra Fitch, American lawyer and businessman, co-founded Abercrombie & Fitch (b. 1866) 1930 – Elmer Ambrose Sperry, American inventor, co-invented the gyrocompass (b. 1860) 1939 – Chick Webb, American drummer and bandleader (b. 1905) 1940 – DuBose Heyward, American author (b. 1885) 1944 – Marc Bloch, French historian and academic (b. 1886) 1945 – Aris Velouchiotis, Greek general (b. 1905) 1946 – Gordon Brewster, Irish cartoonist (b 1889) 1952 – Andrew Lawson, Scottish-American geologist and academic (b. 1861) 1953 – Margaret Bondfield, English politician, Secretary of State for Work and Pensions (b. 1873) 1955 – Ozias Leduc, Canadian painter (b. 1864) 1958 – Pál Maléter, Hungarian general and politician, Minister of Defence of Hungary (b. 1917) 1958 – Imre Nagy, Hungarian politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1895) 1959 – George Reeves, American actor and director (b. 1914) 1961 – Marcel Junod, Swiss physician and anesthesiologist (b. 1904) 1967 – Reginald Denny, English actor (b. 1891) 1969 – Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis, English field marshal and politician, 17th Governor General of Canada (b. 1891) 1970 – Sydney Chapman, English mathematician and geophysicist (b. 1888) 1970 – Brian Piccolo, American football player (b. 1943) 1971 – John Reith, 1st Baron Reith, Scottish broadcaster, co-founded BBC (b. 1889) 1974 – Amalie Sara Colquhoun, Australian landscape and portrait painter (b. 1894) 1977 – Wernher von Braun, German-American physicist and engineer (b. 1912) 1979 – Ignatius Kutu Acheampong, Ghanaian general and politician, 6th Head of state of Ghana (b. 1931) 1979 – Nicholas Ray, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1911) 1981 – Thomas Playford IV, Australian politician, 33rd Premier of South Australia (b. 1896) 1982 – James Honeyman-Scott, English guitarist and songwriter (b. 1956) 1984 – Lew Andreas, American football player and coach (b. 1895) 1984 – Erni Krusten, Estonian author and poet (b. 1900) 1986 – Maurice Duruflé, French organist and composer (b. 1902) 1987 – Marguerite de Angeli, American author and illustrator (b. 1889) 1988 – Miguel Piñero, Puerto Rican-American actor and playwright (b. 1946) 1993 – Lindsay Hassett, Australian cricketer and soldier (b. 1913) 1994 – Kristen Pfaff, American bass player and songwriter (b. 1967) 1996 – Mel Allen, American sportscaster and game show host (b. 1913) 1998 – Fred Wacker, American race car driver and engineer (b. 1918) 1999 – Screaming Lord Sutch, English singer and activist (b. 1940) 2003 – Pierre Bourgault, Canadian journalist and politician (b. 1934) 2003 – Georg Henrik von Wright, Finnish–Swedish philosopher and author (b. 1916) 2004 – Thanom Kittikachorn, Thai field marshal and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Thailand (b. 1911) 2004 – Jacques Miquelon, Canadian lawyer and judge (b. 1911) 2005 – Enrique Laguerre, Puerto Rican-American author and critic (b. 1906) 2008 – Mario Rigoni Stern, Italian soldier and author (b. 1921) 2010 – Marc Bazin, Haitian lawyer and politician, 49th President of Haiti (b. 1932) 2010 – Maureen Forrester, Canadian singer and academic (b. 1930) 2010 – Ronald Neame, English director, producer, cinematographer, and screenwriter (b. 1911) 2011 – Östen Mäkitalo, Swedish engineer and academic (b. 1938) 2012 – Nils Karlsson, Swedish skier (b. 1917) 2012 – Jorge Lankenau, Mexican banker and businessman (b. 1944) 2012 – Sławomir Petelicki, Polish general (b. 1946) 2012 – Susan Tyrrell, American actress (b. 1945) 2013 – Sam Farber, American businessman, co-founded OXO (b. 1924) 2013 – Hans Hass, Austrian biologist and diver (b. 1919) 2013 – Khondakar Ashraf Hossain, Bangladesh poet and academic (b. 1950) 2013 – Norman Ian MacKenzie, English journalist and author (b. 1921) 2013 – Ottmar Walter, German footballer (b. 1924) 2014 – Tony Gwynn, American baseball player and coach (b. 1960) 2014 – Cándido Muatetema Rivas (b. 1960), Equatoguinean politician and diplomat, Prime Minister of Equatorial Guinea 2015 – Charles Correa, Indian architect and urban planner (b. 1930) 2015 – Jean Vautrin, French director, screenwriter, and critic (b. 1933) 2016 – Jo Cox, English political activist and MP (b. 1974) 2017 – Helmut Kohl, German politician, Chancellor of Germany (b. 1930) 2020 – Eduardo Cojuangco Jr., Filipino businessman and politician (b. 1935) Holidays and observances Birthday of Leonard P. Howell (Rastafari) Bloomsday (Dublin, Ireland) Christian feast days: Aurelianus of Arles Aureus of Mainz (and his sister Justina) Benno Cettin of Oran Curig of Llanbadarn Ferreolus and Ferrutio George Berkeley and Joseph Butler (Episcopal Church) June 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Lutgardis Quriaqos and Julietta Engineer's Day (Argentina) Father's Day (Seychelles) International Day of the African Child (Organisation of African Unity) Martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev (Sikhism) Sussex Day (Sussex) Youth Day (South Africa) References External links Days of the year June

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January%208

January 8

Events Pre-1600 307 – Jin Huaidi becomes emperor of China in succession to his father, Jin Huidi, despite a challenge from his uncle, Sima Ying. 871 – Æthelred I and Alfred the Great lead a West Saxon army to repel an invasion by Danelaw Vikings. 1297 – François Grimaldi, disguised as a monk, leads his men to capture the fortress protecting the Rock of Monaco, establishing his family as the rulers of Monaco. 1454 – The papal bull Romanus Pontifex awards the Kingdom of Portugal exclusive trade and colonization rights to all of Africa south of Cape Bojador. 1499 – Louis XII of France marries Anne of Brittany in accordance with a law set by his predecessor, Charles VIII. 1547 – The first Lithuanian-language book, the Catechism of Martynas Mažvydas, is published in Königsberg. 1601–1900 1735 – The premiere of George Frideric Handel's Ariodante takes place at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden. 1746 – Second Jacobite rising: Bonnie Prince Charlie occupies Stirling. 1790 – George Washington delivers the first State of the Union address in New York City. 1806 – The Dutch Cape Colony in southern Africa becomes the British Cape Colony as a result of the Battle of Blaauwberg. 1811 – Charles Deslondes leads an unsuccessful slave revolt in the North American settlements of St. Charles and St. James, Louisiana. 1815 – War of 1812: Battle of New Orleans: Andrew Jackson leads American forces in victory over the British. 1828 – The Democratic Party of the United States is organized. 1835 – US President Andrew Jackson announces a celebratory dinner after having reduced the United States national debt to zero for the only time. 1863 – American Civil War: Second Battle of Springfield. 1867 – The United States Congress passes the bill to allow African American men the right to vote in Washington, D.C. 1877 – Crazy Horse and his warriors fight their last battle against the United States Cavalry at Wolf Mountain, Montana Territory. 1889 – Herman Hollerith is issued US patent #395,791 for the 'Art of Applying Statistics' — his punched card calculator. 1900 – President William McKinley places Alaska under military rule. 1901–present 1912 – The African National Congress is founded, under the name South African Native National Congress (SANNC). 1918 – U.S. President Woodrow Wilson announces his "Fourteen Points" for the aftermath of World War I. 1920 – The steel strike of 1919 ends in failure for the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel and Tin Workers labor union. 1926 – Crown Prince Nguyễn Phúc Vĩnh Thuỵ is crowned king of Vietnam, the country's last monarch. 1926 – Abdul-Aziz ibn Saud is crowned King of Hejaz. 1936 – Kashf-e hijab decree is made and immediately enforced by Reza Shah, Iran's head of state, banning the wearing of Islamic veils in public. 1940 – World War II: Britain introduces food rationing. 1945 – World War II: Philippine Commonwealth troops under the Philippine Commonwealth Army units enter the province of Ilocos Sur in Northern Luzon and attack invading Japanese Imperial forces. 1946 – Andrei Zhdanov, Chairman of the Finnish Allied Commission, submitted to the Finnish War Criminal Court an interrogation report by General Erich Buschenhagen, a German prisoner of war, on the contacts between Finnish and German military personnel before the Continuation War and a copy of Hitler's Barbarossa plan. 1956 – Operation Auca: Five U.S. missionaries are killed by the Huaorani of Ecuador shortly after making first contact. 1959 – Charles de Gaulle is proclaimed as the first President of the French Fifth Republic. 1961 – In France a referendum supports Charles de Gaulle's policies in Algeria. 1964 – President Lyndon B. Johnson declares a "War on Poverty" in the United States. 1972 – Bowing to international pressure, President of Pakistan Zulfikar Ali Bhutto releases Bengali leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman from prison, who had been arrested after declaring the independence of Bangladesh. 1973 – Soviet space mission Luna 21 is launched. 1973 – Watergate scandal: The trial of seven men accused of illegal entry into Democratic Party headquarters at Watergate begins. 1975 – Ella T. Grasso becomes Governor of Connecticut, the first woman to serve as a Governor in the United States other than by succeeding her husband. 1977 – Three bombs explode in Moscow, Russia, Soviet Union, within 37 minutes, killing seven. The bombings are attributed to an Armenian separatist group. 1981 – A local farmer reports a UFO sighting in Trans-en-Provence, France, claimed to be "perhaps the most completely and carefully documented sighting of all time". 1982 – Breakup of the Bell System: In the United States, AT&T agrees to divest itself of twenty-two subdivisions. 1989 – Kegworth air disaster: British Midland Flight 92, a Boeing 737-400, crashes into the M1 motorway, killing 47 of the 126 people on board. 1994 – Russian cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov on Soyuz TM-18 leaves for Mir. He would stay on the space station until March 22, 1995, for a record 437 days in space. 1996 – An Antonov An-32 cargo aircraft crashes into a crowded market in Kinshasa, Zaire, killing up to 223 people on the ground; two of six crew members are also killed. 2002 – President of the United States George W. Bush signs into law the No Child Left Behind Act. 2003 – Turkish Airlines Flight 634 crashes near Diyarbakır Airport, Turkey, killing the entire crew and 70 of the 75 passengers. 2003 – Air Midwest Flight 5481 crashes at Charlotte-Douglas Airport, in Charlotte, North Carolina, killing all 21 people on board. 2004 – The , then the largest ocean liner ever built, is christened by her namesake's granddaughter, Queen Elizabeth II. 2005 – The nuclear sub collides at full speed with an undersea mountain south of Guam. One man is killed, but the sub surfaces and is repaired. 2009 – A 6.1-magnitude earthquake in northern Costa Rica kills 15 people and injures 32. 2010 – Gunmen from an offshoot of the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda attack a bus carrying the Togo national football team on its way to the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations, killing three people and injuring another nine. 2011 – Sitting US Congresswoman Gabby Giffords is shot in the head along with 18 others in a mass shooting in Tucson, Arizona. Giffords survived the assassination attempt, but six others died, including John Roll, a federal judge. 2016 – Joaquín Guzmán, widely regarded as the world's most powerful drug trafficker, is recaptured following his escape from a maximum security prison in Mexico. 2016 – West Air Sweden Flight 294 crashes near the Swedish reservoir of Akkajaure; both pilots, the only people on board, are killed. 2020 – Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 crashes immediately after takeoff at Tehran Imam Khomeini International Airport; all 176 on board are killed. The plane was shot down by an Iranian anti-aircraft missile. 2021 – Twenty-three people are killed in what is described as a police ″massacre″ in La Vega, Caracas, Venezuela. Births Pre-1600 1037 – Su Dongpo, Chinese calligrapher and poet (d. 1101) 1345 – Kadi Burhan al-Din, poet, kadi, and ruler of Sivas (d. 1398) 1529 – John Frederick II, duke of Saxony (d. 1595) 1583 – Simon Episcopius, Dutch theologian and academic (d. 1643) 1587 – Johannes Fabricius, German astronomer and academic (d. 1616) 1587 – Jan Pieterszoon Coen, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (d. 1629) 1589 – Ivan Gundulić, Croatian poet and playwright (d. 1638) 1601–1900 1601 (baptized) – Baltasar Gracián, Spanish priest and author (d. 1658) 1628 – François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg, French general (d. 1695) 1632 – Samuel von Pufendorf, German economist and jurist (d. 1694) 1635 – Luis Manuel Fernández de Portocarrero, Spanish cardinal (d. 1709) 1638 – Elisabetta Sirani, Italian painter (d. 1665) 1735 – John Carroll, American archbishop, founder of Georgetown University (d. 1815) 1763 – Edmond-Charles Genêt, French-American translator and diplomat (d. 1834) 1786 – Nicholas Biddle, American banker and financier (d. 1844) 1788 – Rudolf of Austria, Austrian archduke and archbishop (d. 1831) 1792 – Lowell Mason, American composer and educator (d. 1872) 1805 – John Bigler, American lawyer, politician, and diplomat, 3rd Governor of California (d. 1871) 1805 – Orson Hyde, American religious leader, 3rd President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (d. 1878) 1812 – Sigismond Thalberg, Swiss pianist and composer (d. 1871) 1817 – Theophilus Shepstone, English-South African politician (d. 1893) 1821 – James Longstreet, American general and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Turkey (d. 1904) 1823 – Alfred Russel Wallace, Welsh geographer, biologist, and explorer (d. 1913) 1824 – Wilkie Collins, English novelist, playwright, and short story writer (d. 1889) 1824 – Francisco González Bocanegra, Mexican poet and composer (d. 1861) 1830 – Hans von Bülow, German pianist and composer (d. 1894) 1836 – Lawrence Alma-Tadema, Dutch-English painter and academic (d. 1912) 1843 – Frederick Abberline, English police officer (d. 1929) 1852 – James Milton Carroll, American pastor and author (d. 1931) 1859 – Fanny Bullock Workman, American mountaineer, geographer, and cartographer (d. 1925) 1860 – Emma Booth-Tucker, English author (d. 1903) 1862 – Frank Nelson Doubleday, American publisher, founded the Doubleday Publishing Company (d. 1934) 1864 – Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale (d. 1892) 1865 – Winnaretta Singer, American philanthropist (d. 1943) 1866 – William G. Conley, American educator and politician, 18th Governor of West Virginia (d. 1940) 1867 – Emily Greene Balch, American economist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961) 1870 – Miguel Primo de Rivera, Spanish general and politician, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1930) 1871 – James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon, Irish captain and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Northern Ireland (d. 1940) 1873 – Iuliu Maniu, Romanian lawyer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1953) 1881 – Henrik Shipstead, American dentist and politician (d. 1960) 1881 – Linnie Marsh Wolfe, American librarian and author (d. 1945) 1883 – Pavel Filonov, Russian painter and poet (d. 1941) 1883 – Patrick J. Hurley, American general, politician, and diplomat, 51st United States Secretary of War (d. 1963) 1885 – John Curtin, Australian journalist and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1945) 1885 – Mór Kóczán, Hungarian javelin thrower and pastor (d. 1972) 1885 – A. J. Muste, Dutch-American pastor and activist (d. 1967) 1888 – Richard Courant, German-American mathematician and academic (d. 1972) 1891 – Walther Bothe, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957) 1891 – Storm Jameson, English journalist and author (d. 1986) 1891 – Bronislava Nijinska, Russian dancer and choreographer (d. 1972) 1896 – Jaromír Weinberger, Czech-American composer and academic (d. 1967) 1897 – Dennis Wheatley, English soldier and author (d. 1977) 1899 – S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Sri Lanka (d. 1959) 1900 – Dorothy Adams, American character actress (d. 1988) 1900 – Serge Poliakoff, Russian-French painter (d. 1969) 1901–present 1902 – Carl Rogers, American psychologist and academic (d. 1987) 1904 – Karl Brandt, German physician and SS officer (d. 1948) 1905 – Carl Gustav Hempel, German philosopher from the Vienna and the Berlin Circle (d. 1997) 1908 – Fearless Nadia, Australian-Indian actress and stuntwoman (d. 1996) 1908 – William Hartnell, English actor (d. 1975) 1909 – Ashapoorna Devi, Indian author and poet (d. 1995) 1909 – Bruce Mitchell, South African cricketer (d. 1995) 1909 – Evelyn Wood, American author and educator (d. 1995) 1910 – Galina Ulanova, Russian actress and ballerina (d. 1998) 1911 – Gypsy Rose Lee, American actress, dancer, and author (d. 1970) 1912 – José Ferrer, Puerto Rican-American actor and director (d. 1992) 1912 – Lawrence Walsh, Canadian-American lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th United States Deputy Attorney General (d. 2014) 1915 – Walker Cooper, American baseball player and manager (d. 1991) 1917 – Peter Matthew Hillsman Taylor, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (d. 1994) 1922 – Dale D. Myers, American engineer (d. 2015) 1923 – Larry Storch, American actor and comedian 1923 – Giorgio Tozzi, American opera singer and actor (d. 2011) 1923 – Johnny Wardle, English cricketer (d. 1985) 1923 – Joseph Weizenbaum, German-American computer scientist and author (d. 2008) 1924 – Benjamin Lees, Chinese-American soldier and composer (d. 2010) 1924 – Ron Moody, English actor and singer (d. 2015) 1925 – Mohan Rakesh, Indian author and playwright (d. 1972) 1926 – Evelyn Lear, American operatic soprano (d. 2012) 1926 – Kerwin Mathews, American actor (d. 2007) 1926 – Kelucharan Mohapatra, Indian dancer and choreographer (d. 2004) 1926 – Hanae Mori, Japanese fashion designer 1926 – Soupy Sales, American comedian and actor (d. 2009) 1927 – Charles Tomlinson, English poet and academic (d. 2015) 1928 – Slade Gorton, American colonel, lawyer, and politician, 14th Attorney General of Washington (d. 2020) 1929 – Saeed Jaffrey, Indian-British actor (d. 2015) 1931 – Bill Graham, German-American businessman (d. 1991) 1931 – Clarence Benjamin Jones, American lawyer and scholar 1933 – Charles Osgood, American soldier and journalist 1933 – Jean-Marie Straub, French director and screenwriter 1934 – Jacques Anquetil, French cyclist (d. 1987) 1934 – Roy Kinnear, British actor (d. 1988) 1935 – Elvis Presley, American singer, guitarist, and actor (d. 1977) 1936 – Robert May, Baron May of Oxford, Australian-English zoologist, ecologist, and academic (d. 2020) 1937 – Shirley Bassey, Welsh singer 1938 – Bob Eubanks, American game show host and producer 1939 – Carolina Herrera, Venezuelan-American fashion designer 1940 – Cristy Lane, American country and gospel singer 1941 – Graham Chapman, English actor and screenwriter (d. 1989) 1942 – Stephen Hawking, English physicist and author (d. 2018) 1942 – Junichirō Koizumi, Japanese politician, 56th Prime Minister of Japan 1942 – Yvette Mimieux, American actress (d. 2022) 1944 – Terry Brooks, American lawyer and author 1945 – Nancy Bond, American author and academic 1945 – Phil Beal, English footballer 1946 – Robby Krieger, American guitarist and songwriter 1946 – Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, Mexican drug lord 1947 – David Bowie, English singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (d. 2016) 1947 – Antti Kalliomäki, Finnish pole vaulter and politician 1948 – Gillies MacKinnon, Scottish director and screenwriter 1949 – Lawrence Rowe, Jamaican cricketer 1951 – Kenny Anthony, Saint Lucian politician, 5th Prime Minister of Saint Lucia 1952 – Vladimir Feltsman, Russian-American pianist and educator 1952 – Peter McCullagh, Irish mathematician and academic 1955 – Mike Reno, Canadian singer and drummer 1957 – Nacho Duato, Spanish dancer and choreographer 1958 – Betsy DeVos, American businesswoman and politician, 11th Secretary of Education 1958 – Rey Misterio, Mexican wrestler, trainer, and actor 1959 – Paul Hester, Australian drummer (d. 2005) 1960 – Dave Weckl, American drummer 1961 – Calvin Smith, American sprinter 1964 – Ron Sexsmith, Canadian singer-songwriter 1966 – Willie Anderson, American basketball player 1966 – Igor Vyazmikin, Russian ice hockey player (d. 2009) 1966 – Andrew Wood, American singer-songwriter (d. 1990) 1967 – R. Kelly, American singer-songwriter, record producer, and former professional basketball player 1967 – Tom Watson, English politician 1971 – Jason Giambi, American baseball player 1971 – Pascal Zuberbühler, Swiss footballer and coach 1972 – Paul Clement, English footballer, coach, and manager 1973 – Mike Cameron, American baseball player 1977 – Amber Benson, American actress, writer, director, and producer 1978 – Marco Fu, Hong Kongese snooker player 1979 – Seol Ki-hyeon, South Korean footballer and manager 1979 – Adrian Mutu, Romanian footballer 1979 – Stipe Pletikosa, Croatian footballer 1981 – Jeff Francis, Canadian baseball player 1982 – Gaby Hoffmann, American actress 1982 – Kim Jong-un, North Korean soldier and politician, 3rd Supreme Leader of North Korea (probable) 1988 – Adrián López, Spanish footballer 1988 – Michael Mancienne, English footballer 1988 – Alex Tyus, American-Israeli basketball player 1989 – Aaron Cruden, New Zealand rugby player 1991 – Josh Hazlewood, Australian cricketer 1991 – Stefan Johansen, Norwegian footballer 1991 – Stefan Savić, Montenegrin footballer 1992 – Stefanie Dolson, American basketball player 1992 – Koke, Spanish footballer 1993 – Sophie Pascoe, New Zealand swimmer 1999 – Damiano David, Italian singer-songwriter 2000 – Noah Cyrus, American singer, songwriter, and actress Deaths Pre-1600 307 – Hui of Jin, Chinese emperor (b. 259) 482 – Severinus of Noricum, Italian apostle and saint 871 – Bagsecg, Viking warrior and leader 926 – Athelm, archbishop of Canterbury 1079 – Adèle of France, countess of Flanders (b. 1009) 1107 – Edgar, King of Scotland (b. 1074) 1198 – Celestine III, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1106) 1337 – Giotto, Italian painter and architect, designed Scrovegni Chapel and Giotto's Campanile (b. 1266) 1354 – Charles de la Cerda, French nobleman (b. 1327) 1424 – Stephen Zaccaria, archbishop of Patras 1456 – Lawrence Giustiniani, Italian bishop and saint (b. 1381) 1538 – Beatrice of Portugal, duchess of Savoy (b. 1504) 1557 – Albert Alcibiades, margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (b. 1522) 1570 – Philibert de l'Orme, French sculptor and architect, designed the Château d'Anet (b. 1510) 1598 – John George, Elector of Brandenburg (b. 1525) 1601–1900 1642 – Galileo Galilei, Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher (b. 1564) 1707 – John Dalrymple, 1st Earl of Stair, Scottish soldier and politician, Scottish Secretary of State (b. 1648) 1713 – Arcangelo Corelli, Italian violinist and composer (b. 1653) 1775 – John Baskerville, English printer and type designer (b. 1706) 1794 – Justus Möser, German lawyer and jurist (b. 1720) 1815 – Edward Pakenham, Anglo-Irish general and politician (b. 1778) 1825 – Eli Whitney, American engineer and theorist, invented the cotton gin (b. 1765) 1854 – William Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford, English field marshal and politician, Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance (b. 1768) 1865 – Aimé, duc de Clermont-Tonnerre, French general and politician, French Minister of Defence (b. 1779) 1874 – Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, French historian and archaeologist (b. 1814) 1878 – Nikolay Nekrasov, Russian poet and critic (b. 1821) 1880 – Emperor Norton, English-American businessman (b. 1811) 1883 – Miska Magyarics, Slovene-Hungarian poet (b. 1825) 1896 – William Rainey Marshall, American banker and politician, 5th Governor of Minnesota (b. 1825) 1896 – Paul Verlaine, French poet and writer (b. 1844) 1901–present 1914 – Simon Bolivar Buckner, American general and 30th Governor of Kentucky (b. 1823) 1916 – Rembrandt Bugatti, Italian sculptor (b. 1884) 1916 – Ada Rehan, Irish-American actress (b. 1860) 1918 – Ellis H. 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(Thailand) Typing Day (International observance) References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on January 8 Today in Canadian History Days of the year January

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimi%20Hendrix

Jimi Hendrix

James Marshall "Jimi" Hendrix (born Johnny Allen Hendrix; November 27, 1942September 18, 1970) was an American musician, singer, and songwriter. Although his mainstream career spanned only four years, he is widely regarded as one of the most influential electric guitarists in the history of popular music, and one of the most celebrated musicians of the 20th century. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame describes him as "arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music". Born in Seattle, Washington, Hendrix began playing guitar at the age of 15. In 1961, he enlisted in the US Army, but was discharged the following year. Soon afterward, he moved to Clarksville then Nashville, Tennessee, and began playing gigs on the chitlin' circuit, earning a place in the Isley Brothers' backing band and later with Little Richard, with whom he continued to work through mid-1965. He then played with Curtis Knight and the Squires before moving to England in late 1966 after bassist Chas Chandler of the Animals became his manager. Within months, Hendrix had earned three UK top ten hits with the Jimi Hendrix Experience: "Hey Joe", "Purple Haze", and "The Wind Cries Mary". He achieved fame in the US after his performance at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967, and in 1968 his third and final studio album, Electric Ladyland, reached number one in the US. The double LP was Hendrix's most commercially successful release and his first and only number one album. The world's highest-paid performer, he headlined the Woodstock Festival in 1969 and the Isle of Wight Festival in 1970 before his accidental death in London from barbiturate-related asphyxia on September 18, 1970. Hendrix was inspired by American rock and roll and electric blues. He favored overdriven amplifiers with high volume and gain, and was instrumental in popularizing the previously undesirable sounds caused by guitar amplifier feedback. He was also one of the first guitarists to make extensive use of tone-altering effects units in mainstream rock, such as fuzz distortion, Octavia, wah-wah, and Uni-Vibe. He was the first musician to use stereophonic phasing effects in recordings. Holly George-Warren of Rolling Stone commented: "Hendrix pioneered the use of the instrument as an electronic sound source. Players before him had experimented with feedback and distortion, but Hendrix turned those effects and others into a controlled, fluid vocabulary every bit as personal as the blues with which he began." Hendrix was the recipient of several music awards during his lifetime and posthumously. In 1967, readers of Melody Maker voted him the Pop Musician of the Year and in 1968, Billboard named him the Artist of the Year and Rolling Stone declared him the Performer of the Year. Disc and Music Echo honored him with the World Top Musician of 1969 and in 1970, Guitar Player named him the Rock Guitarist of the Year. The Jimi Hendrix Experience was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005. Rolling Stone ranked the band's three studio albums, Are You Experienced, Axis: Bold as Love, and Electric Ladyland, among the 100 greatest albums of all time, and they ranked Hendrix as the greatest guitarist and the sixth greatest artist of all time. Ancestry and childhood Hendrix had African American and Irish ancestry. His paternal grandfather, Bertran Philander Ross Hendrix, was born in 1866 out of an extramarital affair between a woman named Fanny and a grain merchant from Urbana, Ohio, or Illinois, one of the wealthiest men in the area at that time. Hendrix's paternal grandmother, Zenora "Nora" Rose Moore, was a former dancer and vaudeville performer. Hendrix and Moore relocated to Vancouver, where they had a son they named James Allen Hendrix on June 10, 1919; the family called him "Al". In 1941, after moving to Seattle, Al met Lucille Jeter (1925–1958) at a dance; they married on March 31, 1942. Lucille's father (Jimi's maternal grandfather) was Preston Jeter (born 1875), whose mother was born in similar circumstances as Bertran Philander Ross Hendrix. Lucille's mother, née Clarice Lawson, had African American ancestors who had been slaves. Al, who had been drafted by the US Army to serve in World War II, left to begin his basic training three days after the wedding. Johnny Allen Hendrix was born on November 27, 1942, in Seattle; he was the first of Lucille's five children. In 1946, Johnny's parents changed his name to James Marshall Hendrix, in honor of Al and his late brother Leon Marshall. Stationed in Alabama at the time of Hendrix's birth, Al was denied the standard military furlough afforded servicemen for childbirth; his commanding officer placed him in the stockade to prevent him from going AWOL to see his infant son in Seattle. He spent two months locked up without trial, and while in the stockade received a telegram announcing his son's birth. During Al's three-year absence, Lucille struggled to raise their son. When Al was away, Hendrix was mostly cared for by family members and friends, especially Lucille's sister Delores Hall and her friend Dorothy Harding. Al received an honorable discharge from the US Army on September 1, 1945. Two months later, unable to find Lucille, Al went to the Berkeley, California, home of a family friend named Mrs. Champ, who had taken care of and had attempted to adopt Hendrix; this is where Al saw his son for the first time. After returning from service, Al reunited with Lucille, but his inability to find steady work left the family impoverished. They both struggled with alcohol, and often fought when intoxicated. The violence sometimes drove Hendrix to withdraw and hide in a closet in their home. His relationship with his brother Leon (born 1948) was close but precarious; with Leon in and out of foster care, they lived with an almost constant threat of fraternal separation. In addition to Leon, Hendrix had three younger siblings: Joseph, born in 1949, Kathy in 1950, and Pamela, 1951, all of whom Al and Lucille gave up to foster care and adoption. The family frequently moved, staying in cheap hotels and apartments around Seattle. On occasion, family members would take Hendrix to Vancouver to stay at his grandmother's. A shy and sensitive boy, he was deeply affected by his life experiences. In later years, he confided to a girlfriend that he had been the victim of sexual abuse by a man in uniform. On December 17, 1951, when Hendrix was nine years old, his parents divorced; the court granted Al custody of him and Leon. First instruments At Horace Mann Elementary School in Seattle during the mid-1950s, Hendrix's habit of carrying a broom with him to emulate a guitar gained the attention of the school's social worker. After more than a year of his clinging to a broom like a security blanket, she wrote a letter requesting school funding intended for underprivileged children, insisting that leaving him without a guitar might result in psychological damage. Her efforts failed, and Al refused to buy him a guitar. In 1957, while helping his father with a side-job, Hendrix found a ukulele amongst the garbage they were removing from an older woman's home. She told him that he could keep the instrument, which had only one string. Learning by ear, he played single notes, following along to Elvis Presley songs, particularly "Hound Dog". By the age of 33, Hendrix's mother Lucille had developed cirrhosis of the liver, and on February 2, 1958, she died when her spleen ruptured. Al refused to take James and Leon to attend their mother's funeral; he instead gave them shots of whiskey and instructed them that was how men should deal with loss. In 1958, Hendrix completed his studies at Washington Junior High School and began attending, but did not graduate from, Garfield High School. In mid-1958, at age 15, Hendrix acquired his first acoustic guitar, for $5 (). He played for hours daily, watching others and learning from more experienced guitarists, and listening to blues artists such as Muddy Waters, B.B. King, Howlin' Wolf, and Robert Johnson. The first tune Hendrix learned to play was the television theme "Peter Gunn". Around that time, Hendrix jammed with boyhood friend Sammy Drain and his keyboard-playing brother. In 1959, attending a concert by Hank Ballard & the Midnighters in Seattle, Hendrix met the group's guitarist Billy Davis. Davis showed him some guitar licks and got him a short gig with the Midnighters. The two remained friends until Hendrix's death in 1970. Soon after he acquired the acoustic guitar, Hendrix formed his first band, the Velvetones. Without an electric guitar, he could barely be heard over the sound of the group. After about three months, he realized that he needed an electric guitar. In mid-1959, his father relented and bought him a white Supro Ozark. Hendrix's first gig was with an unnamed band in the Jaffe Room of Seattle's Temple De Hirsch, but they fired him between sets for showing off. He joined the Rocking Kings, which played professionally at venues such as the Birdland club. When his guitar was stolen after he left it backstage overnight, Al bought him a red Silvertone Danelectro. Military service Before Hendrix was 19 years old, law authorities had twice caught him riding in stolen cars. Given a choice between prison or joining the Army, he chose the latter and enlisted on May 31, 1961. After completing eight weeks of basic training at Fort Ord, California, he was assigned to the 101st Airborne Division and stationed at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. He arrived on November 8, and soon afterward he wrote to his father: "There's nothing but physical training and harassment here for two weeks, then when you go to jump school ... you get hell. They work you to death, fussing and fighting." In his next letter home, Hendrix, who had left his guitar in Seattle at the home of his girlfriend Betty Jean Morgan, asked his father to send it to him as soon as possible, stating: "I really need it now." His father obliged and sent the red Silvertone Danelectro on which Hendrix had hand-painted the words "Betty Jean" to Fort Campbell. His apparent obsession with the instrument contributed to his neglect of his duties, which led to taunting and physical abuse from his peers, who at least once hid the guitar from him until he had begged for its return. In November 1961, fellow serviceman Billy Cox walked past an army club and heard Hendrix playing. Impressed by Hendrix's technique, which Cox described as a combination of "John Lee Hooker and Beethoven", Cox borrowed a bass guitar and the two jammed. Within weeks, they began performing at base clubs on the weekends with other musicians in a loosely organized band, the Casuals. Hendrix completed his paratrooper training and, on January 11, 1962, Major General C. W. G. Rich awarded him the prestigious Screaming Eagles patch. By February, his personal conduct had begun to draw criticism from his superiors. They labeled him an unqualified marksman and often caught him napping while on duty and failing to report for bed checks. On May 24, Hendrix's platoon sergeant, James C. Spears, filed a report in which he stated: "He has no interest whatsoever in the Army ... It is my opinion that Private Hendrix will never come up to the standards required of a soldier. I feel that the military service will benefit if he is discharged as soon as possible." On June 29, 1962, Hendrix was granted a general discharge under honorable conditions. Hendrix later spoke of his dislike of the army and that he had received a medical discharge after breaking his ankle during his 26th parachute jump. However, no Army records have been produced that indicate that he received or was discharged for any injuries. Career Early years In September 1963, after Cox was discharged from the Army, he and Hendrix moved about across the state line from Fort Campbell to Clarksville, Tennessee, and formed a band, the King Kasuals. In Seattle, Hendrix saw Butch Snipes play with his teeth and now the Kasuals' second guitarist, Alphonso "Baby Boo" Young, was performing this guitar gimmick. Not to be upstaged, Hendrix also learned to play in this way. He later explained: "The idea of doing that came to me... in Tennessee. Down there you have to play with your teeth or else you get shot. There's a trail of broken teeth all over the stage." Although they began playing low-paying gigs at obscure venues, the band eventually moved to Nashville's Jefferson Street, which was the traditional heart of the city's black community and home to a thriving rhythm and blues music scene. They earned a brief residency playing at a popular venue in town, the Club del Morocco, and for the next two years Hendrix made a living performing at a circuit of venues throughout the South that were affiliated with the Theater Owners' Booking Association (TOBA), widely known as the chitlin' circuit. In addition to playing in his own band, Hendrix performed as a backing musician for various soul, R&B, and blues musicians, including Wilson Pickett, Slim Harpo, Sam Cooke, Ike & Tina Turner and Jackie Wilson. In January 1964, feeling he had outgrown the circuit artistically, and frustrated by having to follow the rules of bandleaders, Hendrix decided to venture out on his own. He moved into the Hotel Theresa in Harlem, where he befriended Lithofayne Pridgon, known as "Faye", who became his girlfriend. A Harlem native with connections throughout the area's music scene, Pridgon provided him with shelter, support, and encouragement. Hendrix also met the Allen twins, Arthur and Albert. In February 1964, Hendrix won first prize in the Apollo Theater amateur contest. Hoping to secure a career opportunity, he played the Harlem club circuit and sat in with various bands. At the recommendation of a former associate of Joe Tex, Ronnie Isley granted Hendrix an audition that led to an offer to become the guitarist with the Isley Brothers' backing band, the I.B. Specials, which he readily accepted. First recordings In March 1964, Hendrix recorded the two-part single "Testify" with the Isley Brothers. Released in June, it failed to chart. In May, he provided guitar instrumentation for the Don Covay song, "Mercy Mercy". Issued in August by Rosemart Records and distributed by Atlantic, the track reached number 35 on the Billboard chart. Hendrix toured with the Isleys during much of 1964, but near the end of October, after growing tired of playing the same set every night, he left the band. Soon afterward, Hendrix joined Little Richard's touring band, the Upsetters. During a stop in Los Angeles in February 1965, he recorded his first and only single with Richard, "I Don't Know What You Got (But It's Got Me)", written by Don Covay and released by Vee-Jay Records. Richard's popularity was waning at the time, and the single peaked at number 92, where it remained for one week before dropping off the chart. Hendrix met singer Rosa Lee Brooks while staying at the Wilcox Hotel in Hollywood, and she invited him to participate in a recording session for her single, which included the Arthur Lee penned "My Diary" as the A-side, and "Utee" as the B-side. Hendrix played guitar on both tracks, which also included background vocals by Lee. The single failed to chart, but Hendrix and Lee began a friendship that lasted several years; Hendrix later became an ardent supporter of Lee's band, Love. In July 1965, Hendrix made his first television appearance on Nashville's Channel 5 Night Train. Performing in Little Richard's ensemble band, he backed up vocalists Buddy and Stacy on "Shotgun". The video recording of the show marks the earliest known footage of Hendrix performing. Richard and Hendrix often clashed over tardiness, wardrobe, and Hendrix's stage antics, and in late July, Richard's brother Robert fired him. On July 27, Hendrix signed his first recording contract with Juggy Murray at Sue Records and Copa Management. He then briefly rejoined the Isley Brothers, and recorded a second single with them, "Move Over and Let Me Dance" backed with "Have You Ever Been Disappointed". Later that year, he joined a New York-based R&B band, Curtis Knight and the Squires, after meeting Knight in the lobby of a hotel where both men were staying. Hendrix performed with them for eight months. In October 1965, he and Knight recorded the single, "How Would You Feel" backed with "Welcome Home". Despite his two-year contract with Sue, Hendrix signed a three-year recording contract with entrepreneur Ed Chalpin on October 15. While the relationship with Chalpin was short-lived, his contract remained in force, which later caused legal and career problems for Hendrix. During his time with Knight, Hendrix briefly toured with Joey Dee and the Starliters, and worked with King Curtis on several recordings including Ray Sharpe's two-part single, "Help Me". Hendrix earned his first composer credits for two instrumentals, "Hornets Nest" and "Knock Yourself Out", released as a Curtis Knight and the Squires single in 1966. Feeling restricted by his experiences as an R&B sideman, Hendrix moved in 1966 to New York City's Greenwich Village, which had a vibrant and diverse music scene. There, he was offered a residency at the Cafe Wha? on MacDougal Street and formed his own band that June, Jimmy James and the Blue Flames, which included future Spirit guitarist Randy California. The Blue Flames played at several clubs in New York and Hendrix began developing his guitar style and material that he would soon use with the Experience. In September, they gave some of their last concerts at the Cafe Au Go Go in Manhattan, as the backing group for singer and guitarist then billed as John Hammond. The Jimi Hendrix Experience By May 1966, Hendrix was struggling to earn a living wage playing the R&B circuit, so he briefly rejoined Curtis Knight and the Squires for an engagement at one of New York City's most popular nightspots, the Cheetah Club. During a performance, Linda Keith, the girlfriend of Rolling Stones guitarist Keith Richards, noticed Hendrix and was "mesmerised" by his playing. She invited him to join her for a drink, and the two became friends. While Hendrix was playing with Jimmy James and the Blue Flames, Keith recommended him to Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham and producer Seymour Stein. They failed to see Hendrix's musical potential, and rejected him. Keith referred him to Chas Chandler, who was leaving the Animals and was interested in managing and producing artists. Chandler saw Hendrix play in Cafe Wha?, a Greenwich Village, New York City nightclub. Chandler liked the Billy Roberts song "Hey Joe", and was convinced he could create a hit single with the right artist. Impressed with Hendrix's version of the song, he brought him to London on September 24, 1966, and signed him to a management and production contract with himself and ex-Animals manager Michael Jeffery. That night, Hendrix gave an impromptu solo performance at The Scotch of St James, and began a relationship with Kathy Etchingham that lasted for two and a half years. Following Hendrix's arrival in London, Chandler began recruiting members for a band designed to highlight his talents, the Jimi Hendrix Experience. Hendrix met guitarist Noel Redding at an audition for the New Animals, where Redding's knowledge of blues progressions impressed Hendrix, who stated that he also liked Redding's hairstyle. Chandler asked Redding if he wanted to play bass guitar in Hendrix's band; Redding agreed. Chandler began looking for a drummer and soon after contacted Mitch Mitchell through a mutual friend. Mitchell, who had recently been fired from Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames, participated in a rehearsal with Redding and Hendrix where they found common ground in their shared interest in rhythm and blues. When Chandler phoned Mitchell later that day to offer him the position, he readily accepted. Chandler also convinced Hendrix to change the spelling of his first name from Jimmy to the more exotic Jimi. On October 1, 1966, Chandler brought Hendrix to the London Polytechnic at Regent Street, where Cream was scheduled to perform, and where Hendrix and guitarist Eric Clapton met. Clapton later said: "He asked if he could play a couple of numbers. I said, 'Of course', but I had a funny feeling about him." Halfway through Cream's set, Hendrix took the stage and performed a frantic version of the Howlin' Wolf song "Killing Floor". In 1989, Clapton described the performance: "He played just about every style you could think of, and not in a flashy way. I mean he did a few of his tricks, like playing with his teeth and behind his back, but it wasn't in an upstaging sense at all, and that was it ... He walked off, and my life was never the same again". UK success In mid-October 1966, Chandler arranged an engagement for the Experience as Johnny Hallyday's supporting act during a brief tour of France. Thus, the Jimi Hendrix Experience performed their first show on October 13, 1966, at the Novelty in Evreux. Their enthusiastically received 15-minute performance at the Olympia theatre in Paris on October 18 marks the earliest known recording of the band. In late October, Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp, managers of the Who, signed the Experience to their newly formed label, Track Records, and the group recorded their first song, "Hey Joe", on October 23. "Stone Free", which was Hendrix's first songwriting effort after arriving in England, was recorded on November 2. In mid-November, they performed at the Bag O'Nails nightclub in London, with Clapton, John Lennon, Paul McCartney, Jeff Beck, Pete Townshend, Brian Jones, Mick Jagger, and Kevin Ayers in attendance. Ayers described the crowd's reaction as stunned disbelief: "All the stars were there, and I heard serious comments, you know 'shit', 'Jesus', 'damn' and other words worse than that." The performance earned Hendrix his first interview, published in Record Mirror with the headline: "Mr. Phenomenon". "Now hear this ... we predict that [Hendrix] is going to whirl around the business like a tornado", wrote Bill Harry, who asked the rhetorical question: "Is that full, big, swinging sound really being created by only three people?" Hendrix said: "We don't want to be classed in any category ... If it must have a tag, I'd like it to be called, 'Free Feeling'. It's a mixture of rock, freak-out, rave and blues". Through a distribution deal with Polydor Records, the Experience's first single, "Hey Joe", backed with "Stone Free", was released on December 16, 1966. After appearances on the UK television shows Ready Steady Go! and the Top of the Pops, "Hey Joe" entered the UK charts on December 29 and peaked at number six. Further success came in March 1967 with the UK number three hit "Purple Haze", and in May with "The Wind Cries Mary", which remained on the UK charts for eleven weeks, peaking at number six. On March 12, 1967, he performed at the Troutbeck Hotel, Ilkley, West Yorkshire, where, after about 900 people turned up (the hotel was licensed for 250) the local police stopped the gig due to safety concerns. On March 31, 1967, while the Experience waited to perform at the London Astoria, Hendrix and Chandler discussed ways in which they could increase the band's media exposure. When Chandler asked journalist Keith Altham for advice, Altham suggested that they needed to do something more dramatic than the stage show of the Who, which involved the smashing of instruments. Hendrix joked: "Maybe I can smash up an elephant", to which Altham replied: "Well, it's a pity you can't set fire to your guitar". Chandler then asked road manager Gerry Stickells to procure some lighter fluid. During the show, Hendrix gave an especially dynamic performance before setting his guitar on fire at the end of a 45-minute set. In the wake of the stunt, members of London's press labeled Hendrix the "Black Elvis" and the "Wild Man of Borneo". Are You Experienced After the UK chart success of their first two singles, "Hey Joe" and "Purple Haze", the Experience began assembling material for a full-length LP. In London, recording began at De Lane Lea Studios, and later moved to the prestigious Olympic Studios. The album, Are You Experienced, features a diversity of musical styles, including blues tracks such as "Red House" and "Highway Chile", and the R&B song "Remember". It also included the experimental science fiction piece, "Third Stone from the Sun" and the post-modern soundscapes of the title track, with prominent backwards guitar and drums. "I Don't Live Today" served as a medium for Hendrix's guitar feedback improvisation and "Fire" was driven by Mitchell's drumming. Released in the UK on May 12, 1967, Are You Experienced spent 33 weeks on the charts, peaking at number two. It was prevented from reaching the top spot by the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. On June 4, 1967, Hendrix opened a show at the Saville Theatre in London with his rendition of Sgt. Pepper title track, which was released just three days previous. Beatles manager Brian Epstein owned the Saville at the time, and both George Harrison and Paul McCartney attended the performance. McCartney described the moment: "The curtains flew back and he came walking forward playing 'Sgt. Pepper'. It's a pretty major compliment in anyone's book. I put that down as one of the great honors of my career." Released in the US on August 23 by Reprise Records, Are You Experienced reached number five on the Billboard 200. In 1989, Noe Goldwasser, the founding editor of Guitar World, described Are You Experienced as "the album that shook the world ... leaving it forever changed". In 2005, Rolling Stone called the double-platinum LP Hendrix's "epochal debut", and they ranked it the 15th greatest album of all time, noting his "exploitation of amp howl", and characterizing his guitar playing as "incendiary ... historic in itself". Monterey Pop Festival Although popular in Europe at the time, the Experience's first US single, "Hey Joe", failed to reach the Billboard Hot 100 chart upon its release on May 1, 1967. Their fortunes improved when McCartney recommended them to the organizers of the Monterey Pop Festival. He insisted that the event would be incomplete without Hendrix, whom he called "an absolute ace on the guitar". McCartney agreed to join the board of organizers on the condition that the Experience perform at the festival in mid-June. On June 18, 1967, introduced by Brian Jones as "the most exciting performer [he had] ever heard", Hendrix opened with a fast arrangement of Howlin' Wolf's song "Killing Floor", wearing what author Keith Shadwick described as "clothes as exotic as any on display elsewhere". Shadwick wrote: "[Hendrix] was not only something utterly new musically, but an entirely original vision of what a black American entertainer should and could look like." The Experience went on to perform renditions of "Hey Joe", B.B. King's "Rock Me Baby", Chip Taylor's "Wild Thing", and Bob Dylan's "Like a Rolling Stone", and four original compositions: "Foxy Lady", "Can You See Me", "The Wind Cries Mary", and "Purple Haze". The set ended with Hendrix destroying his guitar and tossing pieces of it out to the audience. Rolling Stone Alex Vadukul wrote: Caraeff stood on a chair next to the edge of the stage and took four monochrome pictures of Hendrix burning his guitar. Caraeff was close enough to the fire that he had to use his camera to protect his face from the heat. Rolling Stone later colorized the image, matching it with other pictures taken at the festival before using the shot for a 1987 magazine cover. According to author Gail Buckland, the final frame of "Hendrix kneeling in front of his burning guitar, hands raised, is one of the most famous images in rock". Author and historian Matthew C. Whitaker wrote that "Hendrix's burning of his guitar became an iconic image in rock history and brought him national attention". The Los Angeles Times asserted that, upon leaving the stage, Hendrix "graduated from rumor to legend". Author John McDermott wrote that "Hendrix left the Monterey audience stunned and in disbelief at what they'd just heard and seen". According to Hendrix: "I decided to destroy my guitar at the end of a song as a sacrifice. You sacrifice things you love. I love my guitar." The performance was filmed by D. A. Pennebaker, and included in the concert documentary Monterey Pop, which helped Hendrix gain popularity with the US public. After the festival, the Experience was booked for five concerts at Bill Graham's Fillmore, with Big Brother and the Holding Company and Jefferson Airplane. The Experience outperformed Jefferson Airplane during the first two nights, and replaced them at the top of the bill on the fifth. Following their successful West Coast introduction, which included a free open-air concert at Golden Gate Park and a concert at the Whisky a Go Go, the Experience was booked as the opening act for the first American tour of the Monkees. The Monkees requested Hendrix as a supporting act because they were fans, but their young audience disliked the Experience, who left the tour after six shows. Chandler later said he engineered the tour to gain publicity for Hendrix. Axis: Bold as Love The second Experience album, Axis: Bold as Love, opens with the track "EXP", which uses microphonic and harmonic feedback in a new, creative fashion. It also showcased an experimental stereo panning effect in which sounds emanating from Hendrix's guitar move through the stereo image, revolving around the listener. The piece reflected his growing interest in science fiction and outer space. He composed the album's title track and finale around two verses and two choruses, during which he pairs emotions with personas, comparing them to colors. The song's coda features the first recording of stereo phasing. Shadwick described the composition as "possibly the most ambitious piece on Axis, the extravagant metaphors of the lyrics suggesting a growing confidence" in Hendrix's songwriting. His guitar playing throughout the song is marked by chordal arpeggios and contrapuntal motion, with tremolo-picked partial chords providing the musical foundation for the chorus, which culminates in what musicologist Andy Aledort described as "simply one of the greatest electric guitar solos ever played". The track fades out on tremolo-picked 32nd note double stops. The scheduled release date for Axis was almost delayed when Hendrix lost the master tape of side one of the LP, leaving it in the back seat of a London taxi. With the deadline looming, Hendrix, Chandler, and engineer Eddie Kramer remixed most of side one in a single overnight session, but they could not match the quality of the lost mix of "If 6 Was 9". Redding had a tape recording of this mix, which had to be smoothed out with an iron as it had gotten wrinkled. During the verses, Hendrix doubled his singing with a guitar line which he played one octave lower than his vocals. Hendrix voiced his disappointment about having re-mixed the album so quickly, and he felt that it could have been better had they been given more time. Axis featured psychedelic cover art that depicts Hendrix and the Experience as various avatars of Vishnu, incorporating a painting of them by Roger Law, from a photo-portrait by Karl Ferris. The painting was then superimposed on a copy of a mass-produced religious poster. Hendrix stated that the cover, which Track spent $5,000 producing, would have been more appropriate had it highlighted his American Indian heritage. He said: "You got it wrong ... I'm not that kind of Indian." Track released the album in the UK on December 1, 1967, where it peaked at number five, spending 16 weeks on the charts. In February 1968, Axis: Bold as Love reached number three in the US. While author and journalist Richie Unterberger described Axis as the least impressive Experience album, according to author Peter Doggett, the release "heralded a new subtlety in Hendrix's work". Mitchell said: "Axis was the first time that it became apparent that Jimi was pretty good working behind the mixing board, as well as playing, and had some positive ideas of how he wanted things recorded. It could have been the start of any potential conflict between him and Chas in the studio." Electric Ladyland Recording for the Experience's third and final studio album, Electric Ladyland, began as early as December 20, 1967, at Olympic Studios. Several songs were attempted; however, in April 1968, the Experience, with Chandler as producer and engineers Eddie Kramer and Gary Kellgren, moved the sessions to the newly opened Record Plant Studios in New York. As the sessions progressed, Chandler became increasingly frustrated with Hendrix's perfectionism and his demands for repeated takes. Hendrix also allowed numerous friends and guests to join them in the studio, which contributed to a chaotic and crowded environment in the control room and led Chandler to sever his professional relationship with Hendrix. Redding later recalled: "There were tons of people in the studio; you couldn't move. It was a party, not a session." Redding, who had formed his own band in mid-1968, Fat Mattress, found it increasingly difficult to fulfill his commitments with the Experience, so Hendrix played many of the bass parts on Electric Ladyland. The album's cover stated that it was "produced and directed by Jimi Hendrix". During the Electric Ladyland recording sessions, Hendrix began experimenting with other combinations of musicians, including Jefferson Airplane's Jack Casady and Traffic's Steve Winwood, who played bass and organ, respectively, on the 15-minute slow-blues jam, "Voodoo Chile". During the album's production, Hendrix appeared at an impromptu jam with B.B. King, Al Kooper, and Elvin Bishop. Electric Ladyland was released on October 25, and by mid-November it had reached number one in the US, spending two weeks at the top spot. The double LP was Hendrix's most commercially successful release and his only number one album. It peaked at number six in the UK, spending 12 weeks on the chart. Electric Ladyland included Hendrix's cover of a Bob Dylan song, "All Along the Watchtower", which became Hendrix's highest-selling single and his only US top 40 hit, peaking at number 20; the single reached number five in the UK. "Burning of the Midnight Lamp", his first recorded song to feature a wah-wah pedal, was added to the album. It was originally released as his fourth single in the UK in August 1967 and reached number 18 on the charts. In 1989, Noe Goldwasser, the founding editor of Guitar World, described Electric Ladyland as "Hendrix's masterpiece". According to author Michael Heatley, "most critics agree" that the album is "the fullest realization of Jimi's far-reaching ambitions." In 2004, author Peter Doggett wrote: "For pure experimental genius, melodic flair, conceptual vision and instrumental brilliance, Electric Ladyland remains a prime contender for the status of rock's greatest album." Doggett described the LP as "a display of musical virtuosity never surpassed by any rock musician." Break-up of the Experience In January 1969, after an absence of more than six months, Hendrix briefly moved back into his girlfriend Kathy Etchingham's Brook Street apartment, which was next door to what is now the Handel House Museum in the West End of London. After a performance of "Voodoo Child", on BBC's Happening for Lulu show in January 1969, the band stopped midway through an attempt at their first hit "Hey Joe" and then launched into an instrumental version of "Sunshine of Your Love", as a tribute to the recently disbanded band Cream, until producers brought the song to a premature end. Because the unplanned performance precluded Lulu's usual closing number, Hendrix was told he would never work at the BBC again. During this time, the Experience toured Scandinavia, Germany, and gave their final two performances in France. On February 18 and 24, they played sold-out concerts at London's Royal Albert Hall, which were the last European appearances of this lineup. By February 1969, Redding had grown weary of Hendrix's unpredictable work ethic and his creative control over the Experience's music. During the previous month's European tour, interpersonal relations within the group had deteriorated, particularly between Hendrix and Redding. In his diary, Redding documented the building frustration during early 1969 recording sessions: "On the first day, as I nearly expected, there was nothing doing ... On the second it was no show at all. I went to the pub for three hours, came back, and it was still ages before Jimi ambled in. Then we argued ... On the last day, I just watched it happen for a while, and then went back to my flat." The last Experience sessions that included Redding—a re-recording of "Stone Free" for use as a possible single release—took place on April 14 at Olmstead and the Record Plant in New York. Hendrix then flew bassist Billy Cox to New York; they started recording and rehearsing together on April 21. The last performance of the original Experience lineup took place on June 29, 1969, at Barry Fey's Denver Pop Festival, a three-day event held at Denver's Mile High Stadium that was marked by police using tear gas to control the audience. The band narrowly escaped from the venue in the back of a rental truck, which was partly crushed by fans who had climbed on top of the vehicle. Before the show, a journalist angered Redding by asking why he was there; the reporter then informed him that two weeks earlier Hendrix announced that he had been replaced with Billy Cox. The next day, Redding quit the Experience and returned to London. He announced that he had left the band and intended to pursue a solo career, blaming Hendrix's plans to expand the group without allowing for his input as a primary reason for leaving. Redding later said: "Mitch and I hung out a lot together, but we're English. If we'd go out, Jimi would stay in his room. But any bad feelings came from us being three guys who were traveling too hard, getting too tired, and taking too many drugs ... I liked Hendrix. I don't like Mitchell." Soon after Redding's departure, Hendrix began lodging at the eight-bedroom Ashokan House, in the hamlet of Boiceville near Woodstock in upstate New York, where he had spent some time vacationing in mid-1969. Manager Michael Jeffery arranged the accommodations in the hope that the respite might encourage Hendrix to write material for a new album. During this time, Mitchell was unavailable for commitments made by Jeffery, which included Hendrix's first appearance on US TV—on The Dick Cavett Show—where he was backed by the studio orchestra, and an appearance on The Tonight Show where he appeared with Cox and session drummer Ed Shaughnessy. Woodstock By 1969, Hendrix was the world's highest-paid rock musician. In August, he headlined the Woodstock Music and Art Fair that included many of the most popular bands of the time. For the concert, he added rhythm guitarist Larry Lee and conga players Juma Sultan and Jerry Velez. The band rehearsed for less than two weeks before the performance, and according to Mitchell, they never connected musically. Before arriving at the engagement, Hendrix heard reports that the size of the audience had grown enormously, which concerned him as he did not enjoy performing for large crowds. He was an important draw for the event, and although he accepted substantially less money for the appearance than his usual fee, he was the festival's highest-paid performer. Hendrix decided to move his midnight Sunday slot to Monday morning, closing the show. The band took the stage around 8:00 a.m, by which time Hendrix had been awake for more than three days. The audience, which peaked at an estimated 400,000 people, was reduced to 30,000–40,000, many of whom had waited to catch a glimpse of Hendrix before leaving during his performance. The festival MC, Chip Monck, introduced the group as "the Jimi Hendrix Experience", but Hendrix clarified: "We decided to change the whole thing around and call it 'Gypsy Sun and Rainbows'. For short, it's nothin' but a 'Band of Gypsys'." Hendrix's performance included a rendition of the US national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner", with copious feedback, distortion, and sustain to imitate the sounds made by rockets and bombs. Contemporary political pundits described his interpretation as a statement against the Vietnam War. Three weeks later Hendrix said: "We're all Americans ... it was like 'Go America!'... We play it the way the air is in America today. The air is slightly static, see." Immortalized in the 1970 documentary film, Woodstock, Hendrix's version became part of the sixties zeitgeist. Pop critic Al Aronowitz of the New York Post wrote: "It was the most electrifying moment of Woodstock, and it was probably the single greatest moment of the sixties." Images of the performance showing Hendrix wearing a blue-beaded white leather jacket with fringe, a red head-scarf, and blue jeans are regarded as iconic pictures that capture a defining moment of the era. He played "Hey Joe" during the encore, concluding the 3-day festival. Upon leaving the stage, he collapsed from exhaustion. In 2011, the editors of Guitar World named his performance of "The Star-Spangled Banner" the greatest performance of all time. Band of Gypsys A legal dispute arose in 1966 regarding a record contract that Hendrix had entered into the previous year with producer Ed Chalpin. After two years of litigation, the parties agreed to a resolution that granted Chalpin the distribution rights to an album of original Hendrix material. Hendrix decided that they would record the LP, Band of Gypsys, during two live appearances. In preparation for the shows he formed an all-black power trio with Cox and drummer Buddy Miles, formerly with Wilson Pickett, the Electric Flag, and the Buddy Miles Express. Critic John Rockwell described Hendrix and Miles as jazz-rock fusionists, and their collaboration as pioneering. Others identified a funk and soul influence in their music. Concert promoter Bill Graham called the shows "the most brilliant, emotional display of virtuoso electric guitar" that he had ever heard. Biographers have speculated that Hendrix formed the band in an effort to appease members of the Black Power movement and others in the black communities who called for him to use his fame to speak up for civil rights. Hendrix had been recording with Cox since April and jamming with Miles since September, and the trio wrote and rehearsed material which they performed at a series of four shows over two nights on December 31 and January 1, at the Fillmore East. They used recordings of these concerts to assemble the LP, which was produced by Hendrix. The album includes the track "Machine Gun", which musicologist Andy Aledort described as the pinnacle of Hendrix's career, and "the premiere example of [his] unparalleled genius as a rock guitarist ... In this performance, Jimi transcended the medium of rock music, and set an entirely new standard for the potential of electric guitar." During the song's extended instrumental breaks, Hendrix created sounds with his guitar that sonically represented warfare, including rockets, bombs, and diving planes. The Band of Gypsys album was the only official live Hendrix LP made commercially available during his lifetime; several tracks from the Woodstock and Monterey shows were released later that year. The album was released in April 1970 by Capitol Records; it reached the top ten in both the US and the UK. That same month a single was issued with "Stepping Stone" as the A-side and "Izabella" as the B-side, but Hendrix was dissatisfied with the quality of the mastering and he demanded that it be withdrawn and re-mixed, preventing the songs from charting and resulting in Hendrix's least successful single; it was also his last. On January 28, 1970, a third and final Band of Gypsys appearance took place; they performed during a music festival at Madison Square Garden benefiting the anti-Vietnam War Moratorium Committee titled the "Winter Festival for Peace". American blues guitarist Johnny Winter was backstage before the concert; he recalled: "[Hendrix] came in with his head down, sat on the couch alone, and put his head in his hands ... He didn't move until it was time for the show." Minutes after taking the stage he snapped a vulgar response at a woman who had shouted a request for "Foxy Lady". He then began playing "Earth Blues" before telling the audience: "That's what happens when earth fucks with space". Moments later, he briefly sat down on the drum riser before leaving the stage. Both Miles and Redding later stated that Jeffery had given Hendrix LSD before the performance. Miles believed that Jeffery gave Hendrix the drugs in an effort to sabotage the current band and bring about the return of the original Experience lineup. Jeffery fired Miles after the show and Cox quit, ending the Band of Gypsys. Cry of Love Tour Soon after the abruptly ended Band of Gypsys performance and their subsequent dissolution, Jeffery made arrangements to reunite the original Experience lineup. Although Hendrix, Mitchell, and Redding were interviewed by Rolling Stone in February 1970 as a united group, Hendrix never intended to work with Redding. When Redding returned to New York in anticipation of rehearsals with a re-formed Experience, he was told that he had been replaced with Cox. During an interview with Rolling Stone Keith Altham, Hendrix defended the decision: "It's nothing personal against Noel, but we finished what we were doing with the Experience and Billy's style of playing suits the new group better." Although an official name was never adopted for the lineup of Hendrix, Mitchell, and Cox, promoters often billed them as the Jimi Hendrix Experience or just Jimi Hendrix. During the first half of 1970, Hendrix sporadically worked on material for what would have been his next LP. Many of the tracks were posthumously released in 1971 as The Cry of Love. He had started writing songs for the album in 1968, but in April 1970 he told Keith Altham that the project had been abandoned. Soon afterward, he and his band took a break from recording and began the Cry of Love tour at the L.A. Forum, performing for 20,000 people. Set-lists during the tour included numerous Experience tracks as well as a selection of newer material. Several shows were recorded, and they produced some of Hendrix's most memorable live performances. At one of them, the second Atlanta International Pop Festival, on July 4, he played to the largest American audience of his career. According to authors Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz, as many as 500,000 people attended the concert. On July 17, they appeared at the New York Pop Festival; Hendrix had again consumed too many drugs before the show, and the set was considered a disaster. The American leg of the tour, which included 32 performances, ended in Honolulu, Hawaii, on August 1, 1970. This would be Hendrix's final concert appearance in the US. Electric Lady Studios In 1968, Hendrix and Jeffery jointly invested in the purchase of the Generation Club in Greenwich Village. They had initially planned to reopen the establishment, but when an audit of Hendrix's expenses revealed that he had incurred exorbitant fees by block-booking recording studios for lengthy sessions at peak rates they decided to convert the building into a studio of his own. Hendrix could then work as much as he wanted while also reducing his recording expenditures, which had reached a reported $300,000 annually. Architect and acoustician John Storyk designed Electric Lady Studios for Hendrix, who requested that they avoid right angles where possible. With round windows, an ambient lighting machine, and a psychedelic mural, Storyk wanted the studio to have a relaxing environment that would encourage Hendrix's creativity. The project took twice as long as planned and cost twice as much as Hendrix and Jeffery had budgeted, with their total investment estimated at $1 million. Hendrix first used Electric Lady on June 15, 1970, when he jammed with Steve Winwood and Chris Wood of Traffic; the next day, he recorded his first track there, "Night Bird Flying". The studio officially opened for business on August 25, and a grand opening party was held the following day. Immediately afterwards, Hendrix left for England; he never returned to the States. He boarded an Air India flight for London with Cox, joining Mitchell for a performance as the headlining act of the Isle of Wight Festival. European tour When the European leg of the Cry of Love tour began, Hendrix was longing for his new studio and creative outlet, and was not eager to fulfill the commitment. On September 2, 1970, he abandoned a performance in Aarhus after three songs, stating: "I've been dead a long time". Four days later, he gave his final concert appearance, at the Isle of Fehmarn Festival in Germany. He was met with booing and jeering from fans in response to his cancellation of a show slated for the end of the previous night's bill due to torrential rain and risk of electrocution. Immediately following the festival, Hendrix, Mitchell, and Cox traveled to London. Three days after the performance, Cox, who was suffering from severe paranoia after either taking LSD or being given it unknowingly, quit the tour and went to stay with his parents in Pennsylvania. Within days of Hendrix's arrival in England, he had spoken with Chas Chandler, Alan Douglas, and others about leaving his manager, Michael Jeffery. On September 16, Hendrix performed in public for the last time during an informal jam at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club in Soho with Eric Burdon and his latest band, War. They began by playing a few of their recent hits, and after a brief intermission Hendrix joined them during "Mother Earth" and "Tobacco Road". His performance was uncharacteristically subdued; he quietly played backing guitar, and refrained from the histrionics that people had come to expect from him. He died less than 48 hours later. Drugs and alcohol Hendrix entered a small club in Clarksville, Tennessee, in July 1962, drawn in by live music. He stopped for a drink and ended up spending most of the $400 that he had saved during his time in the Army. "I went in this jazz joint and had a drink," he explained. "I liked it and I stayed. People tell me I get foolish, good-natured sometimes. Anyway, I guess I felt real benevolent that day. I must have been handing out bills to anyone that asked me. I came out of that place with sixteen dollars left." Alcohol eventually became "the scourge of his existence, driving him to fits of pique, even rare bursts of atypical, physical violence". Roby and Schreiber assert that Hendrix first used LSD when he met Linda Keith in late 1966. Shapiro and Glebbeek, however, assert that Hendrix used it in June 1967 at the earliest while attending the Monterey Pop Festival. According to Hendrix biographer Charles Cross, the subject of drugs came up one evening in 1966 at Keith's New York apartment. One of Keith's friends offered Hendrix acid, a street name for LSD, but Hendrix asked for LSD instead, showing what Cross describes as "his naivete and his complete inexperience with psychedelics". Before that, Hendrix had only sporadically used drugs, including cannabis, hashish, amphetamines, and occasionally cocaine. After 1967, he regularly used cannabis, hashish, LSD, and amphetamines, particularly while touring. According to Cross, "few stars were as closely associated with the drug culture as Jimi". Drug abuse and violence When Hendrix drank to excess or mixed drugs with alcohol, often he became angry and violent. His friend Herbie Worthington said Hendrix "simply turned into a bastard" when he drank. According to friend Sharon Lawrence, liquor "set off a bottled-up anger, a destructive fury he almost never displayed otherwise". In January 1968, the Experience travelled to Sweden to start a one-week tour of Europe. During the early morning hours of the first day, Hendrix got into a drunken brawl in the Hotel Opalen in Gothenburg, smashing a plate-glass window and injuring his right hand, for which he received medical treatment. The incident culminated in his arrest and release, pending a court appearance that resulted in a large fine. In 1969, Hendrix rented a house in Benedict Canyon, California, that was burglarized. Later, while under the influence of drugs and alcohol, he accused his friend Paul Caruso of the theft, threw punches and stones at him, and chased him away from his house. A few days later Hendrix hit his girlfriend, Carmen Borrero, above her eye with a vodka bottle during a drunken, jealous rage, and gave her a cut that necessitated stitches. Canadian drug charges and trial Hendrix was passing through customs at Toronto International Airport on May 3, 1969, when authorities found a small amount of heroin and hashish in his luggage, and charged him with drug possession. He was released on $10,000 bail, and was required to return on May 5 for an arraignment hearing. The incident proved stressful for Hendrix, and it weighed heavily on his mind during the seven months leading up to his December 1969 trial. For the Crown to prove possession, they had to show that Hendrix knew that the drugs were there. During the jury trial, he testified that a fan had given him a vial of what he thought was legal medication which he put in his bag. He was acquitted of the charges. Mitchell and Redding later revealed that everyone had been warned about a planned drug bust the day before flying to Toronto; both men also stated that they believed that the drugs had been planted in Hendrix's bag without his knowledge. Death, post-mortem, and burial Details are disputed concerning Hendrix's last day and death. He spent much of September 17, 1970, with Monika Dannemann in London, the only witness to his final hours. Dannemann said that she prepared a meal for them at her apartment in the Samarkand Hotel around 11 p.m., when they shared a bottle of wine. She drove him to the residence of an acquaintance at approximately 1:45 a.m., where he remained for about an hour before she picked him up and drove them back to her flat at 3 a.m. She said that they talked until around 7 a.m., when they went to sleep. Dannemann awoke around 11 a.m. and found Hendrix breathing but unconscious and unresponsive. She called for an ambulance at 11:18 a.m., and it arrived nine minutes later. Paramedics transported Hendrix to St Mary Abbot's Hospital where Dr. John Bannister pronounced him dead at 12:45 p.m. on September 18. Coroner Gavin Thurston ordered a post-mortem examination which was performed on September 21 by Professor Robert Donald Teare, a forensic pathologist. Thurston completed the inquest on September 28 and concluded that Hendrix aspirated his own vomit and died of asphyxia while intoxicated with barbiturates. Citing "insufficient evidence of the circumstances", he declared an open verdict. Dannemann later revealed that Hendrix had taken nine of her prescribed Vesparax sleeping tablets, 18 times the recommended dosage. Desmond Henley embalmed Hendrix's body which was flown to Seattle on September 29. Hendrix's family and friends held a service at Dunlap Baptist Church in Seattle's Rainier Valley on Thursday, October 1; his body was interred at Greenwood Cemetery in nearby Renton, the location of his mother's grave. Family and friends traveled in 24 limousines, and more than 200 people attended the funeral, including Mitch Mitchell, Noel Redding, Miles Davis, John Hammond, and Johnny Winter. Hendrix is often cited as one example of an allegedly disproportionate number of musicians dying at age 27, a phenomenon referred to as the 27 Club. Unauthorized and posthumous releases By 1967, as Hendrix was gaining in popularity, many of his pre-Experience recordings were marketed to an unsuspecting public as Jimi Hendrix albums, sometimes with misleading later images of Hendrix. The recordings, which came under the control of producer Ed Chalpin of PPX, with whom Hendrix had signed a recording contract in 1965, were often re-mixed between their repeated reissues, and licensed to record companies such as Decca and Capitol. Hendrix publicly denounced the releases, describing them as "malicious" and "greatly inferior", stating: "At PPX, we spent on average about one hour recording a song. Today I spend at least twelve hours on each song." These unauthorized releases have long constituted a substantial part of his recording catalogue, amounting to hundreds of albums. Some of Hendrix's unfinished fourth studio album was released as the 1971 title The Cry of Love. Although the album reached number three in the US and number two in the UK, producers Mitchell and Kramer later complained that they were unable to make use of all the available songs because some tracks were used for 1971's Rainbow Bridge; still others were issued on 1972's War Heroes. Material from The Cry of Love was re-released in 1997 as First Rays of the New Rising Sun, along with the other tracks that Mitchell and Kramer had wanted to include. Four years after Hendrix's death, producer Alan Douglas acquired the rights to produce unreleased music by Hendrix; he attracted criticism for using studio musicians to replace or add tracks. In 1993, MCA Records delayed a multimillion-dollar sale of Hendrix's publishing copyrights because Al Hendrix was unhappy about the arrangement. He acknowledged that he had sold distribution rights to a foreign corporation in 1974, but stated that it did not include copyrights and argued that he had retained veto power of the sale of the catalogue. Under a settlement reached in July 1995, Al Hendrix regained control of his son's song and image rights. He subsequently licensed the recordings to MCA through the family-run company Experience Hendrix LLC, formed in 1995. In August 2009, Experience Hendrix announced that it had entered a new licensing agreement with Sony Music Entertainment's Legacy Recordings division, to take effect in 2010. Legacy and Experience Hendrix launched the 2010 Jimi Hendrix Catalog Project starting with the release of Valleys of Neptune in March of that year. In the months before his death, Hendrix recorded demos for a concept album tentatively titled Black Gold, now in the possession of Experience Hendrix LLC, but it has not been released. Equipment Guitars Hendrix played a variety of guitars, but was most associated with the Fender Stratocaster. He acquired his first in 1966, when a girlfriend loaned him enough money to purchase a used Stratocaster built around 1964. He used it often during performances and recordings. In 1967, he described the Stratocaster as "the best all-around guitar for the stuff we're doing"; he praised its "bright treble and deep bass". Hendrix mainly played right-handed guitars that were turned upside down and restrung for left-hand playing. Because of the slant of the Stratocaster's bridge pickup, his lowest string had a brighter sound, while his highest string had a darker sound, the opposite of the intended design. Hendrix also used Fender Jazzmasters, Duosonics, two different Gibson Flying Vs, a Gibson Les Paul, three Gibson SGs, a Gretsch Corvette, and a Fender Jaguar. He used a white Gibson SG Custom for his performances on The Dick Cavett Show in September 1969, and a black Gibson Flying V during the Isle of Wight festival in 1970. Amplifiers During 1965, and 1966, while Hendrix was playing back-up for soul and R&B acts in the US, he used an 85-watt Fender Twin Reverb amplifier. When Chandler brought Hendrix to England in October 1966, he supplied him with 30-watt Burns amps, which Hendrix thought were too small for his needs. After an early London gig when he was unable to use his Fender Twin, he asked about the Marshall amps he had noticed other groups using. Years earlier, Mitch Mitchell had taken drum lessons from Marshall founder Jim Marshall, and he introduced Hendrix to Marshall. At their initial meeting, Hendrix bought four speaker cabinets and three 100-watt Super Lead amplifiers; he grew accustomed to using all three in unison. The equipment arrived on October 11, 1966, and the Experience used it during their first tour. Marshall amps were important to the development of Hendrix's overdriven sound and his use of feedback, creating what author Paul Trynka described as a "definitive vocabulary for rock guitar". Hendrix usually turned all the control knobs to the maximum level, which became known as the Hendrix setting. During the four years prior to his death, he purchased between 50 and 100 Marshall amplifiers. Jim Marshall said Hendrix was "the greatest ambassador" his company ever had. Effects One of Hendrix's signature effects was the wah-wah pedal, which he first heard used with an electric guitar in Cream's "Tales of Brave Ulysses", released in May 1967. That July, while performing at the Scene club in New York City, Hendrix met Frank Zappa, whose band the Mothers of Invention were performing at the adjacent Garrick Theater. Hendrix was fascinated by Zappa's application of the pedal, and he experimented with one later that evening. He used a wah pedal during the opening to "Voodoo Child (Slight Return)", creating one of the best-known wah-wah riffs of the classic rock era. He also uses the effect on "Up from the Skies", "Little Miss Lover", and "Still Raining, Still Dreaming". Hendrix used a Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face and a Vox wah pedal during recording sessions and performances, but also experimented with other guitar effects. He enjoyed a fruitful long-term collaboration with electronics enthusiast Roger Mayer, whom he once called "the secret" of his sound. Mayer introduced him to the Octavia, an octave-doubling effect pedal, in December 1966, and he first recorded with it during the guitar solo to "Purple Haze". Hendrix also used the Uni-Vibe, designed to simulate the modulation effects of a rotating Leslie speaker. He uses the effect during his performance at Woodstock and on the Band of Gypsys track "Machine Gun", which prominently features the Uni-vibe along with an Octavia and a Fuzz Face. For performances, he plugged his guitar into the wah-wah, which was connected to the Fuzz Face, then the Uni-Vibe, and finally a Marshall amplifier. Influences As an adolescent in the 1950s, Hendrix became interested in rock and roll artists such as Elvis Presley, Little Richard, and Chuck Berry. In 1968, he told Guitar Player magazine that electric blues artists Muddy Waters, Elmore James, and B.B. King inspired him during the beginning of his career; he also cited Eddie Cochran as an early influence. Of Muddy Waters, the first electric guitarist of which Hendrix became aware, he said: "I heard one of his records when I was a little boy and it scared me to death because I heard all of these sounds." In 1970, he told Rolling Stone that he was a fan of western swing artist Bob Wills and while he lived in Nashville, the television show the Grand Ole Opry. Cox stated that during their time serving in the US military, he and Hendrix primarily listened to southern blues artists such as Jimmy Reed and Albert King. According to Cox, "King was a very, very powerful influence". Howlin' Wolf also inspired Hendrix, who performed Wolf's "Killing Floor" as the opening song of his US debut at the Monterey Pop Festival. The influence of soul artist Curtis Mayfield can be heard in Hendrix's guitar playing, and the influence of Bob Dylan can be heard in Hendrix's songwriting; he was known to play Dylan's records repeatedly, particularly Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde. Legacy The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame biography for the Experience states: "Jimi Hendrix was arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music. Hendrix expanded the range and vocabulary of the electric guitar into areas no musician had ever ventured before. His boundless drive, technical ability and creative application of such effects as wah-wah and distortion forever transformed the sound of rock and roll." Musicologist Andy Aledort described Hendrix as "one of the most creative" and "influential musicians that has ever lived". Music journalist Chuck Philips wrote: "In a field almost exclusively populated by white musicians, Hendrix has served as a role model for a cadre of young black rockers. His achievement was to reclaim title to a musical form pioneered by black innovators like Little Richard and Chuck Berry in the 1950s." Hendrix favored overdriven amplifiers with high volume and gain. He was instrumental in developing the previously undesirable technique of guitar amplifier feedback, and helped to popularize use of the wah-wah pedal in mainstream rock. He rejected the standard barre chord fretting technique used by most guitarists in favor of fretting the low 6th string root notes with his thumb. He applied this technique during the beginning bars of "Little Wing", which allowed him to sustain the root note of chords while also playing melody. This method has been described as piano style, with the thumb playing what a pianist's left hand would play and the other fingers playing melody as a right hand. Having spent several years fronting a trio, he developed an ability to play rhythm chords and lead lines together, giving the audio impression that more than one guitarist was performing. He was the first artist to incorporate stereophonic phasing effects in rock music recordings. Holly George-Warren of Rolling Stone wrote: "Hendrix pioneered the use of the instrument as an electronic sound source. Players before him had experimented with feedback and distortion, but Hendrix turned those effects and others into a controlled, fluid vocabulary every bit as personal as the blues with which he began." While creating his unique musical voice and guitar style, Hendrix synthesized diverse genres, including blues, R&B, soul, British rock, American folk music, 1950s rock and roll, and jazz. Musicologist David Moskowitz emphasized the importance of blues music in Hendrix's playing style, and according to authors Steven Roby and Brad Schreiber, "[He] explored the outer reaches of psychedelic rock". His influence is evident in a variety of popular music formats, and he has contributed significantly to the development of hard rock, heavy metal, funk, post-punk, grunge, and hip hop music. His lasting influence on modern guitar players is difficult to overstate; his techniques and delivery have been abundantly imitated by others. Despite his hectic touring schedule and notorious perfectionism, he was a prolific recording artist who left behind numerous unreleased recordings. More than 40 years after his death, Hendrix remains as popular as ever, with annual album sales exceeding that of any year during his lifetime. As with his contemporary Sly Stone, Hendrix embraced the experimentalism of white musicians in progressive rock in the late 1960s and inspired a wave of progressive soul musicians that emerged by the next decade. He has directly influenced numerous funk and funk rock artists, including Prince, George Clinton, John Frusciante of the Red Hot Chili Peppers, Eddie Hazel of Funkadelic, and Ernie Isley of the Isley Brothers. Hendrix influenced post-punk guitarists such as John McGeoch and Robert Smith. Grunge guitarists such as Jerry Cantrell of Alice in Chains, and Mike McCready and Stone Gossard of Pearl Jam have cited Hendrix as an influence. Hendrix's influence also extends to many hip hop artists, including De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest, Digital Underground, Beastie Boys, and Run–D.M.C. Miles Davis was deeply impressed by Hendrix, and he compared Hendrix's improvisational abilities with those of saxophonist John Coltrane. Hendrix also influenced Black Sabbath, industrial artist Marilyn Manson, blues legend Stevie Ray Vaughan, Randy Hansen, Uli Jon Roth, pop singer Halsey, Kiss's Ace Frehley, Metallica Kirk Hammett, Aerosmith's Brad Whitford, Judas Priest's Richie Faulkner, instrumental rock guitarist Joe Satriani, King's X singer/bassist Doug Pinnick, Frank Zappa/David Bowie/Talking Heads/King Crimson/Nine Inch Nails hired gun Adrian Belew, and heavy metal virtuoso Yngwie Malmsteen, who said: "[Hendrix] created modern electric playing, without question ... He was the first. He started it all. The rest is history." "For many", Hendrix was "the preeminent black rocker", according to Jon Caramanica. Members of the Soulquarians, an experimental black music collective active during the late 1990s and early 2000s, were influenced by the creative freedom in Hendrix's music and extensively used Electric Lady Studios to work on their own music. Recognition and awards Hendrix received several prestigious rock music awards during his lifetime and posthumously. In 1967, readers of Melody Maker voted him the Pop Musician of the Year. In 1968, Rolling Stone declared him the Performer of the Year. Also in 1968, the City of Seattle gave him the keys to the city. Disc & Music Echo newspaper honored him with the World Top Musician of 1969 and in 1970 Guitar Player magazine named him the Rock Guitarist of the Year. Rolling Stone ranked his three non-posthumous studio albums, Are You Experienced (1967), Axis: Bold as Love (1967), and Electric Ladyland (1968) among the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. They ranked Hendrix number one on their list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time, and number six on their list of the 100 greatest artists of all time. Guitar Worlds readers voted six of Hendrix's solos among the top 100 Greatest Guitar Solos of All Time: "Purple Haze" (70), "The Star-Spangled Banner" (52; from Live at Woodstock), "Machine Gun" (32; from Band of Gypsys), "Little Wing" (18), "Voodoo Child (Slight Return)" (11), and "All Along the Watchtower" (5). Rolling Stone placed seven of his recordings in their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time: "Purple Haze" (17), "All Along the Watchtower" (47) "Voodoo Child (Slight Return)" (102), "Foxy Lady" (153), "Hey Joe" (201), "Little Wing" (366), and "The Wind Cries Mary" (379). They also included three of Hendrix's songs in their list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time: "Purple Haze" (2), "Voodoo Child" (12), and "Machine Gun" (49). A star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame was dedicated to Hendrix on November 14, 1991, at 6627 Hollywood Boulevard. The Jimi Hendrix Experience was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992, and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005. In 1998, Hendrix was inducted into the Native American Music Hall of Fame during its first year. In 1999, readers of Rolling Stone and Guitar World ranked Hendrix among the most important musicians of the 20th century. In 2005, his debut album, Are You Experienced, was one of 50 recordings added that year to the U.S. National Recording Registry in the Library of Congress, "[to] be preserved for all time ... [as] part of the nation's audio legacy". In Seattle, November 27, 1992, which would have been Hendrix's 50th birthday, was made Jimi Hendrix Day, largely due to the efforts of his boyhood friend, guitarist Sammy Drain. The blue plaque identifying Hendrix's former residence at 23 Brook Street, London, (next door to the former residence of George Frideric Handel) was the first issued by English Heritage to commemorate a pop star. A memorial statue of Hendrix playing a Stratocaster stands near the corner of Broadway and Pine Streets in Seattle. In May 2006, the city renamed a park near its Central District Jimi Hendrix Park, in his honor. In 2012, an official historic marker was erected on the site of the July 1970 Second Atlanta International Pop Festival near Byron, Georgia. The marker text reads, in part: "Over thirty musical acts performed, including rock icon Jimi Hendrix playing to the largest American audience of his career." Hendrix's music has received a number of Hall of Fame Grammy awards, starting with a Lifetime Achievement Award in 1992, followed by two Grammys in 1999 for his albums Are You Experienced and Electric Ladyland; Axis: Bold as Love received a Grammy in 2006. In 2000, he received a Hall of Fame Grammy award for his original composition, "Purple Haze", and in 2001, for his recording of Dylan's "All Along the Watchtower". Hendrix's rendition of "The Star-Spangled Banner" was honored with a Grammy in 2009. The United States Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honoring Hendrix in 2014. On August 21, 2016, Hendrix was inducted into the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame in Dearborn, Michigan. The James Marshall "Jimi" Hendrix United States Post Office in Renton Highlands near Seattle, about a mile from Hendrix's grave and memorial, was renamed for Hendrix in 2019. On June 23, 2019, the Band of Gypsys were inducted into the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame, at the Charles H. Wright Museum of African-American History in Detroit, Michigan. Billy Cox, the last surviving member of the group was on hand to accept, along with representatives of the Buddy Miles and Hendrix estates. Discography The Jimi Hendrix Experience Are You Experienced (1967) Axis: Bold as Love (1967) Electric Ladyland (1968)Jimi Hendrix/Band of Gypsys''' Band of Gypsys (1970) See also The Electric Lady Studio Guitar, a sculpture made in honour of Hendrix. Notes References Bibliography Further reading Documentaries External links Jimi Hendrix Experience discography at Discogs Articles concerning disputes about rights to the Hendrix musical publishing estate. Los Angeles Times'' FBI Records: The Vault – James Marshall "Jimi" Hendrix at vault.fbi.gov 1942 births 1970 deaths 20th-century American guitarists 20th-century African-American male singers Accidental deaths in London African-American guitarists African-American military personnel African-American rock singers African-American male singer-songwriters Alcohol-related deaths in England American blues guitarists American blues singers American expatriates in the United Kingdom American male guitarists American people who self-identify as being of Native American descent American rock guitarists American rock singers American rock songwriters Band of Gypsys members Barbiturates-related deaths Barclay Records artists Blues rock musicians Burials in Washington (state) Capitol Records artists Drug-related deaths in England Garfield High School (Seattle) alumni Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Guitarists from Washington (state) Gypsy Sun and Rainbows members Ike & Tina Turner members The Jimi Hendrix Experience members Kings of Rhythm members Lead guitarists Musicians from Seattle Polydor Records artists Psychedelic rock musicians Record producers from Washington (state) Singer-songwriters from Washington (state) Sue Records artists United States Army soldiers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July%2021

July 21

Events Pre-1600 356 BC – The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, is destroyed by arson. 230 – Pope Pontian succeeds Urban I as the eighteenth pope. 285 – Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar and co-ruler. 365 – The 365 Crete earthquake affected the Greek island of Crete with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme), causing a destructive tsunami that affects the coasts of Libya and Egypt, especially Alexandria. Many thousands were killed. 905 – King Berengar I of Italy and a hired Hungarian army defeats the Frankish forces at Verona. King Louis III is captured and blinded for breaking his oath (see 902). 1242 – Battle of Taillebourg: Louis IX of France puts an end to the revolt of his vassals Henry III of England and Hugh X of Lusignan. 1403 – Battle of Shrewsbury: King Henry IV of England defeats rebels to the north of the county town of Shropshire, England. 1545 – The first landing of French troops on the coast of the Isle of Wight during the French invasion of the Isle of Wight. 1568 – Eighty Years' War: Battle of Jemmingen: Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alva defeats Louis of Nassau. 1601–1900 1645 – Qing dynasty regent Dorgon issues an edict ordering all Han Chinese men to shave their forehead and braid the rest of their hair into a queue identical to those of the Manchus. 1656 – The Raid on Málaga takes place during the Anglo-Spanish War. 1718 – The Treaty of Passarowitz between the Ottoman Empire, Austria and the Republic of Venice is signed. 1774 – Russo-Turkish War (1768–74): Russia and the Ottoman Empire sign the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca ending the war. 1798 – French campaign in Egypt and Syria: Napoleon's forces defeat an Ottoman-Mamluk army near Cairo in the Battle of the Pyramids. 1831 – Inauguration of Leopold I of Belgium, first king of the Belgians. 1861 – American Civil War: First Battle of Bull Run: At Manassas Junction, Virginia, the first major battle of the war begins and ends in a victory for the Confederate army. 1865 – In the market square of Springfield, Missouri, Wild Bill Hickok shoots and kills Davis Tutt in what is regarded as the first western showdown. 1873 – At Adair, Iowa, Jesse James and the James–Younger Gang pull off the first successful train robbery in the American Old West. 1877 – After rioting by Baltimore and Ohio Railroad workers and the deaths of nine rail workers at the hands of the Maryland militia, workers in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, stage a sympathy strike that is met with an assault by the state militia. 1901–present 1904 – Louis Rigolly, a Frenchman, becomes the first man to break the barrier on land. He drove a 15-liter Gobron-Brillié in Ostend, Belgium. 1907 – The passenger steamer SS Columbia sinks after colliding with the steam schooner San Pedro off Shelter Cove, California, killing 88 people. 1919 – The dirigible Wingfoot Air Express crashes into the Illinois Trust and Savings Building in Chicago, killing 12 people. 1925 – Scopes Trial: In Dayton, Tennessee, high school biology teacher John T. Scopes is found guilty of teaching human evolution in class and fined $100. 1925 – Malcolm Campbell becomes the first man to exceed on land. At Pendine Sands in Wales, he drives Sunbeam 350HP built by Sunbeam at a two-way average speed of . 1936 – Spanish Civil War: The Central Committee of Antifascist Militias of Catalonia is constituted, establishing an anarcho-syndicalist economy in Catalonia. 1944 – World War II: Battle of Guam: American troops land on Guam, starting a battle that will end on August 10. 1944 – World War II: Claus von Stauffenberg and four fellow conspirators are executed for the July 20 plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler. 1949 – The United States Senate ratifies the North Atlantic Treaty. 1952 – The 7.3 Kern County earthquake strikes Southern California with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme), killing 12 and injuring hundreds. 1954 – First Indochina War: The Geneva Conference partitions Vietnam into North Vietnam and South Vietnam. 1959 – , the first nuclear-powered cargo-passenger ship, is launched as a showcase for Dwight D. Eisenhower's "Atoms for Peace" initiative. 1959 – Elijah Jerry "Pumpsie" Green becomes the first African-American to play for the Boston Red Sox, the last team to integrate. He came in as a pinch runner for Vic Wertz and stayed in as shortstop in a 2–1 loss to the Chicago White Sox. 1960 – Sirimavo Bandaranaike is elected Prime Minister of Sri Lanka, becoming the world's first female head of government 1961 – Mercury program: Mercury-Redstone 4 Mission: Gus Grissom piloting Liberty Bell 7 becomes the second American to go into space (in a suborbital mission). 1969 – Apollo program: At 02:56 UTC, astronaut Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to walk on the Moon, followed 19 minutes later by Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin. 1970 – After 11 years of construction, the Aswan High Dam in Egypt is completed. 1972 – The Troubles: Bloody Friday: The Provisional IRA detonate 22 bombs in central Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom in the space of 80 minutes, killing nine and injuring 130. 1973 – In Lillehammer, Norway, Mossad agents kill a waiter whom they mistakenly thought was involved in the 1972 Munich Olympics Massacre. 1976 – Christopher Ewart-Biggs, the British ambassador to the Republic of Ireland, is assassinated by the Provisional IRA. 1977 – The start of the four-day-long Libyan–Egyptian War. 1979 – Jay Silverheels, a Mohawk actor, becomes the first Native American to have a star commemorated in the Hollywood Walk of Fame. 1983 – The world's lowest temperature in an inhabited location is recorded at Vostok Station, Antarctica at . 1990 – Taiwan's military police forces mainland Chinese illegal immigrants into sealed holds of a fishing boat Min Ping Yu No. 5540 for repatriation to Fujian, causing 25 people to die from suffocation. 1995 – Third Taiwan Strait Crisis: The People's Liberation Army begins firing missiles into the waters north of Taiwan. 2001 – At the conclusion of a fireworks display on Okura Beach in Akashi, Hyōgo, Japan, 11 people are killed and more than 120 are injured when a pedestrian footbridge connecting the beach to JR Asagiri Station becomes overcrowded and people leaving the event fall down in a domino effect. 2005 – Four attempted bomb attacks by Islamist extremists disrupt part of London's public transport system. 2008 – Ram Baran Yadav is declared the first President of Nepal. 2010 – President Barack Obama signs the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. 2011 – NASA's Space Shuttle program ends with the landing of Space Shuttle Atlantis on mission STS-135 at NASA's Kennedy Space Center. 2012 – Erden Eruç completes the first solo human-powered circumnavigation of the world. 2019 – 2019 Yuen Long attack or "721 incident" in Hong Kong. Triad members indiscriminately beat civilians returning from protests while police failed to take action. Births Pre-1600 541 – Emperor Wen of Sui, emperor of the Sui Dynasty (died 604) 1030 – Kyansittha, King of Burma (died 1112) 1414 – Pope Sixtus IV (died 1484) 1462 – Queen Jeonghyeon, Korean royal consort (died 1530) 1476 – Alfonso I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara (died 1534) 1476 – Anna Sforza, Italian noble (died 1497) 1535 – García Hurtado de Mendoza, 5th Marquis of Cañete, Royal Governor of Chile (died 1609) 1601–1900 1616 – Anna de' Medici, Archduchess of Austria (died 1676) 1620 – Jean Picard, French astronomer (died 1682) 1648 – John Graham, 1st Viscount Dundee, Scottish general (died 1689) 1654 – Pedro Calungsod, Filipino catechist and sacristan; later canonized (died 1672) 1664 – Matthew Prior, English poet and diplomat, British Ambassador to France (died 1721) 1693 – Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (died 1768) 1710 – Paul Möhring, German physician, botanist, and zoologist (died 1792) 1783 – Charles Tristan, marquis de Montholon, French general (died 1853) 1808 – Simion Bărnuțiu, Romanian historian, academic, and politician (died 1864) 1810 – Henri Victor Regnault, French chemist and physicist (died 1878) 1811 – Robert Mackenzie, Scottish-Australian politician, 3rd Premier of Queensland (died 1873) 1816 – Paul Reuter, German-English journalist, founded Reuters (died 1899) 1858 – Maria Christina of Austria (died 1929) 1858 – Lovis Corinth, German painter (died 1925) 1858 – Alfred Henry O'Keeffe, New Zealand painter and educator (died 1941) 1863 – C. Aubrey Smith, English-American cricketer and actor (died 1948) 1866 – Carlos Schwabe, Swiss Symbolist painter and printmaker (died 1926) 1870 – Emil Orlík, Czech painter, etcher, and lithographer (died 1932) 1875 – Charles Gondouin, French rugby player and tug of war competitor (died 1947) 1880 – Milan Rastislav Štefánik, Slovak astronomer, general, and politician (died 1919) 1882 – David Burliuk, Ukrainian author and illustrator (died 1967) 1885 – Jacques Feyder, Belgian actor, director, and screenwriter (died 1948) 1891 – Julius Saaristo, Finnish javelin thrower and soldier (died 1969) 1893 – Hans Fallada, German author (died 1947) 1896 – Sophie Bledsoe Aberle, Native American anthropologist, physician and nutritionist (died 1996) 1898 – Sara Carter, American singer-songwriter (died 1979) 1899 – Hart Crane, American poet (died 1932) 1899 – Ernest Hemingway, American novelist, short story writer, and journalist, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1961) 1900 – Isadora Bennett, American theatre manager and modern dance publicity agent (died 1980) 1901–present 1903 – Russell Lee, American photographer and journalist (died 1986) 1903 – Roy Neuberger, American businessman and financier, co-founded Neuberger Berman (died 2010) 1908 – Jug McSpaden, American golfer and architect (died 1996) 1911 – Marshall McLuhan, Canadian author and theorist (died 1980) 1911 – Umashankar Joshi, Indian author, poet, and scholar (died 1988) 1914 – Aleksander Kreek, Estonian shot putter and discus thrower (died 1977) 1917 – Alan B. Gold, Canadian lawyer and jurist (died 2005) 1920 – Constant Nieuwenhuys, Dutch painter, sculptor, and illustrator (died 2005) 1920 – Isaac Stern, Russian-American violinist and conductor (died 2001) 1920 – Jean Daniel, Algerian-French-Jewish journalist and author (died 2020) 1921 – James Cooke Brown, American sociologist and author (died 2000) 1921 – John Horsley, English actor (died 2014) 1921 – Vusamazulu Credo Mutwa, Zulu sangoma (died 2020) 1922 – Kay Starr, American singer (died 2016) 1922 – Mollie Sugden, English actress (died 2009) 1923 – Rudolph A. Marcus, Canadian-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1923 – Queenie Watts, English actress and singer (died 1980) 1924 – Rahimuddin Khan, Pakistani general and politician, 7th Governor of Balochistan 1924 – Don Knotts, American actor and screenwriter (died 2006) 1926 – Paul Burke, American actor (died 2009) 1925 – Johnny Peirson, Canadian hockey player (died 2021) 1926 – Norman Jewison, Canadian actor, director, and producer 1926 – Bill Pertwee, English actor (died 2013) 1926 – Karel Reisz, Czech-English director and producer (died 2002) 1928 – Sky Low Low, Canadian wrestler (died 1998) 1929 – Bob Orton, American wrestler (died 2006) 1930 – Anand Bakshi, Indian poet and songwriter (died 2002) 1930 – Helen Merrill, American singer 1931 – Sonny Clark, American pianist and composer (died 1963) 1931 – Plas Johnson, American saxophonist 1931 – Leon Schidlowsky, Chilean-Israeli painter and composer 1932 – Kaye Stevens, American singer and actress (died 2011) 1933 – John Gardner, American novelist, essayist, and critic (died 1982) 1934 – Chandu Borde, Indian cricketer and manager 1934 – Jonathan Miller, English actor, director, and author (died 2019) 1935 – Norbert Blüm, German businessman and politician (died 2020) 1935 – Moe Drabowsky, Polish-American baseball player and coach (died 2006) 1937 – Eduard Streltsov, Soviet footballer (died 1990) 1938 – Les Aspin, American captain and politician, 18th United States Secretary of Defense (died 1995) 1938 – Anton Kuerti, Austrian-Canadian pianist, composer, and conductor 1938 – Janet Reno, American lawyer and politician, 79th United States Attorney General (died 2016) 1939 – Jamey Aebersold, American saxophonist and educator 1939 – Kim Fowley, American singer-songwriter, producer, and manager (died 2015) 1939 – John Negroponte, English-American diplomat, 23rd United States Ambassador to the United Nations 1943 – Fritz Glatz, Austrian race car driver (died 2002) 1943 – Edward Herrmann, American actor (died 2014) 1943 – Henry McCullough, Northern Irish guitarist, singer and songwriter (died 2016) 1943 – Robert Shrum, American author and political advisor 1944 – John Atta Mills, Ghanaian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Ghana (died 2012) 1944 – Buchi Emecheta, Nigerian author and academic (died 2017) 1944 – Paul Wellstone, American academic and politician (died 2002) 1945 – Wendy Cope, English poet, critic, and educator 1945 – Geoff Dymock, Australian cricketer 1945 – Barry Richards, South African cricketer 1946 – Ken Starr, American lawyer and judge, 39th Solicitor General of the United States 1946 – Timothy Harris, American author, screenwriter and producer 1947 – Chetan Chauhan, Indian cricketer and politician (died 2020) 1948 – Art Hindle, Canadian actor and director 1948 – Cat Stevens (Yusuf Islam), English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1948 – Garry Trudeau, American cartoonist 1949 – Christina Hart, American playwright and actress 1949 – Hirini Melbourne, New Zealand 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16467

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Walker%20Lindh

John Walker Lindh

John Philip Walker Lindh (born February 9, 1981) is an American who was captured as an enemy combatant during the United States' invasion of Afghanistan in November 2001. He was detained at Qala-i-Jangi fortress, used as a prison. He denied participating in the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi, a violent uprising of the Taliban prisoners, stating that he was wounded in the leg and hid in the cellar of the Pink House, in the southern half of the fort. He was one of 86 of the estimated 400 prisoners to survive the uprising, in which CIA officer Johnny "Mike" Spann was killed.<ref>Harnden, Toby, "First Casualty: The Untold Story of the CIA Mission to Avenge 9/11. Little, Brown, 2021. p. 193</ref> Brought to trial in United States federal court in February 2002, Lindh accepted a plea bargain; he pleaded guilty to two charges and was sentenced to 20 years in prison. He was released on supervision on May 23, 2019, for a three-year period of supervised release. A convert to Sunni Islam in California at age 16, Lindh traveled to Yemen in 1998 to study Arabic and stayed there for 10 months. He later returned in 2000, then went to Afghanistan to aid the Taliban in fighting against the Afghan Northern Alliance. He received training at Al-Farouq, a training camp associated with al-Qaeda, designated a terrorist organization by the United States and other countries. While at the camp, he attended a lecture by Osama bin Laden. After the 9/11 attacks, he remained with the Taliban military forces despite learning that the U.S. had become allied with the Northern Alliance. Lindh had previously received training with Harkat-ul-Mujahideen, an internationally designated terrorist organization based in Pakistan.Statement of Facts U.S. Department of Justice Lindh went by the name Sulayman al-Faris during his time in Afghanistan, but prefers the name Abu Sulayman al-Irlandi today. In early reports following his capture, when the press learned that he was a U.S. citizen, he was usually referred to by the news media as just "John Walker". Youth, conversion, and travels Lindh was born in Washington, D.C., to Marilyn Walker and Frank R. Lindh, as the middle of three children in the family. He was named "John" after John Lennon, who was murdered two months before Lindh's birth. He was baptized a Catholic, and grew up in Silver Spring, Maryland. When he was 10 years old, his family moved to San Anselmo, California. Lindh suffered from an intestinal disorder as a child. At age 14, his health improved. He enrolled at Redwood High School as a freshman. He then transferred to Tamiscal High School in the Tamalpais Union High School District, an alternative school offering self-directed, individualized study programs. While there, he studied world culture, including Sunni Islam and the Middle East. Lindh dropped out of the school and eventually earned an equivalent of a high school diploma by passing the California High School Proficiency Exam at age 16. As an adolescent, Lindh participated in IRC chat rooms with the IRC nickname Mujahid. He became a devoted fan of hip-hop music and engaged in extensive discussions on Usenet newsgroups, sometimes pretending to be an African American rapper who would criticize others for "acting black."John Lindh Usenet Postings John Lindh Spike Lee's film Malcolm X impressed him deeply and sparked his interest in Islam. Although his parents did not divorce until 1999, their marriage was in serious trouble throughout Lindh's adolescence. His father often left their Marin residence for extended periods to live in San Francisco with a male lover. Frank Lindh said he and Marilyn had been separated since 1997. In 1997, at the age of 16, Lindh converted to Islam. He began regularly attending mosques in Mill Valley and later in nearby San Francisco. In 1998, Lindh traveled to Yemen and stayed for about 10 months to learn Arabic so that he could read the Qur'an in its original language. He returned to the United States in 1999, living with his family for about eight months. Lindh returned to Yemen in February 2000 and left for Pakistan to study at a madrasa. While abroad, Lindh exchanged numerous emails with his family. In one, his father told him about the USS Cole bombing, to which Lindh replied that the American naval destroyers being in the Yemen harbor had been an act of war, and that the bombing was justified. "This raised my concerns," his father told Newsweek, "but my days of molding him were over." At the age of 20, Lindh decided to travel to Afghanistan to fight for the Afghan Taliban government forces against Northern Alliance fighters. His parents said that he was moved by stories of atrocities allegedly perpetrated by the Northern Alliance army against civilians. He traveled to Afghanistan in May 2001. Tony West, his lawyer, explained it as follows: "One of the first things he told Army interrogators when they questioned him on December 3, 2001, was that after 9/11 happened, he wanted to leave the front lines but couldn't for fear of his life. John never wanted to be in a position where he was opposing the United States (and never thought he would be), and in fact he never opposed any American military." Capture and interrogation Lindh surrendered on November 24, 2001 to Afghan Northern Alliance forces after his Al Qaeda foreign fighters unit surrendered at Kunduz after retreating from Takar. He and other fighters were to be questioned by the CIA officers Johnny "Mike" Spann and David Tyson at General Dostum's military garrison, Qala-i-Jangi, near Mazār-e Sharīf. During the initial questioning, Lindh was not advised of his rights and his request for a lawyer was denied. Lindh, who had a grandmother from County Donegal, had told other prisoners he was Irish. While being interviewed by the CIA, he did not speak or reveal that he was American. Spann asked Lindh, "Are you a member of the IRA?" He was asked this question because, when questioned by Spann, an Iraqi in the group identified Lindh as an English speaker. Lindh had been told to say he was "Irish" to avoid problems. Moments later, around 11 a.m., the makeshift prison was the scene of a violent uprising, which became known as the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi. Spann and hundreds of foreign fighters were killed; only 86 prisoners survived. According to other detainees interviewed by journalist Robert Young Pelton for CNN, Lindh was fully aware of the planned uprising, yet remained silent and did not cooperate with the Americans. Sometime during the initial uprising, Lindh was shot or hit by shrapnel in the right upper thigh and found refuge in a basement, hiding with the rest of the detainees. On the second day, the Red Cross sent in workers to collect the dead. As soon as they entered, the workers were shot by the prisoners, who killed one. The Northern Alliance repeatedly bombarded the area with RPGs and grenade attacks, and burning fuel poured in. Finally, on December 2, 2001, Northern Alliance forces diverted an irrigation stream into the middle of the camp to flush the remaining prisoners out of their underground shelters, drowning many in the process. Lindh and about 85 survivors from the original 300–500 were forced out of hiding. Northern Alliance soldiers bound Lindh's elbows behind his back. Shortly after his recapture, Lindh was noticed and interviewed by Pelton, who was working as a stringer for CNN. Lindh initially gave his name as "Abd-al-Hamid" but later gave his birth name. Pelton brought a medic and food for Lindh and interviewed him about how he got there. During the interview, Lindh said that he was a member of al-Ansar, a group of Arabic-speaking fighters financed by Osama bin Laden. Lindh said that the prison uprising was sparked by some of the prisoners smuggling grenades into the basement: "This is against what we had agreed upon with the Northern Alliance, and this is against Islam. It is a major sin to break a contract, especially in military situations". A U.S. Army Special Forces operator, fresh from three weeks of combat, gave up his bed so that the wounded Lindh could sleep there. Pelton repeatedly asked Lindh if he wanted to call his parents or have the journalist do so, but Lindh declined. An FBI source later told author Toby Harnden that dark stains on the right side of Lindh’s face indicated he had fired a weapon at Qala-i Jangi. Lindh, however, was not tested for explosives or firearms residue before he was washed. After capture, Lindh was given basic first aid and questioned for a week at Mazār-e Sharīf. He was taken to Camp Rhino on December 7, 2001, the bullet or piece of shrapnel still within his thigh. When Lindh arrived at Camp Rhino, he was stripped and restrained on a stretcher, blindfolded and placed in a metal shipping container, which was procedure for dealing with a potentially dangerous detainee associated with a terrorist organization. On the day he left the Turkish School, he was photographed with the words "Shit Head" written onto duct tape on his blindfold by Green Berets posing for a "team photo" with their captive. The Green Berets, from ODA 592, were later investigated. While bound to the stretcher at Camp Rhino, Lindh was photographed by some American military personnel. At Camp Rhino, he was given oxycodone/paracetamol for pain and diazepam. On December 8 and 9, he was interviewed by the FBI and was mirandized on December 9 or 10. He was held at Camp Rhino until he was transferred to the on December 14, 2001 with other wounded detainees, where his wound was operated on and he received further care. He was interrogated before the operation on December 14. While on the Peleliu, he signed confession documents while he was held by the United States Marine Corps. On December 31, 2001, Lindh was transferred to the USS Bataan, where he was held until January 22, 2002. He was flown back to the United States to face criminal charges. On January 16, 2002, Attorney General John Ashcroft announced that Lindh would be tried in the United States. In 2002, former President George H. W. Bush referred to Lindh as "some misguided Marin County hot-tubber". The comment, in which Bush also mispronounced the county's name, provoked a minor furor and prompted a retraction of the statement by Bush. Lindh's attorney told the press that his client had asked for a lawyer repeatedly before being interviewed by the FBI but he did not get one, and that "highly coercive" prison conditions forced Lindh to waive his right to remain silent. Although the FBI asked Jesselyn Radack, a Justice Department ethics adviser, whether Lindh could be questioned without a lawyer present, they did not follow her advice to avoid that scenario. Trial and sentencing On February 5, 2002, Lindh was indicted by a federal grand jury on ten charges: Conspiracy to murder U.S. citizens or U.S. nationals Two counts of providing material support and resources to terrorist organizations One count of supplying services to the Taliban Conspiracy to contribute services to Al Qaeda Contributing services to Al Qaeda Conspiracy to supply services to the Taliban Using and carrying firearms and destructive devices during crimes of violence If convicted of these charges, Lindh could have received up to three life sentences and 90 additional years in prison. On February 13, 2002, he pleaded not guilty to all 10 charges. The court scheduled an evidence suppression hearing, at which Lindh would have been able to testify about the details of the torture to which he claimed he was subjected. The government faced the problem that a key piece of evidence – Lindh's confession – might be excluded from evidence as having been coerced. Michael Chertoff, then-head of the Criminal Division of the U.S. Department of Justice, then directed the prosecutors to offer Lindh a plea bargain. Lindh could plead guilty to two charges: supplying services to the Taliban (, , , and ) and carrying an explosive during the commission of a felony (). He would have to consent to a gag order that would prevent him from making any public statements on the matter for the duration of his 20-year sentence, and he would have to drop any claims that he had been mistreated or tortured by U.S. military personnel in Afghanistan and aboard two military ships during December 2001 and January 2002. In return, all other charges would be dropped. The gag order was said to be at the request of Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld. Lindh accepted this offer. On July 15, 2002, he entered his plea of guilty to the two remaining charges. The judge asked Lindh to say, in his own words, what he was admitting to: "I plead guilty. I provided my services as a soldier to the Taliban last year from about August to December. In the course of doing so, I carried a rifle and two grenades. I did so knowingly and willingly knowing that it was illegal." Lindh said that he "went to Afghanistan with the intention of fighting against terrorism and oppression", fighting for the suffering of ordinary people at the hands of the Northern Alliance. On October 4, 2002, Judge T.S. Ellis III imposed a sentence of 20 years in federal prison. Some activists and academics called for Lindh to tell his story. The government invoked the Son of Sam law and informed Lindh that any and all profits made from book deals or any movies about Lindh's experience would be automatically transferred to the federal government. Lindh, his family, his relatives, his associates and his friends will be unable to profit financially from his crimes and/or experiences. Lindh's attorney, James Brosnahan, said Lindh would be eligible for release in 17 years, with good behavior. Lindh agreed to cooperate "fully, truthfully and completely" with both military intelligence and law enforcement agencies in the terrorism investigation. Imprisonment In January 2003, Lindh was sent to the U.S. Penitentiary, Victorville, a high-security facility northeast of Los Angeles. On March 3, 2003, Lindh was tackled by inmate Richard Dale Morrison. He assaulted Lindh at prayer, causing bruises on his forehead. On July 2, 2003, Morrison was charged with a misdemeanor count of assault. Lindh was held in Federal Supermax ADX Florence in Florence, Colorado for a short time. He served his sentence as prisoner 45426-083, at the Federal Correctional Institution at Terre Haute, Indiana in the Communication Management Unit. In April 2007, citing the reduced sentence for the Australian prisoner David Matthew Hicks, Lindh's attorneys made a public plea for a Presidential commutation to lessen his 20-year sentence. In January 2009, the Lindh family's petition for clemency was denied by President Bush in one of his final acts in office. According to the U.S. Department of Justice, all "special administrative measures" in place against Lindh expired on March 20, 2009, as part of a gradual easing of restrictions on him. In 2010, Lindh and the Syrian-American prisoner Enaam Arnaout sued to lift restrictions on group prayer by Muslim inmates in the Communication Management Unit. On January 11, 2013, a federal judge ruled in their favor, saying that the government had shown no compelling interest in restricting the religious speech of the inmates by prohibiting them from praying together.Foreign Policy magazine reported an internal report by the National Counterterrorism Center asserted Lindh told a visiting television news producer that he had not renounced extremist violence. Lindh was interviewed for the 2016 book The Way of the Strangers: Encounters With the Islamic State by Graeme Wood, on the condition that Wood provide Lindh with "books, treatises, articles, or other writings produced by leaders of the Islamic State and/or scholars affiliated with it (preferably in the original Arabic)." Upon sending the package of literature was blocked from delivery by the prison as it was deemed contraband, however Lindh decided to continue corresponding with Wood, though he later ended the correspondence by saying he was a "layman" whose opinions had "no consequence", referring to his knowledge of the Islamic State. Lindh secured Irish citizenship in 2013 through his paternal grandmother, Kathleen Maguire, who was born in Donegal. Release On May 23, 2019, Lindh was released early for good behavior from the Terre Haute, Indiana federal prison prior to the end of his 20-year sentence, although he accepted several probation requirements due to his continued support of Islamist ideology. These requirements included a ban from Internet use and contact with fellow extremists. The probation lasts for the remaining three years of his sentence. In February 2015, Lindh wrote to a California television producer expressing support for ISIS or the Islamic State, the militant group that had recently beheaded five Westerners in televised executions. Asked if he supported the Islamic State, Lindh, now calling himself "Yahya," Arabic for John, replied in a handwritten letter: "Yes, and they are doing a spectacular job. The Islamic State is clearly very sincere and serious about fulfilling the long-neglected religious obligation of establishing a caliphate through armed struggle, which is the only correct method." In popular culture In a National Geographic documentary, Taliban Uprising, the only video of Lindh speaking since his capture is shown. The documentary Good Morning, Afghanistan by Damien Degueldre features the Battle of Masar-el Sharif, where John Walker was being held and later transferred by the Northern Alliance to US Special Forces Operatives. DJ Krush and Anticon recorded the song "Song for John Walker" for the 2002 album The Message at the Depth. The 2003 book "My Heart Became Attached" by Mark Kukis was a biography of John Walker Lindh, tracing his life from childhood to radicalization to prison A musical interpretation of John Walker Lindh's story was staged in 2004 by Jean Strong and John McCloskey at the New York International Fringe Festival Steve Earle recorded a song about Lindh titled "John Walker's Blues". It was released on his 2002 album Jerusalem. The progressive bluegrass band Hot Buttered Rum wrote and recorded The Trial Of John Walker Lindh for their 2002 album Live at the Freight and Salvage. The 13th-season premiere of the police procedural and legal drama television series Law & Order is based on the Lindh case. A novel by Pearl Abraham entitled American Taliban (2010) is based on Lindh. In episode seven of the first season of the television series Entourage Vince is offered a role in a fictitious movie based on "the John Walker Lindh story". In author Doug Stanton's book Horse Soldiers Lindh is mentioned as one of the Al-Qaeda combatants, then as a prisoner. In the popular philosophy collection Dune and Philosophy, American philosophy expert Shane Ralston defends Lindh's character as "quintessentially American" given the idealism, bravery and religious fervor with which he served the Taliban forces in Afghanistan. The Spanish writer Enrique Falcón included a poem titled John Walker Lindh on the book Taberna Roja (2008). The podcast You're Wrong About featured Lindh in an episode titled "The American Taliban". Lindh is initially referred to as "the Irishman" in the 2021 book "First Casualty: The Untold Story of the CIA Mission to Avenge 9/11" by Toby Harnden. Showtime Networks released a documentary, Detainee 001, about Lindh's capture and interrogations, in September 2021. See also Detention of five Americans in Pakistan (Dec. 2009) Adam Yahiye Gadahn Yasser Esam Hamdi Bryant Neal Vinas References External links The Lindh indictment Case History: U.S. v. Lindh, on FindLaw Free John Walker Lindh – Advocacy website. "The Real Story of John Walker Lindh" by Frank Lindh, AlterNet, January 24, 2006. – An address to the Commonwealth Club of California by John Walker Lindh's father. Audio file of above speech (in RealAudio format) "False and misleading statements by Mr. Frank Lindh omits many known facts: Article of appeal" by Johnny Spann, HonorMikeSpann.com, February 1, 2006. (PDF file) – Response by Mike Spann's father. "The Real Story of John Walker Lindh" – 2013 Frank Lindh interview on The Peter B. Collins Show. "America's 'detainee 001' – the persecution of John Walker Lindh" by Frank Lindh, in The Guardian'', July 10, 2011 1981 births 21st-century American criminals American defectors American former Christians American Islamists American people imprisoned on charges of terrorism Inmates of ADX Florence American expatriates in Afghanistan American expatriates in Pakistan American Taliban Converts to Islam from Roman Catholicism Living people People convicted on terrorism charges People from San Anselmo, California People from Silver Spring, Maryland Prisoners and detainees of the United States federal government

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Luxembourg

History of Luxembourg

The history of Luxembourg consists of the history of the country of Luxembourg and its geographical area. Although its recorded history can be traced back to Roman times, the history of Luxembourg proper is considered to begin in 963. Over the following five centuries, the powerful House of Luxembourg emerged, but its extinction put an end to the country's independence. After a brief period of Burgundian rule, the country passed to the Habsburgs in 1477. After the Eighty Years' War, Luxembourg became a part of the Southern Netherlands, which passed to the Austrian line of the Habsburg dynasty in 1713. After occupation by Revolutionary France, the 1815 Treaty of Paris transformed Luxembourg into a Grand Duchy in personal union with the Netherlands. The treaty also resulted in the second partitioning of Luxembourg, the first being in 1658 and a third in 1839. Although these treaties greatly reduced Luxembourg's territory, the latter established its formal independence, which was confirmed after the Luxembourg Crisis of 1867. In the following decades, Luxembourg fell further into Germany's sphere of influence, particularly after the creation of a separate ruling house in 1890. It was occupied by Germany from 1914 until 1918 and again from 1940 until 1944. Since the end of the Second World War, Luxembourg has become one of the world's richest countries, buoyed by a booming financial services sector, political stability, and European integration. Early history In the territory now covered by the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, there is evidence of primitive inhabitants dating back to the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age over 35,000 years ago. The oldest artefacts from this period are decorated bones found at Oetrange. However, the first real evidence of civilisation is from the Neolithic or 5th millennium BC, from which evidence of houses has been found. Traces have been found in the south of Luxembourg at Grevenmacher, Diekirch, Aspelt and Weiler-la-Tour. The dwellings were made of a combination of tree trunks for the basic structure, mud-clad wickerwork walls, and roofs of thatched reeds or straw. Pottery from this period has been found near Remerschen. While there is not much evidence of communities in Luxembourg at the beginning of the Bronze Age, a number of sites dating back to the period between the 13th and the 8th century BC provide evidence of dwellings and reveal artefacts such as pottery, knives and jewellery. The sites include Nospelt, Dalheim, Mompach and Remerschen. What is present-day Luxembourg, was inhabited by Celts during the Iron Age (from roughly 600 BC until 100 AD). The Gaulish tribe in what is present-day Luxembourg during and after the La Tène period was known as the Treveri; they reached the height of prosperity in the 1st century BC. The Treveri constructed a number of oppida, Iron Age fortified settlements, near the Moselle valley in what is now southern Luxembourg, western Germany and eastern France. Most of the archaeological evidence from this period has been discovered in tombs, many closely associated with Titelberg, a 50 ha site which reveals much about the dwellings and handicrafts of the period. The Romans, under Julius Caesar, completed their conquest and occupation in 53 BC. The first known reference to the territory of present-day Luxembourg was by Julius Caesar in his Commentaries on the Gallic War. The Treveri were more co-operative with the Romans than most Gallic tribes, and adapted readily to Roman civilization. Two revolts in the 1st century AD did not permanently damage their cordial relations with Rome. The land of the Treveri was at first part of Gallia Celtica, but with the reform of Domitian in c. 90, was reassigned to Gallia Belgica. Gallia Belgica was infiltrated by the Germanic Franks from the 4th century, and was abandoned by Rome in AD 406. The territory of what would become Luxembourg by the 480s, became part of Merovingia Austrasia and eventually part of the core territory of the Carolingian Empire. With the Treaty of Verdun (843), it fell to Middle Francia, and in 855, to Lotharingia. With the latter's division in 959, it then fell to the Duchy of Upper Lorraine within the Holy Roman Empire. County The history of Luxembourg properly began with the construction of Luxembourg Castle in the High Middle Ages. It was Siegfried I, count of Ardennes who traded some of his ancestral lands with the monks of the Abbey of St. Maximin in Trier in 963 for an ancient, supposedly Roman, fort named Lucilinburhuc, commonly translated as "little castle". Modern historians link the etymology of the word with Letze, meaning fortification, which may have referred to either the remains of a Roman watchtower or to a primitive refuge of the early Middle Ages. Duchy From the Early Middle Ages to the Renaissance, Luxembourg bore multiple names, depending on the author. These include Lucilinburhuc, Lutzburg, Lützelburg, Luccelemburc, and Lichtburg, among others. The Luxembourgish dynasty produced several Holy Roman Emperors, Kings of Bohemia, and Archbishops of Trier and Mainz. Around the fort of Luxembourg, a town gradually developed, which became the centre of a small but important state of great strategic value to France, Germany and the Netherlands. Luxembourg's fortress, located on a rocky outcrop known as the Bock, was steadily enlarged and strengthened over the years by successive owners. Some of these included the Bourbons, Habsburgs and Hohenzollerns, who made it one of the strongest fortresses on the European continent, the Fortress of Luxembourg. Its formidable defences and strategic location caused it to become known as the ‘Gibraltar of the North’. Habsburg (1477–1795) and French (1795–1815) rule In the 17th and 18th centuries, the electors of Brandenburg, later kings of Prussia (Borussia), advanced their claim to the Luxembourg patrimony as heirs-general to William of Thuringia and his wife Anna of Bohemia, the disputed dukes of Luxembourg in the 1460s. Anna was the eldest daughter of the last Luxembourg heiress. From 1609 onward, they had a territorial base in the vicinity, the Duchy of Cleves, the starting-point of the future Prussian Rhineland. This Brandenburger claim ultimately produced some results when some districts of Luxembourg were united with Prussia in 1813. The first Hohenzollern claimant to descend from both Anna and her younger sister Elisabeth, was John George, Elector of Brandenburg (1525–98), his maternal grandmother having been Barbara Jagiellon. In the late 18th century, the younger line of Orange-Nassau (the princes who held sway in the neighbouring Dutch oligarchy) also became related to the Brandenburgers. In 1598, the then possessor, Philip II of Spain, bequeathed Luxembourg and the other Low Countries to his daughter, the Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia and her husband Albert VII, Archduke of Austria. Albert was an heir and descendant of Elisabeth of Austria (d. 1505), queen of Poland, the youngest granddaughter of Sigismund of Luxembourg, the Holy Roman Emperor. Thus, Luxembourg returned to the heirs of the old Luxembourg dynasty of the line of Elisabeth. The Low Countries were a separate political entity during the couple's reign. After Albert's childless death in 1621, Luxembourg passed to his great-nephew and heir Philip IV of Spain. French invasion Luxembourg was invaded by Louis XIV of France (husband of Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV) in 1684, an action that caused alarm among France's neighbors and resulted in the formation of the League of Augsburg in 1686. In the ensuing War of the Grand Alliance, France was forced to give up the duchy, which was returned to the Habsburgs by the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. During this period of French rule, the defences of the fortress were strengthened by the famous siege engineer Vauban. The French king's great-grandson Louis (1710–74) was, from 1712, the first heir-general of Albert VII. Albert VII was a descendant of Anna of Bohemia and William of Thuringia, having that blood through his mother's Danish great-great-grandmother, but was not the heir-general of that line. Louis was the first real claimant of Luxembourg to descend from both sisters, the daughters of Elisabeth of Bohemia, the last Luxembourg empress. Habsburg rule was confirmed in 1715 by the Treaty of Utrecht, and Luxembourg was integrated into the Southern Netherlands. Emperor Joseph and his successor Emperor Charles VI were descendants of Spanish kings who were heirs of Albert VII. Joseph and Charles VI were also descendants of Anna of Bohemia and William of Thuringia, having that blood through their mother, although they were heirs-general of neither line. Charles was the first ruler of Luxembourg to descend from both sisters, daughters of Elisabeth of Bohemia. Austrian rulers were ready to exchange Luxembourg and other territories in the Low Countries. Their purpose was to round out and enlarge their power base, which in geographical terms was centred around Vienna. Thus, Bavarian candidate(s) emerged to take over the Duchy of Luxembourg, but this plan led to nothing permanent. Emperor Joseph II however, made a preliminary pact to make a neighbour of Luxembourg, Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine, as Duke of Luxembourg and king in the Low Countries, in exchange for his possessions in Bavaria and Franconia. However, this scheme was aborted by Prussia's opposition. Charles Theodore, who would have become Duke of Luxembourg, was genealogically a junior descendant of both Anna and Elisabeth, but the main heir of neither. During the War of the First Coalition, Luxembourg was conquered and annexed by Revolutionary France, becoming part of the département of the Forêts in 1795. The annexation was formalised at Campo Formio in 1797. In 1798, Luxembourgish peasants started a rebellion against the French but it was rapidly suppressed. This brief rebellion is called the Peasant's War. Developing independence (1815–1890) Luxembourg remained more or less under French rule until the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. When the French departed, the Allies installed a provisional administration. Luxembourg initially came under the Generalgouvernement Mittelrhein in mid-1814, and then from June 1814 under the Generalgouvernement Nieder- und Mittelrhein (General Government Lower and Middle Rhine). The Congress of Vienna of 1815, gave formal autonomy to Luxembourg. In 1813, the Prussians had already managed to wrest lands from Luxembourg, to strengthen the Prussian-possessed Duchy of Julich. The Bourbons of France held a strong claim to Luxembourg, whereas the Emperor Francis of Austria, on the other hand, had controlled the duchy until the revolutionary forces had joined it to the French republic. However, his Chancellor, Klemens von Metternich, was not enthusiastic about regaining Luxembourg and the Low Countries, as they were separated so far from the main body of the Austrian Empire. Prussia and the Netherlands, both claiming Luxembourg, made an exchange deal: Prussia received the Principality of Orange-Nassau, the ancestral Principality of the Prince of Orange in Central Germany; and the Prince of Orange in turn received Luxembourg. Luxembourg, somewhat diminished in size (as the medieval lands had been slightly reduced by the French and Prussian heirs), was augmented in another way through the elevation to the status of grand duchy and placed under the rule of William I of the Netherlands. This was the first time that the duchy had a monarch who had no claim to the inheritance of the medieval patrimony. However, Luxembourg's military value to Prussia prevented it from becoming a full part of the Dutch kingdom. The fortress, ancestral seat of the medieval Luxembourgers, was garrisoned by Prussian forces, following Napoleon's defeat, and Luxembourg became a member of the German Confederation with Prussia responsible for its defence, and a state under the suzerainty of the Netherlands at the same time. In July 1819, a contemporary from Britain visited Luxembourg — his journal offers some insights. Norwich Duff, writes of its city that "Luxembourg is considered one of the strongest fortifications in Europe, and … it appears so. It is situated in Holland (then as now used by English speakers as shorthand for the Netherlands) but by treaty is garrisoned by Prussians and 5,000 of their troops occupy it under a Prince of Hesse. The civil government is under the Dutch and the duties collected by them. The town is not very large but the streets are broader than [in] the French towns and clean and the houses are good.... [I] got the cheapest of hot baths here at the principal house I ever had in my life: one franc."In 1820, Luxembourg made use of the metric system of measurement compulsory. Previously, the country had using local units such as the "malter" (which was equivalent to 191 litres). Much of the Luxembourgish population joined the Belgian revolution against Dutch rule. Except for the fortress and its immediate vicinity, Luxembourg was considered a province of the new Belgian state from 1830 to 1839. By the Treaty of London in 1839, the status of the grand duchy became fully sovereign and in personal union to the king of the Netherlands. In turn, the predominantly Oil-speaking geographically larger western part of the duchy was ceded to Belgium as the province de Luxembourg. This loss left the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg a predominantly German state, although French cultural influence remained strong. The loss of Belgian markets also caused painful economic problems for the state. Recognising this, the grand duke integrated it into the German Zollverein in 1842. Nevertheless, Luxembourg remained an underdeveloped agrarian country for most of the century. As a result of this, about one in five of the inhabitants emigrated to the United States between 1841 and 1891. Crisis of 1867 In 1867, Luxembourg's independence was confirmed, after a turbulent period which even included a brief time of civil unrest against plans to annex Luxembourg to Belgium, Germany, or France. The crisis of 1867 almost resulted in war between France and Prussia over the status of Luxembourg, which had become free of German control when the German Confederation was abolished at the end of the Seven Weeks War in 1866. William III, king of the Netherlands, and sovereign of Luxembourg, was willing to sell the grand duchy to France's Emperor Napoleon III in order to retain Limbourg but backed out when Prussian chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, expressed opposition. The growing tension brought about a conference in London from March to May 1867 in which the British served as mediators between the two rivals. Bismarck manipulated public opinion, resulting in the denial of sale to France. The issue was resolved by the second Treaty of London which guaranteed the perpetual independence and neutrality of the state. The fortress walls were pulled down and the Prussian garrison was withdrawn. Famous visitors to Luxembourg in the 18th and 19th centuries included the German poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, the French writers Émile Zola and Victor Hugo, the composer Franz Liszt, and the English painter Joseph Mallord William Turner. Separation and the World Wars (1890–1945) Luxembourg remained a possession of the kings of the Netherlands until the death of William III in 1890, when the grand duchy passed to the House of Nassau-Weilburg due to the 1783 Nassau Family Pact, under which those territories of the Nassau family in the Holy Roman Empire at the time of the pact (Luxembourg and Nassau) were bound by semi-Salic law, which allowed inheritance by females or through the female line only upon extinction of male members of the dynasty. When William III died leaving only his daughter Wilhelmina as an heir, the crown of the Netherlands, not being bound by the family pact, passed to Wilhelmina. However, the crown of Luxembourg passed to a male of another branch of the House of Nassau: Adolphe, the dispossessed Duke of Nassau and head of the branch of Nassau-Weilburg. First World War World War I affected Luxembourg at a time when the nation-building process was far from complete. The small grand duchy (about 260,000 inhabitants in 1914) opted for an ambiguous policy between 1914 and 1918. With the country occupied by German troops, the government, led by Paul Eyschen, chose to remain neutral. This strategy had been elaborated with the approval of Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg. Although continuity prevailed on the political level, the war caused social upheaval, which laid the foundation for the first trades union in Luxembourg. Interwar period The end of the occupation in November 1918, squared with a time of uncertainty on the international and national levels. The victorious Allies disapproved of the choices made by the local élites, and some Belgian politicians even demanded the (re)integration of the country into a greater Belgium. Within Luxembourg, a strong minority asked for the creation of a republic. In the end, the grand duchy remained a monarchy but was led by a new head of state, Charlotte. In 1921, it entered into an economic and monetary union with Belgium. During most of the 20th century, however, Germany remained its most important economic partner. The introduction of universal suffrage for men and women favored the Rechtspartei (party of the Right) which played the dominant role in the government throughout the 20th century, with the exception of 1925–26 and 1974–79, when the two other important parties, the Liberal and the Social-Democratic parties, formed a coalition. The success of the resulting party was due partly to the support of the church — the population was more than 90 percent Catholic — and of its newspaper, the Luxemburger Wort. On the international level, the interwar period was characterised by an attempt to put Luxembourg on the map. Especially under Joseph Bech, head of the Department of Foreign Affairs, the country participated more actively in several international organisations, in order to ensure its autonomy. On December 16, 1920, Luxembourg became a member of the League of Nations. On the economic level in the 1920s and the 1930s, the agricultural sector declined in favour of industry, but even more so for the service sector. The proportion of the active population in this last sector rose from 18 percent in 1907 to 31 percent in 1935. In the 1930s, the internal situation deteriorated, as Luxembourgish politics were influenced by European left- and right-wing politics. The government tried to counter communist-led unrest in the industrial areas and continued friendly policies towards Nazi Germany, which led to much criticism. The attempts to quell unrest peaked with the Maulkuerfgesetz, the "muzzle" Law, which was an attempt to outlaw the Communist Party. The law was turned down in a 1937 referendum. Second World War Upon the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, the government of Luxembourg observed its neutrality and issued an official proclamation to that effect on September 6, 1939. On May 10, 1940, an invasion by German armed forces swept away the Luxembourgish government and monarchy into exile. The German troops made up of the 1st, 2nd, and 10th Panzer Divisions invaded at 04:35. They did not encounter any significant resistance save for some bridges destroyed and some land mines since the majority of the Luxembourgish Volunteer Corps stayed in their barracks. Luxembourgish police resisted the German troops, but to little avail and the capital city was occupied before noon. Total Luxembourgish casualties amounted to 75 police and soldiers captured, six police wounded, and one soldier wounded. The Luxembourg royal family and their entourage received visas from Portuguese consul Aristides de Sousa Mendes in Bordeaux. They crossed into Portugal and subsequently travelled to the United States in two groups: on the from Lisbon to Baltimore in July 1940, and on the Pan American airliner Yankee Clipper in October 1940. Throughout the war, Grand Duchess Charlotte broadcast via the BBC to Luxembourg to give hope to the people. Luxembourg remained under German military occupation until August 1942, when Nazi Germany formally annexed it as part of the Gau Moselland. The German authorities declared Luxembourgers to be German citizens and called up 13,000 for military service. 2,848 Luxembourgers eventually died fighting in the German army. An estimated 3,500 Jews lived in Luxembourg before the war; an estimated 1,000 to 2,500 were murdered in the Holocaust. Luxembourgish opposition to this annexation took the form of passive resistance at first, as in the Spéngelskrich (lit. "War of the Pins"), and in refusal to speak German. As French was forbidden, many Luxembourgers resorted to resuscitating old Luxembourgish words, which led to a renaissance of the language. The Germans met opposition with deportation, forced labour, forced conscription and, more drastically, with internment, deportation to Nazi concentration camps and execution. Executions took place after the so-called general strike from September 1 to September 3, 1942, which paralysed the administration, agriculture, industry and education in response to the declaration of forced conscription by the German administration on August 30, 1942. The Germans suppressed the strike violently. They executed 21 strikers and deported hundreds more to Nazi concentration camps. The then civilian administrator of Luxembourg, Gauleiter Gustav Simon, had declared conscription necessary to support the German war effort. The general strike in Luxembourg remained one of the few mass strikes against the German war machine in Western Europe. U.S. forces liberated most of the country in September 1944. They entered the capital city on September 10, 1944. During the Ardennes Offensive (Battle of the Bulge) German troops took back most of northern Luxembourg for a few weeks. Allied forces finally expelled the Germans in January 1945. Between December 1944 and February 1945, the recently liberated city of Luxembourg was designated by the OB West (German Army Command in the West) as the target for V-3 siege guns, which were originally intended to bombard London. Two V-3 guns based at Lampaden fired a total of 183 rounds at Luxembourg. However, the V-3 was not very accurate. 142 rounds landed in Luxembourg, with 44 confirmed hits in the urban area, and the total casualties were 10 dead and 35 wounded. The bombardments ended with the American Army nearing Lampaden on February 22, 1945. Altogether, of a pre-war population of 293,000, 5,259 Luxembourgers lost their lives during the hostilities. Modern history (since 1945) After World War II, Luxembourg abandoned its politics of neutrality, when it became a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the United Nations. It is a signatory of the Treaty of Rome, and constituted a monetary union with Belgium (Benelux Customs Union in 1948), and an economic union with Belgium and the Netherlands, the so-called BeNeLux. Between 1945 and 2005, the economic structure of Luxembourg changed significantly. The crisis of the metallurgy sector, which began in the mid-1970s and lasted till the late 1980s, nearly pushed the country into economic recession, given the monolithic dominance of that sector. The Tripartite Coordination Committee, consisting of members of the government, management representatives, and trade union leaders, succeeded in preventing major social unrest during those years, thus creating the myth of a “Luxembourg model” characterised by social peace. Although in the early years of the 21st century Luxembourg enjoyed one of the highest GNR per capita in the world, this was mainly due to the strength of its financial sector, which gained importance at the end of the 1960s. Thirty-five years later, one-third of the tax proceeds originated from that sector. The harmonisation of the tax system across Europe could, however, seriously undermine the financial situation of the grand duchy. Luxembourg has been one of the strongest advocates of the European Union in the tradition of Robert Schuman. It was one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952 and of the European Economic Community (EEC) (later the European Union) in 1957; in 1999 it joined the euro currency area. Encouraged by the contacts established with the Dutch and Belgian governments in exile, Luxembourg pursued a policy of presence in international organisations. In the context of the Cold War, Luxembourg clearly opted for the West having joined NATO in 1949. Engagement in European reconstruction was rarely questioned subsequently, either by politicians or by the greater population. Despite its small proportions, Luxembourg often played an intermediary role between larger countries. This role of mediator, especially between the two large and often bellicose nations of Germany and France, was considered one of the main characteristics of its national identity, allowing the Luxembourgers not to have to choose between one of these two neighbours. The country also hosted a large number of European institutions such as the European Court of Justice. Luxembourg's small size no longer seemed to be a challenge to the existence of the country, and the creation of the Banque Centrale du Luxembourg (1998) and of the University of Luxembourg (2003) was evidence of the continuing desire to become a “real” nation. The decision in 1985 to declare Lëtzebuergesch (Luxembourgish) the national language was also a step in the affirmation of the country's independence. In fact, the linguistic situation in Luxembourg was characterised by trilingualism: Lëtzebuergesch was the spoken vernacular language, German the written language, in which Luxembourgers were most fluent, and French the language of official letters and law. In 1985, the country became victim to a mysterious bombing spree, which was targeted mostly at electrical masts and other installations. In 1995, Luxembourg provided the president of the European Commission, former Prime Minister Jacques Santer, who later had to resign in March 1999 over corruption accusations against other commission members. Prime Minister, Jean-Claude Juncker, followed this European tradition. On 10 September 2004, Mr Juncker became the president of the group of finance ministers from the 12 countries that share the euro, a role that led him to be dubbed "Mr Euro". The present sovereign is Grand Duke Henri. Henri's father, Jean, succeeded his mother, Charlotte, on 12 November 1964. Jean's eldest son, Prince Henri, was appointed "Lieutenant Représentant" (Hereditary Grand Duke) on 4 March 1998. On 24 December 1999, Prime Minister Juncker announced Grand Duke Jean's decision to abdicate the throne on 7 October 2000, in favour of Prince Henri who assumed the title and constitutional duties of Grand Duke. On July 10, 2005, after threats of resignation by Prime Minister Juncker, the proposed European Constitution was approved by 56.52% of voters. In July 2013, Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker announced his resignation following a secret service scandal. He had been prime minister since 1995. In December 2013, openly gay Xavier Bettel was sworn in as the new prime minister to succeed Juncker. Bettel of Democratic Party (DP), formed a coalition of Liberals, Social Democrats and Greens who won a combined majority of 32 out of 60 seats in Luxembourg's snap election on October 20, 2013. However, Juncker's Christian Democrats (CSV) remained the biggest party with 23 seats. In July 2014, European Parliament elected former Luxembourg prime minister Jean-Claude Juncker as the President of the European Commission on 1 November 2014, succeeding Portugal's Jose Manuel Barroso, who had held the post since 2004. In December 2018, Prime Minister Xavier Bettel was sworn in for a second term, following the narrow victory of his liberal-led coalition in 2018 parliamentary election. See also List of monarchs of Luxembourg List of prime ministers of Luxembourg Politics of Luxembourg History of rail transport in Luxembourg, 1846 to present day General: History of Europe Footnotes Further reading Arblaster, Paul. A History of the Low Countries (Palgrave Essential Histories) (2005) Blom, J.C.H. History of the Low Countries (2006). Bodenstein, Felicity. "National Museums in Luxembourg." Building National Museums in Europe 1750-2010 (Linköping University Electronic Press, 2011) online. Brühwiler, Ingrid, and Matias Gardin. "Fabricating National Unity in Torn Contexts: World War I in the Multilingual Countries of Switzerland and Luxembourg." in Small Nations and Colonial Peripheries in World War I (Brill, 2016) pp. 140–156. De Bres, Julia, Gabriel Rivera Cosme, and Angela Remesch. "Walking the tightrope of linguistic nationalism in a multilingual state: constructing language in political party programmes in Luxembourg." Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 41.9 (2020): 779–793. de Vries, Johan. "Benelux, 1920-1970," in C. M. Cipolla, ed. The Fontana Economic History of Europe: Contemporary Economics Part One (1976) pp 1–71. Fletcher, Willard Allen. “The German Administration in Luxemburg 1940-1942: Towards a ‘De Facto’ Annexation” Historical Journal 13#3 (1970), pp. 533–544. online Garcia, Nuria. "The paradox of contemporary linguistic nationalism: the case of Luxembourg." Nations and Nationalism 20.1 (2014): 113–132. Horner, Kristine, and Jean Jacques Weber. "The language situation in Luxembourg." Current issues in language planning 9.1 (2008): 69-128. Kossmann, E. H. The Low Countries 1780–1940 (1978). Millim, Anne-Marie. "Schooling the gaze: Industry and nation-building in Luxembourgish landscape-writing, 1900–1940." Journal of European Studies 44.2 (2014): 151-169 online. Péporté, Pit. Constructing the Middle Ages: historiography, collective memory and nation-building in Luxembourg (Brill, 2011). Péporté, Pit; Kmec, Sonja; Majerus, Benoît and Margue, Michel Inventing Luxembourg. Representations of the Past, Space and Language from the Nineteenth to the Twenty-first Century, Vol. 1 of the Collection ‘National Cultivation of Culture’, ed. Joep Leerssen (Leiden/Boston: Brill) (2010). Schreiber, Catherina. "Integrating the cosmopolitan and the local–The curricular construction of citizens in Luxembourg in the long 19th century." Encounters in Theory and History of Education 16 (2015): 165-182 online. Thyssen, Geert. "The stranger within: Luxembourg’s early school system as a European prototype of nationally legitimized international blends (ca. 1794–1844)." Paedagogica Historica 49.5 (2013): 625–644. Zariz, Ruth. “The Jews of Luxembourg during the Second World War” Holocaust & Genocide Studies No 7 (1993). pp. 51–66. External links History Of Luxembourg Luxembourg emigration in the 19th century - Offers reasons why people left Luxembourg in the 19th century. History of Luxembourg: Primary Documents Historical Map of Luxembourg 1789 National Museum of Military History History of Wallonia Luxembourg (Belgium)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Riel

Louis Riel

Louis Riel (; ; 22 October 1844 – 16 November 1885) was a Canadian politician, a founder of the province of Manitoba, and a political leader of the Métis people. He led two resistance movements against the Government of Canada and its first prime minister, John A. Macdonald. Riel sought to defend Métis rights and identity as the Northwest Territories came progressively under the Canadian sphere of influence. The first resistance movement led by Riel was the Red River Resistance of 1869–1870. The provisional government established by Riel ultimately negotiated the terms under which the new province of Manitoba entered the Canadian Confederation. However, while carrying out the resistance, Riel had a Canadian nationalist, Thomas Scott, executed. Riel soon fled to the United States to escape prosecution. He was elected three times as member of the House of Commons, but, fearing for his life, he could never take his seat. During these years in exile he came to believe that he was a divinely chosen leader and prophet. He married in 1881 while in exile in the Montana Territory. In 1884 Riel was called upon by the Métis leaders in Saskatchewan to help resolve longstanding grievances with the Canadian government, which led to armed conflict with government forces, the North-West Rebellion of 1885. Defeated at the Battle of Batoche, Riel was imprisoned in Regina where he was convicted at trial of high treason. Despite protests, popular appeals and the jury's call for clemency, Riel was executed by hanging. Riel was seen as a heroic victim by French Canadians; his execution had a lasting negative impact on Canada, polarizing the new nation along ethno-religious lines. The Métis were marginalized in the Prairie provinces by the increasingly English-dominated majority. An even more important long-term impact was the bitter alienation Francophones across Canada felt, and anger against the repression by their countrymen. Riel's historical reputation has long been polarized between portrayals as a dangerous religious fanatic and rebel opposed to the Canadian nation, and, by contrast, as a charismatic leader intent on defending his Métis people from the unfair encroachments by the federal government eager to give Orangemen-dominated Ontario settlers priority access to land. Arguably, Riel has received more formal organizational and academic scrutiny than any other figure in Canadian history. The trial and conviction of Louis Riel has been the subject of historical comment and criticism for over one hundred years. Early life The Red River Settlement was a Rupert's Land territory administered by the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC). At the mid-19th-century the settlement was largely inhabited by Métis people of mixed First Nations-European descent whose ancestors were for the most part Scottish and English men married to Cree women and French-Canadian men married to Saulteaux (plains Ojibwe) women. Louis Riel was born in 1844 in his grandparents' small one-room home in St-Boniface near the fork of the Red and Seine rivers. Riel was the eldest of eleven children in a locally well-respected family. His father, who was of Franco-Chipewyan Métis descent, had gained prominence in this community by organizing a group that supported Guillaume Sayer, a Métis arrested and tried for challenging the HBC's historical trade monopoly. Sayer's eventual release due to agitations by Louis Sr.'s group effectively ended the monopoly, and the name Riel was therefore well known in the Red River area. His mother was the daughter of Jean-Baptiste Lagimodière and Marie-Anne Gaboury, one of the earliest European-descended families to settle in Red River in 1812. The Riels were noted for their devout Catholicism and strong family ties. Riel began his schooling at age seven, and by age ten he attended St. Boniface Catholic schools, including eventually a school run by the French Christian Brothers. At age thirteen he came to the attention of Bishop Alexandre Taché who was eagerly promoting the priesthood for talented young Métis. In 1858 Taché arranged for Riel to attend the Petit Séminaire of the Collège de Montréal. Descriptions of him at the time indicate that he was a fine scholar of languages, science, and philosophy. Following news of his father's premature death in 1864, Riel lost interest in the priesthood and withdrew from the college in March 1865. For a time, he continued his studies as a day student in the convent of the Grey Nuns, but was soon asked to leave, following breaches of discipline. He remained in Montreal for over a year, living at the home of his aunt, Lucie Riel. Impoverished by the death of his father, Riel took employment as a law clerk in the Montreal office of Rodolphe Laflamme. During this time he was involved in a failed romance with a young woman named Marie–Julie Guernon. This progressed to the point of Riel having signed a contract of marriage, but his fiancée's family opposed her involvement with a Métis, and the engagement was soon broken. Compounding this disappointment, Riel found legal work unpleasant and, by early 1866, he had resolved to leave Canada East. Some of his friends said later that he worked odd jobs in Chicago, while staying with poet Louis-Honoré Fréchette, and wrote poems himself in the manner of Lamartine, and that he was briefly employed as a clerk in Saint Paul, Minnesota, before returning to the Red River settlement on 26 July 1868. Red River Resistance The majority population of the Red River had historically been Métis and First Nations people. Upon his return, Riel found that religious, nationalistic, and racial tensions were exacerbated by an influx of Anglophone Protestant settlers from Ontario. The political situation was also uncertain, as ongoing negotiations for the transfer of Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company to Canada had not addressed the political terms of transfer. Bishop Taché and the HBC governor William Mactavish both warned the Macdonald government that the lack of consultation and consideration of Métis views would precipitate unrest. Finally, the Canadian minister of public works, William McDougall, ordered a survey of the area. The arrival of a survey party on 20 August 1869 increased anxiety among the Métis as the survey was being carried out as a grid system of townships (an American system) that cut across existing Métis river lots. In late August, Riel denounced the survey in a speech, and on 11 October 1869, the survey's work was disrupted by a group of Métis that included Riel. This group organized itself as the "National Committee of the Métis" on 16 October, with Riel as secretary and John Bruce as president. When summoned by the HBC-controlled Council of Assiniboia to explain his actions, Riel declared that any attempt by Canada to assume authority would be contested unless Ottawa had first negotiated terms with the Métis. Nevertheless, the non-bilingual McDougall was appointed the lieutenant governor-designate, and attempted to enter the settlement on 2 November. McDougall's party was turned back near the Canada–US border, and on the same day, Métis led by Riel seized Fort Garry. On 6 November, Riel invited Anglophones to attend a convention alongside Métis representatives to discuss a course of action, and on 1 December he proposed to this convention a list of rights to be demanded as a condition of union. Much of the settlement came to accept the Métis point of view, but a passionately pro-Canadian minority began organizing in opposition. Loosely constituted as the Canadian Party, this group was led by John Christian Schultz, Charles Mair, Colonel John Stoughton Dennis, and a more reticent Major Charles Boulton. McDougall attempted to assert his authority by authorizing Dennis to raise a contingent of armed men, but the Anglophone settlers largely ignored this call to arms. Schultz, however, attracted approximately fifty recruits and fortified his home and store. Riel ordered Schultz's home surrounded, and the outnumbered Canadians soon surrendered and were imprisoned in Upper Fort Garry. Provisional government Hearing of the unrest, Ottawa sent three emissaries to the Red River, including HBC representative Donald Alexander Smith. While they were en route, the Métis National Committee declared a provisional government on 8 December, with Riel becoming its president on 27 December. Meetings between Riel and the Ottawa delegation took place on 5 and 6 January 1870, but when these proved fruitless, Smith chose to present his case in a public forum. After large meetings on 19 and 20 January, Riel suggested the formation of a new convention split evenly between Francophone and Anglophone settlers to consider Smith's proposals. On 7 February, a new list of rights was presented to the Ottawa delegation, and Smith and Riel agreed to send representatives to Ottawa to engage in direct negotiations on that basis. The provisional government established by Louis Riel published its own newspaper titled New Nation and established the Legislative Assembly of Assiniboia to pass laws. The Legislative Assembly of Assiniboia was the first elected government at the Red River Settlement and functioned from 9 March to 24 June 1870. The assembly had 28 elected representatives, including a president, Louis Riel, an executive council (government cabinet), adjutant general (chief of military staff), chief justice and clerk. Execution of Thomas Scott Despite the apparent progress on the political front, the Canadian party continued to plot against the provisional government. They attempted to recruit supporters to overthrow Riel. However, they suffered a setback on 17 February, when forty-eight men, including Boulton and Thomas Scott, were arrested near Fort Garry. Boulton was tried by a tribunal headed by Ambroise-Dydime Lépine and sentenced to death for his interference with the provisional government. He was pardoned, but Scott interpreted this as weakness by the Métis, who he regarded with open contempt. After Scott repeatedly quarreled with his guards, they insisted that he be tried for insubordination. At his court martial he was found guilty and was sentenced to death. Riel was repeatedly entreated to commute the sentence, but Riel responded, "I have done three good things since I have commenced: I have spared Boulton's life at your instance, I pardoned Gaddy, and now I shall shoot Scott." Scott was executed by a Metis firing squad on 4 March. Riel's motivations have been the cause of much speculation, but his own justification was that he felt it necessary to demonstrate to the Canadians that the Métis must be taken seriously. Protestant Canada did take notice, swore revenge, and set up a "Canada First" movement to mobilize their anger. Riel biographer Lewis Thomas noted that "as people then and later have said, it was Riel's one great political blunder". Creation of Manitoba and the Wolseley expedition The delegates representing the provisional government arrived in Ottawa in April. Although they initially met with legal difficulties arising from the execution of Scott, they soon entered into direct talks with Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier. The parties agreed on several of the demands in the list of rights, including language, religious, and land rights (excepting ownership of public lands). This agreement formed the basis for the Manitoba Act, which formally admitted Manitoba into the Canadian confederation; the Legislative Assembly of Assiniboia unanimously supported joining. However, the negotiators could not secure a general amnesty for the provisional government; Cartier held that this was a question for the British government. As a means of exercising Canadian authority in the settlement and dissuading American expansionists, a Canadian military expedition under Colonel Garnet Wolseley was dispatched to the Red River. Although the government described it as an "errand of peace", Riel learned that Canadian militia elements in the expedition meant to lynch him. Intervening years Amnesty question It was not until 2 September 1870 that the new lieutenant-governor Adams George Archibald arrived and set about the establishment of civil government. Without an amnesty, and with the Canadian militia threatening his life, Riel fled to the safety of the St. Joseph's mission across the Canada–US border in the Dakota Territory. The results of the first provincial election in December 1870 were promising for Riel, as many of his supporters came to power. Nevertheless, stress and financial troubles precipitated a serious illness—perhaps a harbinger of his future mental afflictions—that prevented his return to Manitoba until May 1871. The settlement now faced a possible threat, from cross-border Fenian raids coordinated by his former associate William Bernard O'Donoghue. Archibald issued a call to arms in October, and assured Riel that if he participated he would not be arrested. Riel organized several companies of Métis troops for the defense of Manitoba. When Archibald reviewed the troops in St. Boniface, he made the significant gesture of publicly shaking Riel's hand, signaling that a rapprochement had been effected. When this news reached Ontario, Mair and members of the Canada First movement whipped up anti-Riel (and anti-Archibald) sentiment. With Federal elections coming in 1872, Macdonald could ill afford further rift in Quebec–Ontario relations and so he did not offer an amnesty. Instead he quietly arranged for Taché to offer Riel a bribe of C$1,000 to remain in voluntary exile. This was supplemented by an additional £600 from Smith for the care of Riel's family. Nevertheless, by late June Riel was back in Manitoba and was soon persuaded to run as a member of parliament for the electoral district of Provencher. However, following the early September defeat of George-Étienne Cartier in his home riding in Quebec, Riel stood aside so that Cartier—on record as being in favour of amnesty for Riel—might secure a seat in Provencher. Cartier won by acclamation, but Riel's hopes for a swift resolution to the amnesty question were dashed following Cartier's death on 20 May 1873. In the ensuing by-election in October 1873, Riel ran unopposed as an Independent, although he had again fled, a warrant having been issued for his arrest in September. Lépine was not so lucky; he was captured and faced trial. Riel made his way to Montreal and, fearing arrest or assassination, vacillated as to whether he should attempt to take up his seat in the House of Commons—Edward Blake, the Premier of Ontario, had announced a bounty of $5,000 for his arrest. Riel was the only Member of Parliament who was not present for the great Pacific Scandal debate of 1873 that led to the resignation of the Macdonald government in November. Liberal leader Alexander Mackenzie became the interim prime minister, and a general election was held in January 1874. Although the Liberals under Mackenzie formed the new government, Riel easily retained his seat. Formally, Riel had to sign a register book at least once upon being elected, and he did so under disguise in late January. He was nevertheless stricken from the rolls following a motion supported by Schultz, who had become the member for the electoral district of Lisgar. Riel prevailed again in the resulting by-election and was again expelled. Exile and mental illness During this period, Riel had been staying with the Oblate fathers in Plattsburgh, New York, who introduced him to parish priest Fabien Martin dit Barnabé in the nearby village of Keeseville. It was here that he received news of Lépine's fate: following his trial for the murder of Scott, which had begun on 13 October 1874, Lépine was found guilty and sentenced to death. This sparked outrage in the sympathetic Quebec press, and calls for amnesty for both Lépine and Riel were renewed. This presented a severe political difficulty for Mackenzie, who was hopelessly caught between the demands of Quebec and Ontario. However, a solution was forthcoming when, acting on his own initiative, the Governor General Lord Dufferin commuted Lépine's sentence in January 1875. This opened the door for Mackenzie to secure from parliament an amnesty for Riel, on the condition that he remain in exile for five years. During his time of exile, Riel was primarily concerned with religion rather than politics. Much of these emerging religious beliefs were based on a supportive letter dated 14 July 1875 that he received from Montreal's Bishop Ignace Bourget. His mental state deteriorated, and following a violent outburst he was taken to Montreal, where he was under the care of his uncle, John Lee, for a few months. But after Riel disrupted a religious service, Lee arranged to have him committed in an asylum in Longue-Pointe on 6 March 1876 under the assumed name "Louis R. David". Fearing discovery, his doctors soon transferred him to the Beauport Asylum near Quebec City under the name "Louis Larochelle". While he suffered from sporadic irrational outbursts, he continued his religious writing, composing theological tracts with an admixture of Christian and Judaic ideas. He consequently began calling himself "Louis David Riel, Prophet, Infallible Pontiff and Priest King". Nevertheless, he slowly recovered, and was released from the asylum on 23 January 1878 with an admonition to lead a quiet life. He returned for a time to Keeseville, where he became involved in a passionate romance with Evelina Martin dite Barnabé, sister of Father Fabien. He asked her to marry him before moving west "with the avowed intention of establishing himself" before sending for her; however, their correspondence ended abruptly. Montana and family life In the fall of 1878, Riel returned to St. Paul, and briefly visited his friends and family. This was a time of rapid change for the Métis of the Red River—the bison on which they depended were becoming increasingly scarce, the influx of settlers was ever-increasing, and much land was sold to unscrupulous land speculators. Like other Red River Métis who had left Manitoba, Riel headed further west to start a new life. Travelling to the Montana Territory, he became a trader and interpreter in the area surrounding Fort Benton. Observing the detrimental impact of alcohol on the Métis, he engaged in an unsuccessful attempt to curtail the whisky trade. In Pointe-au-Loup, Fort Berthold, Dakota Territory in 1881, he married the young Métis Marguerite Monet dite Bellehumeur, according to the custom of the country (à la façon du pays), on 28 April, the marriage being solemnized on 9 March 1882. Evelina learned of this marriage from a newspaper and wrote a letter accusing Riel of "infamy". Marguerite and Louis were to have three children: Jean-Louis (1882–1908); Marie-Angélique (1883–1897); and a boy who was born and died on 21 October 1885, less than one month before Riel was hanged. Riel soon became involved in the politics of Montana, and in 1882, actively campaigned on behalf of the Republican Party. He brought a suit against a Democrat for rigging a vote, but was then himself accused of fraudulently inducing British subjects to take part in the election. In response, Riel applied for United States citizenship and was naturalized on 16 March 1883. With two young children, he had by 1884 settled down and was teaching school at the St. Peter's Jesuit mission in the Sun River district of Montana. North-West Rebellion Following the Red River Resistance, Métis travelled west and settled in the Saskatchewan Valley. But by the 1880s, the rapid collapse of the buffalo herd was causing near starvation among the First Nations. This was exacerbated by a reduction in government assistance, and by a general failure of Ottawa to live up to its treaty obligations. The Métis were likewise obliged to give up the hunt and take up agriculture—but this transition was accompanied by complex issues surrounding land claims similar to those that had previously arisen in Manitoba. Moreover, settlers from Europe and the eastern provinces were also moving into the Saskatchewan territories, and they too had complaints related to the administration of the territories. Virtually all parties therefore had grievances, and by 1884 Anglophone settlers, Anglo-Métis and Métis communities were holding meetings and petitioning a largely unresponsive government for redress. In the electoral district of Lorne, a meeting of the south branch Métis was held in the village of Batoche on 24 March, and representatives voted to ask Riel to return and represent their cause. On 6 May a joint "Settler's Union" meeting was attended by both the Métis and English-speaking representatives from Prince Albert, including William Henry Jackson, an Ontario settler sympathetic to the Métis and known to them as Honoré Jackson, and James Isbister of the Anglo-Métis. It was here resolved to send a delegation to ask Riel to return. Return of Riel The head of the delegation to Riel was Gabriel Dumont, a respected buffalo hunter and leader of the Saint-Laurent Métis who had known Riel in Manitoba. James Isbister was the lone Anglo-Métis delegate. Riel was easily swayed to support their cause. Riel also intended to use the new position of influence to pursue his own land claims in Manitoba. Upon his arrival Métis and Anglophone settlers alike formed an initially favourable impression of Riel following a series of speeches in which he advocated moderation and a reasoned approach. During June 1884, the Plains Cree leaders Big Bear and Poundmaker were independently formulating their complaints, and subsequently held meetings with Riel. However, the Native grievances were quite different from those of the settlers, and nothing was then resolved. Honoré Jackson and representatives of other communities set about drafting a petition to be sent to Ottawa. In the interim, Riel's support began to waver. As Riel's religious pronouncements became increasingly heretical the clergy distanced themselves, and father Alexis André cautioned Riel against mixing religion and politics. Also, in response to bribes by territorial lieutenant-governor and Indian commissioner Edgar Dewdney, local English-language newspapers adopted an editorial stance critical of Riel. Nevertheless, the work continued, and on 16 December Riel forwarded the committee's petition to the government, along with the suggestion that delegates be sent to Ottawa to engage in direct negotiation. Receipt of the petition was acknowledged by Joseph-Adolphe Chapleau, Macdonald's Secretary of State, although Macdonald himself would later deny having ever seen it. By then many original followers had left; only 250 remained at Batoche when it fell in May 1885. While Riel awaited news from Ottawa he considered returning to Montana, but had by February resolved to stay. Without a productive course of action, Riel began to engage in obsessive prayer, and was experiencing a significant relapse of his mental agitations. This led to a deterioration in his relationship with the Catholic clergy, as he publicly espoused an increasingly heretical doctrine. On 11 February 1885, a response to the petition was received. The government proposed to take a census of the North-West Territories, and to form a commission to investigate grievances. This angered a faction of the Métis who saw it as a mere delaying tactic; they favoured taking up arms at once. Riel became the leader of this faction, but he lost the support of almost all Anglophones and Anglo-Métis, and the Catholic Church. He also lost the support of the Métis faction supporting local leader Charles Nolin. But Riel, undoubtedly influenced by his messianic delusions, became increasingly supportive of this course of action. Disenchanted with the status quo, and swayed by Riel's charisma and eloquent rhetoric, hundreds of Métis remained loyal to Riel, despite his proclamations that Bishop Ignace Bourget should be accepted as pope, and that "Rome has fallen". Open rebellion The Provisional Government of Saskatchewan was declared at Batoche on 19 March, with Riel as the political and spiritual leader and with Dumont assuming responsibility for military affairs. Riel formed a council called the Exovedate (a neologism meaning "those who picked from the flock"). On 21 March, Riel's emissaries demanded that Crozier surrender Fort Carlton. Scouting near Duck Lake on 26 March, a force led by Gabriel Dumont unexpectedly chanced upon a party from Fort Carlton. In the ensuing Battle of Duck Lake, the police were routed and the North-West Rebellion was begun in earnest. The near-completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway allowed troops from eastern Canada to quickly arrive in the territory. Knowing that he could not defeat the Canadians in direct confrontation, Dumont had hoped to force the Canadians to negotiate by engaging in a long-drawn out campaign of guerrilla warfare; Dumont realized a modest success along these lines at the Battle of Fish Creek on 24 April 1885. Riel, however, insisted on concentrating forces at Batoche to defend his "city of God". The outcome of the ensuing Battle of Batoche which took place from 9 to 12 May was never in doubt, and on 15 May a disheveled Riel surrendered to Canadian forces. Although Big Bear's forces managed to hold out until the Battle of Loon Lake on 3 June, the rebellion was a dismal failure for Indigenous communities. Trial Several individuals closely tied to the government requested that the trial be held in Winnipeg in July 1885. Some historians contend that the trial was moved to Regina because of concerns with the possibility of an ethnically mixed and sympathetic jury. Prime Minister Macdonald ordered the trial to be convened in Regina, where Riel was tried before a jury of six Anglophone Protestants. The trial began on 20 July 1885. Riel delivered two long speeches during his trial, defending his own actions and affirming the rights of the Métis people. He rejected his lawyers' attempt to argue that he was not guilty by reason of insanity. The jury found him guilty but recommended mercy; nonetheless, Judge Hugh Richardson sentenced him to death on 1 August 1885, with the date of his execution initially set for 18 September 1885. "We tried Riel for treason," one juror later said, "And he was hanged for the murder of Scott." Lewis Thomas notes that "the government's conduct of the case was to be a travesty of justice". Execution Boulton writes in his memoirs that, as the date of his execution approached, Riel regretted his opposition to the defence of insanity and vainly attempted to provide evidence that he was not sane. Requests for a retrial, petitions for a commuted sentence, and an appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Britain were denied. John A. Macdonald, who was instrumental in upholding Riel's sentence, is famously quoted as saying "He shall hang though every dog in Quebec bark in his favour" (although the veracity of this quote is uncertain). Before his execution, Riel received Father André as his spiritual advisor. He was also given writing materials and allowed to correspond with friends and relatives. Louis Riel was hanged for treason on 16 November 1885 at the North-West Mounted Police barracks in Regina. Boulton writes of Riel's final moments: Père André, after explaining to Riel that the end was at hand, asked him if he was at peace with men. Riel answered "Yes." The next question was, "Do you forgive all your enemies?" "Yes." Riel then asked him if he might speak. Father André advised him not to do so. He then received the kiss of peace from both the priests, and Father André exclaimed in French, "" meaning "So, go to heaven!"  ... [Riel's] last words were to say good-bye to Dr. Jukes and thank him for his kindness, and just before the white cap was pulled over his face he said, "" meaning "Thank Mrs. Forget". The cap was pulled down, and while he was praying the trap was pulled. Death was not instantaneous. Louis Riel's pulse ceased four minutes after the trap-door fell and during that time the rope around his neck slowly strangled and choked him to death. The body was to have been interred inside the gallows' enclosure, and the grave was commenced, but an order came from the Lieutenant-Governor to hand the body over to Sheriff Chapleau which was accordingly done that night. Following the execution, Riel's body was returned to his mother's home in St. Vital, where it lay in state. On 12 December 1886, his remains were interred in the churchyard of the Saint-Boniface Cathedral following the celebration of a requiem mass. The trial and execution of Riel caused a bitter and prolonged reaction which convulsed Canadian politics for decades. The execution was both supported and opposed by the provinces. For example, conservative Ontario strongly supported Riel's execution, but Quebec was vehemently opposed to it. Francophones were upset Riel was hanged because they thought his execution was a symbol of Anglophone dominance of Canada. The Orange Irish Protestant element in Ontario had demanded the execution as the punishment for Riel's treason and his execution of Thomas Scott in 1870. In Quebec the politician Honoré Mercier rose to power by mobilizing the opposition in 1886. Historiography Historians have debated the Riel case so often and so passionately that he is the most written-about person in Canadian history. Interpretations have varied dramatically over time. The first amateur English language histories hailed the triumph of civilization, represented by English-speaking Protestants, over savagery represented by the half-breed Métis who were Catholic and spoke French. Riel was portrayed as an insane traitor and an obstacle to the expansion of Canada to the West. By the mid-20th century academic historians had dropped the theme of savagery versus civilization, deemphasized the Métis, and focused on Riel, presenting his execution as a major cause of the bitter division in Canada along ethnocultural and geographical lines of religion and language. W. L. Morton says of the execution that it "convulsed the course of national politics for the next decade": it was well received in Ontario, particularly among Orangemen, but francophone Quebec defended Riel as "the symbol, indeed as a hero of his race". Morton concluded that some of Riel's positions were defensible, but that "they did not present a program of practical substance which the government might have granted without betrayal of its responsibilities". J. M. Bumsted in 2000 said that for Manitoba historian James Jackson, the shooting of Scott—"perhaps the result of Riel's incipient madness—was the great blemish on Riel's achievement, depriving him of his proper role as the father of Manitoba." The Catholic clergy had originally supported the Métis, but reversed themselves when they realized that Riel was leading a heretical movement. They made sure that he was not honored as a martyr. However the clergy lost their influence during the Quiet Revolution, and activists in Québec found in Riel the perfect hero, with the image now of a freedom fighter who stood up for his people against an oppressive government in the face of widespread racist bigotry. He was made a folk hero by Métis, French Canadian and other Canadian minorities. Activists who espoused violence embraced his image; in the 1960s, the Quebec terrorist group, the Front de libération du Québec adopted the name "Louis Riel" for one of its terrorist cells. Across Canada there emerged a new interpretation of reality in his rebellion, holding that the Métis had major unresolved grievances; that the government was indeed unresponsive; that Riel had chosen violence only as a last resort; and he was given a questionable trial, then executed by a vengeful government. John Foster said in 1985 that "the interpretive drift of the last half-century ... has witnessed increasingly shrill though frequently uncritical condemnations of Canadian government culpability and equally uncritical identification with the "victimization" of the "innocent" Métis". However, a leading specialist Thomas Flanagan reversed his views after editing Riel's writings: he found that "the Métis grievances were at least partly of their own making", that Riel's violent approach was unnecessary given the government's response to his initial "constitutional agitation", and "that he received a surprisingly fair trial". An article by Doug Owram appearing in the Canadian Historical Review in 1982 found that Riel had become "a Canadian folk hero", even "mythical", in English Canada, corresponding with the designation of Batoche as a national historic site and the compilation of his writings. That compilation consisted of three volumes of letters, diaries, and other prose writings; a fourth volume of his poetry; and a fifth volume which contained reference materials. Edited by George Stanley, Raymond Huel, Gilles Martel, Thomas Flanagan and Glen Campbell, this work "ma[de] it possible to think comprehensively about Riel's life and his achievements", but was also criticized for some of its editorial decisions. In a 2010 speech, Beverley McLachlin, then Chief Justice of Canada, summed up Riel as being a rebel by the standards of the time but a patriot "viewed through our modern lens". Legacy The Saskatchewan Métis' requested land grants were all provided by the government by the end of 1887, and the government resurveyed the Métis river lots in accordance with their wishes. However, much of the land was soon bought by speculators who later turned huge profits from it. Riel's worst fears were realized—following the failed rebellion, the French language and Roman Catholic religion faced increasing marginalization in both Saskatchewan and Manitoba, as exemplified by the controversy surrounding the Manitoba Schools Question. The Métis themselves were increasingly forced to live in shantytowns on undesirable land. Saskatchewan did not become a province until 1905. Riel's execution and Macdonald's refusal to commute his sentence caused lasting discord in Quebec. Honoré Mercier exploited the discontent to reconstitute the Parti National. This party, which promoted Quebec nationalism, won a majority in the 1886 Quebec election. The federal election of 1887 likewise saw significant gains by the federal Liberals. This led to the victory of the Liberal party under Wilfrid Laurier in the federal election of 1896, which in turn set the stage for the domination of Canadian federal politics (particularly in Quebec) by the Liberal party in the 20th century. Since the 1980s, numerous federal politicians have introduced private member's bills seeking to pardon Riel or recognize him as a Father of Confederation. In 1992, the House of Commons passed a resolution recognizing "the unique and historic role of Louis Riel as a founder of Manitoba and his contribution in the development of Confederation". The CBC's Greatest Canadian project ranked Riel as the 11th "Greatest Canadian" on the basis of a public vote. Commemorations In 2007, Manitoba's provincial government voted to recognize Louis Riel Day as a provincial holiday, observed on the third Monday of February. Two statues of Riel are located in Winnipeg. One of these statues, the work of architect Étienne Gaboury and sculptor Marcien Lemay, depicts Riel as a naked and tortured figure. It was unveiled in 1971 and stood in the grounds of the Manitoba Legislative Building for 23 years. After much outcry (especially from the Métis community) that the statue was an undignified misrepresentation, the statue was removed and placed at the Université de Saint-Boniface. It was replaced with a statue of Louis Riel designed by Miguel Joyal depicting Riel as a dignified statesman. The unveiling ceremony was on 12 May 1996, in Winnipeg. A statue of Riel on the grounds of the Saskatchewan Legislative Building in Regina was installed and later removed for similar reasons. In numerous communities across Canada, Riel is commemorated in the names of streets, schools, neighbourhoods, and other buildings. Examples in Winnipeg include the landmark Esplanade Riel pedestrian bridge linking old Saint-Boniface with Downtown Winnipeg, and the Louis Riel School Division. The student centre at the University of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon is named after Riel, as is the Louis Riel Trail. There are schools named after Louis Riel in four major Canadian cities: Calgary, Montreal, Ottawa and Winnipeg. Portrayals of Riel's role in the Red River Resistance include the 1979 CBC television film Riel and Canadian cartoonist Chester Brown's acclaimed 2003 graphic novel Louis Riel: A Comic-Strip Biography. An opera about Riel entitled Louis Riel was commissioned for Canada's centennial celebrations in 1967; it was written by Harry Somers, with an English and French libretto by Mavor Moore and Jacques Languirand. See also History of Manitoba List of Canadian First Nations leaders Métis National Council The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples Footnotes References Further reading External links CBC Digital Archives: Rethinking Riel Heritage Minutes: Historica Minutes (History by the Minute): Louis Riel Louis Riel – University of Saskatchewan library 19th-century executions of American people 1844 births 1885 deaths Burials at Saint Boniface Cathedral Canadian emigrants to the United States Canadian folklore Canadian Métis people Canadian revolutionaries Canadian Roman Catholics Executed Canadian people Executed politicians Independent MPs in the Canadian House of Commons Indigenous Members of the House of Commons of Canada Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Manitoba Métis politicians People executed by Canada by hanging People executed for treason against Canada People of the North-West Rebellion People of the Red River Rebellion Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) Pre-Confederation Saskatchewan people Refugees in the United States Métis history

19654

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May%2030

May 30

Events Pre-1600 70 – Siege of Jerusalem: Titus and his Roman legions breach the Second Wall of Jerusalem. Jewish defenders retreat to the First Wall. The Romans build a circumvallation, cutting down all trees within fifteen kilometres. 1381 – Beginning of the Peasants' Revolt in England. 1416 – The Council of Constance, called by Emperor Sigismund, a supporter of Antipope John XXIII, burns Jerome of Prague following a trial for heresy. 1431 – Hundred Years' War: In Rouen, France, the 19-year-old Joan of Arc is burned at the stake by an English-dominated tribunal. The Roman Catholic Church remembers this day as the celebration of Saint Joan of Arc. 1434 – Hussite Wars: Battle of Lipany: Effectively ending the war, Utraquist forces led by Diviš Bořek of Miletínek defeat and almost annihilate Taborite forces led by Prokop the Great. 1510 – During the reign of the Zhengde Emperor, Ming dynasty rebel leader Zhu Zhifan is defeated by commander Qiu Yue, ending the Prince of Anhua rebellion. 1536 – King Henry VIII of England marries Jane Seymour, a lady-in-waiting to his first two wives. 1539 – In Florida, Hernando de Soto lands at Tampa Bay with 600 soldiers with the goal of finding gold. 1574 – Henry III becomes King of France. 1588 – The last ship of the Spanish Armada sets sail from Lisbon heading for the English Channel. 1601–1900 1631 – Publication of Gazette de France, the first French newspaper. 1635 – Thirty Years' War: The Peace of Prague is signed. 1642 – From this date all honors granted by Charles I of England are retroactively annulled by Parliament. 1806 – Future U.S. President Andrew Jackson kills Charles Dickinson in a duel. 1814 – The First Treaty of Paris is signed, returning the French frontiers to their 1792 extent, and restoring the House of Bourbon to power. 1815 – The East Indiaman Arniston is wrecked during a storm at Waenhuiskrans, near Cape Agulhas, in present-day South Africa, with the loss of 372 lives. 1834 – Minister of Justice Joaquim António de Aguiar issues a law seizing "all convents, monasteries, colleges, hospices and any other houses" from the Catholic religious orders in Portugal, earning him the nickname of "The Friar-Killer". 1842 – John Francis attempts to murder Queen Victoria as she drives down Constitution Hill in London with Prince Albert. 1845 – The Fatel Razack coming from India, lands in the Gulf of Paria in Trinidad and Tobago carrying the first Indians to the country. 1854 – The Kansas–Nebraska Act becomes law establishing the U.S. territories of Kansas and Nebraska. 1868 – Decoration Day (the predecessor of the modern "Memorial Day") is observed in the United States for the first time after a proclamation by John A. Logan, head of the Grand Army of the Republic (a veterans group). 1876 – Ottoman sultan Abdülaziz is deposed and succeeded by his nephew Murad V. 1883 – In New York City, a stampede on the recently opened Brooklyn Bridge killed twelve people. 1899 – Pearl Hart, a female outlaw of the Old West, robs a stage coach 30 miles southeast of Globe, Arizona. 1901–present 1911 – At the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, the first Indianapolis 500 ends with Ray Harroun in his Marmon Wasp becoming the first winner of the 500-mile auto race. 1913 – The Treaty of London is signed, ending the First Balkan War; Albania becomes an independent nation. 1914 – The new, and then the largest, Cunard ocean liner , 45,647 tons, sets sails on her maiden voyage from Liverpool, England, to New York City. 1922 – The Lincoln Memorial is dedicated in Washington, D.C.. 1925 – May Thirtieth Movement: Shanghai Municipal Police Force shoot and kill 13 protesting workers. 1937 – Memorial Day massacre: Chicago police shoot and kill ten labor demonstrators. 1941 – World War II: Manolis Glezos and Apostolos Santas climb the Athenian Acropolis and tear down the German flag. 1942 – World War II: One thousand British bombers launch a 90-minute attack on Cologne, Germany. 1943 – The Holocaust: Josef Mengele becomes chief medical officer of the Zigeunerfamilienlager (Romani family camp) at Auschwitz concentration camp. 1948 – A dike along the flooding Columbia River breaks, obliterating Vanport, Oregon within minutes. Fifteen people die and tens of thousands are left homeless. 1958 – Memorial Day: The remains of two unidentified American servicemen, killed in action during World War II and the Korean War respectively, are buried at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Arlington National Cemetery. 1959 – The Auckland Harbour Bridge, crossing the Waitemata Harbour in Auckland, New Zealand, is officially opened by Governor-General Charles Lyttelton, 10th Viscount Cobham. 1961 – The long-time Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo is assassinated in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. 1963 – A protest against pro-Catholic discrimination during the Buddhist crisis is held outside South Vietnam's National Assembly, the first open demonstration during the eight-year rule of Ngo Dinh Diem. 1966 – Former Congolese Prime Minister, Évariste Kimba, and several other politicians are publicly executed in Kinshasa on the orders of President Joseph Mobutu. 1967 – The Nigerian Eastern Region declares independence as the Republic of Biafra, sparking a civil war. 1968 – Charles de Gaulle reappears publicly after his flight to Baden-Baden, Germany, and dissolves the French National Assembly by a radio appeal. Immediately after, less than one million of his supporters march on the Champs-Élysées in Paris. This is the turning point of May 1968 events in France. 1971 – Mariner program: Mariner 9 is launched to map 70% of the surface, and to study temporal changes in the atmosphere and surface, of Mars. 1972 – The Angry Brigade goes on trial over a series of 25 bombings throughout the United Kingdom. 1972 – In Ben Gurion Airport (at the time: Lod Airport), Israel, members of the Japanese Red Army carry out the Lod Airport massacre, killing 24 people and injuring 78 others. 1974 – The Airbus A300 passenger aircraft first enters service. 1979 – Downeast Flight 46 crashes on approach to Knox County Regional Airport in Rockland, Maine, killing 17. 1975 – European Space Agency is established. 1982 – Cold War: Spain joins NATO. 1989 – Tiananmen Square protests of 1989: The 10-metre high "Goddess of Democracy" statue is unveiled in Tiananmen Square by student demonstrators. 1990 – Croatian Parliament is constituted after the first free, multi-party elections, today celebrated as the National Day of Croatia. 1998 – The 6.5 Afghanistan earthquake shook the Takhar Province of northern Afghanistan with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII (Very strong), killing around 4,000–4,500. 1998 – Nuclear Testing: Pakistan conducts an underground test in the Kharan Desert. It is reported to be a plutonium device with yield of 20kt TNT equivalent. 2003 – Depayin massacre: At least 70 people associated with the National League for Democracy are killed by government-sponsored mob in Burma. Aung San Suu Kyi flees the scene, but is arrested soon afterwards. 2008 – Convention on Cluster Munitions is adopted. 2008 – TACA Flight 390 overshoots the runway at Toncontín International Airport, killing five people. 2012 – Former Liberian president Charles Taylor is sentenced to 50 years in prison for his role in atrocities committed during the Sierra Leone Civil War. 2013 – Nigeria passes a law banning same-sex marriage. 2020 – The Crew Dragon Demo-2 launches from the Kennedy Space Center, becoming the first crewed orbital spacecraft to launch from the United States since 2011. Births Pre-1600 1010 – Ren Zong, Chinese emperor (d. 1063) 1201 – Theobald IV, count of Champagne (d. 1253) 1423 – Georg von Peuerbach, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1461) 1464 – Barbara of Brandenburg, Bohemian queen (d. 1515) 1580 – Fadrique de Toledo, 1st Marquis of Villanueva de Valdueza (d. 1634) 1599 – Samuel Bochart, French Protestant biblical scholar (d. 1667) 1601–1900 1623 – John Egerton, 2nd Earl of Bridgewater, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire (d. 1686) 1686 – Antonina Houbraken, Dutch illustrator (d. 1736) 1718 – Wills Hill, 1st Marquess of Downshire, English politician, Secretary of State for the Colonies (d. 1793) 1719 – Roger Newdigate, English politician (d. 1806) 1757 – Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1844) 1768 – Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty, French general (d. 1815) 1797 – Georg Amadeus Carl Friedrich Naumann, German mineralogist and geologist (d. 1873) 1800 – Henri-Marie-Gaston Boisnormand de Bonnechose, French cardinal (d. 1883) 1814 – Mikhail Bakunin, Russian philosopher and theorist (d. 1876) 1814 – Eugène Charles Catalan, Belgian-French mathematician and academic (d. 1894) 1819 – William McMurdo, English general (d. 1894) 1820 – Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Premier of Quebec (d. 1890) 1835 – Alfred Austin, English author, poet, and playwright (d. 1913) 1844 – Félix Arnaudin, French poet and photographer (d. 1921) 1845 – Amadeo I, Spanish king (d. 1890) 1846 – Peter Carl Fabergé, Russian goldsmith and jeweler (d. 1920) 1862 – Mirza Alakbar Sabir, Azerbaijani philosopher and poet (d. 1911) 1869 – Grace Andrews, American mathematician (d. 1951) 1874 – Ernest Duchesne, French physician (d. 1912) 1875 – Giovanni Gentile, Italian philosopher and academic (d. 1944) 1879 – Colin Blythe, English cricketer and soldier (d. 1917) 1879 – Konstantin Ramul, Estonian psychologist and academic (d. 1975) 1881 – Georg von Küchler, German field marshal (d. 1968) 1882 – Wyndham Halswelle, English runner and soldier (d. 1915) 1883 – Sandy Pearce, Australian rugby league player (d. 1930) 1884 – Siegmund Glücksmann, German soldier and politician (d. 1942) 1885 – Villem Grünthal-Ridala, Estonian poet and linguist (d. 1942) 1886 – Laurent Barré, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 1964) 1886 – Randolph Bourne, American theorist and author (d. 1918) 1887 – Alexander Archipenko, Ukrainian-American sculptor and illustrator (d. 1964) 1887 – Emil Reesen, Danish pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1964) 1890 – Roger Salengro, French soldier and politician, French Minister of the Interior (d. 1936) 1892 – Fernando Amorsolo, Filipino painter (d. 1972) 1894 – Hubertus van Mook, Dutch politician, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (d. 1965) 1895 – Maurice Tate, English cricketer (d. 1956) 1896 – Howard Hawks, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1977) 1897 – Frank Wise, Australian politician, 16th Premier of Western Australia (d. 1986) 1898 – John Gilroy, English artist and illustrator (d. 1985) 1899 – Irving Thalberg, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1936) 1901–present 1901 – Alfred Karindi, Estonian pianist and composer (d. 1969) 1901 – Cornelia Otis Skinner, American actress and author (d. 1979) 1902 – Stepin Fetchit, American actor and dancer (d. 1985) 1903 – Countee Cullen, American poet and author (d. 1946) 1906 – Bruno Gröning, German mystic and author (d. 1959) 1907 – Germaine Tillion, French anthropologist and academic (d. 2008) 1908 – Hannes Alfvén, Swedish physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995) 1908 – Mel Blanc, American voice actor (d. 1989) 1909 – Jacques Canetti, French music executive and talent agent (d. 1997) 1909 – Freddie Frith, English motorcycle road racer (d. 1988) 1909 – Benny Goodman, American clarinet player, songwriter, and bandleader (d. 1986) 1910 – Harry Bernstein, English-American journalist and author (d. 2011) 1912 – Julius Axelrod, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004) 1912 – Erich Bagge, German physicist and academic (d. 1996) 1912 – Hugh Griffith, Welsh actor (d. 1980) 1912 – Millicent Selsam, American author and academic (d. 1996) 1912 – Joseph Stein, American playwright and author (d. 2010) 1914 – Akinoumi Setsuo, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 37th Yokozuna (d. 1979) 1915 – Len Carney, English footballer and soldier (d. 1996) 1916 – Justin Catayée, French soldier and politician (d. 1962) 1916 – Mort Meskin, American illustrator (d. 1995) 1918 – Pita Amor, Mexican poet and author (d. 2000) 1918 – Bob Evans, American businessman, founded Bob Evans Restaurants (d. 2007) 1919 – René Barrientos, Bolivian general and politician, 55th President of Bolivia (d. 1969) 1920 – Franklin J. Schaffner, Japanese-American director and producer (d. 1989) 1922 – Hal Clement, American author and educator (d. 2003) 1924 – Anthony Dryden Marshall, American CIA officer and diplomat (d. 2014) 1925 – John Henry Marks, English physician and author 1926 – Johnny Gimble, American country/western swing musician (d. 2015) 1927 – Joan Birman, American mathematician 1927 – Clint Walker, American actor and singer (d. 2018) 1927 – Billy Wilson, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 1993) 1928 – Pro Hart, Australian painter (d. 2006) 1928 – Agnès Varda, Belgian-French director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2019) 1929 – Georges Gilson, French archbishop 1930 – Mark Birley, English businessman, founded Annabel's (d. 2007) 1930 – Robert Ryman, American painter (d. 2019) 1931 – Larry Silverstein, American real estate magnate 1932 – Ray Cooney, English actor and playwright 1932 – Pauline Oliveros, American accordion player and composer (d. 2016) 1932 – Ivor Richard, Baron Richard, Welsh politician and diplomat, British Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 2018) 1934 – Alexei Leonov, Russian general, pilot, and cosmonaut (d. 2019) 1934 – Alketas Panagoulias, Greek footballer and manager (d. 2012) 1935 – Ruta Lee, Canadian-American actress and dancer 1935 – Guy Tardif, Canadian academic and politician (d. 2005) 1936 – Keir Dullea, American actor 1937 – Christopher Haskins, Anglo-Irish businessman, life peer, and British politician 1937 – Rick Mather, American-English architect (d. 2013) 1938 – Billie Letts, American author and educator (d. 2014) 1939 – Michael J. Pollard, American actor (d. 2019) 1939 – Dieter Quester, Austrian race car driver 1939 – Tim Waterstone, Scottish businessman, founded Waterstones 1940 – Jagmohan Dalmiya, Indian cricket administrator (d. 2015) 1940 – Gilles Villemure, Canadian-American ice hockey player 1942 – John Gladwin, English bishop 1942 – Carole Stone, English journalist and author 1943 – James Chaney, American civil rights activist (d. 1964) 1943 – Anders Michanek, Swedish motorcycle racer 1943 – Gale Sayers, American football player and philanthropist (d. 2020) 1944 – Lenny Davidson, English guitarist and songwriter 1944 – Meredith MacRae, American actress (d. 2000) 1944 – Stav Prodromou, Greek-American engineer and businessman 1945 – Gladys Horton, American singer (d. 2011) 1946 – Allan Chapman, English historian and author 1946 – Dragan Džajić, Serbian and Yugoslav footballer 1947 – Jocelyne Bourassa, Canadian golfer (d. 2021) 1948 – Johan De Muynck, Belgian former professional road racing cyclist 1948 – Michael Piller, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2005) 1948 – David Thorpe, Australian rules footballer 1949 – P.J. Carlesimo, American basketball player and coach 1949 – Paul Coleridge, English lawyer and judge 1949 – Bob Willis, English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2019) 1950 – Bertrand Delanoë, French politician, 14th Mayor of Paris 1950 – Paresh Rawal, Indian actor, producer, and politician 1950 – Joshua Rozenberg, English lawyer, journalist, and author 1951 – Zdravko Čolić, Bosnian Serb singer-songwriter 1951 – Fernando Lugo, Paraguayan bishop and politician, President of Paraguay 1951 – Stephen Tobolowsky, American actor, singer, and director 1952 – Daniel Grodnik, American screenwriter and producer 1952 – Kerry Fraser, Canadian ice hockey player, referee, and sportscaster 1953 – Jim Hunter, Canadian skier 1953 – Colm Meaney, Irish actor 1955 – Topper Headon, English drummer and songwriter 1955 – Jacqueline McGlade, English-Canadian biologist, ecologist, and academic 1955 – Caroline Swift, English lawyer and judge 1955 – Colm Tóibín, Irish novelist, poet, playwright, and critic 1956 – Tim Lucas, American author, screenwriter, and critic 1957 – Mike Clayton, Australian golfer 1958 – Eugene Belliveau, Canadian football player 1958 – Marie Fredriksson, Swedish singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2019) 1958 – Steve Israel, American lawyer and politician 1958 – Michael López-Alegría, Spanish-American captain, pilot, and astronaut 1958 – Ted McGinley, American actor 1959 – Phil Brown, English footballer, coach, and manager 1959 – Randy Ferbey, Canadian curler 1959 – Frank Vanhecke, Belgian politician 1961 – Harry Enfield, English actor, director, and screenwriter 1961 – Bob Yari, Iranian-American director and producer 1962 – Kevin Eastman, American author and illustrator, co-created the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles 1962 – Richard Fuller, English lawyer and politician 1962 – Tim Loughton, English businessman and politician 1962 – Tonya Pinkins, American actress and singer 1963 – Michel Langevin, Canadian drummer and songwriter 1963 – Élise Lucet, French journalist 1963 – Helen Sharman, English chemist and astronaut 1964 – Wynonna Judd, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress 1964 – Andrea Montermini, Italian race car driver 1964 – Tom Morello, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1965 – Troy Coker, Australian rugby player 1965 – Billy Donovan, American basketball player and coach 1965 – Iginio Straffi, Italian animator and producer, founded Rainbow S.r.l. 1966 – Thomas Häßler, German footballer and manager 1966 – Stephen Malkmus, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1967 – Tim Burgess, English singer-songwriter 1967 – Rechelle Hawkes, Australian hockey player 1967 – Sven Pipien, German-American bass player 1968 – Jason Kenney, Canadian lawyer and politician, 40th Canadian Minister of National Defence 1968 – Zacarias Moussaoui, French citizen, sentenced to life in prison related to September 11 attacks 1969 – Naomi Kawase, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter 1969 – Ryuhei Kitamura, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Paul Grayson, English rugby player and coach 1971 – Duncan Jones, English director, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Idina Menzel, American singer-songwriter and actress 1971 – Jiří Šlégr, Czech ice hockey player and politician 1971 – Adrian Vowles, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1972 – Manny Ramirez, Dominican-American baseball player and coach 1974 – Big L, American rapper (d. 1999) 1974 – Kostas Chalkias, Greek footballer 1974 – CeeLo Green, American singer-songwriter, pianist, producer, and actor 1974 – David Wilkie, American ice hockey player and coach 1975 – Evan Eschmeyer, American basketball player 1975 – Brian Fair, American singer-songwriter 1975 – Andy Farrell, English rugby player and coach 1975 – Marissa Mayer, American computer scientist and businesswoman 1976 – Rasho Nesterović, basketball player 1976 – Magnus Norman, Swedish tennis player and coach 1976 – Margaret Okayo, Kenyan runner 1977 – Rachael Stirling, English actress 1977 – Federico Vilar, Argentinian-Italian footballer 1979 – Mike Bishai, Canadian ice hockey player 1979 – Clint Bowyer, American race car driver 1979 – Francis Lessard, Canadian ice hockey player 1980 – Steven Gerrard, English international footballer and manager 1980 – Ilona Korstin, Russian basketball player 1980 – Ryōgo Narita, Japanese author 1981 – Devendra Banhart, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1981 – Gianmaria Bruni, Italian race car driver 1981 – Ahmad Elrich, Australian footballer 1981 – Remy Ma, American rapper 1981 – Lars Møller Madsen, Danish handball player 1981 – Hisanori Takada, Japanese footballer 1982 – Eddie Griffin, American basketball player (d. 2007) 1982 – James Simpson-Daniel, English rugby player 1984 – Sham Kwok Fai, Hong Kong footballer 1984 – Matt Maguire, Australian footballer 1984 – Alexander Sulzer, German ice hockey player 1985 – Igor Kurnosov, Russian chess player (d. 2013) 1985 – Igor Lewczuk, Polish footballer 1985 – Aaron Volpatti, Canadian ice hockey player 1986 – Nikolay Bodurov, Bulgarian international footballer 1989 – Ailee, Korean-American singer and songwriter 1989 – Lesia Tsurenko, Ukrainian tennis player 1990 – Andrei Loktionov, Russian ice hockey player 1991 – Jonathan Fox, English swimmer 1992 – Harrison Barnes, American basketball player 1992 – Danielle Harold, English actress 1994 – Scott Laughton, Canadian ice hockey player 1996 – Beatriz Haddad Maia, Brazilian tennis player Deaths Pre-1600 531 – Xiao Tong, prince of the Liang Dynasty (b. 501) 727 – Hubertus, bishop Liège 947 – Ma Xifan, king of Chu (b. 899) 1035 – Baldwin IV, count of Flanders (b. 980) 1159 – Władysław II the Exile, High Duke of Poland and Duke of Silesia (b. 1105) 1252 – Ferdinand III, king of Castile and León (b. 1199) 1347 – John Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy de Knayth, English peer (b. 1290) 1376 – Joan of Ponthieu, Dame of Epernon, French noblewoman 1416 – Jerome of Prague, Czech martyr and theologian (b. 1379) 1431 – Joan of Arc, French martyr and saint (b. 1412) 1434 – Prokop the Great, Czech general (b. 1380) 1469 – Lope de Barrientos, Castilian bishop (b. 1389) 1472 – Jacquetta of Luxembourg, daughter of Pierre de Luxembourg (b. 1416) 1574 – Charles IX of France (b. 1550) 1593 – Christopher Marlowe, English poet and playwright (b. 1564) 1601–1900 1606 – Guru Arjan Dev, fifth of the Sikh gurus (b. 1563) 1640 – Peter Paul Rubens, German-Belgian painter (b. 1577) 1696 – Henry Capell, 1st Baron Capell of Tewkesbury, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1638) 1670 – John Davenport, English minister, co-founded the New Haven Colony (b. 1597) 1712 – Andrea Lanzani, Italian painter (b. 1645) 1718 – Arnold van Keppel, 1st Earl of Albemarle, Dutch-English general (b. 1670) 1744 – Alexander Pope, English poet, essayist, and translator (b. 1688) 1770 – François Boucher, French painter and set designer (b. 1703) 1778 – Voltaire, French philosopher and author (b. 1694) 1778 – José de la Borda, French/Spanish mining magnate in colonial Mexico (b. ca. 1700) 1829 – Philibert Jean-Baptiste Curial, French general (b. 1774) 1832 – James Mackintosh, Scottish historian, jurist, and politician (b. 1765) 1855 – Mary Reibey, Australian businesswoman, (b. 1777) 1873 – Karamat Ali Jaunpuri, Indian Muslim scholar, (b. 1800) 1892 – Mary Hannah Gray Clarke, American author, correspondent, and poet (b. 1835) 1865 – John Catron, American lawyer and judge (b. 1786) 1901–present 1901 – Victor D'Hondt, Belgian mathematician, lawyer, and jurist (b. 1841) 1911 – Milton Bradley, American businessman, founded the Milton Bradley Company (b. 1836) 1912 – Wilbur Wright, American pilot and businessman, co-founded the Wright Company (b. 1867) 1918 – Georgi Plekhanov, Russian philosopher and theorist (b. 1856) 1925 – Arthur Moeller van den Bruck, German historian and author (b. 1876) 1926 – Vladimir Steklov, Russian mathematician and physicist (b. 1864) 1934 – Tōgō Heihachirō, Japanese admiral (b. 1848) 1939 – Floyd Roberts, American race car driver (b. 1904) 1941 – Prajadhipok, Thai king (b. 1893) 1946 – Louis Slotin, Canadian physicist and chemist (b. 1910) 1947 – Georg von Trapp, Austrian captain (b. 1880) 1948 – József Klekl, Slovene-Hungarian priest and politician (b. 1874) 1949 – Emmanuel Célestin Suhard, French cardinal (b. 1874) 1951 – Hermann Broch, Austrian-American author (b. 1886) 1953 – Dooley Wilson, American actor and singer (b. 1886) 1955 – Bill Vukovich, American race car driver (b. 1918) 1957 – Piero Carini, Italian race car driver (b. 1921) 1960 – Boris Pasternak, Russian poet, novelist, and literary translator, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1890) 1961 – Rafael Trujillo, Dominican soldier and politician, 36th President of the Dominican Republic (b. 1891) 1964 – Isaac Babalola Akinyele, Nigerian king (b. 1882) 1964 – Eddie Sachs, American race car driver (b. 1927) 1964 – Leó Szilárd, Hungarian-American physicist and engineer (b. 1898) 1965 – Louis Hjelmslev, Danish linguist and academic (b. 1899) 1967 – Claude Rains, English-American actor (b. 1889) 1971 – Marcel Dupré, French organist and composer (b. 1886) 1975 – Steve Prefontaine, American runner (b. 1951) 1975 – Tatsuo Shimabuku, Japanese martial artist, founded Isshin-ryū (b. 1908) 1975 – Michel Simon, Swiss-born French actor (b. 1895) 1976 – Max Carey, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1890) 1976 – Mitsuo Fuchida, Japanese captain (b. 1902) 1978 – Jean Deslauriers, Canadian violinist, composer, and conductor (b. 1909) 1980 – Carl Radle, American bass player and producer (b. 1942) 1981 – Don Ashby, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1955) 1981 – Ziaur Rahman, Bangladeshi general and politician, 7th President of Bangladesh (b. 1936) 1982 – Albert Norden, German journalist and politician (b. 1904) 1986 – Perry Ellis, American fashion designer, founded his own eponymous fashion brand (b. 1940) 1993 – Sun Ra, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b. 1914) 1994 – Ezra Taft Benson, American religious leader, 13th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1899) 1994 – Marcel Bich, Italian-French businessman, co-founded Société Bic (b. 1914) 1994 – Agostino Di Bartolomei, Italian footballer (b. 1955) 1995 – Ted Drake, English footballer and manager (b. 1912) 1995 – Lofty England, English-Austrian engineer (b. 1911) 1995 – Bobby Stokes, English footballer (b. 1951) 1996 – Léon-Étienne Duval, French cardinal (b. 1903) 1996 – Alo Mattiisen, Estonian composer (b. 1961) 1999 – Kalju Lepik, Estonian poet and author (b. 1920) 2000 – Tex Beneke, American saxophonist and bandleader (b. 1914) 2001 – Denis Whitaker, Canadian general and historian (b. 1915) 2005 – Gérald Leblanc, Acadian poet (b. 1945) 2005 – Tomasz Pacyński, Polish journalist and author (b. 1958) 2005 – Alma Ziegler, American baseball player and stenographer (b. 1918) 2006 – Shohei Imamura, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1926) 2006 – David Lloyd, New Zealand biologist and academic (b. 1938) 2006 – Robert Sterling, American actor (b. 1917) 2007 – Jean-Claude Brialy, Algerian-French actor and director (b. 1933) 2007 – Birgit Dalland, Norwegian politician (b. 1907) 2007 – Gunturu Seshendra Sarma, Indian poet and critic (b. 1927) 2009 – Torsten Andersson, Swedish painter and illustrator (b. 1926) 2009 – Susanna Haapoja, Finnish politician (b. 1966) 2009 – Ephraim Katzir, Israeli biophysicist and politician, 4th President of Israel (b. 1916) 2010 – Yuri Chesnokov, Russian volleyball player and coach (b. 1933) 2010 – Dufferin Roblin, Canadian commander and politician, 14th Premier of Manitoba (b. 1917) 2011 – Isikia Savua, Fijian police officer and diplomat (b. 1952) 2011 – Saleem Shahzad, Pakistani journalist (b. 1970) 2011 – Marek Siemek, Polish philosopher and historian (b. 1942) 2011 – Clarice Taylor, American actress (b. 1917) 2011 – Rosalyn Sussman Yalow, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1921) 2012 – John Fox, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b. 1957) 2012 – Andrew Huxley, English physiologist and biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1917) 2012 – Gerhard Pohl, German economist and politician (b. 1937) 2012 – Jack Twyman, American basketball player and sportscaster (b. 1934) 2013 – Jayalath Jayawardena, Sri Lankan physician and politician (b. 1953) 2013 – Larry Jones, American football player and coach (b. 1933) 2014 – Hienadz Buraukin, Belarusian poet, journalist, and diplomat (b. 1936) 2014 – Henning Carlsen, Danish director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1927) 2014 – Joan Lorring, British actress (b. 1926) 2014 – Leonidas Vasilikopoulos, Greek admiral (b. 1932) 2015 – Beau Biden, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 44th Attorney General of Delaware (b. 1969) 2015 – Joël Champetier, Canadian author and screenwriter (b. 1957) 2015 – L. Tom Perry, American religious leader and member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1922) 2016 – Tom Lysiak, Polish-Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1953) 2016 – Rick MacLeish, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1950) 2019 – Jason Marcano, Trinidadian footballer (b. 1983) Holidays and observances Anguilla Day, commemorates the beginning of the Anguillian Revolution in 1967. (Anguilla) Canary Islands Day (Spain) Christian feast day: Ferdinand III of Castile Isaac of Dalmatia Joan of Arc Joseph Marello May 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Indian Arrival Day (Trinidad and Tobago) Lod Massacre Remembrance Day (Puerto Rico) Mother's Day (Nicaragua) Statehood Day (Croatia) References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on May 30 Today in Canadian History Days of the year May

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed%20Al-Fayed

Mohamed Al-Fayed

Mohamed Al-Fayed (; ; born Mohamed Fayed, 27 January 1929) is an Egyptian-born businessman whose residence and chief business interests have been in the United Kingdom since the late 1960s. Fayed's business interests include ownership of Hôtel Ritz Paris and formerly Harrods department store and Fulham F.C., both in London. Fayed's son, from his first marriage to Samira Khashoggi from 1954 to 1956, Dodi, was in a romantic relationship with Diana, Princess of Wales, when they both died in a car crash in Paris in 1997. Fayed married Finnish socialite and former model Heini Wathén in 1985, with whom he also has four children: Jasmine, Karim, Camilla, and Omar. In 2013, Fayed's wealth was estimated at US$1.4 billion, ranking his wealth at no. 1,031 in the world. Early life He was born Mohamed Fayed in Roshdy, Alexandria, Egypt, the eldest son of an Egyptian primary school teacher. His year of birth has been disputed. alfayed.com used to claim he was born in 1933, but the Department of Trade found his year of birth was 1929. alfayed.com rewrote "1933" to "1929" in 2011. Fayed has five sons and daughters and four siblings: Ali, Salah, Soaad, and Safia. Ali and Salah have been his business colleagues. He was married for two years, from 1954 to 1956, to Samira Khashoggi. Fayed worked with his wife's brother, Saudi Arabian arms dealer and businessman Adnan Khashoggi. Some time in the early 1970s, he began using "Al-Fayed" rather than "Fayed". His brothers Ali and Salah began to follow suit at the time of their acquisition of the House of Fraser in the 1980s, though by the late 1980s, both had reverted to calling themselves simply "Fayed". Some have assumed that Fayed's addition of "Al-" to his name was to imply aristocratic origins, like "de" in French or "von" in German, though Al- does not have the same social connotations in Arabic. This assumption led to Private Eye magazine nicknaming him the "Phoney Pharaoh". United Kingdom Early business dealings Fayed and his brothers founded a shipping company in Egypt before moving its headquarters to Genoa, Italy with offices in London. Around 1964 Fayed entered a close relationship with Haitian leader François Duvalier, known as 'Papa Doc', and became interested in the construction of a Fayed-Duvalier oil refinery in Haiti. He also associated with the geologist George de Mohrenschildt. Fayed terminated his stay in Haiti six months later when a sample of "crude oil" provided by Haitian associates proved to be low-grade molasses. It was then that Fayed moved to England where he lived in central London. In the mid 1960s, Fayed met the ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Rashid Bin Saeed Al Maktoum who entrusted Fayed with helping transform Dubai, where he set up IMS (International Marine Services) in 1968. Fayed introduced British companies like the Costain Group (of which he became a director and 30% shareholder), Bernard Sunley & Sons and Taylor Woodrow to the emirate to carry out the required construction work. He also became a financial adviser to the then Sultan of Brunei Omar Ali Saifuddien III, in 1966. He briefly joined the board of the mining conglomerate Lonrho in 1975 but left after a disagreement. In 1979, Fayed bought The Ritz hotel in Paris, France for US$30 million. In 1984, Fayed and his brothers purchased a 30% stake in House of Fraser, a group that included the famous London store Harrods, from Roland 'Tiny' Rowland, the head of Lonrho. In 1985, he and his brothers bought the remaining 70% of House of Fraser for £615m. Rowland claimed the Fayed brothers lied about their background and wealth and he put pressure on the government to investigate them. A Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) inquiry into the Fayeds was launched. The DTI's subsequent report was critical, but no action was taken against the Fayeds, and while many believed the contents of the report, others felt it was politically motivated. In 1998, Rowland accused Fayed of stealing papers and jewels from his Harrods safe deposit box. Fayed was arrested, but the charges were dropped. Rowland died in 1998. Fayed settled the dispute with a payment to his widow; he also sued the Metropolitan Police for false arrest in 2002, but lost the case. In 1994, House of Fraser went public, but Fayed retained the private ownership of Harrods. He re-launched the humorous magazine Punch in 1996 but it folded again in 2002. Al-Fayed applied for British citizenship twice – once in 1994 and once in 1999 - both unsuccessfully. It was suggested that the feud with Rowland contributed to Fayed being refused British citizenship the first time. Cash-for-questions In 1994, in what became known as the cash-for-questions affair, Fayed revealed the names of MPs he had paid to ask questions in parliament on his behalf, but who had failed to declare their fees. It saw the Conservative MPs Neil Hamilton and Tim Smith leave the government in disgrace, and a Committee on Standards in Public Life established to prevent such corruption occurring again. Fayed also revealed that the cabinet minister Jonathan Aitken had stayed for free at the Ritz Hotel in Paris at the same time as a group of Saudi arms dealers, leading to Aitken's subsequent unsuccessful libel case and imprisonment for perjury. During this period, from 1988 to February 1998, Al-Fayed's spokesman was Michael Cole, a former BBC journalist, although Cole's PR work for Al-Fayed did not cease in 1998. Hamilton lost a subsequent libel action against Al-Fayed in December 1999 and a subsequent appeal against the verdict in December 2000. The former MP has always denied that he was paid by Al-Fayed for asking questions in parliament. Hamilton's libel action related to a Channel 4 Dispatches documentary broadcast on 16 January 1997 in which Al-Fayed made claims that the MP had received up to £110,000 in cash and received other gratuities for asking parliamentary questions. Hamilton's basis for his appeal was that the original verdict was invalid because Al-Fayed had paid £10,000 for documents stolen from the dustbins of Hamilton's legal representatives by Benjamin Pell. In 2003, Fayed moved from Surrey, UK to Switzerland, alleging a breach in an agreement with the British tax authority. In 2005, he moved back to Britain, saying that he "regards Britain as home". He moored a yacht called the Sokar in Monaco prior to selling it in 2014. Sale of Harrods After denials that Harrods was for sale, it was sold to Qatar Holdings, the sovereign wealth fund of the country of Qatar, on 10 May 2010. A fortnight previously, Fayed had stated that "People approach us from Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Qatar. Fair enough. But I put two fingers up to them. It is not for sale. This is not Marks and Spencer or Sainsbury's. It is a special place that gives people pleasure. There is only one Mecca." Harrods was sold for £1.5 billion. Fayed later revealed in an interview that he decided to sell Harrods following the difficulty in getting his dividend approved by the trustee of the Harrods pension fund. Fayed said "I'm here every day, I can't take my profit because I have to take a permission of those bloody idiots. I say is this right? Is this logic? Somebody like me? I run a business and I need to take bloody fucking trustee's permission to take my profit". Fayed was appointed honorary chairman of Harrods, a position he was scheduled to hold for at least six months. Scotland real estate In 1972, Fayed purchased the Balnagown estate in Easter Ross, Northern Scotland. From an initial 4.8 hectares (12 acres), Al-Fayed has since built the estate up to 26,300 hectares (65,000 acres). Al-Fayed has invested more than £20 million in the estate, restored the 14th century pink Balnagown Castle, and created a tourist accommodation business. The Highlands of Scotland tourist board awarded Al-Fayed the Freedom of the Highlands in 2002, in recognition of his "outstanding contribution and commitment to the Highlands." As an Egyptian with links to Scotland, Al-Fayed was intrigued enough to fund a 2008 reprint of the 15th-century chronicle Scotichronicon by Walter Bower. The Scotichronicon describes how Scota, a sister of the Egyptian Pharaoh Tutankhamen, fled her family and landed in Scotland, bringing with her the Stone of Scone. According to the chronicle, Scotland was later named in her honour. The tale is disputed by modern historians. Al-Fayed later declared that "The Scots are originally Egyptians and that's the truth." In 2009, Al-Fayed revealed that he was a supporter of Scottish independence from the United Kingdom, announcing to the Scots that "It's time for you to waken up and detach yourselves from the English and their terrible politicians...whatever help is needed for Scotland to regain its independence, I will provide it...when you Scots regain your freedom, I am ready to be your president." Charity Fayed set up the Al Fayed Charitable Foundation in 1987 aiming to help children with life-limiting conditions and children living in poverty. The charity works mainly with charities and hospices for disabled and neglected children in the UK, Thailand and Mongolia. Some of the charities with which it works include Francis House Hospice in Manchester, Great Ormond Street Hospital and ChildLine. In 1998, Al Fayed bought Princess Diana's old boarding school in Kent and helped found the New School at West Heath for children with additional needs and mental health problems. In 2011, Mohamed Al-Fayed's daughter Camilla, who has worked as an ambassador for the charity for eight years, opened the newly refurbished Zoe’s Place baby hospice in West Derby, Liverpool. Fulham F.C. Al-Fayed bought west London professional football club Fulham F.C.for £6.25 million in 1997. The purchase was made via Bill Muddyman's Muddyman Group. His long-term aim was that Fulham would become a Premier League side within five years. In 2001, Fulham took the First Division (now Football League Championship) under manager Jean Tigana, winning 100 points and scoring over 100 goals in the season. This meant that Al-Fayed had achieved his Premier League aim a year ahead of schedule. By 2002, Fulham were competing in European football, winning the Intertoto Cup and challenging in the UEFA Cup. Fulham reached the final of the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League and continued to play in the Premier League throughout Al-Fayed's tenure as owner, which ended in 2013. Fulham temporarily left Craven Cottage while it was being upgraded to meet modern safety standards. There were fears that the club would not return to the Cottage after it was revealed that Al-Fayed had sold the first right to build on the ground to a property development firm. Fulham lost a legal case against former manager Tigana in 2004 after Al-Fayed had wrongly alleged that Tigana had overpaid more than £7m for new players and had negotiated transfers in secret. In 2009, Al-Fayed said that he was in favour of a wage cap for footballers, and criticised the management of The Football Association and Premier League as "run by donkeys who don't understand business, who are dazzled by money." A statue of the American entertainer Michael Jackson was unveiled by Al-Fayed in April 2011 at Craven Cottage. In 1999 Jackson had attended a league game against Wigan Athletic at the stadium. Following criticism of the statue, Al-Fayed said "If some stupid fans don't understand and appreciate such a gift this guy gave to the world they can go to hell. I don't want them to be fans." The statue was taken down by the club's new owners in 2013; Al-Fayed blamed the club's subsequent relegation from the Premier League on the 'bad luck' brought by its removal. Al-Fayed then donated the statue to the National Football Museum. In March 2019, the statue was removed from the museum due to the backlash against Jackson caused by the accusations against him in the documentary Leaving Neverland. Under Al-Fayed Fulham F.C. was owned by Mafco Holdings, based in the tax haven of Bermuda and in turn owned by Al-Fayed and his family. By 2011, Al-Fayed had lent Fulham F.C. £187 million in interest free loans. In July 2013, it was announced that Al-Fayed had sold the club to Pakistani American businessman Shahid Khan, who owns the NFL's Jacksonville Jaguars. Business interests Al-Fayed's business interests include: Hôtel Ritz Paris Balnagowan Castle & Estates, Scottish Highlands HJW Geospatial Turnbull & Asser 75 Rockefeller Plaza, New York City – built in 1947, originally the Esso Building, later the Time Warner Building; is owned by Al-Fayed and managed and leased by RXR Realty Al-Fayed's major business purchases have included: Ritz Hotel Paris (1979, ) House of Fraser Group, including Harrods (1985, £615 million; sold 2010, £1.5 billion). Fulham Football Club (1997, £30 million; sold 2013). After the death of Wallis Simpson, Fayed took over the lease of the Villa Windsor in Paris, the former home of the Duchess of Windsor and her husband, the Duke of Windsor, previously Edward VIII. Death of Dodi Fayed Background and relationship with Diana Lady Diana Spencer was born in 1961, and married the heir to the British throne, Charles, Prince of Wales, in 1981, becoming the Princess of Wales. Diana was an international celebrity and a frequent visitor to Harrods in the 1980s. Al-Fayed and Dodi first met Diana and Charles when they were introduced at a polo tournament in July 1986, that had been sponsored by Harrods. Diana and Charles divorced in 1996. Diana was hosted by Al-Fayed in the south of France in mid-1997, with her sons, Princes William and Harry. For the holiday, Fayed bought a 195 ft yacht, the Jonikal (later renamed the Sokar). Dodi and Diana later began a private cruise on the Jonikal and paparazzi photographs of the couple in an embrace were published. Diana's friend, the journalist Richard Kay, confirmed that Diana was involved in "her first serious romance" since her divorce. Dodi and Diana went on a second private cruise on the Jonikal in the third week of August, and returned from Sardinia to Paris on 30 August. The couple privately dined at the Ritz later that day, after the behaviour of the press caused them to cancel a restaurant reservation, they then planned to spend the night at Dodi's apartment near the Arc de Triomphe. In an attempt to deceive the paparazzi, a decoy car left the front of the hotel, while Diana and Dodi departed at speed in a Mercedes-Benz S280 driven by chauffeur Henri Paul from the rear of the hotel. Five minutes later, the car crashed in the Pont de l'Alma tunnel. Dodi and Paul died at this location. Diana died afterwards in hospital. Fayed arrived in Paris a day later and viewed Dodi's body, which was finally returned to the United Kingdom for an Islamic funeral. Conspiracy theories From February 1998, Al-Fayed maintained that the crash was a result of a conspiracy, and later contended that the crash was orchestrated by MI6 on the instructions of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. His claims that the crash was a result of a conspiracy were dismissed by a French judicial investigation, but Fayed appealed against this verdict. A libel action was brought against Al-Fayed by Neil Hamilton (see above). The British Operation Paget, a Metropolitan police inquiry that concluded in 2006, also found no evidence of a conspiracy. To Operation Paget, Al-Fayed made 175 "conspiracy claims". An inquest headed by Lord Justice Scott Baker into the deaths of Diana and Dodi began at the Royal Courts of Justice, London, on 2 October 2007 and lasted for six months. It was a continuation of the original inquest that had begun in 2004. At the Scott Baker inquest Fayed accused the Duke of Edinburgh, the Prince of Wales, Lady Sarah McCorquodale, her sister, and numerous others, of plotting to kill the Princess of Wales. Their motive, he claimed, was that they could not tolerate the idea of the Princess marrying a Muslim. Al-Fayed first claimed that the Princess was pregnant to the Daily Express in May 2001, and that he was the only person who had been told of this news. Witnesses at the inquest who said the Princess was not pregnant, and could not have been, were part of the conspiracy according to Al-Fayed. Fayed's testimony at the inquest was roundly condemned in the press as being farcical. Members of the British Government's Intelligence and Security Committee accused Fayed of turning the inquest into a 'circus' and called for it to be ended maturely. Lawyers representing Al-Fayed later accepted at the inquest that there was no direct evidence that either the Duke of Edinburgh or MI6 had been involved in any murder conspiracy involving Diana or Dodi. A few days before Al-Fayed's appearance, John Macnamara, a former senior detective at Scotland Yard and Al-Fayed's investigator for five years from 1997, was forced to admit on 14 February 2008 that he had no evidence to suggest foul play, except for the assertions Al-Fayed had made to him. His admissions also related to the lack of evidence for Al-Fayed's claims about the alleged pregnancy of the Princess and the couple's supposed engagement. The jury verdict, given on 7 April 2008, was that Diana and Dodi had been "unlawfully killed" through the grossly negligent driving of chauffeur Henri Paul, who was intoxicated, and the pursuing vehicles. Lawyers for Al-Fayed also accepted that there was no evidence to support the assertion that Diana was illegally embalmed in order to cover up a pregnancy, a "pregnancy" that they accepted could not be established by any medical evidence. They also accepted that there was no evidence to support the assertion the French emergency and medical services had played any role in a conspiracy to harm Diana. Following the Baker inquest, Al-Fayed said that he was abandoning his campaign to prove that Diana and Dodi were murdered in a conspiracy, and said that he would accept the verdict of the jury. Journalist Dominic Lawson wrote in The Independent in 2008 wrote that al-Fayed sought to concoct "a conspiracy to cover up the true circumstances" of fatalities caused by the crash "involving an intoxicated and over-excited driver (an employee of Mohamed Fayed's Paris Ritz)". He "had remarkable success in persuading elements of the tabloid press, notably the Daily Express, to give the conspiracy a fair wind." Al-Fayed financially supported Unlawful Killing (2011), a documentary film presenting his version of events. The film was not formally released as a result of the potential for libel suits. Sexual harassment allegations Al-Fayed has been accused by multiple women of sexual harassment and assault. Young women applying for employment at Harrods were often submitted to HIV tests and gynaecological examinations. These women were then selected to spend the weekend with Al-Fayed in Paris. In her profile of Al-Fayed for Vanity Fair, Maureen Orth described how according to former employees "Fayed regularly walked the store on the lookout for young, attractive women to work in his office. Those who rebuffed him would often be subjected to crude, humiliating comments about their appearance or dress...A dozen ex-employees I spoke with said that Fayed would chase secretaries around the office and sometimes try to stuff money down women's blouses". Al-Fayed was interviewed under caution by the Metropolitan Police after an allegation of sexual assault against a 15-year-old schoolgirl in October 2008. The case was dropped by the Crown Prosecution Service, after they found that there was no realistic chance of conviction due to conflicting statements. In December 1997, the ITV current affairs programme, The Big Story broadcast testimonies from a number of former Harrods employees who all spoke of how women were routinely sexually harassed by Al-Fayed in similar ways. A December 2017 episode of Channel 4's Dispatches programme alleged that Al-Fayed had sexually harassed three Harrods employees, and attempted to "groom" them. One of the women was aged 17 at the time. Cheska Hill-Wood waived her right to anonymity to be interviewed for the programme. The programme alleged Al-Fayed targeted young employees over a 13-year period. References Bibliography External links Al-Fayed Charitable Foundation 1929 births Living people Egyptian conspiracy theorists Egyptian billionaires 20th-century Egyptian businesspeople Egyptian emigrants to England Egyptian emigrants to Switzerland Egyptian Muslims Egyptian football chairmen and investors Egyptian expatriates in Monaco El Fayed family Fulham F.C. directors and chairmen Hoteliers House of Fraser People from Alexandria Harrods

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November%2027

November 27

Events Pre-1600 AD 25 – Luoyang is declared capital of the Eastern Han dynasty by Emperor Guangwu of Han. 176 – Emperor Marcus Aurelius grants his son Commodus the rank of "Imperator" and makes him Supreme Commander of the Roman legions. 395 – Rufinus, praetorian prefect of the East, is murdered by Gothic mercenaries under Gainas. 511 – King Clovis I dies at Lutetia and is buried in the Abbey of St Genevieve. 602 – Byzantine Emperor Maurice is forced to watch as the usurper Phocas executes his five sons before Maurice is beheaded himself. 1095 – Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont. 1601–1900 1727 – The foundation stone to the Jerusalem Church in Berlin is laid. 1809 – The Berners Street hoax is perpetrated by Theodore Hook in the City of Westminster, London. 1815 – Adoption of Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland. 1830 – Saint Catherine Labouré experiences a Marian apparition. 1835 – James Pratt and John Smith are hanged in London; they are the last two to be executed for sodomy in England. 1839 – In Boston, Massachusetts, the American Statistical Association is founded. 1856 – The Coup of 1856 leads to Luxembourg's unilateral adoption of a new, reactionary constitution. 1863 – American Civil War: Confederate cavalry leader John Hunt Morgan and several of his men escape the Ohio Penitentiary and return safely to the South. 1863 – American Civil War: Battle of Mine Run: Union forces under General George Meade take up positions against troops led by Confederate General Robert E. Lee. 1868 – American Indian Wars: Battle of Washita River: United States Army Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer leads an attack on Cheyenne living on reservation land. 1895 – At the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris, Alfred Nobel signs his last will and testament, setting aside his estate to establish the Nobel Prize after he dies. 1896 – Also sprach Zarathustra by Richard Strauss is first performed. 1901–present 1901 – The U.S. Army War College is established. 1912 – Spain declares a protectorate over the north shore of Morocco. 1917 – P. E. Svinhufvud becomes the chairman of his first senate, technically the first Prime Minister of Finland. 1918 – The Free Territory of Ukraine is established. 1924 – In New York City, the first Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade is held. 1940 – In Romania, the ruling Iron Guard fascist party assassinates over 60 of arrested King Carol II of Romania's aides and other political dissidents. 1940 – World War II: At the Battle of Cape Spartivento, the Royal Navy engages the Regia Marina in the Mediterranean Sea. 1942 – World War II: At Toulon, the French navy scuttles its ships and submarines to keep them out of Nazi hands. 1944 – World War II: RAF Fauld explosion: An explosion at a Royal Air Force ammunition dump in Staffordshire kills seventy people. 1945 – CARE (then the Cooperative for American Remittances to Europe) is founded to send CARE Packages of food relief to Europe after World War II. 1954 – Alger Hiss is released from prison after serving 44 months for perjury. 1965 – Vietnam War: The Pentagon tells U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson that if planned operations are to succeed, the number of American troops in Vietnam has to be increased from 120,000 to 400,000. 1968 – Penny Ann Early becomes the first woman to play major professional basketball for the Kentucky Colonels in an ABA game against the Los Angeles Stars. 1971 – The Soviet space program's Mars 2 orbiter releases a descent module. It malfunctions and crashes, but it is the first man-made object to reach the surface of Mars. 1973 – Twenty-fifth Amendment: The United States Senate votes 92–3 to confirm Gerald Ford as Vice President of the United States. (On December 6, the House will confirm him 387–35). 1975 – The Provisional IRA assassinates Ross McWhirter, after a press conference in which McWhirter had announced a reward for the capture of those responsible for multiple bombings and shootings across England. 1978 – In San Francisco, city mayor George Moscone and openly gay city supervisor Harvey Milk are assassinated by former supervisor Dan White. 1978 – The Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) is founded in the Turkish village of Fis. 1983 – Avianca Flight 011: A Boeing 747 crashes near Madrid's Barajas Airport, killing 181. 1984 – Under the Brussels Agreement signed between the governments of the United Kingdom and Spain, the former agrees to enter into discussions with Spain over Gibraltar, including sovereignty. 1989 – Avianca Flight 203: A Boeing 727 explodes in mid-air over Colombia, killing all 107 people on board and three people on the ground. The Medellín Cartel will claim responsibility for the attack. 1992 – For the second time in a year, military forces try to overthrow president Carlos Andrés Pérez in Venezuela. 1997 – Twenty-five people are killed in the second Souhane massacre in Algeria. 1999 – The centre-left Labour Party takes control of the New Zealand government with leader Helen Clark becoming the first elected female Prime Minister in New Zealand's history. 2001 – A hydrogen atmosphere is discovered on the extrasolar planet Osiris by the Hubble Space Telescope, the first atmosphere detected on an extrasolar planet. 2004 – Pope John Paul II returns the relics of Saint John Chrysostom to the Eastern Orthodox Church. 2006 – The House of Commons of Canada approves a motion introduced by Prime Minister Stephen Harper recognizing the Québécois as a nation within Canada. 2008 – XL Airways Germany Flight 888T: An Airbus A320 performing a flight test crashes near the French commune of Canet-en-Roussillon, killing all seven people on board. 2009 – Nevsky Express bombing: A bomb explodes on the Nevsky Express train between Moscow and Saint Petersburg, derailing it and causing 28 deaths and 96 injuries. 2015 – An active shooter inside a Planned Parenthood facility in Colorado Springs, Colorado, shoots at least four police officers. One officer later dies. Two civilians are also killed, and six injured. The shooter later surrendered. 2020 – Iran's top nuclear scientist, Mohsen Fakhrizadeh, is assassinated near Tehran. 2020 – Days after the announcement of its discovery, the Utah monolith is removed by recreationists. Births Pre-1600 111 – Antinous, Greek favourite of Hadrian (d. 130) 1127 – Emperor Xiaozong of Song (d. 1194) 1380 – King Ferdinand I of Aragon (d. 1416) 1422 – Gaston IV, Count of Foix, French nobleman (d. 1472) 1548 – Jacopo Mazzoni, Italian philosopher (d. 1598) 1558 – Mingyi Swa, Crown Prince of Burma (d. 1593) 1576 – Shimazu Tadatsune, Japanese daimyō (d. 1638) 1582 – Pierre Dupuy, French historian and scholar (d. 1651) 1601–1900 1630 – Sigismund Francis, Archduke of Austria (d. 1665) 1635 – Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon, second wife of Louis XIV of France (d. 1719) 1640 – Barbara Palmer, 1st Duchess of Cleveland (d. 1709) 1701 – Anders Celsius, Swedish astronomer, physicist, and mathematician (d. 1744) 1710 – Robert Lowth, English bishop and academic (d. 1787) 1746 – Robert R. Livingston, American lawyer and politician, 1st United States Secretary for Foreign Affairs (d. 1813) 1746 – Increase Sumner, American lawyer, jurist, and politician, 5th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1799) 1754 – Georg Forster, German-Polish ethnologist and journalist (d. 1794) 1759 – Franz Krommer, Czech violinist and composer (d. 1831) 1779 – Aimé, duc de Clermont-Tonnerre, French general and politician, French Minister of Defence (d. 1865) 1804 – Julius Benedict, German-English conductor and composer (d. 1885) 1809 – Fanny Kemble, English actress, playwright, and poet (d. 1893) 1814 – Charles-François-Frédéric, marquis de Montholon-Sémonville, French politician and diplomat, French ambassador to the United States (d. 1886) 1820 – Rachel Brooks Gleason, fourth woman to earn a medical degree in the United States (d. 1905) 1823 – James Service, Scottish-Australian politician, 12th Premier of Victoria (d. 1899) 1833 – Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge (d. 1897) 1843 – Cornelius Vanderbilt II, American businessman (d. 1899) 1845 – Frederic Crowninshield, American artist and author (d. 1918) 1853 – Frank Dicksee, English painter and illustrator (d. 1928) 1857 – Charles Scott Sherrington, English physiologist, bacteriologist, and pathologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1952) 1859 – William Bliss Baker, American painter (d. 1886) 1865 – Janez Evangelist Krek, Slovene priest, journalist, and politician (d. 1917) 1867 – Charles Koechlin, French composer and educator (d. 1950) 1870 – Juho Kusti Paasikivi, Finnish academic and politician, 7th President of Finland (d. 1956) 1871 – Giovanni Giorgi, Italian physicist and engineer (d. 1950) 1874 – Charles A. Beard, American historian, author, and educator, co-founded The New School (d. 1948) 1874 – Chaim Weizmann, Belarusian-Israeli chemist and politician, 1st President of Israel (d. 1952) 1875 – Julius Lenhart, Austrian gymnast (d. 1962) 1877 – Katharine Anthony, American biographer (d. 1965) 1878 – Jatindramohan Bagchi, Indian poet and critic (d. 1948) 1878 – Charles Dvorak, American pole vaulter and coach (d. 1969) 1885 – Daniel Mendaille, French actor (d. 1963) 1885 – Liviu Rebreanu, Romanian author and playwright (d. 1944) 1887 – Masaharu Homma, Japanese general (d. 1946) 1888 – Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar, Indian activist and politician, 1st Speaker of the Lok Sabha (d. 1956) 1894 – Konosuke Matsushita, Japanese businessman, founded Panasonic (d. 1989) 1894 – Katherine Milhous, American author and illustrator (d. 1977) 1894 – Amphilochius of Pochayiv, Ukrainian monk and saint (d. 1971) 1898 – Fredric Warburg, English author and publisher (d. 1981) 1900 – Jovette Bernier, Canadian journalist, author, and radio show host (d. 1981) 1901–present 1901 – Ted Husing, American sportscaster (d. 1962) 1903 – Lars Onsager, Norwegian-American chemist and physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976) 1905 – Astrid Allwyn, American actress (d. 1978) 1907 – Harivansh Rai Bachchan, Indian poet and author (d. 2003) 1907 – L. Sprague de Camp, American historian and author (d. 2000) 1909 – James Agee, American novelist, screenwriter, and critic (d. 1955) 1909 – Anatoly Maltsev, Russian mathematician and theorist (d. 1967) 1911 – Fe del Mundo, Filipino pediatrician and educator (d. 2011) 1911 – David Merrick, American director and producer (d. 2000) 1912 – Connie Sawyer, American actress (d. 2018) 1916 – Chick Hearn, American sportscaster and actor (d. 2002) 1917 – Buffalo Bob Smith, American actor and television host (d. 1998) 1918 – Stephen Elliott, American actor (d. 2005) 1920 – Abe Lenstra, Dutch footballer (d. 1985) 1920 – Buster Merryfield, English actor (d. 1999) 1920 – Cal Worthington, Automobile dealer and television personality (d. 2013) 1921 – Dora Dougherty Strother, American pilot and academic (d. 2013) 1921 – Alexander Dubček, Slovak soldier and politician (d. 1992) 1922 – Hall Bartlett, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1993) 1922 – Nicholas Magallanes, American principal dancer and charter member of the New York City Ballet (d. 1977) 1923 – J. Ernest Wilkins Jr., American nuclear scientist, mechanical engineer and mathematician (d. 2011) 1925 – John Maddox, Welsh chemist, physicist, and journalist (d. 2009) 1925 – Marshall Thompson, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1992) 1925 – Derroll Adams, American folk singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2000) 1925 – Ernie Wise, English actor, singer, and screenwriter (d. 1999) 1926 – Chae Myung-shin, South Korean general (d. 2013) 1927 – Carlos José Castilho, Brazilian footballer and manager (d. 1987) 1927 – William E. Simon, American soldier and politician, 63rd United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 2000) 1928 – Alekos Alexandrakis, Greek actor and director (d. 2005) 1928 – Josh Kirby, English painter and illustrator (d. 2001) 1930 – Joe DeNardo, American meteorologist (d. 2018) 1930 – Dick Poole, Australian rugby league player and coach 1930 – Rex Shelley, Singaporean engineer and author (d. 2009) 1930 – Alan Simpson, English screenwriter and producer (d. 2017) 1932 – Benigno Aquino Jr., Filipino journalist and politician (d. 1983) 1933 – Jacques Godbout, Canadian journalist, author, director, and screenwriter 1933 – Gordon S. Wood, American historian and academic 1934 – Ammo Baba, Iraqi footballer and manager (d. 2009) 1934 – Al Jackson, Jr., American drummer, songwriter, and producer (d. 1975) 1934 – Gilbert Strang, American mathematician and academic 1935 – Les Blank, American director and producer (d. 2013) 1935 – Daniel Charles, French musicologist and philosopher (d. 2008) 1935 – Willie Pastrano, American boxer (d. 1997) 1937 – Gail Sheehy, American journalist and author 1938 – John Ashworth, English biologist and academic 1938 – Apolo Nsibambi, Ugandan academic and politician, Prime Minister of Uganda (d. 2019) 1939 – Dave Giusti, American baseball player and manager 1939 – Laurent-Désiré Kabila, Congolese politician, President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (d. 2001) 1940 – Bruce Lee, American-Chinese actor, martial artist, and screenwriter (d. 1973) 1941 – Aimé Jacquet, French footballer, coach, and manager 1941 – Eddie Rabbitt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1998) 1941 – Louis van Dijk, Dutch pianist 1942 – Henry Carr, American football player and sprinter (d. 2015) 1942 – Marilyn Hacker, American poet and critic 1942 – Jimi Hendrix, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1970) 1943 – Nicole Brossard, Canadian author and poet 1943 – Jil Sander, German fashion designer 1944 – Mickey Leland, American activist and politician (d. 1989) 1945 – James Avery, American actor (d. 2013) 1945 – Phil Bloom, Dutch model and actress 1945 – Randy Brecker, American trumpeter and flugelhornist 1945 – Alain de Cadenet, English race car driver 1945 – Benigno Fitial, Mariana Islander businessman and politician, 7th Governor of the Northern Mariana Islands 1945 – Simon Townsend, Australian journalist and television host 1946 – Richard Codey, American politician, 53rd Governor of New Jersey 1946 – Ismaïl Omar Guelleh, Ethiopian-Djiboutian lawyer and politician, President of Djibouti 1947 – Don Adams, American basketball player (d. 2013) 1947 – Neil Rosenshein, American tenor and actor 1949 – Masanori Sekiya, Japanese race car driver 1950 – Gavyn Davies, English journalist and businessman 1951 – Kathryn Bigelow, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1951 – Vera Fischer, Brazilian actress, winner from Miss Brasil 1969 contest 1951 – Gunnar Graps, Estonian singer and guitarist (d. 2004) 1952 – Sheila Copps, Canadian journalist and politician, 6th Deputy Prime Minister of Canada 1952 – Bappi Lahiri, Indian singer-songwriter and producer 1952 – Jim Wetherbee, American captain, engineer, and astronaut 1953 – Curtis Armstrong, American actor, singer, and producer 1953 – Steve Bannon, American media executive and political figure 1953 – Boris Grebenshchikov, Russian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1953 – Tarmo Kõuts, Estonian admiral and politician 1953 – Lyle Mays, American keyboardist and composer (d. 2020) 1953 – Richard Stone, American composer (d. 2001) 1954 – Arthur Smith, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1955 – Pierre Mondou, Canadian ice hockey player 1955 – Bill Nye, American engineer, educator, and television host 1956 – William Fichtner, American actor 1956 – John McCarthy, English journalist and author 1956 – Nazrin Shah of Perak, Sultan of Perak 1957 – Kenny Acheson, Northern Irish race car driver 1957 – Frank Boeijen, Dutch singer-songwriter and guitarist 1957 – Caroline Kennedy, American lawyer and diplomat, 29th United States Ambassador to Japan 1957 – Callie Khouri, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1957 – Michael A. Stackpole, American game designer and author 1957 – Edda Heiðrún Backman, Icelandic actress, singer, director and artist (d. 2016) 1958 – Tetsuya Komuro, Japanese singer-songwriter, and producer 1958 – Mike Scioscia, American baseball player and manager 1959 – Charlie Burchill, Scottish guitarist and songwriter 1959 – Viktoria Mullova, Russian violinist 1960 – Kevin Henkes, American author and illustrator 1960 – Ken O'Brien, American football player and coach 1960 – Tim Pawlenty, American lawyer and politician, 39th Governor of Minnesota 1960 – Yulia Tymoshenko, Ukrainian economist and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Ukraine 1960 – Gianni Vernetti, Italian lawyer and politician 1961 – Samantha Bond, English actress 1961 – Steve Oedekerk, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1962 – Charlie Benante, American drummer and songwriter 1962 – Mike Bordin, American drummer 1962 – Davey Boy Smith, English-Canadian wrestler (d. 2002) 1963 – Fisher Stevens, American actor, director, and producer 1964 – Robin Givens, American actress 1964 – Roberto Mancini, Italian footballer and manager 1964 – Hisayuki Sasaki, Japanese golfer (d. 2013) 1965 – Danielle Ammaccapane, American golfer 1966 – Andy Merrill, American television writer, producer and voice actor 1968 – Michael Vartan, French-American actor 1968 – Al Barrow, English bass guitarist 1969 – Ruth George, English politician 1969 – Damian Hinds, English politician 1969 – Myles Kennedy, American singer-songwriter 1971 – Kirk Acevedo, American actor 1971 – Larry Allen, American football player 1971 – Iván Rodríguez, Puerto Rican-American baseball player 1971 – Nick Van Exel, American basketball player and coach 1972 – Shane Salerno, American screenwriter and producer 1973 – Sharlto Copley, South African actor 1973 – Samantha Harris, American model and television host 1973 – Evan Karagias, American wrestler and actor 1973 – Jin Katagiri, Japanese comedian, actor, sculptor, and potter 1973 – Twista, American rapper and producer 1974 – Wendy Houvenaghel, Northern Irish racing cyclist 1974 – Alec Newman, Scottish actor 1975 – Bad Azz, American rapper (d. 2019) 1975 – Martín Gramática, Argentinian-American football player 1975 – Rain Vessenberg, Estonian footballer 1976 – Jean Grae, South African-American rapper and producer 1976 – Chad Kilger, Canadian ice hockey player and firefighter 1976 – Jaleel White, American actor and screenwriter 1977 – Willie Bloomquist, American baseball player 1977 – Bendor Grosvenor, British art historian 1978 – Eszter Molnár, Hungarian tennis player 1978 – Jimmy Rollins, American baseball player 1978 – Mike Skinner, English rapper and producer 1978 – Radek Štěpánek, Czech tennis player 1979 – Ricky Carmichael, American motocross racer 1979 – Hilary Hahn, American violinist 1979 – Teemu Tainio, Finnish footballer 1980 – Jackie Greene, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1980 – Veronika Portsmuth, Estonian singer and conductor 1980 – Michael Yardy, English cricketer 1981 – Bruno Alves, Portuguese footballer 1981 – Ryan Jimmo, Canadian mixed martial artist (d. 2016) 1981 – Matthew Taylor, English footballer 1982 – David Bellion, French footballer 1982 – Aleksandr Kerzhakov, Russian footballer 1982 – Tommy Robinson, English activist, co-founded the English Defence League 1983 – Professor Green, English rapper 1983 – Donta Smith, American-Venezuelan basketball player 1984 – Izumi Kitta, Japanese voice actress and singer 1984 – Domata Peko, American football player 1984 – Leslie Dewan, American entrepreneur 1985 – Park Soo-jin, South Korean singer 1985 – Alison Pill, Canadian actress 1985 – Thilo Versick, German footballer 1986 – Suresh Kumar Raina, Indian cricketer 1986 – Steven Silva, American-Filipino footballer 1986 – Xavi Torres, Spanish footballer 1986 – Oritsé Williams, English singer-songwriter, producer, and dancer 1989 – Michael Floyd, American football player 1989 – Freddie Sears, English footballer 1990 – Josh Dubovie, English singer 1992 – Ala Boratyn, Polish singer-songwriter 1992 – Park Chanyeol, South Korean rapper, singer, songwriter, actor and model 1995 – Suliasi Vunivalu, Fijian rugby league player 1996 – Mike Williams, Dutch DJ and record producer 1996 – Andy Truong, Australian fashion designer 2001 – Zoe Colletti, American actress Deaths Pre-1600 8 BC – Horace, Roman soldier and poet (b. 65 BC) 395 – Rufinus, Roman politician (b. 335) 450 – Galla Placidia, Roman Empress (b. 392) 511 – Clovis I, king of the Franks 602 – Maurice, Byzantine emperor (b. 539) 639 – Acarius, bishop of Doornik and Noyon 1198 – Constance, Queen of Sicily (b. 1154) 1252 – Blanche of Castile (b. 1188) 1346 – Saint Gregory of Sinai (b. c. 1260) 1382 – Philip van Artevelde, Flemish patriot (b. 1340) 1474 – Guillaume Dufay, Flemish composer and educator (b. 1397) 1570 – Jacopo Sansovino, Italian sculptor and architect (b. 1486) 1592 – Nakagawa Hidemasa, Japanese commander (b. 1568) 1601–1900 1620 – Francis, Duke of Pomerania-Stettin, Bishop of Cammin (b. 1577) 1632 – John Eliot, English politician (b. 1592) 1703 – Henry Winstanley, English painter and engineer (b. 1644) 1754 – Abraham de Moivre, French-English mathematician and theorist (b. 1667) 1811 – Andrew Meikle, Scottish engineer, designed the threshing machine (b. 1719) 1819 – Gustavus Conyngham, Irish-born American merchant sea captain, an officer in the Continental Navy and a privateer. 1830 – André Parmentier, Belgian-American architect (b. 1780) 1852 – Ada Lovelace, English mathematician and computer scientist (b. 1815) 1875 – Richard Christopher Carrington, English astronomer and educator (b. 1826) 1881 – Theobald Boehm, German flute player and composer (b. 1794) 1884 – Fanny Elssler, Austrian ballerina (b. 1810) 1890 – Mahatma Phule, Indian Activist (b. 1827) 1895 – Alexandre Dumas, fils, French novelist and playwright (b. 1824) 1899 – Constant Fornerod, Swiss academic and politician, 10th President of the Swiss Council of States (b. 1819) 1901–present 1901 – Clement Studebaker, American businessman, co-founded Studebaker (b. 1831) 1908 – Jean Albert Gaudry, French geologist and palaeontologist (b. 1827) 1916 – Emile Verhaeren, Belgian poet and playwright (b. 1855) 1919 – Manuel Espinosa Batista, Panamanian pharmacist and politician (b. 1857) 1920 – Alexius Meinong, Ukrainian-Austrian philosopher and author (b. 1853) 1921 – Douglas Cameron, Canadian contractor and politician, 8th Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba (b. 1854) 1921 – Mary Grant Roberts, Australian zoo owner (b. 1841) 1930 – Simon Kahquados, Potawatomi political activist (b. 1851) 1931 – Lya De Putti, Slovak-American actress (b. 1899) 1934 – Baby Face Nelson, American criminal (b. 1908) 1936 – Basil Zaharoff, Greek-French businessman and philanthropist (b. 1849) 1940 – Nicolae Iorga, Romanian historian and politician, 34th Prime Minister of Romania (b. 1871) 1943 – Ivo Lola Ribar, Croatian soldier and politician (b. 1916) 1944 – Leonid Mandelstam, Russian physicist and academic (b. 1879) 1953 – Eugene O'Neill, American playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1888) 1955 – Arthur Honegger, French-Swiss composer and academic (b. 1892) 1958 – Georgi Damyanov, Bulgarian politician, Head of State of Bulgaria (b. 1892) 1958 – Artur Rodziński, Polish-American conductor (b. 1892) 1960 – Frederick Fane, Irish-English cricketer (b. 1875) 1960 – Dirk Jan de Geer, Dutch lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b. 1870) 1962 – August Lass, Estonian footballer (b. 1903) 1967 – Léon M'ba, Gabonese politician, 1st President of Gabon (b. 1902) 1969 – May Gibbs, English Australian children's author, illustrator, and cartoonist, (b. 1877) 1970 – Helene Madison, American swimmer and nurse (b. 1913) 1973 – Frank Christian, American trumpet player (b. 1887) 1975 – Alberto Massimino, Italian automotive engineer (b. 1895) 1975 – Ross McWhirter, English author and activist, co-founded the Guinness Book of Records (b. 1925) 1977 – Mart Laga, Estonian basketball player (b. 1936) 1978 – Harvey Milk, American lieutenant and politician (b. 1930) 1978 – George Moscone, American lawyer and politician, 37th Mayor of San Francisco (b. 1929) 1980 – F. Burrall Hoffman, American architect, designed the Villa Vizcaya (b. 1882) 1981 – Lotte Lenya, Austrian singer and actress (b. 1898) 1985 – Rendra Karno, Indonesian actor (b. 1920) 1986 – Steve Tracy, American actor (b, 1952) 1988 – John Carradine, American actor (b. 1906) 1988 – Jan Hein Donner, Dutch chess player and author (b. 1927) 1989 – Carlos Arias Navarro, Spanish lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Spain (b. 1908) 1990 – David White, American actor (b. 1916) 1990 – Basilis C. Xanthopoulos, Greek physicist and academic (b. 1951) 1992 – Ivan Generalić, Croatian painter (b. 1914) 1994 – Fernando Lopes-Graça, Portuguese composer and conductor (b. 1906) 1997 – Buck Leonard, American baseball player and educator (b. 1907) 1998 – Barbara Acklin, American singer-songwriter (b. 1943) 1998 – Gloria Fuertes, Spanish poet and author of children's literature (b. 1917) 1999 – Yasuhiro Kojima, Japanese-American wrestler and trainer (b. 1937) 1999 – Alain Peyrefitte, French scholar and politician, French Minister of Justice (b. 1925) 1999 – Elizabeth Gray Vining, American author and librarian (b. 1902) 2000 – Malcolm Bradbury, English author and academic (b. 1932) 2000 – Uno Prii, Estonian-Canadian architect (b. 1924) 2000 – Len Shackleton, English footballer and journalist (b. 1922) 2002 – Billie Bird, American actress (b. 1908) 2002 – Shivmangal Singh Suman, Indian poet and academic (b. 1915) 2005 – Jocelyn Brando, American actress (b. 1919) 2005 – Joe Jones, American singer-songwriter (b. 1926) 2006 – Don Butterfield, American tuba player (b. 1923) 2006 – Bebe Moore Campbell, American author and educator (b. 1950) 2006 – Casey Coleman, American sportscaster (b. 1951) 2007 – Bernie Banton, Australian activist (b. 1946) 2007 – Robert Cade, American physician and academic, co-invented Gatorade (b. 1927) 2007 – Sean Taylor, American football player (b. 1983) 2007 – Bill Willis, American football player and coach (b. 1921) 2008 – V. P. Singh, Indian lawyer and politician, 7th Prime Minister of India (b. 1931) 2009 – Al Alberts, American singer-songwriter (b. 1922) 2010 – Irvin Kershner, American actor, director, and producer (b. 1923) 2011 – Len Fulford, English photographer and director (b. 1928) 2011 – Ken Russell, English actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1927) 2011 – Gary Speed, Welsh footballer and manager (b. 1969) 2012 – Mickey Baker, American guitarist (b. 1925) 2012 – Ab Fafié, Dutch footballer and manager (b. 1941) 2012 – Érik Izraelewicz, French journalist and author (b. 1954) 2012 – Marvin Miller, American businessman and union leader (b. 1917) 2012 – Jack Wishna, American photographer and businessman, co-founded Rockcityclub (b. 1958) 2013 – Lewis Collins, English-American actor (b. 1946) 2013 – Herbert F. DeSimone, American lawyer and politician, Attorney General of Rhode Island (b. 1929) 2013 – Volker Roemheld, German physiologist and biologist (b. 1941) 2013 – Nílton Santos, Brazilian footballer (b. 1925) 2013 – Manuel F. Segura, Filipino colonel (b. 1919) 2014 – Wanda Błeńska, Polish physician and missionary (b. 1911) 2014 – Phillip Hughes, Australian cricketer (b. 1988) 2014 – P. D. James, English author (b. 1920) 2014 – Jack Kyle, Irish rugby player and humanitarian (b. 1926) 2014 – Fernance B. Perry, Portuguese-American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1922) 2015 – Mark Behr, Tanzanian-South African author and academic (b. 1963) 2015 – Maurice Strong, Canadian businessman and diplomat (b. 1929) 2015 – Garrett Swasey, American figure skater and coach (b. 1971) 2015 – Philippe Washer, Belgian tennis player and golfer (b. 1924) 2016 – Ioannis Grivas, Greek statesman (b. 1923) 2020 – Mohsen Fakhrizadeh, Iranian nuclear scientist (b. 1958) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Acarius of Tournai Barlaam and Josaphat Bilihildis Congar of Congresbury Facundus and Primitivus Humilis of Bisignano James Intercisus Leonard of Port Maurice Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal (Roman Catholic) Secundinus Siffredus of Carpentras Vergilius of Salzburg Clovis I November 27 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Earliest day on which Advent Sunday (beginning of Advent) can fall, while December 3 is the latest; celebrated on the 4th Sunday before Christmas (Western Christianity) Lancashire Day (United Kingdom) Maaveerar Day (Tamil Eelam, Sri Lanka) Naval Infantry Day (Russia) Teacher's Day (Spain) References External links Days of the year November

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November 5

Events Pre-1600 1138 – Lý Anh Tông is enthroned as emperor of Vietnam at the age of two, beginning a 37-year reign. 1499 – The Catholicon, written in 1464 by Jehan Lagadeuc in Tréguier, is published; this is the first Breton dictionary as well as the first French dictionary. 1556 – Second Battle of Panipat: Fighting begins between the forces of Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, the Hindu king at Delhi and the forces of the Muslim emperor Akbar. 1601–1900 1605 – Gunpowder Plot: Guy Fawkes is arrested. 1688 – William III of England lands with a Dutch fleet at Brixham. 1757 – Seven Years' War: Frederick the Great defeats the allied armies of France and the Holy Roman Empire at the Battle of Rossbach. 1768 – The Treaty of Fort Stanwix is signed, the purpose of which is to adjust the boundary line between Indian lands and white settlements set forth in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 in the Thirteen Colonies. 1780 – French-American forces under Colonel LaBalme are defeated by Miami Chief Little Turtle. 1811 – Salvadoran priest José Matías Delgado rings the bells of La Merced church in San Salvador, calling for insurrection and launching the 1811 Independence Movement. 1828 – Greek War of Independence: The French Morea expedition to recapture Morea (now the Peloponnese) ends when the last Ottoman forces depart the peninsula. 1831 – Nat Turner, American slave leader, is tried, convicted, and sentenced to death in Virginia. 1862 – American Civil War: Abraham Lincoln removes George B. McClellan as commander of the Army of the Potomac. 1862 – American Indian Wars: In Minnesota, 303 Dakota warriors are found guilty of rape and murder of whites and are sentenced to death. Thirty-eight are ultimately hanged and the others reprieved. 1872 – Women's suffrage in the United States: In defiance of the law, suffragist Susan B. Anthony votes for the first time, and is later fined $100. 1895 – George B. Selden is granted the first U.S. patent for an automobile. 1898 – Negrese nationalists revolt against Spanish rule and establish the short-lived Republic of Negros. 1901–present 1911 – After declaring war on the Ottoman Empire on September 29, 1911, Italy annexes Tripoli and Cyrenaica. 1912 – Woodrow Wilson is elected the 28th President of the United States, defeating incumbent William Howard Taft. 1913 – King Otto of Bavaria is deposed by his cousin, Prince Regent Ludwig, who assumes the title Ludwig III. 1914 – World War I: France and the British Empire declare war on the Ottoman Empire. 1916 – The Kingdom of Poland is proclaimed by the Act of 5th November of the emperors of Germany and Austria-Hungary. 1916 – The Everett massacre takes place in Everett, Washington as political differences lead to a shoot-out between the Industrial Workers of the World organizers and local police. 1917 – Lenin calls for the October Revolution. 1917 – Tikhon is elected the Patriarch of Moscow and of the Russian Orthodox Church. 1925 – Secret agent Sidney Reilly, the first "super-spy" of the 20th century, is executed by the OGPU, the secret police of the Soviet Union. 1940 – World War II: The British armed merchant cruiser is sunk by the German pocket battleship . 1940 – Franklin D. Roosevelt is the first and only President of the United States to be elected to a third term. 1943 – World War II: Bombing of the Vatican. 1950 – Korean War: British and Australian forces from the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade successfully halted the advancing Chinese 117th Division during the Battle of Pakchon. 1955 – After being destroyed in World War II, the rebuilt Vienna State Opera reopens with a performance of Beethoven's Fidelio. 1956 – Suez Crisis: British and French paratroopers land in Egypt after a week-long bombing campaign. 1968 – Richard Nixon is elected as 37th President of the United States. 1970 – The Military Assistance Command, Vietnam reports the lowest weekly American soldier death toll in five years (24). 1983 – The Byford Dolphin diving bell accident kills five and leaves one severely injured. 1986 – , and visit Qingdao, China; the first US naval visit to China since 1949. 1990 – Rabbi Meir Kahane, founder of the far-right Kach movement, is shot dead after a speech at a New York City hotel. 1995 – André Dallaire attempts to assassinate Prime Minister Jean Chrétien of Canada. He is thwarted when the Prime Minister's wife locks the door. 1996 – Pakistani President Farooq Leghari dismisses the government of Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto and dissolves the National Assembly. 1996 – Bill Clinton is reelected President of the United States. 2006 – Saddam Hussein, the former president of Iraq, and his co-defendants Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti and Awad Hamed al-Bandar, are sentenced to death in the al-Dujail trial for their roles in the 1982 massacre of 148 Shia Muslims. 2007 – China's first lunar satellite, Chang'e 1, goes into orbit around the Moon. 2007 – The Android mobile operating system is unveiled by Google. 2009 – U.S. Army Major Nidal Hasan murders 13 and wounds 32 at Fort Hood, Texas in the deadliest mass shooting at a U.S. military installation. 2013 – India launches the Mars Orbiter Mission, its first interplanetary probe. 2015 – An iron ore tailings dam bursts in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais, flooding a valley, causing mudslides in the nearby village of Bento Rodrigues and causing at least 17 deaths and two missing. 2015 – Rona Ambrose takes over after Stephen Harper as the Leader of the Conservative Party of Canada. 2017 – Devin Patrick Kelley kills 26 and injures 22 in a church in Sutherland Springs, Texas. Births Pre-1600 1271 – Ghazan, Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate (d. 1304) 1436 – Richard Grey, 3rd Earl of Tankerville, Earl of Tankerville, 1450–1460 (d. 1466) 1494 – Hans Sachs, German poet and playwright (d. 1576) 1549 – Philippe de Mornay, French theologian and author (d. 1623) 1592 – Charles Chauncy, English-American pastor, theologian, and academic (d. 1672) 1601–1900 1607 – Anna Maria van Schurman, Dutch painter (d. 1678) 1613 – Isaac de Benserade, French poet and educator (d. 1691) 1615 – Ibrahim of the Ottoman Empire (d. 1648) 1666 – Attilio Ariosti, Italian viola player and composer (d. 1729) 1667 – Christoph Ludwig Agricola, German painter (d. 1719) 1688 – Louis Bertrand Castel, French mathematician and philosopher (d. 1757) 1701 – Pietro Longhi, Venetian painter and educator (d. 1785) 1705 – Louis-Gabriel Guillemain, French violinist and composer (d. 1770) 1715 – John Brown, English author and playwright (d. 1766) 1722 – William Byron, 5th Baron Byron, English lieutenant and politician (d. 1798) 1739 – Hugh Montgomerie, 12th Earl of Eglinton, Scottish composer and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ayrshire (d. 1819) 1742 – Richard Cosway, English painter (d. 1821) 1789 – William Bland, Australian surgeon and politician (d. 1868) 1818 – Benjamin Butler, American general, lawyer, and politician, 33rd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1893) 1835 – Moritz Szeps, Ukrainian-Austrian journalist and publisher (d. 1902) 1846 – Duncan Gordon Boyes, English soldier, recipient of the Victoria Cross (d. 1869) 1850 – Ella Wheeler Wilcox, American author and poet (d. 1919) 1851 – Charles Dupuy, French academic and politician, 60th Prime Minister of France (d. 1923) 1854 – Alphonse Desjardins, Canadian journalist and businessman, co-founded Desjardins Group (d. 1920) 1854 – Paul Sabatier, French chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1941) 1855 – Eugene V. Debs, American union leader and politician (d. 1926) 1855 – Léon Teisserenc de Bort, French meteorologist and climatologist (d. 1913) 1857 – Ida Tarbell, American journalist, author, reformer, and educator (d. 1944) 1870 – Chittaranjan Das, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 1925) 1873 – Edwin Flack, Australian tennis player and runner (d. 1935) 1879 – Otto Wahle, Austrian-American swimmer and coach (d. 1963) 1881 – George A. Malcolm, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1961) 1883 – P Moe Nin, Burmese author and translator (d. 1940) 1884 – James Elroy Flecker, English author, poet, and playwright (d. 1915) 1885 – Will Durant, American historian and philosopher (d. 1981) 1886 – Sadae Inoue, Japanese general (d. 1961) 1887 – Paul Wittgenstein, Austrian-American pianist and educator (d. 1961) 1890 – Jan Zrzavý, Czech painter and illustrator (d. 1977) 1892 – J. B. S. Haldane, English-Indian geneticist and biologist (d. 1964) 1892 – John Alcock, captain in the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force (d. 1919) 1893 – Raymond Loewy, French-American engineer and designer (d. 1986) 1894 – Beardsley Ruml, American economist and statistician (d. 1960) 1895 – Walter Gieseking, French-German pianist and composer (d. 1956) 1895 – Charles MacArthur, American playwright and screenwriter (d. 1956) 1899 – Margaret Atwood Judson, American historian and author (d. 1991) 1900 – Natalie Schafer, American actress (d. 1991) 1900 – Ethelwynn Trewavas, British ichthyologist, over a dozen fish species named in her honor (d. 1993) 1901–present 1901 – Etta Moten Barnett, American actress and singer (d. 2004) 1901 – Martin Dies, Jr., American lawyer, judge, and politician (d. 1972) 1901 – Eddie Paynter, English cricketer (d. 1979) 1904 – Cooney Weiland, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1985) 1905 – Joel McCrea, American actor (d. 1990) 1905 – Louis Rosier, French race car driver (d. 1956) 1905 – Sajjad Zaheer, Indian author and poet (d. 1973) 1906 – Endre Kabos, Hungarian fencer (d. 1944) 1906 – Fred Lawrence Whipple, American astronomer and academic (d. 2004) 1910 – John Hackett, Australian-English general and academic (d. 1997) 1911 – Marie Osborne Yeats, American actress and costume designer (d. 2010) 1911 – Roy Rogers, American singer, guitarist, and actor (d. 1998) 1912 – W. Allen Wallis, American economist and statistician (d. 1998) 1913 – Guy Green, English-American director, screenwriter, and cinematographer (d. 2005) 1913 – Vivien Leigh, Indian-British actress (d. 1967) 1913 – John McGiver, American actor (d. 1975) 1914 – Alton Tobey, American painter and illustrator (d. 2005) 1917 – Jacqueline Auriol, French pilot (d. 2000) 1917 – Banarsi Das Gupta, Indian activist and politician, 4th Chief Minister of Haryana (d. 2007) 1917 – James Lawton Collins Jr., American brigadier general (d. 2002) 1917 – Giuseppe Salvioli, Italian football player 1919 – Hasan Askari, Pakistani linguist, scholar, and critic (d. 1978) 1919 – Myron Floren, American accordion player and pianist (d. 2005) 1920 – Tommy Godwin, American-English cyclist and coach (d. 2012) 1920 – Douglass North, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015) 1921 – Georges Cziffra, Hungarian pianist and composer (d. 1994) 1921 – Fawzia Fuad of Egypt (d. 2013) 1922 – Violet Barclay, American illustrator (d. 2010) 1922 – Yitzchok Scheiner, American-Israeli rabbi (d. 2021) 1922 – Cecil H. Underwood, American educator and politician, 25th and 32nd Governor of West Virginia (d. 2008) 1923 – Rudolf Augstein, German soldier and journalist, co-founded Der Spiegel (d. 2002) 1926 – John Berger, English author, poet, painter, and critic (d. 2017) 1927 – Hirotugu Akaike, Japanese statistician (d. 2009) 1930 – Wim Bleijenberg, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2016) 1930 – Hans Mommsen, German historian and academic (d. 2015) 1931 – Leonard Herzenberg, American immunologist, geneticist, and academic (d. 2013) 1931 – Gil Hill, American actor, police officer and politician (d. 2016) 1931 – Harold McNair, Jamaican-English saxophonist and flute player (d. 1971) 1931 – Ike Turner, American singer-songwriter, guitarist and producer (d. 2007) 1931 – Diane Pearson, British book editor and novelist (d. 2017) 1932 – Algirdas Lauritėnas, Lithuanian basketball player (d. 2001) 1933 – Herb Edelman, American actor (d. 1996) 1934 – Jeb Stuart Magruder, American minister and civil servant (d. 2014) 1935 – Lester Piggott, English jockey and trainer 1935 – Christopher Wood, English author and screenwriter (d. 2015) 1936 – Michael Dertouzos, Greek-American computer scientist and academic (d. 2001) 1936 – Uwe Seeler, German footballer and actor 1936 – Billy Sherrill, American record producer, songwriter, and arranger (d. 2015) 1937 – Chan Sek Keong, Singaporean lawyer, judge, and politician, 3rd Chief Justice of Singapore 1937 – Harris Yulin, American actor 1938 – Joe Dassin, American-French singer-songwriter (d. 1980) 1938 – César Luis Menotti, Argentinian footballer and manager 1938 – Jim Steranko, American author and illustrator 1939 – Lobsang Tenzin, Tibetan religious leader 1940 – Ted Kulongoski, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 36th Governor of Oregon 1940 – Elke Sommer, German actress 1941 – Art Garfunkel, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1941 – Yoshiyuki Tomino, Japanese animator, director, and screenwriter 1942 – Pierangelo Bertoli, Italian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002) 1943 – Friedman Paul Erhardt, German-American chef and author (d. 2007) 1943 – Percy Hobson, Australian high jumper 1943 – Sam Shepard, American playwright and actor (d. 2017) 1945 – Peter Pace, American general 1945 – Aleka Papariga, Greek accountant and politician 1945 – Svetlana Tširkova-Lozovaja, Russian fencer and coach 1946 – Gram Parsons, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1973) 1946 – Ken Whaley, Austrian-English bass player and songwriter (d. 2013) 1947 – Quint Davis, American director and producer 1947 – Rubén Juárez, Argentinian singer-songwriter and bandoneon player (d. 2010) 1947 – Peter Noone, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1948 – Bob Barr, American lawyer and politician 1948 – Peter Hammill, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1948 – Bernard-Henri Lévy, French philosopher and author 1948 – William Daniel Phillips, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1949 – Armin Shimerman, American actor 1949 – Jimmie Spheeris, American singer-songwriter (d. 1984) 1950 – Thorbjørn Jagland, Norwegian politician, 25th Prime Minister of Norway 1950 – James Kennedy, American psychologist and author 1952 – Oleh Blokhin, Ukrainian footballer and manager 1952 – Brian Muehl, American puppeteer 1952 – Vandana Shiva, Indian philosopher and author 1952 – Bill Walton, American basketball player and sportscaster 1953 – Florentino Floro, Filipino lawyer and judge 1953 – Joyce Maynard, American journalist, author, and academic 1954 – Alejandro Sabella, Argentine footballer and manager (d. 2020) 1954 – Jeffrey Sachs, American economist and academic 1955 – Bernard Chazelle, French computer scientist and academic 1955 – Kris Jenner, American talent manager and businesswoman 1955 – Karan Thapar, Indian journalist and author 1956 – Jeff Watson, American guitarist and songwriter 1956 – John Harwood, American journalist 1956 – Lavrentis Machairitsas, Greek singer-songwriter and guitarist 1956 – Michael Sorridimi, Australian rugby league player 1956 – Rob Fisher, English keyboard player and songwriter (d. 1999) 1957 – Mike Score, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1958 – Don Falcone, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer 1958 – Mo Gaffney, American actress and screenwriter 1958 – Robert Patrick, American actor 1959 – Bryan Adams, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor 1959 – Tomo Česen, Slovenian mountaineer 1960 – René Froger, Dutch singer-songwriter 1960 – Tilda Swinton, English actress 1961 – Alan G. Poindexter, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2012) 1962 – Turid Birkeland, Norwegian businesswoman and politician, Norwegian Minister of Culture (d. 2015) 1962 – Abedi Pele, Ghanaian footballer and manager 1962 – Marcus J. Ranum, American computer scientist and author 1963 – Hans Gillhaus, Dutch footballer and scout 1963 – Andrea McArdle, American actress and singer 1963 – Tatum O'Neal, American actress and author 1963 – Brian Wheat, American bass player and songwriter 1963 – Jean-Pierre Papin, French footballer and manager 1965 – Atul Gawande, American surgeon and journalist 1965 – Famke Janssen, Dutch model and actress 1966 – Nayim, Spanish footballer and manager 1966 – James Allen, English journalist and sportscaster 1966 – Urmas Kirs, Estonian footballer and manager 1967 – Marcelo D2, Brazilian rapper 1967 – Judy Reyes, American actress and producer 1968 – Ricardo Fort, Argentinian actor, director, and businessman (d. 2013) 1968 – Sam Rockwell, American actor 1969 – Pat Kilbane, American actor, comedian, director, and screenwriter 1970 – Javy López, Puerto Rican-American baseball player 1971 – Chris Addison, Welsh-English comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1971 – Sergei Berezin, Russian ice hockey player 1971 – Jonny Greenwood, English guitarist and songwriter 1971 – Dana Jacobson, American sportscaster 1971 – Rob Jones, Welsh-English footballer and coach 1971 – Edmond Leung, Hong Kong singer-songwriter and producer 1971 – Corin Nemec, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Mårten Olander, Swedish golfer 1973 – Johnny Damon, American baseball player 1973 – Peter Emmerich, American illustrator and educator 1973 – Gráinne Seoige, Irish journalist 1973 – Alexei Yashin, Russian ice hockey player and manager 1974 – Ryan Adams, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1974 – Angela Gossow, German singer-songwriter 1974 – Dado Pršo, Croatian footballer and coach 1974 – Taine Randell, New Zealand rugby player 1974 – Jerry Stackhouse, American basketball player and sportscaster 1975 – Lisa Scott-Lee, Welsh singer-songwriter 1976 – Sebastian Arcelus, American actor, singer, and producer 1976 – Mr. Fastfinger, Finnish guitarist and songwriter 1976 – Jeff Klein, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1976 – Samuel Page, American actor 1977 – Maarten Tjallingii, Dutch cyclist 1977 – Richard Wright, English footballer and coach 1978 – Xavier Tondo, Spanish cyclist (d. 2011) 1978 – Bubba Watson, American golfer 1979 – Romi Dames, Japanese-American actress 1979 – Colin Grzanna, German rugby player and surgeon 1979 – Michalis Hatzigiannis, Cypriot singer-songwriter and producer 1979 – Keith McLeod, American basketball player 1979 – David Suazo, Honduran footballer and coach 1980 – Jaime Camara, Brazilian race car driver 1980 – Andrei Korobeinik, Estonian computer programmer, businessman, and politician 1980 – Christoph Metzelder, German footballer 1980 – Orkun Uşak, Turkish footballer 1981 – Paul Chapman, Australian footballer 1981 – Ümit Ergirdi, Turkish footballer 1982 – Leah Culver, American computer scientist and programmer, co-founded Pownce 1982 – Bryan LaHair, American baseball player 1982 – Rob Swire, Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1982 – Matthew Williams, Welsh footballer 1983 – Alexa Chung, English model and television host 1983 – Mike Hanke, German footballer 1983 – Juan Morillo, Dominican baseball player 1983 – David Pipe, Welsh footballer 1984 – Jon Cornish, Canadian football player 1984 – Tobias Enström, Swedish ice hockey player 1984 – Nick Folk, American football player 1984 – Baruto Kaito, Estonian sumo wrestler 1984 – Eliud Kipchoge, Kenyan long-distance runner 1984 – John Sutton, Australian rugby league player 1984 – Nick Tandy, English race car driver 1984 – Nikolay Zherdev, Ukrainian-Russian ice hockey player 1985 – Michel Butter, Dutch runner 1985 – Kate DeAraugo, Australian singer-songwriter 1985 – Alo Dupikov, Estonian footballer 1985 – Rimo Hunt, Estonian footballer 1985 – Pınar Saka, Turkish sprinter 1986 – BoA, South Korean singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1986 – Ian Mahinmi, American basketball player 1986 – Kasper Schmeichel, Danish footballer 1986 – Nodiko Tatishvili, Georgian singer 1987 – Kevin Jonas, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1987 – Chris Knierim, American figure skater 1987 – O. J. Mayo, American basketball player 1988 – Virat Kohli, Indian cricketer 1989 – Andrew Boyce, English footballer 1991 – Flume, Australian DJ and producer 1991 – Shōdai Naoya, Japanese sumo wrestler 1992 – Odell Beckham Jr., American football player 1992 – Marco Verratti, Italian footballer 1993 – Hideya Tawada, Japanese actor and model Deaths Pre-1600 425 – Atticus, archbishop of Constantinople 964 – Fan Zhi, chancellor of the Song Dynasty (b. 911) 1011 – Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (b. 949) 1176 – Diego Martínez de Villamayor, Castilian nobleman 1235 – Elisabeth of Swabia, queen consort of Castile and León (b. 1205) 1370 – Casimir III the Great, Polish king (b. 1310) 1450 – John IV, Count of Armagnac (b. 1396) 1459 – John Fastolf, English soldier (b. 1380) 1515 – Mariotto Albertinelli, Italian painter and educator (b. 1474) 1559 – Kanō Motonobu, Japanese painter and educator (b. 1476) 1601–1900 1605 – Nyaungyan Min, Birmese king (b. 1555) 1660 – Alexandre de Rhodes, French missionary and lexicographer (b. 1591) 1660 – Lucy Hay, Countess of Carlisle (b. 1599) 1701 – Charles Gerard, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield, French-English colonel and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Lancashire (b. 1659) 1714 – Bernardino Ramazzini, Italian physician and academic (b. 1633) 1752 – Carl Andreas Duker, German scholar and jurist (b. 1670) 1758 – Hans Egede, Norwegian-Danish bishop and missionary (b. 1686) 1807 – Angelica Kauffman, painter (b. 1741) 1872 – Thomas Sully, English-American painter (b. 1783) 1876 – Theodor von Heuglin, German explorer and ornithologist (b. 1824) 1879 – James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish physicist and mathematician (b. 1831) 1901–present 1923 – Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen, French author and poet (b. 1880) 1928 – Vlasios Tsirogiannis, Greek general (b. 1872) 1930 – Christiaan Eijkman, Dutch physician and pathologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1858) 1930 – Luigi Facta, Italian politician, journalist and Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1861) 1931 – Konrad Stäheli, Swiss target shooter (b. 1866) 1933 – Texas Guinan, American actress and businesswoman (b. 1884) 1933 – Walther von Dyck, German mathematician and academic (b. 1856) 1938 – Thomas Dewing, American painter and educator (b. 1851) 1939 – Mary W. Bacheler, American physician and Baptist medical missionary (b. 1860) 1941 – Arndt Pekurinen, Finnish activist (b. 1905) 1942 – George M. Cohan, American actor, singer, composer, author and theatre manager/owner (b. 1878) 1944 – Alexis Carrel, French surgeon and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1873) 1946 – Joseph Stella, Italian-American painter (b. 1877) 1950 – Mary Harris Armor, American suffragist (b. 1863) 1951 – Reggie Walker, South African runner (b. 1889) 1955 – Maurice Utrillo, French painter (b. 1883) 1956 – Art Tatum, American pianist and composer (b. 1909) 1960 – Ward Bond, American actor (b. 1903) 1960 – Donald Grey Barnhouse, American pastor and theologian (b. 1895) 1960 – August Gailit, Estonian author and poet (b. 1891) 1960 – Johnny Horton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1925) 1960 – Mack Sennett, Canadian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1880) 1963 – Luis Cernuda, Spanish poet and critic (b. 1902) 1964 – Buddy Cole, American pianist and conductor (b. 1916) 1964 – Lansdale Ghiselin Sasscer, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician (b. 1893) 1971 – Sam Jones, American baseball player (b. 1925) 1972 – Alfred Schmidt, Estonian weightlifter (b. 1898) 1975 – Edward Lawrie Tatum, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1909) 1975 – Lionel Trilling, American critic, essayist, short story writer, and educator (b. 1905) 1977 – René Goscinny, French author and illustrator (b. 1926) 1977 – Guy Lombardo, Canadian-American violinist and conductor (b. 1902) 1977 – Alexey Stakhanov, Russian-Soviet miner, the Stakhanovite movement has been named after him (b. 1906) 1979 – Al Capp, American cartoonist (b. 1909) 1980 – Louis Alter, American musician (b. 1902) 1981 – Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, 16th Karmapa, Tibetan spiritual leader (b. 1924) 1985 – Arnold Chikobava, Georgian linguist and philologist (b. 1898) 1985 – Spencer W. Kimball, American religious leader, 12th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1895) 1986 – Adolf Brudes, German race car driver (b. 1899) 1986 – Claude Jutra, Canadian actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1930) 1986 – Bobby Nunn, American singer (b. 1925) 1987 – Eamonn Andrews, Irish radio and television host (b. 1922) 1989 – Vladimir Horowitz, Ukrainian-American pianist and composer (b. 1903) 1991 – Robert Maxwell, Czech-English captain, publisher, and politician (b. 1923) 1991 – Fred MacMurray, American actor and businessman (b. 1908) 1992 – Adile Ayda, Russian-Turkish engineer and diplomat (b. 1912) 1992 – Arpad Elo, American physicist and chess player (b. 1903) 1996 – Eddie Harris, American saxophonist (b. 1934) 1997 – James Robert Baker, American author and screenwriter (b. 1946) 1997 – Isaiah Berlin, Latvian-English historian, author, and academic (b. 1909) 1997 – Peter Jackson, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster (b. 1964) 1999 – James Goldstone, American director and screenwriter (b. 1931) 1999 – Colin Rowe, English-American architect, theorist and academic (b. 1920) 2000 – Jimmie Davis, American singer-songwriter and politician, 47th Governor of Louisiana (b. 1899) 2000 – Bibi Titi Mohammed, Tanzanian politician (b. 1926) 2001 – Roy Boulting, English director and producer (b. 1913) 2001 – Milton William Cooper, American radio host, author, and activist (b. 1943) 2003 – Bobby Hatfield, American singer-songwriter (b. 1940) 2004 – Donald Jones, American-Dutch actor, singer, and dancer (b. 1932) 2005 – John Fowles, English novelist (b. 1926) 2005 – Virginia MacWatters, American soprano and actress (b. 1912) 2005 – Link Wray, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1929) 2006 – Bülent Ecevit, Turkish journalist and politician, 16th Prime Minister of Turkey (b. 1925) 2007 – Nils Liedholm, Swedish footballer and manager (b. 1922) 2009 – Félix Luna, Argentinian lawyer, historian, and academic (b. 1925) 2010 – Jill Clayburgh, American actress and singer (b. 1944) 2010 – Adrian Păunescu, Romanian poet, journalist, and politician (b. 1943) 2010 – Shirley Verrett, American soprano and actress (b. 1931) 2011 – Bhupen Hazarika, Indian singer-songwriter, director, and poet (b. 1926) 2012 – Olympe Bradna, French-American actress and dancer (b. 1920) 2012 – Elliott Carter, American composer and academic (b. 1908) 2012 – Leonardo Favio, Argentinian actor, singer, director and screenwriter (b. 1938) 2012 – Bob Kaplan, Canadian lawyer and politician, 30th Solicitor General of Canada (b. 1936) 2012 – Louis Pienaar, South African lawyer and diplomat, Minister of Internal Affairs (b. 1926) 2013 – Habibollah Asgaroladi, Iranian politician (b. 1932) 2013 – Juan Carlos Calabró, Argentinian actor and screenwriter (b. 1934) 2013 – Tony Iveson, English soldier and pilot (b. 1919) 2013 – Charles Mosley, English genealogist and author (b. 1948) 2013 – Charlie Trotter, American chef and author (b. 1959) 2013 – Stuart Williams, Welsh footballer and manager (b. 1930) 2014 – Manitas de Plata, French guitarist (b. 1921) 2014 – Lane Evans, American lawyer and politician (b. 1951) 2014 – Wally Grant, American ice hockey player (b. 1927) 2014 – Abdelwahab Meddeb, Tunisian-French author, poet, and scholar (b. 1946) 2015 – George Barris, American engineer and car designer (b. 1925) 2015 – Nora Brockstedt, Norwegian singer (b. 1923) 2015 – Soma Edirisinghe, Sri Lankan businesswoman and philanthropist (b. 1939) 2015 – Czesław Kiszczak, Polish general and politician, 11th Prime Minister of the People's Republic of Poland (b. 1925) 2015 – Hans Mommsen, German historian and academic (b. 1930) 2020 – Geoffrey Palmer, English actor (b. 1927) 2021 – Marília Mendonça, Brazilian singer (b. 1995) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: All Jesuit Saints and Blesseds Domninus Elizabeth, the mother of John the Baptist Galation Guido Maria Conforti Magnus November 5 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Bank Transfer Day (United States) Colón Day (Panama) Guy Fawkes Night (United Kingdom, New Zealand and Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada), and its related observances: West Country Carnival (English West Country) Cinco de noviembre (Negros, Philippines) Kanakadasa Jayanthi (Karnataka, India) References External links Days of the year November

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November%2030

November 30

Events Pre-1600 977 – Franco-German war of 978–980: Holy Roman Emperor Otto II lifts the siege at Paris and withdraws. His rearguard is defeated while crossing the Aisne River by West Frankish forces under King Lothair III. 1601–1900 1707 – Queen Anne's War: The second Siege of Pensacola comes to end with the failure of the British Empire and their Creek allies to capture Pensacola, Spanish Florida. 1718 – Great Northern War: King Charles XII of Sweden dies during a siege of the fortress of Fredriksten in Norway. 1782 – American Revolutionary War: Treaty of Paris: In Paris, representatives from the United States and Great Britain sign preliminary peace articles (later formalized as the 1783 Treaty of Paris). 1786 – The Grand Duchy of Tuscany, under Pietro Leopoldo I, becomes the first modern state to abolish the death penalty (later commemorated as Cities for Life Day). 1803 – The Balmis Expedition starts in Spain with the aim of vaccinating millions against smallpox in Spanish America and Philippines. 1803 – In New Orleans, Spanish representatives officially transfer the Louisiana Territory to an official from the French First Republic. Just 20 days later, France transfers the same land to the United States as the Louisiana Purchase. 1804 – The Democratic-Republican-controlled United States Senate begins an impeachment trial of Federalist Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase. 1829 – First Welland Canal opens for a trial run, five years to the day from the ground breaking. 1853 – Crimean War: Battle of Sinop: The Imperial Russian Navy under Pavel Nakhimov destroys the Ottoman fleet under Osman Pasha at Sinop, a sea port in northern Turkey. 1864 – American Civil War: The Confederate Army of Tennessee suffers heavy losses in an attack on the Union Army of the Ohio in the Battle of Franklin. 1872 – The first-ever international football match takes place at Hamilton Crescent, Glasgow, between Scotland and England. 1900 – A German engineer patents front-wheel drive for automobiles. 1901–present 1916 – Costa Rica signs the Buenos Aires Convention, a copyright treaty. 1934 – The LNER Class A3 4472 Flying Scotsman becomes the first steam locomotive to be authenticated as reaching 100 mph. 1936 – In London, the Crystal Palace is destroyed by fire. 1939 – World War II: The Soviet Red Army crosses the Finnish border in several places and bomb Helsinki and several other Finnish cities, starting the Winter War. 1940 – World War II: Signing of the Sino-Japanese Treaty of 1940 between the Empire of Japan and the newly formed Wang Jingwei-led Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China. This treaty was considered so unfair to China that it was compared to the Twenty-One Demands. 1941 – The Holocaust: The SS-Einsatzgruppen round up 11,000 Jews from the Riga Ghetto and kill them in the Rumbula massacre. 1942 – World War II: Battle of Tassafaronga; A smaller squadron of Imperial Japanese Navy destroyers led by Raizō Tanaka defeats a U.S. Navy cruiser force under Carleton H. Wright. 1947 – Civil War in Mandatory Palestine begins, leading up to the creation of the State of Israel and the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. 1953 – Edward Mutesa II, the kabaka (king) of Buganda is deposed and exiled to London by Sir Andrew Cohen, Governor of Uganda. 1954 – In Sylacauga, Alabama, United States, the Hodges meteorite crashes through a roof and hits a woman taking an afternoon nap; this is the only documented case in the Western Hemisphere of a human being hit by a rock from space. 1966 – Decolonization: Barbados becomes independent from the United Kingdom. 1967 – Decolonization: South Yemen becomes independent from the United Kingdom. 1967 – The Pakistan Peoples Party is founded by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who becomes its first chairman. 1967 – Pro-Soviet communists in the Philippines establish Malayang Pagkakaisa ng Kabataan Pilipino as its new youth wing. 1971 – Iran seizes the Greater and Lesser Tunbs from the Emirates of Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah. 1972 – Vietnam War: White House Press Secretary Ron Ziegler tells the press that there will be no more public announcements concerning American troop withdrawals from Vietnam because troop levels are now down to 27,000. 1981 – Cold War: In Geneva, representatives from the United States and the Soviet Union begin to negotiate intermediate-range nuclear weapon reductions in Europe. (The meetings end inconclusively on December 17.) 1982 – Michael Jackson's sixth solo studio album, Thriller, is released worldwide, ultimately becoming the best-selling record album in history. 1994 – catches fire off the coast of Somalia. 1995 – Official end of Operation Desert Storm. 1995 – U.S. President Bill Clinton visits Northern Ireland and speaks in favor of the "Northern Ireland peace process" to a huge rally at Belfast City Hall; he calls IRA fighters "yesterday's men". 1999 – Exxon and Mobil sign a US$73.7 billion agreement to merge, thus creating ExxonMobil, the world's largest company. 1999 – In Seattle, United States, demonstrations against a World Trade Organization meeting by anti-globalization protesters catch police unprepared and force the cancellation of opening ceremonies. 1999 – British Aerospace and Marconi Electronic Systems merge to form BAE Systems, Europe's largest defense contractor and the fourth largest aerospace firm in the world. 2000 – NASA launches STS-97, the 101st Space Shuttle mission. 2001 – Gary Ridgway is apprehended and charged with four murders. He was eventually convicted of a total of 49 murders. 2004 – Lion Air Flight 583 overshoots the runway while landing at Adisumarmo International Airport and crashes, killing 25 people. 2005 – John Sentamu becomes the first black archbishop in the Church of England with his enthronement as the 97th Archbishop of York. 2012 – An Ilyushin Il-76 cargo plane belonging to Aéro-Service, crashes into houses near Maya-Maya Airport during a thunderstorm, killing at least 32 people. 2018 – A magnitude 7.1 earthquake with its epicenter only 15 miles from Anchorage, Alaska causes significant property damage but no deaths. 2021 – Barbados becomes a republic. Births Pre-1600 539 – Gregory of Tours, French bishop and saint (probable; d. 594) 1310 – Frederick II, Margrave of Meissen (d. 1349) 1340 – John, Duke of Berry (d. 1416) 1364 – John FitzAlan, 2nd Baron Arundel, Scottish soldier (d. 1390) 1426 – Johann IV Roth, Roman Catholic bishop (d. 1506) 1427 – Casimir IV Jagiellon, King of Poland (d. 1492) 1459 – Mingyi Nyo, founder of Toungoo dynasty of Burma (d. 1530) 1466 – Andrea Doria, Italian admiral (d. 1560) 1485 – Veronica Gambara, Italian poet and stateswoman (d. 1550) 1508 – Andrea Palladio, Italian architect and theoretician, designed the Church of San Giorgio Maggiore and Teatro Olimpico (d. 1580) 1549 – Sir Henry Savile, English scholar and mathematician (d. 1622) 1554 – Philip Sidney, English soldier, courtier, and poet (d. 1586) 1573 – Aubert Miraeus, Belgian historian (d. 1640) 1594 – John Cosin, English bishop and academic (d. 1672) 1599 – Andrea Sacchi, Italian painter (d. 1661) 1601–1900 1614 – William Howard, 1st Viscount Stafford (d. 1680) 1625 – Jean Domat, French scholar and jurist (d. 1696) 1637 – Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont, French historian and author (d. 1698) 1642 – Andrea Pozzo, Jesuit Brother, architect and painter (d. 1709) 1645 – Andreas Werckmeister, German organist, composer, and theorist (d. 1706) 1667 – Jonathan Swift, Irish satirist and essayist (d. 1745) 1670 – John Toland, Irish philosopher and author (d. 1722) 1683 – Ludwig Andreas von Khevenhüller, Austrian field marshal (d. 1744) 1699 – King Christian VI of Denmark (d. 1746) 1719 – Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha (d. 1772) 1723 – William Livingston, American lawyer and politician, 1st Governor of New Jersey (d. 1790) 1748 – Joachim Albertini, Italian-Polish composer (d. 1838) 1756 – Ernst Chladni, German physicist and author (d. 1827) 1764 – Franz Xaver Gerl, Austrian singer and composer (d. 1827) 1768 – Jędrzej Śniadecki, Polish physician, chemist, and biologist (d. 1838) 1781 – Alexander Berry, Scottish surgeon, merchant, and explorer (d. 1873) 1791 – Count Franz Philipp von Lamberg, Austrian field marshal and politician (d. 1848) 1796 – Carl Loewe, German singer, composer, and conductor (d. 1869) 1810 – Oliver Winchester, American businessman and politician, founded the Winchester Repeating Arms Company (d. 1880) 1813 – Louise-Victorine Ackermann, French poet and author (d. 1890) 1813 – Charles-Valentin Alkan, French pianist and composer (d. 1888) 1817 – Theodor Mommsen, German jurist, historian, and scholar, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1903) 1821 – Frederick Temple, English archbishop and academic (d. 1902) 1825 – William-Adolphe Bouguereau, French painter and educator (d. 1905) 1832 – James Robert Dickson, English-Australian politician, 13th Premier of Queensland (d. 1901) 1835 – Mark Twain, American novelist, humorist, and critic (d. 1910) 1836 – Lord Frederick Cavendish, Anglo-Irish soldier and politician, Chief Secretary for Ireland (d. 1882) 1840 – Henry Birks, Canadian businessman, founded Birks & Mayors (d. 1928) 1843 – Martha Ripley, American physician (d. 1912) 1847 – Afonso Pena, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 6th President of Brazil (d. 1909) 1857 – Bobby Abel, English cricketer (d. 1936) 1858 – Jagadish Chandra Bose, Indian physicist, biologist, botanist, and archaeologist (d. 1937) 1863 – Andrés Bonifacio, Filipino activist and politician, co-founded Katipunan (d. 1897) 1866 – Andrey Lyapchev, Bulgarian politician, Prime Minister of Bulgaria (d. 1933) 1869 – Gustaf Dalén, Swedish physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1937) 1869 – James Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn, English lawyer and politician, Governor of Northern Ireland (d. 1953) 1872 – John McCrae, Canadian physician, soldier, and poet (d. 1918) 1873 – Božena Benešová, Czech author and poet (d. 1936) 1874 – Winston Churchill, English colonel, journalist, and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1965) 1874 – Lucy Maud Montgomery, English-Canadian author and poet (d. 1942) 1875 – Myron Grimshaw, American baseball player (d. 1936) 1875 – Otto Strandman, Estonian lawyer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Estonia (d. 1941) 1883 – Gustav Suits, Estonian-Swedish poet and politician (d. 1956) 1887 – Andrej Gosar, Slovenian economist, lawyer, and politician (d. 1970) 1887 – Beatrice Kerr, Australian swimmer and diver (d. 1971) 1888 – Harry Altham, English cricketer and coach (d. 1965) 1889 – Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian, English physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1977) 1889 – Reuvein Margolies, Ukrainian-Israeli author and scholar (d. 1971) 1898 – Firpo Marberry, American baseball player and manager (d. 1976) 1901–present 1904 – Clyfford Still, American painter and educator (d. 1980) 1906 – John Dickson Carr, American author and playwright (d. 1977) 1906 – Andrés Henestrosa, Mexican poet, linguist, and politician (d. 2008) 1907 – Jacques Barzun, French-American historian and author (d. 2012) 1909 – Robert Nighthawk, American singer and guitarist (d. 1967) 1911 – Carle Hessay, German-Canadian painter (d. 1978) 1911 – Jorge Negrete, Mexican singer and actor (d. 1953) 1912 – Jaan Hargel, Estonian flute player, conductor, and educator (d. 1966) 1912 – Gordon Parks, American photographer and director (d. 2006) 1915 – Brownie McGhee, American folk-blues singer and guitarist (d. 1996) 1915 – Henry Taube, Canadian-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2005) 1916 – Dena Epstein, American musicologist and author (d. 2013) 1916 – Michael Gwynn, English actor (d. 1976) 1918 – Efrem Zimbalist, Jr., American actor (d. 2014) 1919 – Jane C. Wright, American oncologist and cancer researcher (d. 2013) 1920 – Virginia Mayo, American actress (d. 2005) 1924 – Elliott Blackstone, American police officer and activist (d. 2006) 1924 – Shirley Chisholm, American activist, educator and politician (d. 2005) 1924 – Allan Sherman, American actor, comedian, singer, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1973) 1925 – Maryon Pittman Allen, American journalist and politician (d. 2018) 1925 – William H. Gates, Sr., American lawyer and philanthropist (d. 2020) 1926 – Teresa Gisbert Carbonell, Bolivian architect and art historian (d. 2018) 1926 – Richard Crenna, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2003) 1927 – Robert Guillaume, American actor and singer (d. 2017) 1928 – Takako Doi, Japanese scholar and politician 68th Speaker of the House of Representatives of Japan (d. 2014) 1928 – Joe B. Hall, American basketball player and coach 1928 – Steele Hall, Australian politician, 36th Premier of South Australia 1928 – Andres Narvasa, Filipino lawyer and jurist, 19th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines (d. 2013) 1929 – Dick Clark, American television host and producer, founded Dick Clark Productions (d. 2012) 1929 – Joan Ganz Cooney, American screenwriter and producer, co-created Sesame Street 1930 – G. Gordon Liddy, American lawyer, radio host, television actor and criminal (d. 2021) 1931 – Vivian Lynn, New Zealand artist (d. 2018) 1931 – Bill Walsh, American football player and coach (d. 2007) 1931 – Margot Zemach, American author and illustrator (d. 1989) 1932 – Bob Moore, American bassist 1932 – Cho Nam-chul, South Korean Go player (d. 2006) 1933 – Norman Deeley, English footballer and manager (d. 2007) 1933 – Sam Gilliam, American painter and educator 1934 – Marcel Prud'homme, Canadian politician (d. 2017) 1936 – Dmitri Anosov, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 2014) 1936 – Abbie Hoffman, American activist and author, co-founded the Youth International Party (d. 1989) 1937 – Jimmy Bowen, American record producer, songwriter, and pop singer 1937 – Praveen Chaudhari, Indian-American physicist and academic (d. 2010) 1937 – Frank Ifield, English-Australian singer and guitarist 1937 – Luther Ingram, American R&B/soul singer-songwriter (d. 2007) 1937 – Ridley Scott, English director, producer, and production designer 1937 – Tom Simpson, English cyclist (d. 1967) 1937 – Adeline Yen Mah, Chinese-American physician and author 1938 – Jean Eustache, French director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1981) 1938 – John M. Goldman, English haematologist and oncologist (d. 2013) 1940 – Kevin Phillips, American journalist and author 1940 – Dan Tieman, American basketball player and coach (d. 2012) 1941 – Phil Willis, Baron Willis of Knaresborough, English politician 1943 – Norma Alarcón, American author and professor 1943 – Terrence Malick, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1943 – Sokratis Kosmidis, Greek lawyer and politician 1944 – George Graham, Scottish footballer and manager 1945 – Hilary Armstrong, Baroness Armstrong of Hill Top, English academic and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 1945 – Roger Glover, Welsh bass player, songwriter, and producer 1945 – John R. Powers, American author and playwright (d. 2013) 1946 – George Duffield, English jockey and trainer 1947 – Sergio Badilla Castillo, Chilean-Swedish poet and translator 1947 – David Mamet, American playwright, screenwriter, and director 1949 – Jimmy London, Jamaican singer-songwriter 1949 – Matthew Festing, 79th Prince and Grand Master of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta 1950 – Patricia Ann Tracey, American Naval Vice Admiral 1950 – Paul Westphal, American basketball player and coach (d. 2021) 1951 – Daniel Petrie, Jr., American director, producer, and screenwriter 1952 – Semyon Bychkov, Russian-American conductor 1952 – Mandy Patinkin, American actor and singer 1953 – Shuggie Otis, American singer-songwriter and musician 1953 – June Pointer, American singer and actress (d. 2006) 1953 – David Sancious, American rock and jazz keyboard player and guitarist 1954 – Wayne Bartholomew, Australian surfer 1954 – Lawrence Summers, American economist and academic 1955 – Michael Beschloss, American historian and author 1955 – Richard Burr, American businessman, academic, and politician 1955 – Kevin Conroy, American actor 1955 – Andy Gray, Scottish footballer and sportscaster 1955 – Billy Idol, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1957 – John Ashton, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1957 – Richard Barbieri, English keyboard player and songwriter 1957 – Joël Champetier, Canadian author and screenwriter (d. 2015) 1957 – Thomas McElwee Irish Republican, died on hunger strike (d. 1981) 1957 – Patrick McLoughlin, English miner and politician, Secretary of State for Transport 1957 – Colin Mochrie, Scottish-Canadian comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter 1957 – Margaret Spellings, American educator and politician, 8th United States Secretary of Education 1958 – Stacey Q, American pop singer-songwriter, dancer and actress 1959 – Cherie Currie, American singer-songwriter, musician, and actress 1959 – George Faber, British television producer 1959 – Lorraine Kelly, Scottish journalist and actress 1959 – Hugo Swire, English soldier and politician, Minister of State for Foreign Affairs 1960 – Bill Halter, American scholar, activist, and politician, 14th Lieutenant Governor of Arkansas 1960 – Rich Fields, American radio personality and announcer 1960 – Gary Lineker, English footballer and sportscaster 1960 – Michael O'Connor, Australian rugby player 1960 – Bob Tewksbury, American baseball player and coach 1961 – Innocent Egbunike, Nigerian sprinter and coach 1961 – Ian Morris, Trinidadian footballer and sprinter 1962 – Jimmy Del Ray, American wrestler and manager (d. 2014) 1962 – Bo Jackson, American football and baseball player 1962 – Daniel Keys Moran, American computer programmer and author 1964 – Jushin Thunder Liger, Japanese wrestler and mixed martial artist 1965 – Aldair, Brazilian footballer 1965 – Fumihito, Prince Akishino, Japanese royal (younger brother of Emperor Naruhito and first in line to the Chrysanthemum throne) 1965 – David Laws, English banker and politician, Chief Secretary to the Treasury 1965 – Ben Stiller, American actor, director, producer and screenwriter 1966 – Nigel Adams, English businessman and politician 1966 – David Berkoff, American swimmer 1966 – David Nicholls, English author and screenwriter 1966 – Mika Salo, Finnish racing driver 1966 – John Bishop, English comedian presenter and actor 1967 – Joseph Corré, English fashion designer and businessman, co-founded Agent Provocateur 1967 – Rajiv Dixit, Indian author and activist (d. 2010) 1967 – Richard Harry, Australian rugby player 1968 – Des'ree, English R&B singer-songwriter 1968 – Laurent Jalabert, French cyclist and sportscaster 1969 – Marc Forster, German-Swiss director, producer, and screenwriter 1969 – Marc Goossens, Belgian racing driver 1969 – Chris Weitz, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1970 – Phil Babb, English footballer and manager 1970 – Walter Emanuel Jones, American actor and dancer 1971 – Ray Durham, American baseball player 1972 – Christophe Beck, Canadian television and film score composer and conductor 1972 – Dan Jarvis, English soldier and politician 1972 – Stanislav Kitto, Estonian footballer 1972 – Abel Xavier, Portuguese footballer and manager 1973 – Christian Cage, Canadian wrestler, actor, and podcaster 1975 – Mindy McCready, American singer-songwriter (d. 2013) 1975 – Ben Thatcher, English footballer 1976 – Marta Burgay, Italian astronomer 1976 – Marco Castro, Peruvian-American director and cinematographer 1976 – Josh Lewsey, English rugby player 1976 – Paul Nuttall, British politician 1977 – Richard Elias Anderson, Canadian basketball player and coach 1977 – Steve Aoki, American DJ and producer, founded Dim Mak Records 1977 – Iván Guerrero, Honduran footballer and manager 1977 – Kazumi Saito, Japanese baseball player and coach 1977 – Olivier Schoenfelder, French ice dancer and coach 1978 – Clay Aiken, American singer 1978 – Benjamin Lense, German footballer 1979 – Chris Atkinson, Australian racing driver 1979 – Andrés Nocioni, Argentinian basketball player 1980 – Cem Adrian, Turkish singer-songwriter, producer, and director 1980 – Jamie Ashdown, English footballer 1981 – Rich Harden, Canadian baseball player 1982 – Elisha Cuthbert, Canadian actress 1982 – Tony Giarratano, American baseball player 1982 – Jason Pominville, Canadian ice hockey player 1983 – Adrian Cristea, Romanian footballer 1983 – Vladislav Polyakov, Kazakhstani swimmer 1984 – Nigel de Jong, Dutch footballer 1984 – Alan Hutton, Scottish footballer 1984 – Olga Rypakova, Kazakhstani triple jumper 1984 – Francisco Sandaza, Spanish footballer 1985 – Kaley Cuoco, American actress 1985 – Hikari Mitsushima, Japanese actress and singer 1985 – Chrissy Teigen, American model 1986 – Jordan Farmar, American basketball player 1986 – Evgenia Linetskaya, Israeli tennis player 1987 – Vasilisa Bardina, Russian tennis player 1987 – Naomi Knight, American wrestler, model, and dancer 1987 – Dougie Poynter, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1988 – Phillip Hughes, Australian cricketer (d. 2014) 1988 – Vitaliy Polyanskyi, Ukrainian footballer 1988 – Tomi Saarelma, Finnish footballer 1989 – Vladimír Weiss, Slovak footballer 1990 – Magnus Carlsen, Norwegian chess player 1990 – Antoine N'Gossan, Ivorian footballer 1991 – Agnatius Paasi, Tongan rugby league player 1994 – Sofia Araújo, Portuguese tennis player Deaths Pre-1600 1016 – Edmund Ironside, English king (b. 993) 1204 – Emeric, King of Hungary 1276 – Kanezawa Sanetoki, Japanese member of the Hōjō clan (b. 1224) 1283 – John of Vercelli, Master General of the Dominican Order (b. c. 1205) 1378 – Andrew Stratford, English verderer and landowner 1525 – Guillaume Crétin, French poet (b. c. 1460) 1526 – Giovanni dalle Bande Nere, Italian captain (b. 1498) 1580 – Richard Farrant, English playwright and composer (b. 1530) 1600 – Nanda Bayin, Burmese king (b. 1535) 1601–1900 1603 – William Gilbert, English scientist (b. 1544) 1623 – Thomas Weelkes, English organist and composer (b. 1576) 1647 – Bonaventura Cavalieri, Italian mathematician and astronomer (b. 1598) 1647 – Giovanni Lanfranco, Italian painter (b. 1582) 1654 – John Selden, English jurist and scholar (b. 1584) 1675 – Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, English lawyer and politician, Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland (b. 1605) 1694 – Marcello Malpighi, Italian physician and biologist (b. 1628) 1703 – Nicolas de Grigny, French organist and composer (b. 1672) 1718 – Charles XII of Sweden (b. 1682) 1760 – Friederike Caroline Neuber, German actress (b. 1697) 1761 – John Dollond, English optician and astronomer (b. 1706) 1765 – George Glas, Scottish merchant and explorer (b. 1725) 1863 – Kamehameha IV, Hawaiian King (b. 1834) 1864 – Patrick Cleburne, Irish-American general (b. 1828) 1873 – Alexander Berry, Scottish-Welsh surgeon, merchant, and explorer (b. 1781) 1892 – Dimitrios Valvis, Greek judge and politician, 69th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1814) 1900 – Oscar Wilde, Irish playwright, novelist, and poet (b. 1854) 1901–present 1901 – Edward John Eyre, English explorer and politician, Governor of Jamaica (b. 1815) 1907 – Ludwig Levy, German architect (b. 1854) 1908 – Nishinoumi Kajirō I, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 16th Yokozuna (b. 1855) 1920 – Vladimir May-Mayevsky, Russian general (b. 1867) 1923 – John Maclean, Scottish educator and revolutionary socialist activist (b. 1879) 1930 – Ponnambalam Ramanathan, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 3rd Solicitor General of Sri Lanka (b. 1851) 1930 – Mary Harris Jones, American Labor organizer (b. 1837) 1931 – Henry Walters, American art collector and philanthropist (b. 1848) 1933 – Arthur Currie, Canadian general (b. 1875) 1934 – Hélène Boucher, French pilot (b. 1908) 1935 – Fernando Pessoa, Portuguese poet, philosopher, and critic (b. 1888) 1942 – Anthony M. Rud, American journalist and author (b. 1893) 1943 – Etty Hillesum, Dutch author (b. 1914) 1944 – Paul Masson, French cyclist (b. 1876) 1949 – Frank Cooper, Australian politician, 25th Premier of Queensland (b. 1872) 1953 – Francis Picabia, French painter and poet (b. 1879) 1954 – Wilhelm Furtwängler, German conductor and composer (b. 1886) 1955 – Josip Štolcer-Slavenski, Croatian composer and educator (b. 1896) 1958 – Hubert Wilkins, Australian pilot, ornithologist, geographer, and explorer (b. 1888) 1966 – Salah Suheimat, Jordanian lawyer and politician (b. 1914) 1967 – Patrick Kavanagh, Irish poet and author (b. 1904) 1972 – Compton Mackenzie, English-Scottish actor, author, and academic (b. 1883) 1977 – Terence Rattigan, English playwright and screenwriter (b. 1911) 1979 – Laura Gilpin, American photographer (b.1891) 1979 – Zeppo Marx, American actor and comedian (b. 1901) 1987 – Simon Carmiggelt, Dutch journalist and author (b. 1913) 1988 – Pannonica de Koenigswarter, English-American singer-songwriter (b. 1913) 1989 – Ahmadou Ahidjo, Cameroonian lawyer and politician, 1st President of Cameroon (b. 1924) 1989 – Alfred Herrhausen, German banker (b. 1930) 1990 – Fritz Eichenberg, German-American illustrator and arts educator (b. 1901) 1992 – Peter Blume, American painter and sculptor (b. 1906) 1993 – David Houston, American singer-songwriter (b. 1938) 1994 – Guy Debord, French theorist and author (b. 1931) 1994 – Lionel Stander, American actor (b. 1908) 1996 – Tiny Tim, American singer and ukulele player (b. 1932) 1997 – Kathy Acker, American author, poet, and playwright (b. 1947) 1998 – Janet Lewis, American novelist and poet (b. 1899) 1998 – Margaret Walker, American author and poet (b. 1915) 1999 – Charlie Byrd, American guitarist (b. 1925) 2000 – Eloise Jarvis McGraw, American author (b. 1915) 2000 – Scott Smith, Canadian bass player (b. 1955) 2003 – Gertrude Ederle, American swimmer (b. 1906) 2004 – Pierre Berton, Canadian journalist and author (b. 1920) 2004 – Seungsahn, South Korean spiritual leader, founded the Kwan Um School of Zen (b. 1927) 2005 – Jean Parker, American actress (b. 1915) 2006 – Elhadi Adam, Sudanese poet and songwriter (b. 1927) 2006 – Rafael Buenaventura, Filipino banker (b. 1938) 2006 – Shirley Walker, American composer and conductor (b. 1945) 2007 – Engin Arık, Turkish physicist and academic (b. 1948) 2007 – Evel Knievel, American motorcycle rider and stuntman (b. 1938) 2008 – Munetaka Higuchi, Japanese drummer and producer (b. 1958) 2010 – Rajiv Dixit, Indian author and activist (b. 1967) 2010 – Garry Gross, American photographer (b. 1937) 2012 – Rogelio Álvarez, Cuban-American baseball player (b. 1938) 2012 – I. K. Gujral, Indian lawyer and politician, 12th Prime Minister of India (b. 1919) 2012 – Munir Malik, Pakistani cricketer (b. 1931) 2012 – Susil Moonesinghe, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 4th Chief Minister of Western Province (b. 1930) 2012 – Merv Pregulman, American football player and businessman (b. 1922) 2012 – Homer R. Warner, American cardiologist and academic (b. 1922) 2012 – Mitchell Cole, English footballer (b. 1985) 2013 – Paul Crouch, American broadcaster, co-founded Trinity Broadcasting Network (b. 1934) 2013 – Jean Kent, English actress (b. 1921) 2013 – Tabu Ley Rochereau, Congolese-Belgian singer-songwriter (b. 1937) 2013 – Doriano Romboni, Italian motorcycle racer (b. 1968) 2013 – Paul Walker, American actor (b. 1973) 2014 – Qayyum Chowdhury, Bangladeshi painter and academic (b. 1932) 2014 – Jarbom Gamlin, Indian lawyer and politician, 7th Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh (b. 1961) 2014 – Martin Litton, American rafter and environmentalist (b. 1917) 2014 – Anthony Dryden Marshall, American CIA officer and diplomat (b. 1924) 2014 – Go Seigen, Chinese-Japanese Go player (b. 1914) 2014 – Kent Haruf, American novelist (b. 1943) 2015 – Pío Caro Baroja, Spanish director and screenwriter (b. 1928) 2015 – Minas Hatzisavvas, Greek actor and screenwriter (b. 1948) 2015 – Marcus Klingberg, Polish-Israeli physician and biologist (b. 1918) 2015 – Fatema Mernissi, Moroccan sociologist and author (b. 1940) 2015 – Shigeru Mizuki, Japanese author and illustrator (b. 1922) 2015 – Eldar Ryazanov, Russian director and screenwriter (b. 1927) 2015 – Nigel Buxton, British travel writer and wine critic (b. 1924) 2017 – Jim Nabors, American actor and comedian (b. 1930) 2017 – Surin Pitsuwan, Thai politician and diplomat (b. 1949) 2017 – Alfie Curtis, British actor (b. 1930) 2018 – George H. W. Bush, American politician, 41st President of the United States (b. 1924) 2020 – Irina Antonova, Russian art historian (b. 1922) Holidays and observances Bonifacio Day (Philippines) Christian feast day: Andrew and its related observances. Joseph Marchand (one of Vietnamese Martyrs) November 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Commemoration Day (United Arab Emirates) Day to Mark the Departure and Expulsion of Jews from the Arab Countries and Iran (Israel) Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Barbados from the United Kingdom in 1966 Independence Day, celebrates the independence of South Yemen from the United Kingdom in 1967 National Day (Benin) Regina Mundi Day (South Africa) Saint Andrew's Day (Scotland) References External links Days of the year November

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November 8

Events Pre-1600 960 – Battle of Andrassos: Byzantines under Leo Phokas the Younger score a crushing victory over the Hamdanid Emir of Aleppo, Sayf al-Dawla. 1278 – Trần Thánh Tông, the second emperor of the Trần dynasty, decides to pass the throne to his crown prince Trần Khâm and take up the post of Retired Emperor. 1291 – The Republic of Venice enacts a law confining most of Venice's glassmaking industry to the "island of Murano". 1519 – Hernán Cortés enters Tenochtitlán and Aztec ruler Moctezuma welcomes him with a great celebration. 1520 – Stockholm Bloodbath begins: A successful invasion of Sweden by Danish forces results in the execution of around 100 people mostly noblemen. 1576 – Eighty Years' War: Pacification of Ghent: The States General of the Netherlands meet and unite to oppose Spanish occupation. 1601–1900 1602 – The Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford is opened to the public. 1605 – Robert Catesby, ringleader of the Gunpowder Plotters, is killed. 1614 – Japanese daimyō Dom Justo Takayama is exiled to the Philippines by shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu for being Christian. 1620 – The Battle of White Mountain takes place near Prague, ending in a decisive Catholic victory in only two hours. 1644 – The Shunzhi Emperor, the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, is enthroned in Beijing after the collapse of the Ming dynasty as the first Qing emperor to rule over China. 1745 – Charles Edward Stuart invades England with an army of approximately 5,000 that would later participate in the Battle of Culloden. 1837 – Mary Lyon founds Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, which later becomes Mount Holyoke College. 1861 – American Civil War: The "Trent Affair": The stops the British mail ship Trent and arrests two Confederate envoys, sparking a diplomatic crisis between the UK and US. 1889 – Montana is admitted as the 41st U.S. state. 1892 – The New Orleans general strike begins, uniting black and white American trade unionists in a successful four-day general strike action for the first time. 1895 – While experimenting with electricity, Wilhelm Röntgen discovers the X-ray. 1901–present 1901 – Gospel riots: Bloody clashes take place in Athens following the translation of the Gospels into demotic Greek. 1917 – The first Council of People's Commissars is formed, including Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin. 1923 – Beer Hall Putsch: In Munich, Adolf Hitler leads the Nazis in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government. 1932 – Franklin D. Roosevelt is elected as the 32nd President of the United States, defeating incumbent president Herbert Hoover. 1933 – Great Depression: New Deal: US President Franklin D. Roosevelt unveils the Civil Works Administration, an organization designed to create jobs for more than four million unemployed. 1936 – Spanish Civil War: Francoist troops fail in their effort to capture Madrid, but begin the three-year Siege of Madrid afterwards. 1937 – The Nazi exhibition Der ewige Jude ("The Eternal Jew") opens in Munich. 1939 – Venlo Incident: Two British agents of SIS are captured by the Germans. 1939 – In Munich, Adolf Hitler narrowly escapes the assassination attempt of Georg Elser while celebrating the 16th anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch. 1940 – Greco-Italian War: The Italian invasion of Greece fails as outnumbered Greek units repulse the Italians in the Battle of Elaia–Kalamas. 1942 – World War II: French Resistance coup in Algiers, in which 400 civilian French patriots neutralize Vichyist XIXth Army Corps after 15 hours of fighting, and arrest several Vichyist generals, allowing the immediate success of Operation Torch in Algiers. 1950 – Korean War: United States Air Force Lt. Russell J. Brown, while piloting an F-80 Shooting Star, shoots down two North Korean MiG-15s in the first jet aircraft-to-jet aircraft dogfight in history. 1957 – Pan Am Flight 7 disappears between San Francisco and Honolulu. Wreckage and bodies are discovered a week later. 1957 – Operation Grapple X, Round C1: The United Kingdom conducts its first successful hydrogen bomb test over Kiritimati in the Pacific. 1960 – John F. Kennedy is elected as the 35th President of the United States, defeating incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon, who would later be elected president in 1968 and 1972. 1963 – Finnair's Aero Flight 217 crashes near Mariehamn Airport in Jomala, Åland, killing 22 people. 1965 – The British Indian Ocean Territory is created, consisting of Chagos Archipelago, Aldabra, Farquhar and Des Roches islands. 1965 – The Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965 is given Royal Assent, formally abolishing the death penalty in the United Kingdom for almost all crimes. 1965 – The 173rd Airborne is ambushed by over 1,200 Viet Cong in Operation Hump during the Vietnam War, while the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment fight one of the first set-piece engagements of the war between Australian forces and the Viet Cong at the Battle of Gang Toi. 1965 – American Airlines Flight 383 crashes in Constance, Kentucky, killing 58. 1966 – Former Massachusetts Attorney General Edward Brooke becomes the first African American elected to the United States Senate since Reconstruction. 1966 – U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signs into law an antitrust exemption allowing the National Football League to merge with the upstart American Football League. 1968 – The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic is signed to facilitate international road traffic and to increase road safety by standardising the uniform traffic rules among the signatories. 1972 – American pay television network Home Box Office (HBO) launches. 1973 – The right ear of John Paul Getty III is delivered to a newspaper outlet along with a ransom note, convincing his father to pay US$2.9 million. 1977 – Manolis Andronikos, a Greek archaeologist and professor at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, discovers the tomb of Philip II of Macedon at Vergina. 1981 – Aeroméxico Flight 110 crashes near Zihuatanejo, Mexico, killing all 18 people on board. 1983 – TAAG Angola Airlines Flight 462 crashes after takeoff from Lubango Airport killing all 130 people on board. UNITA claims to have shot down the aircraft, though this is disputed. 1987 – Remembrance Day bombing: A Provisional IRA bomb explodes in Enniskillen, Northern Ireland during a ceremony honouring those who had died in wars involving British forces. Twelve people are killed and sixty-three wounded. 1988 – U.S. Vice President George H. W. Bush is elected as the 41st president. 1994 – Republican Revolution: On the night of the 1994 United States midterm elections, Republicans make historic electoral gains by securing massive majorities in both houses of Congress (54 seats in the House and eight seats in the Senate, additionally), thus bringing to a close four decades of Democratic domination. 1999 – Bruce Miller is killed at his junkyard near Flint, Michigan. His wife Sharee Miller, who convinced her online lover Jerry Cassaday to kill him (before later killing himself) was convicted of the crime, in what became the world's first Internet murder. 2002 – Iraq disarmament crisis: UN Security Council Resolution 1441: The United Nations Security Council unanimously approves a resolution on Iraq, forcing Saddam Hussein to disarm or face "serious consequences". 2004 – Iraq War: More than 10,000 U.S. troops and a small number of Iraqi army units participate in a siege on the insurgent stronghold of Fallujah. 2006 – Israeli-Palestinian conflict: The Israeli Defense Force kill 19 Palestinian civilians in their homes during the shelling of Beit Hanoun. 2011 – The potentially hazardous asteroid 2005 YU55 passes 0.85 lunar distances from Earth (about ), the closest known approach by an asteroid of its brightness since in 1976. 2013 – Typhoon Haiyan, one of the strongest tropical cyclones ever recorded, strikes the Visayas region of the Philippines; the storm left at least 6,340 people dead with over 1,000 still missing, and caused $2.86 billion (2013 USD) in damage. 2016 – Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi publicly announces the withdrawal of ₹500 and ₹1000 denomination banknotes. 2016 – Donald Trump is elected the 45th President of the United States, defeating Hillary Clinton, the first woman ever to receive a major party's nomination. Births Pre-1600 AD 30 – Nerva, Roman emperor (d. 98) 1407 – Alain de Coëtivy, French cardinal (d. 1474) 1417 – Philipp I, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (1458–1480) (d. 1480) 1456 – Queen Gonghye, Korean royal consort (d. 1474) 1491 – Teofilo Folengo, Italian monk and poet (d. 1544) 1543 – Lettice Knollys, Countess of Essex and lady-in-waiting to Elizabeth I of England (d. 1634) 1555 – Nyaungyan Min, King of Burma (d. 1605) 1563 – Henry II, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1624) 1572 – John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1619) 1601–1900 1622 – Charles X Gustav of Sweden (d. 1660) 1656 – Edmond Halley, English astronomer and mathematician (d. 1742) 1706 – Johann Ulrich von Cramer, German philosopher and judge (d. 1772) 1710 – Sarah Fielding, English author (d. 1768) 1715 – Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern (d. 1797) 1723 – John Byron, English admiral and politician, 24th Commodore Governor of Newfoundland (d. 1786) 1725 – Johann George Tromlitz, German flute player and composer (d. 1805) 1738 – Barbara Catharina Mjödh, Finnish poet (d. 1776) 1763 – Otto Wilhelm Masing, German-Estonian linguist and author (d. 1832) 1768 – Princess Augusta Sophia of the United Kingdom (d. 1840) 1772 – William Wirt, American lawyer and politician, 9th United States Attorney General (d. 1834) 1788 – Mihály Bertalanits, Slovene poet and educator (d. 1853) 1831 – Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton, English poet and diplomat, 30th Governor-General of India (d. 1880) 1836 – Milton Bradley, American businessman, founded the Milton Bradley Company (d. 1911) 1837 – Ilia Chavchavadze, Georgian journalist, lawyer, and politician (d. 1907) 1847 – Jean Casimir-Perier, French politician, 6th President of France (d. 1907) 1847 – Bram Stoker, Irish novelist and critic, created Count Dracula (d. 1912) 1848 – Gottlob Frege, German mathematician and philosopher (d. 1925) 1854 – Johannes Rydberg, Swedish physicist and academic (d. 1919) 1855 – Nikolaos Triantafyllakos, Greek politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1939) 1866 – Herbert Austin, 1st Baron Austin, English businessman, founded the Austin Motor Company (d. 1941) 1868 – Felix Hausdorff, German mathematician and academic (d. 1942) 1878 – Dorothea Bate, English palaeontologist and archaeozoologist (d. 1951) 1881 – Clarence Gagnon, Canadian painter and illustrator (d. 1942) 1883 – Arnold Bax, English composer and poet (d. 1953) 1883 – Charles Demuth, American painter (d. 1935) 1884 – Hermann Rorschach, Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst (d. 1922) 1885 – George Bouzianis, Greek painter (d. 1959) 1885 – Hans Cloos, German geologist and academic (d. 1951) 1885 – Emil Fahrenkamp, German architect and academic (d. 1966) 1885 – Tomoyuki Yamashita, Japanese general and politician, 4th Japanese Military Governors of the Philippines (d. 1946) 1888 – David Monrad Johansen, Norwegian pianist and composer (d. 1974) 1888 – Nestor Makhno, Ukrainian anarchist revolutionary (d. 1934) 1893 – Prajadhipok, Thai king (d. 1941) 1896 – Erika Abels d'Albert, Austrian painter and graphic artist (d. 1975) 1896 – Bucky Harris, American baseball player and manager (d. 1977) 1897 – Dorothy Day, American journalist and activist (d. 1980) 1898 – Marie Prevost, Canadian-American actress and singer (d. 1937) 1900 – Margaret Mitchell, American journalist and author (d. 1949) 1901–present 1904 – Cedric Belfrage, English-American journalist and author, co-founded the National Guardian (d. 1990) 1908 – Martha Gellhorn, American journalist and author (d. 1998) 1910 – James McCormack, American general (d. 1975) 1911 – Al Brosch, American golfer (d. 1975) 1911 – Robert Jackson, Australian public servant and diplomat (d. 1991) 1912 – June Havoc, American actress, singer and dancer (d. 2010) 1912 – Stylianos Pattakos, Greek general and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2016) 1913 – Lou Ambers, American boxer (d. 1995) 1914 – Norman Lloyd, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2021) 1918 – Kazuo Sakamaki, Japanese soldier (d. 1999) 1918 – Hermann Zapf, German typographer and calligrapher (d. 2015) 1919 – James S. Ackerman, American historian and academic (d. 2016) 1920 – Sitara Devi, Indian actress, dancer, and choreographer (d. 2014) 1920 – Esther Rolle, American actress (d. 1998) 1920 – Eugênio Sales, Brazilian cardinal (d. 2012) 1921 – Douglas Townsend, American composer, musicologist, and academic (d. 2012) 1922 – Christiaan Barnard, South African surgeon and academic (d. 2001) 1922 – Thea D. Hodge, American computer scientist and academic (d. 2008) 1922 – Ademir Marques de Menezes, Brazilian footballer, coach, and sportscaster (d. 1996) 1923 – Yisrael Friedman, Romanian-born Israeli rabbi (d. 2017) 1923 – Jack Kilby, American physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2005) 1924 – Johnny Bower, Canadian ice hockey player and soldier (d. 2017) 1924 – Joe Flynn, American actor (d. 1974) 1924 – Robert V. Hogg, American statistician and academic (d. 2014) 1924 – Victorinus Youn Kong-hi, South Korean archbishop 1924 – Dmitry Yazov, Marshal of the Soviet Union (d. 2020) 1926 – Darleane C. Hoffman, American nuclear chemist 1927 – L. K. Advani, Indian lawyer and politician, 7th Deputy Prime Minister of India 1927 – Ken Dodd, English singer and comedian (d. 2018) 1927 – Chris Connor, American singer (d. 2009) 1927 – Nguyễn Khánh, Vietnamese general and politician, 4th President of the Republic of Vietnam (d. 2013) 1927 – Patti Page, American singer and actress (d. 2013) 1928 – Des Corcoran, Australian politician, 37th Premier of South Australia (d. 2004) 1929 – Bobby Bowden, American football player and coach (d. 2021) 1929 – António Castanheira Neves, Portuguese philosopher and academic 1931 – Jim Redman, English-Rhodesian motorcycle racer 1931 – Morley Safer, Canadian-American journalist and author (d. 2016) 1931 – Paolo Taviani, Italian film director and screenwriter 1932 – Stéphane Audran, French actress (d. 2018) 1932 – Ben Bova, American journalist and author (d. 2020) 1933 – Peter Arundell, English race car driver (d. 2009) 1935 – Alain Delon, French-Swiss actor, producer, screenwriter 1935 – Stratos Dionysiou, Greek singer-songwriter (d. 1990) 1935 – Alfonso López Trujillo, Colombian cardinal (d. 2008) 1936 – Virna Lisi, Italian actress (d. 2014) 1938 – Driss Basri, Moroccan police officer and politician (d. 2007) 1938 – Satch Sanders, American basketball player 1938 – Richard Stoker, English composer, author, and poet (d. 2021) 1939 – Meg Wynn Owen, Welsh actress 1941 – Nerys Hughes, Welsh actress 1942 – Angel Cordero Jr., Puerto Rican-American jockey 1942 – Sandro Mazzola, Italian footballer and sportscaster 1943 – Martin Peters, English footballer and manager (d. 2019) 1944 – Bonnie Bramlett, American singer and actress 1945 – Arduino Cantafora, Italian-Swiss architect, painter, and author 1945 – Joseph James DeAngelo, American serial killer 1945 – John Farrar, Australian-born music producer, songwriter, arranger, singer, and guitarist 1945 – Don Murray, American drummer (d. 1996) 1945 – Vincent Nichols, English cardinal 1945 – Arnold Rosner, American composer (d. 2013) 1946 – Guus Hiddink, Dutch footballer and manager 1946 – Roy Wood, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1947 – Michael Perham, English bishop (d. 2017) 1947 – Minnie Riperton, American singer-songwriter (d. 1979) 1947 – Margaret Rhea Seddon, American physician and astronaut 1947 – Lewis Yocum, American physician and surgeon (d. 2013) 1948 – Dale Gardner, American captain and astronaut (d. 2014) 1949 – Wayne LaPierre, American businessman, author, and activist 1949 – Bonnie Raitt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1950 – Mary Hart, American journalist and actress 1951 – Gerald Alston, American R&B singer 1951 – Larry Burnett, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1951 – Alfredo Astiz, Argentinian captain 1951 – Laura Cox, English lawyer and judge 1951 – Peter Suber, American philosopher and academic 1952 – John Denny, American baseball player and coach 1952 – Christie Hefner, American publisher and businesswoman 1952 – Jan Raas, Dutch cyclist 1952 – Jerry Remy, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2021) 1952 – Alfre Woodard, American actress 1953 – Giorgos Foiros, Greek footballer and manager 1953 – John Musker, American animator, director, producer, and screenwriter 1953 – Nand Kumar Patel, Indian politician (d. 2013) 1954 – David Bret, French-English journalist and author 1954 – Michael D. Brown, American lawyer and radio host 1954 – Timothy Egan, American journalist and author 1954 – Kazuo Ishiguro, Japanese-British novelist, screenwriter, and short story writer. 1954 – Rickie Lee Jones, American singer-songwriter and producer 1954 – Thanasis Pafilis, Greek jurist and politician 1955 – Patricia Barber, American singer-songwriter and pianist 1955 – Jeffrey Ford, American author and educator 1956 – Mari Boine, Norwegian singer-songwriter and producer 1956 – Richard Curtis, New Zealand-English screenwriter, film and television producer, and film director 1956 – Steven Miller, American record producer and engineer 1957 – Alan Curbishley, English footballer and manager 1957 – Tim Shaw, American swimmer 1957 – Porl Thompson, English guitarist and songwriter 1957 – Hardi Volmer, Estonian singer and director 1958 – Don Byron, American clarinet player and composer 1958 – Ken Lamberton, American author and educator 1958 – Selçuk Yula, Turkish footballer and journalist (d. 2013) 1959 – Miroslav Janů, Czech footballer and manager (d. 2013) 1959 – Chi Chi LaRue, American drag queen performer and director 1960 – Oleg Menshikov, Russian actor, singer, and director 1960 – Michael Nyqvist, Swedish actor and producer (d. 2017) 1961 – Micky Adams, English footballer and manager 1961 – Leif Garrett, American singer, actor, and television personality 1963 – Paul McKenna, English hypnotist and author 1965 – Jeff Blauser, American baseball player and manager 1965 – Craig Chester, American actor and screenwriter 1965 – Mike Matarazzo, American bodybuilder and boxer (d. 2014) 1965 – Patricia Poleo, Venezuelan journalist 1966 – Gordon Ramsay, British chef, restaurateur, and television host/personality 1967 – Henry Rodriguez, Dominican baseball player 1967 – Courtney Thorne-Smith, American actress 1968 – Keith Jones, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1968 – José Offerman, Dominican baseball player and manager 1968 – Sergio Porrini, Italian footballer and manager 1968 – Parker Posey, American actress 1970 – Tom Anderson, American businessman, co-founded Myspace 1970 – David Hemp, Bermudian cricketer 1970 – Michael Jackson, Canadian actor 1970 – Diana King, Jamaican singer-songwriter 1970 – José Porras, Costa Rican footballer and coach 1971 – Carlos Atanes, Spanish director, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Tech N9ne, American musician, record producer, and actor 1972 – Chris Fydler, Australian swimmer 1972 – Gretchen Mol, American model and actress 1972 – Kylie Shadbolt, Australian artistic gymnast 1973 – Sven Mikser, Estonian politician, 22nd Estonian Minister of Defence 1973 – David Muir, American journalist 1974 – Joshua Ferris, American author 1974 – Penelope Heyns, South African swimmer 1974 – Masashi Kishimoto, Japanese author and illustrator, created Naruto 1974 – Seishi Kishimoto, Japanese illustrator 1975 – Brevin Knight, American basketball player and sportscaster 1975 – Tara Reid, American actress 1975 – Alena Vašková, Czech tennis player 1976 – Brett Lee, Australian cricketer and sportscaster 1976 – Colin Strause, American director, producer, and visual effects designer 1977 – Jully Black, Canadian singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1977 – Bucky Covington, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1977 – Nick Punto, American baseball player 1978 – Matthew Bulbeck, English cricketer 1978 – Tim de Cler, Dutch footballer 1978 – Maurice Evans, American basketball player 1978 – Ali Karimi, Iranian footballer and manager 1978 – Kensaku Kishida, Japanese actor and entertainer 1978 – Emma Lewell-Buck, English social worker and politician 1978 – Júlio Sérgio, Brazilian footballer and manager 1979 – Andrea Benatti, Italian rugby player 1979 – Aaron Hughes, Irish footballer 1980 – Luís Fabiano, Brazilian footballer 1980 – Laura Jane Grace, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1980 – Holly Walsh, English radio and television host 1981 – Joe Cole, English footballer 1981 – Yann Kermorgant, French footballer 1982 – Ted DiBiase, Jr., American wrestler and actor 1982 – Mika Kallio, Finnish motorcycle racer 1982 – Sam Sparro, Australian singer-songwriter and producer 1983 – Sinan Güler, Turkish basketball player 1983 – Katharina Molitor, German javelin thrower 1983 – Remko Pasveer, Dutch footballer 1983 – Pavel Pogrebnyak, Russian footballer 1983 – Nikola Rachelle, English-New Zealand singer-songwriter and producer 1983 – Danielle Valore Evans American short story writer 1984 – Kuntal Chandra, Bangladeshi cricketer (d. 2012) 1984 – Yoko Mitsuya, Japanese model and actress 1984 – Steven Webb, English actor 1985 – Magda Apanowicz, Canadian actress 1985 – Míchel, Spanish footballer 1986 – Patricia Mayr-Achleitner, Austrian tennis player 1986 – Jamie Roberts, Welsh rugby player 1986 – Aaron Swartz, American computer programmer and activist (d. 2013) 1987 – Édgar Benítez, Paraguayan footballer 1987 – Sam Bradford, American football player 1987 – Mohd Faiz Subri, Malaysian footballer 1988 – Jessica Lowndes, Canadian actress and singer 1988 – Lucia Slaničková, Slovak heptathlete 1989 – Morgan Schneiderlin, French footballer 1989 – Giancarlo Stanton, American baseball player 1990 – Ingrid Puusta, Estonian sailor 1990 – SZA, American singer-songwriter 1991 – Aaron Fotheringham, American wheelchair athlete 1991 – Jack Littlejohn, Australian rugby league player 1991 – Dan Middleton, English YouTube personality and pro gamer 1992 – Christophe Vincent, French footballer 1993 – Przemek Karnowski, Polish basketball player 1993 – Fraser Mullen, Scottish footballer 1999 – Katherine Uchida, Canadian rhythmic gymnast 2000 – Jasmine Thompson, English singer Deaths Pre-1600 397 – Martin of Tours, Frankish bishop and saint 618 – Adeodatus I, pope of the Catholic Church 785 – Sawara, Japanese prince 789 – Willehad, bishop of Bremen 928 – Duan Ning, Chinese general 940 – Yao Yi, Chinese chancellor (b. 866) 943 – Liu, empress of Qi (Ten Kingdoms) (b. 877) 955 – Agapetus II, pope of the Catholic Church 977 – Ibn al-Qūṭiyya, Andalusian historian 1067 – Sancha of León, Queen of León (b. c. 1018) 1115 – Godfrey of Amiens, French bishop and saint (b. 1066) 1122 – Ilghazi, Artuqid ruler of Mardin 1171 – Baldwin IV, Count of Hainaut (b. 1108) 1195 – Conrad, Count Palatine of the Rhine (b. 1135) 1226 – Louis VIII, king of France (b. 1187) 1246 – Berengaria of Castile (b. 1179) 1263 – Matilda of Béthune, French countess 1308 – Duns Scotus, Scottish priest, philosopher, and academic (b. 1266) 1400 – Peter of Aragon, Aragonese infante (b. 1398) 1478 – Baeda Maryam I, emperor of Ethiopia (b. 1448) 1494 – Melozzo da Forlì, Italian painter (b. c. 1438) 1517 – Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, Spanish cardinal (b. 1436) 1527 – Jerome Emser, German theologian and reformer (b. 1477) 1599 – Francisco Guerrero, Spanish pianist and composer (b. 1528) 1600 – Natsuka Masaie, Japanese daimyō (b. 1562) 1601–1900 1605 – Robert Catesby, English conspirator, leader of the Gunpowder Plot (b. 1573) 1606 – Girolamo Mercuriale, Italian philologist and physician (b. 1530) 1658 – Witte de With, Dutch admiral (b. 1599) 1674 – John Milton, English poet and philosopher (b. 1608) 1719 – Michel Rolle, French mathematician and author (b. 1652) 1773 – Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz, Prussian general (b. 1721) 1817 – Andrea Appiani, Italian painter and educator (b. 1754) 1828 – Thomas Bewick, English engraver, illustrator and author (b.1753) 1830 – Francis I of the Two Sicilies (b. 1777) 1873 – Manuel Bretón de los Herreros, Spanish poet, playwright, and critic (b. 1796) 1887 – Doc Holliday, American dentist and poker player (b. 1851) 1890 – César Franck, Belgian organist and composer (b. 1822) 1895 – Robert Battey, American surgeon and academic (b. 1828) 1901–present 1901 – James Agnew, Irish-Australian politician, 16th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1815) 1905 – Victor Borisov-Musatov, Russian painter (b. 1870) 1917 – Colin Blythe, English cricketer and soldier (b. 1879) 1921 – Pavol Országh Hviezdoslav, Slovak poet and playwright (b. 1849) 1934 – Carlos Chagas, Brazilian physician and bacteriologist (b. 1879) 1944 – Walter Nowotny, Austrian-German soldier and pilot (b. 1920) 1945 – August von Mackensen, German field marshal (b. 1849) 1949 – Cyriel Verschaeve, Belgian-Austrian priest and activist (b. 1874) 1953 – Ivan Bunin, Russian author and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1870) 1953 – John van Melle, Dutch-South African author and educator (b. 1887) 1956 – Chika Kuroda, Japanese chemist (b. 1884) 1959 – Frank S. Land, American activist, founded the DeMolay International (b. 1890) 1960 – Subroto Mukerjee, Indian soldier; Chief of the Air Staff of the Indian Air Force (b. 1911) 1965 – Dorothy Kilgallen, American journalist, television personality, and game show panelist (b. 1913) 1968 – Wendell Corey, American actor and politician (b. 1914) 1968 – Peter Mohr Dam, Faroese educator and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (b. 1898) 1970 – Huw T. Edwards, Welsh poet and politician (b. 1892) 1973 – Faruk Nafiz Çamlıbel, Turkish poet, author, and politician (b. 1898) 1974 – Ivory Joe Hunter, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1914) 1977 – Tasos Giannopoulos, Greek actor and producer (b. 1931) 1977 – Bucky Harris, American baseball player and manager (b. 1896) 1978 – Norman Rockwell, American painter and illustrator (b. 1894) 1983 – James Booker, American singer and pianist (b. 1939) 1983 – Mordecai Kaplan, Lithuanian-American rabbi and educator (b. 1881) 1985 – Nicolas Frantz, Luxembourger cyclist (b. 1899) 1985 – Jacques Hnizdovsky, Ukrainian-American painter and illustrator (b. 1915) 1986 – Vyacheslav Molotov, Russian politician and diplomat, Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1890) 1994 – Michael O'Donoghue, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1940) 1998 – Rumer Godden, English author and poet (b. 1907) 1998 – John Hunt, Baron Hunt, English colonel, mountaineer, and academic (b. 1910) 1998 – Jean Marais, French actor and director (b. 1913) 1999 – Lester Bowie, American trumpet player and composer (b. 1941) 1999 – Leon Štukelj, Slovenian gymnast and judge (b. 1898) 2001 – Aristidis Moschos, Greek santouri player and educator (b. 1930) 2002 – Jon Elia, Pakistani poet, philosopher, and scholar (b. 1931) 2003 – Bob Grant, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1932) 2003 – C.Z. Guest, American actress, fashion designer, and author (b. 1920) 2003 – Guy Speranza, American singer-songwriter (b. 1956) 2004 – Peter Mathers, English-Australian author and playwright (b. 1931) 2005 – Alekos Alexandrakis, Greek actor and director (b. 1928) 2005 – David Westheimer, American soldier and author (b. 1917) 2006 – Basil Poledouris, American composer and conductor (b. 1945) 2006 – Hannspeter Winter, Austrian physicist and academic (b. 1941) 2007 – Aad Nuis, Dutch journalist, poet, and politician (b. 1933) 2007 – Dulce Saguisag, Filipino politician, 10th Filipino Secretary of Social Welfare and Development (b. 1943) 2007 – Chad Varah, English priest, founded The Samaritans (b. 1911) 2009 – Vitaly Ginzburg, Russian physicist and astrophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1916) 2010 – Quintin Dailey, American basketball player (b. 1961) 2010 – Jack Levine, American soldier and painter (b. 1915) 2010 – Emilio Eduardo Massera, Argentinian admiral (b. 1925) 2011 – Heavy D, Jamaican-American rapper, producer, and actor (b. 1967) 2011 – Bil Keane, American cartoonist (b. 1922) 2012 – Lee MacPhail, American businessman (b. 1917) 2012 – Pete Namlook, German composer and producer (b. 1960) 2012 – Peggy Vaughan, American author (b. 1936) 2013 – William C. Davidon, American physicist, mathematician, and academic (b. 1927) 2013 – Penn Kimball, American journalist and academic (b. 1915) 2013 – Arnold Rosner, American composer (b. 1945) 2013 – Chiyoko Shimakura, Japanese singer and actress (b. 1938) 2013 – Amanchi Venkata Subrahmanyam, Indian journalist and actor (b. 1957) 2014 – Phil Crane, American academic and politician (b. 1930) 2014 – Luigi Gorrini, Italian soldier and pilot (b. 1917) 2014 – Don Paul, American football player and sportscaster (b. 1925) 2014 – Hugo Sánchez Portugal, Spanish-Mexican footballer and sportscaster (b. 1984) 2014 – Ernie Vandeweghe, Canadian-American basketball player and physician (b. 1928) 2015 – Rhea Chiles, American philanthropist, founded the Polk Museum of Art (b. 1930) 2015 – Joseph Cure, American ice hockey player and actor (b. 1984) 2015 – Rod Davies, Australian-English astronomer and academic (b. 1930) 2015 – Om Prakash Mehra, Indian air marshal and politician (b. 1919) 2015 – Maduluwawe Sobitha Thero, Sri Lankan monk and activist (b. 1942) 2020 – Alex Trebek, Canadian-American television personality and longtime host of Jeopardy! (b. 1940) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Blessed Elizabeth of the Trinity (Roman Catholic Church) Four Crowned Martyrs Godfrey of Amiens Johann von Staupitz (Lutheran) Blessed John Duns Scotus Saints and Martyrs of England (Church of England) Tysilio Willehad of Bremen November 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Intersex Day of Remembrance (New South Wales, Australia) International Day of Radiology (European Society of Radiology) National Aboriginal Veterans Day (Canada) Synaxis of the Archangel Michael and the other Bodiless Powers of Heaven (Eastern Orthodox Church) World Urbanism Day References External links Days of the year November

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October%2014

October 14

Events Pre-1600 1066 – The Norman conquest of England begins with the Battle of Hastings. 1322 – Robert the Bruce of Scotland defeats King Edward II of England at the Battle of Old Byland, forcing Edward to accept Scotland's independence. 1586 – Mary, Queen of Scots, goes on trial for conspiracy against Queen Elizabeth I of England. 1601–1900 1656 – The General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony enacts the first punitive legislation against the Religious Society of Friends. 1758 – Seven Years' War: Frederick the Great suffers a rare defeat at the Battle of Hochkirch. 1773 – The first recorded ministry of education, the Commission of National Education, is formed in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. 1774 – American Revolution: The First Continental Congress denounces the British Parliament's Intolerable Acts and demands British concessions. 1805 – War of the Third Coalition: A French corps defeats an Austrian attempt to escape encirclement at Ulm. 1806 – War of the Fourth Coalition: Napoleon decisively defeats Prussia at the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt. 1808 – The Republic of Ragusa is annexed by France. 1843 – Irish nationalist Daniel O'Connell is arrested by the British on charges of criminal conspiracy. 1863 – American Civil War: Confederate troops under the command of A. P. Hill fail to drive the Union Army completely out of Virginia. 1884 – George Eastman receives a U.S. Government patent on his new paper-strip photographic film. 1888 – Louis Le Prince films the first motion picture, Roundhay Garden Scene. 1898 – The steam ship sinks near the Lizard peninsula, Cornwall, killing 106. 1901–present 1908 – The Chicago Cubs defeat the Detroit Tigers, 2–0, clinching the 1908 World Series; this would be their last until winning the 2016 World Series. 1910 – English aviator Claude Grahame-White lands his aircraft on Executive Avenue near the White House in Washington, D.C. 1912 – Former president Theodore Roosevelt is shot and mildly wounded by John Flammang Schrank. With the fresh wound in his chest, and the bullet still within it, Roosevelt delivers his scheduled speech. 1913 – Senghenydd colliery disaster, the United Kingdom's worst coal mining accident, claims the lives of 439 miners. 1915 – World War I: Bulgaria joins the Central Powers. 1920 – Finland and Soviet Russia sign the Treaty of Tartu, exchanging some territories. 1930 – The former and first President of Finland, K. J. Ståhlberg, and his wife, Ester Ståhlberg, were kidnapped from their home by members of the far-right Lapua Movement. 1933 – Germany withdraws from the League of Nations and World Disarmament Conference. 1939 – World War II: The sinks the British battleship within her harbour at Scapa Flow, Scotland. 1940 – World War II: The Balham underground station disaster kills sixty-six people during the London Blitz. 1943 – World War II: Prisoners at Sobibor extermination camp covertly assassinate most of the on-duty SS officers and then stage a mass breakout. 1943 – World War II: The United States Eighth Air Force loses 60 of 291 B-17 Flying Fortresses during the Second Raid on Schweinfurt. 1943 – World War II: The Second Philippine Republic, a puppet state of Japan, is inaugurated with José P. Laurel as its president. 1947 – Chuck Yeager becomes the first person to exceed the speed of sound. 1949 – The Smith Act trials of Communist Party leaders in the United States convicts eleven defendants of conspiring to advocate the violent overthrow of the federal government. 1952 – Korean War: The Battle of Triangle Hill is the biggest and bloodiest battle of 1952. 1956 – Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, leader of India's Untouchable caste, converts to Buddhism along with 385,000 of his followers (see Neo-Buddhism). 1957 – The 23rd Canadian Parliament becomes the only one to be personally opened by the Queen of Canada. 1957 – At least 81 people are killed in the most devastating flood in the history of the Spanish city of Valencia. 1962 – The Cuban Missile Crisis begins when an American reconnaissance aircraft takes photographs of Soviet ballistic missiles being installed in Cuba. 1964 – Martin Luther King Jr. receives the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolence. 1964 – The Soviet Presidium and the Communist Party Central Committee each vote to accept Nikita Khrushchev's "voluntary" request to retire from his offices. 1966 – The city of Montreal begins the operation of its underground Montreal Metro rapid transit system. 1968 – Apollo program: The first live television broadcast by American astronauts in orbit is performed by the Apollo 7 crew. 1968 – The 6.5 Meckering earthquake shakes the southwest portion of Western Australia with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), causing $2.2 million in damage and leaving 20–28 people injured. 1968 – Jim Hines becomes the first man ever to break the so-called "ten-second barrier" in the 100-meter sprint with a time of 9.95 seconds. 1973 – In the Thammasat student uprising, over 100,000 people protest in Thailand against the military government. Seventy-seven are killed and 857 are injured by soldiers. 1975 – An RAF Avro Vulcan bomber explodes and crashes over Żabbar, Malta after an aborted landing, killing five crew members and one person on the ground. 1979 – The first National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights draws approximately 100,000 people. 1981 – Vice President Hosni Mubarak is elected as the President of Egypt, one week after the assassination of Anwar Sadat. 1982 – U.S. President Ronald Reagan proclaims a War on Drugs. 1991 – Burmese opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. 1994 – Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres receive the Nobel Peace Prize for their role in the establishment of the Oslo Accords and the framing of future Palestinian self government. 1998 – Eric Rudolph is charged with six bombings, including the 1996 Centennial Olympic Park bombing in Atlanta, Georgia. 2003 – The Steve Bartman Incident takes place at Wrigley Field in Chicago, Illinois. 2004 – MK Airlines Flight 1602 crashes during takeoff from Halifax Stanfield International Airport, killing all seven people on board. 2004 – Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701 crashes in Jefferson City, Missouri. The two pilots (the aircraft's only occupants) are killed. 2012 – Felix Baumgartner successfully jumps to Earth from a balloon in the stratosphere. 2014 – A snowstorm and avalanche in the Nepalese Himalayas triggered by the remnants of Cyclone Hudhud kills 43 people. 2014 – The Serbia vs. Albania UEFA qualifying match is canceled after 42 minutes due to several incidents on and off the pitch. Albania is eventually awarded a win. 2015 – A suicide bomb attack in Pakistan kills at least seven people and injures 13 others. 2017 – A massive truck bombing in Somalia kills 358 people and injures more than 400 others. 2021 – About 10,000 American employees of John Deere go on strike. Births Pre-1600 1257 – Przemysł II of Poland (d. 1296) 1404 – Marie of Anjou (d. 1463) 1425 – Alesso Baldovinetti, Italian painter (d. 1499) 1465 – Konrad Peutinger, German humanist and antiquarian (d. 1547) 1493 – Shimazu Tadayoshi, Japanese daimyō (d. 1568) 1542 – Philip IV, Count of Nassau-Weilburg (d. 1602) 1563 – Jodocus Hondius, Flemish engraver and cartographer (d. 1611) 1569 – Giambattista Marino, Italian poet (d. 1625) 1601–1900 1609 – Ernest Günther, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg (d. 1689) 1630 – Sophia of Hanover (d. 1714) 1633 – James II of England (d. 1701) 1639 – Simon van der Stel, Dutch commander and politician, 1st Governor of the Dutch Cape Colony (d. 1712) 1643 – Bahadur Shah I, Mughal emperor (d. 1712) 1644 – William Penn, English businessman who founded Pennsylvania (d. 1718) 1687 – Robert Simson, Scottish mathematician and academic (d. 1768) 1712 – George Grenville, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1770) 1726 – Charles Middleton, 1st Baron Barham, Scottish-English admiral and politician (d. 1813) 1733 – François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt, Austrian field marshal (d. 1798) 1784 – Ferdinand VII of Spain (d. 1833) 1791 – Friedrich Parrot, Baltic German naturalist (d. 1841) 1801 – Joseph Plateau, Belgian physicist and academic, created the Phenakistoscope (d. 1883) 1806 – Preston King, American lawyer and politician (d. 1865) 1824 – Adolphe Monticelli, French painter (d. 1886) 1840 – Dmitry Pisarev, Russian author and critic (d. 1868) 1842 – Joe Start, American baseball player and manager (d. 1927) 1844 – John See, English-Australian politician, 14th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1907) 1845 – Laura Askew Haygood (d. 1900) 1848 – Byron Edmund Walker, Canadian banker and philanthropist (d. 1924) 1853 – John William Kendrick, American engineer and businessman (d. 1924) 1861 – Julia A. Ames, American journalist, editor, and reformer (d. 1891) 1867 – Masaoka Shiki, Japanese poet, author, and critic (d. 1902) 1869 – Joseph Duveen, 1st Baron Duveen, English art dealer (d. 1939) 1871 – Alexander von Zemlinsky, Austrian composer, conductor, and teacher (d. 1942) 1872 – Reginald Doherty, English tennis player (d. 1910) 1882 – Éamon de Valera, American-Irish rebel and politician, 3rd President of Ireland (d. 1975) 1882 – Charlie Parker, English cricketer, coach, and umpire (d. 1959) 1888 – Katherine Mansfield, New Zealand novelist, short story writer, and essayist (d. 1923) 1888 – Yukio Sakurauchi, Japanese businessman and politician, 27th Japanese Minister of Finance (d. 1947) 1890 – Dwight D. Eisenhower, American general and politician, 34th President of the United States (d. 1969) 1892 – Sumner Welles, American politician and diplomat, 11th Under Secretary of State (d. 1961) 1893 – Lois Lenski, American author and illustrator (d. 1974) 1893 – Lillian Gish, American actress (d. 1993) 1894 – E. E. Cummings, American poet and playwright (d. 1962) 1894 – Victoria Drummond, British marine engineer (d. 1978) 1897 – Alicja Dorabialska, Polish chemist (d. 1975) 1898 – Thomas William Holmes, Canadian sergeant and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1950) 1900 – W. Edwards Deming, American statistician, author, and academic (d. 1993) 1901–present 1902 – Learco Guerra, Italian cyclist and manager (d. 1963) 1904 – Christian Pineau, French politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1995) 1904 – Mikhail Pervukhin, Soviet politician, First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union (d. 1978) 1906 – Hassan al-Banna, Egyptian religious leader, founded the Muslim Brotherhood (d. 1949) 1906 – Hannah Arendt, German-American philosopher and theorist (d. 1975) 1907 – Allan Jones, American actor and singer (d. 1992) 1909 – Mochitsura Hashimoto, Japanese commander (d. 2000) 1909 – Dorothy Kingsley, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1997) 1909 – Bernd Rosemeyer, German racing driver (d. 1938) 1910 – John Wooden, American basketball player and coach (d. 2010) 1911 – Lê Đức Thọ, Vietnamese general and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1990) 1914 – Harry Brecheen, American baseball player and coach (d. 2004) 1914 – Raymond Davis Jr., American chemist and physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2006) 1914 – Alexis Rannit, Estonian poet and critic (d. 1985) 1915 – Loris Francesco Capovilla, Italian cardinal (d. 2016) 1916 – C. Everett Koop, American admiral and surgeon, 13th United States Surgeon General (d. 2013) 1918 – Marcel Chaput, Canadian biochemist, journalist, and politician (d. 1991) 1918 – Thelma Coyne Long, Australian tennis player and captain (d. 2015) 1918 – Doug Ring, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2003) 1921 – José Arraño Acevedo, Chilean journalist and historian (d. 2009) 1923 – Joel Barnett, English accountant and politician, Chief Secretary to the Treasury (d. 2014) 1926 – Willy Alberti, Dutch singer and actor (d. 1985) 1927 – Roger Moore, English actor and producer (d. 2017) 1928 – Joyce Bryant, American actress and singer 1928 – Frank E. Resnik, American chemist and businessman (d. 1995) 1929 – Yvon Durelle, Canadian boxer and wrestler (d. 2007) 1930 – Robert Parker, American singer and saxophonist (d. 2020) 1930 – Mobutu Sese Seko, Congolese soldier and politician, President of Zaire (d. 1997) 1930 – Alan Williams, Welsh journalist and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Wales (d. 2014) 1932 – Enrico Di Giuseppe, American tenor and actor (d. 2005) 1932 – Anatoly Larkin, Russian-American physicist and academic (d. 2005) 1936 – Hans Kraay Sr., Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2017) 1936 – Jürg Schubiger, Swiss psychotherapist and author (d. 2014) 1938 – Farah Pahlavi, Empress of Iran 1938 – John Dean, American lawyer and author, 13th White House Counsel 1938 – Elizabeth Esteve-Coll, English curator and academic 1938 – Ron Lancaster, American-Canadian football player and coach (d. 2008) 1938 – Shula Marks, South African historian and academic 1938 – Melba Montgomery, American country music singer 1939 – Ralph Lauren, American fashion designer, founded the Ralph Lauren Corporation 1939 – Rocky Thompson, American golfer and politician 1940 – Perrie Mans, South African snooker player 1940 – Cliff Richard, Indian-English singer-songwriter and actor 1940 – J. C. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseus

Odysseus

Odysseus ( ; , ), also known by the Latin variant Ulysses ( , ; ), is a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer's epic poem the Odyssey. Odysseus also plays a key role in Homer's Iliad and other works in that same epic cycle. Son of Laërtes and Anticlea, husband of Penelope, and father of Telemachus and Acusilaus, Odysseus is renowned for his intellectual brilliance, guile, and versatility (polytropos), and is thus known by the epithet Odysseus the Cunning (). He is most famous for his nostos, or "homecoming", which took him ten eventful years after the decade-long Trojan War. Name, etymology, and epithets The form Odys(s)eus is used starting in the epic period and through the classical period, but various other forms are also found. In vase inscriptions, we find the variants Oliseus (), Olyseus (), Olysseus (), Olyteus (), Olytteus () and Ōlysseus (). The form Oulixēs () is attested in an early source in Magna Graecia (Ibycus, according to Diomedes Grammaticus), while the Greek grammarian Aelius Herodianus has Oulixeus (). In Latin, he was known as or (considered less correct) . Some have supposed that "there may originally have been two separate figures, one called something like Odysseus, the other something like Ulixes, who were combined into one complex personality." However, the change between d and l is common also in some Indo-European and Greek names, and the Latin form is supposed to be derived from the Etruscan (see below), which perhaps accounts for some of the phonetic innovations. The etymology of the name is unknown. Ancient authors linked the name to the Greek verbs () “to be wroth against, to hate”, to () “to lament, bewail”, or even to () “to perish, to be lost”. Homer relates it to various forms of this verb in references and puns. In Book 19 of the Odyssey, where Odysseus' early childhood is recounted, Euryclea asks the boy's grandfather Autolycus to name him. Euryclea seems to suggest a name like Polyaretos, "for he has much been prayed for" (πολυάρητος) but Autolycus "apparently in a sardonic mood" decided to give the child another name commemorative of "his own experience in life": "Since I have been angered (ὀδυσσάμενος odyssamenos) with many, both men and women, let the name of the child be Odysseus". Odysseus often receives the patronymic epithet Laertiades (), "son of Laërtes". In the Iliad and Odyssey there are several further epithets used to describe Odysseus. It has also been suggested that the name is of non-Greek origin, possibly not even Indo-European, with an unknown etymology. Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin. In Etruscan religion the name (and stories) of Odysseus were adopted under the name (Uθuze), which has been interpreted as a parallel borrowing from a preceding Minoan form of the name (possibly *Oduze, pronounced /'ot͡θut͡se/); this theory is supposed to explain also the insecurity of the phonologies (d or l), since the affricate /t͡θ/, unknown to the Greek of that time, gave rise to different counterparts (i. e. δ or λ in Greek, θ in Etruscan). Genealogy Relatively little is given of Odysseus' background other than that according to Pseudo-Apollodorus, his paternal grandfather or step-grandfather is Arcesius, son of Cephalus and grandson of Aeolus, while his maternal grandfather is the thief Autolycus, son of Hermes and Chione. Hence, Odysseus was the great-grandson of the Olympian god Hermes. According to the Iliad and Odyssey, his father is Laertes and his mother Anticlea, although there was a non-Homeric tradition that Sisyphus was his true father. The rumour went that Laërtes bought Odysseus from the conniving king. Odysseus is said to have a younger sister, Ctimene, who went to Same to be married and is mentioned by the swineherd Eumaeus, whom she grew up alongside, in book 15 of the Odyssey. Before the Trojan War The majority of sources for Odysseus' pre-war exploits—principally the mythographers Pseudo-Apollodorus and Hyginus—postdate Homer by many centuries. Two stories in particular are well known: When Helen of Troy is abducted, Menelaus calls upon the other suitors to honour their oaths and help him to retrieve her, an attempt that leads to the Trojan War. Odysseus tries to avoid it by feigning lunacy, as an oracle had prophesied a long-delayed return home for him if he went. He hooks a donkey and an ox to his plow (as they have different stride lengths, hindering the efficiency of the plow) and (some modern sources add) starts sowing his fields with salt. Palamedes, at the behest of Menelaus' brother Agamemnon, seeks to disprove Odysseus' madness and places Telemachus, Odysseus' infant son, in front of the plow. Odysseus veers the plow away from his son, thus exposing his stratagem. Odysseus holds a grudge against Palamedes during the war for dragging him away from his home. Odysseus and other envoys of Agamemnon travel to Scyros to recruit Achilles because of a prophecy that Troy could not be taken without him. By most accounts, Thetis, Achilles' mother, disguises the youth as a woman to hide him from the recruiters because an oracle had predicted that Achilles would either live a long uneventful life or achieve everlasting glory while dying young. Odysseus cleverly discovers which among the women before him is Achilles when the youth is the only one of them to show interest in examining the weapons hidden among an array of adornment gifts for the daughters of their host. Odysseus arranges further for the sounding of a battle horn, which prompts Achilles to clutch a weapon and show his trained disposition. With his disguise foiled, he is exposed and joins Agamemnon's call to arms among the Hellenes. During the Trojan War The Iliad Odysseus is one of the most influential Greek champions during the Trojan War. Along with Nestor and Idomeneus he is one of the most trusted counsellors and advisors. He always champions the Achaean cause, especially when others question Agamemnon's command, as in one instance when Thersites speaks against him. When Agamemnon, to test the morale of the Achaeans, announces his intentions to depart Troy, Odysseus restores order to the Greek camp. Later on, after many of the heroes leave the battlefield due to injuries (including Odysseus and Agamemnon), Odysseus once again persuades Agamemnon not to withdraw. Along with two other envoys, he is chosen in the failed embassy to try to persuade Achilles to return to combat. When Hector proposes a single combat duel, Odysseus is one of the Danaans who reluctantly volunteered to battle him. Telamonian Ajax ("The Greater"), however, is the volunteer who eventually fights Hector. Odysseus aids Diomedes during the night operations to kill Rhesus, because it had been foretold that if his horses drank from the Scamander River, Troy could not be taken. After Patroclus is slain, it is Odysseus who counsels Achilles to let the Achaean men eat and rest rather than follow his rage-driven desire to go back on the offensive—and kill Trojans—immediately. Eventually (and reluctantly), he consents. During the funeral games for Patroclus, Odysseus becomes involved in a wrestling match with Ajax "The Greater" and foot race with Ajax "The Lesser," son of Oileus and Nestor's son Antilochus. He draws the wrestling match, and with the help of the goddess Athena, he wins the race. Odysseus has traditionally been viewed as Achilles' antithesis in the Iliad: while Achilles' anger is all-consuming and of a self-destructive nature, Odysseus is frequently viewed as a man of the mean, a voice of reason, renowned for his self-restraint and diplomatic skills. He is also in some respects antithetical to Telamonian Ajax (Shakespeare's "beef-witted" Ajax): while the latter has only brawn to recommend him, Odysseus is not only ingenious (as evidenced by his idea for the Trojan Horse), but an eloquent speaker, a skill perhaps best demonstrated in the embassy to Achilles in book 9 of the Iliad. The two are not only foils in the abstract but often opposed in practice since they have many duels and run-ins. Other stories from the Trojan War Since a prophecy suggested that the Trojan War would not be won without Achilles, Odysseus and several other Achaean leaders went to Skyros to find him. Odysseus discovered Achilles by offering gifts, adornments and musical instruments as well as weapons, to the king's daughters, and then having his companions imitate the noises of an enemy's attack on the island (most notably, making a blast of a trumpet heard), which prompted Achilles to reveal himself by picking a weapon to fight back, and together they departed for the Trojan War. The story of the death of Palamedes has many versions. According to some, Odysseus never forgives Palamedes for unmasking his feigned madness and plays a part in his downfall. One tradition says Odysseus convinces a Trojan captive to write a letter pretending to be from Palamedes. A sum of gold is mentioned to have been sent as a reward for Palamedes' treachery. Odysseus then kills the prisoner and hides the gold in Palamedes' tent. He ensures that the letter is found and acquired by Agamemnon, and also gives hints directing the Argives to the gold. This is evidence enough for the Greeks, and they have Palamedes stoned to death. Other sources say that Odysseus and Diomedes goad Palamedes into descending a well with the prospect of treasure being at the bottom. When Palamedes reaches the bottom, the two proceed to bury him with stones, killing him. When Achilles is slain in battle by Paris, it is Odysseus and Ajax who retrieve the fallen warrior's body and armour in the thick of heavy fighting. During the funeral games for Achilles, Odysseus competes once again with Ajax. Thetis says that the arms of Achilles will go to the bravest of the Greeks, but only these two warriors dare lay claim to that title. The two Argives became embroiled in a heavy dispute about one another's merits to receive the reward. The Greeks dither out of fear in deciding a winner, because they did not want to insult one and have him abandon the war effort. Nestor suggests that they allow the captive Trojans decide the winner. The accounts of the Odyssey disagree, suggesting that the Greeks themselves hold a secret vote. In any case, Odysseus is the winner. Enraged and humiliated, Ajax is driven mad by Athena. When he returns to his senses, in shame at how he has slaughtered livestock in his madness, Ajax kills himself by the sword that Hector had given him after their duel. Together with Diomedes, Odysseus fetches Achilles' son, Pyrrhus, to come to the aid of the Achaeans, because an oracle had stated that Troy could not be taken without him. A great warrior, Pyrrhus is also called Neoptolemus (Greek for "new warrior"). Upon the success of the mission, Odysseus gives Achilles' armour to him. It is learned that the war can not be won without the poisonous arrows of Heracles, which are owned by the abandoned Philoctetes. Odysseus and Diomedes (or, according to some accounts, Odysseus and Neoptolemus) leave to retrieve them. Upon their arrival, Philoctetes (still suffering from the wound) is seen still to be enraged at the Danaans, especially at Odysseus, for abandoning him. Although his first instinct is to shoot Odysseus, his anger is eventually diffused by Odysseus' persuasive powers and the influence of the gods. Odysseus returns to the Argive camp with Philoctetes and his arrows. Perhaps Odysseus' most famous contribution to the Greek war effort is devising the strategem of the Trojan Horse, which allows the Greek army to sneak into Troy under cover of darkness. It is built by Epeius and filled with Greek warriors, led by Odysseus. Odysseus and Diomedes steal the Palladium that lay within Troy's walls, for the Greeks were told they could not sack the city without it. Some late Roman sources indicate that Odysseus schemed to kill his partner on the way back, but Diomedes thwarts this attempt. "Cruel, deceitful Ulixes" of the Romans Homer's Iliad and Odyssey portray Odysseus as a culture hero, but the Romans, who believed themselves the heirs of Prince Aeneas of Troy, considered him a villainous falsifier. In Virgil's Aeneid, written between 29 and 19 BC, he is constantly referred to as "cruel Odysseus" (Latin dirus Ulixes) or "deceitful Odysseus" (pellacis, fandi fictor). Turnus, in Aeneid, book 9, reproaches the Trojan Ascanius with images of rugged, forthright Latin virtues, declaring (in John Dryden's translation), "You shall not find the sons of Atreus here, nor need the frauds of sly Ulysses fear." While the Greeks admired his cunning and deceit, these qualities did not recommend themselves to the Romans, who possessed a rigid sense of honour. In Euripides' tragedy Iphigenia at Aulis, having convinced Agamemnon to consent to the sacrifice of his daughter, Iphigenia, to appease the goddess Artemis, Odysseus facilitates the immolation by telling Iphigenia's mother, Clytemnestra, that the girl is to be wed to Achilles. Odysseus' attempts to avoid his sacred oath to defend Menelaus and Helen offended Roman notions of duty, and the many stratagems and tricks that he employed to get his way offended Roman notions of honour. Journey home to Ithaca Odysseus is probably best known as the eponymous hero of the Odyssey. This epic describes his travails, which lasted for 10 years, as he tries to return home after the Trojan War and reassert his place as rightful king of Ithaca. On the way home from Troy, after a raid on Ismarus in the land of the Cicones, he and his twelve ships are driven off course by storms. They visit the lethargic Lotus-Eaters and are captured by the Cyclops Polyphemus while visiting his island. After Polyphemus eats several of his men, Polyphemus and Odysseus have a discussion and Odysseus tells Polyphemus his name is "Nobody". Odysseus takes a barrel of wine, and the Cyclops drinks it, falling asleep. Odysseus and his men take a wooden stake, ignite it with the remaining wine, and blind him. While they escape, Polyphemus cries in pain, and the other Cyclopes ask him what is wrong. Polyphemus cries, "Nobody has blinded me!" and the other Cyclopes think he has gone mad. Odysseus and his crew escape, but Odysseus rashly reveals his real name, and Polyphemus prays to Poseidon, his father, to take revenge. They stay with Aeolus, the master of the winds, who gives Odysseus a leather bag containing all the winds, except the west wind, a gift that should have ensured a safe return home. However, the sailors foolishly open the bag while Odysseus sleeps, thinking that it contains gold. All of the winds fly out, and the resulting storm drives the ships back the way they had come, just as Ithaca comes into sight. After pleading in vain with Aeolus to help them again, they re-embark and encounter the cannibalistic Laestrygonians. Odysseus' ship is the only one to escape. He sails on and visits the witch-goddess Circe. She turns half of his men into swine after feeding them cheese and wine. Hermes warns Odysseus about Circe and gives him a drug called moly, which resists Circe's magic. Circe, being attracted to Odysseus' resistance, falls in love with him and releases his men. Odysseus and his crew remain with her on the island for one year, while they feast and drink. Finally, Odysseus' men convince him to leave for Ithaca. Guided by Circe's instructions, Odysseus and his crew cross the ocean and reach a harbor at the western edge of the world, where Odysseus sacrifices to the dead and summons the spirit of the old prophet Tiresias for advice. Next Odysseus meets the spirit of his own mother, who had died of grief during his long absence. From her, he learns for the first time news of his own household, threatened by the greed of Penelope's suitors. Odysseus also talks to his fallen war comrades and the mortal shade of Heracles. Odysseus and his men return to Circe's island, and she advises them on the remaining stages of the journey. They skirt the land of the Sirens, pass between the six-headed monster Scylla and the whirlpool Charybdis, where they row directly between the two. However, Scylla drags the boat towards her by grabbing the oars and eats six men. They land on the island of Thrinacia. There, Odysseus' men ignore the warnings of Tiresias and Circe and hunt down the sacred cattle of the sun god Helios. Helios tells Zeus what happened and demands Odysseus' men be punished or else he will take the sun and shine it in the Underworld. Zeus fulfills Helios' demands by causing a shipwreck during a thunderstorm in which all but Odysseus drown. He washes ashore on the island of Ogygia, where Calypso compels him to remain as her lover for seven years. He finally escapes when Hermes tells Calypso to release Odysseus. Odysseus is shipwrecked and befriended by the Phaeacians. After he tells them his story, the Phaeacians, led by King Alcinous, agree to help Odysseus get home. They deliver him at night, while he is fast asleep, to a hidden harbor on Ithaca. He finds his way to the hut of one of his own former slaves, the swineherd Eumaeus, and also meets up with Telemachus returning from Sparta. Athena disguises Odysseus as a wandering beggar to learn how things stand in his household. When the disguised Odysseus returns after 20 years, he is recognized only by his faithful dog, Argos. Penelope announces in her long interview with the disguised hero that whoever can string Odysseus' rigid bow and shoot an arrow through twelve axe shafts may have her hand. According to Bernard Knox, "For the plot of the Odyssey, of course, her decision is the turning point, the move that makes possible the long-predicted triumph of the returning hero". Odysseus' identity is discovered by the housekeeper, Eurycleia, as she is washing his feet and discovers an old scar Odysseus received during a boar hunt. Odysseus swears her to secrecy, threatening to kill her if she tells anyone. When the contest of the bow begins, none of the suitors is able to string the bow. After all the suitors have given up, the disguised Odysseus asks to participate. Though the suitors refuse at first, Penelope intervenes and allows the "stranger" (the disguised Odysseus) to participate. Odysseus easily strings his bow and wins the contest. Having done so, he proceeds to slaughter the suitors (beginning with Antinous whom he finds drinking from Odysseus' cup) with help from Telemachus and two of Odysseus' servants, Eumaeus the swineherd and Philoetius the cowherd. Odysseus tells the serving women who slept with the suitors to clean up the mess of corpses and then has those women hanged in terror. He tells Telemachus that he will replenish his stocks by raiding nearby islands. Odysseus has now revealed himself in all his glory (with a little makeover by Athena); yet Penelope cannot believe that her husband has really returned—she fears that it is perhaps some god in disguise, as in the story of Alcmene (mother of Heracles)—and tests him by ordering her servant Euryclea to move the bed in their wedding-chamber. Odysseus protests that this cannot be done since he made the bed himself and knows that one of its legs is a living olive tree. Penelope finally accepts that he truly is her husband, a moment that highlights their homophrosýnē (“like-mindedness”). The next day Odysseus and Telemachus visit the country farm of his old father Laërtes. The citizens of Ithaca follow Odysseus on the road, planning to avenge the killing of the Suitors, their sons. The goddess Athena intervenes and persuades both sides to make peace. Other stories Odysseus is one of the most recurrent characters in Western culture. Classical According to some late sources, most of them purely genealogical, Odysseus had many other children besides Telemachus. Most such genealogies aimed to link Odysseus with the foundation of many Italic cities. The most famous being: with Penelope: Poliporthes (born after Odysseus' return from Troy) with Circe: Telegonus, Ardeas, Latinus, also Ausonus and Casiphone. Xenagoras writes that Odysseus with Circe had three sons, Romos (), Anteias () and Ardeias (), who built three cities and called them after their own names. The city that Romos founded was Rome. with Calypso: Nausithous, Nausinous with Callidice: Polypoetes with Euippe: Euryalus with daughter of Thoas: Leontophonus He figures in the end of the story of King Telephus of Mysia. The supposed last poem in the Epic Cycle is called the Telegony and is thought to tell the story of Odysseus' last voyage, and of his death at the hands of Telegonus, his son with Circe. The poem, like the others of the cycle, is "lost" in that no authentic version has been discovered. In 5th century BC Athens, tales of the Trojan War were popular subjects for tragedies. Odysseus figures centrally or indirectly in a number of the extant plays by Aeschylus, Sophocles (Ajax, Philoctetes) and Euripides (Hecuba, Rhesus, Cyclops) and figured in still more that have not survived. In his Ajax, Sophocles portrays Odysseus as a modern voice of reasoning compared to the title character's rigid antiquity. Plato in his dialogue Hippias Minor examines a literary question about whom Homer intended to portray as the better man, Achilles or Odysseus. Pausanias at the Description of Greece writes that at Pheneus there was a bronze statue of Poseidon, surnamed Hippios (), meaning of horse, which according to the legends was dedicated by Odysseus and also a sanctuary of Artemis which was called Heurippa (), meaning horse finder, and was founded by Odysseus. According to the legends Odysseus lost his mares and traversed the Greece in search of them. He found them on that site in Pheneus. Pausanias adds that according to the people of Pheneus, when Odysseus found his mares he decided to keep horses in the land of Pheneus, just as he reared his cows. The people of Pheneus also pointed out to him writing, purporting to be instructions of Odysseus to those tending his mares. As Ulysses, he is mentioned regularly in Virgil's Aeneid written between 29 and 19 BC, and the poem's hero, Aeneas, rescues one of Ulysses' crew members who was left behind on the island of the Cyclopes. He in turn offers a first-person account of some of the same events Homer relates, in which Ulysses appears directly. Virgil's Ulysses typifies his view of the Greeks: he is cunning but impious, and ultimately malicious and hedonistic. Ovid retells parts of Ulysses' journeys, focusing on his romantic involvements with Circe and Calypso, and recasts him as, in Harold Bloom's phrase, "one of the great wandering womanizers". Ovid also gives a detailed account of the contest between Ulysses and Ajax for the armour of Achilles. Greek legend tells of Ulysses as the founder of Lisbon, Portugal, calling it Ulisipo or Ulisseya, during his twenty-year errand on the Mediterranean and Atlantic seas. Olisipo was Lisbon's name in the Roman Empire. This folk etymology is recounted by Strabo based on Asclepiades of Myrleia's words, by Pomponius Mela, by Gaius Julius Solinus (3rd century AD), and will be resumed by Camões in his epic poem Os Lusíadas (first printed in 1572). Middle Ages and Renaissance Dante Alighieri, in the Canto XXVI of the Inferno segment of his Divine Comedy (1308–1320), encounters Odysseus ("Ulisse" in Italian) near the very bottom of Hell: with Diomedes, he walks wrapped in flame in the eighth ring (Counselors of Fraud) of the Eighth Circle (Sins of Malice), as punishment for his schemes and conspiracies that won the Trojan War. In a famous passage, Dante has Odysseus relate a different version of his voyage and death from the one told by Homer. He tells how he set out with his men from Circe's island for a journey of exploration to sail beyond the Pillars of Hercules and into the Western sea to find what adventures awaited them. Men, says Ulisse, are not made to live like brutes, but to follow virtue and knowledge. After travelling west and south for five months, they see in the distance a great mountain rising from the sea (this is Purgatory, in Dante's cosmology) before a storm sinks them. Dante did not have access to the original Greek texts of the Homeric epics, so his knowledge of their subject-matter was based only on information from later sources, chiefly Virgil's Aeneid but also Ovid; hence the discrepancy between Dante and Homer. He appears in Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida (1602), set during the Trojan War. Modern literature In her poem (published in 1836), Letitia Elizabeth Landon gives her version of The Song of the Sirens with an explanation of its purpose, structure and meaning. Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem "Ulysses" (published in 1842) presents an aging king who has seen too much of the world to be happy sitting on a throne idling his days away. Leaving the task of civilizing his people to his son, he gathers together a band of old comrades "to sail beyond the sunset". Frederick Rolfe's The Weird of the Wanderer (1912) has the hero Nicholas Crabbe (based on the author) travelling back in time, discovering that he is the reincarnation of Odysseus, marrying Helen, being deified and ending up as one of the three Magi. James Joyce's novel Ulysses (first published 1918–1920) uses modern literary devices to narrate a single day in the life of a Dublin businessman named Leopold Bloom. Bloom's day turns out to bear many elaborate parallels to Odysseus' ten years of wandering. In Virginia Woolf's response novel Mrs Dalloway (1925) the comparable character is Clarisse Dalloway, who also appears in The Voyage Out (1915) and several short stories. Nikos Kazantzakis' The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938), a 33,333-line epic poem, begins with Odysseus cleansing his body of the blood of Penelope's suitors. Odysseus soon leaves Ithaca in search of new adventures. Before his death he abducts Helen, incites revolutions in Crete and Egypt, communes with God, and meets representatives of such famous historical and literary figures as Vladimir Lenin, Don Quixote and Jesus. Return to Ithaca (1946) by Eyvind Johnson is a more realistic retelling of the events that adds a deeper psychological study of the characters of Odysseus, Penelope, and Telemachus. Thematically, it uses Odysseus' backstory and struggle as a metaphor for dealing with the aftermath of war (the novel being written immediately after the end of the Second World War). In the eleventh chapter of Primo Levi's 1947 memoir If This Is a Man, "The Canto of Ulysses", the author describes the last voyage of Ulysses as told by Dante in The Inferno to a fellow-prisoner during forced labour in the Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz. Odysseus is the hero of The Luck of Troy (1961) by Roger Lancelyn Green, whose title refers to the theft of the Palladium. In 1986, Irish poet Eilean Ni Chuilleanain published "The Second Voyage", a poem in which she makes use of the story of Odysseus. In S. M. Stirling's Island in the Sea of Time (1998), first part to his Nantucket series of alternate history novels, Odikweos ("Odysseus" in Mycenaean Greek) is a "historical" figure who is every bit as cunning as his legendary self and is one of the few Bronze Age inhabitants who discerns the time-travellers' real background. Odikweos first aids William Walker's rise to power in Achaea and later helps bring Walker down after seeing his homeland turn into a police state. The Penelopiad (2005) by Margaret Atwood retells his story from the point of view of his wife Penelope. The literary theorist Núria Perpinyà conceived twenty different interpretations of the Odyssey in a 2008 study. Odysseus is also a character in David Gemmell's Troy trilogy (2005–2007), in which he is a good friend and mentor of Helikaon. He is known as the ugly king of Ithaka. His marriage with Penelope was arranged, but they grew to love each other. He is also a famous storyteller, known to exaggerate his stories and heralded as the greatest storyteller of his age. This is used as a plot device to explain the origins of such myths as those of Circe and the Gorgons. In the series, he is fairly old and an unwilling ally of Agamemnon. In Madeline Miller's The Song of Achilles (a retelling of the Trojan War as well as the life of Patroclus and his romance with Achilles), Odysseus is a major character with much the same role he had in Homer's Iliad, though it is expanded upon. Miller's Circe tells of Odysseus's visit to Circe's island from Circe's point of view, and includes the birth of their son Telegonus, and Odysseus' inadvertent death when Telegonus travels to Ithaca to meet him. Television and film The actors who have portrayed Odysseus in feature films include Kirk Douglas in the Italian Ulysses (1955), John Drew Barrymore in The Trojan Horse (1961), Piero Lulli in The Fury of Achilles (1962), and Sean Bean in Troy (2004). In TV miniseries he has been played by Bekim Fehmiu in L'Odissea (1968), Armand Assante in The Odyssey (1997), and by Joseph Mawle in Troy: Fall of a City (2018). Ulysses 31 is a French-Japanese animated television series (1981) that updates the Greek mythology of Odysseus to the 31st century. Joel and Ethan Coen's film O Brother Where Art Thou? (2000) is loosely based on the Odyssey. However, the Coens have stated that they had never read the epic. George Clooney plays Ulysses Everett McGill, leading a group of escapees from a chain gang through an adventure in search of the proceeds of an armoured truck heist. On their voyage, the gang encounter—amongst other characters—a trio of Sirens and a one-eyed bible salesman. The plot of their 2013 movie Inside Llewyn Davis includes elements of the epic, as the hero, a former seaman, embarks on a torrid journey with a cat named Ulysses. Music The British group Cream recorded the song "Tales of Brave Ulysses" in 1967 and the 2002 the U.S. progressive metal band Symphony X released a 24-minute adaption of the tale on their album The Odyssey. Suzanne Vega's song "Calypso" from 1987 album Solitude Standing shows Odysseus from Calypso's point of view, and tells the tale of him coming to the island and his leaving. Rolf Riehm composed an opera based on the myth, Sirenen – Bilder des Begehrens und des Vernichtens (Sirens – Images of Desire and Destruction) which premiered at the Oper Frankfurt in 2014. Odysseus is featured in a verse of the song 'Journey of the Magi' on Frank Turner's 2009 album Poetry of the Deed. Comparative mythology Over time, comparisons between Odysseus and other heroes of different mythologies and religions have been made. Nala A similar story exists in Hindu mythology with Nala and Damayanti where Nala separates from Damayanti and is reunited with her. The story of stringing a bow is similar to the description in the Ramayana of Rama stringing the bow to win Sita's hand in marriage. Aeneas The Aeneid tells the story of Aeneas and his travels to what would become Rome. On his journey he also endures strife comparable to that of Odysseus. However, the motives for both of their journeys differ as Aeneas was driven by this sense of duty granted to him by the gods that he must abide by. He also kept in mind the future of his people, fitting for the future Father of Rome. Altars - Islands - Cities Strabo writes that on Meninx () island, modern Djerba at Tunisia, there was an altar of the Odysseus. Pliny the Elder writes that in Italy there were some small islands (modern Torricella, Praca, Brace and other rocks) which were called Ithacesiae because of a watchtower that Odysseus built there. According to ancient Greek tradition, Odysseus founded a city in Iberia which was called Odysseia (Ὀδύσσεια) or Odysseis (Ὀδυσσεῖς) which had a sanctuary of goddess Athena. Ancient authors identified it with Olisipo (modern Lisbon), but modern researchers believe that even its existence is uncertain. Namesakes Odysseus (crater) Prince Odysseas-Kimon of Greece and Denmark (born 2004), is the grandson of the deposed Greek king, Constantine II. 1143 Odysseus See also Returns from Troy Odysseus Unbound References Further reading (Odysseus Unbound Foundation) External links "Archaeological discovery in Greece may be the tomb of Odysseus" from the Madera Tribune Aeolides Achaean Leaders Kings in Greek mythology Characters in the Odyssey Greek mythological heroes Heroes who ventured to Hades Ithacan characters in Greek mythology Characters in Greek mythology Deeds of Zeus

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20Enemy

Public Enemy

Public Enemy is an American hip hop group which was formed by Chuck D and Flavor Flav on Long Island, New York, in 1985. The group came to attention for their political messages including subjects such as American racism and the American media. Their debut album, Yo! Bum Rush the Show, was released in 1987 to critical acclaim, and their second album, It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back (1988), was the first hip hop album to top The Village Voices Pazz & Jop critics' poll. Their next three albums, Fear of a Black Planet (1990), Apocalypse 91... The Enemy Strikes Black (1991) and Muse Sick-n-Hour Mess Age (1994), were also well received. The group has since released twelve more studio albums, including the soundtrack to the 1998 movie He Got Game and a collaborative album with Paris, Rebirth of a Nation (2006). Public Enemy has gone through lineup changes over the years, with Chuck D and Flavor Flav the only constant members. Co-founder Professor Griff left in 1989 but rejoined in 1998, before parting ways again some years later. DJ Lord also joined Public Enemy in 1998 as the replacement of the group's original DJ Terminator X. In 2020, it was announced that Flavor Flav had been fired from the group. His firing was later revealed to be a publicity stunt that was called an April Fools' Day prank. Public Enemy, without Flavor Flav, would also tour and record music under the name of Public Enemy Radio which consists of the lineup of Chuck D, Jahi, DJ Lord and the S1Ws. Public Enemy's first four albums during the late 1980s and early 1990s were all certified either gold or platinum and were, according to music critic Robert Hilburn in 1998, "the most acclaimed body of work ever by a hip hop act". Critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine called them "the most influential and radical band of their time". They were inducted into Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2013. They were honored with the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award at the 62nd Grammy Awards. History 1985–1987: Formation and early years Public Enemy was formed in 1985 by Carlton Ridenhour (Chuck D) and William Drayton (Flavor Flav), who met at Long Island's Adelphi University in the mid-1980s. Developing his talents as an MC with Flav while delivering furniture for his father's business, Chuck D and Spectrum City, as the group was called, released the record "Check Out the Radio", backed by "Lies", a social commentary—both of which would influence RUSH Productions' Run–D.M.C. and Beastie Boys. Chuck D put out a tape to promote WBAU (the radio station where he was working at the time) and to fend off a local MC who wanted to battle him. He called the tape Public Enemy #1 because he felt like he was being persecuted by people in the local scene. This was the first reference to the notion of a public enemy in any of Chuck D's songs. The single was created by Chuck D with a contribution by Flavor Flav, though this was before the group Public Enemy was officially assembled. Around 1986, Bill Stephney, the former Program Director at WBAU, was approached by Ali Hafezi and offered a position with the label. Stephney accepted, and his first assignment was to help fledgling producer Rick Rubin sign Chuck D, whose song "Public Enemy Number One" Rubin had heard from Andre "Doctor Dré" Brown. According to the book The History of Rap Music by Cookie Lommel, "Stephney thought it was time to mesh the hard-hitting style of Run DMC with politics that addressed black youth. Chuck recruited Spectrum City, which included Hank Shocklee, his brother Keith Shocklee, and Eric "Vietnam" Sadler, collectively known as the Bomb Squad, to be his production team and added another Spectrum City partner, Professor Griff, to become the group's Minister of Information. With the addition of Flavor Flav and another local mobile DJ named Terminator X, the group Public Enemy was born". According to Chuck, The S1W, which stands for Security of the First World, "represents that the black man can be just as intelligent as he is strong. It stands for the fact that we're not third-world people, we're first-world people; we're the original people". Hank Shocklee came up with the name Public Enemy based on "underdog love and their developing politics" and the idea from Def Jam staffer Bill Stephney following the Howard Beach racial incident, Bernhard Goetz, and the death of Michael Stewart: "The Black man is definitely the public enemy." Public Enemy started out as opening act for the Beastie Boys during the latter's Licensed to Ill popularity, and in 1987 released their debut album Yo! Bum Rush the Show. 1987–1993: Mainstream success The group's debut album, Yo! Bum Rush the Show, was released in 1987 to critical acclaim. In October 1987, music critic Simon Reynolds dubbed Public Enemy "a superlative rock band". They released their second album, It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back, in 1988, which performed better in the charts than their previous release, and included the hit single "Don't Believe the Hype" in addition to "Bring the Noise". It was the first hip hop album to be voted album of the year in The Village Voices influential Pazz & Jop critics' poll. In 1989, the group returned to the studio to record their third album, Fear of a Black Planet, which continued their politically charged themes. The album was supposed to be released in late 1989, but was pushed back to April 1990. It was the most successful of any of their albums and, in 2005, was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry. It included the singles "Welcome to the Terrordome", written after the band was criticized by Jews for Professor Griff's anti-semitic comments, "911 Is a Joke", which criticized emergency response units for taking longer to arrive at emergencies in the black community than those in the white community, and "Fight the Power". "Fight the Power" is regarded as one of the most popular and influential songs in hip hop history. It was the theme song of Spike Lee's Do the Right Thing. The group's fourth album, Apocalypse 91... The Enemy Strikes Black, continued this trend, with songs like "Can't Truss It", which addressed the history of slavery and how the black community can fight back against oppression; "I Don't Wanna be Called Yo Nigga", a track that takes issue with the use of the word nigga outside of its original derogatory context. The album also included the controversial song and video "By the Time I Get to Arizona", which chronicled the black community's frustration that some US states did not recognize Martin Luther King Jr.'s birthday as a national holiday. The video featured members of Public Enemy taking out their frustrations on politicians in the states not recognizing the holiday. In 1992, the group was one of the first rap acts to perform at the Reading Festival in the UK, headlining the second day of the three-day festival. 1994–2019: Later years and member changes After a 1994 motorcycle accident shattered his left leg and kept him in the hospital for a full month, Terminator X relocated to his 15-acre farm in Vance County, North Carolina. By 1998, he was ready to retire from the group and focus full-time on raising African black ostriches on his farm. In late 1998, the group started looking for Terminator X's permanent replacement. Following several months of searching for a DJ, Professor Griff saw DJ Lord at a Vestax Battle and approached him about becoming the DJ for Public Enemy. DJ Lord joined as the group's full-time DJ just in time for Public Enemy's 40th World Tour. Since 1999, he has been the official DJ for Public Enemy on albums and world tours while winning numerous turntablist competitions, including multiple DMC finals. In 2007, the group released an album entitled How You Sell Soul to a Soulless People Who Sold Their Soul?. Public Enemy's single from the album was "Harder Than You Think". Four years after How You Sell Soul ... , in January 2011, Public Enemy released the album Beats and Places, a compilation of remixes and "lost" tracks. On July 13, 2012, Most of My Heroes Still Don't Appear on No Stamp was released and was exclusively available on iTunes. In July 2012, on UK television an advert for the London 2012 Summer Paralympics featured a short remix of the song "Harder Than You Think". The advert caused the song to reach No. 4 in the UK Singles Chart on September 2, 2012. On July 30, 2012, Public Enemy performed a free concert with Salt-N-Pepa and Kid 'n Play at Wingate Park in Brooklyn, New York as part of the Martin Luther King Jr. Concert Series. On August 26, 2012, Public Enemy performed at South West Four music festival in Clapham Common in London. On October 1, 2012 The Evil Empire of Everything was released. On June 29, 2013, they performed at Glastonbury Festival 2013. On September 14, 2013, they performed at Riot Fest & Carnival 2013 in Chicago, Illinois. On September 20, 2013, they performed at Riot Fest & Side Show in Byers, Colorado. In 2014, Chuck D launched PE 2.0 with Oakland rapper Jahi as a spiritual successor and "next generation" of Public Enemy. Jahi met Chuck D backstage during a soundcheck at the 1999 Rock & Roll Hall of Fame and later appeared as a support act on Public Enemy's 20th Anniversary Tour in 2007. PE 2.0's task is twofold, Jahi says, to "take select songs from the PE catalog and cover or revisit them" as well as new material with members of the original Public Enemy including DJ Lord, Davy DMX, Professor Griff and Chuck D. PE 2.0's first album People Get Ready was released on October 7, 2014. InsPirEd PE 2.0's second album and part two of a proposed trilogy was released a year later on October 11, 2015. Man Plans God Laughs, Public Enemy's thirteenth album, was released in July 2015. On June 29, 2017, Public Enemy released their fourteenth album, Nothing Is Quick in the Desert. The album was available for free download through Bandcamp until July 4, 2017. 2020–present: Controversy, Public Enemy Radio, and return to Def Jam In late February 2020, it was announced that Public Enemy (billed as Public Enemy Radio) would perform at a campaign rally in Los Angeles on March 1, 2020, for Bernie Sanders, who was campaigning to be the nominee of the Democratic Party in the 2020 presidential election. Days following the announcement, Flavor Flav's lawyer Matthew Friedman issued a cease-and desist letter asking the campaign to not use the group's name or logo, stating: "While Chuck is certainly free to express his political views as he sees fit — his voice alone does not speak for Public Enemy". Chuck D responded to the statement by saying: "Flavor chooses to dance for his money and not do benevolent work like this. He has a year to get his act together and get himself straight or he's out". A lawyer for Chuck D added: "Chuck could perform as Public Enemy if he ever wanted to; he is the sole owner of the Public Enemy trademark. He originally drew the logo himself in the mid-80s, is also the creative visionary and the group's primary songwriter, having written Flavor's most memorable lines". On March 1, 2020, prior to the group's performance at the Sanders rally, Chuck D, DJ Lord, Jahi, James Bomb and Pop Diesel issued a joint statement announcing that Flavor Flav had been fired from the group, stating: "Public Enemy and Public Enemy Radio will be moving forward without Flavor Flav. We thank him for his years of service and wish him well". The statement also claimed: "Flavor Flav has been on suspension since 2016 when he was MIA from the Harry Belafonte benefit in Atlanta, Georgia. That was the last straw for the group. He had previously missed numerous live gigs from Glastonbury to Canada, album recording sessions and photo shoots. He always chose to party over work". On March 2, 2020, it was announced that Public Enemy Radio would be releasing the album Loud Is Not Enough which was due for release in April 2020. The album was to feature the lineup of Chuck D, DJ Lord, Jahi and the S1Ws and according to a statement from the group it will be "taking it back to hip hop’s original DJ-and-turntablist foundation". On April 1, 2020, it was revealed Flavor Flav's firing was a publicity stunt to gain attention and provide a commentary on disinformation, with Reuters claiming that Chuck D and Flavor Flav "concocted a fake split to grab attention and highlight media bias towards reporting bad news about hip hop". In an interview with rapper Talib Kweli, Chuck D stated that the stunt was inspired by Orson Welles' 1938 radio drama "The War of the Worlds". In response, Flavor Flav tweeted: "I am not a part of your hoax" and: "There are more serious things in the world right now than April Fool's jokes and dropping records. The world needs better than this,,,you say we are leaders so act like one". On June 19, 2020, Public Enemy (with Flavor Flav), released the single and music video for their anti-Donald Trump song, "State of the Union (STFU)". Chuck D stated, "Our collective voices keep getting louder. The rest of the planet is on our side. But it's not enough to talk about change. You have to show up and demand change. Folks gotta vote like their lives depend on it, cause it does". In 2020, the group returned to Def Jam and released their thirteenth studio album, What You Gonna Do When the Grid Goes Down?, on September 25, 2020. Legacy Public Enemy made contributions to the hip-hop world with sonic experimentation as well as political and cultural consciousness, which infused itself into skilled and poetic rhymes. Critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that "PE brought in elements of free jazz, hard funk, even musique concrète, via [its] producing team the Bomb Squad, creating a dense, ferocious sound unlike anything that came before." Public Enemy held a strong, pro-black, political stance. Before PE, politically motivated hip-hop was defined by a few tracks by Ice-T, Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five, Kurtis Blow and Boogie Down Productions. Other politically motivated opinions were shared by prototypical artists Gil Scott-Heron and the Last Poets. PE was a revolutionary hip-hop act whose entire image rested on a specified political stance. With the successes of Public Enemy, many hip-hop artists began to celebrate Afrocentric themes, such as Kool Moe Dee, Gang Starr, X Clan, Eric B. & Rakim, Queen Latifah, the Jungle Brothers, and A Tribe Called Quest. Public Enemy was one of the first hip-hop groups to do well internationally. PE changed the Internet's music distribution capability by being one of the first groups to release MP3-only albums, a format virtually unknown at the time. Public Enemy helped to create and define "rap metal" by collaborating with Living Colour in 1988 ("Funny Vibe"), with Sonic Youth on the 1990 song "Kool Thing", and with New York thrash metal outfit Anthrax in 1991. The single "Bring the Noise" was a mix of semi-militant black power lyrics, grinding guitars, and sporadic humor. The two bands, cemented by a mutual respect and the personal friendship between Chuck D and Anthrax's Scott Ian, introduced a hitherto alien genre to rock fans, and the two seemingly disparate groups toured together. Flavor Flav's pronouncement on stage that "They said this tour would never happen" (as heard on Anthrax's Live: The Island Years CD) has become a legendary comment in both rock and hip-hop circles. Metal guitarist Vernon Reid (of Living Colour) contributed to Public Enemy's recordings, and PE sampled Slayer's "Angel of Death" half-time riff on "She Watch Channel Zero?!" Members of the Bomb Squad produced or remixed works for other acts, like Bell Biv DeVoe, Ice Cube, Vanessa Williams, Sinéad O'Connor, Blue Magic, Peter Gabriel, L.L. Cool J, Paula Abdul, Jasmine Guy, Jody Watley, Eric B & Rakim, Third Bass, Big Daddy Kane, EPMD, and Chaka Khan. According to Chuck D, "We had tight dealings with MCA Records and were talking about taking three guys that were left over from New Edition and coming up with an album for them. The three happened to be Ricky Bell, Michael Bivins, and Ronnie DeVoe, later to become Bell Biv DeVoe. Ralph Tresvant had been slated to do a solo album for years, Bobby Brown had left New Edition and experienced some solo success beginning in 1988, and Johnny Gill had just been recruited to come in, but [he] had come off a solo career and could always go back to that. At MCA, Hiram Hicks, who was their manager, and Louil Silas, who was running the show, were like, 'Yo, these kids were left out in the cold. Can y'all come up with something for them?' It was a task that Hank, Keith, Eric, and I took on to try to put some kind of hip-hop-flavored R&B shit down for them. Subsequently, what happened in the four weeks of December [1989] was that the Bomb Squad knocked out a large piece of the production and arrangement on Bell Biv DeVoe's three-million selling album Poison. In January [1990], they knocked out Fear of a Black Planet in four weeks, and PE knocked out Ice Cube's album AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted in four to five weeks in February." They have also produced local talent such as Son of Bazerk, Young Black Teenagers, Kings of Pressure, and True Mathematics—and gave producer Kip Collins his start in the business. Poet and hip-hop artist Saul Williams uses a sample from Public Enemy's "Welcome to the Terrordome" in his song "Tr[n]igger" on the Niggy Tardust album. He also used a line from the song in his poem, amethyst rocks. The Manic Street Preachers track "Repeat (Stars And Stripes)" is a remix of the band's own anti-monarchy tirade by Public Enemy production team The Bomb Squad of whom James Dean Bradfield and Richey Edwards were big fans. The song samples "Countdown to Armageddon" from It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back. The band had previously sampled Public Enemy on their 1991 single Motown Junk. The revolutionary influence of the band is seen throughout hip-hop and is recognized in society and politics. The band "rewrote the rules of hip-hop", changing the image, sound and message forever. Pro-black lyrics brought political and social themes to hardcore hip hop, with stirring ideas of racial equality, and retribution against police brutality, aimed at disenfranchised blacks, but appealing to all the poor and underrepresented. Before Public Enemy, hip hop music was seen as "throwaway entertainment", with trite sexist and homophobic lyrics. Public Enemy brought social relevance and strength to hip hop. They also brought black activist Louis Farrakhan to greater popularity, and they gave impetus to the Million Man March in 1995. The influence of the band goes also beyond hip-hop in a unique way, indeed the group was cited as an influence by artists as diverse as Autechre (selected in the All Tomorrow's Parties in 2003), Nirvana (It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back being cited by Kurt Cobain among his favorite albums), Moby (also selected It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back as one of his favourite albums), Nine Inch Nails (mentioned the band in Pretty Hate Machine credits), Björk (included Rebel Without a Pause in her The Breezeblock Mix in July 2007), Tricky (did a cover of Black Steel in the Hour of Chaos and appears in Do You Wanna Go Our Way ??? video), The Prodigy (included Public Enemy No. 1 in The Dirtchamber Sessions Volume One), Ben Harper, Underground Resistance (cited by both Mad Mike and Jeff Mills), Orlando Voorn, M.I.A., Amon Tobin, Mathew Jonson, Aphex Twin (Welcome To The Terrordome being the first track played after the introduction at the Coachella Festival in April 2008), Rage Against the Machine (sampling the track in their song "Renegades of Funk"), Porcupine Tree's Fear of a Blank Planet, and My Bloody Valentine who was influenced by the Bomb Squad's production for their sound. Controversy Martin Luther King Day The 1991 song "By the Time I Get to Arizona" from Apocalypse 91... The Enemy Strikes Black referenced the controversy a year earlier when Arizona cancelled a state holiday for Martin Luther King Jr., and the NFL switched Super Bowl XXVII from Arizona to California, costing the state an estimated loss of over $100 million. A video of "By the Time I Get to Arizona", which was shown only once on MTV, depicted Chuck D killing Arizona officials with machine guns and a car bomb. Anti-Semitism In 1989, in an interview with Public Enemy for the Washington Times, the interviewing journalist, David Mills, lifted some quotations from a UK magazine in which the band were asked their opinion on the Arab–Israeli conflict. Professor Griff commented that "Jews are responsible for the majority of the wickedness in the world" (p. 177), a quote from The International Jew. Shortly after, Chuck D expressed an apology on his behalf. At a June 21, 1989, press conference, Chuck D announced Griff's dismissal from the group, and a June 28 statement by Russell Simmons, president of Def Jam Recordings and Rush Artists Management, stated that Chuck D. had disbanded Public Enemy "for an indefinite period of time". By August 10, however, Chuck D denied that he had disbanded the group, and stated that Griff had been re-hired as "Supreme Allied Chief of Community Relations" (in contrast to his previous position with the group as Minister of Information). Griff later denied holding anti-Semitic views and apologized for the remarks. Several people who had worked with Public Enemy expressed concern about Chuck D's leadership abilities and role as a social spokesman. In his 2009 book, entitled Analytixz, Griff criticized his 1989 statement: "to say the Jews are responsible for the majority of wickedness that went on around the globe I would have to know about the majority of wickedness that went on around the globe, which is impossible ... I'm not the best knower. Then, not only knowing that, I would have to know who is at the crux of all of the problems in the world and then blame Jewish people, which is not correct." Griff also said that not only were his words taken out of context, but that the recording has never been released to the public for an unbiased listen. The controversy and apologies on behalf of Griff spurred Chuck D to reference the negative press they were receiving. In 1990, Public Enemy issued the single "Welcome to the Terrordome", which contains the lyrics: "Crucifixion ain't no fiction / So-called chosen frozen / Apologies made to whoever pleases / Still they got me like Jesus". These lyrics have been cited by some in the media as anti-Semitic, making supposed references to the concept of the "chosen people" with the lyric "so-called chosen" and Jewish deicide with the last line. In 1999 the group released an album entitled There's a Poison Goin' On. The title of the last song on the album is called "Swindler's Lust". The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) claimed that the title of the song was a word play on the title of the Steven Spielberg movie Schindler's List about the genocide of Jews in World War II. Similarly in 2000 a Public Enemy spin off group under the name Confrontation Camp, a name according to the ADL, that is a pun on the term concentration camp, released an album. The group consisted of Kyle Jason, Chuck D (under the name Mistachuck) and Professor Griff. Homophobia Fear of a Black Planets "Meet the G That Killed Me" described propagation of HIV. Upon its 1990 release, New York Times writer Peter Watrous criticized the song's lyrics as containing "stupidly crude" homophobia. Zoe Williams defended Public Enemy against charges of homophobia, citing the same passage as Watrous: Group members Current members Chuck D (Carlton D. Ridenhour) – MC Flavor Flav (William J. Drayton, Jr.) – Hype man, multi-instrumentalist Khari Wynn – lead guitars, music director, MD, AMD DJ Lord (Lord Aswod) – DJ Davy DMX (David Franklin Reeves Jr.) – bass T-Bone Motta – drums, percussionS1W Brother James (James Norman) Brother Roger (Roger Chillous) Brother Mike (Michael Williams) James Bomb (James Allen) The Interrogator (Shawn K. Carter) Big Casper (Tracy D. Walker) Pop Diesel (sometimes spelt Popp Diezel) Former members Terminator X (Norman Rogers) – DJ, Producer Professor Griff (Richard Griffin) – Minister of Information DJ Johnny "Juice" Rosado – DJ, Scratching, Turntablist, Producer Sister Souljah (Lisa Williamson) – Minister of Information (took over Richard Griffin's place when Griffin left group) Brian Hardgroove – bass, guitars Michael Faulkner – drums, percussionS1W Jacob "Big Jake" Shankle The Bomb Squad''' Hank Shocklee (James Hank Boxley III) *original member Keith Shocklee (Keith Boxley) *original member Eric "Vietnam" Sadler *original member Gary G-Wiz (Gary Rinaldo) (took Eric Sadler's place when Sadler left group) Discography Studio albums Yo! Bum Rush the Show (1987) It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back (1988) Fear of a Black Planet (1990) Apocalypse 91... The Enemy Strikes Black (1991) Muse Sick-n-Hour Mess Age (1994) There's a Poison Goin' On (1999) Revolverlution (2002) New Whirl Odor (2005) How You Sell Soul to a Soulless People Who Sold Their Soul? (2007) Most of My Heroes Still Don't Appear on No Stamp (2012) The Evil Empire of Everything (2012) Man Plans God Laughs (2015) Nothing Is Quick in the Desert (2017) Loud Is Not Enough (2020) (released under the name Public Enemy Radio) What You Gonna Do When the Grid Goes Down? (2020) Collaboration albums Rebirth of a Nation with Paris (2006) Soundtrack albums He Got Game (1998) Awards and nominations Grammy Awards American Music Awards Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Public Enemy was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2013. References Bibliography Chuck D: Lyrics of a Rap Revolutionary, Off Da Books, 2007 Chuck D with Yusuf Jah, Fight the Power, Delacorte Press, 1997 Fuck You Heroes, Glen E. Friedman Photographs 1976–1991, Burning Flags Press, 1994, Serpick, Evan. "Public Enemy Look Back at 20 Years of 'By the Time I Get to Arizona'." Spin. Spin, November 10, 2011. Web. White, Miles. Race, Rap and the performance of Mascinity in American Popular Culture''. 2011. University of Illinois. Urbana. External links Videos African-American musical groups American hip hop groups Musical groups established in 1985 Def Jam Recordings artists East Coast hip hop groups Political music groups LGBT-related controversies in music Obscenity controversies in music Hardcore hip hop groups 1985 establishments in New York (state) Musical groups from Long Island Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian%20Christians

Palestinian Christians

Palestinian Christians () are Christian citizens of the State of Palestine. In the wider definition of Palestinian Christians, including the Palestinian refugees, diaspora and people with full or partial Palestinian Christian ancestry this can be applied to an estimated 500,000 people worldwide as of 2000. Palestinian Christians belong to one of a number of Christian denominations, including Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, Catholicism (Eastern and Western rites), Anglicanism, Lutheranism, other branches of Protestantism and others. Bernard Sabella of Bethlehem University estimates that 6% of the Palestinian population worldwide is Christian and that 56% of them live outside of historic Palestine. In both the local dialect of Palestinian Arabic and in Classical Arabic or Modern Standard Arabic, Christians are called Nasrani (the Arabic word Nazarene) or Masihi (a derivative of Arabic word Masih, meaning "Messiah"). Hebrew-speakers call them Notzri (also spelt Notsri), which means Nazarene (originated from Nazareth). , Palestinian Christians comprise approximately 1–2.5% of the population of the West Bank, and less than 1% in the Gaza Strip. According to official British Mandatory estimates, Palestine's Christian population in 1922 constituted 9.5% of the total Mandatory Palestine population (10.8% of the Palestinian Arab population), and 7.9% in 1946. A large number of Arab Christians fled or were expelled from the Jewish-controlled areas of Mandatory Palestine during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and a small number left during the period (1948–1967) of Jordanian control of the West Bank for economic reasons. From 1967, during the Israeli military rule, the Palestinian Christian population has increased while as a percentage of the population continued to decrease. There are also many Palestinian Christians who are descendants of Palestinian refugees from the post-1948 era who fled to Christian-majority countries and formed large diasporan Christian communities. Worldwide, there are nearly one million Palestinian Christians in these territories as well as in the Palestinian diaspora, comprising around 6–7% of the world's total Palestinian population. Palestinian Christians live primarily in Arab states surrounding historic Palestine and in the diaspora, particularly in Europe and the Americas. Demographics and denominations 1922 In the 1922 census of Palestine there were approximately 73,000 Christian Palestinians: 46% Orthodox, 40% Catholic (20% Roman Catholic, and 20% Eastern Catholic. The census recorded over 200 localities with a Christian population. The totals by denomination for all of Mandatory Palestine were: Greek Orthodox 33,369, Syriac Orthodox (Jacobite) 813, Latin Catholic 14,245, Greek Catholic (Melkite) 11,191, Syriac Catholic 323, Armenian Catholic 271, Maronite 2,382, Armenian Orthodox (Gregorian) 2,939, Coptic Church 297, Abyssinian Church 85, Church of England 4,553, Presbyterian Church 361, Protestants 826, Lutheran Church 437, Templars Community 724, others 208. Modern day In 2009, there were an estimated 50,000 Christians in the Palestinian territories, mostly in the West Bank, with about 3,000 in the Gaza Strip. Of the total Christian population of 154,000 in Israel, about 80% are designated as Arabs, many of whom self-identify as Palestinian. The majority (56%) of Palestinian Christians live in the Palestinian diaspora. Around 50% of Palestinian Christians belong to the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem, one of the 15 churches of Eastern Orthodoxy. This community has also been known as the Arab Orthodox Christians. There are also Maronites, Melkites, Jacobites, Chaldeans, Latin Catholics, Syriac Catholics, Orthodox Copts, Coptic Catholics, Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Catholics, Quakers (Society of Friends), Methodists, Presbyterians, Anglicans (Episcopal), Lutherans, Evangelicals, Pentecostals, Nazarene, Assemblies of God, Baptists and other Protestants; in addition to small groups of Jehovah's Witnesses, members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and others. The Patriarch Theophilos III is the leader of the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem since 2005. He replaced Irenaios (in office from 2001), who was deposed by the church synod after a term surrounded by controversy and scandal given that he sold Palestinian property to Israeli Orthodox Jews. The Israel government initially refused to recognize Theophilos's appointment but finally granted full recognition in December 2007, despite a legal challenge by his predecessor Irenaios. Archbishop Theodosios (Hanna) of Sebastia the highest ranking Palestinian clergyman in the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem. The Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem is the leader of the Latin Catholics in Jerusalem, Palestine, Jordan, Israel and Cyprus. The office has been held by Pierbattista Pizzaballa since his appointment by Pope Francis on 6 November 2020. George Bacouni, of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, is Archbishop of Akka, with jurisdiction over Haifa, Acre and the Galilee, and replaced Elias Chacour, a Palestinian refugee, in 2014. Moussa El-Hage, of the Maronite Church, is since 2012 simultaneously Archbishop of the Archeparchy of Haifa and the Holy Land and Patriarchal Exarch of Jerusalem and Palestine. The Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem is Suheil Dawani, who replaced Bishop Riah Abou Al Assal. Bishop Dr. Munib Younan is the president of the Lutheran World Federation and the Bishop of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan and the Holy Land (ELCJHL). History Background and early history The first Christian communities in Roman Judea were Aramaic speaking Messianic Jews and Latin and Greek-speaking Romans and Greeks, who were in part descendants from previous settlers of the regions, such as Syro-Phoenicians, Arameans, Greeks, Persians, and Arabs such as Nabataeans. Contrary to other groups of oriental Christians such as the largely Assyrian Nestorians, the vast majority of Palestinian Christians went under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate and Roman emperors after the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD (which would be part of the Eastern Orthodox Church after the Great Schism), and were known by other Syrian Christians as Melkites (followers of the king). The Melkites were heavily Hellenised in the following centuries, abandoning their distinct Western Aramaic languages in favour of Greek. By the 7th century, Jerusalem and Byzantine Palestine became the epicentre of Greek culture in the Orient. Soon after the Muslim conquests, the Melkites began abandoning Greek for Arabic, a process which made them the most Arabicised Christians in the Levant. Most Palestinian Christians nowadays see themselves as culturally and linguistically Arab Christians with ancestors dating back to the first followers of Christ. They claim descent from Romans, Ghassanid Arabs, Byzantines, and Crusaders. The region consisting mainly of modern Israel and the State of Palestine is considered to be the Holy Land by Christians. Major Christian holy cities such as Bethlehem, Nazareth and Jerusalem are located in Israel and the State of Palestine. That Christian Arabs in Palestine see themselves as Arab nationalistically reflects also the fact that, as of the beginning of the twentieth century, they shared many of the same customs as their Muslim neighbors. In some respects, this was a consequence of Christians adopting what were essentially Islamic practices, many of which were derived of sharî'ah. In others, it was more the case that the customs shared by both Muslims and Christians derived from neither faith, but rather were a result of a process of syncretization, whereby what had once been pagan practices were later redefined as Christian and subsequently adopted by Muslims. This was especially evident in the fact that Palestine's Muslims and Christians shared many of the same feast days, in honor of the same saints, even if they referred to them by different names. "Shrines dedicated to St. George, for instance, were transformed into shrines honoring Khidr-Ilyas, a conflation of the Prophet Elijah and the mythical sprite Khidr". Added to this, many Muslims viewed local Christian churches as saints' shrines. Thus, for instance, a "Muslim women having difficulties conceiving, for instance, might travel to Bethlehem to pray for a child before the Virgin Mary". It was even not uncommon for a Muslim to have his child baptized in a Christian church, in the name of Khaḍr. Modern history The category of 'Palestinian Arab Christian' came to assume a political dimension in the 19th century as international interest grew and foreign institutions were developed there. The urban elite began to undertake the construction of a modern multi-religious Arab civil society. When the British received from the League of Nations a mandate to administer Palestine after World War I, many British dignitaries in London were surprised to discover so many Christian leaders in the Palestinian Arab political movements. The British authorities in the Mandate of Palestine had difficulty understanding the commitment of the Palestinian Christians to Palestinian nationalism. Palestinian Christian owned Falastin was founded in 1911 in the then Arab-majority city of Jaffa. The newspaper is often described as one of the most influential newspapers in historic Palestine, and probably the nation's fiercest and most consistent critic of the Zionist movement. It helped shape Palestinian identity and nationalism and was shut down several times by the Ottoman and British authorities, most of the time due to complaints made by Zionists. The Nakba left the multi-denominational Christian Arab communities in disarray. They had little background in theology, their work being predominantly pastoral, and their immediate task was to assist the thousands of homeless refugees. But it also sowed the seeds for the development of a Liberation Theology among Palestinian Arab Christians. There was a differential policy of expulsion. More lenience was applied to the Christians of the Galilee where expulsion mostly affected Muslims: at Tarshiha, Me'eliya, Dayr al-Qassi, and Salaban, Christians were allowed to remain while Muslims were driven out. At Iqrit and Bir'im the IDF ordered Christians to evacuate for a brief spell, an order that was then confirmed as a permanent expulsion. Sometimes in a mixed Druze-Christian village like al-Rama, only the Christians were initially expelled towards Lebanon, but, thanks to the intervention of the local Druze, they were permitted to return. Important Christian figures were sometimes allowed to return, on condition they help Israel among their communities. Archbishop Hakim, with many hundreds of Christians, was allowed reentry on expressing a willingness to campaign against Communists in Israel and among his flock. After the war of 1948, the Christian population in the West Bank, under Jordanian control, dropped slightly, largely due to economic problems. This contrasts with the process occurring in Israel where Christians left en masse after 1948. Constituting 21% of Israel's Arab population in 1950, they now make up just 9% of that group. These trends accelerated after the 1967 war in the aftermath of Israel's takeover of the West Bank and Gaza. In Palestinian Authority (from 1994) Christians within the Palestinian Authority constituted around one in seventy-five residents. In 2009, Reuters reported that 47,000–50,000 Christians remained in the West Bank, with around 17,000 following the various Catholic traditions and most of the rest following the Orthodox church and other eastern denominations. Both Bethlehem and Nazareth, which were once overwhelmingly Christian, now have Muslim majorities. Today about three-quarters of all Bethlehem Christians live abroad, and more Jerusalem Christians live in Sydney, Australia than in Jerusalem. Christians now comprise 2.5 percent of the population of Jerusalem. Those remaining include a few born in the Old City when Christians there constituted a majority. In a 2007 letter from Congressman Henry Hyde to President George W. Bush, Hyde stated that "the Christian community is being crushed in the mill of the bitter Israeli-Palestinian conflict" and that expanding Jewish settlements in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, were "irreversibly damaging the dwindling Christian community". In November 2009, Berlanty Azzam, a Palestinian Christian student from Gaza, was expelled from Bethlehem and was not allowed to continue her studying. She had two months left for the completion of her degree. Berlanty Azzam said the Israeli military handcuffed her, blindfolded her, and left her waiting for hours at a checkpoint on her way back from a job interview in Ramallah. She described the incident as "frightening" and claimed Israeli official treated her like a criminal and denied her an education because she is a Palestinian Christian from Gaza. In July 2014, during operation Protective Edge an Israeli-Arab Christian demonstration was held in Haifa in a protest against Muslim extremism in the Middle East (concerning the rise of the Islamic State) and in support of Israel and the IDF. Christian Arabs are one of the most educated groups in Israel. Statistically, Christian Arabs in Israel have the highest rates of educational attainment among all religious communities, according to a data by Israel Central Bureau of Statistics in 2010, 63% of Israeli Christian Arabs have had college or postgraduate education, the highest of any religious and ethno-religious group. Despite the fact that Arab Christians only represent 2.1% of the total Israeli population, in 2014 they accounted for 17.0% of the country's university students, and for 14.4% of its college students. There are more Christians who have attained a bachelor's degree or higher academic degrees than the median Israeli population. Also Christian Arabs have one of the highest rates of success in the matriculation examinations, (73.9%) in 2017 both in comparison to the Muslims and the Druze and in comparison to all students in the Jewish education system as a group. Arab Christians were also the vanguard in terms of eligibility for higher education, and they have attained a bachelor's degree and academic degree more than the median Israeli population. Christians schools in Israel went on strike in 2015 at the beginning of the 2015 academic year in protest at budget cuts aimed at them. The strike affected 33,000 pupils, 40 percent of them Muslim. In 2013, Israel covered 65% of the budget of Palestinian Christian schools in Israel, a figure cut that year to 34%. Christians say they now received a third of what Jewish schools receive, with a shortfall of $53 million. The rate of students studying in the field of medicine was also higher among the Christian Arab students, compared with all the students from other sectors. The percentage of Arab Christian women who are higher education students is higher than other sectors. In September 2014, Israel's interior minister signed an order that the self-identified ''Aramean Christian'' minority in Israel could register as Arameans rather than Arabs. The order will affect about 200 families. Political and ecumenical issues The mayors of Ramallah, Birzeit, Bethlehem, Zababdeh, Jifna, Ein 'Arik, Aboud, Taybeh, Beit Jala and Beit Sahour are Christians. The Governor of Tubas, Marwan Tubassi, is a Christian. The former Palestinian representative to the United States, Afif Saffieh, is a Christian, as is the ambassador of the Palestinian Authority in France, Hind Khoury. The Palestinian women's football team has a majority of Muslim girls, but the captain, Honey Thaljieh, is a Christian from Bethlehem. Many of the Palestinian officials such as ministers, advisers, ambassadors, consulates, heads of missions, PLC, PNA, PLO, Fateh leaders and others are Christians. Some Christians were part of the affluent segments of Palestinian society that left the country during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. In West Jerusalem, over 50% of Christian Palestinians lost their homes to the Israelis, according to the historian Sami Hadawi. Christian converts from Islam Though numbering only a few hundred, there is a community of Christians who have converted from Islam. They are not centered in one particular city and mostly belong to various evangelical and charismatic communities. Due to the fact that official conversion from Islam to Christianity is illegal in accordance with Islamic sharia law in Palestine, these individuals tend to keep a low profile. Ecumenical Liberation Theology Center: Sabeel The Sabeel Ecumenical Liberation Theology Center is a Christian non-governmental organization based in Jerusalem; was founded in 1990 as an outgrowth of a conference regarding "Palestinian Liberation Theology." According to its web site, "Sabeel is an ecumenical grassroots liberation theology movement among Palestinian Christians. Inspired by the life and teaching of Jesus Christ, this liberation theology seeks to deepen the faith of Palestinian Christians, to promote unity among them toward social action. Sabeel strives to develop a spirituality based on love, justice, peace, nonviolence, liberation and reconciliation for the different national and faith communities. The word "Sabeel" is Arabic for 'the way' and also a 'channel' or 'spring' of life-giving water." Sabeel has been criticized for its belief that "Israel is solely culpable for the origin and continuation of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict," and for using "anti-Semitic deicide imagery against Israel, and of disparaging Judaism as 'tribal,' 'primitive,' and 'exclusionary,' in contrast to Christianity’s 'universalism' and 'inclusiveness.'" In addition, Daniel Fink, writing on behalf of NGO Monitor, shows that Sabeel leader Naim Ateek has described Zionism as a "step backward in the development of Judaism", and Zionists as "oppressors and war makers". "Kairos Palestine" document (2009) In December 2009, a number of prominent Palestinian Christian activists, both clergy and lay people, released the Kairos Palestine document, "A moment of truth." Among the authors of the document are Michel Sabbah, former Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, Archbishop Attalah Hanna, Father Jamal Khader, Rev. Mitri Raheb, Rev. Naim Ateek and Rifat Kassis who is the coordinator and chief spokesperson of the group. The document declares the Israeli occupation of Palestine a "sin against God" and against humanity. It calls on churches and Christians all over the world to consider it and adopt it and to call for the boycott of Israel. Section 7 calls for "the beginning of a system of economic sanctions and boycott to be applied against Israel." It states that isolation of Israel will cause pressure on Israel to abolish all of what it labels as "apartheid laws" that discriminate against Palestinians and non-Jews. Holy Land Christian Ecumenical Foundation The Holy Land Christian Ecumenical Foundation (HCEF) was founded in 1999 by an ecumenical group of American Christians to preserve the Christian presence in the Holy Land. HCEF stated goal is to attempt to continue the presence and well-being of Arab Christians in the Holy Land and to develop the bonds of solidarity between them and Christians elsewhere. HCEF offers material assistance to Palestinian Christians and to churches in the area. HCEF advocates for solidarity on the part of Western Christians with Christians in the Holy Land. Christians of Gaza There are around 1,300 Christians in the Gaza Strip and the number of Christians is steadily declining. Gaza's Christian community mostly lives within the city, especially in areas neighbouring the three main churches: Church of Saint Porphyrius, The Holy Family Catholic Parish in Zeitoun Street, and the Gaza Baptist Church, in addition to an Anglican chapel in the Al-Ahli Al-Arabi Arab Evangelical Hospital. Saint Porphyrius is an Orthodox Church that dates back to the 12th century. Gaza Baptist Church is the city's only Evangelical Church; it lies close to the Legislative Council (parliamentary building). Christians in Gaza freely practice their religion. They also may observe all the religious holidays in accordance with the Christian calendars followed by their churches. Those among them working as civil servants in the government and in the private sector are given an official holiday during the week, which some devote to communal prayer in churches. Christians are permitted to obtain any job, in addition to having their full rights and duties as their Muslim counterparts in accordance with the Palestinian Declaration of Independence, the regime, and all the systems prevailing over the territories. Moreover, seats have been allocated to Christian citizens in the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) in accordance with a quota system that allocates based on a significant Christian presence. A census revealed that 40 percent of the Christian community worked in the medical, educational, engineering and law sectors. Additionally, the churches in Gaza are renowned for the relief and educational services that they offer, and Muslim citizens participate in these services. Palestinian citizens as a whole benefit from these services. The Latin Patriarchate School, for example, offers relief in the form of medication and social and educational services. The school has been offering services for nearly 150 years. In 1974, the idea of establishing a new school was proposed by Father Jalil Awad, a former parish priest in Gaza who recognized the need to expand the Latin Patriarchate School and build a new complex. In 2011, the Holy family school had 1,250 students and the Roman Catholic primary school, which is an extension of the Latin Patriarchate School, continues to enroll a rising number of young students. The primary school was established approximately 20 years ago. Aside from education, other services are offered to Muslims and Christians alike with no discrimination. Services include women's groups, students' groups and youth groups, such as those offered at the Baptist Church on weekdays. As of 2013, only 113 out of 968 of these Christian schools students were in fact Christians. In October 2007, Rami Ayyad, the Baptist manager of The Teacher's Bookshop, the only Christian bookstore in the Gaza Strip, was murdered, following the firebombing of his bookstore and the receipt of death threats from Muslim extremists. Christian emigration In addition to neighboring countries, such as Lebanon and Jordan, many Palestinian Christians emigrated to countries in Latin America (notably Argentina and Chile), as well as to Australia, the United States and Canada. The Palestinian Authority is unable to keep exact tallies. The share of Christians in the population has also decreased due to the fact that Muslim Palestinians generally have much higher birth rates than the Christians. The causes of this Christian exodus are hotly debated, with various possibilities put forth. Many of the Palestinian Christians in the diaspora are those who fled or were expelled during the 1948 war and their descendants. After discussion between Yosef Weitz and Moshe Sharett, Ben-Gurion authorized a project for the transference of the Christian communities of the Galilee to Argentina, but the proposal failed in the face of Christian opposition. Reuters has reported that the emigrants since then have left in pursuit of better living standards. The BBC has also blamed the economic decline in the Palestinian Authority as well as pressure from the Israeli-Palestinian conflict for the exodus. A report on Bethlehem residents stated both Christians and Muslims wished to leave but the Christians possessed better contacts with people abroad and higher levels of education. The Vatican and the Catholic Church blamed the Israeli occupation and the conflict in the Holy Land for the Christian exodus from the Holy Land and the Middle East in general. The Jerusalem Post (an Israeli newspaper) has stated that the "shrinking of the Palestinian Christian community in the Holy Land came as a direct result of its middle-class standards" and that Muslim pressure has not played a major role according to Christian residents themselves. It reported that the Christians have a public image of elitism and of class privilege as well as of non-violence and of open personalities, which leaves them more vulnerable to criminals than Muslims. Hanna Siniora, a prominent Christian Palestinian human rights activist, has attributed harassment against Christians to "little groups" of "hoodlums" rather than to the Hamas and Fatah governments. In his last novel, the Palestinian Christian writer Emile Habibi has a character affirm that: "There is no difference between Christian and Muslim: we are all Palestinian in our predicament." According to a report in The Independent, thousands of Christian Palestinians "emigrated to Latin America in the 1920s, when Mandatory Palestine was hit by drought and a severe economic depression." Today, Chile houses the largest Palestinian Christian community in the world outside of the Levant. As many as 350,000 Palestinian Christians reside in Chile, most of whom came from Beit Jala, Bethlehem, and Beit Sahur. Also, El Salvador, Honduras, Brazil, Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela, and other Latin American countries have significant Palestinian Christian communities, some of whom immigrated almost a century ago during the time of Ottoman Palestine. During the 2008 Gaza War, Palestinian Christians in Chile demonstrated against the Israeli bombardment of Gaza. They were hoping to move the government into altering its relations with Israel. In a 2006 poll of Christians in Bethlehem by the Palestinian Centre for Research and Cultural Dialogue, 90% reported having Muslim friends, 73% agreed that the Palestinian Authority treats Christian heritage in the city with respect, and 78% attributed the ongoing exodus of Christians from Bethlehem to the Israeli occupation and travel restrictions on the area. Daniel Rossing, the Israeli Ministry of Religious Affairs' chief liaison to Christians in the 1970s and 1980s, has stated that the situations for them in Gaza became much worse after the election of Hamas. He also stated that the Palestinian Authority, which counts on Christian westerners for financial support, treats the minority fairly. He blamed the Israeli West Bank barrier as the primary problem for the Christians. The United States State Department's 2006 report on religious freedom criticized both Israel for its restrictions on travel to Christian holy sites and the Palestinian Authority for its failure to stamp out anti-Christian crime. It also reported that the former gives preferential treatment in basic civic services to Jews and the latter does so to Muslims. The report stated that, generally, ordinary Muslim and Christian citizens enjoy good relations in contrast to the "strained" Jewish and Arab relations. A 2005 BBC report also described Muslim and Christian relations as "peaceful". The Arab Human Rights Association, an Arab NGO in Israel, has stated that Israeli authorities have denied Palestinian Christians in Israel access to holy places, prevented repairs needed to preserve historic holy sites, and carried out physical attacks on religious leaders. Multiple factors, the internal dislocation of Palestinians in wars; the creation of three contiguous refugee camps for those displaced; emigration of Muslims from Hebron; hindrances to development under Israeli military occupation with its land confiscations, and a lax and corrupt judicial system under the PNA that is often incapable of enforcing laws, have all contributed to Christian emigration, which has been a tradition since the British Mandate period. This has been contested, as the main cause of Christian emigration from Bethlehem, Kairos Palestine—an independent coalition Christian organisation, set up to help communicate to the Christian world what is happening in Palestine—sent a letter to The Wall Street Journal to explain that "In the case of Bethlehem, for instance, it is in fact the rampant construction of Israeli settlements, the chokehold imposed by the separation wall and the Israeli government's confiscation of Palestinian land that has driven many Christians to leave," the unprinted letter, quoted in Haaretz, states. "At present, a mere 13 percent of Bethlehem-area land is left to its Palestinian inhabitants". Persecutions There have been reports of attacks on Palestinian Christians in Gaza from Muslim extremist groups. Gaza Pastor Manuel Musallam has voiced doubts that those attacks were religiously motivated. The Palestinian President, Prime Minister, Hamas and many other political and religious leaders condemned such attacks. Fr Pierbattista Pizzaballa, the Custodian of the Holy Land, a senior Catholic spokesman, has stated that police inaction and an educational culture that encourages Jewish children to treat Christians with "contempt" has made life increasingly "intolerable" for many Christians. Fr Pizzaballa's statement came after pro-settler extremists attacked a Trappist monastery in the town of Latroun, setting fire to its door, and covering walls with anti-Christian graffiti. The incident followed a series of acts of arson and vandalism, in 2012, targeting places of Christian worship, including Jerusalem's 11th century Monastery of the Cross, where slogans such as "Death to Christians" and other offensive graffiti were daubed on its walls. According to an article in the Telegraph, Christian leaders feel that the most important issue that Israel has failed to address is the practice of some ultra-Orthodox Jewish schools to teach children that it is a religious obligation to abuse anyone in Holy Orders they encounter in public, such that Ultra-Orthodox Jews, including children as young as eight, spit at members of the clergy on a daily basis. After Pope Benedict XVI's comments on Islam in September 2006, five churches not affiliated with either Catholicism or the Pope—among them an Anglican and an Orthodox church—were firebombed and shot at in the West Bank and Gaza. A Muslim extremist group called "Lions of Monotheism" claimed responsibility. Former Palestinian Prime Minister and current Hamas leader Ismail Haniya condemned the attacks, and police presence was elevated in Bethlehem, which has a sizable Christian community. Armenians in Jerusalem, identified as Palestinian Christians or Israeli-Armenians, have also been attacked and received threats from Jewish extremists; Christians and clergy have been spat at, and one Armenian Archbishop was beaten and his centuries old cross broken. In September 2009, two Armenian Christian clergy were expelled after a brawl erupted with a Jewish extremist for spitting on holy Christian objects. In February 2009, a group of Christian activists within the West Bank wrote an open letter asking Pope Benedict XVI to postpone his scheduled trip to Israel unless the government changed its treatment. They highlighted improved access to places of worship and ending the taxation of church properties as key concerns. The Pope began his five-day visit to Israel and the Palestinian Authority on Sunday, 10 May, planning to express support for the region's Christians. In response to Palestinian public statements, Israeli Foreign Ministry spokesman Yigal Palmor criticized the political polarization of the papal visit, remarking that "[i]t will serve the cause of peace much better if this visit is taken for what it is, a pilgrimage, a visit for the cause of peace and unity". Bethlehem Christian families are the largest landowners in Bethlehem and have often been subject to theft of property. Bethlehem's core of traditional Christian and Muslim families speak of the rise of a 'foreign', more conservative, Islamic Hebronite class as changing the traditional regional identity of the town, as are the villages dominated by the Ta'amre Bedouin clans close to Bethlehem. Rising Muslim land purchase, said at times to be Saudi-financed, and incidents of land theft with forged documents, except in Beit Sahour where Christian and Muslims share a strong sense of local identity, are seen by Christians as making their demographic presence vulnerable. Christians are often described as of Yamani descent (as are some Muslim clans), vs the al-Qaysi Muslim clans, respectively from southern and northern Arabia. Christians are wary of the international media and of discussing these issues publicly, which involve criticism of fellow Palestinians, since there is a risk that their remarks may be manipulated by outsiders to undermine Palestinian claims to nationhood, distract attention from the crippling impact of Israel's occupation, and conjure up an image of a Muslim drive to oust Christians from Bethlehem. The Christian Broadcasting Network (an American Protestant organization) claimed that Palestinian Christians suffer systematic discrimination and persecution at the hands of the predominantly Muslim population and Palestinian government aimed at driving their population out of their homeland. However, Palestinian Christians in Bethlehem and Beit Jala have claimed otherwise that it is the loss of agricultural land and expropriation from the Israeli military, the persecution of 1948 and violence from the military occupation that has led to a flight and major exodus of Christians. On 26 September 2015, the Mar Charbel monastery in Bethlehem was set on fire, resulting in the burning of many rooms and damaging various parts of the building. In September 2016, the Jerusalem-based Center for Jewish–Christian Understanding and Cooperation (CJCUC) established "Blessing Bethlehem", a charity fundraising initiative with the purpose of helping the persecuted Christians living in the city of Bethlehem and its surrounding areas. Notable Palestinian Christians Canonized Saint Marie-Alphonsine Danil Ghattas – founder of the Congregation of the Rosary Sisters, the only Arab religious order in the Holy Land to date Monks Cosmas of Maiuma Dorotheus of Gaza Theodore of the Jordan Sabbas the Sanctified Theophanes the Branded Zosimas of Palestine Clergymen Munib Younan – president of the Lutheran World Federation since 2010 and the Bishop of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Jerusalem, Palestine, Jordan and the Holy Land since 1998 Archbishop Theodosios (Hanna) of Sebastia – Bishop of the Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem Michel Sabbah – former Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem (Roman Catholic) Fouad Twal – former Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem (Roman Catholic) Naim Ateek – leader of Sabeel Christian Ecumenical Foundation Mitri Raheb – pastor of the Evangelical Lutheran Christmas Church in Bethlehem Suheil Salman Ibrahim Dawani – the current Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem Elias Chacour – Archbishop of Akko, Haifa, Nazareth and Galilee of the Melkite Eastern Catholic Church Riah Hanna Abu El-Assal – former Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem Anis Shorrosh – Palestinian Evangelical Protestant pastor Benny Hinn – Protestant televangelist Patriarch Theophilos III of Jerusalem – current Orthodox patriarch of Jerusalem Manuel Musallam - retired Roman Catholic priest, who was pastor in Gaza from 1995 to 2009. Boutros Mouallem – retired Melkite Eastern Catholic Church archbishop of Acre, Haifa and the Galilee Samir Kafity – prominent former Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem Salim Munayer – founder of Musalaha, a non-profit organization that works towards reconciliation between Israelis and Palestinians based on the Biblical principles of peace, works mainly among Palestinian Evangelical Protestants and Messianic Jews Patriarch Diodoros of Jerusalem – late Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem Patriarch Irenaios – former Orthodox patriarch of Jerusalem Torkom Manoogian – current Patriarch of the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem Faik Haddad – prominent former Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem. Palestinian Roman Catholics :Category:Palestinian Roman Catholics Politicians John H. Sununu – Governor of New Hampshire (1983–1989) and White House Chief of Staff to President George H.W. Bush (1989–1991) Joe Hockey – Treasurer of Australia (2013–2015), Member of Parliament for North Sydney (1996–2015), Ambassador of Australia to the United States (2016-Current) Raymonda Tawil – poet, political activist, journalist, writer and the mother-in-law of the late Palestinian President Yasser Arafat Antonio Saca – President of El Salvador from 2004 to 2009 Justin Amash – U.S. Representative for Michigan's 3rd congressional district which encompasses the Grand Rapids area, and a member of the Republican Party (later Libertarian Party) Vera Baboun – first female mayor of Bethlehem Azmi Bishara – Arab-Israeli politician Janet Mikhail – former mayor of Ramallah Karim Khalaf – attorney and politician who served as the Mayor of Ramallah, but was removed from office in 1982 by Israel Victor Batarseh – former mayor of Bethlehem Elias Bandak – former mayor of Bethlehem Hanna Nasser – former mayor of Bethlehem Elias Freij – former mayor of Bethlehem Emil Habibi – politician born in Mandatory Palestine, leader of the Israel Communist Party and Member of the Israeli Knesset Ameer Makhoul – founder of the Haifa-based Ittijah (the Union of Arab Community-Based Associations, a network for Palestinian NGOs in Israel), who is currently jailed in Israel, after some claims for spying on behalf of Hezbollah. Amnesty International expressed concern that "his human rights activism on behalf of Palestinians" may be the reason for his imprisonment. George Habash – politician, founder of the PFLP and the Arab Nationalist Movement Nayif Hawatmeh – Palestinian politician, founder and General Secretary of the DFLP Dr. Hanan Ashrawi – politician, legislator, activist, and scholar. Currently, she is a leader of the Third Way party. She was previously notable as a spokesperson for Arafat. Afif Safieh – diplomat and was most recently the Palestinian ambassador to the Russian Federation Joudeh George Murqos – ex-Palestinian minister of tourism Ghazi Hanania – member of the Palestinian Legislative Council and Fatah Emil Ghuri – former Secretary of the Arab Higher Committee (AHC), the official leadership of the Arabs in the British Mandate of Palestine. He was also the general secretary of the Palestine Arab Party Hanna Nasser (academic) – academic, political figure and ex-president of Birzeit University Ghassan Andoni – a professor of physics at Birzeit University, co-founder of the International Solidarity Movement (ISM) and founder of the International Middle East Media Centre Daud Turki – poet and was the leader of the Jewish-Arab left-wing group called the Red Front Imil Jarjoui – former member of the Palestinian Legislative Council and the PLO executive committee Huwaida Arraf – rights activist and co-founder of the International Solidarity Movement (ISM) Michael Tarazi – lawyer and former adviser to the Palestine Liberation Organization Kamal Nasser – PLO political leader, writer and poet Layla Moran – first British MP of Palestinian descent Journalists Issa El-Issa – the founder of Filastin newspaper in Jaffa, Palestine 1909 Yousef El-Issa – Issa's cousin who also founded Filastin newspaper in 1909, he also established Alif Ba' newspaper in Damascus, Syria Raja El-Issa – Issa's son, who took manager position of the newspaper after his father's death, he was also the first chairman of the Jordan Press Association in Amman, Jordan in 1956 Daoud El-Issa – Issa's nephew who also had the manager position of the newspaper, established Al-Bilad newspaper in Jerusalem in 1956 and became a member of Jordan Press Association in 1976 Cultural figures Ashraf Barhom – Christian actor from Tarshiha, northern Israel. Edward Said – Palestinian literary theorist, cultural critic, political activist Rosemarie Said Zahlan – historian and writer George Antonius – founder of modern Arab nationalist history Khalil Beidas – scholar, educator, translator and novelist during the Al-Nahda cultural renaissance Khalil al-Sakakini – educator, scholar, poet, and Arab nationalist during the Al-Nahda cultural renaissance Tawfiq Canaan – physician, researcher of Palestinian popular heritage May Ziadeh – poet, essayist and translator during the Al-Nahda cultural renaissance Elia Suleiman – Palestinian film maker and actor Hanna Musleh – Palestinian film maker and university professor Raja Shehadeh – lawyer and writer Rifat Odeh Kassis – human rights activist George Saliba – Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at the Department of Middle Eastern, South Asian, and African Studies, Columbia University, New York, United States Rami George Khouri – journalist and editor Hisham Zreiq – award-winning independent film maker, poet and visual artist Ray Hanania – Palestinian-American journalist also known for his stand-up comedy Joseph Massad – Associate Professor of Modern Arab Politics and Intellectual History in the Department of Middle Eastern, South Asian, and African Studies at Columbia University Rim Banna – singer, composer, and arranger who is well known for her modern interpretations of traditional Palestinian folk songs Amal Murkus – singer Anton Shammas – essayist, writer of fiction and poetry and translator Fady Andraos – singer and actor Karl Sabbagh – Palestinian-British writer, journalist and television producer Suleiman Mansour – Prominent Palestinian painter Sabri Jiryis – writer and lawyer Leila Sansour – film director Makram Khoury – actor Clara Khoury – actress Kamal Boullata – artist & writer, Boulatta is the author of several studies on Palestinian art in particular, Palestinian Art (Saqi 2009) and Between Exits: Paintings by Hani Zurob (Black Dog 2012). Steve Sabella – artist Palestinian Christian militants Sirhan Sirhan – assassin of United States Senator Robert F. Kennedy Chris Bandak – Palestinian Christian militant and a leader of the Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades and the Tanzim, both armed wings of the Fatah movement, convicted and imprisoned in Israel until 2011. Wadie Haddad – Palestinian leader of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine's armed wing. He was responsible for organizing several civilian airplane hijackings in support of the Palestinian cause in the 1960s and 1970s. George Habash – founded the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. Palestinian businesspeople Yousef Beidas – founder of Intra Bank Hind Khoury – Palestinian Delegate-General to France Hasib Sabbagh – entrepreneur and businessman Zahi Khouri – Palestinian-American businessman and entrepreneur Palestinian activists Sumaya Farhat Naser – peace activist Mubarak Awad – Palestinian-American psychologist and an advocate of nonviolent resistance Ahed Tamimi, Palestinian rights activist Alex Odeh – Palestinian-American anti-discrimination activist Khalil Jahshan – lecturer in International Studies and Languages at Pepperdine University and executive director of its Seaver College Washington DC Internship Program Salim Joubran – Justice on the Israeli Supreme Court Mira Awad – singer, actress and songwriter Dr. Wadie Haddad – member and the leader of the national resistance wing of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), who was allegedly killed by Israel Hanna Siniora – publisher and human rights activist Other Sami Aldeeb – Palestinian-Swiss lawyer and author of many books and articles on Arab and Islamic law born to a Palestinian Christian family; left Christianity and became a nontheist. Roberto Bishara – Palestinian football defender Ibrahim Hazboun – Palestinian astrologer Michel Shehadeh – Palestinian-American, member of the Los Angeles 8 See also Arab Christians Arab citizens of Israel: Christians Christianity in Israel Demographic history of Palestine (region) References Further reading Morris, Benny, 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War, (2009) Yale University Press. Reiter, Yitzhak, National Minority, Regional Majority: Palestinian Arabs Versus Jews in Israel (Syracuse Studies on Peace and Conflict Resolution)'', (2009) Syracuse Univ Press (Sd). External links Palestinian Christians in the Holy Land and the Diaspora. Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, 21 October 2014 Palestinian Christians in the Holy Land. Institute for Middle East Understanding, 17 December 2012 Christian Presence in Palestine and the Diaspora: Statistics, Challenges and Opportunities . Global Ministries, 31 August 2012 Middle East Christians: Gaza pastor (Interview with Hanna Massad). BBC News. Published 21 December 2005. at Al Jazeera English at Al Jazeera English Bethlehem University "What is it like to be a Palestinian Christian?" at Beliefnet.com Religion in the news – Israelis and Palestinians Hard Time in the House of Bread Al-Bushra (an Arab-American Catholic perspective) Palestinian Christians: Challenges and Hopes by Bernard Sabella Salt of the Earth: Palestinian Christians in the Northern West Bank, a documentary film series Arab Christians in Israel threaten to close their churches. MEMO, 28 September 2015 Palestine

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rammstein

Rammstein

Rammstein (, "ramming stone") is a German Neue Deutsche Härte band formed in Berlin in 1994. The band's lineup—consisting of lead vocalist Till Lindemann, lead guitarist Richard Kruspe, rhythm guitarist Paul Landers, bassist Oliver Riedel, drummer Christoph Schneider, and keyboardist Christian "Flake" Lorenz—has remained unchanged throughout their history, along with their approach to songwriting, which consists of Lindemann writing and singing the lyrics over instrumental pieces the rest of the band have completed beforehand. Prior to their formation, some members were associated with the punk rock acts Feeling B and First Arsch. After winning a local contest, Rammstein were able to record demos and send them to different record labels, eventually signing with Motor Music. Working with producer Jacob Hellner, they released their debut album Herzeleid in 1995. Though the album initially sold poorly, the band gained popularity through their live performances and the album eventually reached No. 6 in Germany. Their second album, Sehnsucht, was released in 1997 and debuted at No. 1 in Germany, resulting in a worldwide tour lasting nearly four years and spawning the successful singles "Engel" and "Du hast" and the live album Live aus Berlin (1999). Following the tour, Rammstein signed with major label Universal Music and released Mutter in 2001. Six singles were released from the album, all charting in countries throughout Europe. The lead single, "Sonne", reached No. 2 in Germany. Rammstein released Reise, Reise in 2004 and had two more singles reach No. 2 in Germany: "Mein Teil" and "Amerika"; the former song reached No. 1 in Spain, becoming their first No. 1 single. Their fifth album, Rosenrot, was released in 2005, and the lead single, "Benzin", reached No. 6 in Germany. Their second live album, Völkerball, was released in 2006. The band released their sixth album, Liebe ist für alle da, in 2009, with its lead single, "Pussy", becoming their first No. 1 hit in Germany despite having a controversial music video that featured hardcore pornography. The band then entered a recording hiatus and toured for several years, releasing the Made in Germany greatest hits album as well as the Rammstein in Amerika and Paris live albums. After a decade without new music, Rammstein returned in 2019 with the song "Deutschland", which became their second No. 1 hit in Germany. Their untitled seventh studio album was released in May 2019 and reached No. 1 in 14 countries. Rammstein were one of the first bands to emerge within the Neue Deutsche Härte genre, with their debut album leading the music press to coin the term, and their style of music has generally had a positive reception from music critics. Commercially, the band have been very successful, earning many No. 1 albums as well as gold and platinum certifications in countries around the world. Their grand live performances, which often feature pyrotechnics, have contributed to their popularity growth. Despite success, the band have been subject to some controversies, with their overall image having been criticized; for instance, the song "Ich tu dir weh" forced its parent album Liebe ist für alle da to be re-released in Germany with the song removed due to its sexually explicit lyrics. History Founding and Herzeleid (1989–1996) In 1989, East German guitarist Richard Kruspe escaped to West Berlin and started the band Orgasm Death Gimmick. At that time, he was heavily influenced by US music, especially that of rock group Kiss. After the Berlin Wall came down, he moved back home to Schwerin, where Till Lindemann worked as a basket-weaver and played drums in the band First Arsch (loosely translated as "First Arse" or "First Ass"). At this time, Kruspe lived with Oliver Riedel of the Inchtabokatables and Christoph Schneider of Die Firma. In 1992, Kruspe made his first trip to the United States with Till Lindemann and Oliver "Ollie" Riedel. He realized that he did not want to make US music and concentrated on creating a unique German sound. Kruspe, Riedel and Schneider started working together on a new project in 1993. Finding it difficult to write both music and lyrics, Kruspe persuaded Lindemann, whom he had overheard singing while he was working, to join the fledgling group. The band called themselves Rammstein-Flugschau (Rammstein Airshow) after the 1988 Ramstein air show disaster. Guitarist Paul Landers said the spelling of Ramstein with the extra "m" was a mistake. After the band became popular, the band members denied the connection to the air show disaster and said that their name was inspired by the giant doorstop-type devices found on old gates, called Rammsteine. The extra "m" in the band's name makes it translate literally as "ramming stone". In a 2019 feature, Metal Hammer explained that the band was named after one of their earliest songs, "Ramstein", written after the city. According to the band, people started to refer to them as "the band with the 'Ramstein song'" and later as the "Ramstein band". Rammstein co-existed with the members' previous projects for about a year and a half. Members would invest the money raised with Feeling B shows in Rammstein. They recorded their first songs in a building that had been squatted by Feeling B frontman Aljoscha Rompe. A contest was held in Berlin for amateur bands in 1994, the winner of which would receive access to a professional recording studio for a whole week. Kruspe, Riedel, Schneider, and Lindemann entered and won the contest with a 4-track demo tape with demo versions of songs from Herzeleid, written in English. This sparked Landers' attention, who wanted in on the project upon hearing their demo. To complete their sound, Rammstein attempted to recruit Christian "Flake" Lorenz, who had played with Landers in Feeling B. Though initially hesitant, Lorenz eventually agreed to join the band. Later, Rammstein were signed by Motor Music. Rammstein began to record their first studio album, Herzeleid, in March 1995 with producer Jacob Hellner. They released their first single "Du riechst so gut" that August and released the album in September. Later that year, they toured with Clawfinger in Warsaw and Prague. Rammstein headlined a 17-show tour of Germany in December, which helped boost the band's popularity and establish them as a credible live act. They went on several tours throughout early 1996, releasing their second single titled "Seemann" on 8 January. On 27 March 1996, Rammstein performed on MTV's Hanging Out in London, their first performance in the UK. Their first major boost in popularity outside Germany came when Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor chose two Rammstein songs, "Heirate mich" and "Rammstein", during his work as music director for the David Lynch 1997 film Lost Highway. The soundtrack for the film was released in the U.S. in late 1996 and later throughout Europe in April 1997. In the middle of 1996, they headlined one tour of their own in small, sold-out venues. Rammstein went on to tour through Germany, Austria, and Switzerland from September to October 1996, performing an anniversary concert on 27 September called "100 years of Rammstein". Guests to the concert included Moby, Bobo, and the Berlin Session Orchestra, while Berlin director Gert Hof was responsible for the light show. Sehnsucht and Live aus Berlin (1996–2000) Rammstein started recording Sehnsucht in November 1996 at the Temple Studios in Malta. The album was again produced by Jacob Hellner. "Engel", the first single from the album, was released on 1 April 1997 and reached gold status in Germany on 23 May. This prompted the release of a fan edition of the single, named Engel – Fan Edition. This contained two previously unreleased songs, "Feuerräder" and "Wilder Wein". Release of the second single from the album Sehnsucht was "Du hast", which hit the German single charts August 1997 at No. 5. Rammstein then continued touring in the summer while Sehnsucht was released on 22 August 1997. The album reached No. 1 in Germany after two weeks in the charts. Simultaneously, Herzeleid and both Sehnsucht singles ("Du hast" and "Engel") were in the Top 20 of the German charts. Rammstein continued to headline sold-out shows throughout Europe in September and October. On 5 December 1997, they embarked on their first tour of the United States as the opening act for KMFDM. In July 1998, the band released a cover of the song Stripped, originally released by Depeche Mode in early 1986; it was included on the tribute album For the Masses, the Rammstein version obtained moderate success in Germany and Austria. On 22–23 August 1998, Rammstein played to over 17,000 fans at the Wuhlheide in Berlin; the biggest show the band had played there up to that date. Supporting acts were Danzig, Nina Hagen, Joachim Witt and Alaska. The show was professionally filmed, intended to be released on their upcoming live DVD, Live aus Berlin. Rammstein embarked on a live tour with Korn, Ice Cube, Orgy and Limp Bizkit called the Family Values Tour in September through to late October 1998. Continuing their success in the US, Sehnsucht received Gold record status there on 2 November. The band was nominated at the MTV European Music Awards for Best Rock Act and performed "Du hast" live on 12 November that year. Rammstein had further success in 1999, starting off the year in February with a nomination for Best Metal Performance at the 41st-annual Grammy Awards. A year after it was filmed, the Live aus Berlin concert was released on CD on 30 August 1999, with a limited edition double CD also available. Two weeks after it was released, Live aus Berlin went to No. 2 in the German Album Charts. On 13 September and 26 November 1999, the video and DVD versions of the concert were released respectively. Further popularity ensued when "Du hast" was included in The Matrix: Music from the Motion Picture. Mutter (2000–2002) Rammstein's album Mutter was recorded in the south of France in May and June 2000, and mixed in Stockholm in October of that year. During December 2000, Rammstein released an MP3 version of "Links 2-3-4" as a teaser for their new album. 2001 was a busy year for Rammstein, as the band needed to finish off the Sehnsucht Tour ending in January and February with the band playing the Big Day Out festival in Australia and New Zealand and playing some concerts in Japan. January also heralded the shooting of the video for their upcoming single, "Sonne", recorded in Potsdam at Babelsberger Filmstudios from 13 to 15 January 2001. The video was released on 29 January 2001. The single for "Sonne" was released on 12 February 2001 in Europe, featuring an instrumental version of the song, two remixes by Clawfinger and the song "Adios" from the upcoming album. Mutter was released on 2 April 2001, sparking another Rammstein tour through Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. On 14 May, the second single from the album, "Links 2 3 4", was released, along with a video of the single on 18 May. After a tour throughout Europe in June, the band then toured the U.S., Canada and Mexico from June to August 2001. "Ich will", the third single from the album, was released on 10 September 2001 and a Tour edition of the Mutter album (the cover of which is red) was released, featuring alternative artwork and live versions of "Ich will", "Links 2 3 4", "Sonne" and "Spieluhr". From 8 to 12 January 2002, Rammstein traveled to Prague to participate in a minor scene for the film XXX. The band is seen in the opening scene, performing their song "Feuer frei!" in a concert. "Feuer frei!" was released across Europe as the first single from the XXX soundtrack on 14 October 2002. Rammstein released two remixes of the song. Furthermore, the single's track listing included "Du hast" and "Bück dich" cover versions by Battery. The video for the single was edited by Rob Cohen and contains part Rammstein performance at the beginning of the film and part snippets from the film itself. Reise, Reise, Rosenrot, and Völkerball (2003–2006) Rammstein recorded Reise, Reise (meaning "journey, journey", or as a command "travel, travel", but also an archaic Reveille) at the El Cortijo studio in southern Spain in November and December 2003; it was mixed at Toytown studio in Stockholm, Sweden in April and May 2004. The first single from the album was "Mein Teil", released on 26 July. The video was shot in the Arena, in the Treptow district of Berlin. Outdoor shooting took place at the Deutsche Oper (Opera House) U-Bahn station on Bismarckstrasse. The director was Zoran Bihac, who also filmed the "Links 2 3 4" video. The video for the second single, "Amerika", was filmed on 6 and 7 August 2004 in the ruins of the former cement works in Rüdersdorf, near Berlin, under the direction of Jörn Heitmann (who also directed the "Ich Will" music video, among others). The space suits for the moon scenes were borrowed from Hollywood and 240 tons of ash were needed to create the moon landscape. The video premiered on 20 August, while the single was released on 13 September. Reise, Reise was released on 27 September 2004 and went straight into top 10 charts throughout Europe. According to the Billboard charts, Rammstein were at that stage the most successful German-language band of all time. Rammstein toured Germany through November and some of December 2004, releasing the single "Ohne dich" on 22 November. In February 2005, Rammstein toured Europe again. By 28 February, Rammstein had played 21 concerts in front of more than 200,000 spectators in ten countries. It was on this tour that the band was faced with several lawsuits resulting from severe fire breathing accidents involving audience members. "Keine Lust" the fourth single from Reise, Reise, was released on 28 February 2005. From 27 May to 30 July 2005, Rammstein played music festivals across Europe. Footage from these concerts can be seen on Rammstein's live DVD Völkerball, released in November 2006. In August 2005, Rammstein revealed that the follow-up album to Reise, Reise would be called Rosenrot. Their first single from the album, "Benzin", was released on 5 October, with its video premiere on 16 September. Rosenrot was released worldwide on 28 October. Directly following the release, the album continued the success of its predecessor, Reise, Reise, placing on top 10 charts in 20 countries. 16 December 2005 marked the release of the title track on Rosenrot. The video for "Mann gegen Mann" was released on 6 February 2006, with the single being released on 3 March. On 19 February 2006, Rammstein had an asteroid named after them, 110393 Rammstein. On 17 November, the first Rammstein Live DVD since Live aus Berlin from 1998 was released. Völkerball shows concert performances by the band in England, France, Japan and Russia. The Special Edition is extended by a second DVD, which contains the documentaries "Anaconda in the net" by Mathilde Bonnefoy and the "Making of the album Reise, Reise" by the band's guitarist Paul Landers. The limited edition was released as a large black-and-white photo-book with photos by Frederic Batier, who had accompanied the band through their recent tours. The photo-book edition contains two DVDs and two live albums. Liebe ist für alle da (2007–2011) The band took a hiatus in 2006 and began work again in 2007. The recording process reportedly took two years. In July 2009, the title track "Liebe ist für alle da" leaked onto the internet, along with promotional materials. This led Universal Music to take action against certain fan sites. It was confirmed in August 2009 that the new album would have 11 tracks, and mixing of the album – which was taking place in Stockholm – had been completed. On 1 September 2009, it was confirmed on the band's website that "Pussy" would be the first single from the album. On the same day, The Gauntlet posted a promotional video for it. The video also confirmed the album title, Liebe ist für alle da. Later, the title was confirmed again in an interview with Paul Landers for RockOne magazine. 46,7 The music video for "Pussy" was released on 16 September 2009, at 20:30 GMT, released especially for the adult website Visit-x. The video contains graphic scenes of male and female nudity as well as women engaging in sexual acts with the band members, although the actual sex scenes were performed by body doubles. The women featured in the video are German pornographic stars. Metal Hammer released an edited version of the video onto their website. "Ich tu dir weh" was confirmed as the second single from the album by Landers and Lorenz in an interview for Radio Eins. Although censorship of the song in Germany prohibits any advertisement, broadcast or public display, the video to "Ich tu dir weh" was released on 21 December 2009 on the adult website Visit-x, just like the video to "Pussy", after advertisement on the band's official German website; it depicts the band on stage in a similar configuration as on their 2009/10 tour. Any references to the video on the official website have since been deleted. In Europe, the single was released on 15 January 2010, and in the U.S. on 19 January 2010. Like the video "Pussy," this video was also directed by Jonas Åkerlund. On 23 April 2010, Rammstein released their video "Haifisch". Unlike the video for "Ich tu dir weh", it contains more of a narrative rather than a performance. The single was released during May and June 2010. On 8 November 2009, Rammstein began the first leg of the Liebe ist für alle da Tour in Lisbon, Portugal. As part of their European summer tour, Rammstein performed at the 2010 Rock AM Ring Festival on 4–6 June 2010. They also headlined several shows across Europe on the Sonisphere Festival, including their first ever outdoor UK performance at Knebworth Park, performing the day before Iron Maiden. On Sunday 18 July 2010, Rammstein played in front of more than 130,000 people in Quebec City on the Plains of Abraham as the closing show for the Festival d'été de Québec. It was their first North American appearance in nine years. The band announced that their last tour dates of 2010 were to be in the Americas. After several South American dates, the band returned to the United States for a single show at the famous Madison Square Garden in New York City – their first US show in over ten years. The tickets sold out in a very short time (under 20 minutes). They also performed at Bell Centre in Montreal, Canada on 9 December. This concert sold out within the first hour of tickets going on sale, indicating a high demand to see Rammstein in North America. The band then played at Big Day Out 2011 from 21 January to 6 February in New Zealand and Australia. The band also visited South Africa for the first time in early 2011 and played two sold-out concerts in Cape Town and Johannesburg respectively, indicating another territory eager for the opportunity to enjoy the band live. On 16 February 2011, Rammstein announced that, after the massive success of their sold out Madison Square Garden show on 11 December 2010, they would be touring North America after ten years. Rammstein played in New Jersey (East Rutherford) Izod Center, Montreal Bell Centre, Toronto Air Canada Centre, Chicago Allstate Arena, Edmonton Rexall Place, Seattle Tacoma Dome, San Francisco (Oakland) Oracle Arena, Los Angeles The Forum, and Las Vegas Thomas and Mack Center, Mexico City's Palacio de los Deportes, Guadalajara's Arena VFG, and Monterrey's Auditorio Banamex to a total of six US dates, three Canadian dates, and four Mexican dates. Tickets went on sale 25 and 26 February to great response, with many shows completely selling out, making this tour a complete success. On 20 April 2011, the band also won the Revolver Golden God Award for Best Live Band, their first US award. Made in Germany, video releases, and side projects (2011–2017) Rammstein released a greatest hits album titled Made in Germany 1995–2011 on 2 December 2011. It contains one previously unreleased track, "Mein Land" which was released as a single on 11 November 2011 with another track, "Vergiss uns nicht", that was released at a later date. The compilation is available in three different editions: The standard edition; this includes a CD with normal songs from their back catalog. Special edition; has the same CD from the standard edition and an extra CD with Rammstein songs that have been remixed by different artists such as Scooter. Finally, the super deluxe edition; has the two previously mentioned CDs and three DVDs with interviews and the making of videos from different music videos. The video for the song "Mein Land" was filmed on 23 May 2011 at Sycamore Beach in Malibu, California. It premiered on the band's official website on 11 November 2011. A full European tour in support of Made in Germany began in November 2011 and spanned all the way to May 2012. It included a North American tour that began on 20 April 2012 in Sunrise, Florida and ended on 25 May 2012 in Houston, Texas that visited 21 cities throughout the US and Canada. The Swedish industrial band Deathstars supported the band during the first two legs of the European tour. DJ Joe Letz from Combichrist and Emigrate was the opening act for the North American Tour. Rammstein, minus Till Lindemann, performed "The Beautiful People" with Marilyn Manson at the Echo Awards on 22 March 2012. On 21 September 2012, it was announced that Rammstein would be headlining Download Festival 2013, along with Iron Maiden and Slipknot. Twelve additional festival performances for summer 2013 were announced the same day, including Wacken Open Air festival and Rock Werchter. Rammstein announced new tour dates starting for spring 2013 in Europe, including a 2-day return to Kindl-Bühne Wuhlheide, the location of their first (official) live DVD, Live Aus Berlin. On 22 November 2012, Rammstein announced via Facebook that they will be releasing a video collection featuring all music videos entitled Videos 1995–2012, plus two unreleased music videos for "Mein Herz Brennt", originally featured on the album Mutter. The first video premiered on the band's Vimeo, while the second premiered on a promotional website. Both videos were directed by Zoran Bihac. The first was released on 7 December 2012, and featured the newly recorded piano version of "Mein Herz Brennt". A single of the song was released on the same day, which included an edited version of the original and a new song titled 'Gib Mir Deine Augen' as a b-side. The explicit version's video leaked onto the internet on 11 December 2012 but was officially released on 14 December, in conjunction with the video collection DVD. In July 2013, guitarist Paul Landers revealed in an interview the possibility of a Rammstein documentary and a live DVD. He indicated that the band may "start thinking" about a new album in 2014. In September 2014, band co-founder Richard Kruspe (then working with his side band, Emigrate) said the band was preparing some more live DVDs and that they were taking some time off from the studio. The band would meet again in 2015 to decide if the time was right to return to the studio. In May 2015, Lindemann confirmed in an interview with MusikUniverse that Rammstein would start pre-production on a possible new album in September of that year, and that production would most likely go on until 2017. According to Peter Tägtgren – who works with frontman Till Lindemann on their side-project Lindemann – Till would be regrouping with his Rammstein bandmates later in 2015 to start pre-production on a new full-length album, which normally takes two years to be released. In early August 2015, Rammstein released a trailer for an upcoming project, titled "In Amerika". On 15 August, the band announced Rammstein in Amerika, a video release that includes a 2010 concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City and a documentary made from archived footage recorded during the band's career. Rammstein played several festivals in Europe and North America during 2016, and in November announced plans to perform at a similar string of European festivals in 2017. On 18 January 2017 Rammstein announced a new live video release titled Paris, a recording of a March 2012 concert that took place at Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy in Paris. It premiered on 23 March in selected cinemas, and was released worldwide on DVD/Blu-ray and CD on 19 May 2017. Untitled seventh album and upcoming eighth album (2017–present) In an interview in March 2017, Richard Kruspe said that Rammstein had about 35 new songs that were close to completion, though the release date of the band's seventh studio album was still an open question. In May, Rammstein started touring once again. Also in May, it was revealed that Sky van Hoff would be working with the band on their next album. On 18 June 2018, it was announced via StubHub's ticketing website that Rammstein would play songs at their Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, show from their forthcoming album, then set for release late in 2018. On 17 September 2018, the band announced through Facebook that they were "almost done" recording the album, as they were recording orchestra and choirs in Minsk. On 2 January 2019, guitarist Richard Kruspe announced that recording of the album wrapped in November 2018 and that the record would be released in April 2019, along with five music videos. Rammstein released the first single from their seventh album, "Deutschland", on 28 March 2019 and announced the release date of their untitled seventh studio album, 17 May 2019. Rammstein also revealed the album cover which consisted of a single, unlit match which fans say represents their love of fire and simplicity. On 26 April 2019, Rammstein released the second single from the new album, "Radio". Shortly after its release, the album reached No. 1 in fourteen different countries. On 28 May 2019, Rammstein released their third single and music video from the album, this time for "Ausländer". The band embarked on their Stadium Tour to support the album, beginning in May 2019. They were due to play shows in Europe and North America in 2020, but were forced to postpone them due to the COVID-19 pandemic impacting the two continents. The dates first were rescheduled for 2021 and, in March 2021, again rescheduled to 2022. During the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced the band to remain sheltered during a lockdown in Germany, the band returned to writing music, which Christoph Schneider confirmed in a German podcast. It was reported in September 2020 that they had returned to La Fabrique Studios in France, where they recorded their untitled seventh album, to record new music, potentially for a new album. On 25 September, the 25th anniversary of their debut album Herzeleid, they announced a remastered anniversary edition for the album, for release on 4 December. The release was made available both digitally and physically, as a CD housed in a digipak as well as a double heavyweight, colored vinyl. In February 2021, Flake Lorenz confirmed to Motor Music that the band had finished recording an eighth studio album. Lorenz stated that the recording sessions were unplanned and that the quarantine caused by the pandemic allowed for "less distraction" and "more time to think of new things". In October 2021, a song from the album was premiered on the International Space Station to French astronaut Thomas Pesquet. The following month, Richard Kruspe stated in an interview that Rammstein's eighth studio album would be released in the first half of 2022, prior to the slated resumption of their Stadium Tour that had been postponed to 2022. Despite this, composer Sven Helbig, who worked on the album, stated that the release could be delayed due to the 2021–2022 global supply chain crisis, which impacts the album's physical releases. Heraldo de Aragón reported in January 2022 that Rammstein had recorded a cover version of "Entre dos tierras" ("Between Two Lands") by Spanish rock band Héroes del Silencio for the album. Musical style and lyrics Rammstein's sound has primarily been described as Neue Deutsche Härte, industrial metal, hard rock, and gothic metal, while also being described as nu metal, alternative metal, symphonic metal, progressive metal, and "techno-metal". Rammstein's style has received positive feedback from critics. New Zealand's Southland Times (17 December 1999) suggested that Till Lindemann's "booming, sub-sonic voice" would send "the peasants fleeing into their barns and bolting their doors", while The New York Times (9 January 2005) commented that on the stage, "Mr. Lindemann gave off an air of such brute masculinity and barely contained violence that it seemed that he could have reached into the crowd, snatched up a fan, and bitten off his head". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic commented that "their blend of industrial noise, grinding metal guitars, and operatic vocals is staggeringly powerful". "We just push boundaries", said Till Lindemann in an interview with rock magazine Kerrang!, "We cannot help it if people don't like those boundaries being pushed". Nearly all of Rammstein's songs are in German. Educated in East Germany schools, the members were all taught Russian as a second language rather than English. In 2019, Flake commented: "I saw a lot of East German bands that sung in very bad English to people who didn't understand English – it was absolutely stupid. But if you really want to tell your emotions, you have to speak in your mother tongue." Songs they have recorded entirely or partly in English include: a cover of Depeche Mode's 1986 song "Stripped" and English renditions of "Engel", "Du hast", and "Amerika". The original version of "Amerika" as well as "Stirb nicht vor mir (Don't Die Before I Do)" and "Pussy" also contain some lyrics in English. The song "Moskau" ("Moscow") contains a chorus in Russian, and Till Lindemann has an unofficial song called "Schtiel" (cover of song "Штиль"("Shtil") by Russian popular heavy metal band "Aria") entirely in Russian. "Te quiero puta!" is entirely in Spanish, "Frühling in Paris" has a chorus in French, "Zeig dich" contains lyrics in Latin performed by a choir and "Ausländer" has lyrics in English, French, Spanish, Italian, and Russian. Oliver Riedel commented that "[the] German language suits heavy metal music. French might be the language of love, but German is the language of anger". In an interview with Ultimate Guitar, when asked whether Rammstein would ever create an original song entirely in English, Till Lindemann stated that 'Rammstein will never write a song in English, it's like asking Buddha to kill a pig'. The band's lyrics, as sung by Till Lindemann, are an essential element of their music, and shape the perception by fans and a wider public. Among other things that are seen as controversial, Rammstein also refers to classical German literature, e.g. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's famous poems Der Erlkönig (1778) and Das Heidenröslein (1771) for the songs "Dalai Lama" and "Rosenrot", respectively. Several of their songs are related to controversial and taboo subjects such as sadomasochism, homosexuality, intersexuality, incest, pedophilia, necrophilia, cannibalism, pyromania, religion and sexual violence. Also several of their songs are allegedly inspired by real-life events. These songs include "Rammstein" (Ramstein airshow disaster), "Mein Teil" (The Meiwes Case), "Wiener Blut" (Fritzl case) and "Donaukinder" (2000 Baia Mare cyanide spill). Their fourth album, Reise, Reise, is loosely inspired by the crash of Japan Airlines Flight 123. The band have also occasionally delved into politics with their lyrics. "Amerika" is a critic of the cultural and political imperialism of the United States all over the world. The lyrics of the song "Deutschland" contain the lines "Deutschland! / Meine Liebe / kann ich dir nicht geben" (Germany! / My love / [is what] I cannot give you), which conveys the band's inability to have unquestioned patriotic feelings. Live performances Since their early years, Rammstein are particularly known for their over-the-top live performances, making such extensive use of pyrotechnics that fans eventually coined the motto, "Other bands play, Rammstein burns!" (a play on Manowar's song "Kings of Metal", which states that "other bands play, Manowar kill"). Following an accident in Berlin on 27 September 1996, in which some burning decorative parts of the stage collapsed, the band started using professionals to handle the pyrotechnics. Lindemann subsequently qualified as a licensed pyrotechnician, and often spends entire songs engulfed in flames. He has suffered multiple burns on his ears, head, and arms. The band's stage costumes are also known for being outlandish. During the Reise, Reise Tour, they wore lederhosen, corsets, and military-inspired uniforms with German steel helmets; during the Mutter Tour, the group kept to the themes of the album artwork and descended onto the stage from a giant uterus while wearing diapers. During the Völkerball concert, among others, Lindemann changed costumes between songs and dressed accordingly for each. For example, for the song "Mein Teil", he was dressed as a blood-soaked chef; in "Reise, Reise", he dressed as a sailor. The rest of the band each wore their own preferred costume, but none quite as bizarre as Till's. The band's flair for costumes is evident in their music videos as well as their live shows. In the "Keine Lust" video, all members except Lorenz are dressed in fat suits. In the "Amerika" video, all members of the band wear astronaut costumes. Since the Mutter Tour in 2001, Rammstein have worked with stage designer Roy Bennett, who helped the band in developing the look of the stages. With the Ahoi Tour in 2004/2005, the band began using a two-level stage, with half the band playing the lower level and the other half on the upper level. At this tour, the upper level rose over 2 meters above the stage floor and had an oval entrance just beneath the drums. At both sides of the upper level, a special lift made it possible for the band members to access both stage levels. On the Liebe ist für alle da Tour in 2009, the new stage still had a two-level design. This time, however, the upper level only had about half the height as on the previous tour. Stage entrance was possible by a hydraulic ramp in the middle of the stage floor. At each end of the upper level, stairs were placed in order to gain access to both levels. This tour included not only the extensive use of pyrotechnics, but also a massive lighting show, such as the band's logo lit up as big lamps on four enormous collapsible towers, forming the industrial backdrop of the set and being capable of different lighting effects. During the arena shows of the Made in Germany 1995-2011 Tour, the stage was slightly altered with new set pieces such as a large industrial fan as well as new backdrops. The most noticeable addition was a long catwalk, connecting the main stage to a smaller stage in the middle of the audience. During the 2013 festival leg of the tour, the bridge and smaller stage were omitted. For the 2016 Festival Tour, the band kept the stage itself mostly unchanged, though had the entire lighting rig changed completely. According to Kruspe, the onstage antics are meant to get people's attention and have fun at the same time; Rammstein's motto, according to Schneider, is "do your own thing and overdo it". Kruspe said of the stage show in July 1999, "You have to understand that 99 per cent of the people don't understand the lyrics, so you have to come up with something to keep the drama in the show. We have to do something. We like to have a show; we like to play with fire. We do have a sense of humour. We do laugh about it; we have fun [...] but we're not Spinal Tap. We take the music and the lyrics seriously. It's a combination of humour, theatre, and our East German culture, you know?" Their antics have also garnered controversy. During the American Family Values Tour 1998, alongside acts such as rapper Ice Cube, Korn, and Limp Bizkit, the band was arrested for public indecency. In one of their more infamous moments, Lindemann engaged in simulated sodomy with Lorenz during their performance of "Bück dich" in Worcester, Massachusetts. They were subsequently arrested, fined $25 and spent one night in jail. Controversies Imagery The New York Times described Rammstein's music as a "powerful strain of brutally intense rock... bringing gale-force music and spectacular theatrics together". The members have not been shy about courting controversy and have periodically attracted condemnation from morality campaigners. Till and Flake's stage act earned them a night in jail in June 1999 after a liquid-ejecting dildo was used in a concert in Worcester, Massachusetts. Back home in Germany, the band faced repeated accusations of fascist sympathies because of the dark and sometimes militaristic imagery of their videos and concerts, including the use of excerpts from the film Olympia by Leni Riefenstahl in the video for their cover of Depeche Mode's song "Stripped". MTV Germany studied the lyrics, talked to the band and came away satisfied that Rammstein are apolitical; Peter Ruppert, then head of Music Programming at MTV Germany, stated that the band "aren't in any way connected with any right-wing activities". Their cover of their debut album Herzeleid, released in Germany in 1995, showed the band members bare-chested in a style that resembled Strength Through Joy in the eyes of some critics, who accused the band of trying to sell themselves as "poster boys for the Master Race". Rammstein have vehemently denied this and said they want nothing to do with politics or supremacy of any kind. Lorenz, annoyed by the claim, has remarked it is just a photo, and should be understood as such. Herzeleid has since been given a different cover in North America, depicting the band members' faces. The video of "Deutschland", released in 2019, sparked further controversy, as it portrays black German actress Ruby Commey appearing as Germania, which has been described as "a calculated affront to German nationalists". The video also portrays the band members both as Nazi concentration camp executioners and as Jewish prisoners, sparking the complaints of Holocaust survivors groups; however, others defended the video and the song lyrics, which have been interpreted as "express[ing] a love/hate relationship with Germany" Relation to violent events Rammstein were cited in relation to the Columbine High School massacre in 1999, when a photo of Eric Harris wearing a Rammstein T-shirt in the 11th grade was revealed. There was no evidence to correlate the band and the massacre. In response to the shooting, the band issued a statement: Coincidentally, on 10 September 2001, the single and video clip of Ich will ("I Want") was released which portrays the band as bank robbers who want to get a message across and receiving a Goldene Kamera (Golden Camera) award, a German version of the Emmy award, for their "actions". In the United States, the video clip was broadcast only late at night after the attacks of 11 September 2001, although many media officials and politicians requested the video to be pulled from broadcast completely. Following the conclusion of the Beslan school hostage crisis in Russia in September 2004, the Russian authorities claimed that the terrorists had "listened to German hard rock group Rammstein on personal stereos during the siege to keep themselves edgy and fired up". The claim has not been independently confirmed. Band members said this about the issue: Pekka-Eric Auvinen, the perpetrator of the Jokela school shooting in November 2007, also included Rammstein in one of his favorite bands. However, he noted that the music among other things was not to blame for his decisions. Elliot Rodger, the perpetrator of the Isla Vista killings in May 2014, was also a fan of Rammstein according to his YouTube records. On a lyric video of Mein Herz brennt, Rodger wrote: "[G]reat song to listen to while daydreaming about being a powerful ruler". Even though Rodger wrote in his manifesto that he wished to become a dictator and punish all the people who rejected him, there was no direct link found between the band's music and the killing spree. Santa Barbara police later confirmed that Rodger's main motivations were sexual and social rejection. The Trollhättan school attack perpetrator, Anton Lundin Pettersson, used a manipulated version of the band's logo that added Nazi Germany's eagle on his Facebook page. Videos In October 2004, the video for "Mein Teil" ("My part") caused considerable controversy in Germany when it was released. It takes a darkly comic view of the Armin Meiwes cannibalism case, showing a cross-dressed Schneider holding the other five band members on a leash and rolling around in mud. The controversy did nothing to stop the single rising to No. 2 in the German charts. Meiwes (who was convicted of manslaughter in 2004, then retried in 2006 and found guilty of murder) brought a lawsuit in January 2006 against the band for infringement of rights to the story. The band's own views of its image are sanguine; Landers has said: "We like being on the fringes of bad taste". Christian "Flake" Lorenz comments: "The controversy is fun, like stealing forbidden fruit. But it serves a purpose. We like audiences to grapple with our music, and people have become more receptive". The video for "Pussy" was released September 2009. It features hardcore pornographic scenes of nudity along with women engaging in sexual activity with body doubles of the band members. It is the third Rammstein video to include nudity. Placement on the Index On 5 November 2009, their sixth studio album Liebe ist für alle da was placed on the Index of the Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien or BPjM (Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young People), making it illegal in Germany to make the album accessible to minors or display it where it can be seen by people underage, effectively banning it from stores. According to the official statement of the BPjM, the depiction of lead guitarist Richard Kruspe holding a woman wearing only a mask over his knee and lifting his hand to strike her behind has given cause for offense, as well as the lyrics to "Ich tu dir weh" (meaning "I hurt you") which supposedly promoted dangerous BDSM techniques. Furthermore, the advisory board took into consideration the alleged promotion of unprotected sexual intercourse in the lyrics to "Pussy". The band, as well as several members of the German press, reacted with astonishment to the decision. Keyboardist Christian Lorenz expressed surprise at the advisory board's "parochial sense of art" and regretted their apparent inability to detect irony. On 16 November 2009, a stripped-down version of Liebe ist für alle da was released. As of 31 May 2010, the administrative court in Cologne had decided to suspend the inclusion into the Index (case 22 L 1899/09). The German department deleted the record from the Index on 1 June (Decision No. A 117/10). On 9 June, the band announced that the original version of the album was available in their shop and that the single "Ich tu dir weh" would soon be released in Germany. In October 2011, the album was judged not harmful to minors and deleted from the Index. In 2016, Rammstein filed a lawsuit against the German state claiming €66,000 in compensation for damages that had allegedly resulted from the indexing, chiefly the destruction or withholding of 85,000 copies of the album that the band says would have otherwise sold. Legal action In 2010, Rammstein settled out of court against Apocalyptica's former record label Sony Music Entertainment GmbH as the successor of the by now defunct affiliated label Gun Records for using Rammstein's label in marketing Apocalyptica's 2007 album Worlds Collide, which featured a track with singer Lindemann. Apocalyptica were seen on stage with Rammstein during the song "Mein Herz brennt" in February 2012 at Hartwall Arena, Helsinki, Finland. Political views The band wrote the song "Links 2-3-4" (Links being German for "left") as a riposte to early claims that the band were neo-Nazis, and to affirm that they reside on the left side of the political spectrum. In a 2011 interview with Rolling Stone, when asked about Nazi accusations, Lindemann stated "We come from the East and we have grown up as socialists. We used to be either punks or Goths – we hate Nazis! And then, such a far-fetched accusation. We are doing exactly the same thing today, but no one in America or in Mexico would even get the idea to come up with something like that. This only happens in Germany. Our reply to this animosity was, "Links 2-3-4", and with that, we had made it clear where we stand politically." Regarding the song, Kruspe said: My heart beats on the left, two, three, four'. It's simple. If you want to put us in a political category, we're on the left side, and that's the reason we made the song". The song's title refers to the refrain of the German Communist Party song Einheitsfrontlied, written by Bertholt Brecht: "Drum links, zwei, drei! Drum links, zwei, drei! / Wo dein Platz, Genosse ist! / Reih dich ein, in die Arbeitereinheitsfront / Weil du auch ein Arbeiter bist". (Then left, two, three! Then left, two, three! / Here's the place, Comrade, for you! / So fall in with the Workers' united front / For you are a worker too.) Another key lyric expressing the band's allegiance to the left paraphrases the titles of newspaper columns published side by side for several years in the German newspaper Bild: "Mein Herz schlägt links" ("My heart beats on the left") by The Left Party co-chair and former Social Democratic Party of Germany chair Oskar Lafontaine, and "Mein Herz schlägt auf dem rechten Fleck" ("My heart beats in the right place") by Peter Gauweiler of the conservative Christian Social Union. Lorenz stated that the song was created to show the band could write a harsh, evil, military-sounding song without being Nazis. The band also wrote the song "Amerika" as a critique of the worldwide cultural and political imperialism of the United States. In their book Envisioning Social Justice in Contemporary German Culture, Jill E. Twark and Axel Hildebrandt found that the song's text and most of its video's images point toward a critique of America's cultural imperialism, political propaganda, and self-assumed role as global police force. The song responds critically to the US invasion of Iraq in 2003. They also found that another song of theirs that is critical of the United States is "Mein Land", believing that it critiques American racism and nationalism. During the Eastern European leg of their Europe Stadium Tour, the band showed support for the LGBT community on several occasions. At a concert in Chorzów, Poland on 24 July 2019, drummer Christoph Schneider surfed the crowd in a rubber boat, holding a rainbow flag. At their concert in Moscow five days later, guitarists Kruspe and Landers kissed onstage, while they embraced each other during a concert in Saint Petersburg on 2 August. The band's support for gay rights was met with criticism from some Russian politicians. Vitaly Milonov, a member of the State Duma called the band "idiots" and said: "If they think it possible to behave in such a way, they should also consider it possible to keep this garbage away from us." Members Since forming in 1994, Rammstein have retained a constant line-up. Richard Kruspe had said in a Revolver Magazine interview that it is because of the band respecting each other's wishes to take a break, either for personal reasons or to focus on a side project. Members of the band have had side projects that they take part in during Rammstein's inactivity. Kruspe currently fronts the group Emigrate while Till Lindemann began his project Lindemann in 2015. Till Lindemann – lead vocals, harmonica Richard Kruspe – lead guitar, backing vocals Paul Landers – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Oliver Riedel – bass guitar Christoph Schneider – drums, percussion Christian "Flake" Lorenz – keyboards, samples, synthesizers, trumpet, programming Discography Studio albums Herzeleid (1995) Sehnsucht (1997) Mutter (2001) Reise, Reise (2004) Rosenrot (2005) Liebe ist für alle da (2009) Untitled album (2019) Tours Club Tour (1994–1995) Herzeleid Tour (1995–1997) Sehnsucht Tour (1997–2001) Family Values Tour 1998 (22 September 1998 – 31 October 1998) Mutter Tour (2001–2002) Pledge of Allegiance Tour (2001; in between the August–November dates of the Mutter Tour) Ahoi Tour (Reise, Reise Tour) (2004–2005) Liebe Ist Für Alle Da Tour (2009–2011) Made in Germany 1995–2011 Tour (2011–2013) Rammstein Tour 2016 (2016) Rammstein Festival Tour 2017 (2017) Rammstein Stadium Tour (2019 and 2022) Awards and honors Grammy Awards |- !scope="row"| 1999 | "Du hast" | rowspan="2"| Best Metal Performance | |- !scope="row"| 2006 | "Mein Teil" | |} Notes and references Notes References Further reading Barry Graves, Siegfried Schmidt-Joos, Bernward Halbscheffel: Das neue Rock-Lexikon. Bd 1. Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1998. Barry Graves, Siegfried Schmidt-Joos, Bernward Halbscheffel: Das neue Rock-Lexikon. Bd 2. Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1998. Rammstein: Rammstein – Liederbuch. Hal Leonard Corporation, London 1999. Wolf-Rüdiger Mühlmann: Letzte Ausfahrt – Germania. Ein Phänomen namens neue deutsche Härte. I.P. Verlag, Berlin 1999, Gert Hof: Rammstein. Die Gestalten Verlag, Berlin 2001, Matthias Matthies: Rammstein – Deutschlandtour 2001. Berlin 2002. Andreas Speit: Ästhetische Mobilmachung – Dark Wave, Neofolk und Industrial im Spannungsfeld rechter Ideologien., Unrast 2001. Michele Bettendorf: Ursprung Punkszene. Oder Rammstein hätte es im Westen nie gegeben. Books on Demand GmbH, 2002. Till Lindemann und Gert Hof: Messer. Eichborn, Frankfurt M 2002. Michael Fuchs-Gamböck und Thorsten Schatz: Spiel mit dem Feuer – Das inoffizielle Rammstein-Buch. Heel, Königswinter 2006. Frédéric Batier: Rammstein – Völkerball. 2006. External links 1994 establishments in Germany Echo (music award) winners German gothic metal musical groups German heavy metal musical groups German industrial metal musical groups German industrial music groups German Neue Deutsche Härte music groups Industrial metal musical groups Kerrang! Awards winners MTV Europe Music Award winners Musical groups established in 1994 Musical groups from Berlin Obscenity controversies in music Republic Records artists Slash Records artists World Music Awards winners

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September%207

September 7

Events Pre-1600 70 – A Roman army under Titus occupies and plunders Jerusalem. 878 – Louis the Stammerer is crowned as king of West Francia by Pope John VIII. 1159 – Pope Alexander III is chosen. 1191 – Third Crusade: Battle of Arsuf: Richard I of England defeats Saladin at Arsuf. 1228 – Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II lands in Acre, Israel, and starts the Sixth Crusade, which results in a peaceful restoration of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 1303 – Guillaume de Nogaret takes Pope Boniface VIII prisoner on behalf of Philip IV of France. 1571 – Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, is arrested for his role in the Ridolfi plot to assassinate Queen Elizabeth I of England and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots. 1601–1900 1620 – The town of Kokkola () was founded by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. 1630 – The city of Boston, Massachusetts is founded. 1652 – Around 15,000 Han farmers and militia rebel against Dutch rule on Taiwan. 1695 – Henry Every perpetrates one of the most profitable pirate raids in history with the capture of the Grand Mughal ship Ganj-i-Sawai. In response, Emperor Aurangzeb threatens to end all English trading in India. 1706 – War of the Spanish Succession: Siege of Turin ends, leading to the withdrawal of French forces from North Italy. 1764 – Election of Stanisław August Poniatowski as the last ruler of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. 1776 – According to American colonial reports, Ezra Lee makes the world's first submarine attack in the Turtle, attempting to attach a time bomb to the hull of HMS Eagle in New York Harbor (no British records of this attack exist). 1778 – American Revolutionary War: France invades Dominica in the British West Indies, before Britain is even aware of France's involvement in the war. 1812 – French invasion of Russia: The Battle of Borodino, the bloodiest battle of the Napoleonic Wars, is fought near Moscow and results in a French victory. 1818 – Carl III of Sweden–Norway is crowned king of Norway, in Trondheim. 1822 – Dom Pedro I declares Brazil independent from Portugal on the shores of the Ipiranga Brook in São Paulo. 1856 – The Saimaa Canal was inaugurated. 1857 – Mountain Meadows massacre: Mormon settlers slaughter most members of peaceful, emigrant wagon train. 1860 – Italian unification: Giuseppe Garibaldi enters Naples. 1863 – American Civil War: Union troops under Quincy A. Gillmore capture Fort Wagner in Morris Island after a 7-week siege. 1864 – American Civil War: Atlanta is evacuated on orders of Union General William Tecumseh Sherman. 1876 – In Northfield, Minnesota, Jesse James and the James–Younger Gang attempt to rob the town's bank but are driven off by armed citizens. 1901–present 1901 – The Boxer Rebellion in Qing dynasty (modern-day China) officially ends with the signing of the Boxer Protocol. 1906 – Alberto Santos-Dumont flies his 14-bis aircraft at Bagatelle, France successfully for the first time. 1907 – Cunard Line's sets sail on her maiden voyage from Liverpool, England, to New York City. 1909 – Eugène Lefebvre crashes a new French-built Wright biplane during a test flight at Juvisy, south of Paris, becoming the first aviator in the world to lose his life in a powered heavier-than-air craft. 1911 – French poet Guillaume Apollinaire is arrested and put in jail on suspicion of stealing the Mona Lisa from the Louvre museum. 1916 – US federal employees win the right to Workers' compensation by Federal Employers Liability Act (39 Stat. 742; 5 U.S.C. 751) 1920 – Two newly purchased Savoia flying boats crash in the Swiss Alps en route to Finland where they were to serve with the Finnish Air Force, killing both crews. 1921 – In Atlantic City, New Jersey, the first Miss America Pageant, a two-day event, is held. 1921 – The Legion of Mary, the largest apostolic organization of lay people in the Catholic Church, is founded in Dublin, Ireland. 1923 – The International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL) is formed. 1927 – The first fully electronic television system is achieved by Philo Farnsworth. 1929 – Steamer capsizes and sinks on Lake Näsijärvi near Tampere in Finland. One hundred thirty-six lives are lost. 1932 – The Battle of Boquerón, the first major battle of the Chaco War, commences. 1936 – The last thylacine, a carnivorous marsupial named Benjamin, dies alone in its cage at the Hobart Zoo in Tasmania. 1940 – Romania returns Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria under the Treaty of Craiova. 1940 – World War II: The German Luftwaffe begins the Blitz, bombing London and other British cities for over 50 consecutive nights. 1942 – World War II: Japanese marines are forced to withdraw during the Battle of Milne Bay. 1943 – A fire at the Gulf Hotel in Houston kills 55 people. 1943 – World War II: The German 17th Army begins its evacuation of the Kuban bridgehead (Taman Peninsula) in southern Russia and moves across the Strait of Kerch to the Crimea. 1945 – World War II: Japanese forces on Wake Island, which they had held since December 1941, surrender to U.S. Marines. 1945 – The Berlin Victory Parade of 1945 is held. 1953 – Nikita Khrushchev is elected first secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. 1963 – The Pro Football Hall of Fame opens in Canton, Ohio with 17 charter members. 1965 – During an Indo-Pakistani War, China announces that it will reinforce its troops on the Indian border. 1965 – Vietnam War: In a follow-up to August's Operation Starlite, United States Marines and South Vietnamese forces initiate Operation Piranha on the Batangan Peninsula. 1970 – Fighting begins between Arab guerrillas and government forces in Jordan. 1970 – Vietnam Television was established. 1977 – The Torrijos–Carter Treaties between Panama and the United States on the status of the Panama Canal are signed. The United States agrees to transfer control of the canal to Panama at the end of the 20th century. 1977 – The 300-metre-tall CKVR-DT transmission tower in Barrie, Ontario, Canada, is hit by a light aircraft in a fog, causing it to collapse. All aboard the aircraft are killed. 1978 – While walking across Waterloo Bridge in London, Bulgarian dissident Georgi Markov is assassinated by Bulgarian secret police agent Francesco Gullino by means of a ricin pellet fired from a specially-designed umbrella. 1979 – The Chrysler Corporation asks the United States government for US$1.5 billion to avoid bankruptcy. 1981 – British plantation company, Guthrie was taken over by the Malaysian government after successfully purchasing shares to become the major shareholder. This is famously called the 'Dawn Raid attack'. 1984 – An explosion on board a Maltese patrol boat disposing of illegal fireworks at sea off Gozo kills seven soldiers and policemen. 1986 – Desmond Tutu becomes the first black man to lead the Anglican Diocese of Cape Town. 1986 – Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet survives an assassination attempt by the FPMR; 5 of Pinochet's bodyguards are killed. 1988 – Abdul Ahad Mohmand, the first Afghan in space, returns to Earth after nine days on the Mir space station. 1996 – Rapper and actor Tupac Shakur is fatally shot in a drive-by shooting in Las Vegas, Nevada. He succumbs to his injuries six days later. 1997 – Maiden flight of the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor. 1999 – The 6.0 Athens earthquake affected the area with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), killing 143, injuring 800–1,600, and leaving 50,000 homeless. 2005 – Egypt holds its first-ever multi-party presidential election. 2008 – The United States government takes control of the two largest mortgage financing companies in the US, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. 2010 – A Chinese fishing trawler collided with two Japanese Coast Guard patrol boats in disputed waters near the Senkaku Islands. 2011 – A plane crash in Russia kills 43 people, including nearly the entire roster of the Lokomotiv Yaroslavl Kontinental Hockey League team. 2012 – Canada officially cuts diplomatic ties with Iran by closing its embassy in Tehran and orders the expulsion of Iranian diplomats from Ottawa, over nuclear plans and purported human rights abuses. 2017 – The 8.2 2017 Chiapas earthquake strikes southern Mexico, killing at least 60 people. 2017 – Equifax announce a cyber-crime identity theft event potentially impacting approximately 145 million U.S. consumers. 2019 – Ukrainian filmmaker Oleg Sentsov and 66 others are released in a prisoner exchange between Ukraine and Russia. 2021 – Bitcoin becomes legal tender in El Salvador. Births Pre-1600 923 – Suzaku, emperor of Japan (d. 952) 1395 – Reginald West, 6th Baron De La Warr, English politician (d. 1427) 1438 – Louis II, Landgrave of Lower Hesse (d. 1471) 1448 – Henry, Count of Württemberg-Montbéliard (1473–1482) (d. 1519) 1500 – Sebastian Newdigate, Carthusian monk and martyr (d. 1535) 1524 – Thomas Erastus, Swiss physician and theologian (d. 1583) 1533 – Elizabeth I of England (d. 1603) 1601–1900 1629 – Sir John Perceval, 1st Baronet, Irish nobleman (d. 1665) 1635 – Paul I, Prince Esterházy, Hungarian prince (d. 1713) 1641 – Tokugawa Ietsuna, Japanese shōgun (d. 1680) 1650 – Juan Manuel María de la Aurora, 8th duke of Escalona (d. 1725) 1683 – Maria Anna of Austria (d. 1754) 1694 – Johan Ludvig Holstein-Ledreborg, Danish Minister of State (d. 1763) 1705 – Matthäus Günther, German painter (d. 1788) 1707 – Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, French mathematician, cosmologist, and author (d. 1788) 1726 – François-André Danican Philidor, French chess player and composer (d. 1795) 1740 – Johan Tobias Sergel, Swedish sculptor and illustrator (d. 1814) 1777 – Heinrich Stölzel, German horn player and composer (d. 1844) 1791 – Giuseppe Gioachino Belli, Italian poet and author (d. 1863) 1795 – John William Polidori, English physician and author (d. 1821) 1801 – Sarel Cilliers, South African preacher and activist (d.1871) 1803 – William Knibb, English Baptist minister and Jamaican missionary (d.1845) 1807 – Henry Sewell, English lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1879) 1810 – Hermann Heinrich Gossen, Prussian economist and academic (d. 1858) 1813 – Emil Korytko, Polish activist and translator (d. 1839) 1815 – John McDouall Stuart, Scottish explorer and surveyor (d. 1866) 1818 – Thomas Talbot, American businessman and politician, 31st Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1886) 1819 – Thomas A. Hendricks, American lawyer and politician, 21st Vice President of the United States (d. 1885) 1829 – August Kekulé, German chemist and academic (d. 1896) 1831 – Alexandre Falguière, French sculptor and painter (d. 1900) 1836 – Henry Campbell-Bannerman, Scottish merchant and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1908) 1836 – August Toepler, German physicist and academic (d. 1912) 1842 – Johannes Zukertort, Polish-English chess player, linguist, and journalist (d. 1888) 1851 – Edward Asahel Birge, American zoologist and academic (d. 1950) 1855 – William Friese-Greene, English photographer, director, and cinematographer (d. 1921) 1860 – Grandma Moses, American painter (d. 1961) 1862 – Edgar Speyer, American-English financier and philanthropist (d. 1932) 1866 – Tristan Bernard, French author and playwright (d. 1947) 1867 – Albert Bassermann, German-Swiss actor (d. 1952) 1867 – J. P. Morgan Jr., American banker and philanthropist (d. 1943) 1869 – Ben Viljoen, South African general (d. 1917) 1870 – Aleksandr Kuprin, Russian pilot, explorer, and author (d. 1938) 1871 – George Hirst, English cricketer and coach (d. 1954) 1875 – Edward Francis Hutton, American businessman and financier, co-founded E. F. Hutton & Co. (d. 1962) 1876 – Francesco Buhagiar, Maltese politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Malta (d. 1934) 1876 – C. J. Dennis, Australian poet and author (d. 1938) 1883 – Theophrastos Sakellaridis, Greek composer and conductor (d. 1950) 1885 – Elinor Wylie, American author and poet (d. 1928) 1887 – Edith Sitwell, English poet and critic (d. 1964) 1892 – Eric Harrison, Australian soldier and politician, 27th Australian Minister for Defence (d. 1974) 1892 – Oscar O'Brien, Canadian priest, pianist, and composer (d. 1958) 1893 – Leslie Hore-Belisha, English politician, Secretary of State for War (d. 1957) 1894 – Vic Richardson, Australian cricketer, footballer, and sportscaster (d. 1969) 1894 – George Waggner, American actor, director, and producer (d. 1984) 1895 – Jacques Vaché, French author and poet (d. 1919) 1900 – Taylor Caldwell, English-American author (d. 1985) 1900 – Giuseppe Zangara, Italian-American assassin of Anton Cermak (d. 1933) 1901–present 1903 – Margaret Landon, American missionary and author (d. 1993) 1903 – Dorothy Marie Donnelly, American poet and author (d. 1994) 1904 – C. B. Colby, American author (d. 1977) 1907 – Ahmed Adnan Saygun, Turkish composer and musicologist (d. 1991) 1908 – Paul Brown, American football player and coach (d. 1991) 1908 – Michael E. DeBakey, American surgeon and educator (d. 2008) 1908 – Max Kaminsky, American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 1994) 1909 – Elia Kazan, Greek-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2003) 1911 – Todor Zhivkov, Bulgarian police officer and politician, Head of State of Bulgaria (d. 1998) 1912 – David Packard, American engineer and businessman, co-founded Hewlett-Packard (d. 1996) 1913 – Martin Charteris, Baron Charteris of Amisfield, English soldier and courtier (d. 1999) 1913 – Anthony Quayle, English actor (d. 1989) 1914 – Lída Baarová, Czech-Austrian actress (d. 2000) 1914 – Graeme Bell, Australian pianist and composer (d. 2012) 1914 – James Van Allen, American physicist and philosopher (d. 2006) 1915 – Pedro Reginaldo Lira, Argentinian bishop (d. 2012) 1915 – Kiyosi Itô, Japanese mathematician and academic (d. 2008) 1917 – Leonard Cheshire, English captain, pilot, and humanitarian (d. 1992) 1917 – John Cornforth, Australian-English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013) 1917 – Jacob Lawrence, American painter and educator (d. 2000) 1918 – Harold Amos, American microbiologist and academic (d. 2003) 1919 – Briek Schotte, Belgian cyclist and coach (d. 2004) 1920 – Harri Webb, Welsh journalist and poet (d. 1994) 1921 – Peter A. Peyser, American soldier and politician (d. 2014) 1922 – Lucien Jarraud, French-Canadian journalist and radio host (d. 2007) 1923 – Nancy Keesing, Australian author and poet (d. 1993) 1923 – Peter Lawford, English-American actor (d. 1984) 1923 – Louise Suggs, American golfer, co-founded LPGA (d. 2015) 1924 – Daniel Inouye, American captain and politician, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2012) 1924 – Leonard Rosenman, American composer and conductor (d. 2008) 1925 – Laura Ashley, Welsh-English fashion designer, founded Laura Ashley plc (d. 1985) 1925 – Allan Blakeney, Canadian lawyer and politician, 10th Premier of Saskatchewan (d. 2011) 1925 – Bhanumathi Ramakrishna, Indian actress, singer, director, and producer (d. 2005) 1926 – Samuel Goldwyn Jr., American director and producer (d. 2015) 1926 – Donald J. Irwin, American lawyer and politician, 32nd Mayor of Norwalk (d. 2013) 1926 – Patrick Jenkin, Baron Jenkin of Roding, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for the Environment (d. 2016) 1926 – Erich Juskowiak, German footballer (d. 1983) 1926 – Don Messick, American voice actor (d. 1997) 1927 – Eric Hill, English-American author and illustrator (d. 2014) 1927 – Claire L'Heureux-Dubé, Canadian lawyer and jurist 1928 – Kathleen Gorham, Australian ballerina (d. 1983) 1928 – Al McGuire, American basketball player, coach, and commentator (d. 2001) 1929 – Clyde Lovellette, American basketball player (d. 2016) 1930 – Baudouin of Belgium (d. 1993) 1930 – Sonny Rollins, American saxophonist and composer 1930 – S. Sivanayagam, Sri Lankan journalist and author (d. 2010) 1931 – Charles Camilleri, Maltese composer and conductor (d. 2009) 1932 – Malcolm Bradbury, English author and academic (d. 2000) 1932 – John Paul Getty Jr., American-English philanthropist and book collector (d. 2003) 1934 – Mary Bauermeister, German painter and illustrator 1934 – Waldo de los Ríos, Argentinian composer and conductor (d. 1977) 1934 – Sunil Gangopadhyay, Indian author and poet (d. 2012) 1934 – Omar Karami, Lebanese lawyer and politician, 58th Prime Minister of Lebanon (d. 2015) 1934 – Little Milton, American singer and guitarist (d. 2005) 1935 – Abdou Diouf, Senegalese lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Senegal 1935 – Dick O'Neal, American basketball player and dentist (d. 2013) 1936 – Brian Hart, English race car driver and engineer, founded Brian Hart Ltd. (d. 2014) 1936 – Buddy Holly, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1959) 1936 – Apostolos Kaklamanis, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Justice 1937 – John Phillip Law, American actor (d. 2008) 1937 – Oleg Lobov, Russian politician, Premier of the Russian SFSR (d. 2018) 1939 – Latimore, American singer-songwriter and pianist 1939 – Peter Gill, Welsh actor, director, and playwright 1940 – Dario Argento, Italian director, producer, and screenwriter 1940 – Abdurrahman Wahid, Indonesian journalist and politician, 4th President of Indonesia (d. 2009) 1942 – Billy Best, Scottish footballer 1942 – Alan Oakes, English footballer and manager 1942 – Andrew Stone, Baron Stone of Blackheath, English businessman and politician 1942 – Jonathan H. Turner, American sociologist 1943 – Beverley McLachlin, Canadian lawyer and jurist, 17th Chief Justice of Canada 1944 – Forrest Blue, American football player (d. 2011) 1944 – Bertel Haarder, Danish lawyer and politician, Education Minister of Denmark 1944 – Peter Larter, English rugby player 1944 – Earl Manigault, American basketball player and coach (d. 1998) 1944 – Bora Milutinović, Serbian footballer and manager 1944 – Houshang Moradi Kermani, Iranian author 1945 – Jacques Lemaire, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1945 – Vic Pollard, English-New Zealand rugby player and footballer 1945 – Curtis Price, American musicologist and academic 1945 – Peter Storey, English footballer 1946 – Willie Crawford, American baseball player (d. 2004) 1946 – Joe Klein, American journalist and author 1946 – Suzyn Waldman, American sportscaster 1947 – Sergio Della Pergola, Israeli demographer and statistician 1947 – Gloria Gaynor, American singer-songwriter 1948 – Susan Blakely, American actress 1949 – Dianne Hayter, German-English politician 1949 – Barry Siegel, American journalist and academic 1950 – David Cannadine, English historian and author 1950 – Johann Friedrich, German-Australian engineer (d. 1991) 1950 – Julie Kavner, American actress 1950 – Peggy Noonan, American author, journalist, speechwriter, and pundit 1951 – Chrissie Hynde, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1951 – Morris Albert, Brazilian singer-songwriter 1951 – Mark Isham, American trumpet player and composer 1951 – Mark McCumber, American golfer 1951 – Mammootty, Indian actor and producer 1952 – Ricardo Tormo, Spanish motorcycle racer (d. 1998) 1953 – Marc Hunter, New Zealand-Australian singer-songwriter (d. 1998) 1953 – Benmont Tench, American keyboardist and songwriter 1954 – Corbin Bernsen, American actor 1954 – Michael Emerson, American actor 1954 – Kerrie Holley, American software architect and academic 1955 – Mira Furlan, Croatian-American actress (d. 2021) 1956 – Michael Feinstein, American singer and pianist 1956 – Byron Stevenson, Welsh footballer (d. 2007) 1956 – Diane Warren, American songwriter 1957 – Jermaine Stewart, American singer-songwriter and dancer (d. 1997) 1960 – Brad Houser, American bass player 1961 – LeRoi Moore, American saxophonist and songwriter (d. 2008) 1961 – Jean-Yves Thibaudet, French pianist 1962 – Jennifer Egan, American novelist and short story writer 1962 – George South, American wrestler 1962 – Hasan Vezir, Turkish footballer and manager 1963 – Eazy-E, American rapper and producer (d. 1995) 1965 – Angela Gheorghiu, Romanian soprano 1965 – Darko Pančev, Macedonian footballer 1965 – Uta Pippig, German runner 1965 – Tomáš Skuhravý, Czech footballer 1965 – Andreas Thom, German footballer and manager 1966 – Vladimir Andreyev, Russian race walker 1966 – Lutz Heilmann, German politician 1966 – Toby Jones, English actor 1966 – Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann, German speed skater 1966 – Andrew Voss, Australian sportscaster and author 1967 – Alok Sharma, Indian-English accountant and politician 1968 – Marcel Desailly, Ghanaian-French footballer 1968 – Gennadi Krasnitski, Russian figure skater and coach 1969 – Darren Bragg, American baseball player and coach 1969 – Rudy Galindo, American figure skater 1970 – Gino Odjick, Canadian ice hockey player 1970 – Tom Everett Scott, American actor 1971 – Gene Pritsker, American composer 1971 – Shane Mosley, American boxer and trainer 1972 – Jason Isringhausen, American baseball player and coach 1973 – Shannon Elizabeth, American model and actress 1973 – Alex Kurtzman, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1974 – Mario Frick, Swiss-Liechtensteiner footballer 1974 – Antonio McDyess, American basketball player 1975 – Norifumi Abe, Japanese motorcycle racer (d. 2007) 1975 – Harold Wallace, Costa Rican footballer and manager 1976 – Wavell Hinds, Jamaican cricketer 1977 – Molly Holly, American wrestler and trainer 1977 – Jon Macken, English-Irish footballer 1978 – Matt Cooke, Canadian ice hockey player 1978 – Erwin Koen, Dutch footballer 1978 – Ersin Güreler, Turkish footballer 1979 – Nathan Hindmarsh, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1979 – Paul Mara, American ice hockey player 1979 – Owen Pallett, Canadian singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1979 – Brian Stokes, American baseball player 1980 – Emre Belözoğlu, Turkish footballer 1980 – Sara Carrigan, Australian cyclist 1980 – Serhiy Chopyk, Ukrainian footballer 1980 – Gabriel Milito, Argentinian footballer 1980 – Javad Nekounam, Iranian footballer 1980 – Mark Prior, American baseball player 1981 – Gökhan Zan, Turkish footballer 1981 – Vangelis, Mexican wrestler 1982 – Andre Dirrell, American boxer 1982 – George Bailey, Australian cricketer 1982 – Emese Szász, Hungarian fencer 1983 – Philip Deignan, Irish cyclist 1983 – Annette Dytrt, German figure skater 1983 – Pops Mensah-Bonsu, English-American basketball player 1983 – Piri Weepu, New Zealand rugby player 1984 – Ben Hollingsworth, Canadian actor 1984 – Farveez Maharoof, Sri Lankan cricketer 1984 – Miranda, Brazilian footballer 1984 – Vera Zvonareva, Russian tennis player 1984 – Pelin Karahan, Turkish actress 1985 – Wade Davis, American baseball player 1985 – Adam Eckersley, English footballer 1985 – Rafinha, Brazilian footballer 1986 – Charlie Daniels, English footballer 1986 – Colin Delaney, American wrestler 1987 – Tommy Elphick, English footballer 1987 – Sammy Moore, English footballer 1987 – Danny North, English footballer 1987 – Evan Rachel Wood, American actress and singer 1987 – Aleksandra Wozniak, Canadian tennis player 1988 – Alex Harvey, Canadian skier 1988 – Kevin Love, American basketball player 1990 – Libor Hudáček, Slovakian ice hockey player 1990 – Fedor Klimov, Russian figure skater 1991 – Dale Finucane, Australian rugby league player 1991 – Amar Garibović, Serbian skier (d. 2010) 1993 – Taylor Gray, American actor 1994 – Elinor Barker, Welsh track cyclist 1994 – Herman Ese'ese, New Zealand rugby league player 1994 – Tom Opacic, Australian rugby league player 1994 – Maren Lundby, Norwegian ski jumper 1996 – Donovan Mitchell, American basketball player 1999 – Laurie Jussaume, Canadian cyclist Deaths Pre-1600 251 – Sima Yi, Chinese general and politician (b. 179) 355 – Claudius Silvanus, Roman general 859 – Emperor Xuānzong of Tang, Chinese emperor (b. 810) 934 – Meng Zhixiang, Chinese general (b. 874) 1134 – Alfonso the Battler, Spanish emperor (b. 1073) 1151 – Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou (b. 1113) 1202 – William of the White Hands, French cardinal (b. 1135) 1251 – Viola, Duchess of Opole 1303 – Gregory Bicskei, archbishop of Esztergom 1312 – Ferdinand IV of Castile (b. 1285) 1354 – Andrea Dandolo, doge of Venice (b. 1306) 1362 – Joan of the Tower (b. 1321) 1464 – Frederick II, Elector of Saxony (b. 1412) 1496 – Ferdinand II of Naples (b. 1469) 1559 – Robert Estienne, English-French printer and scholar (b. 1503) 1566 – Nikola Šubić Zrinski, Croatian general (b. 1506) 1573 – Joanna of Austria, Princess of Portugal (b. 1535) 1601–1900 1601 – John Shakespeare, father of William Shakespeare (b. 1529) 1619 – Melchior Grodziecki, Polish priest and saint (b. 1582) 1619 – Marko Krizin, Croatian priest, missionary, and saint (b. 1589) 1622 – Denis Godefroy, French lawyer and jurist (b. 1549) 1626 – Edward Villiers, English noble and politician (b. c. 1585) 1644 – Guido Bentivoglio, Italian cardinal and historian (b. 1579) 1655 – François Tristan l'Hermite, French author and playwright (b. 1601) 1657 – Arvid Wittenberg, Swedish field marshal (b. 1606) 1685 – William Carpenter, English-American settler, co-founded Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (b. 1605) 1729 – William Burnet, Dutch-American civil servant and politician, 21st Governor of the Province of New York (b. 1688) 1741 – Blas de Lezo, Spanish admiral (b. 1689) 1798 – Peter Frederik Suhm, Danish-Norwegian historian and author (b. 1728) 1799 – Louis-Guillaume Le Monnier, French botanist and physicist (b. 1717) 1809 – Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke, Thai king (b. 1737) 1833 – Hannah More, English poet, playwright, and philanthropist (b. 1745) 1840 – Jacques MacDonald, French general (b. 1765) 1871 – Kimenzan Tanigorō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 13th Yokozuna (b. 1826) 1871 – Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha, Ottoman politician, 217th Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1815) 1881 – Sidney Lanier, American poet and academic (b. 1842) 1891 – Lorenzo Sawyer, American lawyer and judge (b. 1820) 1892 – John Greenleaf Whittier, American poet and activist (b. 1807) 1893 – Hamilton Fish, American lawyer and politician, 26th United States Secretary of State (b. 1808) 1901–present 1907 – Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, Romanian philologist, journalist, and playwright (b. 1838) 1910 – William Holman Hunt, English painter and soldier (b. 1827) 1920 – Simon-Napoléon Parent, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Quebec (b. 1855) 1921 – Alfred William Rich, English author and painter (b. 1856) 1929 – Frederic Weatherly, English lawyer, author, and songwriter (b. 1848) 1933 – Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon, English ornithologist and politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (b. 1862) 1939 – Kyōka Izumi, Japanese author, poet, and playwright (b. 1873) 1940 – José Félix Estigarribia, Paraguayan soldier and politician, President of Paraguay (b. 1888) 1941 – Mario García Menocal, Cuban lawyer and politician, President of Cuba (b. 1866) 1942 – Cecilia Beaux, American painter and academic (b. 1855) 1949 – José Clemente Orozco, Mexican painter and illustrator (b. 1883) 1951 – Maria Montez, Dominican-French actress (b. 1912) 1951 – John French Sloan, American painter and etcher (b. 1871) 1954 – Bud Fisher, American cartoonist (b. 1885) 1956 – C. B. Fry, English cricketer, academic, and politician (b. 1872) 1959 – Maurice Duplessis, Canadian lawyer and politician, 16th Premier of Quebec (b. 1890) 1960 – Wilhelm Pieck, German carpenter and politician, President of East Germany (b. 1873) 1961 – Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy, Dutch lawyer, jurist, and politician, 34th Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b. 1885) 1962 – Karen Blixen, Danish memoirist and short story writer (b. 1885) 1962 – Graham Walker, English motorcycle racer and journalist (b. 1897) 1964 – Walter A. Brown, American businessman (b. 1905) 1969 – Everett Dirksen, American lieutenant and politician (b. 1896) 1970 – Yitzhak Gruenbaum, Polish-Israeli journalist and politician, 1st Internal Affairs Minister of Israel (b. 1879) 1971 – Spring Byington, American actress (b. 1886) 1971 – Ludwig Suthaus, German tenor (b. 1906) 1972 – Dimitris Poulianos, Greek painter and illustrator (b. 1899) 1973 – Holling C. Holling, American author and illustrator (b. 1900) 1973 – Lev Vladimirsky, Kazakhstani-Russian admiral (b. 1903) 1974 – S. M. Rasamanickam, Ceylon politician (b. 1913) 1978 – Cecil Aronowitz, South African-English viola player (b. 1916) 1978 – Keith Moon, English drummer (The Who) (b. 1946) 1978 – Charles Williams, English composer and conductor (b. 1893) 1979 – I. A. Richards, English literary critic and rhetorician (b. 1893) 1981 – Christy Brown, Irish author, poet, and painter (b. 1932) 1982 – Ken Boyer, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1931) 1984 – Joe Cronin, American baseball player and manager (b. 1906) 1984 – Josyf Slipyj, Ukrainian cardinal (b. 1892) 1984 – Don Tallon, Australian cricketer (b. 1916) 1985 – Jacoba van Velde, Dutch author (b. 1903) 1985 – José Zabala-Santos, Filipino cartoonist (b. 1911) 1986 – Les Bury, English-Australian public servant and politician, 26th Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs (b. 1913) 1988 – Sedad Hakkı Eldem, Turkish architect (b. 1908) 1989 – Mikhail Goldstein, Ukrainian violinist and composer (b. 1917) 1990 – Earle E. Partridge, American general and pilot (b. 1900) 1990 – A. J. P. Taylor, English historian and journalist (b. 1906) 1991 – Edwin McMillan, American physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1907) 1994 – Eric Crozier, English director and playwright (b. 1914) 1994 – Dennis Morgan, American actor (b. 1908) 1994 – Terence Young, Chinese-English director and screenwriter (b. 1915) 1995 – Russell Johnson, American cartoonist (b. 1893) 1996 – Bibi Besch, Austrian-American actress (b. 1942) 1997 – Mobutu Sese Seko, Congolese soldier and politician, President of Zaire (b. 1930) 2000 – Bruce Gyngell, Australian-English broadcaster (b. 1929) 2001 – Igor Buketoff, American conductor and educator (b. 1915) 2001 – Spede Pasanen, Finnish film director and producer, comedian, and inventor (b. 1930) 2001 – Billie Lou Watt, American actress and voice artist (b. 1924) 2002 – Uziel Gal, German-Israeli colonel and gun designer, designed the Uzi (b. 1923) 2003 – Warren Zevon, American singer-songwriter (b. 1947) 2004 – Bob Boyd, American baseball player (b. 1925) 2008 – Kune Biezeveld, Dutch minister and theologian (b. 1948) 2008 – Ilarion Ciobanu, Romanian rugby player and actor (b. 1931) 2008 – Don Haskins, American basketball player and coach (b. 1930) 2008 – Gregory Mcdonald, American author (b. 1937) 2008 – Nagi Noda, Japanese director and producer (b. 1973) 2010 – Amar Garibović, Serbian skier (b. 1991) 2010 – William H. Goetzmann, American historian and author (b. 1930) 2010 – Barbara Holland, American author (b. 1933) 2010 – John Kluge, German-American businessman (b. 1914) 2010 – Glenn Shadix, American actor (b. 1952) 2011 – Victims of the Lokomotiv Yaroslavl plane crash Pavol Demitra, Slovakian ice hockey player (b. 1974) Alexander Karpovtsev, Russian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1970) Igor Korolev, Russian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1970) Stefan Liv, Polish-Swedish ice hockey player (b. 1980) Jan Marek, Czech ice hockey player (b. 1979) Brad McCrimmon, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1959) Karel Rachůnek, Czech ice hockey player (b. 1979) Kārlis Skrastiņš, Latvian ice hockey player (b. 1974) Ruslan Salei, Belarusian ice hockey player (b. 1974) Josef Vašíček, Czech ice hockey player (b. 1980) 2012 – César Fernández Ardavín, Spanish director and screenwriter (b. 1923) 2012 – Aleksandr Maksimenkov, Russian footballer and manager (b. 1952) 2012 – Daniel Weinreb, American computer scientist and programmer (b. 1959) 2013 – Albert Allen Bartlett, American physicist and academic (b. 1923) 2013 – Romesh Bhandari, Pakistani-Indian politician and diplomat, 13th Foreign Secretary of India (b. 1928) 2013 – Frank Blevins, English-Australian politician, 7th Deputy Premier of South Australia (b. 1939) 2013 – Pete Hoffman, American cartoonist (b. 1919) 2013 – Ilja Hurník, Czech playwright and composer (b. 1922) 2013 – Fred Katz, American cellist and composer (b. 1919) 2014 – Kwon Ri-se, South Korean singer (b. 1991) 2014 – Jack Cristil, American sportscaster and radio host (b. 1925) 2014 – Raul M. Gonzalez, Filipino lawyer and politician, 42nd Filipino Secretary of Justice (b. 1930) 2014 – Yoshiko Ōtaka, Chinese-Japanese actress, singer, and politician (b. 1920) 2014 – Harold Shipp, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1926) 2015 – Dickie Moore, American actor (b. 1925) 2015 – Candida Royalle, American porn actress, director, and producer (b. 1950) 2015 – Guillermo Rubalcaba, Cuban pianist, composer, and bandleader (b. 1927) 2015 – Voula Zouboulaki, Greek actress (b. 1924) 2018 – Mac Miller, American rapper (b. 1992) Holidays and observances Air Force Day (Pakistan) Christian feast day: Anastasius the Fuller Clodoald Gratus of Aosta Stephen Pongracz Marko Krizin Regina September 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Earliest day on which National Grandparents Day can fall, while September 13 is the latest; celebrated on the first Sunday after Labor Day. (United States) Last day on which Labor Day (United States) can fall, while September 1st is the first; celebrated on the first Monday of September. Constitution Day (Fiji) Independence Day (Brazil), celebrates the independence of Brazil from Portugal in 1822. Military Intelligence Day (Ukraine) National Threatened Species Day (Australia) Victory Day (Mozambique) References External links Days of the year September

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September%2012

September 12

Events Pre-1600 490 BC – Battle of Marathon: The conventionally accepted date for the Battle of Marathon. The Athenians and their Plataean allies defeat the first Persian invasion force of Greece. 372 – Sixteen Kingdoms: Jin Xiaowudi, age 10, succeeds his father Jin Jianwendi as Emperor of the Eastern Jin dynasty. 1213 – Albigensian Crusade: Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester, defeats Peter II of Aragon at the Battle of Muret. 1229 – Battle of Portopí: The Aragonese army under the command of James I of Aragon disembarks at Santa Ponça, Majorca, with the purpose of conquering the island. 1309 – The First Siege of Gibraltar takes place in the context of the Spanish Reconquista pitting the forces of the Kingdom of Castile against the Emirate of Granada resulting in a Castilian victory. 1601–1900 1609 – Henry Hudson begins his exploration of the Hudson River while aboard the Halve Maen. 1634 – A gunpowder factory explodes in Valletta, Malta, killing 22 people and damaging several buildings. 1683 – Austro-Ottoman War: Battle of Vienna: Several European armies join forces to defeat the Ottoman Empire. 1762 – The Sultanate of Sulu ceded Balambangan Island to the British East India Company 1814 – Battle of North Point: an American detachment halts the British land advance to Baltimore in the War of 1812. 1846 – Elizabeth Barrett elopes with Robert Browning. 1847 – Mexican–American War: the Battle of Chapultepec begins. 1848 – A new constitution marks the establishment of Switzerland as a federal state. 1857 – The sinks about 160 miles east of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, drowning a total of 426 passengers and crew, including Captain William Lewis Herndon. The ship was carrying 13–15 tons of gold from the California Gold Rush. 1885 – Arbroath 36–0 Bon Accord, a world record scoreline in professional Association football. 1890 – Salisbury, Rhodesia, is founded. 1897 – Tirah Campaign: In the Battle of Saragarhi, ten thousand Pashtun tribesmen suffer several hundred casualties while attacking 21 Sikh soldiers in British service. 1901–present 1906 – The Newport Transporter Bridge is opened in Newport, South Wales by Viscount Tredegar. 1910 – Premiere performance of Gustav Mahler's Symphony No. 8 in Munich (with a chorus of 852 singers and an orchestra of 171 players. Mahler's rehearsal assistant conductor was Bruno Walter). 1915 – French soldiers rescue over 4,000 Armenian genocide survivors stranded on Musa Dagh. 1923 – Southern Rhodesia, today called Zimbabwe, is annexed by the United Kingdom. 1933 – Leó Szilárd, waiting for a red light on Southampton Row in Bloomsbury, conceives the idea of the nuclear chain reaction. 1938 – Adolf Hitler demands autonomy and self-determination for the Germans of the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia. 1940 – Cave paintings are discovered in Lascaux, France. 1940 – The Hercules Powder Plant Disaster in the United States kills 51 people and injures over 200. 1942 – World War II: RMS Laconia, carrying civilians, Allied soldiers and Italian POWs is torpedoed off the coast of West Africa and sinks with a heavy loss of life. 1942 – World War II: First day of the Battle of Edson's Ridge during the Guadalcanal Campaign. U.S. Marines protecting Henderson Field are attacked by Imperial Japanese Army troops. 1943 – World War II: Benito Mussolini is rescued from house arrest by German commando forces led by Otto Skorzeny. 1944 – World War II: The liberation of Yugoslavia from Axis occupation continues. Bajina Bašta in western Serbia is among the liberated cities. 1945 – The People's Republic of Korea is proclaimed, bringing an end to Japanese rule over Korea. 1948 – Chinese Civil War: Marshal Lin Biao, commander-in-chief of the Chinese communist Northeast Field Army, launched a massive offensive toward Jinzhou, Liaoshen Campaign has begun. 1953 – U.S. Senator and future President John Fitzgerald Kennedy marries Jacqueline Lee Bouvier at St. Mary's Church in Newport, Rhode Island. 1958 – Jack Kilby demonstrates the first working integrated circuit while working at Texas Instruments. 1959 – The Soviet Union launches a large rocket, Lunik II, at the Moon. 1959 – Bonanza premieres, the first regularly scheduled TV program presented in color. 1961 – The African and Malagasy Union is founded. 1961 – Air France Flight 2005 crashes near Rabat–Salé Airport, in Rabat, Morocco, killing 77 people. 1962 – President John F. Kennedy delivers his "We choose to go to the Moon" speech at Rice University. 1966 – Gemini 11, the penultimate mission of NASA's Gemini program, and the current human altitude record holder (except for the Apollo lunar missions). 1970 – Dawson's Field hijackings: Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine terrorists blow up three hijacked airliners in Zarqa, Jordan, continuing to hold the passengers hostage in various undisclosed locations in Amman. 1974 – Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, 'Messiah' of the Rastafari movement, is deposed following a military coup by the Derg, ending a reign of 58 years. 1977 – South African anti-apartheid activist Steve Biko dies in police custody. 1980 – Military coup in Turkey. 1983 – A Wells Fargo depot in West Hartford, Connecticut, United States, is robbed of approximately US$7 million by Los Macheteros. 1983 – The USSR vetoes a United Nations Security Council Resolution deploring the Soviet destruction of Korean Air Lines Flight 007. 1984 – Dwight Gooden sets the baseball record for strikeouts in a season by a rookie with 276, previously set by Herb Score with 246 in 1954. Gooden's 276 strikeouts that season, pitched in 218 innings, set the current record. 1988 – Hurricane Gilbert devastates Jamaica; it turns towards Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula two days later, causing an estimated $5 billion in damage. 1990 – The two German states and the Four Powers sign the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany in Moscow, paving the way for German reunification. 1990 – The Red Cross organizations of mainland China and Taiwan sign Kinmen Agreement on repatriation of illegal immigrants and criminal suspects after two days of talks in Kinmen, Fujian Province in response to the two tragedies in repatriation in the previous two months. It is the first agreement reached by private organizations across the Taiwan Strait. 1992 – NASA launches Space Shuttle Endeavour on STS-47 which marked the 50th shuttle mission. On board are Mae Carol Jemison, the first African-American woman in space, Mamoru Mohri, the first Japanese citizen to fly in a US spaceship, and Mark Lee and Jan Davis, the first married couple in space. 1992 – Abimael Guzmán, leader of the Shining Path, is captured by Peruvian special forces; shortly thereafter the rest of Shining Path's leadership fell as well. 1994 – Frank Eugene Corder fatally crashes a single-engine Cessna 150 into the White House's south lawn, striking the West wing. There were no other casualties. 2001 – Ansett Australia, Australia's first commercial interstate airline, collapses due to increased strain on the international airline industry, leaving 10,000 people unemployed. 2003 – The United Nations lifts sanctions against Libya after that country agreed to accept responsibility and recompense the families of victims in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103. 2003 – Iraq War: In Fallujah, U.S. forces mistakenly shoot and kill eight Iraqi police officers. 2005 – Israeli-Palestinian conflict: the Israeli disengagement from Gaza is completed, leaving some 2,530 homes demolished. 2007 – Former Philippine President Joseph Estrada is convicted of plunder. 2008 – The 2008 Chatsworth train collision in Los Angeles between a Metrolink commuter train and a Union Pacific freight train kills 25 people. 2011 – The National September 11 Memorial & Museum in New York City opens to the public. 2013 – NASA confirms that its Voyager 1 probe has become the first manmade object to enter interstellar space. 2015 – A series of explosions involving propane triggering nearby illegally stored mining detonators in the Indian town of Petlawad in the state of Madhya Pradesh kills at least 105 people with over 150 injured. Births Pre-1600 1415 – John de Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk (d. 1461) 1494 – Francis I of France (d. 1547) 1590 – María de Zayas, Spanish writer (d. 1661) 1601–1900 1605 – William Dugdale, English genealogist and historian (d. 1686) 1690 – Peter Dens, Flemish theologian and academic (d. 1775) 1725 – Guillaume Le Gentil, French astronomer (d. 1792) 1736 – Hsinbyushin, Burmese king (d. 1776) 1739 – Mary Bosanquet Fletcher, Methodist preacher and philanthropist (d. 1815) 1740 – Johann Heinrich Jung, German author and academic (d. 1817) 1768 – Benjamin Carr, English-American singer-songwriter, educator, and publisher (d. 1831) 1797 – Samuel Joseph May, American activist (d. 1871) 1812 – Edward Shepherd Creasy, English historian and jurist (d. 1878) 1812 – Richard March Hoe, American engineer and businessman, invented the Rotary printing press (d. 1886) 1818 – Richard Jordan Gatling, American inventor, invented the Gatling gun (d. 1903) 1818 – Theodor Kullak, German pianist, composer, and educator (d. 1882) 1828 – William Morgan, English-Australian politician, 14th Premier of South Australia (d. 1883) 1829 – Anselm Feuerbach, German painter (d. 1880) 1829 – Charles Dudley Warner, American essayist and novelist (d. 1900) 1830 – William Sprague, American businessman and politician, 27th Governor of Rhode Island (d. 1915) 1837 – Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse (d. 1892) 1852 – H. H. Asquith, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1928) 1855 – Simon-Napoléon Parent, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Quebec (d. 1920) 1856 – Johann Heinrich Beck, American composer and conductor (d. 1924) 1857 – Manuel Espinosa Batista, Colombian pharmacist and politician (d. 1919) 1862 – Carl Eytel, German-American painter and illustrator (d. 1925) 1866 – Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon, English cricketer and politician, 13th Governor General of Canada (d. 1941) 1869 – Paweł Owerłło, Polish actor (d. 1957) 1875 – Matsunosuke Onoe, Japanese actor and director (d. 1926) 1880 – H. L. Mencken, American journalist and critic (d. 1956) 1882 – Ion Agârbiceanu, Romanian journalist, politician, and archbishop (d. 1963) 1884 – Martin Klein, Estonian wrestler and coach (d. 1947) 1885 – Heinrich Hoffmann, German photographer and art dealer (d. 1957) 1888 – Maurice Chevalier, French actor, singer, and dancer (d. 1972) 1889 – Ugo Pasquale Mifsud, Maltese politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Malta (d. 1942) 1891 – Pedro Albizu Campos, Puerto Rican lawyer and politician (d. 1965) 1891 – Jean-François Martial, Belgian actor (d. 1977) 1891 – Arthur Hays Sulzberger, American publisher (d. 1968) 1892 – Alfred A. Knopf, Sr., American publisher, founded Alfred A. Knopf Inc. (d. 1984) 1894 – Kyuichi Tokuda, Japanese lawyer and politician (d. 1953) 1894 – Dorothy Maud Wrinch, Argentinian-English mathematician, biochemist and philosopher (d. 1976) 1895 – Freymóður Jóhannsson, Icelandic painter and composer (d. 1973) 1897 – Irène Joliot-Curie, French chemist and physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1956) 1897 – Walter B. Gibson, American magician and author (d. 1985) 1898 – Salvador Bacarisse, Spanish composer (d. 1963) 1898 – Alma Moodie, Australian violinist and educator (d. 1943) 1898 – Ben Shahn, Lithuanian-American painter and photographer (d. 1969) 1900 – Haskell Curry, American mathematician, logician, and academic (d. 1982) 1901–present 1901 – Shmuel Horowitz, Israeli agronomist and academic (d. 1999) 1902 – Juscelino Kubitschek, Brazilian physician and politician, 21st President of Brazil (d. 1976) 1902 – Marya Zaturenska, Ukrainian-American poet and author (d. 1982) 1904 – István Horthy, Hungarian fighter pilot and deputy regent (d. 1942) 1904 – John Courtney Murray, American priest and theologian (d. 1967) 1904 – Lou Moore, American race car driver (d. 1956) 1905 – Linda Agostini, English-Australian murder victim (d. 1934) 1907 – Louis MacNeice, Irish poet and playwright (d. 1963) 1909 – Donald MacDonald, Canadian trade union leader and politician (d. 1986) 1913 – Jesse Owens, American sprinter and long jumper (d. 1980) 1914 – Rais Amrohvi, Pakistani psychoanalyst, poet, and scholar (d. 1988) 1914 – Desmond Llewelyn, Welsh-English soldier and actor (d. 1999) 1916 – Tony Bettenhausen, American race car driver (d. 1961) 1917 – Pierre Sévigny, Canadian colonel, academic, and politician (d. 2004) 1917 – Han Suyin, Chinese-Swiss physician and author (d. 2012) 1920 – Irene Dailey, American actress (d. 2008) 1921 – Frank McGee, American journalist (d. 1974) 1921 – Stanisław Lem, Polish philosopher and author (d. 2006) 1921 – Turgut Cansever, Turkish architect, city planner, and thinker (d. 2009) 1922 – Antonio Cafiero, Argentinian accountant and politician, Governor of Buenos Aires Province (d. 2014) 1922 – Jackson Mac Low, American poet, playwright, and composer (d. 2004) 1922 – Mark Rosenzweig, American psychologist and academic (d. 2009) 1924 – Amílcar Cabral, Guinea-Bissauan political leader (d. 1973) 1925 – Stan Lopata, American baseball player (d. 2013) 1925 – Dickie Moore, American actor (d. 2015) 1927 – Mathé Altéry, French soprano and actress 1928 – Robert Irwin, American painter and gardener 1928 – Muriel Siebert, American businesswoman and philanthropist (d. 2013) 1928 – Ernie Vandeweghe, Canadian-American basketball player and physician (d. 2014) 1929 – Harvey Schmidt, American composer and illustrator (d. 2018) 1930 – Larry Austin, American composer and educator 1931 – Ian Holm, English actor (d. 2020) 1931 – George Jones, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013) 1932 – Atli Dam, Faroese engineer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (d. 2005) 1934 – Glenn Davis, American hurdler, sprinter, and football player (d. 2009) 1934 – Jaegwon Kim, South Korean-American philosopher and academic (d. 2019) 1934 – Nellie Wong, Chinese American poet and activist 1935 – Richard Hunt, American sculptor 1937 – George Chuvalo, Canadian boxer 1937 – Wes Hall, Barbadian cricketer and politician 1938 – Judy Clay, American soul and gospel singer (d. 2001) 1938 – Claude Ruel, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2015) 1938 – Tatiana Troyanos, American operatic soprano (d. 1993) 1939 – Pablo McNeil, Jamaican track and field sprinter and sprinting coach (d. 2011) 1939 – Phillip Ramey, American pianist and composer 1939 – Henry Waxman, American lawyer and politician 1940 – Linda Gray, American model and actress 1942 – Michel Drucker, French journalist 1942 – Tomás Marco, Spanish composer 1942 – François Tavenas, Canadian engineer and academic (d. 2004) 1943 – Maria Muldaur, American folk and blues singer 1943 – Leonard Peltier, American political activist and convicted criminal 1944 – Lonnie Mayne, American wrestler (d. 1978) 1944 – Vladimir Spivakov, Russian violinist and conductor 1944 – Barry White, American singer-songwriter (d. 2003) 1945 – Russell "Jungle Jim" Liberman, American drag racer (d. 1977) 1945 – Milo Manara, Italian author and illustrator 1945 – John Mauceri, American conductor and producer 1946 – Tony Bellamy, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2009) 1946 – Neil Lyndon, British journalist and writer 1947 – David Grant, English engineer and academic 1947 – Gerald Howarth, English soldier, pilot, and politician, Minister for International Security Strategy 1947 – Christopher Neame, English actor 1948 – Steve Turre, American trombonist and educator 1948 – Max Walker, Australian footballer, cricketer, sportscaster, and architect (d. 2016) 1948 – Caio Fernando Abreu, Brazilian writer (d. 1996) 1949 – Charles Burlingame, American captain and pilot (d. 2001) 1949 – Irina Rodnina, Russian figure skater and politician 1949 – Tony Stevens, English rock bassist and songwriter 1950 – Marguerite Blais, Canadian journalist and politician 1950 – Gustav Brunner, Austrian engineer 1950 – Bruce Mahler, American actor and screenwriter 1950 – Mike Murphy, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1951 – Bertie Ahern, Irish accountant and politician, 11th Taoiseach of Ireland 1951 – Norm Dubé, Canadian ice hockey player 1951 – Ray Gravell, Welsh rugby player and actor (d. 2007) 1951 – Joe Pantoliano, American actor and producer 1951 – Ali-Ollie Woodson, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player (d. 2010) 1952 – Gerry Beckley, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1952 – Neil Peart, Canadian drummer, songwriter, and producer (d. 2020) 1953 – Nan Goldin, American photographer 1954 – Robert Gober, American sculptor 1954 – Scott Hamilton, American saxophonist 1954 – Peeter Volkonski, Estonian singer-songwriter and actor 1955 – Brian Smith, English footballer (d. 2013) 1956 – Barry Andrews, English singer and keyboard player 1956 – Leslie Cheung, Hong Kong singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2003) 1956 – David Goodhart, English journalist and author 1956 – Walter Woon, Singaporean lawyer and politician, 7th Attorney-General of Singapore 1957 – Paul M. Sharp, British academic and educator 1957 – Jan Egeland, Norwegian politician, diplomat and humanitarian 1957 – Rachel Ward, English-Australian actress 1957 – Hans Zimmer, German composer and producer 1958 – Wilfred Benítez, American boxer 1958 – Gregg Edelman, American actor and singer 1959 – Scott Brown, American colonel and politician 1959 – Deron Cherry, American football player and sportscaster 1959 – Sigmar Gabriel, German educator and politician, 17th Vice-Chancellor of Germany 1960 – Evan Jenkins, American academic and politician 1960 – Stefanos Korkolis, Greek pianist and composer 1961 – Mylène Farmer, Canadian-French singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1962 – Sunay Akın, Turkish poet, journalist, and philanthropist 1962 – Amy Yasbeck, American actress 1964 – Greg Gutfeld, American television journalist and author 1964 – Dieter Hecking, German footballer and manager 1965 – Einstein Kristiansen, Norwegian animator and producer 1965 – Vernon Maxwell, American basketball player 1965 – Midnight, Jamaican wrestler 1966 – Ben Folds, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1966 – Vezio Sacratini, Canadian ice hockey player 1967 – Louis C.K., American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter 1967 – Pat Listach, American baseball player, coach, and manager 1968 – Larry LaLonde, American guitarist and songwriter 1968 – Nicholas Russell, 6th Earl Russell, English politician (d. 2014) 1968 – Richard Snell, South African cricketer and physiotherapist 1968 – Paul F. Tompkins, American comedian, actor, and writer 1969 – Max Boot, Russian-American historian and author 1969 – Ángel Cabrera, Argentinian golfer 1969 – James Frey, American author and screenwriter 1969 – Shigeki Maruyama, Japanese golfer 1970 – Nathan Larson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1971 – Younes El Aynaoui, Moroccan tennis player 1971 – Shocker, Mexican wrestler 1972 – Gideon Emery, English-American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1972 – Paul Green, Australian rugby league player and coach 1972 – Sidney Souza, Brazilian footballer 1973 – Tarana Burke, American civil rights activist 1973 – Kara David, Filipino journalist and documentarian 1973 – Martina Ertl-Renz, German skier 1973 – Martin Lapointe, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1973 – Paul Walker, American actor (d. 2013) 1974 – Caroline Aigle, French soldier and pilot (d. 2007) 1974 – Jennifer Nettles, American singer-songwriter 1974 – Guy Smith, English race car driver 1974 – Kenichi Suzumura, Japanese voice actor and singer-songwriter 1974 – Nuno Valente, Portuguese footballer and coach 1975 – Luis Castillo, Dominican baseball player 1975 – Bill Kirby, Australian swimmer and coach 1976 – Maciej Żurawski, Polish footballer 1977 – Nathan Bracken, Australian cricketer 1977 – Grant Denyer, Australian race car driver and journalist 1977 – Jeff Irwin, American singer-songwriter and producer 1977 – David Thompson, English footballer 1978 – Elisabetta Canalis, Italian model and actress 1978 – Benjamin McKenzie, American actor 1978 – Ruben Studdard, American R&B, pop, and gospel singer 1980 – Sean Burroughs, American baseball player 1980 – Fernando César de Souza, Brazilian footballer 1980 – Yao Ming, Chinese basketball player 1980 – Hiroyuki Sawano, Japanese composer 1980 – Kevin Sinfield, English rugby player 1980 – Josef Vašíček, Czech ice hockey player (d. 2011) 1981 – Marty Adams, Canadian actor and screenwriter 1981 – Alan Arruda, Brazilian footballer 1981 – Jennifer Hudson, American singer and actress 1981 – Staciana Stitts, American swimmer 1982 – Zoran Planinić, Croatian basketball player 1982 – Sal Rinauro, American wrestler 1983 – Tom Geißler, German footballer 1983 – Rami Haikal, Jordanian guitarist 1983 – Sebastian Hofmann, German footballer 1983 – Daniel Muir, American football player 1983 – Sergio Parisse, Argentinian-Italian rugby player 1983 – Clayton Richard, American baseball player 1983 – Carly Smithson, Irish singer-songwriter 1984 – Nashat Akram, Iraqi footballer 1984 – Chelsea Carey, Canadian curler 1986 – Kamila Chudzik, Polish heptathlete 1986 – Akwasi Fobi-Edusei, English footballer 1986 – Joanne Jackson, English swimmer 1986 – Yuto Nagatomo, Japanese footballer 1986 – Dimitrios Regas, Greek sprinter 1986 – Alfie Allen, English actor 1986 – Emmy Rossum, American singer and actress 1988 – Amanda Jenssen, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1989 – Freddie Freeman, American-Canadian baseball player 1989 – Andrew Luck, American football player 1991 – Thomas Meunier, Belgian footballer 1991 – Mike Towell, Scottish professional boxer (d. 2016) 1991 – Scott Wootton, English footballer 1992 – Sviatlana Pirazhenka, Belarusian tennis player 1994 – Gideon Jung, German footballer 1994 – RM, South Korean rapper, songwriter and record producer 1994 – Elina Svitolina, Ukrainian tennis player 1995 – Steven Gardiner, Bahamian sprinter Deaths Pre-1600 640 – Sak K'uk', Mayan queen 973 – Nefingus, bishop of Angers 1185 – Andronikos I Komnenos, Byzantine emperor (b. 1118) 1213 – Peter II of Aragon (b. 1174) 1362 – Pope Innocent VI (b. 1295) 1368 – Blanche of Lancaster (b. 1345/1347) 1439 – Sidi El Houari, Algerian imam (b. 1350) 1500 – Albert III, Duke of Saxony (b. 1443) 1544 – Clément Marot, French poet (b. 1496) 1601–1900 1612 – Vasili IV of Russia (b. 1552) 1642 – Henri Coiffier de Ruzé, Marquis of Cinq-Mars, French conspirator (b. 1620) 1660 – Jacob Cats, Dutch poet, jurist, and politician (b. 1577) 1665 – Jean Bolland, Belgian priest and hagiographer (b. 1596) 1672 – Tanneguy Le Fèvre, French scholar and author (b. 1615) 1674 – Nicolaes Tulp, Dutch anatomist and politician (b. 1593) 1683 – Afonso VI of Portugal (b. 1643) 1712 – Jan van der Heyden, Dutch painter and illustrator (b. 1637) 1764 – Jean-Philippe Rameau, French composer and theorist (b. 1683) 1779 – Richard Grenville-Temple, 2nd Earl Temple, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire (b. 1711) 1810 – Sir Francis Baring, 1st Baronet, English banker and politician (b. 1740) 1814 – Robert Ross, Irish general (b. 1766) 1819 – Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, Prussian general (b. 1742) 1836 – Christian Dietrich Grabbe, German playwright (b. 1801) 1869 – Peter Mark Roget, English physician, theologian, and lexicographer (b. 1779) 1870 – Eleanora Atherton, English philanthropist (b. 1782) 1870 – Fitz Hugh Ludlow, American journalist, explorer, and author (b. 1836) 1874 – François Guizot, French historian and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of France (b. 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Celebrated on the first day of Mäskäräm. (Ethiopia, Eritrea, Rastafari) Nayrouz (Coptic Orthodox Church) (leap years only, September 11 on normal years) National Day (Cape Verde) National Day of Encouragement (United States) Saragarhi Day (Sikhism) United Nations Day for South-South Cooperation (International) References External links Days of the year September

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmania

Tasmania

Tasmania () (Nuenonne/Palawa kani: lutruwita) is an island state of Australia. It is located 240 km (150 mi) to the south of the Australian mainland, separated from it by Bass Strait. The state encompasses the main island of Tasmania, the 26th-largest island in the world, and the surrounding 1000 islands. It is Australia's least populated state, with 541,965 residents as of March 2021. The state capital and largest city is Hobart, with around 40 percent of the population living in the Greater Hobart area. The main island was inhabited by Aboriginal peoples for up to 40,000 years before British colonisation. It is thought that Aboriginal Tasmanians became separated from the mainland Aboriginal groups about 11,700 years ago, after rising sea levels formed Bass Strait. The island was permanently settled by Europeans in 1803 as a penal settlement of the British Empire to prevent claims to the land by the First French Empire during the Napoleonic Wars. The Aboriginal population is estimated to have been between 3,000 and 7,000 at the time of British settlement, but was almost wiped out within 30 years during a period of conflicts with settlers known as the "Black War" and the spread of infectious diseases. The conflict, which peaked between 1825 and 1831 and led to more than three years of martial law, cost the lives of almost 1,100 Aboriginal people and settlers. The island was initially part of the Colony of New South Wales but became a separate colony under the name Van Diemen's Land (named after Anthony van Diemen) in 1825. Approximately 80,000 convicts were sent to Van Diemen's Land before this practice, known as transportation, ceased in 1853. In 1855 the present Constitution of Tasmania was enacted, and the following year the colony formally changed its name to Tasmania. In 1901 it became a state of Australia through the process of the federation of Australia. Today, Tasmania has the 2nd smallest economy of the Australian states and territories, which is significantly formed of tourism, agriculture and aquaculture, education and healthcare. Tasmania is a significant agricultural exporter, as well as a significant destination for eco-tourism. About 42% of its land area, including national parks and World Heritage Sites (21%) is protected in some form of reserve. The first environmental political party in the world was founded in Tasmania. Toponymy In the reconstructed Palawa kani language, the main island of Tasmania is called lutruwita, a name originally derived from the Bruny Island language. George Augustus Robinson recorded it as Loe.trou.witter and also as Trow.wer.nar, probably from one or more of the eastern or northeastern Tasmanian languages. However, he also recorded it as a name for Cape Barren Island. In the 20th century, some writers used it as an Aboriginal name for Tasmania, spelled "Trowenna" or "Trowunna". It is now believed that the name is more properly applied to Cape Barren Island, which has had an official dual name of "Truwana" since 2014. Tasmania is named after Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who made the first reported European sighting of the island on 24 November 1642. Tasman named the island Anthony van Diemen's Land after his sponsor Anthony van Diemen, the Governor of the Dutch East Indies. The name was later shortened to Van Diemen's Land by the British. It was officially renamed Tasmania in honour of its first European discoverer on 1 January 1856. Tasmania was sometimes referred to as "Dervon", as mentioned in the Jerilderie Letter written by the notorious Australian bushranger Ned Kelly in 1879. The colloquial expression for the state is "Tassie". Tasmania is also colloquially shortened to "Tas", mainly when used in business names and website addresses. TAS is also the Australia Post abbreviation for the state. A number of Palawa kani names, based on historical records of aboriginal names, have been accepted by the Tasmanian government. A dozen of these (below) are 'dual-use' (bilingual) names, and another two are unbounded areas with only Palawa names. Bilingual names Palawa names larapuna: an unbounded area centered on the Bay of Fires Narawntapu National Park (formerly Asbestos Range National Park) putalina: an unbounded area centered on Oyster Cove (including the community of Oyster Cove) There are also a number of archaeological sites with Palawa names. Some of these names have been contentious, with names being proposed without consultation with the aboriginal community, or without having a connection to the place in question. As well as a diverse First Nations geography, where remnants are preserved in rough form by European documentation, Tasmania is known as a place for unorthodox place-names. These names often come about from lost definitions, where descriptive names have lost their old meanings and have taken on new modern interpretations (e.g. 'Bobs Knobs'). Other names have retained their original meaning, and are often quaint or endearing descriptions (e.g. 'Paradise'). History Physical history The island was adjoined to the mainland of Australia until the end of the last glacial period about 11,700 years ago. Much of the island is composed of Jurassic dolerite intrusions (the upwelling of magma) through other rock types, sometimes forming large columnar joints. Tasmania has the world's largest areas of dolerite, with many distinctive mountains and cliffs formed from this rock type. The central plateau and the southeast portions of the island are mostly dolerites. Mount Wellington above Hobart is a good example, showing distinct columns known as the Organ Pipes. In the southern midlands as far south as Hobart, the dolerite is underlaid by sandstone and similar sedimentary stones. In the southwest, Precambrian quartzites were formed from very ancient sea sediments and form strikingly sharp ridges and ranges, such as Federation Peak or Frenchmans Cap. In the northeast and east, continental granites can be seen, such as at Freycinet, similar to coastal granites on mainland Australia. In the northwest and west, mineral-rich volcanic rock can be seen at Mount Read near Rosebery, or at Mount Lyell near Queenstown. Also present in the south and northwest is limestone with caves. The quartzite and dolerite areas in the higher mountains show evidence of glaciation, and much of Australia's glaciated landscape is found on the Central Plateau and the Southwest. Cradle Mountain, another dolerite peak, for example, was a nunatak. The combination of these different rock types contributes to scenery which is distinct from any other region of the world. In the far southwest corner of the state, the geology is almost wholly quartzite, which gives the mountains the false impression of having snow-capped peaks year round. Aboriginal people Evidence indicates the presence of Aboriginal people in Tasmania about 42,000 years ago. Rising sea levels cut Tasmania off from mainland Australia about 10,000 years ago and by the time of European contact, the Aboriginal people in Tasmania had nine major nations or ethnic groups. At the time of the British occupation and colonisation in 1803, the indigenous population was estimated at between 3,000 and 10,000. Historian Lyndall Ryan's analysis of population studies led her to conclude that there were about 7,000 spread throughout the island's nine nations; Nicholas Clements, citing research by N.J.B. Plomley and Rhys Jones, settled on a figure of 3,000 to 4,000. They engaged in fire-stick farming, hunted game including kangaroo and wallabies, caught seals, mutton-birds, shellfish and fish and lived as nine separate "nations" on the island, which they knew as "Trouwunna". European arrival and governance The first reported sighting of Tasmania by a European was on 24 November 1642 by Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who landed at today's Blackman Bay. More than a century later, in 1772, a French expedition led by Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne landed at (nearby but different) Blackmans Bay, and the following year Tobias Furneaux became the first Englishman to land in Tasmania when he arrived at Adventure Bay, which he named after his ship HMS Adventure. Captain James Cook also landed at Adventure Bay in 1777. Matthew Flinders and George Bass sailed through Bass Strait in 1798–99, determining for the first time that Tasmania was an island. Sealers and whalers based themselves on Tasmania's islands from 1798, and in August 1803 New South Wales Governor Philip King sent Lieutenant John Bowen to establish a small military outpost on the eastern shore of the Derwent River in order to forestall any claims to the island by French explorers who had been exploring the southern Australian coastline. Bowen, who led a party of 49, including 21 male and three female convicts, named the camp Risdon. Several months later a second settlement was established by Captain David Collins, with 308 convicts, to the south in Sullivans Cove on the western side of the Derwent, where fresh water was more plentiful. The latter settlement became known as Hobart Town or Hobarton, later shortened to Hobart, after the British Colonial Secretary of the time, Lord Hobart. The settlement at Risdon was later abandoned. Left on their own without further supplies, the Sullivans Cove settlement suffered severe food shortages and by 1806 its inhabitants were starving, with many resorting to scraping seaweed off rocks and scavenging washed-up whale blubber from the shore to survive. A smaller colony was established at Port Dalrymple on the Tamar River in the island's north in October 1804 and several other convict-based settlements were established, including the particularly harsh penal colonies at Port Arthur in the southeast and Macquarie Harbour on the West Coast. Tasmania was eventually sent 75,000 convicts—four out of every ten people transported to Australia. By 1819 the Aboriginal and British population reached parity with about 5000 of each, although among the colonists men outnumbered women four to one. Free settlers began arriving in large numbers from 1820, lured by the promise of land grants and free convict labour. Settlement in the island's northwest corner was monopolised by the Van Diemen's Land Company, which sent its first surveyors to the district in 1826. By 1830 one-third of Australia's non-Indigenous population lived in Van Diemen's Land and the island accounted for about half of all land under cultivation and exports. Black War Tensions between Tasmania's black and white inhabitants rose, partly driven by increasing competition for kangaroo and other game. Explorer and naval officer John Oxley in 1810 noted the "many atrocious cruelties" inflicted on Aboriginal people by convict bushrangers in the north, which in turn led to black attacks on solitary white hunters. Hostilities increased further with the arrival of 600 colonists from Norfolk Island between 1807 and 1813. They established farms along the River Derwent and east and west of Launceston, occupying 10 percent of Van Diemen's Land. By 1824 the colonial population had swelled to 12,600, while the island's sheep population had reached 200,000. The rapid colonisation transformed traditional kangaroo hunting grounds into farms with grazing livestock as well as fences, hedges and stone walls, while police and military patrols were increased to control the convict farm labourers. Violence began to spiral rapidly from the mid-1820s in what became known as the "Black War". While black inhabitants were driven to desperation by dwindling food supplies as well as anger at the prevalence of abductions of women and girls, whites carried out attacks as a means of exacting revenge and suppressing the native threat. Van Diemen's Land had an enormous gender imbalance, with male colonists outnumbering females six to one in 1822—and 16 to one among the convict population. Historian Nicholas Clements has suggested the "voracious appetite" for native women was the most important trigger for the explosion of violence from the late 1820s. From 1825 to 1828 the number of native attacks more than doubled each year, raising panic among settlers. Over the summer of 1826–7 clans from the Big River, Oyster Bay and North Midlands nations speared stock-keepers on farms and made it clear that they wanted the settlers and their sheep and cattle to move from their kangaroo hunting grounds. Settlers responded vigorously, resulting in many mass-killings. In November 1826 Governor George Arthur issued a government notice declaring that colonists were free to kill Aboriginal people when they attacked settlers or their property and in the following eight months more than 200 Aboriginal people were killed in the Settled Districts in reprisal for the deaths of 15 colonists. After another eight months the death toll had risen to 43 colonists and probably 350 Aboriginal people. Almost 300 British troops were sent into the Settled Districts, and in November 1828 Arthur declared martial law, giving soldiers the right to shoot on sight any Aboriginal in the Settled Districts. Martial law would remain in force for more than three years, the longest period of martial law in Australian history. In November 1830 Arthur organised the so-called "Black Line", ordering every able-bodied male colonist to assemble at one of seven designated places in the Settled Districts to join a massive drive to sweep Aboriginal people out of the region and on to the Tasman Peninsula. The campaign failed and was abandoned seven weeks later, but by then Tasmania's Aboriginal population had fallen to about 300. Removal of Aboriginal people After hostilities between settlers and Aboriginal peoples ceased in 1832, almost all of the remnants of the Indigenous population were persuaded or forced by government agent George Augustus Robinson to move to Flinders Island. Many quickly succumbed to infectious diseases to which they had no immunity, reducing the population further. Of those removed from Tasmania, the last to die was Truganini, in 1876. The near-destruction of Tasmania's Aboriginal population has been described as an act of genocide by historians including Robert Hughes, James Boyce, Lyndall Ryan and Tom Lawson. However, other historians including Henry Reynolds, Richard Broome and Nicholas Clements do not agree with the genocide thesis, arguing that the colonial authorities did not intend to destroy the Aboriginal population in whole or in part. Boyce has claimed that the April 1828 "Proclamation Separating the Aborigines from the White Inhabitants" sanctioned force against Aboriginal people "for no other reason than that they were Aboriginal". However, as Reynolds, Broome and Clements point out, there was open warfare at the time. Boyce described the decision to remove all Tasmanian Aboriginal people after 1832—by which time they had given up their fight against white colonists—as an extreme policy position. He concluded: "The colonial government from 1832 to 1838 ethnically cleansed the western half of Van Diemen's Land." Nevertheless, Clements and Flood note that there was another wave of violence in north-west Tasmania in 1841, involving attacks on settlers' huts by a band of Aboriginal Tasmanians who had not been removed from the island. Proclamation as a colony (1825) and change of name (1856) Van Diemen's Land—which thus far had existed as a territory within the colony of New South Wales—was proclaimed a separate colony, with its own judicial establishment and Legislative Council, on 3 December 1825. Transportation to the island ceased in 1853 and the colony was renamed Tasmania in 1856, partly to differentiate the burgeoning society of free settlers from the island's convict past. The Legislative Council of Van Diemen's Land drafted a new constitution which gained Royal Assent in 1855. The Privy Council also approved the colony changing its name from "Van Diemen's Land" to "Tasmania", and in 1856 the newly elected bicameral parliament sat for the first time, establishing Tasmania as a self-governing colony of the British Empire. The colony suffered from economic fluctuations, but for the most part was prosperous, experiencing steady growth. With few external threats and strong trade links with the Empire, Tasmania enjoyed many fruitful periods in the late 19th century, becoming a world-centre of shipbuilding. It raised a local defence force that eventually played a significant role in the Second Boer War in South Africa, and Tasmanian soldiers in that conflict won the first two Victoria Crosses awarded to Australians. Federation In 1901 the Colony of Tasmania united with the five other Australian colonies to form the Commonwealth of Australia. Tasmanians voted in favour of federation with the largest majority of all the Australian colonies. 20th and 21st century Tasmania was the first place in the southern hemisphere to have electric lights, starting with Launceston in 1885 and Zeehan in 1900. The state economy was riding mining prosperity until World War I. In 1901, the state population was 172,475. The 1910 foundation of what would become Hydro Tasmania began to shape urban patterns, as well as future major damming programs. Hydro's influence culminated in the 1970s when the state government announced plans to flood environmentally significant Lake Pedder. As a result of the eventual flooding of Lake Pedder, the world's first green party was established; the United Tasmania Group. National and international attention surrounded the campaign against the Franklin Dam in the early 1980s. In 1943, Enid Lyons was elected the first female member of the Australian House of Representatives, winning the seat of Darwin. After the end of World War II, the state saw major urbanisation, and the growth of towns like Ulverstone. It gained a reputation as "Sanitorium of the South" and a health-focused tourist boom began to grow. The MS Princess of Tasmania began her maiden voyage in 1959, the first car ferry to Tasmania. As part of the boom, Tasmania allowed the opening of the first casino in Australia in 1968 Queen Elizabeth II visited the state in 1954, and the 50s and 60s were charactered by the opening of major public services, including the Tasmanian Housing Department and Metro Tasmania public bus services. A jail was opened at Risdon in 1960, and the State Library of Tasmania the same year. The University of Tasmania also moved to its present location in 1963. The state was badly affected by the 1967 Tasmanian fires, killing 62 people and destroying over 652,000 acres in five hours. In 1975 the Tasman Bridge collapsed when the bridge was struck by the bulk ore carrier Lake Illawarra. It was the only bridge in Hobart, and made crossing the Derwent River by road at the city impossible. The nearest bridge was approximately to the north, at Bridgewater. Throughout the 1980s, strong environmental concerns saw the building of the Australian Antarctic Division headquarters, and the proclamation of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area. The Franklin Dam was blocked by the federal government in 1983, and CSIRO opened its marine studies center in Hobart. Pope John Paul II would hold mass at Elwick Racecourse in 1986. The 1990s were characterised by the fight for LGBT rights in Tasmania, culminating in the intervention of the United Nations Human Rights Committee in 1997 and the decriminalization of homosexuality that year. Christine Milne became the first female leader of a Tasmanian political party in 1993, and major council amalgamations reduce the number of councils from 46 to 29. On 28 April 1996, in the Port Arthur massacre, lone gunman Martin Bryant shot and killed 35 people (including tourists and residents) and injured 21 others. The use of firearms was immediately reviewed, and new gun ownership laws were adopted nationwide, with Tasmania's law one of the strictest in Australia. In 2000, Queen Elizabeth II once again visited the state. Gunns rose to prominence as a major forestry company during this decade, only to collapse in 2013. In 2004, Premier Jim Bacon died in office from lung cancer. In January 2011 philanthropist David Walsh opened the Museum of Old and New Art (MONA) in Hobart to international acclaim. Within 12 months, MONA became Tasmania's top tourism attraction. The COVID-19 pandemic in Tasmania resulted in at least 230 cases and 13 deaths as of September 2021. In 2020, after the outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic (SARS-CoV-2) and its spread to Australia, the Tasmanian government issued a public health emergency on 17 March, the following month receiving the state's most significant outbreak from the North-West which required assistance from the Federal government. In late 2021, Tasmania was leading the nationwide vaccination response. Geography Tasmania, the largest island of Australia, has a landmass of and is located directly in the pathway of the notorious "Roaring Forties" wind that encircles the globe. To its north, it is separated from mainland Australia by Bass Strait. Tasmania is the only Australian state that is not located on the Australian mainland. About 2,500 kilometres (1,600 mi) south of Tasmania island lies the George V Coast of Antarctica. Depending on which borders of the oceans are used, the island can be said to be either surrounded by the Southern Ocean, or to have the Pacific on its east and the Indian to its west. Still other definitions of the ocean boundaries would have Tasmania with the Great Australian Bight to the west, and the Tasman Sea to the east. The southernmost point on mainland Tasmania is approximately at South East Cape, and the northernmost point on mainland Tasmania is approximately in Woolnorth / Temdudheker near Cape Grim / Kennaook. Tasmania lies at similar latitudes to Te Waipounamu / South Island of New Zealand, and parts of Patagonia in South America, and relative to the Northern Hemisphere, it lies at similar latitudes to Hokkaido in Japan, Northeast China (Manchuria), the north Mediterranean in Europe, and the Canada-United States border. The most mountainous region is the Central Highlands area, which covers most of the central western parts of the state. The Midlands located in the central east, is fairly flat, and is predominantly used for agriculture, although farming activity is scattered throughout the state. Tasmania's tallest mountain is Mount Ossa at . Much of Tasmania is still densely forested, with the Southwest National Park and neighbouring areas holding some of the last temperate rain forests in the Southern Hemisphere. The Tarkine, containing Savage River National Park located in the island's far north west, is the largest temperate rainforest area in Australia covering about . With its rugged topography, Tasmania has a great number of rivers. Several of Tasmania's largest rivers have been dammed at some point to provide hydroelectricity. Many rivers begin in the Central Highlands and flow out to the coast. Tasmania's major population centres are mainly situated around estuaries (some of which are named rivers). Tasmania is in the shape of a downward-facing triangle, likened to a shield, heart, or face. It consists of the main island as well as at least a thousand neighbouring islands within the state's jurisdiction. The largest of these are Flinders Island in the Furneaux Group of Bass Strait, King Island in the west of Bass Strait, Cape Barren Island south of Flinders Island, Bruny Island separated from Tasmania by the D'Entrecasteaux Channel, Macquarie Island 1,500 km from Tasmania, and Maria Island off the east coast. Tasmania features a number of separated and continuous mountain ranges. The majority of the state is defined by a significant dolerite exposure, though the western half of the state is older and more rugged, featuring buttongrass plains, temperate rainforests, and quartzite ranges, notably Federation Peak and Frenchmans Cap. The presence of these mountain ranges is a primary factor in the rain shadow effect, where the western half receives the majority of rainfall, which also influences the types of vegetation that can grow. The Central Highlands feature a large plateau which forms a number of ranges and escarpments on its north side, tapering off along the south, and radiating into the highest mountain ranges in the west. At the north-west of this, another plateau radiates into a system of hills where takayna / Tarkine is located. The Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA) divides Tasmania into 9 bioregions: Ben Lomond, Furneaux, King, Central Highlands, Northern Midlands, Northern Slopes, Southern Ranges, South East, and West. Environment Tasmania's environment consistes of many different biomes or communities across its different regions. It is the most forested state in Australia, and preserves the country's largest areas of temperate rainforest. A distinctive type of moorland found across the west, and particularly south-west of Tasmania, are buttongrass plains, which are speculated to have been expanded by Tasmanian Aboriginal burning practices. Tasmania also features a diverse alpine garden environment, such as cushion plant. Highland areas receive consistent snowfall above ~1,000 metres every year, and due to cold air from Antarctica, this level often reaches 800 m, and more occasionally 600 or 400 metres. Every five or so years, snow can form at sea level. This environment gives rise to the cypress forests of the Central Plateau and mountainous highlands. In particular, the Walls of Jerusalem with large areas of rare pencil pine, and its closest relative King Billy pine. On the West Coast Range and partially on Mount Field, Australia's only winter-deciduous plant, deciduous beech is found, which forms a carpet or krummholz, or very rarely a 4-metre tree. Tasmania features a high concentration of waterfalls. These can be found in small creeks, alpine streams, rapid rivers, or off precipitous plunges. Some of the tallest waterfalls are found on mountain massifs, sometimes at a 200-metre cascade. The most famous and most visited waterfall in Tasmania is Russell Falls in Mount Field due to its proximity to Hobart and stepped falls at a total height of 58 metres. Tasmania also has a large number of beaches, the longest of which is Ocean Beach on the West Coast at about 40 kilometres. Wineglass Bay in Freycinet on the east coast is a well-known landmark of the state. The Tasmanian temperate rainforests cover a few different types. These are also considered distinct from the more common wet sclerophyll forests, though these eucalypt forests often form with rainforest understorey and ferns (such as tree-ferns) are usually never absent. Rainforest found in deep gullies are usually difficult to traverse due to dense understorey growth, such as from horizontal (Anodopetalum biglandulosum). Higher-elevation forests (~500 to 800 m) have smaller ground vegetation and are thus easier to walk in. The most common rainforests usually have a 50-metre canopy and are varied by environmental factors. Emergent growth usually comes from eucalyptus, which can tower another 50 metres higher (usually less), providing the most common choice of nesting for giant wedge-tailed eagles. The human environment ranges from urban or industrial development, to farming or grazing land. The most cultivated area is the Midlands, where it has suitable soil but is also the driest part of the state. Insularity Tasmania's insularity was possibly detected by Captain Abel Tasman when he charted Tasmania's coast in 1642. On 5 December, Tasman was following the east coast northward to see how far it went. When the land veered to the north-west at Eddystone Point, he tried to keep in with it but his ships were suddenly hit by the Roaring Forties howling through Bass Strait. Tasman was on a mission to find the Southern Continent, not more islands, so he abruptly turned away to the east and continued his continent-hunting. The next European to enter the strait was Captain James Cook on HMS Endeavour in April 1770. However, after sailing for two hours westward into the strait against the wind, he turned back east and noted in his journal that he was "doubtful whether they [i.e. Van Diemen's Land and New Holland] are one land or no". The strait was named after George Bass, after he and Matthew Flinders passed through it while circumnavigating Van Diemen's Land (now named Tasmania) in the Norfolk in 1798–99. At Flinders' recommendation, the Governor of New South Wales, John Hunter, in 1800 named the stretch of water between the mainland and Van Diemen's Land "Bass's Straits". Later it became known as Bass Strait. The existence of the strait had been suggested in 1797 by the master of Sydney Cove when he reached Sydney after deliberately grounding his foundering ship and being stranded on Preservation Island (at the eastern end of the strait). He reported that the strong south westerly swell and the tides and currents suggested that the island was in a channel linking the Pacific and southern Indian Ocean. Governor Hunter thus wrote to Joseph Banks in August 1797 that it seemed certain a strait existed. Climate Tasmania has a relatively cool temperate climate compared to the rest of Australia, spared from the hot summers of the mainland and experiencing four distinct seasons. Summer is from December to February when the average maximum sea temperature is and inland areas around Launceston reach . Other inland areas are much cooler, with Liawenee, located on the Central Plateau, one of the coldest places in Australia, ranging between and in February. Autumn is from March to May, with mostly settled weather, as summer patterns gradually take on the shape of winter patterns. The winter months are from June to August, and are generally the wettest and coldest months in the state, with most high lying areas receiving considerable snowfall. Winter maximums are on average along coastal areas and on the central plateau, as a result of a series of cold fronts from the Southern Ocean. Inland areas receive regular freezes throughout the winter months. Spring is from September to November, and is an unsettled season of transition, where winter weather patterns begin to take the shape of summer patterns, although snowfall is still common up until October. Spring is generally the windiest time of the year with afternoon sea breezes starting to take effect on the coast. Soils Despite the presence of some Quaternary glaciation, Tasmania's soils are not more fertile than those of mainland Australia, largely because most are severely leached and the areas with driest climates (least leaching) were unaffected by glaciation or alluvia derived therefrom. Most soils on the Bass Strait Islands, the east coast and western Tasmania are very infertile spodosols or psamments, with some even less fertile "lateritic podzolic soils" in the latter region. Most of these lands are thus not used for agriculture, but there is much productive forestry in Tasmania—which remains one of the state's major industries. On the north coast, apart from some relatively fertile alluvial soils used for fruit-growing, there are also deep red, easily workable soils known as "krasnozems" ("red land"). These soils are highly acidic and fix phosphate very effectively, but their extremely favourable physical properties make them extensively used for dairying, beef cattle and fodder crops. The Midlands and the Lower Derwent present a different story from the rest of the state. Owing to a relatively dry climate and alkaline (mostly dolerite) parent material, these soils are relatively unleached and contain lime in the deeper subsoil. They are mostly classified as "prairie soils" or "brown earths" and bear some resemblance to the chernozems of Russia and North America, although they are much lower in available phosphorus and somewhat acidic in the surface levels. Their higher nutrient levels, however, allow them to support productive pasture, and large numbers of sheep are grazed in these regions. Some grain crops are also grown in the driest areas. In the alluvial areas of southeastern Tasmania, rich alluvial soils permit apples to be grown. Tasmania became known as the "Apple Isle" because for many years it was one of the world's major apple producers. Apples are still grown in large numbers, particularly in southern Tasmania. Ecology Geographically and genetically isolated, Tasmania is known for its unique flora and fauna. Flora Tasmania has extremely diverse vegetation, from the heavily grazed grassland of the dry Midlands to the tall evergreen eucalypt forest, alpine heathlands and large areas of cool temperate rainforests and moorlands in the rest of the state. Many species are unique to Tasmania and some are related to species in South America and New Zealand through ancestors which grew on the supercontinent of Gondwana, 50 million years ago. Nothofagus gunnii, commonly known as Australian beech, is Australia's only temperate native deciduous tree and is found exclusively in Tasmania. Distinctive species of plant in Tasmania include: Eucalyptus regnans (mountain ash) - the tallest flowering plant and hardwood in the world, reaching 100 m (328 ft). Nothofagus cunninghamii (myrtle beech) - the most abundant temperate rainforest canopy species found in Tasmania. Nothofagus gunnii (deciduous beech) - Australia's only winter-deciduous tree. Atherosperma moschatum (blackheart sassafras) - a co-dominant rainforest tree with a nutmeg aroma. Lagarostrobos franklinii (Huon pine) - one of the oldest-lived tree species, and a self-preserving timber. Phyllocladus aspleniifolius (celery-top pine) - a celery-leaved conifer found in rainforests. Athrotaxis (Tasmanian cedar/redwood) - a genus comprising three extant species related to sequoia found in Tasmania. Eucryphia lucida (leatherwood) - a prominent floral symbol of Tasmania and a unique monofloral honey species. Bush tucker Tasmania also has a number of native edibles, known as bush tucker in Australia. These plants were foraged by the Tasmanian Aboriginals and also used for other purposes, such as construction. Unusual trees such as cider gum (Eucalyptus gunnii) had their manna used to make a syrup or an alcohol (cider). Other trees such as wattles (acacias) like blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) and mimosa (Acacia dealbata) could have their seeds eaten or crushed into a powder. There are also many berries such as snowberry (Gaultheria hispida), fruits such as heartberry (Aristotelia peduncularis), and vegetables such as river mint (Mentha australis), though no crops like maize that are used for large production. Fauna Tasmania has a large percentage of endemism whilst featuring many types of animals found on mainland Australia. Many of these species, such as the platypus are larger than their mainland relatives. The island of Tasmania was home to the thylacine, a marsupial which resembled a fossa or some say a wild dog. Known colloquially as the Tasmanian tiger for the distinctive striping across its back, it became extinct in mainland Australia much earlier because of competition by the dingo, introduced in prehistoric times. Owing to persecution by farmers, government-funded bounty hunters and, in the final years, collectors for overseas museums, it appears to have been exterminated in Tasmania. The Tasmanian devil became the largest carnivorous marsupial in the world following the extinction of the thylacine in 1936, and is now found in the wild only in Tasmania. Tasmania was one of the last regions of Australia to be introduced to domesticated dogs. Dogs were brought from Britain in 1803 for hunting kangaroos and emus. This introduction completely transformed Aboriginal society, as it helped them to successfully compete with European hunters, and was more important than the introduction of guns for the Aboriginal people. Tasmania is a hotspot for giant habitat trees and the large animal species that occupy them, notably the endangered Tasmanian wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax fleayi), the Tasmanian masked owl (Tyto novaehollandiae castanops), the Tasmanian giant freshwater crayfish (Astacopsis gouldi), the yellow wattlebird (Anthochaera paradoxa), the green rosella (Platycercus caledonicus) and others. Tasmania is also home to the world's only three migratory parrots, the critically endangered Orange-bellied parrot (Neophema chrysogaster), the Blue-winged parrot (Neophema chrysostoma), and the fastest parrot in the world, the swift parrot (Lathamus discolor). Tasmania has 12 endemic species of bird in total. Mycology Tasmania is a hotspot for fungal diversity. The importance of fungi in Tasmania's ecology is often overlooked, but nonetheless they play a vital role in the natural vegetation cycle. Conservation Like the rest of Australia, Tasmania suffers from an endangered species problem. In particular, many important Tasmanian subspecies and world-significant species of animal are classified as at risk in some way. A famous example is the Tasmanian devil, which is endangered due to devil facial tumour disease. Some species have already gone extinct, primarily due to human interference, such as in the case of the thylacine or the Tasmanian emu. In Tasmania, there are about 90 endangered, vulnerable, or threatened vertebrate species classified by the state or Commonwealth governments. Because of a reliance on roads and private vehicle transport, and a high concentration of animal populations divided by this development, Tasmania has the worst (per kilometre) roadkill rate in the world, with 32 animals killed per hour and at least 300,000 per year. Protected areas of Tasmania cover 21% of the island's land area in the form of national parks. The Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area (TWWHA) was inscribed by UNESCO in 1982, where it is globally significant because "most UNESCO World Heritage sites meet only one or two of the ten criteria for that status. The Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area (TWWHA) meets 7 out of 10 criteria. Only one other place on earth—China’s Mount Taishan—meets that many criteria". Controversy surrounds the decision in 2014 by the Abbott federal Liberal government to request the area's delisting and opening for resource exploration (before it was rejected by the UN Committee at Doha), and the current mining and deforestation in the state's Tarkine region, the largest single temperate rainforest in Australia. Demography Tasmania's population is more homogeneous than that of other states of Australia, with many of Irish and British descent. Approximately 65% of its residents are descendants of an estimated 10,000 "founding families" from the mid-19th century. Until 2012, Tasmania was the only state in Australia with an above-replacement total fertility rate; Tasmanian women had an average of 2.24 children each. By 2012 the birth rate had slipped to 2.1 children per woman, bringing the state to the replacement threshold, but it continues to have the second-highest birth rate of any state or territory (behind the Northern Territory). Major population centres include Hobart, Launceston, Devonport, Burnie, and Ulverstone. Kingston is often defined as a separate city but is generally regarded as part of the Greater Hobart Area. Ancestry and immigration At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were: 19.3% of the population was born overseas at the 2016 census. The five largest groups of overseas-born were from England (3.7%), New Zealand (1%), Mainland China (0.6%), Scotland (0.4%) and the Netherlands (0.4%). 4.6% of the population, or 23,572 people, identified as Indigenous Australians (Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders) in 2016. Language At the 2016 census, 88.3% of the population spoke only English at home. The other languages most commonly spoken at home were Standard Mandarin (0.8%), Nepali (0.3%), Greek (0.2%) and Italian (0.2%). Religion At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated religions were Anglicanism (20.4%) and Catholicism (15.6%), while 37.8% of the population cited no religion. Government The form of the government of Tasmania is prescribed in its constitution, which dates from 1856, although it has been amended many times since then. Since 1901, Tasmania has been a state of the Commonwealth of Australia, and the Australian Constitution regulates its relationship with the Commonwealth and prescribes which powers each level of government is allowed. Tasmania is represented in the Senate by 12 senators, on an equal basis with all other states. In the House of Representatives, Tasmania is entitled to five seats, which is the minimum allocation for a state guaranteed by the Constitution—the number of House of Representatives seats for each state is otherwise decided on the basis of their relative populations, and Tasmania has never qualified for five seats on that basis alone. Tasmania's House of Assembly use a system of multi-seat proportional representation known as Hare-Clark. Elections At the 2002 state election, the Labor Party won 14 of the 25 House seats. The people decreased their vote for the Liberal Party; representation in the Parliament fell to seven seats. The Greens won four seats, with over 18% of the popular vote, the highest proportion of any Green party in any parliament in the world at that time. On 23 February 2004 the Premier Jim Bacon announced his retirement, after being diagnosed with lung cancer. In his last months he opened a vigorous anti-smoking campaign which included many restrictions on where individuals could smoke, such as pubs. He died four months later. Bacon was succeeded by Paul Lennon, who, after leading the state for two years, went on to win the 2006 state election in his own right. Lennon resigned in 2008 and was succeeded by David Bartlett, who formed a coalition government with the Greens after the 2010 state election resulted in a hung parliament. Bartlett resigned as Premier in January 2011 and was replaced by Lara Giddings, who became Tasmania's first female Premier. In March 2014 Will Hodgman's Liberal Party won government, ending sixteen years of Labor governance, and ending an eight-year period for Hodgman himself as Leader of the Opposition. Hodgman then won a second term of government in the 2018 state election, but resigned mid-term in January 2020 and was replaced by Peter Gutwein. In May 2021, the Tasmanian state election was held after being called early by the incumbent Liberal Party, resulting in their return to government and establishment of a one-seat majority. It was also the first time that the Liberal Party had been elected three-times in a row. Politics Tasmania has a number of undeveloped regions. Proposals for local economic development have been faced with requirements for environmental sensitivity, or opposition. In particular, proposals for hydroelectric power generation were debated in the late 20th century. In the 1970s, opposition to the construction of the Lake Pedder reservoir impoundment led to the formation of the world's first Green party, the United Tasmania Group. In the early 1980s the state debated the proposed Franklin River Dam. The anti-dam sentiment was shared by many Australians outside Tasmania and proved a factor in the election of the Hawke Labor government in 1983, which halted construction of the dam. Since the 1980s the environmental focus has shifted to old growth logging and mining in the Tarkine region, which have both proved divisive. The Tasmania Together process recommended an end to clear felling in high conservation old growth forests by January 2003, but was unsuccessful. In 1996, the House of Assembly consisted of 35 seats with 7 seats per each of the five electorates. By the 1998 election, the number of seats had been reduced down to 25, or 5 per each electorate. This resulted in the reduction of the Greens' number of seats from 4 to 1, and increased the proportion of seats held by both the Labor and Liberal parties. This was despite growth in population (five-fold since responsible government) and an increase in the voting percentage required for a majority government. There was also no public consultation, and inquiries at the time had recommended the opposite. The House of Assembly Select Committee in 2020 recommended in its report that the number should be increased again from 25 to 35, arguing that such a small representation would undermine democracy and limit the capabilities of the government. In 2010, the major party leadership had even endorsed reinstating the 35 seat number, but Liberal and Labor support was withdrawn the following year, with only the Greens keeping their commitment. Local government Tasmania has 29 local government areas. Local councils are responsible for functions delegated by the Tasmanian parliament, such as urban planning, road infrastructure and waste management. Council revenue comes mostly from property taxes and government grants. As with the House of Assembly, Tasmania's local government elections use a system of multi-seat proportional representation known as Hare–Clark. Local government elections take place every four years and are conducted by the Tasmanian Electoral Commission by full postal ballot. The next local government elections will be held during September and October 2018. Economy Traditionally, Tasmania's main industries have been mining (including copper, zinc, tin, and iron), agriculture, forestry, and tourism. Tasmania is on Australia's electrical grid and in the 1940s and 1950s, a hydro-industrialisation initiative was embodied in the state by Hydro Tasmania. These all have had varying fortunes over the last century and more, involved in ebbs and flows of population moving in and away dependent upon the specific requirements of the dominant industries of the time. The state also has a large number of food exporting sectors, including but not limited to seafood (such as salmon, abalone and crayfish). In the 1960s and 1970s there was a decline in traditional crops such as apples and pears, with other crops and industries eventually rising in their place. During the 15 years until 2010, new agricultural products such as wine, saffron, pyrethrum and cherries have been fostered by the Tasmanian Institute of Agricultural Research. Favourable economic conditions throughout Australia, cheaper air fares, and two new Spirit of Tasmania ferries have all contributed to what is now a rising tourism industry. About 1.7% of the Tasmanian population are employed by local government. Other major employers include Nyrstar, Norske Skog, Grange Resources, Rio Tinto, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Hobart, and Federal Group. Small business is a large part of the community life, including Incat, Moorilla Estate and Tassal. In the late 1990s, a number of national companies based their call centres in the state after obtaining cheap access to broad-band fibre optic connections. 34% of Tasmanians are reliant on welfare payments as their primary source of income. This number is in part due to the large number of older residents and retirees in Tasmania receiving Age Pensions. Due to its natural environment and clean air, Tasmania is a common retirement selection for Australians. Science and technology The modern scientific sector in Tasmania benefits from around $500 million in annual investment. Tasmania has a long history of scientific and technological innovation. The first scientific-style observations were conducted by the First Nation Tasmanians, primarily through the watching and mythologising of the night sky. In a story explaining the phases of the moon and sun, it shows that it "is one of the rare accounts that explicitly acknowledges that the light of the Moon is a reflection of the Sun’s light". The French D'Entrecasteaux Expedition of 1792-93 had anchored twice during its search of the missing La Pérouse in the Baie de la Recherche (Recherche Bay) in far-south Tasmania. During their stay, the crew took botanical, astronomical, and geomagnetic observations which were the first of their kind performed on Australian soil. As well as this, they engaged in amicable relations with the locals and environment, gifting the area a "French garden", in which "the relatively extensive, well-documented (both pictorially and written) encounters [...] between [them] provided a very early opportunity for meetings and mutual observation". The longest-running branch of the Royal Society outside of the United Kingdom is the Royal Society of Tasmania which was summoned in 1843. The Tasmanian Society of Natural History had been formed previously in 1838 before its merger with the Royal Society in 1849. It had been served by early botanists working in Tasmania such as Ronald Gunn and his correspondences. Although Tamworth in New South Wales is often credited as being the first place in Australia with electric street lighting in 1888, Waratah in North West Tasmania was actually the first place to do so in Australia in 1886, although at a smaller scale. Culture Literature Notable titles by Tasmanian authors include The Museum of Modern Love by Heather Rose, The Narrow Road to the Deep North by Richard Flanagan, The Alphabet of Light and Dark by Danielle Wood, The Roving Party by Rohan Wilson and The Year of Living Dangerously by Christopher Koch, The Rain Queen by Katherine Scholes, Bridget Crack by Rachel Leary, and The Blue Day Book by Bradley Trevor Greive. A small part of Helen Garner's Monkey Grip is set in Hobart as the main characters take a sojourn there. Children's books include They Found a Cave by Nan Chauncy, The Museum of Thieves by Lian Tanner, Finding Serendipity, A Week Without Tuesday and Blueberry Pancakes Forever by Angelica Banks, Tiger Tale by Marion and Steve Isham. Tasmania is home to the eminent literary magazine that was formed in 1979, Island magazine, and the biennial Tasmanian Writers and Readers Festival, now renamed the Hobart Writers Festival. Tasmanian Gothic is a literary genre which expresses the island state's "peculiar 'otherness' in relation to the mainland, as a remote, mysterious and self-enclosed place." Marcus Clarke's novel For the Term of his Natural Life, written in the 1870s and set in convict era Tasmania, is a seminal example. This distinctive Gothic is not just restricted to literature, but can be represented through all the arts, such as in painting, music, or architecture. Visual arts The biennial Tasmanian Living Artists' Week is a ten-day statewide festival for Tasmania's visual artists. The fourth festival in 2007 involved more than 1000 artists. Tasmania is home to two winners of the prestigious Archibald Prize—Jack Carington Smith in 1963 for a portrait of Professor James McAuley, and Geoffrey Dyer in 2003 for his portrait of Richard Flanagan. Photographers Olegas Truchanas and Peter Dombrovskis are known for works that became iconic in the Lake Pedder and Franklin Dam conservation movements. English-born painter John Glover (1767–1849) is known for his paintings of Tasmanian landscapes, and is the namesake for the annual Glover Prize, which is awarded to the best landscape painting of Tasmania. The Museum of Old and New Art (MONA) opened in January 2011 at the Moorilla Estate in Berriedale, and is the largest privately owned museum complex in Australia. Music and performing arts Tasmania has a varied musical scene, ranging from the Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra whose home is the Federation Concert Hall, to a substantial number of small bands, orchestras, string quintets, saxophone ensembles and individual artists who perform at a variety of venues around the state. Tasmania is also home to a vibrant community of composers including Constantine Koukias, Maria Grenfell and Don Kay. Tasmania is also home to one of Australia's leading new music institutions, IHOS Music Theatre and Opera and gospel choirs, the Southern Gospel Choir. Prominent Australian metal bands Psycroptic and Striborg hail from Tasmania. Noir-rock band The Paradise Motel and 1980s power-pop band The Innocents are also citizens. The first season of the television series The Mole was filmed and based mainly in Tasmania, with the final elimination taking place in Port Arthur jail. The Tasmanian Aboriginals were known to have sung oral traditions, as Fanny Cochrane Smith (the last fluent speaker of any Tasmanian language) had done so in recordings from 1899 to 1903. Tasmania has been home to some early and prominent Australian composers. In piano, Kitty Parker from Longford was described by world-famous Australian composer Percy Grainger as his most gifted student. Peter Sculthorpe was originally from Launceston and became well known in Australia for his works which were influenced by his Tasmanian origins, and he is, by coincidence, distantly related to Fanny Cochrane Smith. In 1996, Sculthorpe composed the piece Port Arthur: In Memoriam for chamber orchestra, which was first performed by the Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra. Charles Sandys Packer was an early Tasmanian example of the tradition of Australian classical music, transported for the crime of embezzlement in 1839, and at a similar time Francis Hartwell Henslowe had spent time as a public servant in Tasmania. Amy Sherwin, known as the Tasmanian Nightingale was a successful soprano, and Eileen Joyce, who came from remote Zeehan, became a world-renowned pianist at the time of her peak. Cinema Films set in Tasmania include Young Einstein, The Tale of Ruby Rose, The Hunter, The Last Confession of Alexander Pearce, Arctic Blast, Manganinnie (with music composed by Peter Sculthorpe), Van Diemen's Land, Lion, and The Nightingale. Common within Australian cinema, the Tasmanian landscape is a focal point in most of their feature film productions. The Last Confession of Alexander Pearce and Van Diemen's Land are both set during an episode of Tasmania's convict history. Tasmanian film production goes as far back as the silent era, with the epic For The Term of His Natural Life in 1927 being the most expensive feature film made on Australian shores. The Kettering Incident, filmed in and around Kettering, Tasmania, won the 2016 AACTA Award for Best Telefeature or Mini Series. The documentary series Walking with Dinosaurs was partly filmed in Tasmania due to its terrain. The Tasmanian Film Corporation, which financed Manganinnie, was the successor to the Tasmanian Government Department of Film Production, but disappeared after privatisation. Its role is now filled by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Screen Tasmania, and private ventures such as Blue Rocket Productions. Media Tasmania has five broadcast television stations which produce local content including ABC Tasmania, Seven Tasmania – an affiliate of the Seven Network, WIN Television Tasmania – an affiliate of the Nine Network, 10 Tasmania – an affiliate of Network 10 (joint owned by WIN and Southern Cross), and SBS. Sport Sport is an important pastime in Tasmania, and the state has produced several famous sportsmen and women and also hosted several major sporting events. The Tasmanian Tigers cricket team represents the state successfully (for example the Sheffield Shield in 2007, 2011 and 2013) and plays its home games at the Bellerive Oval in Hobart; which is also the home ground for the Hobart Hurricanes in the Big Bash League. In addition, Bellerive Oval regularly hosts international cricket matches. Famous Tasmanian cricketers include David Boon, former Australian captains Ricky Ponting and Tim Paine. Australian rules football is also popularly followed, with frequent discussion of a proposed Tasmanian team in the Australian Football League (AFL). Several AFL games have been played at Aurora Stadium, Launceston, including the Hawthorn Football Club and , at the Bellerive Oval with the North Melbourne Football Club playing 3 home games there. The stadium was the site of an infamous match between St Kilda and Fremantle which was controversially drawn after the umpires failed to hear the final siren. Local leagues include the North West Football League and Tasmanian State League. Rugby League Football is also played in the area, with the highest level of football played is in the Tasmanian Rugby League competition. The most successful team is the Hobart Tigers, who have won the title three times. Rugby Union is also played in Tasmania and is governed by the Tasmanian Rugby Union. Ten clubs take part in the statewide Tasmanian Rugby Competition. Association Football (soccer) is played throughout the state, including a proposed Tasmanian A-League Club and an existing statewide league called the NPL Tasmania. Tasmania hosts the professional Moorilla International tennis tournament as part of the lead up to the Australian Open and is played at the Hobart International Tennis Centre, Hobart. The Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race is an annual event starting in Sydney, NSW, on Boxing Day and finishing in Hobart, Tasmania. It is widely considered to be one of the most difficult yacht races in the world. While some of the other sports played and barracked for have grown in popularity, others have declined. For example, in basketball Tasmania has not been represented in the National Basketball League since the demise of the Hobart Devils in 1996. A new National Basketball League team based in both Launceston and Hobart is due to enter the league in the 2021–22 season. Potential names include the Brewers, Tigers and Devils. Cuisine Tasmanian Aboriginals had a diverse diet, including native currants, pigface, and native plums, and a wide range of birds and kangaroos. Seafood has always been a significant part of the Tasmanian diet, including its wide range of shellfish, which are still commercially farmed such as crayfish, orange roughy, salmon and oysters. Seal meat also formed a significant part of the Aboriginal diet. Tasmania's non-Aboriginal cuisine has a unique history to mainland Australia. It has developed through many subsequent waves of immigration. Tasmanian traditional foods include scallop pies - a pie filled with scallops in curry - and curry powder, which was popularised by Keen's Curry in the 19th century Tasmania also produces and consumes wasabi, saffron, truffles and leatherwood honey Tasmania now has a wide range of restaurants, in part due to the arrival of immigrants and changing cultural patterns. Scattered across Tasmania are many vineyards, and Tasmanian beer brands such as Boags and Cascade are known and sold in Mainland Australia. King Island off the northwestern coast of Tasmania has a reputation for boutique cheeses and dairy products. The Central Cookery Book was written in 1930 by A. C. Irvine and is still popular in Australia and even internationally. Tasmanian cuisine is often unique, and has won many awards. One example is the Hartshorn Distillery, which has won prizes in the World Vodka Awards for three years in a row since 2017. Events To foster tourism, the state government encourages or supports several annual events in and around the island. The best known of these is the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race, starting on Boxing Day in Sydney and usually arriving at Constitution Dock in Hobart around three to four days later, during the Taste of Tasmania, an annual food and wine festival. Other events include the road rally Targa Tasmania which attracts rally drivers from around the world and is staged all over the state, over five days. Rural or regional events include Agfest, a three-day agricultural show held at Carrick (just west of Launceston) in early May and NASA supported TastroFest - Tasmania's Astronomy Festival, held early August in Ulverstone (North West Tasmania). The Royal Hobart Show and Royal Launceston Show are both held in October annually. Music events held in Tasmania include the Falls Festival at Marion Bay (a Victorian event now held in both Victoria and Tasmania on New Year's Eve), the Festival of Voices, a national celebration of song held each year in Hobart attracting international and national teachers and choirs in the heart of Winter, MS Fest is a charity music event held in Launceston, to raise money for those with multiple sclerosis. The Cygnet Folk Festival is one Australia's most iconic folk music festivals and is held in Cygnet in the Huon Valley every year in January, the Tasmanian Lute Festival is an early music event held in different locations in Tasmania every two years. Recent additions to the state arts events calendar include the 10 Days on the Island arts festival, MONA FOMA, run by David Walsh and curated by Brian Ritchie and Dark Mofo also run by David Walsh and curated by Leigh Carmichael. The Unconformity is a three-day festival held every two years in Queenstown on the West Coast. Each February in Evandale a penny-farthing championships are held. Perception within Australia Tasmania is perceived within Australia and internationally as an island with pristine wildlife, water and air. It is known for its ecotourism for these reasons, and is considered an idyllic location for Australians considering a "tree-" or "sea-change", or are seeking retirement because of Tasmania's temperate environment and friendly locals. In other parts of the world, Tasmania is considered as the opposite side of the planet to most places, and supposedly home to mythically exotic animals, such as the Tasmanian Devil as popularised by Warner Brothers. Stereotypes Tasmania has a reputation within Australia that is often at odds with the reality of the state, or may have only been true during colonial times and has only persevered on the Australian mainland as a myth. Because of these stereotypes, Tasmania is often referred to as the primary "butt" of Australian jokes. In more recent times, references to insults against Tasmania are more sarcastic and jovial, but angst against the island still exists. The most commonly cited sarcastic comment is on the supposedly 'two-headed' Tasmanians. But as Tasmania receives higher volumes of inter-state tourists, the perceptions are in the process of changing, due to a higher awareness of the state's unique beauty, and an acknowledgement of the similarities and 'mateship' that hold Australia together. The most prominent example of negative stereotype is of inbreeding due to the relatively small size of Tasmania compared to the rest of Australia (though Tasmania is nearly as large as Ireland in area, and more populous than Iceland). This is untrue of course, and if it had once been the case, it would have existed in the rest of colonial Australia as well, though Tasmania's penal establishments were some of the harshest in the entire colony and home to infamous bushrangers. This is a part of the also-receding global stereotype that all Australians are or were derived from criminals, even as most convicts were transported for petty crimes. During this period of European settlement, Tasmania was the second centre of power (and a significant port of the British Empire) on the continent after New South Wales, before being surpassed in the latter half of the 19th-century by Victoria and regions sustained by mining booms following the cessation of transportation in 1853. A mentality developed in certain corners of Australia, and led to a general dislike of Tasmania amongst these people, even if the opinion-holder had never properly visited. It can rise to such an extent as to argue for the secession of Tasmania from the rest of Australia, in an effort to 'recover' Australia's reputation from Tasmania. Transport Air Tasmania's main air carriers are Jetstar and Virgin Australia; Qantas, QantasLink and Rex Airlines. These airlines fly direct routes to Brisbane, Gold Coast, Melbourne and Sydney. Major airports include Hobart Airport and Launceston Airport; the smaller airports, Burnie (Wynyard) and King Island, serviced by Rex Airlines; and Devonport, serviced by QantasLink; have services to Melbourne. Intra-Tasmanian air services are offered by Airlines of Tasmania. Until 2001 Ansett Australia operated majorly out of Tasmania to 12 destinations nationwide. Tourism-related air travel is also represented in Tasmania, such as in the Par Avion route between Cambridge Aerodrome near Hobart to Melaleuca in Southwest National Park. Antarctica base Tasmania – Hobart in particular – serves as Australia's chief sea link to Antarctica, with the Australian Antarctic Division located in Kingston. Hobart is also the home port of the French ship l'Astrolabe, which makes regular supply runs to the French Southern Territories near and in Antarctica. Road Within the state, the primary form of transport is by road. Since the 1980s, many of the state's highways have undergone regular upgrades. These include the Hobart Southern Outlet, Launceston Southern Outlet, Bass Highway reconstruction, and the Huon Highway. Public transport is provided by Metro Tasmania bus services, regular taxis and Hobart only UBER ride-share services within urban areas, with Redline Coaches, Tassielink Transit and Callows Coaches providing bus service between population centres. Rail Rail transport in Tasmania consists of narrow-gauge lines to all four major population centres and to mining and forestry operations on the west coast and in the northwest. Services are operated by TasRail. Regular passenger train services in the state ceased in 1977; the only scheduled trains are for freight, but there are tourist trains in specific areas, for example the West Coast Wilderness Railway. There is an ongoing proposal to reinstate commuter trains to Hobart. This idea however lacks political motivation. Shipping The port of Hobart is the second deepest natural port in the world, second to only Rio de Janeiro in Brazil. There is a substantial amount of commercial and recreational shipping within the harbour, and the port hosts approximately 120 cruise ships during the warmer half of the year, and there are occasional visits from military vessels. Burnie and Devonport on the northwest coast host ports and several other coastal towns host either small fishing ports or substantial marinas. The domestic sea route between Tasmania and the mainland is serviced by Bass Strait passenger/vehicle ferries operated by the Tasmanian government-owned TT-Line. The state is also home to Incat, a manufacturer of very high-speed aluminium catamarans that regularly broke records when they were first launched. The state government tried using them on the Bass Strait run but eventually decided to discontinue the run because of concerns over viability and the suitability of the vessels for the extreme weather conditions sometimes experienced in the strait. Gallery See also Index of Australia-related articles List of amphibians of Tasmania List of schools in Tasmania Omission of Tasmania from maps of Australia Outline of Australia Regions of Tasmania Notes References Further reading External links Tasmania Online—the main State Government website Discover Tasmania – official tourism website Islands of Australia States and territories of Australia States and territories established in 1825 1825 establishments in Australia 1642 in the Dutch Empire

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tod%20Browning

Tod Browning

Tod Browning (born Charles Albert Browning Jr.; July 12, 1880 – October 6, 1962) was an American film director, film actor, screenwriter, vaudeville performer, and carnival sideshow and circus entertainer, he directed a number of films of various genre between 1915 and 1939, but was primarily known for horror films. He was often cited in the trade press as the Edgar Allan Poe of cinema. Browning's career spanned the silent film and sound film eras. Browning is known as the director of Dracula (1931), Freaks (1932), and his silent film collaborations with Lon Chaney and Priscilla Dean. Early life Tod Browning was born Charles Albert Browning, Jr., in Louisville, Kentucky, the second son of Charles Albert and Lydia Browning. Charles Albert Sr., "a bricklayer, carpenter and machinist" provided his family with a middle-class and Baptist household. Browning's uncle, the baseball star Pete "Louisville Slugger" Browning saw his sobriquet conferred on the iconic baseball bat. Circus, sideshow and vaudeville As a child, Browning was fascinated by circus and carnival life. At the age of 16, and before finishing high school, he ran away from his well-to-do family to join a traveling circus. Initially hired as a roustabout, he soon began serving as a "spieler" (a barker at sideshows) and by 1901, at the age of 21, was performing song and dance routines for Ohio and Mississippi riverboat entertainment, as well as acting as a contortionist for the Manhattan Fair and Carnival Company. Browning developed a live burial act in which he was billed as "The Living Hypnotic Corpse", and performed as a clown with the renowned Ringling Brothers circus. He would later draw on these early experiences to inform his cinematic inventions. In 1906, the 26-year-old Browning was briefly married to Amy Louis Stevens in Louisville. Adopting the professional name "Tod" Browning (tod is the German word for death), Browning abandoned his wife and became a vaudevillian, touring extensively as both a magician's assistant and a blackface comedian in an act called The Lizard and the Coon with comedian Roy C. Jones. He appeared in a Mutt and Jeff sketch in the 1912 burlesque revue The World of Mirth with comedian Charles Murray. Film actor: 1909-1913 In 1909, after 13 years performing in carnivals and vaudeville circuits, Browning, age 29, transitioned to film acting. Browning's work as a comedic film actor began in 1909 when he performed with director and screenwriter Edward Dillon in film shorts. In all, Browning was cast in over 50 of these one- or two-reeler slapstick productions. Film historian Boris Henry observes that "Browning's experience as a slapstick actor [became] incorporated into his career as a filmmaker." Dillon later provided many of the screenplays for the early films that Browning would direct. A number of actors that Browning performed with in his early acting career would later appear in his own pictures, many of whom served their apprenticeships with Keystone Cops director Max Sennett, among them Wallace Beery, Ford Sterling, Polly Moran, Wheeler Oakman, Raymond Griffith, Kalla Pasha, Mae Busch, Wallace MacDonald and Laura La Varnie. In 1913, the 33-year-old Browning was hired by film director D. W. Griffith at Biograph Studios in New York City, first appearing as an undertaker in Scenting a Terrible Crime (1913). Both Griffith and Browning departed Biograph and New York that same year and together joined Reliance-Majestic Studios in Hollywood, California. Browning was featured in several Reliance-Majestic films, including The Wild Girl (1917). Early film directing and screenwriting: 1914–1916 Film historian Vivian Sobchack reports that "a number of one- or two-reelers are attributed to Browning from 1914 to 1916" and biographer Michael Barson credits Browning's directorial debut to the one-reeler drama The Lucky Transfer, released in March 1915. Browning's career almost ended when, intoxicated, he drove his vehicle into a railroad crossing and collided with a locomotive. Browning suffered grievous injuries, as did passenger George Siegmann. A second passenger, actor Elmer Booth was killed instantly. Film historian Jon Towlson notes that "alcoholism was to contribute to a major trauma in Browning's personal life that would shape his thematic obsessions...After 1915, Browning began to direct his traumatic experience into his work – radically reshaping it in the process." According to biographers David J. Skal and Elias Savada, the tragic event transformed Browning's creative outlook: Indeed, the thirty-one films that Browning wrote and directed between 1920 to 1939 were, with few exceptions, melodramas. Browning's injuries likely precluded a further career as an actor. During his protracted convalescence, Browning turned to writing screenplays for Reliance-Majestic. Upon his recovery, Browning joined Griffith's film crew on the set of Intolerance (1916) as an assistant director and appeared in a bit part for the production's "modern story" sequence. Plot and theme in Browning's films Film historian Vivian Sobchack identifies four plots or mise-en-scène in which Browning presents his themes: Sobchack points out that the plot synopsis for these films, considered independently of their cinematic treatments, appear "ludicrous" or "bizarre" in conception. Browning's handling of the material, however, produce "powerful and disturbing realizations on the screen." The melodramas that Browning wrote and directed for M-G-M and Universal are formulaic manifestations of his "compulsive" preoccupation with themes of "moral and sexual frustration, interchangeable guilt [and] patterns of human repulsion and attraction." Biographer Stuart Rosenthal offers this analysis of the director's style and themes: Rosenthal assigns four thematic categories to Browning's films: Reality vs. Appearance, in which an individual's social exterior (physical beauty, the trappings of authority or professional status) are exposed as facades masking cruel or criminal behavior. (ex. The Unholy Three (1925), Where East Is East (1929)) Sexual Frustration, often involving a "sacred" father-child or other kinship relation in which "a man's offspring represent extensions of his own sexuality" provoking a protective response to sexual insults from outsiders. (ex. The Road to Mandalay (1926), West of Zanzibar (1928)). Conflict of Opposing Tendencies within an Individual, leading to a loss of identity when irreconcilable character traits in a person produces alter egos. Author Robert Louis Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde explores this "intractable frustration."(ex. Outside the Law (1921), The Blackbird (1926)). Inability to Assign Guilt, in which a character resorts to violence or criminal acts in order to avenge injustice, and guilt or blame remains ambiguous. (ex. The Unknown (1927), Freaks (1932)) The factor that unifies all these thematic patterns is frustration: "Frustration is Browning's dominant theme." Director: early silent feature films, 1917–1919 In 1917, Browning wrote and directed his first full-length feature film, Jim Bludso, for Fine Arts/ Triangle film companies, starring Wilfred Lucas in the title role. The story is based on a poem by John Hay, a former personal secretary to Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War. Browning married his second wife Alice Watson in 1917; they would remain together until her death in 1944. Returning to New York in 1917, Browning directed pictures for Metro Pictures. There he made Peggy, the Will O' the Wisp and The Jury of Fate. Both starred Mabel Taliaferro, the latter in a dual role achieved with double exposure techniques that were groundbreaking for the time. Film historian Vivian Sobchack notes that many of these films "involved the disguise and impersonations found in later Browning films." (See Filmography below.) Browning returned to Hollywood in 1918 and produced three more films for Metro, each of which starred Edith Storey: The Eyes of Mystery, The Legion of Death and Revenge, all filmed and released in 1918. These early and profitable five-, six- and seven-reel features Browning made between 1917-1919 established him as "a successful director and script writer." In the spring of 1918 Browning departed Metro and signed with Bluebird Photoplays studios (a subsidiary of Carl Laemmle's Universal Pictures), then in 1919 with Universal where he would direct a series of "extremely successful" films starring Priscilla Dean. Universal Studios: 1919–1923 During his tenure at Universal, Browning directed a number of the studio's top female actors, among them Edith Roberts in The Deciding Kiss and Set Free (both 1918) and Mary MacLaren in The Unpainted Woman, A Petal on the Current and Bonnie, Bonnie Lassie, all 1919 productions. Browning's most notable films for Universal, however, starred Priscilla Dean, "Universal's leading lady known for playing 'tough girls'" and with whom he would direct nine features. The Priscilla Dean films Browning's first successful Dean picture—a "spectacular melodrama"—is The Virgin of Stamboul (1920). Dean portrays Sari, a "virgin beggar girl" who is desired by the Turkish chieftain Achmet Hamid (Wallace Beery). Browning's handling of the former slapstick comedian Beery as Achmet reveals the actor's comedic legacy and Browning's own roots in burlesque. Film historian Stuart Rosenthal wrote that the Dean vehicles possess "the seemingly authentic atmosphere with which Browning instilled his crime melodramas, adding immeasurably to later efforts like The Black Bird (1926), The Show (1927) and The Unholy Three. (1925)." The Dean films exhibit Browning's fascination with 'exotic' foreign settings and with underworld criminal activities, which serve to drive the action of his films. Dean is cast as a thieving demimonde who infiltrates high society to burgle jewelry in The Exquisite Thief (1919); in Under Two Flags (1922), set in colonial French Algiers, Dean is cast as a French-Arab member of a harem—her sobriquet is "Cigarette—servicing the French Foreign Legion; and in Drifting (1923), with its "compelling" Shanghai, China scenes recreated on the Universal backlot, Dean plays an opium dealer. In Browning's final Dean vehicle at Universal, White Tiger, he indulged his fascination with "quasi-theatrical" productions of illusion—and revealed to movie audiences the mechanisms of these deceptions. In doing so, Browning—a former member of the fraternity of magicians—violated a precept of their professional code. Perhaps the most fortuitous outcome of the Dean films at Universal is that they introduced Browning to future collaborator Lon Chaney, the actor who would star in Browning's most outstanding films of the silent era. Chaney had already earned the sobriquet "The Man of a Thousand Faces" as early as 1919 for his work at Universal. Universal's vice-president Irving Thalberg paired Browning with Chaney for the first time in The Wicked Darling (1919), a melodrama in which Chaney played the thief "Stoop" Conners who forces a poor girl (Dean) from the slums into a life of crime and prostitution. In 1921, Browning and Thalberg enlisted Chaney in another Dean vehicle, Outside the Law, in which he plays the dual roles of the sinister "Black Mike" Sylva and the benevolent Ah Wing. Both of these Universal production exhibit Browning's "natural affinity for the melodramatic and grotesque." In a special effect that drew critical attention, Chaney appears to murder his own dual character counterpart through trick photography and "with Thalberg supporting their imaginative freedom, Chaney's ability and unique presence fanned the flames of Browning's passion for the extraordinary." Biographer Stuart Rosenthal remarks upon the foundations of the Browning-Chaney professional synergy: When Thalberg resigned as vice-president at Universal to serve as production manager with the newly amalgamated Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1925, Browning and Chaney accompanied him. The Browning-Chaney collaborations at M-G-M: 1925–1929 After moving to M-G-M in 1925 under the auspices of production manager Irving Thalberg, Browning and Chaney made eight critically and commercially successful feature films, representing the zenith of both their silent film careers. Browning wrote or co-wrote the stories for six of the eight productions. Screenwriter Waldemar Young, credited on nine of the M-G-M pictures, worked effectively with Browning. At M-G-M, Browning would reach his artistic maturity as a filmmaker. The first of these M-G-M productions established Browning as a talented filmmaker in Hollywood, and deepened Chaney's professional and personal influence on the director: The Unholy Three. The Unholy Three (1925) In a circus tale by author Tod Robbins—a setting familiar to Browning—a trio of criminal ex-carnies and a pickpocket form a jewelry theft ring. Their activities lead to a murder and an attempt to frame an innocent bookkeeper. Two of the criminal quartet reveal their humanity and are redeemed; two perish through violent justice. The Unholy Three is an outstanding example of Browning's delight in the "bizarre" melodramas (though here, not macabre) and its "the perverse characterizations" that Browning and Chaney devise anticipate their subsequent collaborations. Lon Chaney doubles as Professor Echo, a sideshow ventriloquist, and as Mrs. "Granny" O'Grady (a cross-dressing Echo), the mastermind of the gang. Granny/Echo operates a talking parrot pet shop as a front for the operation. Film critic Alfred Eaker notes that Chaney renders "the drag persona with depth of feeling. Chaney never camps it up and delivers a remarkable, multifaceted performance." Harry Earles, a member of The Doll Family midget performers plays the violent and wicked Tweedledee who poses as Granny's infant grandchild, Little Willie. (Granny conveys the diminutive Willie in a perambulator.) Victor McLagen is cast as weak-minded Hercules, the circus strongman who constantly seeks to assert his physical primacy over his cohorts. Hercules detests Granny/Echo, but is terrified by the ventriloquist's "pet" gorilla. He doubles as Granny O'Grady's son-in-law and father to Little Willie. The pickpocket Rosie, played by Mae Busch, is the object of Echo's affection, and they share a mutual admiration as fellow larcenists. She postures as the daughter to Granny/Echo and as the mother of Little Willie. The pet shop employs the diffident bookkeeper, Hector "The Boob" MacDonald (Matt Moore) who is wholly ignorant of the criminal proceedings. Rosie finds this "weak, gentle, upright, hardworking" man attractive. When Granny O'Malley assembles her faux-"family" in her parlor to deceive police investigators, the movie audience knows that "the grandmother is the head of a gang and a ventriloquist, the father a stupid Hercules, the mother a thief, the baby a libidinous, greedy [midget], and the pet...an enormous gorilla." Browning's portrait is a "sarcastic distortion" that subverts a cliched American wholesomeness and serves to deliver "a harsh indictment...of the bourgeois family." Film historian Stuart Rosenthal identifies "the ability to control another being" as a central theme in The Unholy Three. The deceptive scheme through which the thieves manipulate wealthy clients, demonstrates a control over "the suckers" who are stripped of their wealth, much as circus sideshow patrons are deceived: Professor Echo and his ventriloquist's dummy distract a "hopelessly naive and novelty-loving" audience as pickpocket Rosie relieves them of their wallets. Browning ultimately turns the application of "mental control" to serve justice. When bookkeeper Hector takes the stand in court, testifying in his defense against a false charge of murder, the reformed Echo applies his willpower to silence the defendant, and uses his voice throwing power to provide the exonerating testimony. When Hector descends from the stand, he tells his attorney "That wasn't me talking. I didn't say a word." Browning employs a set of dissolves to make the ventriloquists role perfectly clear. Film historian Robin Blyn comments on the significance of Echo's courtroom confession: With The Unholy Three, Browning provided M-G-M with a huge box-office and critical success. The Mystic (1925) While Lon Chaney was making The Tower of Lies (1925) with director Victor Sjöström Browning wrote and directed an Aileen Pringle vehicle, The Mystic. The picture has many of the elements typical of Browning oeuvre at M-G-M: Carnivals, Hungarian Gypsies and séances provide the exotic mise-en-scene, while the melodramatic plot involves embezzlement and swindling. An American con man Michael Nash (Conway Tearle) develops a moral conscience after falling in love with Pringle's character, Zara, and is consistent with Browning's "themes of reformation and unpunished crimes." and the couple achieve a happy reckoning. Browning, a former sideshow performer, is quick to reveal to his movie audience the illusionist fakery that serves to extract a fortune from a gullible heiress, played by Gladys Hulette. Dollar Down (1925): Browning followed The Mystic with another "crook melodrama involving swindlers" for Truart productions. Based on a story by Jane Courthope and Ethyl Hill, Dollar Down stars Ruth Roland and Henry B. Walthall. Following these "more conventional" crime films, Browning and Chaney embarked on their final films of the late silent period, "the strangest collaboration between director and actor in cinema history; the premises of the films were outrageous." The Blackbird (1926) Browning and Chaney were reunited in their next feature film, The Blackbird (1926), one of the most "visually arresting" of their collaborations. Browning introduces Limehouse district gangster Dan Tate (Chaney), alias "The Blackbird", who creates an alter identity, the physically deformed christian missionary "The Bishop." Tate's purported "twin" brother is a persona he uses to periodically evade suspicion by the police under "a phony mantle of christian goodness"—an image utterly at odds with the persona of The Blackbird. According to film historian Stuart Rosenthal, "Tate's masquerade as the Bishop succeeds primarily because the Bishop's face so believably reflects a profound spiritual suffering that is absolutely foreign to the title character [The Blackbird]." Tate's competitor in crime, the "gentleman-thief" Bertram "West End Bertie" Glade (Owen Moore, becomes romantically involved with a Limehouse cabaret singer, Mademoiselle Fifi Lorraine (Renée Adorée). The jealous Tate attempts to frame Bertie for the murder of a policeman, but is mortally injured in an accident while in the guise of The Bishop. Tate's wife, Polly (Doris Lloyd discovers her husband's dual identity, and honors him by concealing his role as "The Blackbird." The reformed Bertie and his lover Fifi are united in matrimony. Chaney's adroit "quick-change" transformations from the Blackbird into The Bishop—intrinsic to the methods of "show culture"—are "explicitly revealed" to the movie audience, such that Browning invites them to share in the deception. Browning introduces a number of slapstick elements into The Blackbird. Doris Lloyd, portrays Tate's ex-wife Limehouse Polly, demonstrating her comic acumen in scenes as a flower girl, and Browning's Limehouse drunkards are "archetypical of burlesque cinema." Film historian Boris Henry points out that "it would not be surprising if the fights that Lon Chaney as Dan Tate mimes between his two characters (The Blackbird and The Bishop) were inspired by actor-director Max Linder's performance in Be My Wife, 1921." Film historian Stuart Rosenthal identifies Browning's characterization of Dan Tate/the Blackbird as a species of vermin lacking in nobility, a parasitic scavenger that feeds on carrion and is unworthy of sympathy. In death, according to film critic Nicole Brenez, The Blackbird "is deprived of [himself]...death, then, is no longer a beautiful vanishing, but a terrible spiriting away." Though admired by critics for Chaney's performance, the film was only modestly successful at the box office. The Road to Mandalay (1926) Any comprehensive contemporary evaluation of Browning's The Road to Mandalay is problematic. According to Browning biographer Alfred Eaker only a small fraction of the original seven reels exist. A 16mm version survives in a "fragmented and disintegrated state" discovered in France in the 1980s. In a story that Browning wrote with screenwriter Herman Mankiewicz , The Road to Mandalay (not related to author Rudyard Kipling's 1890 poem), is derived from the character "dead-eyed" Singapore Joe (Lon Chaney), a Singapore brothel operator. As Browning himself explained: The picture explores one of Browning's most persistent themes: that of a parent who asserts sexual authority vicariously through their own offspring. As such, an Oedipal narrative is established, "a narrative that dominates Browning's work" and recognized as such by contemporary critics. Joe's daughter, Rosemary (Lois Moran), now a young adult, has been raised in a convent where her father left her as an infant with her uncle, Father James (Henry B. Walthall). Rosemary is ignorant of her parentage; she lives a chaste and penurious existence. Brothel keeper Joe makes furtive visits to the shop where she works as a clerk. His attempts to anomalously befriend the girl are met with revulsion at his freakish appearance. Joe resolves to undergo plastic surgery to achieve a reproachment with his daughter and redeem his sordid history. Father James doubts his brothers' commitment to reform and to reestablish his parenthood. A conflict emerges when Joe's cohorts and rivals in crime, "The Admiral" Herrington (Owen Moore) and English Charlie Wing (Kamiyama Sojin), members of "the black spiders of the Seven Seas" appear on the scene. The Admiral encounters Rosemary at the bizarre where she works and is instantly smitten with her; his genuine resolve to abandon his criminal life wins Rosemary's devotion and a marriage is arranged. When Joe discovers these developments, the full force of his "sexual frustrations" are unleashed. Joe's attempt to thwart his daughter's efforts to escape his control ends when Rosemary stabs her father, mortally wounding him. The denouement is achieved when the dying Joe consents to her marriage and Father James performs the last rites upon his brother. Film critic Alfred Eaker observes: "The Road to Mandalay is depraved, pop-Freudian, silent melodrama at its ripest. Fortunately, both Browning and Chaney approach this hodgepodge of silliness in dead earnest." Religious imagery commonly appears in Browning's films, "surrounding his characters with religious paraphernalia." Browning, a mason, uses Christian iconography to emphasize Joe's moral alienation from Rosemary. Biographer Stuart Rosenthal writes: Rosenthal adds ""Religion for the Browning hero is an additional spring of frustration - another defaulted promise." As in all of the Browning-Chaney collaborations, The Road to Mandalay was profitable at the box office. London After Midnight (1927) Whereas Browning's The Road to Mandalay (1926) exists in a much deteriorated 16mm abridged version, London After Midnight is no longer believed to exist, the last print destroyed in an M-G-M vault fire in 1965. London After Midnight is widely considered by archivist's the Holy Grail and "the most sought after and discussed lost film of the silent era." A detailed photo reconstruction, based on stills from the film was assembled by Turner Classic Movies' Rick Schmidlin in 2002. Based on Browning's own tale entitled "The Hypnotist", London After Midnight is a "drawing room murder mystery'—its macabre and Gothic atmosphere resembling director Robert Wiene's 1920 The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari. Sir Roger Balfour is found dead at the estate of his friend Sir James Hamlin. The gunshot wound to Balfour's head appears self-inflicted. The Scotland Yard inspector and forensic hypnotist in charge, "Professor" Edward C. Burke (Lon Chaney) receives no reports of foul play and the death is deemed a suicide. Five years past, and the estates current occupants are alarmed by a ghoulish, fanged figure wearing a cape and top hat stalking the hallways at night. He is accompanied by a corpse-like female companion. The pair of intruders are the disguised Inspector Burke, masquerading as a vampire (also played by Chaney), and his assistant, "Luna, the Bat Girl" (Edna Tichenor). When the terrified residents call Scotland Yard, Inspector Burke appears and reopens Balfour's case as a homicide. Burke uses his double role to stage a series of elaborate illusions and applications of hypnotism to discover the identity of the murderer among Balfour's former associates. Browning's "preposterous" plot is the platform on which he demonstrates the methods of magic and show culture, reproducing the mystifying spectacles of "spirit theater" that purport to operate through the paranormal. Browning's cinematic illusions are conducted strictly through mechanical stage apparatus: no trick photography is employed. "illusion, hypnotism and disguise" are used to mimic the conceits and pretenses of the occult, but primarily for dramatic effect and only to reveal them as tricks. After the murderer is apprehended, Browning's Inspector Burke/The Man in the Beaver Hat reveals the devices and techniques he has used to extract the confession, while systematically disabusing the cast characters—and the movie audience—of any supernatural influence on the foregoing events. Film historians Stefanie Diekmann and Ekkehard Knörer observe succinctly that "All in all, Browning's scenarios [including London After Midnight] appear as a long series of tricks, performed and explained." Lon Chaney's make-up to create the menacing "Man with the Beaver Hat" is legendary. Biographer Alfred Eaker writes: "Chaney's vampire...is a make-up artist's delight, and an actor's hell. Fishing wire looped around his blackened eye sockets, a set of painfully inserted, shark-like teeth producing a hideous grin, a ludicrous wig under a top hat, and white pancake makeup achieved Chaney's kinky look. To add to the effect Chaney developed a misshapen, incongruous walk for the character." London After Midnight received a mixed critical response, but delivered handsomely at the box office "grossing over $1,000,000 in 1927 dollars against a budget of $151,666.14." The Show (1927) In 1926, while Lon Chaney was busy making Tell It to the Marines with filmmaker George W. Hill, Browning directed The Show, "one of the most bizarre productions to emerge from silent cinema." (The Show anticipates his subsequent feature with Chaney, a "carnival of terror": The Unknown). Screenwriter Waldemar Young based the scenario on elements from the author Charles Tenny Jackson's The Day of Souls. The Show is a tour-de-force demonstration of Browning's penchant for the spectacle of carnival sideshow acts combined with the revelatory exposure of the theatrical apparatus and techniques that create these illusions. Film historian Matthew Solomon notes that "this is not specific to his films with Lon Chaney." Indeed, The Show features two of M-G-M's leading actors: John Gilbert, as the unscrupulous ballyhoo Cock Robin, and Renée Adorée as his tempestuous lover, Salome. Actor Lionel Barrymore plays the homicidal Greek. Romantic infidelities, the pursuit of a small fortune, a murder, attempted murders, Cock Robin's moral redeemtion and his reconciliation with Salome comprise the plot and its "saccarine" ending. Browning presents a menagerie of circus sideshow novelty acts from the fictitious "Palace of Illusions", including disembodied hands delivering tickets to customers; an illusionary beheading of a biblical figure (Gilbert as John the Baptist); Neptuna (Betty Boyd) Queen of the Mermaids; the sexually untoward Zela (Zalla Zarana) Half-Lady; and Arachnida (Edna Tichenor, the Human Spider perched on her web. Browning ultimately reveals "how the trick is done", explicating the mechanical devices to the film audience - not to the film's carnival patrons. The central dramatic event of The Show derives from another literary work, a "magic playlet" by Oscar Wilde entitled Salomé (1896). Browning devises an elaborate and "carefully choreographed" sideshow reenactment of Jokanaan's biblical beheading (played by Gilbert), with Adorée as Salomé presiding over the lurid decapitation, symbolic of sadomasochism and castration. The Show received generally good reviews, but approval was muted due to Gilbert's unsavory character, Cock Robin. Browning was now poised to make his masterwork of the silent era, The Unknown (1927). The Unknown (1927): A silent era chef d'oeuvre The Unknown marks the creative apogee of the Tod Browning and Lon Chaney collaborations, and is widely considered their most outstanding work of the silent era. More so than any of Browning's silent pictures, he fully realizes one of his central themes in The Unknown: the linkage of physical deformity with sexual frustration. Circus performer "Alonzo the armless", a Gypsy knife-thrower, appears as a double amputee, casting his knives with his feet. His deformity is an illusion (except for a bifid thumb), achieved by donning a corset to bind and conceal his healthy arms. The able-bodied Alonzo, sought by the police, engages in this deception to evade detection and arrest. Alfonzo harbors a secret love for Nanon (Joan Crawford), his assistant in the act. Nanon's father is the abusive (perhaps sexually so) ringmaster Zanzi (Nick De Ruiz), and Nanon has developed a pathological aversion to any man's embrace. Her emotional dysfunction precludes any sexual intimacy with the highly virile strong-man, Malabar, or Alonzo, his own sexual prowess symbolized by his knife-throwing expertise and his double thumb. When Alonzo murders Zanzi during an argument, the homicide is witnessed by Nanon, who detects only the bifid thumb of her father's assailant. Browning's theme of sexual frustration and physical mutilation ultimately manifests itself in Alfonso's act of symbolic castration; he willingly has his arms amputated by an unlicensed surgeon so as to make himself unthreatening to Nanon (and to eliminate the incriminating bifid thumb), so as to win her affection. The "nightmarish irony" of Alfonso's sacrifice is the most outrageous of Browning's plot conceits and consistent with his obsessive examination of "sexual frustration and emasculation". When Alfonzo recovers from his surgery, he returns to the circus to find that Nanon has overcome her sexual aversions and married the strongman Malabar (Norman Kerry).The primal ferocity of Alfonso's reaction to Nanon's betrayal in marrying Malabar is instinctual. Film historian Stuart Rosenthal writes: Alfonzo's efforts at retribution lead to his own horrific death in a "Grand Guignol finale". The Unknown is widely regarded as the most outstanding of the Browning-Chaney collaborations and a masterpiece of the late silent film era. Film critic Scott Brogan regards The Unknown worthy of "cult status." The Big City (1928) A lost film, The Big City stars Lon Chaney, Marceline Day and Betty Compson, the latter in her only appearance in an M-G-M film. Browning wrote the story and Waldemar Young the screenplay concerning "A gangster Lon Chaney who uses a costume jewelry store as a front for his jewel theft operation. After a conflict with a rival gang, he and his girlfriend Marceline Day reform." Film historian Vivian Sobchack remarked that "The Big City concerns a nightclub robbery, again, the rivalry between two thieves. This time Chaney plays only one of them—without a twisted limb or any facial disguise.'" Critic Stuart Rosenthal commented on The Big City: "...Chaney, without makeup, in a characteristic gangster role." The Big City garnered M-G-M $387,000 in profits. West of Zanzibar (1928) In 1928, Browning and Lon Chaney embarked upon their penultimate collaboration, West of Zanzibar, based on Chester M. De Vonde play Kongo (1926). scenario by Elliott J. Clawson and Waldemar Young, provided Chaney with dual characterizations: the magician Pharos, and the later paraplegic Pharos who is nicknamed "Dead Legs." A variation of the "unknown parentage motif" Browning dramatizes a complex tale of "obsessive revenge" and "psychological horror." Biographer Stuart Rosenthal made these observations on Chaney's portrayals: The story opens in Paris, where Pharos, a magician, is cuckolded by his wife Anna (Jacqueline Gadsden) and her lover Crane (Lionel Barrymore). Pharos is crippled when Crane pushes him from a balcony, leaving him a paraplegic. Anna and Crane abscond to Africa. After a year, Phroso learns that Anna has returned. He finds his wife dead in a church, with an infant daughter beside her. He swears to avenge himself both on Crane and the child he assumes was sired by Crane. Unbeknownst to Phroso, the child is actually his. Rosenthal singles out this scene for special mention: Eighteen years hence, the crippled Pharos, now dubbed Dead Legs, operates an African trading outpost. He secretly preys upon Crane's ivory operations employing local tribes and using sideshow tricks and illusions to seize the goods. After years of anticipation, Dead Legs prepares to hatch his "macabre revenge": a sinister double murder. He summons Anna's daughter Maizie (Mary Nolan) from the sordid brothel and gin mill where he has left her to be raised. He also invites Crane to visit his outpost so as to expose the identity of the culprit stealing his ivory. Dead Legs has arranged to have Crane murdered, but not before informing him that he will invoke the local Death Code, which stipulates that "a man's demise be followed by the death of his wife or child." Crane mockingly disabuses Dead Legs of his gross misapprehension: Maizie is Dead Legs' daughter, not his, a child that Pharos conceived with Anna in Paris. Crane is killed before Dead Legs can absorb the significance of this news. The climax of the film involves Dead Legs' struggle to save his own offspring from the customary death sentence that his own deadly scheme has set in motion. Dead Legs ultimately suffers the consequences of his "horribly misdirected revenge ploy." The redemptive element with which Browning-Chaney endows Pharos/Dead Legs fate is noted by Rosenthal: "West of Zanzibar reaches the peak of its psychological horror when Chaney discovers that the girl he is using as a pawn in his revenge scheme is his own daughter. Dead Legs undertook his mission of revenge with complete confidence in the righteousness of his cause. Now he is suddenly overwhelmed by the realization of his own guilt. That Barrymore as Crane committed the original transgression in no way diminishes that guilt." Dead Legs' physical deformity reduces him to crawling on the ground, and thus to the "state of an animal." Browning's camera placement accentuates his snake-like "slithering" and establishes "his animal transformation by suddenly changing the visual frame of reference to one that puts the viewer on the same level as the beast on the screen, thereby making him vulnerable to it, accomplished by tilting the camera up at floor level in front of the moving subject [used to] accentuate Chaney's [Dead Legs] slithering movements in West of Zanzibar." Film historians Stephanie Diekmann and Ekkehard Knörer state more generally "...the spectator in Browning's films can never remain a voyeur; or rather, he is never safe in his voyeuristic position..." Diekmann and Knörer also place West of Zanzibar in the within the realm of the Grand Guignol tradition: Despite being characterized as a "cess-pool" by the censorious Harrison's Reports motion picture trade journal, West of Zanzibar enjoyed popular success at the box office. Where East Is East (1929) Adapted by Waldemar Young from a story by Browning and Harry Sinclair Drago, Where East Is East borrows its title from the opening and closing verses of Rudyard Kipling's 1889 poem "The Ballad of East and West": "Oh! East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet..." Browning's appropriation of the term "Where East Is East" is both ironic and subversive with regard to his simultaneous cinematic presentation of Eurocentric cliches of the "East" (common in early 20th Century advertising, literature and film), and his exposure of these memes as myths. Film historian Stefan Brandt writes that this verse was commonly invoked by Western observers to reinforce conceptions stressing "the homogeneity and internal consistency of 'The East'" and points out that Kipling (born and raised in Bombay, India) was "far from being one-dimensional" when his literary work "dismantles the myth of ethnic essentiality": Biographer Bernd Herzogenrath adds that "paradoxically, the film both essentializes the East as a universal and homogeneous entity ("Where East Is East") and deconstructs it as a Western myth consisting of nothing but colorful [male] fantasies." [brackets and parentheses in original] The last of Browning-Chaney collaborations with an "outrageous premise" and their final silent era film, Where East Is East was marketed by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer "as a colonial drama in the mold of British imperialist fiction." Where East Is East, set in the "picturesque French Indo-China of the 1920s" concerns the efforts of big game trapper "Tiger" Haynes (Chaney) intervention to stop his beloved half-Chinese daughter Toyo (Lupe Velez) from marrying Bobby "white boy" Bailey, a Western suitor and son of a circus owner. He relents when Bobby rescues Toyo from an escaped tiger. The Asian seductress, Madame de Sylva (Estelle Taylor), Tiger's former wife and mother to Toyo—who abandoned her infant to be raised by Tiger—returns to lure Bobby from Toyo and ruin the couple's plans for conjugal bliss. Tiger takes drastic action, unleashing a gorilla which dispatches Madame de Sylva but mortally wounds Tiger. He lives long enough witness the marriage of Toyo and Bobby. In a key sequence in which the American Bobby Bailey (Lloyd Hughes), nicknamed "white boy", is briefly seduced by the Asian Madame de Sylva (mother to Bobby's fiancee Toya), Browning offers a cliche-ridden intertitle exchange that is belied by his cinematic treatment. Film historian Stefan Brandt writes: "Browning here plays with the ambiguities involved in the common misreading of Kipling's poem, encouraging his American audience to question the existing patterns of colonial discourse and come to conclusions that go beyond that mode of thinking. The romantic version of the Orient as a land of eternal mysticism is exposed here as a Eurocentric illusion that we must not fall prey to." Browning's presentation of the alluring Madame de Sylva -whose French title diverges from her Asian origins- introduces one of Browning's primary themes: Reality vs. Appearance. Rosenthal notes that "physical beauty masking perversity is identical to the usual Browning premise of respectability covering corruption. This is the formula used in Where East Is East. Tiger's thorny face masks a wealth of kindness, sensitively and abiding paternal love. But behind the exotic beauty of Madame de Silva lies an unctuous, sinister manner and callous spitefulness." The animal imagery with which Browning invests Where East Is East informed Lon Chaney's characterization of Tiger Haynes, the name alone identifying him as both "tiger hunter and the tiger himself." Biographer Stuart Rosenthal comments on the Browning-Chaney characterization of Tiger Haynes: As in Browning's The Unknown (1927) in which protagonist Alonzo is trampled to death by a horse, "animals become the agents of destruction for Tiger [Haynes] in Where East Is East." Sound films: 1929–1939 Upon completing Where East Is East, M-G-M prepared to make his first sound production, The Thirteenth Chair (1929). The question as to Browning's adaptability to the film industry's ineluctable transition to sound technology is disputed among film historians. Biographers David Skal and Elias Savada report that Browning "had made his fortune as a silent film director but had considerable difficulties in adapting his talents to talking pictures." Film critic Vivian Sobchack notes that Browning, in both his silent and sound creations, "starts with the visual rather than the narrative" and cites director Edgar G. Ulmer: "until the end of his career, Browning tried to avoid using dialogue; he wanted to obtain visual effects." Biographer Jon Towlson argues that Browning's 1932 Freaks reveals "a director in full control of the [sound] medium, able to use the camera to reveal a rich subtext beneath the dialogue" and at odds with the general assessment of the filmmakers post-silent era pictures. Browning's sound oeuvre consists of nine features before his retirement from filmmaking in 1939. The Thirteenth Chair (1929) Browning's first sound film, The Thirteenth Chair is based on a 1916 "drawing room murder mystery" stage play by Bayard Veiller first adapted to film in a 1919 silent version and later a sound remake in 1937. Set in Calcutta, the story concerns two homicides committed at séances. Illusion and deception are employed to expose the murderer. In a cast featuring some of M-G-M's top contract players including Conrad Nagel, Leila Hyams and Margaret Wycherly Hungarian-American Bela Lugosi, a veteran of silent films and the star of Broadway's Dracula (1924) was enlisted by Browning to play Inspector Delzante, when Lon Chaney declined to yet embark on a talking picture. The first of his three collaborations with Lugosi, Browning's handling of the actor's role as Delzante anticipated the part of Count Dracula in his Dracula (1931). Browning endows Lugosi's Delzante with bizarre eccentricities, including a guttural, broken English and heavily accented eyebrows, characteristics that Lugosi made famous in his film roles as vampires. Film historian Alfred Eaker remarks: "Serious awkwardness mars this film, a product from that transitional period from silent to the new, imposing medium of sound. Because of that awkwardness The Thirteenth Chair is not Browning in best form." Outside the Law (1930) A remake of Browning's 1921 silent version starred Priscilla Dean and Lon Chaney who appeared in dual roles. Outside the Law concerns a criminal rivalry among gangsters. It stars Edward G. Robinson as Cobra Collins and Mary Nolan as his moll Connie Madden. Film critic Alfred Eaker commented that Browning's remake "received comparatively poor reviews." Dracula (1931): The first talkie horror picture Browning's Dracula initiated the modern horror genre, and it remains his only "one true horror film." Today the picture stands as the first of Browning's two sound era masterpieces, rivaled only by his Freaks (1932). The picture set in motion Universal Studios' highly lucrative production of vampire and monster movies during the 1930s. Browning approached Universal's Carl Laemmle Jr. in 1930 to organize a film version of Bram Stoker's 1897 Gothic horror novel Dracula, previously adapted to film by director F. W. Murnau in 1922. In an effort to avoid copyright infringement lawsuits, Universal opted to base the film on Hamilton Deane's and Louis Bromfield's melodramatic stage version Dracula (1924), rather than Stoker's novel. Actor Lon Chaney, then completing his first sound film with director Jack Conway in a remake of Browning's silent The Unholy Three (1925), was tapped for the role of Count Dracula. Terminally ill from lung cancer, Chaney withdrew early from the project, a significant personal and professional loss to long-time collaborator Browning. The actor died during the filming of Dracula. Hungarian expatriate and actor Bela Ferenc Deszo Blasco, appearing under the stage name Bela Lugosi, had successfully performed the role of Count Dracula in the American productions of the play for three years. According to film historian David Thomson, "when Chaney died it was taken for granted that Lugosi would have the role in the film." Lugosi's portrayal of Count Dracula is inextricably linked to the vampire genre established by Browning. As film critic Elizabeth Bronfen observes, "the notoriety of Browning's Dracula within film history resides above all else in the uncanny identification between Bela Lugosi and his role." Browning quickly establishes what would become Dracula's— and Bela Lugosi's—sine qua non: "The camera repeatedly focuses on Dracula's hypnotic gaze, which, along with his idiosyncratic articulation, was to become his cinematic trademark." Film historian Alec Charles observes that "The first time we see Bela Lugosi in Tod Browning's Dracula...he looks almost directly into the camera...Browning affords the audience the first of those famously intense and direct into-the-camera Lugosi looks, a style of gaze that would be duplicated time and again by the likes of Christopher Lee and Lugosi's lesser imitators..." Lugosi embraced his screen persona as the preeminent "aristocratic Eastern European vampire" and welcomed his typecasting, assuring his "artistic legacy". Film critic Elizabeth Bronfen reports that Browning's cinematic interpretation of the script has been widely criticized by film scholars. Browning is cited for failing to provide adequate "montage or shot/reverse shots", the "incoherence of the narrative" and his putative poor handling of the "implausible dialogue" reminiscent of "filmed theatre." Bronfen further notes critic's complaints that Browning failed to visually record the iconic vampiric catalog: puncture wounds on a victims necks, the imbibing of fresh blood, a stake penetrating the heart of Count Dracula. Moreover, no "transformation scenes" are visualized in which the undead or vampires morph into wolves or bats. Film critics have attributed these "alleged faults" to Browning's lack of enthusiasm for the project. Actor Helen Chandler, who plays Dracula's mistress, Mina Seward, commented that Browning seemed disengaged during shooting, and left the direction to cinematographer Karl Freund. Bronfen emphasizes the "financial constraints" imposed by Universal executives, strictly limiting authorization for special effects or complex technical shots, and favoring a static camera requiring Browning to "shoot in sequence" in order to improve efficiency. Bronfen suggests that Browning's own thematic concerns may have prompted him—in this, 'the first talkie horror picture'—to privilege the spoken word over visual tricks.": The scenario follows the vampire Count Dracula to England where he preys upon members of the British upper-middle class, but is confronted by nemesis Professor Van Helsing, (Edward Van Sloan) who possesses sufficient will power and knowledge of vampirism to defeat Count Dracula. Film historian Stuart Rosenthal remarks that "the Browning version of Dracula retains the Victorian formality of the original source in the relationships among the normal characters. In this atmosphere the seething, unstoppable evil personified by the Count is a materialization of Victorian morality's greatest dread." A number of sequences in Dracula have earned special mention, despite criticism concerning the "static and stagy quality of the film." The dramatic and sinister opening sequence in which the young solicitor Renfield (Dwight Frye) is conveyed in a coach to Count Dracula's Transylvanian castle is one of the most discussed and praised of the picture. Karl Freund's Expressionistic technique is largely credited with its success. Browning employs "a favorite device" with an animal montage early in the film to establish a metaphoric equivalence between the emergence of the vampires from their crypts and the small parasitic vermin that infest the castle: spiders, wasps and rats. Unlike Browning's previous films, Dracula is not a "long series of [illusionist] tricks, performed and explained" but rather an application of cinematic effects "presenting vampirism as scientifically verified 'reality'." Despite Universal executives editing out portions of Browning's film, Dracula was enormously successful. Opening at New York City's Roxy Theatre, Dracula earned $50,000 in 48 hours, and was Universal's most lucrative film of the Depression Era. Five years after its release, it had grossed over one million dollars worldwide. Film critic Dennis Harvey writes: ""Dracula's enormous popularity fast-tracked Browning's return to MGM, under highly favorable financial terms and the protection of longtime ally, production chief Irving Thalberg." Iron Man (1931) The last of Browning's three sound films he directed for Universal Studios, Iron Man (1931) is largely ignored in critical literature. Described as "a cautionary tale about the boxer as a physically powerful man brought down by a woman", Browning's boxing story lacks the macabre elements that typically dominate his cinema. Film historian Vivian Sobchack observes that "Iron Man, in subject and plot, is generally regarded as uncharacteristic of Browning's other work." Thematically, however, the picture exhibits a continuity consistent with his obsessive interest in "situations of moral and sexual frustration." Film critic Leger Grindon cites the four "subsidiary motifs" recognized by Browning biographer Stuart Rosenthal: "appearances hiding truth (particularly physical beauty as a mask for villainy), sexual frustration, opposing tendencies within a protagonist that are often projected onto alter egos and finally, an inability to assign guilt." These themes are evident in Iron Man. Actor Lew Ayres, following his screen debut in Universal's immensely successful anti-war themed All Quiet on the Western Front (1930), plays Kid Mason, a Lightweight boxing champion. This sports-drama concerns the struggle between the Kid's friend and manager George Regan Robert Armstrong, and the boxer's adulterous wife Rose (Jean Harlow) to prevail in a contest for his affection and loyalty. Rather than relying largely upon "editing and composition as expressive tools" Browning moved away from a stationary camera "toward a conspicuous use of camera movement" under the influence of Karl Freund, cinematographer on the 1931 Dracula. Iron Man exhibits this "transformation" in Browning's cinematic style as he entered the sound era. Leger Grindon provides this assessment of Browning's last picture for Universal: Though box office earning for Iron Man are unavailable, a measure of its success is indicated in the two remakes the film inspired: Some Blondes Are Dangerous (1937) and Iron Man (1950). Browning returned to M-G-M studios after completing Iron Man to embark upon the most controversial film of his career: Freaks (1932). Magnum opus: Freaks (1932) After the spectacular success of Dracula (1931) at Universal, Browning returned to M-G-M studios, lured by a generous contract and enjoying the auspices of production manager Irving Thalberg. Anticipating a repeat of his recent success at Universal, Thalberg accepted Browning's story proposal based on Tod Robbins' circus-themed tale "Spurs" (1926). The studio purchased the rights and enlisted screenwriter Willis Goldbeck and Leon Gordon to develop the script with Browning. Thalberg collaborated closely with the director on pre-production, but Browning completed all the actual shooting on the film without interference from studio executives. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's president, Louis B. Mayer, registered his disgust with the project from its inception and during the filming, but Thalberg successfully intervened on Browning's behalf to proceed with the film. The picture that emerged was Browning's "most notorious and bizarre melodrama." A "morality play", Freaks centers around the cruel seduction of a circus sideshow midget Hans (Harry Earles) by a statuesque trapeze artist Cleopatra (Olga Baclanova). She and her lover, strongman Hercules (Henry Victor), scheme to murder the diminutive Hans for his inheritance money after sexually humiliating him. The community of freaks mobilizes in Hans' defense, meting out severe justice to Cleopatra and Hercules: the former trapeze beauty is surgically transformed into a sideshow freak. Browning enlisted a cast of performers largely assembled from carnival freak shows—a community and milieu both of which the director was intimately familiar. The circus freaks serve as dramatic and comedic players, central to the story's development, and do not appear in their respective sideshow routines as novelties. Two major themes in Browning's work—"Sexual Frustration" and "Reality vs. Appearances"—emerge in Freaks from the conflict inherent in the physical incompatibility between Cleopatra and Hans. The guileless Hans' self-delusional fantasy of winning the affection of Cleopatra—"seductive, mature, cunning and self-assured"—provokes her contempt, eliciting "cruel sexual jests" at odds with her attractive physical charms. Browning provides the moral rationale for the final reckoning with Cleopatra before she has discovered Hans' fortune and plans to murder him. Film historian Stuart Rosenthal explains: Browning addresses another theme fundamental to his work: "Inability to Assign Guilt". The community of freaks delay judgement on Cleopatra when she insults Frieda (Daisy Earles), the midget performer who loves Hans. Their social solidarity cautions restraint, but when the assault on Hans becomes egregious, they act single-mindedly to punish the offender. Browning exonerates the freaks of any guilt: they are "totally justified" in their act of retribution. Stuart Rosenthal describes this doctrine, the "crux" of Browning's social ideal: Browning cinematic style in Freaks is informed by the precepts of German Expressionism, combining a subdued documentary-like realism with "chiaroscuro shadow" for dramatic effect. The wedding banquet sequence in which Cleopatra and Hercules brutally degrade Hans is "among the most discussed moments of Freaks" and according to biographer Vivian Sobchack "a masterpiece of sound and image, and utterly unique in conception and realization." The final sequence in which the freaks carry out their "shocking" revenge and Cleopatra's fate is revealed "achieves the most sustained level of high-pitched terror of any Browning picture." Freaks was given general release only after 30-minutes of footage was excised by Thalberg to remove portions deemed offensive to the public. Though Browning had a long history of making profitable pictures at M-G-M Freaks was a "disaster" at the box office, though earning mixed reviews among critics. Browning's reputation as a reliable filmmaker among the Hollywood establishment was tarnished, and he completed only four more pictures before retiring from the industry after 1939. According to biographer Alfred Eaker "Freaks, in effect, ended Browning's career." Fast Workers (1933) In the aftermath of the commercial failure of his 1932 Freaks, Browning was assigned to produce and direct (uncredited) an adaption of John McDermott's play Rivets. The script for Fast Workers by Karl Brown and Laurence Stallings dramatizes the mutual infidelities, often humorous, that plague a ménage à trois comprising a high-rise construction worker and seducer Gunner Smith (John Gilbert), his co-worker and sidekick, Bucker Reilly (Robert Armstrong) and Mary (Mae Clarke), an attractive "Gold digger" seeking financial and emotional stability during the Great Depression. Browning brings to bear all the thematic modes that typically motivate his characters. Film historian Stuart Rosenthal writes: The betrayals, humiliations and retaliations that plague the characters, and the moral legitimacy of their behaviors remains unresolved. Rosenthal comments on Browning's ambivalence: "Fast Workers is Browning's final cynical word on the impossibility of an individual obtaining justice, however righteous his cause, without critically sullying himself. Superficially, things have been set right. Gunner and Bucker are again friends and, together are equal to any wily female. Yet Gunner, the individual who is the most culpable, finds himself in the most secure position, while the basically well-intentioned Mary is rejected and condemned by both men." An outstanding example of Browning's ability to visually convey terror—a technique he developed in the silent era—is demonstrated when Mary perceives that Bucker, cuckolded by Gunner, reveals his homicidal rage. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer committed $525,000 to the film's production budget, quite a high sum for a relatively short feature. Ultimately, MGM reported earnings of only $165,000 on the film after its release, resulting in a net loss of $360,000 on the motion picture. Mark of the Vampire (1935) Browning returned to a vampire-themed picture with his 1935 Mark of the Vampire. Rather than risk a legal battle with Universal Studios who held the rights to Browning's 1931 Dracula, he opted for a reprise of his successful silent era London After Midnight (1927), made for M-G-M and starring Lon Chaney in a dual role.<ref>Eaker, 2016: "...Thalberg did give Browning the green light to proceed with the inferior Mark of the Vampire (1935) three years [after completing Freaks (1932)].}Rosenthal, 1975 p. 15: Browning's Mark of the Vampire a "remake" of his London After Midnight (1927).Sobchack, 2006 p. 31: "Mark of the Vampire is essentially a remake of London After Midnight…"Wood, 2006 TCM: "After the enormous success of Dracula (1931), director Tod Browning was inclined to return to the vampire film...Universal Studios owned the rights to the Dracula franchise...He maneuvered around this obstacle by remaking a vampire chiller he had shot in 1927: London After Midnight."</ref> With Mark of the Vampire, Browning follows the plot conceit employed in London After Midnight: An investigator and hypnotist seeks to expose a murderer by means of a "vampire masquerade" so as to elicit his confession. Browning deviates from his 1927 silent film in that here the sleuth, Professor Zelen (Lionel Barrymore), rather than posing as a vampire himself in a dual role, hires a troupe of talented thesbians to stage an elaborate hoax to deceive the murder suspect Baron Otto von Zinden (Jean Hersholt). Bela Lugosi was enlisted to play the lead vampire in the troupe, Count Moro. As a direct descendant of Browning's carnival-themed films, Browning offers the movie audience a generous dose of Gothic iconography: "hypnotic trances, flapping bats, spooky graveyards, moaning organs, cobwebs thick as curtains -- and bound it all together with bits of obscure Eastern European folklore..." As such, Mark of the Vampire leads the audience to suspend disbelief in their skepticism regarding vampires through a series of staged illusions, only to sharply disabuse them of their credulity in the final minutes of the movie.Sweney, 2006 p. 206: The picture is "in the realm of Browning's carnival films...showing the audience how easy it is to dupe them…In the last five minutes of the film, the vampires are revealed to be actors" hired by Professor Zelen. Browning reportedly composed the conventional plot scenes as he would a stage production, but softened the static impression through the editing process. In scenes that depicted the supernatural, Browning freely used a moving camera. Film historian Matthew Sweney observes "the [special] effects shots...overpower the static shots in which the film's plot and denouement take place...creating a visual tension in the film." Cinematographer James Wong Howe's lighting methods endowed the film with a spectral quality that complimented Browning's "sense of the unreal". Critic Stuart Rosenthal writes: Mark of the Vampire is widely cited for its famous "tracking shot on the stairwell" in which Count Mora (Bela Lugosi) and his daughter Luna (Carol Borland) descend in a stately promenade. Browning inter-cuts their progress with images of vermin and venomous insects, visual equivalents for the vampires as they emerge from their own crypts in search of sustenance. Rosenthal describes the one-minute sequence: In another notable and "exquisitely edited" scene Browning presents a lesbian-inspired seduction. Count Mora, in the form of a bat, summons Luna to the cemetery where Irene Borotyn (Elizabeth Allan) (daughter of murder victim Sir Karell, awaits in a trance.) When vampire Luna avidly embraces her victim, Count Moro voyeuristically looks on approvingly. Borland's Luna would inspire the character Morticia in the TV series The Addams Family. The soundtrack for Mark of the Vampire is notable in that it employs no orchestral music aside from accompanying the opening and closing credits. Melodic passages, when heard, are provided only by the players. The sound effects provided by recording director Douglas Shearer contribute significantly to the film's ambiance. Film historian Matthew Sweney writes: The climatic coup-de-grace occurs when the murderer's incredulity regarding the existence of vampires is reversed when Browning cinematically creates an astonishing illusion of the winged Luna in flight transforming into a human. The rationalist Baron Otto, a witness to this legerdemain, is converted into a believer in the supernatural and ultimately confesses, under hypnosis, to the murder of his brother Sir Karell. In the final five minutes of Mark of the Vampire, the theatre audience is confronted with the "theatrical trap" that Browning has laid throughout the picture: none of the supernatural elements of film are genuine—the "vampires" are merely actors engaged in a deception. This is made explicit when Bela Lugosi, no longer in character as Count Moro, declares to a fellow actor: "Did you see me? I was greater than any real vampire!" The Devil-Doll (1936) In this, the penultimate film of his career, Browning created a work reminiscent of his collaborations with actor Lon Chaney during the silent era, in the "bizarre melodrama" The Devil-Doll. Based on the novel Burn, Witch, Burn (1932) by Abraham Merritt, the script was crafted by Browning with contributions from Garrett Fort, Guy Endore and Erich von Stroheim (director of Greed (1924) and Foolish Wives (1922)), and "although it has its horrific moments, like Freaks (1932), The Devil-Doll is not a horror film." In The Devil-Doll, Browning borrows a number of the plot devices from his 1925 The Unholy Three. Paul Lavond (Lionel Barrymore) has spent 17 years incarcerated at Devil's Island, framed for murder and embezzlment committed by his financial associates. He escapes from the prison with fellow inmate, the ailing Marcel (Henry B. Walthall). The terminally ill scientist divulges to Lavond his secret formula for transforming humans into miniature, animated puppets. In alliance with Marcel's widow Malita ( Rafaela Ottiano), the vengeful Lavond unleashes an army of tiny living "dolls" to exact a terrible retribution against the three "unholy" bankers. Biographer Vivian Sobchack acknowledges that "the premises on which the revenge plot rest are incredible, but the visual realization is so fascinating that we are drawn, nonetheless, into a world that seems quite credible and moving" and reminds viewers that "there are some rather comic scenes in the film..." Barrymore's dual role as Lavond and his cross-dressing persona, the elderly Madame Mandilip, a doll shop proprietor, is strikingly similar to Lon Chaney's Professor Echo and his transvestite counterpart "Granny" O'Grady, a parrot shop owner in The Unholy Three (1925). Film critic Stuart Rosenthal notes that Browning recycling of this characterization as a plot device "is further evidence for the interchangeability of Browning's heroes, all of whom would act identically if given the same set of circumstances." Thematically, The Devil-Doll presents a version of Browning "indirect" sexual frustration. Here, Lavond's daughter Lorraine (Maureen O'Sullivan), ignorant of her father's identity, remains so. Stuart Rothenthal explains: Rosenthal points out another parallel between The Devil-Doll and The Unholy Three (1925): "Lavond's concern for his daughter and refusal to misuse his powers mark him as a good man...when his revenge is complete, like Echo [in The Unholy Three], Lavond demonstrates a highly beneficent nature." Browning proficient use of the camera and the remarkable special effects depicting the "miniature" people are both disturbing and fascinating, directed with "eerie skill." Film historians Stefanie Diekmann and Ekkehard Knörer report that the only direct link between Browning's fascination with "the grotesque, the deformed and the perverse" and the traditions of the French Grand Guignol is actor Rafaela Ottiano who plays doll-obsessed scientist Matila. Before her supporting role in The Devil-Doll, she enjoyed "a distinguished career as a Grand Guignol performer." Shortly after the completion of The Devil-Doll, Browning mentor at M-G-M Irving Thalberg died at the age of 37. Browning received no screen credit for the film. It would be two years before his final film: Miracles for Sale (1939). Miracles for Sale (1939) Miracles for Sale (1939) was the last of the forty-six feature films Browning made for Universal and M-G-M studios since he began directing in 1917. Browning's career had been in abeyance for two years after completing The Devil-Doll in 1936. In 1939, he was tasked with adapting Clayton Rawson's locked-room mystery, Death from a Top Hat (1938). Robert Young appears as "The Amazing Morgan", a conjurer and "purveyor of magic show equipment." Florence Rice plays the ingenue, Judy Barkley. In this, his cinematic "swan song", Browning "revisits obsessive, familiar themes of fake spiritualism, magic acts [and] transformation through disguises..." and, as with virtually all of Browning's explorations of the arts of illusion and the "realms of theatrical magic", his denoumae provides "an impirical solution" to the mystery murder.Miracles for Sale opens with a startling sequence that includes a graphic illusion depicting a "below-the-waist mutilation." Film critic Stuart Rosenthal writes: Despite this "inspired jolt" at the film's outset, Miracles for Sale is the most "studio bound" of Browning's sound oeuvre, and according to film critic Stuart Rosenhal "the only Browning production that really looks like an M-G-M studio job..."Miracles for Sale lost money at the box-office, returning only $39,000 to M-G-M on a $297,000 investment. Critical evaluation was generally positive. By the early 1940s, Browning's macabre sensibilities were no longer welcome in a Hollywood that was striving for "glamour and prestige." Browning was summarily terminated at M-G-M by producer Carey Wilson after the release of Miracles for Sale and was, by the director's own account "blackballed" from Hollywood as a filmmaker. Stephanie Diekmann and Ekkehard Knörer offer this assessment of Browning's final cinematic effort: Film historian Alfred Eaker adds that "the entire structure of Miracles for Sale is an illusion itself, making it a sublime curtain call for the director..." Browning occasionally offered screenplays to M-G-M, but eventually disengaged entirely from the film industry and in 1942 retired to his home in Malibu, California. Final years and death Browning's wife Alice died in 1944 from complications from pneumonia, leaving him a recluse at his Malibu Beach retreat.Herzogenrath, 2006 p. 11: Browning's "wife Alice died" in 1944. By that time Browning had become so isolated from the Hollywood establishment that Variety mistakenly published an obituary that year for Browning, confusing his spouse's death for the former director. In 1949, the Directors Guild of America bestowed a life membership on Browning; at the time of his death, the honor had been enjoyed by only four of Browning's colleagues. Browning, now a widower, lived in isolation for almost 20 years, "an alcoholic recluse." In 1962 he was diagnosed with cancer of the larynx. The surgical procedure performed to correct the condition rendered him mute. Tod Browning died alone at his Malibu home on October 6, 1962. Posthumous critical appraisal Vivian Sobchack: "...Browning was sometimes called the Edgar Allan Poe of the cinema' [and] much admired by the surrealists. Browning's creations were, of course, a commercial cinema as well. The films suggest a man of humor and compassion who had a dark and melancholic fascination with physical deformity and with the exotic and extraordinary, and yet who observed the oddities of life with unprejudiced objectivity and some delight. A Southerner who ran away with the circus; a former Vaudevillian and magician who traveled the world before he became a filmmaker, a [literary] aesthete and a beer drinker, above all a storyteller, Browning was both a poet and a pragmatist." Alfred Eaker: "Browning himself continues to be dismissed by less insightful critics, who evaluate the man and his work by contemporary entertainment standards or even accuse the great empathetic artist of exploitation. Browning's standing still remains low. Neither he, nor any of his films have received a single honor by a major film recognition or preservation institution." Stuart Rosenthal: "Although the work of any auteur will repeatedly emphasize specific thoughts and ideas, Browning is so aggressive and unrelenting in his pursuit of certain themes that he appears to be neurotically fixated on them. He is inevitably attracted to situations of moral and sexual frustration...[w]hat sets Browning apart is his abnormal fascination with the deformed creatures who populate his films—a fascination that is not always entirely intellectual, and one in which he takes extreme delight." Filmography Director The Lucky Transfer (1915) The Slave Girl (1915) An Image of the Past (1915) The Highbinders (1915) The Story of a Story (1915) The Spell of the Poppy (1915) The Electric Alarm (1915) The Living Death (1915) The Burned Hand (1915) The Woman from Warren's (1915) Little Marie (1915) The Fatal Glass of Beer (1916) Everybody's Doing It (1916) Puppets (1916) Jim Bludso (1917) A Love Sublime (1917) Hands Up! (1917) Peggy, the Will O' the Wisp (1917) The Jury of Fate (1917) The Legion of Death (1918) The Eyes of Mystery (1918) Revenge (1918) Which Woman? (1918) The Deciding Kiss (1918) The Brazen Beauty (1918) Set Free (1918) The Wicked Darling (1919) The Exquisite Thief (1919) The Unpainted Woman (1919) The Petal on the Current (1919) Bonnie Bonnie Lassie (1919) The Virgin of Stamboul (1920) Outside the Law (1920) No Woman Knows (1921) The Wise Kid (1922) Man Under Cover (1922) Under Two Flags (1922) Drifting (1923) The Day of Faith (1923) White Tiger (1923) The Dangerous Flirt (1924) Silk Stocking Sal (1924) The Unholy Three (1925) The Mystic (1925) Dollar Down (1925) The Blackbird (1926) The Road to Mandalay (1926) The Show (1927) The Unknown (1927) London After Midnight (1927) The Big City (1928) West of Zanzibar (1928) Where East Is East (1929) The Thirteenth Chair (1929) Outside the Law (1930) Dracula (1931) Iron Man (1931) Freaks (1932) Fast Workers (1933) Mark of the Vampire (1935) The Devil-Doll (1936) Miracles for Sale (1939) Actor Intolerance (1916) - Crook (uncredited) Dracula (1931) - Harbormaster (voice, uncredited, final film role) See also List of people from the Louisville metropolitan area Citations General sources Alford, Steven E. 1995. Dark Carnival: The Secret World of Tod Browning by David Skal. 14th Avenue. http://www.14thavenue.net/Resources/browning.html Retrieved 15 April, 2021. Andrew, Geoff. 1989. Tod Browning: Director/Producer. Quoted in TSPDT from Andrew's The Film Handbook (1989) https://www.theyshootpictures.com/browningtod.htm Retrieved 10 April, 2021. Barson, Michael. 2021. Tod Browning, American director. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tod-Browning Retrieved 15 April, 2021. Blyn, Robin. 2006. Between Silence and Sound: Ventriloquism and the Advent of the Voice in The Unholy Three. in The Films of Tod Browning, editor Bernd Herzogenrath, 2006 Black Dog Publishing. London. pp. 117–127. Brandt, Stefan. 2006. "White Bo[d]y in Wonderland: Cultural Alterity and Sexual Desire in Where East if East, in The Films of Tod Browning, editor Bernd Herzogenrath, 2006 Black Dog Publishing. London. pp. 95–113. Brenez, Nicole. 2006. Body Dreams: Lon Chaney and Tod Browning - Thesaurus Anatomicus in The Films of Tod Browning, editor Bernd Herzogenrath, 2006 Black Dog Publishing. London. pp. 95–113. Brogan, Scott. 2008. The Unknown. San Francisco Silent Film Festival, 2008. https://silentfilm.org/the-unknown/ Retrieved 15 January, 2021. Bronfen, Elizabeth. 2006. Speaking With Eyes: Tod Browning's Dracula and Its Phantom Camera. In The Films of Tod Browning, editor Bernd 2006 Black Dog Publishing. London. pp. 41-47 Cady, Brian. 2004. Fast Workers. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/2447/fast-workers/#articles-reviews?articleId=78396 Retrieved 26 May, 2021. Conterio, Martyn. 2018. Where to begin with Tod Browning. https://www2.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/news-bfi/features/where-begin-tod-browning Retrieved 15 January, 2021. Darr, Brian. 2010. West of Zanzibar. Senses of Cinema. CTEQ Annotations on FilmIssue 55 https://www.sensesofcinema.com/2010/cteq/west-of-zanzibar/ Retrieved 16 May, 2021. Diekmann, Stefanie and Knörer, Ekkehard. 2006. The Spectator's Spectacle: Tod Browning's Theatre in The Films of Tod Browning, Bernd Herzogenrath, editor. Black Dog Publishing. London. pp. 69-77 Eaker, Alfred. 2016. Tod Browning Retrospective https://alfredeaker.com/2016/01/26/todd-browning-director-retrospective/ Retrieved 26 February 2021. Eisenberg, Joel. 2020. The Legend and Mystique of London After Midnight. Medium.com. https://medium.com/writing-for-your-life/the-legend-and-mystique-of-london-after-midnight-d5dca35d41dd Retrieved 6 May, 2021. Erickson, Harold. Unk. year. The Big City. Allmovie.com https://www.allmovie.com/movie/v84974 Retrieved 12 May, 2021. Evans, John and Banks, Nick. 2020. Horror Historian David J. Skal Talks TCM 'Fright Favorites' Book: The Conskipper Interview . Conskpper.ocm https://conskipper.com/horror-historian-david-j-skal-tcm-fright-favorites-book-interview/ Retrieved 15 May, 2021. Grindon, Leger. 2006. Tod Browning's Thematic Continuity and Stylistic Development in Iron Man. In Herzogenrath, Bernd (ed.). The Films of Tod Browning. Black Dog Publications. Hanke, Ken. 2007. Tod Browning: Director/Producer. Quoted in TSPDT from Hanke's 501 Movie Directors, 2007 https://www.theyshootpictures.com/browningtod.htm Retrieved 10 April, 2021. Harvey, Dennis. 2019. West of Zanzibar. San Francisco Silent Film Festival. https://silentfilm.org/west-of-zanzibar-2/ Retrieved 10 May, 2021. Henry, Boris. 2006. Tod Browning and the Slapstick Genre. in The Films of Tod Browning, editor Bernd Herzogenrath, 2006 Black Dog Publishing. London. pp. 41-47 Herzogenrath, Bernd. 2006. The Monstrous Body/Politics of Freaks in The Films of Tod Browning, in The Films of Tod Browning, editor Bernd Black Dog Publishing. London. pp. 181-200. Kalat, David. 2013. Miracles for Sale. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/687/miracles-for-sale#articles-reviews?articleId=649919 Retrieved 6 June, 2021. Koller, Michael. 2001. The Unknown. Senses of Cinema. https://www.sensesofcinema.com/2001/cteq/unknown/ Retrieved 12 May, 2021. Miller, Frank. 2008. The Blackbird (1926). Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/1091/the-blackbird/#articles-reviews?articleId=211625 Retrieved 5 May, 2021. Morris, Gary and Vieira, Mark A. 2001. Tod Browning's Freaks (1932): Production Notes and Analysis. Bright Lights Film Journal. https://brightlightsfilm.com/todd-brownings-freaks-1932-production-notes-analysis/#.YF4bdyjYq00 Retrieved 19 May, 2021. Nixon, Rob. 2003. Dracula (1931). Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/73563/dracula/#articles-reviews?articleId=33868 Retrieved 15 May, 2021. Robinson, David. 1968. Hollywood in the Twenties. Paperback Library, New York. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 68-24002 Rosenthal, Stuart. 1975. Tod Browning: The Hollywood Professionals, Volume 4. The Tantivy Press. Skal, David J. and Savada, Elias. 1995. Dark Carnival: The Secret World of Tod Browning, Hollywood's Master of the Macabre. Anchor Books/Doubleday, New York. Sobchack, Vivian. 2006. The Films of Tod Browning: An Overview Long Past in The Films of Tod Browning in The Films of Tod Browning, editor Bernd Herzogenrath, 2006 Black Dog Publishing. London. pp. 21–39. Solomon, Matthew. 2006. Staging Deception: Theatrical Illusionsim in Browning's Films of the 1920s in The Films of Tod Browning, Editor Bernd Herzogenrath. pp. 49-67 Black Dog Publishing. London. Stafford, Jeff. 2003. The Unknown. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/2297/the-unknown#articles-reviews?articleId=516 Retrieved 20 March, 2021. Sweney, Matthew. 2006. Mark of the Vampire in The Films of Tod Browning, Editor Bernd Herzogenrath. pp. 49-67 Black Dog Publishing. London. Toole, Michael. 2003. The Devil Doll. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/3340/the-devil-doll/#articles-reviews?articleId=36829 Retrieved 29 May, 2021. Towlson, Jon. 2012. An Abomination on the Silver Sheet': In Defence of Tod Browning's Skill as a Director in the Sound Era (on Freaks). Bright Lights Film. https://brightlightsfilm.com/tod-browning-director-in-the-sound-era-analysis-of-the-opening-of-freaks/#.X_x2vmjYq00 Retrieved 15 January, 2021. Towlson, Jon. 2017. '''DIRTY, SLIMY FREAKS!': TOD BROWNING, LON CHANEY, FREAKS AND THE EUGENICS MOVEMENT (PART 1). Diabolique Magazine, November 27, 2017. https://diaboliquemagazine.com/dirty-slimy-freaks-tod-browning-lon-chaney-freaks-eugenics-movement-part-1/ Retrieved 15 April, 2021. Towlson, Jon. 2017. DIRTY, SLIMY FREAKS!': TOD BROWNING, LON CHANEY, FREAKS AND THE EUGENICS MOVEMENT (PART 2). Diabolique Magazine, November 27, 2017. https://diaboliquemagazine.com/dirty-slimy-freaks-tod-browning-lon-chaney-freaks-eugenics-movement-part-2/ Retrieved 15 April, 2021. Wood, Bret. 2006. In The Know (West Of Zanzibar) - TRIVIA. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/2081/west-of-zanzibar/#articles-reviews?articleId=152303 Retrieved 10 May, 2021. Wood, Bret. 2006. The Gist (Mark Of The Vampire) - THE GIST. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/82936/mark-of-the-vampire#articles-reviews?articleId=149029 Retrieved 25 March, 2021. Further reading Dark Carnival (1995) () by David J. Skal and Elias Savada. The Films of Tod Browning (2006) () edited by Bernd Herzogenrath. External links Tod Browning bibliography via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center Tod Browning at Virtual History American male film actors American male silent film actors Film directors from Kentucky Horror film directors Vaudeville performers 1880 births 1962 deaths Burials at Angelus-Rosedale Cemetery Male actors from Louisville, Kentucky 20th-century American male actors

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground%20Railroad

Underground Railroad

The Underground Railroad was a network of secret routes and safe houses established in the United States during the early- to mid-19th century. It was used by enslaved African Americans primarily to escape into free states and Canada. The network was assisted by abolitionists and others sympathetic to the cause of the escapees. The enslaved who risked escape and those who aided them are also collectively referred to as the "Underground Railroad". Various other routes led to Mexico, where slavery had been abolished, and to islands in the Caribbean that were not part of the slave trade. An earlier escape route running south toward Florida, then a Spanish possession (except 1763–83), existed from the late 17th century until approximately 1790. However, the network now generally known as the Underground Railroad began in the late 18th century. It ran north and grew steadily until the Emancipation Proclamation was signed by President Abraham Lincoln. One estimate suggests that by 1850, 100,000 enslaved people had escaped via the network. Political background At its peak, nearly 1,000 enslaved people per year escaped from slave-holding states using the Underground Railroad – more than 5000 court cases for escaped enslaved were recorded – many fewer than the natural increase of the enslaved population. The resulting economic impact was minuscule, but the psychological influence on slaveholders was immense. Under the original Fugitive Slave Act of 1793, officials from free states were required to assist slaveholders or their agents who recaptured fugitives, but some state legislatures prohibited this, and citizens of many free states ignored the law, and the Underground Railroad thrived. With heavy lobbying by Southern politicians, the Compromise of 1850 was passed by Congress after the Mexican–American War. It stipulated a more stringent Fugitive Slave Law; ostensibly, the compromise addressed regional problems by compelling officials of free states to assist slave catchers, granting them immunity to operate in free states. Because the law required sparse documentation to claim a person was a fugitive, slave catchers also kidnapped free blacks, especially children, and sold them into slavery. Southern politicians often exaggerated the number of escaped slaves and often blamed these escapes on Northerners interfering with Southern property rights. The law deprived people suspected of being slaves of the right to defend themselves in court, making it difficult to prove free status. In a de facto bribe, judges were paid a higher fee ($10) for a decision that confirmed a suspect as an enslaved person than for a ruling that the suspect was free ($5). This was a primary grievance cited by the Union during the American Civil War, and the perception that Northern States ignored the fugitive slave laws and regulations was a major justification for secession. Routes Underground Railroad routes went north to free states and Canada, to the Caribbean, into United States western territories, and Indian territories. Some freedom seekers (escaped slaves) travelled South into Mexico for their freedom. North to free states and Canada Structure Despite the thoroughfare's name, the escape network was neither literally underground nor a railroad. (Actual underground railroads did not exist until 1863.) According to John Rankin, "It was so called because they who took passage on it disappeared from public view as really as if they had gone into the ground. After the fugitive slaves entered a depot on that road no trace of them could be found. They were secretly passed from one depot to another until they arrived at a destination where they were able to remain free." It was known as a railroad, using rail terminology such as stations and conductors, because that was the transportation system in use at the time. The Underground Railroad did not have a headquarters, nor were there published guides, maps, pamphlets, or even newspaper articles. The Underground Railroad consisted of meeting points, secret routes, transportation, and safe houses, all of them maintained by abolitionist sympathizers and communicated by word of mouth, although there is also a report of a numeric code used to encrypt messages. Participants generally organized in small, independent groups; this helped to maintain secrecy. People escaping enslavement would move north along the route from one way station to the next. "Conductors" on the railroad came from various backgrounds and included free-born Blacks, white abolitionists, the formerly enslaved (either escaped or manumitted), and Native Americans. Believing that slavery was "contrary to the ethics of Jesus", Christian congregations and clergy played a role, especially the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), Congregationalists, Wesleyan Methodists, and Reformed Presbyterians, as well as the anti-slavery branches of mainstream denominations which entered into schism over the issue, such as the Methodist Episcopal Church and the Baptists. The role of free Blacks was crucial; without it, there would have been almost no chance for fugitives from slavery to reach freedom safely. Routes The Underground Railroad benefited greatly from the geography of the U.S.–Canada border: Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and most of New York were separated from Canada by water, over which transport was usually easy to arrange and relatively safe. The main route for fugitives from the South led up the Appalachians, Harriet Tubman going via Harpers Ferry, through the highly anti-slavery Western Reserve region of northeastern Ohio to the vast shore of Lake Erie, and then to Canada by boat. A smaller number, travelling by way of New York or New England, went via Syracuse (home of Samuel May) and Rochester, New York (home of Frederick Douglass), crossing the Niagara River or Lake Ontario into Canada. Those travelling via the New York Adirondacks, sometimes via the Black communities like Timbuctoo, New York, entered Canada via Ogdensburg, on the St. Lawrence River, or Lake Champlain (Joshua Young assisted). The western route, used by John Brown among others, led from Missouri north to free Iowa, then east via Chicago to the Detroit River. Terminology Members of the Underground Railroad often used specific terms, based on the metaphor of the railway. For example: People who helped enslaved people find the railroad were "agents" (or "shepherds") Guides were known as "conductors" Hiding places were "stations" or "way stations" "Station masters" hid escaping slaves in their homes People escaping slavery were referred to as "passengers" or "cargo" Enslaved people would obtain a "ticket" Similar to common gospel lore, the "wheels would keep on turning" Financial benefactors of the Railroad were known as "stockholders" The Big Dipper (whose "bowl" points to the North Star) was known as the drinkin' gourd. The Railroad was often known as the "freedom train" or "Gospel train", which headed towards "Heaven" or "the Promised Land", i.e., Canada. William Still, sometimes called "The Father of the Underground Railroad", helped hundreds of slaves escape (as many as 60 a month), sometimes hiding them in his Philadelphia home. He kept careful records, including short biographies of the people, that contained frequent railway metaphors. He maintained correspondence with many of them, often acting as a middleman in communications between people who had escaped slavery and those left behind. He later published these accounts in the book The Underground Railroad: Authentic Narratives and First-Hand Accounts (1872), a valuable resource for historians to understand how the system worked and learn about individual ingenuity in escapes. According to Still, messages were often encoded so that they could be understood only by those active in the railroad. For example, the following message, "I have sent via at two o'clock four large hams and two small hams", indicated that four adults and two children were sent by train from Harrisburg to Philadelphia. The additional word via indicated that the "passengers" were not sent on the usual train, but rather via Reading, Pennsylvania. In this case, the authorities were tricked into going to the regular location (station) in an attempt to intercept the runaways, while Still met them at the correct station and guided them to safety. They eventually escaped either further north or to Canada, where slavery had been abolished during the 1830s. To reduce the risk of infiltration, many people associated with the Underground Railroad knew only their part of the operation and not of the whole scheme. "Conductors" led or transported the fugitives from station to station. A conductor sometimes pretended to be enslaved to enter a plantation. Once a part of a plantation, the conductor would direct the runaways to the North. Enslaved people traveled at night, about to each station. They rested, and then a message was sent to the next station to let the station master know the escapees were on their way. They would stop at the so-called "stations" or "depots" during the day and rest. The stations were often located in basements, barns, churches, or in hiding places in caves. The resting spots where the escapees could sleep and eat were given the code names "stations" and "depots", which were held by "station masters". "Stockholders" gave money or supplies for assistance. Using biblical references, fugitives referred to Canada as the "Promised Land" or "Heaven" and the Ohio River, which marked the boundary between slave states and free states, as the "River Jordan". The majority of freedom seekers that escaped from slavery did not have help from an abolitionist. Although there are stories of black and white abolitionists helping freedom seekers escape from slavery many escapes were unaided. Other Underground Railroad escape routes for freedom seekers were maroon communities. Maroon communities were wetlands or marshes where escaped slaves established their own independent communities. Maroon communities in the United States were in Virginia called the Great Dismal Swamp, the maroon communities of the Black Seminole Indians in Florida, and others. Traveling conditions Although the fugitives sometimes traveled on boat or train, they usually traveled on foot or by wagon, sometimes lying down, covered with hay or similar products, in groups of one to three escapees. Some groups were considerably larger. Abolitionist Charles Turner Torrey and his colleagues rented horses and wagons and often transported as many as 15 or 20 people at a time. Free and enslaved black men occupied as mariners (sailors) helped enslaved people escape from slavery by providing a ride on their ship, providing information on the safest and best escape routes, and safe locations on land, and locations of trusted people for assistance. Enslaved African American mariners had information about slave revolts occurring in the Caribbean, and relayed this news to enslaved people they had contact with in American ports. Free and enslaved African-American mariners assisted Harriet Tubman in her rescue missions. Black mariners provided to her information about the best escape routes, and helped her on her rescue missions. Routes were often purposely indirect to confuse pursuers. Most escapes were by individuals or small groups; occasionally, there were mass escapes, such as with the Pearl incident. The journey was often considered particularly difficult and dangerous for women or children. Children were sometimes hard to keep quiet or were unable to keep up with a group. In addition, enslaved women were rarely allowed to leave the plantation, making it harder for them to escape in the same ways that men could. Although escaping was harder for women, some women were successful. One of the most famous and successful conductors (people who secretly traveled into slave states to rescue those seeking freedom) was Harriet Tubman, a woman who escaped slavery. Due to the risk of discovery, information about routes and safe havens was passed along by word of mouth, although in 1896 there is a reference to a numerical code used to encrypt messages. Southern newspapers of the day were often filled with pages of notices soliciting information about fugitive slaves and offering sizable rewards for their capture and return. Federal marshals and professional bounty hunters known as slave catchers pursued fugitives as far as the Canada–US border. Fugitives were not the only black people at risk from slave catchers. With demand for slaves high in the Deep South as cotton was planted, strong, healthy blacks in their prime working and reproductive years were seen and treated as highly valuable commodities. Both former slaves and free blacks were sometimes kidnapped and sold into slavery, as was Solomon Northup of Saratoga Springs, New York. "Certificates of freedom," signed, notarized statements attesting to the free status of individual blacks also known as free papers, could easily be destroyed or stolen, so provided little protection to bearers. Some buildings, such as the Crenshaw House in far southeastern Illinois, are known sites where free blacks were sold into slavery, known as the "Reverse Underground Railroad". Under the terms of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, when suspected fugitives were seized and brought to a special magistrate known as a commissioner, they had no right to a jury trial and could not testify on their own behalf. Technically, they were guilty of no crime. The marshal or private slave-catcher needed only to swear an oath to acquire a writ of replevin for the return of property. Congress was dominated by Southern congressmen because the population of their states was bolstered by the inclusion of three-fifths of the number of slaves in population totals. They passed the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 because of frustration at having fugitives from slavery helped by the public and even official institutions outside the South. In some parts of the North, slave-catchers needed police protection to exercise their federal authority. Opposition to slavery did not mean that any states welcomed free Blacks. For instance, Indiana, whose area along the Ohio River was settled by Southerners, passed a constitutional amendment that barred free blacks from settling in that state. In Kansas, the movement to make Kansas a free state, with no slaves, at one point planned to prevent free Blacks from coming to Kansas as well. Arrival in Canada British North America (present-day Canada) was a desirable destination, as its long border gave many points of access, it was farther from slave catchers, and beyond the reach of the United States' Fugitive Slave Acts. Further, slavery ended decades earlier in Canada than in the United States. Britain banned the institution of slavery in present-day Canada (and in most British colonies) in 1833, though the practice of slavery in Canada had effectively ended already early in the 19th century through case law, due to court decisions resulting from litigation on behalf of slaves seeking manumission. Most former enslaved, reaching Canada by boat across Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, settled in Ontario. More than 30,000 people were said to have escaped there via the network during its 20-year peak period, although U.S. Census figures account for only 6,000. Numerous fugitives' stories are documented in the 1872 book The Underground Railroad Records by William Still, an abolitionist who then headed the Philadelphia Vigilance Committee. Estimates vary widely, but at least 30,000 slaves, and potentially more than 100,000, escaped to Canada via the Underground Railroad. The largest group settled in Upper Canada (Ontario), called Canada West from 1841. Numerous Black Canadian communities developed in Southern Ontario. These were generally in the triangular region bounded by Niagara Falls, Toronto, and Windsor. Several rural villages made up mostly of people freed from slavery were established in Kent and Essex counties in Ontario. Fort Malden, in Amherstburg, Ontario, was deemed the "chief place of entry" for escaped slaves seeking to enter Canada. The abolitionist Levi Coffin, who was known for aiding over 2,000 fugitives to safety, supported this choice. He described Fort Malden as "the great landing place, the principle terminus of the underground railroad of the west." After 1850, approximately thirty people a day were crossing over to Fort Malden by steamboat. The Sultana was one of the ships, making "frequent round trips" between Great Lakes ports. Its captain, C.W. Appleby, a celebrated mariner, facilitated the conveyance of several fugitives from various Lake Erie ports to Fort Malden. Other fugitives at Fort Walden had been assisted by William Wells Brown, himself someone who had escaped slavery. He found employment on a Lake Erie steamer and transported numerous fugitives from Cleveland to Ontario by way of Buffalo or Detroit. "It is well known", he tells us, "that a great number of fugitives make their escape to Canada, by way of Cleaveland. ...The friends of the slave, knowing that I would transport them without charge, never failed to have a delegation when the boat arrived at Cleaveland. I have sometimes had four or five on board at one time." Another important destination was Nova Scotia, which was first settled by Black Loyalists during the American Revolution and then by Black Refugees during the War of 1812 (see Black Nova Scotians). Important Black settlements also developed in other parts of British North America (now parts of Canada). These included Lower Canada (present-day Quebec) and Vancouver Island, where Governor James Douglas encouraged Black immigration because of his opposition to slavery. He also hoped a significant Black community would form a bulwark against those who wished to unite the island with the United States. Upon arriving at their destinations, many fugitives were disappointed, as life in Canada was difficult. While not at risk from slave catchers due to being in a different country, discrimination was still widespread. Many of the new arrivals had to compete with mass European immigration for jobs, and overt racism was common. For example, in reaction to Black Loyalists being settled in eastern Canada by the Crown, the city of Saint John, New Brunswick, amended its charter in 1785 specifically to exclude Blacks from practicing a trade, selling goods, fishing in the harbor, or becoming freemen; these provisions stood until 1870. With the outbreak of the Civil War in the U.S., many black refugees left Canada to enlist in the Union Army. While some later returned to Canada, many remained in the United States. Thousands of others returned to the American South after the war ended. The desire to reconnect with friends and family was strong, and most were hopeful about the changes emancipation and Reconstruction would bring. Folklore Since the 1980s, claims have arisen that quilt designs were used to signal and direct enslaved people to escape routes and assistance. According to advocates of the quilt theory, ten quilt patterns were used to direct enslaved people to take particular actions. The quilts were placed one at a time on a fence as a means of nonverbal communication to alert escaping slaves. The code had a dual meaning: first to signal enslaved people to prepare to escape, and second to give clues and indicate directions on the journey. The quilt design theory is disputed. The first published work documenting an oral history source was in 1999, and the first publication of this theory is believed to be a 1980 children's book. Quilt historians and scholars of pre-Civil War (1820–1860) America have disputed this legend. There is no contemporary evidence of any sort of quilt code, and quilt historians such as Pat Cummings and Barbara Brackman have raised serious questions about the idea. In addition, Underground Railroad historian Giles Wright has published a pamphlet debunking the quilt code. Similarly, some popular, nonacademic sources claim that spirituals and other songs, such as "Steal Away" or "Follow the Drinking Gourd", contained coded information and helped individuals navigate the railroad. They have offered little evidence to support their claims. Scholars tend to believe that while the slave songs may certainly have expressed hope for deliverance from the sorrows of this world, these songs did not present literal help for runaway slaves. The Underground Railroad inspired cultural works. For example, "Song of the Free", written in 1860 about a man fleeing slavery in Tennessee by escaping to Canada, was composed to the tune of "Oh! Susanna". Every stanza ends with a reference to Canada as the land "where colored men are free". Slavery in Upper Canada (now Ontario) was outlawed in 1793; in 1819, John Robinson, the Attorney General of Upper Canada, declared that by residing in Canada, black residents were set free, and that Canadian courts would protect their freedom. Slavery in Canada as a whole had been in rapid decline after an 1803 court ruling, and was finally abolished outright in 1834. Legal and political When frictions between North and South culminated in the Civil War, many Black people, both enslaved and free, fought for the Union Army. Following Union victory in the Civil War, on December 6, 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution outlawed slavery. Following its passage, in some cases the Underground Railroad operated in the opposite direction, as fugitives returned to the United States. Criticism Frederick Douglass was a writer, statesman, and had escaped slavery. He wrote critically of the attention drawn to the ostensibly secret Underground Railroad in his seminal autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845): He went on to say that, although he honors the movement, he felt that the efforts at publicity serve more to enlighten the slave-owners than the slaves, making them more watchful and making it more difficult for future slaves to escape. Notable people John Brown Owen Brown (father) Owen Brown (son) Samuel Burris Obadiah Bush Levi Coffin Elizabeth Rous Comstock George Corson Moses Dickson Frederick Douglass Asa Drury George Hussey Earle Sr. Calvin Fairbank Bartholomew Fussell Matilda Joslyn Gage Thomas Galt Thomas Garrett Sydney Howard Gay Josiah Bushnell Grinnell Frances Harper Laura Smith Haviland Lewis Hayden John Hunn Roger Hooker Leavitt Jermain Wesley Loguen Samuel Joseph May John Berry Meachum Mary Meachum William M. Mitchell Solomon Northup John Parker Mary Ellen Pleasant John Wesley Posey Amy and Isaac Post John Rankin Alexander Milton Ross David Ruggles Gerrit Smith George Luther Stearns William Still John Ton Charles Turner Torrey William Troy Harriet Tubman Martha Coffin Wright John Van Zandt Bernardhus Van Leer Silvia Hector Webber South to Mexico Background Beginning in the 16th century, Spaniards brought enslaved blacks to New Spain. Over time, free African-Spaniards took up various trades and occupations and served in the military. They had human rights. In 1806, enslaved people arrived at the Stone Fort in Nacogdoches, Texas seeking freedom. They arrived with a forged passport from a Kentuckian judge. The Spanish refused to return them back to the United States. More freedom seekers traveled through Texas the following year. Enslaved people were emancipated by crossing the border from the United States into Mexico, which was a Spanish colony into the nineteenth century. In the United States, enslaved people were considered property. That meant that they did not have rights to marry and they could be sold away from their partners. They also did not have rights to fight inhumane and cruel punishment. In New Spain, people were recognized as humans. They were allowed to join the Catholic Church and marry. They also were protected from inhumane and cruel punishment. During the War of 1812, Battle at Fort Barrancas Andrew Jackson invaded Spanish Florida in part because enslaved people had run away from plantations in the Carolinas and Georgia to Florida. Some of the runaways joined the Black Seminoles who later moved to Mexico. Mexico sent mixed signals, though, on their position against slavery. Sometimes they allowed enslaved people to returned to slavery and they allowed Americans to move into Spanish territorial property to establish cotton plantations, bringing enslaved people to work the land. In 1829, Mexican president Vicente Guerrero (who was a mixed race black man) formally abolished slavery in Mexico. Freedom seekers from Southern plantations in the Deep South, particularly from Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas, escaped slavery and headed for Mexico. At that time, Texas was part of Mexico. The Texas Revolution, initiated in part to legalize slavery, resulted in the formation of the Republic of Texas in 1836. Following the Battle of San Jacinto, there were some enslaved people who withdrew from the Houston area with the Mexican army, seeing the troops as a means to escape slavery. When Texas joined the Union in 1845, it was a slave state and the Rio Grande became the international border with Mexico. Pressure between free and slave states deepened as Mexico abolished slavery in 1837 and western states joined the Union as free states. As more free states were added to the Union, the lesser the influence of slave state representatives in Congress. Slave states and slave hunters The Southern Underground Railroad went through slave states, lacking the abolitionist societies and the organized system of the north. People who spoke out against slavery were subject to mobs, physical assault, and being hanged. There were slave catchers who looked for runaway slaves. There were never more than a few hundred free blacks in Texas, which meant that free blacks did not feel safe in the state. The network to freedom was informal, random, and dangerous. Military forts, established along the Rio Grande border during the Mexican-American War of the 1840s, captured and returned fleeing enslaved people to their slaveholders. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 made it a criminal act to aid fleeing escaping enslaved people in free states. Similarly, the United States government wanted to enact a treaty with Mexico so that they would help capture and return bonds-people. Mexico, however, continued their practice to allow anyone that crossed their borders to be free. Slave catchers continued to cross the southern border into Mexico and illegally capture black people and return them to slavery. A group of slave hunters became the Texas Rangers. Routes Thousands of freedom seekers traveled along a network from the southern United States to Texas and ultimately Mexico. Southern enslaved people generally traveled across "unforgiving country" on foot or horseback while pursued by lawmen and slave hunters. Some stowed away on ferries bound for a Mexican port from New Orleans, Louisiana and Galveston, Texas. There were some who transported cotton to Brownsville, Texas on wagons and then crossed into Mexico at Matamoros. Many traveled through North Carolina, Arkansas, Alabama, Louisiana, or Mississippi towards Texas and ultimately Mexico. People fled slavery from Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). Black Seminoles traveled on a southwestern route from Florida into Mexico. Going overland meant that the last 150 miles or so were traversed through the difficult and extremely hot terrain of the Nueces Strip located between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande. There was little shade and a lack of potable water in this brush country. Escapees were more likely to survive the trip if they had a horse and a gun. The National Park Service identified a route from Natchitoches, Louisiana to Monclova, Mexico in 2010 that is roughly the southern Underground Railroad path. It is also believed that the El Camino Real de los Tejas was a path for freedom. It was made a National Historic Trail by President George W. Bush in 2004. Assistance Some journeyed on their own without assistance, and others were helped by people along the southern Underground Railroad. Assistance included guidance, directions, shelter, and supplies. Black people, black and white couples, and anti-slavery German immigrants provided support, but most of the help came from Mexican laborers. So much so that enslavers came to distrust any Mexican, and a law was enacted in Texas that forbade Mexicans from talking to enslaved people. Mexican migrant workers developed relationships with enslaved black workers whom they worked with. They offered guidance, such as what it would be like to cross the border, and empathy. Having realized the ways in which Mexicans were helping enslaved people to escape, slaveholders and residents of Texan towns pushed people out of the town, whipped them in public, or lynched them. Some border officials helped enslaved people crossing into Mexico. In Monclova, Mexico a border official took up a collection in the town for a family in need of food, clothing, and money to continue on their journey south and out of reach of slave hunters. Once they crossed the border, some Mexican authorities helped former enslaved people from being returned to the United States by slave hunters. Freedom seekers that were taken on ferries to Mexican ports were aided by Mexican ship captains, one of whom was caught in Louisiana and indicted for helping enslaved people escape. Knowing the repercussions of running away or being caught helping someone runaway, people were careful to "cover their tracks" and public and personal records about freedom seekers are scarce. The are records in greater supply by the people trying to promote slavery or catch enslaved people who have run away. More than 2,500 escapes are documented by the Texas Runaway Slave Project at Stephen F. Austin State University. Southern freedom seekers Advertisements were placed in newspapers offering rewards for the return of their "property". Slave catchers traveled through Mexico. There were Black Seminoles, or Los Mascogos who lived in northern Mexico who provided armed resistance. Sam Houston, president of the Republic of Texas, was the slaveholder to Tom who ran away. He headed to Texas and once there he enlisted in the Mexican military. One enslaved man was branded with the letter "R" on each side of his cheek after a failed attempt to escape slavery. He tried again in the winter of 1819, leaving the cotton plantation of his enslaver on horseback. With four others, they traveled south west to Mexico at the risk of being attacked by hostile Native Americans, apprehended by slave catchers, or being attacked by "horse-eating alligators". Many people did not make it to Mexico. In 1842, a Mexican man and a black woman left Jackson County, Texas on two horses, but they were caught at the Lavaca River. The wife, an enslaved woman, was valuable to her owner so she was returned to slavery. Her husband, possibly a farm laborer or an indentured servant, was immediately lynched. Freedom seekers changed their names in Mexico. They married into Mexican families and relocated further south of the American-Mexican border. All of these factors makes it hard to trace the whereabouts of the former enslaved people. A database at Stephen F. Austin State University has a database of runaway slave advertisements as part of The Texas Runaway Slave Project. The Works Progress Administration during the Great Depression initiated a Federal Writers' Project to document slave narratives, including those who settled in Mexico. One of them was Felix Haywood who found freedom when he crossed the Rio Grande. Rio Grande stations Two families, the Webbers and the Jacksons, lived along the Rio Grande and helped people escape slavery. The husbands were white and the wives were black women who had been formerly enslaved. It is not known if Nathaniel Jackson purchased the freedom of Matilda Hicks and her family, but in the early 1860s they moved to Hidalgo county, where they settled and lived as a family. He was a white southerner and she was an enslaved woman, who had been childhood sweethearts in Alabama. He was the son of her slaveholder, who helped a group of seven families in 1857 and others cross into Mexico. Silvia Hector Webber was born enslaved in West Florida and in 1819 was sold to a slaveholder in Clark County, Arkansas. The slaveholders's son, John Cryer, illegally brought Silvia to Mexican Texas in 1828, four years after Mexico had deemed the slave trade into Mexican territory against the law. Silvia, however, with the help of John Webber secured her and her 3 children's freedom papers in 1834. Together Silvia and John lived an antislavery life and often harbored fugitives from slavery in their ranch and house. Silvia was known to transport freedom seekers, on a ferry she licensed at her ranch, onto freedom in Mexico. John Ferdinand Webber, born in Vermont, lived along the Rio Grande with his wife, Silvia Hector Webber, and together were known to have helped enslaved people cross the Rio Grande. The Jacksons and Webbers, who both owned licensed ferry service, were well known among runaways. Arrival in Mexico Freedom seekers found that when they made it to Mexico, they lived with the knowledge that they could be illegally kidnapped by slave catchers or blackbirders. Slave hunters who tried to kidnap former slaves from Mexico could be taken to court or shot. There was little support from their new communities and few opportunities for employment. They did not have official paperwork that stated that they were free. They were, though, able to enter into indentured servitude contracts and join military colonies. Some people, after they settled in Mexico, returned to the United States to help family members escape and to guide them to Mexico. Colonies There were abolitionists from the north who petitioned the Mexican government to establish colonies for free and runaway blacks. Benjamin Lundy, a Quaker, lobbied for a colony to be established in what is now Texas during the early 1830s, but he was unable to do so when Texas legalized slavery when it separated from Mexico and became the Republic of Texas (1836). Black Seminoles successfully petitioned for land and established a colony in 1852. The land is still owned by their descendants. Scholarship The Texas Runaway Slave Project, located in Nacogdoches at the Stephen F. Austin State University, has researched runaway advertisements that appeared in 19,000 editions of newspapers from the mid-19th century. Alice L. Baumgartner has studied the prevalence of enslaved people who fled slavery from the Southern slave states to Mexico. She published South to Freedom: Runaway Slaves to Mexico and the Road to the Civil War. Roseann Bacha-Garza, of the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, has managed historical archeology projects and has researched the incidence of enslaved people who fled to Mexico. Maria Esther Hammack completed her doctoral dissertation titled South of Slavery: Freedom Fighters & Black Movement across a Global Frontier, 1790-1868 on the experiences and channels undertaken by freedom seekers, at the University of Texas at Austin. Mekala Audain recently published a chapter titled "A Scheme to Desert: The Louisiana Purchase and Freedom Seekers in the Louisiana-Texas Borderlands, 1804-1806" in the edited volume In Search of Liberty: African American Internationalism in the Nineteenth-Century Atlantic World. Audain discusses how a large number of freedom seekers had escaped Louisiana in 1804 and "did not associate freedom with the northern US, the Ohio River valley, or Canada; instead they looked to the US western frontier to find freedom." National Underground Railroad Network Following upon legislation passed in 1990 for the National Park Service to perform a special resource study of the Underground Railroad, in 1997, the 105th Congress introduced and subsequently passed H.R. 1635 – National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom Act of 1998, which President Bill Clinton signed into law in 1998. This act authorized the United States National Park Service to establish the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom program to identify associated sites, as well as preserve them and popularize the Underground Railroad and stories of people involved in it. The National Park Service has designated many sites within the network, posted stories about people and places, sponsors an essay contest, and holds a national conference about the Underground Railroad in May or June each year. The Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park, which includes Underground Railroad routes in three counties of Maryland's Eastern Shore and Harriet Tubman's birthplace, was created by President Barack Obama under the Antiquities Act on March 25, 2013. Its sister park, the Harriet Tubman National Historical Park in Auburn, New York, was established on January 10, 2017, and focuses on the later years of Tubman's life as well as her involvement with the Underground Railroad and the abolition movement. In popular culture Inspirations for fiction The Underground Railroad is a 2016 novel by Colson Whitehead. It won the 2016 National Book Award and the 2017 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. The Underground Railroad is a 2021 streaming television limited series, based on Whitehead's novel. Underground is an American television series that premiered in 2016, on WGN America. Literature David Walker (1829) Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World Harriet Beecher Stowe (1852) Uncle Tom's Cabin Caroline Lee Hentz (1854) The Planter's Northern Bride William M. Mitchell (1860) The Under-Ground Railroad Sarah Hopkins Bradford (1869) Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman; (1896) Harriet Tubman, Moses of Her People Music Underground Railroad was a company created by Tupac Shakur, Big D the Impossible, Shock G, Pee Wee, Jeremy, Raw Fusion and Live Squad with the purpose of promote and help young black women and men with records allowing them to initiate and develop their musical careers. See also Angola, Florida Ausable Chasm, NY, home of the North Star Underground Railroad Museum Bilger's Rocks Caroline Quarlls (1824–1892), first known person to escape slavery through Wisconsin's Underground Railroad Escape to Sweden, an "underground railroad" during the Holocaust in Norway Fort Mose Historic State Park List of Underground Railroad sites Reverse Underground Railroad Slave codes Tilly Escape Timbuctoo, New York Uncle Tom's Cabin Historic Site near Dresden, Ontario Notes References Foner, Eric (2015). Gateway To Freedom: The Hidden History of the Underground Railroad. New York, New York: Norton. Forbes, Ella (1998) But We Have No Country: The 1851 Christiana Pennsylvania Resistance. Africana Homestead Legacy Publishers. Further reading Colson Whitehead (2016). The Underground Railroad; winner of the Pulitzer Prize in 2017 for this poetical, mythical reflection on the meaning of the Railroad in American history. Blackett, R.J.M. (2013). Making Freedom: The Underground Railroad and the Politics of Slavery. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. (Stories about Thomas Garrett, a famous agent on the Underground Railroad) (Classic book documenting the Underground Railroad operations in Philadelphia). Public domain ebook at Project Gutenberg Book at Internet Archive Strother, Horatio (1962; reissued 2011). The Underground Railroad in Connecticut. Wesleyan University Press. . Tilley Turner, Glennette (2001). The Underground Railroad in Illinois. Newman Educational Pub. . Jones, Leesa Bailey (January 7, 2020). "Leesa Jones Interview". State Archives of North Carolina (Oral History). Interviewed by Ellen Brooks. Washington, N.C. Folklore and myth External links Underground Railroad Studies Underground Railroad Timeline Friends of the Underground Railroad National Underground Railroad Freedom Center Underground Railroad Research Institute at Georgetown College Underground Railroad in Buffalo and Upstate New York: A bibliography by The Buffalo History Museum Newspaper articles and clippings about the Underground Railroad at Newspapers.com 18th-century establishments in the United States 1865 disestablishments in the United States Abolitionism in the United States Secret places in the United States Events of National Historic Significance (Canada) Fugitive American slaves

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitehorse

Whitehorse

Whitehorse () is the capital of Yukon, and the largest city in Northern Canada. It was incorporated in 1950 and is located at kilometre 1426 (Historic Mile 918) on the Alaska Highway in southern Yukon. Whitehorse's downtown and Riverdale areas occupy both shores of the Yukon River, which rises in British Columbia and meets the Bering Sea in Alaska. The city was named after the White Horse Rapids for their resemblance to the mane of a white horse, near Miles Canyon, before the river was dammed. Because of the city's location in the Whitehorse valley and relative proximity to the Pacific Ocean, the climate is milder than comparable northern communities such as Yellowknife. At this latitude winter days are short and summer days have up to about 19 hours of daylight. Whitehorse, as reported by Guinness World Records, is the city with the least air pollution in the world. As of the 2021 Canadian census, the population was 28,201 within city boundaries and 31,913 in the Census Metropolitan Area. This represents approximately 70 and 79 percent respectively of the entire Yukon Territory's population. History Archeological research south of the downtown area, at a location known as Canyon City, has revealed evidence of use by First Nations for several thousand years. The surrounding area had seasonal fish camps and Frederick Schwatka, in 1883, observed the presence of a portage trail used to bypass Miles Canyon. Before the Gold Rush, several different tribes passed through the area seasonally and their territories overlapped. The discovery of gold in the Klondike in August 1896, by Skookum Jim, Tagish Charlie, and George Washington Carmack, set off a major change in the historical patterns of the region. Early prospectors used the Chilkoot Pass, but by July 1897, crowds of neophyte stampeders had arrived via steamship and were camping at "White Horse". By June 1898, there was a bottleneck of stampeders at Canyon City, many boats had been lost to the rapids as well as five people. Samuel Steele of the North-West Mounted Police said: "why more casualties have not occurred is a mystery to me." On their way to find gold, stampeders also found copper in the "copper belt" in the hills west of Whitehorse. The first copper claims were staked by Jack McIntyre on July 6, 1898, and Sam McGee on July 16, 1899. Two tram lines were built, one stretch on the east bank of the Yukon River from Canyon City to the rapids, just across from the present day downtown, the other was built on the west bank of the river. A small settlement was developing at Canyon City but the completion of the White Pass railway to Whitehorse in 1900 put a halt to it. The White Pass and Yukon Route narrow-gauge railway linking Skagway to Whitehorse had begun construction in May 1898, by May 1899 construction had arrived at the south end of Bennett Lake. Construction began again at the north end of Bennett lake to Whitehorse. It was only in June–July 1900 that construction finished the difficult Bennett Lake section itself, completing the entire route. By 1901, the Whitehorse Star was already reporting on daily freight volumes. That summer there were four trains per day. Even though traders and prospectors were all calling the city Whitehorse (White Horse), there was an attempt by the railway people to change the name to Closeleigh (British Close brothers provided funding for the railway), this was refused by William Ogilvie, the territory's Commissioner. Whitehorse was booming. On May 23, 1905, a small fire in the barber shop of the Windsor Hotel got out of control when the fire engine ran out of water, spreading throughout the city and causing $300,000 in damage, though no lives were lost. Robert Service was working as a bank teller at the time and participated in suppressing the flame. The White Horse Restaurant and Inn was among the buildings destroyed, after its co-founder Frederick Trump, the grandfather of Donald Trump, had sold his shares and left the city. In 1920 the first planes landed in Whitehorse and the first air mail was sent in November 1927. Until 1942, rail, river, and air were the only way to get to Whitehorse, but in 1942 the US military decided an interior road would be safer to transfer troops and provisions between Alaska and the US mainland and began construction of the Alaska Highway. The entire project was accomplished between March and November 1942. The Canadian portion of the highway was only returned to Canadian sovereignty after the war. The Canol pipeline was also constructed to supply oil to the north with a refinery in Whitehorse. In 1950 the city was incorporated, and by 1951 the population had doubled from its 1941 numbers. On April 1, 1953, the city was designated the capital of the Yukon Territory when the seat was moved from Dawson City after the construction of the Klondike Highway. On March 21, 1957, the name was officially changed from White Horse to Whitehorse. Geography Whitehorse is located at kilometre 1,425 (Historic Mile 918) of the Alaska Highway and is framed by three nearby mountains: Grey Mountain to the east, Mount Sumanik to the northwest and Golden Horn Mountain to the south. The rapids which were the namesake of the city have disappeared under Miles Canyon and Schwatka Lake, formed by the construction of a hydroelectricity dam in 1958. Whitehorse is currently the 64th largest city in Canada by area. The city limits present a near rectangular shape orientated in a NW-SE direction. Cityscape Whitehorse Bylaw 426 (1975) restricts the operation of motor vehicles to designated roadways in certain "Protected Areas" to ensure maximum conservation of the environmental quality. Most are near the downtown core (downtown and Yukon river escarpments, Mt. Mac ski trails, Riverdale, Valleyview, Hillcrest, Granger, Porter Creek, and Mountainview) and one, Pineridge, is south of downtown. In 1999, the city approved the Area Development Scheme (ADS) which reallocated the area previously known as "Whitehorse Copper" to the following uses: Country Residential, Commercial, Service Industrial, and Heavy industrial. Recent demands for growth have reignited urban planning debates in Whitehorse. In 1970 the Metropolitan Whitehorse development plan included park and greenbelt areas that were to be preserved to ensure high quality of life even within city limits. Climate Whitehorse has a subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfc) and lies in the rain shadow of the Coast Mountains, causing precipitation totals to be quite low year-round. Due to the city's location in the Whitehorse valley, the climate is milder than other comparable northern communities such as Yellowknife. With an average annual temperature of Whitehorse is the warmest place in the Yukon. The temperature measurements for the city are taken at the airport. The Whitehorse Riverdale weather station situated at a lower elevation than the airport is even warmer at . At this latitude winter days are short and summer days have just over 19 hours of daylight. Whitehorse has an average daily high of in July and average daily low of in January. The highest temperature ever recorded in Whitehorse was on 14 June 1969. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on 21 January 1906. Whitehorse has little precipitation with an average annual snowfall of and of rainfall. According to the Meteorological Service of Canada, Whitehorse has the distinction of being Canada's driest city. Whitehorse is in the Cordilleran climate region, the Complex Soils of Mountain Areas soil region, the Cordilleran vegetation region, and the Boreal Cordillera ecozone. Neighbourhoods Due to Whitehorse's unique urban development objectives and varied topography, neighbourhoods are usually separated from each other by large geographical features. In addition to the city's downtown core on the Yukon River's west bank, two subdivisions sit at the same elevation as the Yukon River (). Crossing the bridge to the east bank of the river leads to Riverdale, one of the city's oldest neighbourhoods. From Riverdale, the road climbing up Grey Mountain leads to Grey Mountain Cemetery and the local FM radio antenna. The rest of Whitehorse is generally located above . Immediately after climbing "Two Mile Hill", looking to the north are the old residential neighbourhoods of Takhini, Takhini North and Takhini East, where many homes actually are originally army barracks and military officers' residences. Yukon University, Yukon Arts Centre and Whitehorse Correctional Centre are situated in Takhini. Situated further north are Range Point, Porter Creek, and Crestview, as well as Whitehorse's newest neighbourhood, Whistle Bend, where most of the new residential growth is currently occurring. West of downtown are Valleyview, Hillcrest (also largely constituted of old military lodgings) and the Erik Nielsen Whitehorse International Airport; and beyond the Canada Games Centre along Hamilton Boulevard are the neighbourhoods of McIntyre (designated to replace inferior lands and homes of the Kwanlin Dun First Nation ("The Village") previously located where Marwell adjoins a marshy area), then Ingram, Arkell, Logan, Granger, and rapidly expanding Copper Ridge. Whitehorse also has subdivisions designated "Country Residential" which are subject to different municipal bylaws and are located farther out from the downtown. They consist of the rural Whitehorse subdivisions of Hidden Valley and MacPherson at Whitehorse's northern limits; to the south: McCrae (also spelt MacRae), Wolf Creek, Wolf Creek North, Mary Lake, Cowley Creek, Spruce Hill, Pineridge and Fox Haven Estates. Also located at the south end of the city is the newly designated Mt. Sima Service Industrial Subdivision. Construction of Whistle Bend, Whitehorse's newest subdivision, began in 2010 on the "Lower Bench" east of the Porter Creek subdivision. Attractions Arts Underground Copperbelt Railway & Mining Museum MacBride Museum of Yukon History Miles Canyon Old Log Church Museum sternwheeler Takhini Hot Springs Whitehorse trolley Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre Yukon Transportation Museum Demographics In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Whitehorse recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021. Whitehorse's population is mostly European (75.5%), but has a significant number of Aboriginals (16.5%); First Nations (13.5%) and Metis (2.2%). There is also a moderate visible minority population (7.9%); Southeast Asian (3.4%), Asian Canadian (1.8%) and South Asian (1.6%) were the three largest minority groups. The religious make up of Whitehorse is; Christian (45.3%) and non-religious (51.4%), the remaining 3.3% fall into another religion. Most of the residents are Canadian citizens (94.1%). Language As a federal territory, the Yukon is officially bilingual in English and French. In 2011, 84.3% of the residents of Whitehorse declared English as their only mother tongue, while 4.6% reported French as their only mother tongue, and 9.7% of the population reported a non-official language as their mother tongue. According to the 2011 census the most spoken non-official language in Whitehorse was German, followed by Tagalog, Spanish, Chinese and Dutch. Sports Whitehorse's proximity to the wilderness and the mountains allows its residents to enjoy a very active lifestyle. The city has an extensive trail network within its limits, estimated at in 2007, including sections of the Trans Canada Trail. These trails are used for a variety of non-motorized and/or motorized activities. The Yukon River in and around Whitehorse provides many opportunities for kayaking and canoeing. The city is responsible for the maintenance of numerous sports and recreation fields including two dozen grass/sand/soil/ice sports surfaces, 3 ball diamonds, the Canada Games Centre Multiplex (pools, ice rinks, fieldhouse, fitness centre, walking/running track, physiotherapy), the Takhini Arena, and Mount McIntyre Recreation Centre. Private interests run Mount Sima ( of downhill skiing in the winter and mountain biking in the summer), three golf courses, a bowling alley, and three gyms, including one with squash courts. The annual 1,000 mile Yukon Quest sled dog race between Whitehorse and Fairbanks, Alaska, is considered one of the toughest in the world. The race alternates its starting and finishing points each year. The city has hosted several large sporting events including the 2007 Canada Winter Games, for which a CA$45 million sport multiplex was built; the Canadian Junior Freestyle Championships in 2006, the Arctic Winter Games (2000, 1992, 1986, 1980, 1972, 2012 and up coming location for the 2020 games), the annual International Curling Bonspiel, and the Dustball International Slowpitch Tournament. Although there are no territorial junior league teams, the business community sponsors a number of local teams of volleyball, baseball, basketball, broomball, ice hockey, soccer and ultimate disk. High school teams are very active and partake in competitions with schools in neighbouring Alaska, and a few local athletes have flourished on the Canadian sports scene. Whitehorse is also home to the Whitehorse Glacier Bears swimming club. Government Municipal Whitehorse municipal elections occur every three years. Municipal services provided by the city of Whitehorse include: water and sewer systems, road maintenance, snow and ice control, non-recyclable waste and composting, as well as a mosquito control program. Territorial Whitehorse was represented by 9 of 18 MLAs in Yukon's Legislative Assembly, as per the 2002 map of Yukon electoral districts. In 2009 Yukon's electoral map was modified to give Whitehorse an extra seat, bringing its total up to 10 out of 19. The Legislative Assembly Building is located in downtown Whitehorse and elections usually take place every three to five years. The last general election was held in 2021. Whitehorse residents have three local political parties from which to choose: Yukon Liberal Party, Yukon New Democratic Party, Yukon Party. Federal All of Yukon consists of a single federal electoral district and therefore there is only one Member of Parliament (MP) and 65% of Yukon's voters live in Whitehorse. Residents of the Yukon have been voting federally since a byelection returned the first Yukon MP in January 1903 and, from 1984 onward, have had candidates from at least four federal political parties to choose from. In 2006, 2008 and 2011, the choices have been: Conservative, Green, Liberal, and NDP. Other parties that have contested the riding from 1984 onward include the Libertarian Party, the Rhinoceros Party, the three precursors of the Conservative Party (Reform Party, Canadian Alliance and Progressive Conservatives), the National Party (1993) and the Christian Heritage Party. Liberal Brendan Hanley is Yukon's MP. Judicial All court matters are handled in Whitehorse at the Andrew Philipsen Law Building which also houses a law library. Yukon's Territorial Court (three judges) handles most adult criminal prosecutions under the criminal code and other federal statutes. The Supreme Court of Yukon has three resident judges and nine judges from NWT and Nunavut. The Court of Appeal, made up of justices from British Columbia, Yukon, NWT and Nunavut, sits in Whitehorse only one week of the year, so most appeals are heard in Vancouver, British Columbia. Military The Canadian Armed Forces is represented in Whitehorse by Canadian Forces Detachment Yukon located in downtown Whitehorse, Regional Cadet Support Unit (North) was at Boyle Barracks (until a re-organization in 2012 amalgamated the cadet support unit into Regional Cadet Support Unit (NW) based out of Winnipeg, Manitoba) and the Canadian Rangers of the Whitehorse Patrol of 1 Canadian Ranger Patrol Group. 2685 Yukon Regiment Army Cadet Corps and 551 Whitehorse Squadron, Royal Canadian Air Cadets of the Canadian Cadet Organizations also operate in Whitehorse. All units operate as part of Canadian Forces Joint Task Force (North). 440 Transport Squadron, and other units of the Royal Canadian Air Force, including the Snowbirds often operate and train out of Erik Nielsen Whitehorse International Airport, formerly RCAF Station Whitehorse. Boyle Barracks is located south of downtown Whitehorse. The facility houses Regional Cadet Support Unit (North), Whitehorse Cadet Summer Training Centre, service support elements of Joint Task Force (North), and is used by 1 Canadian Ranger Patrol Group, the Junior Canadian Rangers, and other units to conduct training. Boyle Barracks is located on the property of the unused Wolf Creek Juvenile Corrections Centre which is leased by the Department of National Defence from the Yukon Government. Whitehorse Cadet Summer Training Centre offers a variety of courses and activities that focus on general training, leadership, and expedition training up to the instructor level. Courses are two, three, and six weeks long and are offered throughout the summer. Personnel are drawn primarily from the territories, but many come from across Canada. The training centre also hosts members of the United Kingdom's Army Cadet Force and Combined Cadet Force. Education Whitehorse has several schools as part of a Yukon Government operated public school system. Except for École Émilie-Tremblay, Yukon does not have school boards. However, each school has a council composed of three to seven elected positions for two-year terms, consisting of (and elected by) citizens residing in the school's assigned area and parents of students attending the school. All teachers are employed directly by the Department of Education, and there are no tuition fees to be paid to attend elementary and secondary institutions with the exception of the Wood Street School, which offers specialized experiential programs for high school students in the sciences and arts. Yukon schools follow British Columbia's school curriculum. Primary education (K-3) Grey Mountain Primary Elementary education (K-7) Christ the King Elementary (Catholic) Elijah Smith Elementary Golden Horn Elementary Hidden Valley Elementary Holy Family Elementary (Catholic) Jack Hulland Elementary Selkirk Elementary (French and English Immersion) Takhini Elementary École Whitehorse Elementary (French and late French Immersion) Secondary education Vanier Catholic Secondary School (Catholic) F.H. Collins Secondary School (English and French Immersion) Porter Creek Secondary School French First Language school (K-12) École Émilie-Tremblay Specialized programs Wood St. School (programs are attended by students drawn from the high schools) Individual Learning Centre (for students who have had trouble in the regular school program and are not attending school) Post-secondary education Yukon University, offering mostly college diplomas and some university degrees through ties with various universities (Northern British Columbia, Alaska Southeast, UArctic, Regina, Alberta) Media Broadcast Radio Whitehorse is also served by CIY270, a Weatheradio Canada station broadcasting at 162.400 MHz on the weather band. Television Local cable provider NorthwesTel hosts three local television channels: Community Cable 9, an advertisement slide-show channel and a public service channel. CBC Television operated an affiliate in Whitehorse, CFWH-TV, from 1968 to 2012. Initially served using the Frontier Coverage Package until Anik satellite broadcasts became available early in 1973; this transmitter was shut down on July 31, 2012 due to budget cuts. Until 2009, there was a low-powered repeater of Edmonton's CITV-TV providing Global Television Network programming to the area.. Print Whitehorse's two major English-language newspapers are the Whitehorse Daily Star (founded as a weekly in 1900, it now publishes five times per week since 1986) and the Yukon News (founded as a weekly in 1960 by Ken Shortt, published five days a week from 1967 to 1999, and currently prints twice weekly). Other local newspapers include What's Up Yukon (a local free music, arts, culture, events, weekly founded in 2005) and a French-language newspaper L'Aurore boréale (founded in 1983). Infrastructure Emergency services Whitehorse contracts out its police service to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, with the main police station on 4th avenue in the city centre. Whitehorse's ambulance service are run by Yukon Government's Emergency Medical Services and is staffed by full-time Primary Care Paramedics (PCP) and Advanced Care Paramedics (ACP). Whitehorse's Search and Rescue (SAR) is ensured by a partnership between the RCMP, YG's Emergency Measures Organization (EMO) and volunteer SAR teams. Whitehorse has its own fire service, known as City of Whitehorse Fire Department (WHFD) with two fire stations. The first, Station #1, located in the city centre at the corner of Second Avenue and Steele Street, and Station #2 (305 B Range Road) atop "Two Mile Hill" on the west side, with room for three trucks. It was built in 2010 to become a public safety building. The original fire hall located along on the waterfront has been preserved as a historic building and cultural centre. The Fire Department currently operates with thirty-three full-time staff and approximately ten volunteers. Both fire stations are staffed 24/7 through a rotation of four platoons of six firefighters and one dispatcher. WHFD is equipped and trained to respond to Motor vehicle Accidents, high and low angle rescue, confined space, and static water ice rescue. Haz-mat, swift water and urban search and rescue are not under the departments current capabilities or can only be responded to at awareness levels. All medical emergencies are responded to by Yukon Government Emergency Medical Services. All aircraft emergencies are dealt with by the Eric Nielsen Whitehorse International Airport(ENWIA) ARFF fire department with mutual aid agreement activities from WHFD. Whitehorse Fire Department is professionally represented by the IAFF and the BCPFFA. Whitehorse Fire Department is the largest municipal fire department in the territory and the only professional one. Though they are 13% of the total population of firefighters in the territory, WHFD protects 82% of the population, and responds to 84% of fire calls within the Yukon. WHFD falls under the authority of the Yukon Fire Marshals Office (FMO) and reports directly to it. Fire and life safety inspection throughout the City of Whitehorse are conducted by the Whitehorse Fire Department duty crews as well as designated Fire Prevention Officers under the direction of Municipal Bylaw 2000–01 "Emergency Services Bylaw" with authority from the current edition of the National Fire Code of Canada. Wildland fire crews also operate in the summer to combat the forest fires across the territory. They will lend assistance to crews in B.C., Alberta, and the other territories as needed. Energy grid Yukon Energy operates four conventional hydroelectric generating stations: Whitehorse Dam (40 MW), Aishihik Lake (37 MW), Mayo A (5 MW), and Mayo B (10 MW), which provide the bulk of generation for the Yukon Energy grid. An additional 39 MW of diesel generation is maintained for supplemental back-up. Additionally, Yukon Energy operates two wind turbines near Whitehorse, which are connected to the Whitehorse-Aishihik-Faro grid. The first turbine is a Bonus Energy 150 kW MARK III installed in 1993 that is no longer functional. The second turbine, a Vestas 660 kW V47 LT II was later installed in 2000 and operates only in the summer. These units need to be specially adapted to deal with icing and the northern environment. Health care The first "White Horse General Hospital" (WGH) was built in the downtown area in 1902 with a 10-bed capacity. During World War I beds increased to 30, 10 beds were added in 1943, then 20 beds in 1949, and an operating wing was added in 1951. In 1959 the hospital was rebuilt on the other bank of the Yukon River, across from its previous location, but decision making was still based in Ottawa (National Health and Welfare, Medical Services Branch). The downtown area has several private medical, dental, and optometry clinics. In 1990, the Yukon Hospital Corporation (YHC) was created in order to prepare the transfer of powers regarding the hospital from the Federal Government to the Yukon Territorial Government. In April 1993 management of WGH was officially transferred to the YHC following a collaboration with the Yukon government and Council of Yukon First Nations (CYFN, then CYI). Construction of the present building lasted from 1994 through 1997. Today Whitehorse General hospital counts 49 in-patient beds, 10 day-surgery beds, an ER department, OR suites and several medical imaging technologies. Transportation Air Whitehorse is served by the Erik Nielsen Whitehorse International Airport and has, as of 2019, scheduled service to Vancouver, Kelowna, Victoria, Calgary, Edmonton, Yellowknife, Ottawa (via Yellowknife), Dawson City, Mayo, Old Crow, Inuvik, as well as Frankfurt, Germany, during the summer months. The airport was developed as part of the Northwest Staging Route in 1941–42 and has two long paved runways. A wartime-era hangar served as terminal building from about 1960, and was replaced in December 1985 with a modern terminal. Air North, a scheduled passenger and cargo airline operating Boeing 737 jetliners and Hawker Siddeley 748 turboprops, is based in Whitehorse. In 1998 work was completed on a runway extension and other improvements (concrete turn button, installation of storm and sanitary mains, lighting upgrades, tower access road and blast pad). Expansion of the terminal itself was completed in 2010. Roads Surface access to Whitehorse is provided by a network of highways, including the international Alaska Highway connecting the Yukon with Alaska, British Columbia, and Alberta highway networks. Whitehorse has been described as "pearls on a string", with its residential, industrial, and service subdivisions located along the main thoroughfares that carry traffic within city limits, with large gaps of undeveloped (often hilly) land between them. The Alaska Highway is the primary roadway, with branch roads reaching additional subdivisions. One such branch road, signed as "Highway 1A" and following Two Mile Hill Road, 4th Avenue, 2nd Avenue, and Robert Service Way, is the main access to downtown, Riverdale, and the Marwell Industrial Area. Other branch roads (Range Road, Hamilton Boulevard, Mayo Road) access smaller residential areas and recreational facilities. The city road network is adequate, although it is congested during rush hours and discussions occasionally occur as to how it might better be managed, such as designating one-way streets. Public transit Whitehorse Transit provides bus service on weekdays from morning until early evening and on Saturdays during business hours. There was a waterfront tram, known as the "trolley", which provided transport along a short rail section along the Yukon River; it was chiefly tourist-oriented, operated by non-profit society, and was not integrated into the municipal transit system. It ran from the Rotary Peace Park, located on the south end of the city centre, up to the north end of the city centre at Spook Creek Station. Whitehorse presently has no active railway service. The trolley system ran on a small portion of the tracks formerly belonging to White Pass and Yukon Route. The last scheduled service to Whitehorse from White Pass Railway occurred in October 1982. The White Pass Railway started scheduled service from Skagway, Alaska, to Carcross, south of Whitehorse, in the spring of 2007, but this was disrupted by high lake water levels in August 2007. Speculation of a transcontinental rail link to Alaska includes one possible route option through Whitehorse; a report has recommended a hub at Carmacks, with a spur line to Whitehorse and on to the Inside Passage of Alaska. Water The Yukon River is essentially navigable from Whitehorse to the Bering Sea. At above sea level, the river at Whitehorse is the highest point on earth that can be reached by watercraft navigating from the sea. Currently, no passenger or freight services use the river at Whitehorse. Sister cities Juneau, Alaska Lancieux, France, since 2000. Ushiku, Japan, since 1985. Historical sister city partnerships: Echuca, Australia, November 1977 – September 2008 Patos de Minas, Brazil Notable people Byron Baltimore, National Hockey League player Zachary Bell, Whitehorse-born Olympic cyclist Pierre Berton, author and television host, born in Whitehorse Ivan E. Coyote, spoken word performer and writer, born in Whitehorse in 1969 Dylan Cozens, professional hockey player for the Buffalo Sabres Stéphanie Dixon, para-athlete Randy Hahn, play-by-play commentator for the San Jose Sharks Stephen Kozmeniuk, musician who created the band Boy, music producer/composer who has worked with Madonna, Kendrick Lamar, and others Jeane Lassen, Olympic weightlifter Audrey McLaughlin, the first woman to lead a represented political party (NDP) in Canadian federal politics, who has resided in Whitehorse since 1979 Sarah MacDougall, Swedish/Canadian singer-songwriter, resides in Whitehorse Scott Moffatt, singer and guitarist Aaron Olson, basketball player Gurdeep Pandher, Bhangra dancer Edward Peghin, Emmy-nominated producer resides in Whitehorse Tahmoh Penikett, actor whose credits include Battlestar Galactica and Dollhouse Tony Penikett Jim Robb, watercolour painter Robert W. Service, known as The Bard of the Yukon for his poems The Shooting of Dan McGrew, The Cremation of Sam McGee and many other depicting the Gold Rush and the special atmosphere of the Klondike. Whitehorse City Council which paid tribute to Robert Service with several monuments: Robert Service's Road, a Bust near where he lived, a Memorial Desk at the corner of 2nd Avenue and Main Street and various celebrations through the sister city relationship with the town of Lancieux. Amy Sloan, television actress Peter Sturgeon, National Hockey League player Frederick Trump, cofounder of the Whitehorse Hotel and grandfather of Donald Trump Martyn S. Williams, mountain and wilderness guide who is the first person in the world to lead expeditions to the three extremes, South Pole (1989) North Pole (1992) and Everest (1991) Greg Wiltjer, basketball player Notable politicians include the first female mayor of Whitehorse, in 1975, Ione Christensen, whose family had moved to Whitehorse in 1949, and Yukon's first senator, in 1975, Paul Lucier, who stayed in office until his death in 1999. See also List of municipalities in Yukon "Bob Smart's Dream", a 1906 poem by Robert Service that speculates about the Whitehorse of the future. This Dollar Saved My Life at Whitehorse, a 2001 album by Lucyfire References External links 1898 establishments in Yukon Cities in Yukon Populated places established in 1898 Yukon River

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999

1999

1999 was designated as the International Year of Older Persons. Events January January 1 – The euro currency is established and the European Central Bank assumes its full powers. January 3 – The Mars Polar Lander is launched by NASA. January 25 – The 6.2 Armenia, Colombia earthquake hits western Colombia, killing at least 1,900. February February 4 – Unarmed Guinean immigrant Amadou Diallo is shot dead by New York City police officers on an unrelated stake-out, sparking outrage in the city. February 7 – King Hussein of Jordan dies from cancer, and his son Abdullah II inherits the throne. February 11 – Pluto moves along its eccentric orbit further from the Sun than Neptune. It had been nearer than Neptune since 1979, and will become again in 2231. February 12 – U.S. President Bill Clinton is acquitted in impeachment proceedings in the United States Senate. February 16 In Uzbekistan, an apparent assassination attempt against President Islam Karimov takes place at government headquarters. Across Europe, Kurdish rebels take over embassies and hold hostages after Turkey arrests one of their rebel leaders. February 19 – Moderate Iraqi Shiite cleric Mohammad al-Sadr is assassinated. February 21 – Sanna Sillanpää shoots four men, killing three at a shooting range in Finland. February 23 Kurdish rebel leader Abdullah Öcalan is charged with treason in Ankara, Turkey. White supremacist John William King is found guilty of kidnapping and murdering African American James Byrd Jr. by dragging him behind a truck for 2 miles (3 km). 1999 Galtür avalanche: An avalanche destroys the village of Galtür, Austria, killing 31. February 24 – LaGrand case: The State of Arizona executes Karl LaGrand, a German national involved in an armed robbery in 1982 that led to a death. Karl's brother Walter is executed a week later, in spite of Germany's legal action in the International Court of Justice to attempt to save him. February 27 – While trying to circumnavigate the world in a hot air balloon, Colin Prescot and Andy Elson set a new endurance record after being aloft for 233 hours and 55 minutes. March March 1 One of four bombs detonated in Lusaka, Zambia, destroys the Angolan Embassy. Rwandan Hutu rebels kill and dismember eight foreign tourists at the Buhoma homestead, Uganda. The Convention on the Prohibition of Anti-Personnel Mines comes into force. March 3 – Walter LaGrand is executed in the gas chamber in Arizona. March 4 – In a military court, United States Marine Corps Captain Richard J. Ashby is acquitted of the charge of reckless flying which resulted in the deaths of 20 skiers in the Italian Alps, when his low-flying EA-6B Prowler hit a gondola cable. March 6 - Far-right conspiracy theorist Alex Jones creates the show InfoWars. March 12 – Former Warsaw Pact members Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic join NATO. March 15 – In Brussels, Belgium, the Santer Commission resigns over allegations of corruption. March 21 Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones become the first to circumnavigate the Earth in a hot air balloon. The 71st Academy Awards are held at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles with Shakespeare in Love winning Best Picture. March 23 – Gunmen assassinate Paraguay's Vice President Luis María Argaña. March 24 NATO launches air strikes against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, marking the first time NATO has attacked a sovereign state. A fire in the Mont Blanc Tunnel kills 39 people, closing the tunnel for nearly three years. March 25 – Enron energy traders allegedly route 2,900 megawatts of electricity destined for California to the town of Silver Peak, Nevada, population 200. March 26 – The Melissa worm attacks the Internet. March 27 – Kosovo War: A U.S. F-117 Nighthawk is shot down by Yugoslav forces. March 29 – For the first time, the Dow Jones Industrial Average closes above the 10,000 mark, at 10,006.78. April April 1 – Nunavut, an Inuit homeland, is created from the eastern portion of the Northwest Territories to become Canada's third territory. April 5 Two Libyans suspected of bringing down Pan Am Flight 103 in 1988 are handed over to Scottish authorities for eventual trial in the Netherlands. The United Nations suspends sanctions against Libya. In Laramie, Wyoming, Russell Henderson pleads guilty to kidnapping and felony murder, in order to avoid a possible death penalty conviction for the apparent hate crime killing of Matthew Shepard. April 7 – Kosovo War: Kosovo's main border crossings are closed by Yugoslav forces to prevent Kosovar Albanians from leaving. April 8 – Bill Gates's personal fortune makes him the wealthiest individual in the world due to the increased value of Microsoft stock. April 9 – Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara, president of Niger, is assassinated. April 14 – Kosovo War: NATO warplanes repeatedly bomb ethnic Albanian refugee convoys for 2 hours over a 12-mile stretch of road, after mistaking them for Yugoslav military trucks, between Đakovica and Dečani in western Kosovo, killing at least 73 refugees. April 17 – A nail bomb, the first of three planted by David Copeland over a fortnight, explodes in the middle of a busy market in Brixton, South London. April 20 – Columbine High School massacre: Two Littleton, Colorado, teenagers, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, open fire on their teachers and classmates, killing 12 students and 1 teacher, and then themselves. April 26 Sultan Salahuddin of Selangor becomes the 11th Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia. British TV presenter Jill Dando, 37, is shot dead on the doorstep of her home in Fulham, London. April 30 Cambodia joins the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), bringing the total members to 10. A third nail bomb planted by David Copeland explodes in The Admiral Duncan pub in Old Compton Street, Soho, London, killing a pregnant woman and two friends and injuring 70 others. May May 3 – 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak: a devastating tornado, rated F5 on the Fujita scale, hit southern and eastern Oklahoma City metropolitan area, killing 36 people (and 5 indirectly). It also produced the highest winds recorded on Earth: . May 6 – Elections are held in Scotland and Wales for the new Scottish Parliament and National Assembly for Wales. May 7 Kosovo War: in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, three Chinese embassy workers are killed and twenty others wounded when a NATO B-2 aircraft bombs the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade. In Guinea-Bissau, President João Bernardo Vieira is ousted in a military coup. May 12 – David Steel becomes the first Presiding Officer (Speaker) of the modern Scottish Parliament. May 13 – Carlo Azeglio Ciampi is elected President of Italy. May 17 – Ehud Barak is elected prime minister of Israel. May 19 – George Lucas' fourth Star Wars film (Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace) is released in the United States. May 20 – American daredevil Robbie Knievel jumps over the Grand Canyon on a 500cc motorcycle. May 26 The Indian Air Force launches an attack on intruding Pakistan Army troops and mujahideen militants in Kashmir. The first Welsh Assembly in over 600 years opens in Cardiff. The 1999 UEFA Champions League Final takes place at the Camp Nou Stadium, Barcelona, in which the English side Manchester United defeats the German side Bayern Munich 2–1. May 27 – The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in The Hague, Netherlands indicts Slobodan Milošević and four others for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed in Kosovo. May 28 Two Swedish police officers are wounded by bank robbers armed with automatic firearms, and later executed with their own service pistols in Malexander, Sweden. After 22 years of restoration work, Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper is placed back on display in Milan, Italy. May 29 – Nigeria terminates military rule, and the Fourth Nigerian Republic is established with Olusegun Obasanjo as president. June June 1 – Napster, a music downloading service, debuts, which would later inspire other file-sharing sites such as The Pirate Bay, LimeWire, Gnutella, Kazaa, Morpheus, BearShare, and uTorrent 1999-2010 period which some called the "Second Golden Age of Piracy". June 2 – The King of Bhutan allows television transmissions to commence in the Kingdom for the first time, coinciding with the King's Silver Jubilee. June 5 – The Islamic Salvation Army, the armed wing of the Islamic Salvation Front, agrees in principle to disband in Algeria. June 8 – The government of Colombia announces it will include the estimated value of the country's illegal drug crops, exceeding half a billion US dollars, in its gross national product. June 9 – Kosovo War: Yugoslavia and NATO sign a peace treaty to end their hostilities. June 10 – Kosovo War: NATO suspends its air strikes after Slobodan Milošević agrees to withdraw Yugoslav forces from Kosovo. June 12 Kosovo War: Operation Joint Guardian/Operation Agricola begins: NATO-led United Nations peacekeeping forces KFOR enter Kosovo, Yugoslavia. Texas governor George W. Bush announces he will pursue the Republican Party's nomination for president of the United States. June 16 – Thabo Mbeki is inaugurated as the second president of South Africa, marking the first peaceful transfer of executive power in the country's post-democratization history. June 18 – The J18 international anti-globalization protests are organized in dozens of cities around the world, some of which led to riots. June 19 – Turin, Italy, is awarded the 2006 Winter Olympics. June 24 – Kosovo War: NATO marines shoot three gunmen in Kosovo, Yugoslavia after being attacked by the latter, killing one of them and injuring the other two. June 25 – Bosnia and Herzegovina gets a new national anthem. June 30 – Twenty-three people die in a fire at the Sealand Youth Training Center in South Korea. July July 1 The Scottish Parliament is officially opened by Elizabeth II on the day that devolved powers are officially transferred from the Scottish Office in London to the new devolved Scottish Executive in Edinburgh. Europol (short for European Police Office) the European Union's criminal intelligence agency becomes fully operational. July 4 - The United States Celebrates 233 years of Independence. July 7 – In Rome, Hicham El Guerrouj runs the fastest mile ever recorded, at 3:43.13. July 10 – American soccer player Brandi Chastain scores the game winning penalty kick against China in the final of the FIFA Women's World Cup. July 11 – India recaptures Kargil, forcing the Pakistani army to retreat. India announces victory, ending the 2-month conflict. July 16 – Off the coast of Martha's Vineyard, a plane crashes piloted by John F. Kennedy Jr., killing him, his wife Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy, and her sister Lauren Bessette. July 20 Mercury program: Liberty Bell 7 – piloted by Gus Grissom in 1961 – is raised from the Atlantic Ocean. Falun Gong is banned in the People's Republic of China under Jiang Zemin. July 23 NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory is launched. Mohammed VI of Morocco becomes king upon the death of his father Hassan II. Fourteen Kosovar Serb villagers are killed by ethnic Albanian gunmen in the village of Staro Gračko. July 27 – Twenty-one people die in a canyoning disaster at the Saxetenbach Gorge near Interlaken, Switzerland. July 31 – NASA intentionally crashes the Lunar Prospector spacecraft into the Moon, thus ending its mission to detect frozen water on the lunar surface. August August 7 – Hundreds of Chechen guerrillas invade the Russian republic of Dagestan, triggering a short war. August 10 – The Atlantique incident occurs as an intruding Pakistan Navy plane is shot down in India, sparking tensions between the two nations, coming just a month after the end of the Kargil War. August 11 – A total solar eclipse is seen in Europe and Asia. August 16 – State Duma approved Putin as Prime Minister August 17 – The 7.6 İzmit earthquake shakes northwestern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), leaving more than 17,000 dead and around 50,000 injured. August 19 – In Belgrade, tens of thousands of Yugoslavs rally to demand the resignation of Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević. August 26 – The Second Chechen War begins August 30 – East Timor votes for independence from Indonesia (which had invaded and occupied it since 1975) in a referendum. September September 3 – 1999 Ontario Highway 401 crash occurs, involving 87 vehicles and killing 8. September 7 – The 6.0 Athens earthquake hits with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), killing 143, injuring 800–1,600, and leaving 50,000 homeless. September 8 – The first of a series of Russian apartment bombings occurs. Subsequent bombings occur on September 13 and 16, while a bombing on September 22 fails. September 9 – The Sega Company introduces in American market the new game console with the name Dreamcast. September 12 – Under international pressure to allow an international peacekeeping force, Indonesian president BJ Habibie announces that he will do so. September 14 – Kiribati, Nauru and Tonga join the United Nations. September 21 – The 921 earthquake, also known as the Jiji earthquake (magnitude 7.6 on the Richter scale), kills about 2,400 people in Taiwan. October October – NASA loses one of its probes, the Mars Climate Orbiter. October 1 – Shanghai Pudong International Airport opens in China, taking over all international flights from Hongqiao. October 5 – Thirty-one people die in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash, west of London, England. October 12 – Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif attempts to dismiss Army Chief General Pervez Musharraf, who is out of the country. The generals lead a coup d'état, ousting Sharif's administration, and Musharraf takes control of the government. October 13 – The United States Senate rejects ratification of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). October 27 – Gunmen open fire in the Armenian Parliament, killing Prime Minister Vazgen Sargsyan, Parliament Chairman Karen Demirchyan, and six other members. October 29 – A super cyclonic storm impacts Orissa, India, killing approximately 10,000 people. October 30 – : A pub catches fire in Inchon, South Korea, killing 56 people. October 31 EgyptAir Flight 990, travelling from New York City to Cairo, crashes off the coast of Nantucket, Massachusetts, killing all 217 on board. Roman Catholic Church and several Lutheran Church leaders sign the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, attempting to resolve a centuries-old doctrinal dispute over the nature of faith and salvation. November November 6 – Australians defeat a referendum proposing the replacement of the Queen and the Governor General with a President to make Australia a republic. November 12 – The 7.2 Düzce earthquake shakes northwestern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). At least 845 people are killed and almost 5,000 are injured. November 20 – China launches the first Shenzhou spacecraft. November 23 – The National Assembly of Kuwait revokes a 1985 law that granted women's suffrage. November 26 – The 7.5 Ambrym earthquake shakes Vanuatu and a destructive tsunami follows, killing 10 and injuring 40. November 27 – The centre-left Labour Party takes control of the New Zealand government, with leader Helen Clark becoming the second female Prime Minister in New Zealand's history. November 30 – The ExxonMobil merger is completed, forming the largest corporation in the world at that time. December December 3 After rowing for 81 days and 5,486 kilometers (2,962 nautical miles), Tori Murden becomes the first woman to cross the Atlantic Ocean by rowboat alone, when she reaches Guadeloupe from the Canary Islands. NASA loses radio contact with the Mars Polar Lander, moments before the spacecraft enters the Martian atmosphere. December 5 – Bolivian municipal elections, the first election contested by Evo Morales' Movement for Socialism. December 18 – NASA launches the Terra platform into orbit, carrying five Earth Observation instruments, including ASTER, CERES, MISR, MODIS and MOPITT. December 20 – The sovereignty of Macau is transferred from the Portuguese Republic to the People's Republic of China after 442 years of Portuguese settlement. December 26 – Cyclones Lothar and Martin kill 140 people as they cross France, southern Germany, and Switzerland. December 27 – Storm Martin causes damage throughout France, Spain, Switzerland and Italy, including an emergency due to flooding at the Blayais Nuclear Power Plant. December 31 The U.S. turns over complete administration of the Panama Canal to the Panamanian Government, as stipulated in the Torrijos–Carter Treaties of 1977. Boris Yeltsin resigns as president of Russia, leaving Prime Minister Vladimir Putin as the acting president. 3rd millennium celebrations. Births January January 1 Gianluca Scamacca, Italian soccer player Diamond White, American actress, voice artist, and singer January 4 Daniel Arzani, Australian footballer Nico Hischier, Swiss ice hockey player Collin Sexton, American basketball player January 6 – Elena Radionova, Russian figure skater January 8 Ignas Brazdeikis, Canadian basketball player Damiano David, Italian singer-songwriter January 9 – Li Zhuhao, Chinese swimmer January 10 – Mason Mount, English footballer January 11 – Christian Nodal, Mexican singer January 12 Nicolás Schiappacasse, Uruguayan footballer Xavier Tillman, American basketball player January 15 – Martin Nečas, Czech ice hockey player January 18 – Karan Brar, American actor January 25 – Jai Waetford, Australian singer January 28 – Roman Bravo-Young, American wrestler January 29 – HRVY, British singer February February 7 – Bea Miller, American actress, singer, and songwriter February 9 – Saúl Coco, Equatoguinean footballer February 10 – Tiffany Espensen, Chinese-American actress February 11 Candace Hill, American track and field athlete Andriy Lunin, Ukrainian footballer February 12 – Jaylen Hands, American basketball player February 14 – Tyler Adams, American soccer player February 17 – Alex de Minaur, Australian tennis player February 18 – Lorraine McNamara, American ice dancer February 19 Quinn Lord, Canadian actor Hugo Gonzalez, Spanish swimmer February 20 Jarrett Culver, American basketball player Lea van Acken, German actress February 21 – Metawin Opas-iamkajorn, Thai actor and singer February 24 – Riley Herbst, American professional stock car racing driver February 25 – Gianluigi Donnarumma, Italian footballer February 28 – Luka Dončić, Slovenian basketball player March March 2 – Abdullah Al-Qwabani, Yemeni long-distance runner March 4 – Brooklyn Beckham, British model and son of David and Victoria Beckham March 5 Madison Beer, American singer Yeri, South Korean singer March 6 – Abdul Hakim Sani Brown, Japanese athlete March 14 – Marvin Bagley III, American basketball player March 16 Bailie Key, American artistic gymnast Antonis Stergiakis, Greek footballer Vladimir Guerrero Jr., Canadian-Dominican baseball player March 19 – Jack Higgins, Australian rules footballer March 22 – Mick Schumacher, German racing driver March 24 – Arina Openysheva, Russian swimmer March 25 – Jin Ji-hee, South Korean actress March 30 – Jota, Portuguese footballer March 31 – Sawyer Fredericks, American singer April April 1 – Jairus Aquino, Filipino actor April 3 – Arisha Razi, Pakistani actress April 4 – Sheku Kanneh-Mason, British cellist April 5 Maria Astashkina, Russian swimmer Sharlene San Pedro, Filipina actress and singer April 8 CiCi Bellis, American tennis player José Gomes, Portuguese footballer April 9 Ikhsan Fandi, Singaporean footballer Lil Nas X, American rapper, singer, and songwriter April 11 – Yianni Diakomihalis, American wrestler April 14 Matteo Guendouzi, French footballer Chase Young, American football player April 15 Zachary Lagha, Canadian ice dancer Denis Shapovalov, Canadian tennis player April 16 – Wendell Carter Jr., American basketball player April 18 – Michael Andrew, American swimmer April 19 – Corentin Moutet, French tennis player April 20 Fabio Quartararo, French motorbike racer Carly Rose Sonenclar, American actress and singer April 24 – Jerry Jeudy, American football player April 26 – Alexander Petrov, Russian figure skater April 28 – Justin Haley, American professional stock car racing driver April 30 – Jorden van Foreest, Dutch chess grandmaster May May 1 – Akhyar Rashid, Malaysian footballer May 5 Jonny Gray, Canadian actor Justin Kluivert, Dutch footballer Nathan Chen, American figure skater May 8 Maykel Massó, Cuban long jumper Rebeca Andrade, Brazilian artistic gymnast May 11 – Sabrina Carpenter, American actress, singer, and songwriter May 22 – Camren Bicondova, American actress and dancer May 24 – Charlie Plummer, American actor May 25 Brec Bassinger, American actress Ibrahima Konaté, French footballer May 26 – Kerry Ingram, English actress May 27 Lily-Rose Depp, French-American actress and model Maria Kameneva, Russian swimmer May 30 Eddie Nketiah, English footballer Sean Giambrone, American actor May 31 – Roman Sadovsky, Canadian figure skater June June 1 – Dmitri Aliev, Russian figure skater June 2 – Wei Yi, Chinese chess prodigy June 4 Kim So-hyun, South Korean actress Drew Pavlou, Australian activist June 9 Michael DiPietro, Canadian ice hockey player Zane Smith, American professional stock car racing driver June 11 Kai Havertz, German footballer Saxon Sharbino, American actress June 12 – CarryMinati, Indian YouTuber June 13 – Callum Coleman-Jones, Australian rules footballer June 14 – Tzuyu, Taiwanese singer June 17 – Elena Rybakina, Russian–Kazakh tennis player June 18 – Trippie Redd, American rapper June 19 – Jordan Poole, American basketball player June 21 – Natalie Alyn Lind, American actress June 24 – Mads Roerslev, Danish footballer June 27 – Chandler Riggs, American actor June 28 – Markéta Vondroušová, Czech tennis player June 29 – Nikita Volodin, Russian pair skater July July 1 – Charles Armstrong-Jones, Viscount Linley July 2 Robert Thomas, Canadian ice hockey player Nicolò Zaniolo, Italian footballer July 4 – Moa Kikuchi, Japanese singer and dancer July 6 – Denis Khodykin, Russian pair skater July 10 April Ivy, Portuguese singer and composer Matthew Real, Brazilian-American soccer player July 12 – Nur Dhabitah Sabri, Malaysian diver July 13 – Leong Jun Hao, Malaysian badminton player July 15 – Seda Tutkhalyan, Russian artistic gymnast July 17 – Lisandro Cuxi, Portuguese-French singer July 19 – Kim So-hye, South Korean actress and singer July 20 Princess Alexandra of Hanover Goga Bitadze, Georgian basketball player Ellie Downie, British artistic gymnast Pop Smoke, American rapper (d. 2020) July 28 – Troy Brown Jr., American basketball player July 30 – Joey King, American actress August August 2 – Emma Bale, Belgian singer August 3 – Yoo Yeon-jung, South Korean singer August 5 – Kim Si-hyeon, South Korean singer and host August 6 – Hunter Greene, American baseball pitcher August 7 Dejan Joveljić, Serbian footballer Sydney McLaughlin, American hurdler and sprinter August 9 – Deniss Vasiļjevs, Latvian figure skater August 10 – Ja Morant, American basketball player August 11 Kevin Knox, American basketball player Mary-Sophie Harvey, Canadian swimmer August 12 – Matthijs de Ligt, Dutch footballer August 14 – Bryce Hall, American social media personality August 16 – Karen Chen, American figure skater August 22 Dakota Goyo, Canadian actor Mai Mihara, Japanese figure skater Ricardo Hurtado, American actor August 26 – Leonie Kullmann, German swimmer August 27 Mitchell van Bergen, Dutch footballer Mile Svilar, Belgian footballer August 28 – Prince Nikolai of Denmark August 31 – Miomir Kecmanović, Serbian tennis player September September 3 – Rich Brian, Indonesian rapper September 4 – Ellie Darcey-Alden, English actress September 5 – Alexey Erokhov, Russian figure skater September 7 – Michelle Creber, Canadian actress and singer September 8 – Shubman Gill, Indian cricketer September 13 – Ekaterina Borisova, Russian pair skater September 14 – Emma Kenney, American actress September 15 – Jaren Jackson Jr., American basketball player September 16 Mao Yi, Chinese gymnast Brady Tkachuk, American ice hockey player September 17 – Daniel Huttlestone, English actor September 21 Alexander Isak, Swedish footballer Wang Junkai, Chinese singer September 22 Kim Yoo-jung, South Korean actress Erin Pitt, Canadian actress September 28 – Kayla Day, American tennis player September 30 – Flávia Saraiva, Brazilian artistic gymnast October October 1 – Christopher Taylor, Jamaican sprinter October 2 – Martin Kaut, Czech ice hockey player October 6 – Trevor Lawrence, American football quarterback October 14 Quinn Hughes, American ice hockey player Wu Yibing, Chinese tennis player Laura Zeng, American rhythmic gymnast October 15 Bailee Madison, American actress Alexei Sancov, Moldovan swimmer Ben Woodburn, British footballer October 17 – Gabrielle Fa'amausili, New Zealand swimmer October 19 – Carlotta Truman, German singer October 20 Chuu, South Korean singer and television personality YoungBoy Never Broke Again, American rapper October 23 Noah Balta, Australian rules footballer Belle Delphine, English internet personality, model, and YouTuber Joseph Andre Garcia, Filipino actor October 27 – Amy Tinkler, British artistic gymnast October 30 – Wang Yan, Chinese gymnast November November 1 – Buddy Handleson, American actor November 9 – Karol Sevilla, Mexican actress and singer November 10 Armand Duplantis, American-born Swedish pole vaulter João Félix, Portuguese footballer Kiernan Shipka, American actress November 11 Fan Yilin, Chinese artistic gymnast X González, American activist November 12 – Choi Yoo-jung, South Korean singer and songwriter November 13 Merveille Fundambu, Congolese football midfielder Lando Norris, British racing driver November 16 – Bol Bol, American basketball player November 19 – Evgenia Medvedeva, Russian figure skater November 26 – Olivia O'Brien, American singer December December 4 Kang Mi-na, South Korean singer and actress Kim Do-yeon, South Korean singer December 5 – Willy Braciano, Ivorian footballer (d. 2021) December 9 – Monique Conti, Australian rules footballer December 23 – Dmitrii Kozlovskii, Russian figure skater December 28 – Iqbaal Ramadhan, Indonesian actor and singer December 29 – Nadine Joy Nathan, Singaporean artistic gymnast December 30 – Jean-Clair Todibo, French footballer Deaths January January 4 – Iron Eyes Cody, Italian-American actor (b. 1904) January 6 – Michel Petrucciani, French jazz pianist and composer (b. 1962) January 11 Teuvo Aura, Finnish politician, 33rd Prime Minister of Finland (b. 1912) Fabrizio De André, Italian singer and songwriter (b. 1940) Brian Moore, Northern Irish-Canadian writer (b. 1921) January 12 – Betty Lou Gerson, American actress (b. 1914) January 14 – Jerzy Grotowski, Polish theatre director (b. 1933) January 21 – Susan Strasberg, American actress (b. 1938) January 22 – Graham Staines, Australian missionary (b. 1941) January 23 – Joe D'Amato, Italian film director, producer, cinematographer, and screenwriter (b. 1936) January 25 – Robert Shaw, American conductor (b. 1916) February February 1 – Barış Manço, Turkish singer and television personality (b. 1943) February 2 - Deborah Makepeace, English actress (b. 1957). February 5 – Wassily Leontief, Russian economist (b. 1906) February 7 King Hussein of Jordan (b. 1935) Bobby Troup, American actor, jazz pianist, singer and songwriter (b. 1918) February 8 – Dame Iris Murdoch, Anglo-Irish author (b. 1919) February 12 – Heinz Schubert, German actor and photographer (b. 1925) February 14 Buddy Knox, American singer and songwriter (b. 1933) John Ehrlichman, American Watergate scandal figure (b. 1925) February 15 Big L, American rapper (b. 1974) Henry Way Kendall, American physicist (b. 1926) February 16 – Björn Afzelius, Swedish singer, songwriter and guitarist (b. 1947) February 18 – Andreas Feininger, French-born photographer (b. 1906) February 20 Sarah Kane, English playwright (b. 1971) Gene Siskel, American film critic (b. 1946) February 21 – Gertrude B. Elion, American biochemist and pharmacologist (b. 1918) February 25 – Glenn T. Seaborg, American chemist (b. 1912) February 28 Bing Xin, Chinese author and poet (b. 1900) Bill Talbert, American tennis player (b. 1918) March March 2 – Dusty Springfield, English pop singer (b. 1939) March 3 Jackson C. Frank, American folk musician (b. 1943) Gerhard Herzberg, German-born chemist (b. 1904) March 4 Harry Blackmun, American judge, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court (b. 1908) Fritz Honegger, Swiss politician, 79th President of Switzerland (b. 1917) March 5 – Richard Kiley, American actor (b. 1922) March 6 Dennis Viollet, English footballer (b. 1933) Emir Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa of Bahrain (b. 1931) March 7 – Stanley Kubrick, American film director and producer (b. 1928) March 8 Adolfo Bioy Casares, Argentine writer (b. 1914) Peggy Cass, American actress, comedian, and game show panelist (b. 1924) Joe DiMaggio, American baseball player (b. 1914) March 10 Oswaldo Guayasamín, Ecuadorian painter and sculptor (b. 1919) Kusumagraj, Indian poet, playwright and novelist (b. 1912) March 12 – Yehudi Menuhin, American violinist (b. 1916) March 13 – Garson Kanin, American playwright and screenwriter (b. 1912) March 14 – Kirk Alyn, American actor (b. 1910) March 17 Ernest Gold, Austrian-born composer (b. 1921) Humberto Fernández-Morán, Venezuelan research scientist (b. 1924) Hildegard Peplau, American nurse and theorist (b. 1909) March 19 – Tofilau Eti Alesana, Samoan politician, 6th Prime Minister of Samoa (b. 1924) March 21 Jean Guitton, French philosopher (b. 1901) Ernie Wise, English comedian (b. 1925) March 22 – David Strickland, American actor (b. 1969) March 24 – Gertrud Scholtz-Klink, German politician (b. 1902) March 29 – Joe Williams, American singer (b. 1918) March 30 – Igor Netto, Soviet–Russian footballer (b. 1930) March 31 – Yuri Knorozov, Russian linguist and epigrapher (b. 1922) April April 4 Faith Domergue, American actress (b. 1924) Jumabek Ibraimov, 5th Prime Minister of Kyrgyzstan (b. 1944) Bob Peck, English actor (b. 1945) April 9 – Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara, Nigerese military officer, 5th President of Niger (b. 1949) April 10 – Jean Vander Pyl, American actress (b. 1919) April 13 – Willi Stoph, German politician, 2-time Prime Minister of the German Democratic Republic (b. 1914) April 14 Ellen Corby, American actress (b. 1911) Anthony Newley, English actor, singer and songwriter (b. 1931) April 15 – Harvey Postlethwaite, English engineer and race car designer (b. 1944) April 16 – Skip Spence, Canadian-American singer and songwriter (b. 1946) April 19 – Hermine Braunsteiner, German Nazi prison guard (b. 1919) April 20 – Rick Rude, American professional wrestler (b. 1958) April 21 – Charles "Buddy" Rogers, American actor (b. 1904) April 22 – Bert Remsen, American actor (b. 1925) April 25 Michael Morris, Irish journalist and 6th President of the International Olympic Committee (b. 1914) Roger Troutman, American funk musician (b. 1951) April 26 – Jill Dando, British television journalist (b. 1961) April 27 – Al Hirt, American trumpeter and bandleader (b. 1922) April 28 Rory Calhoun, American actor (b. 1922) Arthur Leonard Schawlow, American physicist (b. 1921) Alf Ramsey, English footballer and manager (b. 1920) May May 2 – Oliver Reed, English actor (b. 1938) May 8 Dana Plato, American actress (b. 1964) Dirk Bogarde, English actor (b. 1921) May 10 – Shel Silverstein, American author and poet (b. 1930) May 12 – Saul Steinberg, Romanian-born cartoonist (b. 1914) May 13 – Gene Sarazen, American golfer (b. 1902) May 17 – Henry Jones, American actor (b. 1912) May 18 – Betty Robinson, American athlete (b. 1911) May 19 – Candy Candido, American voice actor (b. 1913) May 21 – Vanessa Brown, Austrian-born American actress (b. 1928) May 23 – Owen Hart, Canadian professional wrestler (b. 1965) May 26 – Paul Sacher, Swiss conductor (b. 1906) June June 1 – Christopher Cockerell, English engineer (b. 1910) June 5 – Mel Tormé, American singer (b. 1925) June 9 – Andrew L. Stone, American screenwriter, director and producer (b. 1902) June 11 – DeForest Kelley, American actor (b. 1920) June 12 – Sergey Khlebnikov, Soviet speed skater (b. 1955) June 16 – Screaming Lord Sutch, English politician (b. 1940) June 17 Basil Hume, English cardinal (b. 1923) Paul-Émile de Souza, Beninese army officer and political figure (b. 1930) June 19 Henri, Count of Paris, French nobleman (b. 1908) Mario Soldati, Italian writer and film director (b. 1906) June 25 Fred Trump, American real estate developer (b. 1905) Yevgeny Morgunov, Soviet and Russian actor, film director, and script writer (b. 1927) June 27 Siegfried Lowitz, German actor (b. 1914) Georgios Papadopoulos, 69th Prime Minister of Greece and 4th President of Greece (b. 1919) June 28 – Vere Bird, 1st Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda (b. 1910) June 30 – Édouard Boubat, French photojournalist and art photographer (b. 1923) July July 1 Dennis Brown, Jamaican reggae singer (b. 1957) Edward Dmytryk, American film director (b. 1908) Guy Mitchell, American singer (b. 1927) Joshua Nkomo, Zimbabwean politician (b. 1917) Sylvia Sidney, American actress (b. 1910) July 2 – Mario Puzo, American author (b. 1920) July 3 – Mark Sandman, American rock musician and artist (b. 1952) July 6 – Joaquín Rodrigo, Spanish composer (b. 1901) July 8 Pete Conrad, American astronaut (b. 1930) Frank Lubin, Lithuanian-American basketball player (b. 1910) Shafik Wazzan, 27th Prime Minister of Lebanon (b. 1925) July 11 – Helen Forrest, American jazz singer (b. 1917) July 12 Rajendra Kumar, Indian film actor, producer and director (b. 1929) Bill Owen, English actor (b. 1914) July 14 Władysław Hasior, Polish sculptor (b. 1928) Gar Samuelson, American drummer (b. 1958) July 16 John F. Kennedy Jr., American lawyer, journalist, and magazine publisher (b. 1960) Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy, American actress and model (b. 1966) July 20 – Sandra Gould, American actress (b. 1916) July 21 – David Ogilvy, French Advertising executive (b. 1911) July 23 – King Hassan II of Morocco (b. 1929) July 26 – Trygve Haavelmo, Norwegian economist (b. 1911) July 27 Aleksandr Danilovich Aleksandrov, Soviet/Russian mathematician, physicist and philosopher (b. 1912) Phaedon Gizikis, Greek general, 5th President of Greece (b. 1917) July 29 – Anatoliy Solovianenko, Soviet operatic tenor (b. 1932) August August 1 – Nirad C. Chaudhuri, Bengali writer (b. 1897) August 4 – Victor Mature, American actor (b. 1913) August 7 – Brion James, American actor (b. 1945) August 10 – Giuseppe Delfino, Italian fencer (b. 1921) August 11 – Henk Chin A Sen, 2nd Prime Minister of Suriname (b. 1934) August 13 – Jaime Garzón, Colombian journalist and comedian (b. 1960) August 14 – Pee Wee Reese, American baseball player (b. 1918) August 17 – Reiner Klimke, German equestrian (b. 1936) August 22 – Aleksandr Demyanenko, Russian film and theater actor (b. 1937) August 23 – James White, Irish writer (b. 1928) September September 6 – Lagumot Harris, 3rd President of Nauru (b. 1938) September 8 – Moondog, American musician and composer (b. 1916) September 9 – Ruth Roman, American actress (b. 1922) September 10 – Alfredo Kraus, Spanish tenor (b. 1927) September 11 – Gonzalo Rodríguez, Uruguayan racing driver (b. 1972) September 12 – Allen Stack, American swimmer (b. 1928) September 14 – Charles Crichton, English film director (b. 1910) September 20 – Raisa Gorbacheva, Soviet first lady (b. 1932) September 22 – George C. Scott, American actor (b. 1927) September 24 – Ester Boserup, Danish economist (b. 1910) September 25 – Marion Zimmer Bradley, American writer (b. 1930) October October 2 – Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani, Albanian Islamic scholar (b. 1914) October 3 – Akio Morita, Japanese businessman (b. 1921) October 4 Bernard Buffet, French painter (b. 1928) Art Farmer, American jazz trumpeter (b. 1928) October 6 Gorilla Monsoon, American professional wrestler and announcer (b. 1937) Amália Rodrigues, Portuguese fado singer and actress (b. 1920) October 9 Milt Jackson, American musician (b. 1923) Akhtar Hameed Khan, Pakistani businessman (b. 1914) October 11 – Galina Bystrova, Soviet athlete (b. 1934) October 12 – Wilt Chamberlain, American professional basketball player (b. 1936) October 14 – Julius Nyerere, 1st President of Tanzania (b. 1922) October 17 – Nicholas Metropolis, Greek-American physicist (b. 1915) October 19 – Nathalie Sarraute, Russian-born Francophone lawyer and writer (b. 1900) October 20 – Jack Lynch, Taoiseach of Ireland (b. 1917) October 21 – John Bromwich, Australian tennis player (b. 1918) October 23 – András Hegedüs, Hungarian politician, 45th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1922) October 24 – John Chafee, American politician (b. 1922) October 25 – Payne Stewart, American golfer (b. 1957) October 26 Hoyt Axton, American singer and actor (b. 1938) Abraham Polonsky, American screenwriter and director (b. 1910) October 27 Frank De Vol, American arranger, composer, and actor (b. 1911) Karen Demirchyan, Speaker of the National Assembly of Armenia (b. 1932) Robert Mills, American physicist (b. 1927) Leonard Petrosyan, 3rd Prime Minister of Artsakh (b. 1953) Vazgen Sargsyan, Armenian military commander and politician, 12th Prime Minister of Armenia (assassinated) (b. 1959) October 28 – Rafael Alberti, Spanish poet (b. 1902) October 31 – Greg Moore, Canadian race car driver (b. 1975) November November 1 Bhekimpi Dlamini, 4th Prime Minister of Swaziland (b. 1924) Theodore Hall, American physicist and spy (b. 1925) Walter Payton, American football player (b. 1954) November 2 – Demetrio B. Lakas, 27th President of Panama (b. 1925) November 3 – Ian Bannen, Scottish actor (b. 1928) November 8 – Leon Štukelj, Slovene gymnast (b. 1898) November 11 Mary Kay Bergman, American voice actress (b. 1961) Vivian Fuchs, English geologist (b. 1908) Jacobo Timerman, Argentine journalist and author (b. 1923) November 12 – Mohammad Mohammadullah, 3rd President of Bangladesh (b. 1921) November 16 – Daniel Nathans, American microbiologist (b. 1928) November 18 Paul Bowles, American novelist (b. 1910) Horst P. Horst, American photographer (b. 1906) Doug Sahm, American musician (b. 1941) November 20 – Amintore Fanfani, Italian politician, 32nd Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1908) November 21 – Quentin Crisp, English writer (b. 1908) December December 1 – Fritz Fischer, German historian (b. 1908) December 2 – Charlie Byrd, American jazz musician and classical guitarist (b. 1925) December 3 John Archer, American actor (b. 1915) Scatman John, American musician (b. 1942) Madeline Kahn, American actress, singer and comedian (b. 1942) December 4 – Nilde Iotti, Italian politician (b. 1920) December 5 – Nathan Jacobson, American mathematician (b. 1910) December 7 – Darling Légitimus, French actress (b. 1907) December 9 – Yakov Rylsky, Soviet sabre fencer (b. 1928) December 10 Rick Danko, Canadian musician (b. 1943) Franjo Tuđman, 1st President of Croatia (b. 1922) December 12 Paul Cadmus, American artist (b. 1904) Joseph Heller, American novelist (b. 1923) December 13 – Stane Dolanc, Yugoslav politician (b. 1925) December 17 Rex Allen, American actor, singer, and songwriter (b. 1920) Jürgen Moser, German-American mathematician (b. 1928) Grover Washington Jr., American saxophonist (b. 1943) December 18 – Robert Bresson, French filmmaker (b. 1901) December 19 – Desmond Llewelyn, British actor (b. 1914) December 20 Irving Rapper, American film director (b. 1898) Riccardo Freda, Italian film director (b. 1909) Hank Snow, Canadian-American country musician (b. 1914) December 23 John P. Davies, American diplomat (b. 1908) Wallace Diestelmeyer, Canadian skater (b. 1926) December 24 Tito Guízar, Mexican singer and film actor (b. 1908) Bill Bowerman, American track and field coach, co-founder of Nike (b. 1911) Maurice Couve de Murville, 152nd Prime Minister of France (b. 1907) João Figueiredo, Brazilian military leader and politician, 30th President of Brazil (b. 1918) Grete Stern, German-Argentine photographer (b. 1904) December 26 Curtis Mayfield, American musician and composer (b. 1942) Shankar Dayal Sharma, 9th President of India (b. 1918) December 27 – Pierre Clémenti, French actor (b. 1942) December 28 – Clayton Moore, American actor (b. 1914) December 30 Fritz Leonhardt, German structural engineer (b. 1909) Sarah Knauss, American supercentenarian (b. 1880) December 31 – Elliot Richardson, American politician and lawyer (b. 1920) Nobel Prizes Physics – Gerardus 't Hooft and Martinus J. G. Veltman Chemistry – Ahmed H. Zewail Physiology or Medicine – Günter Blobel Literature – Günter Grass Peace – Médecins Sans Frontières Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel – Robert Mundell New English words and terms blog carbon footprint dashcam epigenomics metabolomics texting vape References External links

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s

1990s

The 1990s /naɪn.tin.naɪndis/; (Often shortened to "the 90s" or "the Nineties" was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1990, and ended on December 31, 1999. The 1990s saw a rise in the awareness of multiculturalism compared to the 1980s, as well as the advance of alternative media. Music movements like grunge, the rave scene, and hip hop became popular with young people worldwide, aided by then-new technology such as cable television and the World Wide Web. A combination of factors led to a realignment and consolidation of economic and political power across the world and within countries. Such factors include the continued mass mobilization of capital markets through neoliberalism, the thawing and end of the decades-long Cold War, the beginning of the widespread proliferation of new media such as the Internet, increasing scepticism towards the government, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The dot-com frenzy resulted in the dot-com bubble of 1997–2000 that brought great wealth to some entrepreneurs before its crash between 2000 and 2001. The 1990s saw extreme advances in technology, with the World Wide Web, the first gene therapy trial, cloning, and the first designer babies all emerging and being improved upon throughout the decade. New ethnic conflicts emerged in Africa, the Balkans, and the Caucasus, the former two witnessing the Rwandan and Bosnian genocides, respectively. Signs of any resolution of tensions between Israel and the Arab world remained elusive despite the progress of the Oslo Accords, though The Troubles in Northern Ireland came to a standstill in 1998 with the Good Friday Agreement following 30 long years of violence. Politics and wars Wars The most prominent armed conflicts of the decade include the following. International wars The Congo Wars broke out in the late 1990s: The First Congo War (1996–1997) — took place in Zaire from October 1996 to May 1997, resulting in Zairian dictator Mobutu Sese Seko being overthrown from power, ending 32 years of his rule. Zaire was renamed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Second Congo War (1998–2003) — started in August 1998 in central Africa and involved multiple nearby nations. It continued until July 2003. The Gulf War (1991) — Iraq was left in severe debt after the 1980s war with Iran. President Saddam Hussein accused Kuwait of flooding the market with oil and driving down prices. As a result, on 2 August 1990, Iraqi forces invaded and conquered Kuwait. The UN (United Nations) immediately condemned the action, and a coalition force led by the United States was sent to the Persian Gulf. Aerial bombing of Iraq began in January 1991, and a month later, the UN forces drove the Iraqi army from Kuwait in just four days. In the aftermath of the war, the Kurds in the north of Iraq and the Shiites in the south rose up in revolt, and Saddam Hussein barely managed to hold onto power. Until the US invasion in 2003, Iraq was cut off from much of the world. The Chechen Wars break out in the 1990s: The First Chechen War (1994–1996) — the conflict was fought between the Russian Federation and the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. After the initial campaign of 1994–1995, culminating in the devastating Battle of Grozny, Russian federal forces attempted to seize control of the mountainous area of Chechnya but were set back by Chechen guerrilla warfare and raids on the flat-lands despite Russia's overwhelming manpower, weaponry, and air support. The resulting widespread demoralization of federal forces, and the almost universal opposition of the Russian public to the conflict, led Boris Yeltsin's government to declare a ceasefire in 1996 and sign a peace treaty a year later. The Second Chechen War (1999–2009) — the war was launched by the Russian Federation starting 26 August 1999, in response to the Invasion of Dagestan and the Russian apartment bombings which were blamed on the Chechens. During the war Russian forces largely recaptured the separatist region of Chechnya. The campaign largely reversed the outcome of the First Chechen War, in which the region gained de facto independence as the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. Eritrean–Ethiopian War (1998–2000) The Kargil War (1999) — In May 1999, Pakistan sent troops covertly to occupy strategic peaks in Kashmir. A month later, the Kargil War with India resulted in a political fiasco for Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, followed by a Pakistani military withdrawal to the Line of Control. The incident leads to a military coup in October, in which Sharif is ousted by Army Chief Pervez Musharraf. This conflict remains the only war fought between two declared nuclear powers. The Yugoslav Wars (1991–1995) — The breakup of Yugoslavia, beginning on 25 June 1991 after the republics of Croatia and Slovenia declared independence from Yugoslavia, was followed by the subsequent Yugoslav Wars. These wars would become notorious for numerous war crimes and human rights violations such as ethnic cleansing and genocide, with the overwhelming majority of casualties being Muslim Bosniaks. Ten-Day War (1991) — a brief military conflict between Slovenian TO (Slovenian Territorial Defence) and the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) following Slovenia's declaration of independence. Croatian War of Independence (1991–1995) — the war fought in modern day Croatia between the Croatian government, having declared independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and both the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and Serb forces, who established the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) within Croatia. Bosnian War (1992–1995) — the war involved several ethnically defined factions within Bosnia and Herzegovina: Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats as well as a smaller Bosniak faction led by Fikret Abdić. The Siege of Sarajevo (1992–1995) marked the most violent urban warfare in Europe since World War II at that time as Serb forces bombard and attack Bosniak-controlled and -populated areas of the city. War crimes occur including ethnic cleansing and destruction of civilian property. The final fighting in Croatian and Bosnian wars ends in 1995 with the success of Croatian military offensives against Serb forces and the mass exodus of Serbs from Croatia in 1995; Serb losses to Croat and Bosniak forces; and finally, the signing of the Dayton Agreement, which internally partitioned Bosnia and Herzegovina into a Republika Srpska and a Bosniak-Croat federation. Kosovo War (1998–1999) — The war between Albanian separatists and Yugoslav military and Serb paramilitary forces in Kosovo begins in 1996 and escalated in 1998 with increasing reports of atrocities taking place. In 1999, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) led by the United States launched air attacks against Yugoslavia (then composed of only Serbia and Montenegro) to pressure the Yugoslav government to end its military operations against Albanian separatists in Kosovo. The intervention lacked UN approval, yet was justified by NATO based on accusations of war crimes being committed by Yugoslav military forces working alongside nationalist Serb paramilitary groups. After months of bombing, Yugoslavia accepted NATO's demands and NATO forces (later UN peacekeeping forces) occupied Kosovo. End of the South African Border War (1990) — ending of a border war between Zambia, Angola, and Namibia. Civil wars and guerrilla wars End of the Ethiopian Civil War (1991) — ending over twenty years of internal conflict. The end of the war coincides with the establishment of a coalition government of various factions. Algerian Civil War (1991–2002) — caused by a group of high-ranking army officers cancelling the first multi-party elections in Algeria. The Somali Civil War (1991–present) — includes the Battle of Mogadishu. 1992 Los Angeles riots — resulted in 53 deaths and 5,500 property fires in a riot zone. The riots were a result of the state court acquittal of three white and one Hispanic L.A. police officers by an all-white jury in a police brutality case involving motorist Rodney King. In 1993, all four officers were convicted in a federal civil rights case. Rwandan genocide (1994) — From 6 April to mid-July 1994, hundreds of thousands of Rwanda's Tutsis and Hutu political moderates are killed by the Hutu-dominated government under the Hutu Power ideology. Over the course of approximately 100 days, at least 500,000 people were killed, with estimates of the death toll ranging between this number and 1,000,000, or as much as 20% of the total population of the country. It resulted in serious criticism of the United Nations and major countries for failing to stop the genocide. 1993 Russian constitutional crisis — Severe political deadlock between Russian President Boris Yeltsin and the Supreme Soviet (Russia's parliament at this time) result in Yeltsin ordering the controversial shelling of the Russian parliament building by tanks. Tajikistani Civil War (1992–1997) — the Tajikistan government is pitted against the United Tajik Opposition, resulting in the death of 50,000 to 100,000 people. Zapatista uprising (1994) — A large number of the Zapatista indigenous people of Mexico join the Zapatista Army of National Liberation that began armed conflict with the Mexican government in 1994 and continued through the 1990s. Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001) — The Taliban seize control of Afghanistan, lasing for half a decade. End of The Troubles in Northern Ireland (1998) — After 30 years of fighting, The Troubles ended on 10 April 1998 when the Good Friday Agreement was signed. 1999 East Timorese crisis Coups Terrorist attacks The 1993 World Trade Center bombing in the United States — led to awareness in the US of domestic and international terrorism as a potential threat. Markale market massacres in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1994) — involving soldiers of the Army of Republika Srpska deliberately targeting Bosniak (then known as "Bosnian Muslims") civilians. AMIA bombing (1994) — On 18 July 1994, an unknown terrorist targeting Argentina's Jewish community plants a car-bomb in the AMIA headquarters in Buenos Aires, killing 85 people and injuring hundreds, making it the first ethnically-targeted and deadliest bombing in Argentine history. Srebrenica massacre in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1995) — involving soldiers of the Army of Republika Srpska and members of Serbia's Scorpions paramilitary group committing mass murder of Bosniak civilians. Oklahoma City bombing (1995) in the United States — the bombing of a federal building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, killed 168, becoming the deadliest terrorist attack in the United States for that time. Bombing suspect Timothy McVeigh claimed he bombed the building in retaliation for the 1992 Ruby Ridge standoff and the Waco siege a year later. On 15 June 1996, the IRA set off a bomb in Manchester, England. The bomb, placed in a van on Corporation Street in the city center, targeted the city's infrastructure and economy and caused widespread damage, estimated by insurers at £700 million (£1 billion ). Two hundred and twelve people were injured, but there were no fatalities. 1998 United States embassy bombings — After the bombings of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania by Al-Qaeda militants, United States naval military forces launched cruise missile attacks against Al-Qaeda bases in Afghanistan. The Omagh bombing in Northern Ireland (1998) — a bombing in Omagh, County Tyrone, that killed 29 civilians and injured hundreds more. LAX bombing plot (1999) — Ahmed Ressam, an Islamist militant associated with Al-Qaeda, is arrested when attempting to cross from Canada to the United States at the Canada-United States border on 14 December 1999; it is discovered that he intended to bomb Los Angeles International Airport during millennium celebrations. This is the first major attempted terrorist attack by Al Qaeda on United States soil since the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and marked the beginning of a series of attempted terrorist attacks by Al Qaeda against the United States that would continue into the 21st century. Decolonization and independence Independence of Namibia (1990) — The Republic of Namibia gains independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990. Walvis Bay, initially retained by South Africa, joins Namibia in 1994. Breakup of Yugoslavia (1991–1992) — The republics of Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia declared independence from Yugoslavia. Independence of Eritrea (1993) — Eritrea gains independence from Ethiopia. Dissolution of Czechoslovakia (1993) — The Slovak Republic adopts the Declaration of Independence from the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic (Czechoslovakia). Independence of Palau (1994) — Palau gains independence from the United Nations Trusteeship Council. Handover of Hong Kong (1997) — The United Kingdom hands sovereignty of Hong Kong (then British Hong Kong) to the People's Republic of China on 1 July 1997. Independence of East Timorese (1999) — East Timor breaks away from Indonesian occupation, only a year after the fall of Suharto from power, ending a 24-year guerrilla war and genocide with more than 200,000 casualties. The UN deploys a peace keeping force, spearheaded by the Australian armed forces. The United States deploys police officers to serve with the International Police element, to help train and equip an East Timorese police force. Handover of Macau (1997) — Portugal hands sovereignty of Macau (Portuguese Macau) to the People's Republic of China on 20 December 1999. Dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991) — multiple Soviet Socialist Republics (SSRs) declared independence from the USSR. Armenia — The Armenian SSR became the Republic of Armenia following the Declaration of Independence of Armenia. Azerbaijan — The Azerbaijan SSR became the Republic of Azerbaijan. Belarus — The Byelorussian SSR became the Republic of Belarus following its Declaration of State Sovereignty. Estonia — Estonian SSR became the Republic of Estonia. Georgia — The Georgian SSR became the Republic of Georgia. Kazakhstan — The Kazakh SSR became the Republic of Kazakhstan. Kyrgyzstan — The Kirghiz SSR became the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. Latvia — The Latvian SSR became the Republic of Latvia. Lithuania — The Lithuanian SSR became the Republic of Lithuania Moldova — The Moldavian SSR became the Republic of Moldova. Tajikistan — The Tajik SSR became the Republic of Tajikistan. Turkmenistan — The Turkmen SSR became the Republic of Turkmenistan. Ukraine — The Ukrainian SSR became the Republic of Ukraine Uzbekistan — The Uzbek SSR became the Republic of Uzbekistan. Prominent political events The 1990s was an era of spreading capitalism. The former countries of the Warsaw Pact moved from single-party socialist states to multi-party states with private sector economies. The same wave of political liberalization occurred in capitalist countries, such as South Korea, Taiwan, Chile, South Africa, India, and Indonesia. Market reforms made great changes to the economies of socialist countries like China and Vietnam. The ethnic tensions and violence in the former Yugoslavia during the 1990s create a greater sense of ethnic identity of the nations in the new countries, especially involving increased popularity of nationalism. Africa The release of African National Congress leader Nelson Mandela from Robben Island on 11 February 1990 after thirty years of imprisonment for opposing apartheid and white-minority rule in South Africa. This would resolve with the end of Apartheid in South Africa in 1994. Nelson Mandela is elected President of South Africa in 1994, becoming the first democratically elected President in South African history ending a long legacy of apartheid white-rule in the country. North America The enactment of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) on January 1, 1994, creating a North American free-trade zone consisting of Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Canadian politics is radically altered in the 1993 federal election with the collapse of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada, (a major political party in Canada since 1867) from being in government to only two seats and the New Democratic Party collapsing from 44 seats to 9. The Liberal Party of Canada is the only genuine national political party that remains while the regionally based parties such as the Quebec-based Bloc Québécois and the almost entirely Western Canada-based Reform Party of Canada rise from political insignificance to being major political parties. After the collapse of the Meech Lake constitutional accord in 1990, the province of Quebec in Canada experienced a rekindled wave of separatism by Francophone Québécois nationalists, who sought for Quebec to become an independent country. In 1995, during a referendum on Quebec sovereignty, Quebec voters narrowly reject the vote for independence. The 1995 Quebec referendum on sovereignty is held in the predominantly francophone province of Quebec in Canada, a majority Anglophone country. If accepted Quebec would become an independent country with an economic association with Canada. The proposal is narrowly rejected by Quebec's voters by 50.4% no, and 49.6% yes. Jean-Bertrand Aristide, a former Haitian priest, becomes the first democratically elected President of Haiti in 1990. A proponent of liberation theology, Aristide was appointed to a Roman Catholic parish in Port-au-Prince in 1982 after completing his studies to become a priest of the Salesian order. Aristide was later forced into exile in the Central African Republic and South Africa. He finally returned to Haiti in 2011 after seven years in exile. United States President Bill Clinton was a dominant political figure in international affairs during the 1990s known especially for his attempts to negotiate peace in the Middle East and end the ongoing wars occurring in the former Yugoslavia; his promotion of international action to decrease human-created climate change; and his endorsement of advancing free trade in the Americas. Lewinsky scandal – US president Bill Clinton was caught in a media-frenzied scandal involving inappropriate relations with a White House intern Monica Lewinsky, first announced on January 21, 1998. After the United States House of Representatives impeached Clinton on December 19, 1998 for perjury under oath, following an investigation by federal prosecutor Kenneth Starr, the Senate acquitted Clinton of the charges on February 12, 1999 and he finished his second term. California voters passed Proposition 215 in 1996, to legalize cannabis for medicinal purposes. The debate over legalization of marijuana in the United States goes on today. The enactment of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) on January 1, 1994, creating a North American free trade zone consisting of Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Asia In 1990, the ending of the civil war and the return to political normalcy in Lebanon began. With the peace among all factions in Lebanon, the rebuilding of Lebanon and its capital, Beirut, started. Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Palestinian Prime Minister Yasser Arafat agree to the Israeli–Palestinian peace process at the culmination of the Oslo Accords, negotiated by the United States President Bill Clinton on 13 September 1993. By signing the Oslo accords, the Palestine Liberation Organization recognize Israel's right to exist, while Israel permitted the creation of an autonomous Palestinian National Authority consisting of the Gaza Strip and West Bank which was implemented in 1994. Israeli military forces withdraw from the Palestinian territories in compliance with the accord, which marked the end of the First Intifada (a period of violence between Palestinian Arab militants and Israeli armed forces from 1987 to 1993). The Palestinian National Authority is created in 1994 in accordance with the Oslo Accords, giving Palestinian Arab people official autonomy over the Gaza Strip and West Bank, though not official independence from Israel. In 1994, a peace treaty is signed between Israel and Jordan. North Yemen and South Yemen merge to form Yemen in 1991. Lee Kuan Yew relinquished prime-ministership of Singapore on 28 November 1990, a position he held since 1959, to Goh Chok Tong. He remained in the cabinet as Senior Minister. In July 1994, North Korean leader Kim Il-sung died, having ruled the country since its founding in 1948. His son Kim Jong-il succeeded him, taking over a nation on the brink of complete economic collapse. Famine caused a great number of deaths in the late 1990s, and North Korea would gain a reputation for being a large source of money laundering, counterfeiting, and weapons proliferation. The country's ability to produce and sell nuclear weapons became a focus of concern in the international community. Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy in Burma wins a majority of seats in the first free elections in 30 years in 1990, yet the Burmese military junta refuses to relinquish power, beginning an ongoing peaceful struggle throughout the 1990s to the present by Aung San Suu Kyi and her supporters to demand the end of military rule in Burma. In the Philippines two Presidents were elected, Fidel V. Ramos in 1992 and Joseph Estrada in 1998. Indonesian president Suharto resigned after ruling for 32 years (1966–1998). In India, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated on 21 May 1991 by the Tamil Tigers, marking an end to over 44 years of socialist protectionism. Europe The improvement in relations between the countries of NATO and the former members of the Warsaw Pact ended the Cold War both in Europe and other parts of the world. German reunification – Germany reunified on 3 October 1990 as a result of the fall of the Berlin Wall and after integrating the economic structure and provincial governments, focused on modernization of the former communist East. People who were brought up in a socialist culture became integrated with those living in capitalist western Germany. Margaret Thatcher, who had been the United Kingdom's Prime Minister since 1979, resigned as Prime Minister on 22 November 1990 after being challenged for the leadership of the Conservative Party by Michael Heseltine. This was because of widespread opposition to the introduction of the controversial Community Charge, and the fact that her key allies such as Nigel Lawson and Geoffrey Howe resigned over the deeply sensitive issues of the Maastricht Treaty and Margaret Thatcher's resistance to Britain joining the European Exchange Rate Mechanism. Less than two years later on the infamous Black Wednesday of September 1992, the pound sterling crashed out of the system after the pound fell below the agreed exchange rate with the Deutsche Mark. John Major replaces Margaret Thatcher as Prime Minister in 1990. The restructuring of the Soviet Union destabilizes, as nationalist and separatist demagogues gain popularity. Boris Yeltsin, then chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Russia, resigns from the Communist Party and becomes the opposition leader against Mikhail Gorbachev. The Communist Party loses its status as the governing force of the country and is banned after a coup attempt by Communist hardliners attempted to revert the effects of Gorbachev's policies. Yeltsin's counter-revolution is victorious on 25 December 1991 with the resignation of Gorbachev from presidency and the dissolution of the USSR. Yeltsin became president of the successor Russian Federation and presided over a period of political unrest, economic crisis, and social anarchy. On 31 December 1999, Yeltsin resigned leaving Vladimir Putin as acting president. The European Union forms in 1992 under the Maastricht Treaty. The Downing Street Declaration 15 December 1993 by the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, John Major, and the Taoiseach of Ireland, Albert Reynolds at the British Prime Minister's office in 10 Downing Street. It affirmed both the right of the people of Ireland to self-determination, and that Northern Ireland would be transferred to the Republic of Ireland from the United Kingdom only if a majority of its population was in favour of such a move. It included, as part of the prospective of the so-called "Irish dimension", the principle of consent that the people of the island of Ireland, had the exclusive right to solve the issues between North and South by mutual consent. The latter statement, which later would become one of the points of the Good Friday Agreement, was key to produce a positive change of attitude by the republicans towards a negotiated settlement. The joint declaration also pledged the governments to seek a peaceful constitutional settlement, and promised that parties linked with paramilitaries (such as Sinn Féin) could take part in the talks, so long as they abandoned violence. The IRA agreed to a truce in 1994. This marked the beginning of the end of 25 years of violence between the IRA and the United Kingdom, and the start of political negotiations. Tony Blair becomes Prime Minister in 1997 following the 1997 United Kingdom general election. The Belfast Agreement (a.k.a. the Good Friday Agreement) is signed by U.K. and Irish politicians on 10 April 1998, declaring a joint commitment to a peaceful resolution of the territorial dispute between Ireland and the United Kingdom over Northern Ireland. The 1998 Northern Ireland Good Friday Agreement referendum was held on 22 May 1998. There was a large majority of 'Yes'. A total of 1,738 ballots were spoiled. Turnout, at 81.1% was very high for a developed country where voting is not compulsory. Turnout in the equivalent referendum in the Republic of Ireland was average for a constitutional referendum but returned almost universal approval (94.39%). The National Assembly for Wales established following the 1997 Welsh devolution referendum was held on 18 September 1997 in which voters approved the creation of the National Assembly for Wales by a majority of 6,712 votes, or 50.3% of the vote. The following year the Government of Wales Act was passed by the United Kingdom parliament, establishing the Assembly The Scottish Parliament established following a referendum in September 1997, the 1997 Scottish devolution referendum was put to the Scottish electorate and secured a majority in favour of the establishment of a new devolved Scottish Parliament, with tax-varying powers, in Edinburgh. An election was held on 6 May 1999, and on 1 July of that year power was transferred from Westminster to the new Parliament. South America Due to the Internal conflict in Peru and the economic crisis, Alberto Fujimori rises to power in Peru and remains in office for eleven years. His administration is marked by economic development but also by numerous human rights violations (La Cantuta massacre, Barrios Altos massacre), and a rampant corruption network set up by Vladimiro Montesinos. Carlos Saúl Menem ruled Argentina the whole decade, implemented a free market liberalization program to establish a country chronically plagued by political and economic crises. Assassinations and attempts Prominent assassinations, targeted killings, and assassination attempts include: September 9, 1990 – Samuel Doe, the President of Liberia, is captured by rebels and is tortured and murdered. The spectacle was videotaped and seen on news reports around the world. September 19, 1990 – The Provisional Irish Republican Army tries to assassinate Air Chief Marshal Sir Peter Terry at his home near Stafford, England. Hit by at least nine bullets, the former Governor of Gibraltar survives. May 21, 1991 – In Sriperumbudur, India, former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi is assassinated. August 7, 1991 – Shapour Bakhtiar, former prime minister of Iran, is assassinated. May 23, 1992 – A remote car bomb causes the death of Italian Judge Giovanni Falcone, a hero in the fight against organized crime. Less than two months later, on July 19, Falcone's co-worker and friend, magistrate Paolo Borsellino was killed by a car bomb in via D'Amelio, Palermo, in front of his mother's house. June 29, 1992 – A bodyguard assassinates President Mohamed Boudiaf of Algeria. April 1993 – The Kuwaiti government claims to uncover an Iraqi assassination plot against former United States President George H. W. Bush shortly after his visit to Kuwait. Two Iraqi nationals confess to driving a car-bomb into Kuwait on behalf of the Iraqi Intelligence Service. May 1, 1993 – A Tamil Tigers suicide bomber assassinates President Ranasinghe Premadasa of Sri Lanka. October 21, 1993 – Burundian President Melchior Ndadaye is killed during an attempted military coup. December 2, 1993 – Pablo Escobar also known as "The King of Cocaine" was killed by Members of Colonel Hugo Martínez's Search Bloc in Medellín, Colombia March 23, 1994 – Luis Donaldo Colosio Murrieta was assassinated at a campaign rally in Tijuana during the Mexican Presidential campaign of 1994. April 6, 1994 – The airplane carrying Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundian President Cyprien Ntaryamira is shot down as it prepared to land in Kigali, Rwanda, sparking the Rwandan genocide and eventually, the First Congo War. The perpetrators have never been identified. July 2, 1994 – Colombian football player Andrés Escobar was shot by Humberto Castro Muñoz in Medellín, Colombia August 29, 1995 – Eduard Shevardnadze, the Georgian head of state, survives an assassination attempt in Tbilisi. November 4, 1995 – Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin is assassinated at a peace rally in Tel Aviv by a radical Jewish militant who opposed the Oslo Accords. March 31, 1995 – Tejano pop singer Selena is shot by fan club president Yolanda Saldívar over financial issues and missing records. Two weeks after death, her birthday is named Selena Day in Texas. April 21, 1996 – Dzhokhar Dudayev, the President of Chechnya, is killed by two laser-guided missiles, after his location was detected by a Russian reconnaissance aircraft, which intercepted his phone call. October 2, 1996 – The former prime minister of Bulgaria, Andrei Lukanov, is assassinated. September 13, 1996 and March 9, 1997 - Popular rap artists Tupac Shakur and The Notorious B.I.G. were both shot dead in Las Vegas and Los Angeles respectively at the halcyon of their hip hop careers. Culprits for both of the murders have still been unidentified. July 15, 1997 – Gianni Versace was shot dead, aged 50, on the steps of his Miami Beach mansion as he returned from a morning walk on Ocean Drive. He was murdered by Andrew Cunanan, who was also liable in murdering four others including Lee Miglin, a real estate developer and Chicago tycoon two months prior, and used the same gun to commit suicide on a houseboat several days later. Police have said they do not know why Versace was killed. February 9, 1998 – Eduard Shevardnadze, the Georgian head of state, survives an assassination attempt in Tbilisi. February 16, 1999 – In Uzbekistan, an apparent assassination attempt against President Islam Karimov takes place at government headquarters. March 23, 1999 – Gunmen assassinate Paraguay's Vice President Luis María Argaña. April 9, 1999 – Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara, president of Niger, is assassinated. Disasters Natural disasters The 1990s saw a trend in increasingly frequent and more devastating natural disasters, breaking many previous records. Although the 1990s was designated by the United Nations as an International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction as part of its program to prevent losses due to the disasters, its disasters would go on to cause a record-breaking US$608 billion worth of damage—more than four past decades combined. The most prominent natural disasters of the decade include: Hurricane Andrew striking South Florida in August 1992, the crippling super storm of March 1993 along the Eastern Seaboard, the devastating 1994 Northridge earthquake in Los Angeles, the Great Hanshin earthquake in Kobe, Japan in January 1995, the Blizzard of 1996 in the eastern United States, the US drought of 1999, the deadly Hurricane Mitch which struck Central America in October 1998, and the destructive Oklahoma tornado outbreak in May 1999, the August 1999 İzmit earthquake in Turkey, and the September 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake in Taiwan. A magnitude 7.8 earthquake hit the Philippines on 16 July 1990 and killed around 1000 people in Baguio. After 600 years of inactivity the Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines erupted and devastated Zambales and Pampanga in June 1991. July 1995 – Midwestern United States heat wave – An unprecedented heat wave strikes the Midwestern United States for most of the month. Temperatures peak at , and remain above in the afternoon for 5 straight days. At least 739 people died in Chicago alone. Hurricane Georges made landfall in at least seven different countries (Antigua and Barbuda, St. Kitts and Nevis, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Cuba and the United States) and Puerto Rico, a Commonwealth of the United States – more than any other hurricane since Hurricane Inez of the 1966 season. The total estimated costs were in the $60 billion (present day $100 billion). September 1996 – Hurricane Fran made landfall in North Carolina causing significant damage throughout the entire state. Hurricane Iniki hits the island of Kauai in the Hawaiian Islands on 11 September 1992, making it one of the costliest hurricanes on record in the eastern Pacific. A flood hits the Red River Valley in 1997 becoming the most severe flood since 1826. In December 1999, torrential rains and flash floods killed tens of thousands of Venezuelans living in the state of Vargas, in a natural disaster known as the Vargas tragedy. Non-natural disasters Gulf War oil spill: Resulting from actions taken during the Gulf War in 1991 by the Iraq military, the oil spill caused considerable damage to wildlife in the Persian Gulf especially in areas surrounding Kuwait and Iraq. July 11, 1991: A Nationair Douglas DC-8, chartered by Nigeria Airways, caught fire and crashed in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, killing 261 people. December 15, 1991: The Egyptian ferry Salem Express sinks in the Red Sea, killing more than 450 people. October 4, 1992: El Al Flight 1862, a Boeing 747 cargo airplane heading to Tel Aviv, suffered physical engine separation of both right-wing engines (#3 and #4) just after taking off from Schiphol and crashed into an apartment building in the Bijlmer neighborhood of Amsterdam while attempting to return to the airport. A total of 43 people were killed, including the plane's crew of three and a "non-revenue passenger". Several others were injured. July 26, 1993: Asiana Airlines Flight 733 crashed into Mt. Ungeo in Haenam, South Korea killing 68 people. April 26, 1994: China Airlines Flight 140, an Airbus A300, crashed just as it was about to land at Nagoya Airfield, Japan, killing 264 and leaving only seven survivors. September 8, 1994: USAir Flight 427 crashed near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, killing 132 people. September 28, 1994: The car ferry MS Estonia sinks in the Baltic Sea, killing 852 people. June 29, 1995: The Sampoong Department Store collapses in Seoul, South Korea, killing 502 people. December 20, 1995: American Airlines Flight 965, a Boeing 757, hit a mountain in Colombia at night, killing 159 people. July 17, 1996: Trans World Airlines Flight 800, a Boeing 747-131, exploded and crashed into the Atlantic Ocean near East Moriches, New York, killing 230. November 12, 1996: A Saudia Boeing 747 and a Kazakhstan Airlines Ilyushin Il-76 collided over the town of Charkhi Dadri, outside New Delhi, India, killing 349. August 6, 1997: Korean Air Flight 801, a Boeing 747-300, crashed into a hill on the island of Guam, killing 228 people. September 26, 1997: Garuda Indonesia Flight 152 crashed in bad weather, killing 234. September 2, 1998: Swissair Flight 111, a McDonnell Douglas MD-11, crashed into the Atlantic Ocean off Nova Scotia near the towns of Peggys Cove and Bayswater, killing 229. October 31, 1999: EgyptAir Flight 990, a Boeing 767, crashed off the coast of Nantucket, Massachusetts, killing 217. Economics Many countries, institutions, companies, and organizations were prosperous during the 1990s. High-income countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, and those in Western Europe experienced steady economic growth for much of the decade. However, in the former Soviet Union GDP decreased as their economies restructured to produce goods they needed and some capital flight occurred. GATT update and creation of the World Trade Organization and other global economic institutions, but opposition by anti-globalization activists showed up in nearly every GATT summit, like the demonstrations in Seattle in December 1999. The anti-globalization protests at the World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999 in Seattle began on 30 November 1999. This marked the beginning of a steady increase in anti-globalization protests that occurred in the first decade of the 21st century as well as increasing hostility to neoliberalism. U.S. inflation moderated, beginning in 1990 at 5.39%, falling to a low of 1.55% in 1998 and rising slightly to 2.19% in 1999. North America The decade is seen as a time of great prosperity in the United States and Canada, largely due to the unexpected advent of the Internet and the explosion of technology industries that came with it. The U.S. and Canadian economies experienced their longest period of peacetime economic expansion beginning in 1991. Personal incomes doubled from the recession in 1990, and there was higher productivity overall. The Wall Street stock exchange stayed over the 10,500 mark from 1999 to 2001. After the 1992 booming of the US stock market, Alan Greenspan coined the phrase "irrational exuberance". The North American Free Trade Agreement, which phases out trade barriers between the United States, Mexico, and Canada, was signed into law by President Bill Clinton. Asia The government of the People's Republic of China announced major privatization of state-owned industries in September 1997. China entered the 1990s in a turbulent period, shunned by much of the world after the Tiananmen Square Massacre and controlled by hard line politicians who reigned in private enterprise and attempted to revive old-fashioned propaganda campaigns. Relations with the United States deteriorated sharply, and the Chinese leadership was further embarrassed by the disintegration of communism in Europe. In 1992, Deng Xiaoping travelled to southern China in his last major public appearance to revitalize faith in market economics and stop the country's slide back into Maoism. Afterwards, China recovered, and would experience explosive economic growth during the rest of the decade. In spite of this, dissent continued to be suppressed, and CPC General Secretary Jiang Zemin launched a brutal crackdown against the Falun Gong religious sect in 1999. Deng Xiaoping himself died in 1997 at the age of 93. Relations with the US deteriorated again in 1999 after the bombing of the Chinese embassy during the bombing of Serbia by NATO forces, which caused three deaths, and allegations of Chinese espionage at the Los Alamos Nuclear Facility. Financial crisis hits East and Southeast Asia in 1997 and 1998 after a long period of phenomenal economic development, which continues by 1999. This crisis begins to be felt by the end of the decade. In Japan, after three decades of economic growth put them in second place in the world's economies, the situation worsened after 1993. The recession went on into the early first decade of the 21st century, bringing an end to the seemingly unlimited prosperity that the country had before enjoyed. Less affluent nations such as India, Malaysia, and Vietnam also saw tremendous improvements in economic prosperity and quality of life during the 1990s. Restructuring following the end of the Cold War was beginning. However, there was also the continuation of terrorism in Third World regions that were once the "frontlines" for American and Soviet foreign politics, particularly in Asia. Europe By 1990, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms were causing major inflation and economic chaos. A coup attempt by hard-liners in August 1991 failed, marking the effective end of the Soviet Union. All its constituent republics declared their independence in 1991, and on Christmas, Gorbachev resigned from office. After 73 years, the Soviet Union had ceased to exist. The new Russian Federation was headed by Boris Yeltsin and would face severe economic difficulty. Oligarchs took over Russia's energy and industrial sectors, reducing almost half the country to poverty. With a 3% approval rating, Yeltsin had to buy the support of the oligarchs to win reelection in 1996. Economic turmoil and devaluation of the ruble continued, and with heart and alcohol troubles, Yeltsin stepped down from office on the last day of 1999, handing power to Vladimir Putin. Russian financial crisis in the 1990s results in mass hyperinflation and prompts economic intervention from the International Monetary Fund and western countries to help Russia's economy recover. The first McDonald's restaurant opens in Moscow in 1990 with then-President of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR and future Russian President Boris Yeltsin attending, symbolizing Russia's transition towards a capitalist free market economy and a move towards adopting elements of western culture. Oil and gas were discovered in many countries in the former Soviet bloc, leading to economic growth and wider adoption of trade between nations. These trends were also fueled by inexpensive fossil energy, with low petroleum prices caused by increased production of oil. Political stability and decreased militarization due to the winding down of the Cold War led to economic development and higher standards of living for many citizens. Most of Europe enjoyed growing prosperity during the 1990s. However, problems including the massive 1995 general strikes in France following a recession and the difficulties associated with German reunification lead to sluggish growth in these countries. However, both the French and German economies improve in the latter half of the decade. Meanwhile, the economies of particularly Spain, Scandinavia and former Eastern Bloc countries accelerate at rapid speed during the decade although unemployment being mild due to many having experienced a deep recession for the start of the decade. After the early 1990s recession, the United Kingdom and Ireland experience rapid economic growth and falling unemployment that continues throughout the decade. Economic growth would continue until the Late 2000s recession marking the longest uninterrupted period of economic growth in history. Some Eastern European economies struggled after the fall of communism, but Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania saw economic growth rates in the late 1990s. With the creation of the EU there is freedom of movement between member states, such as the 1992 and 1995 free trade agreements. The euro is adopted by the European Union on 1 January 1999, which begins a process of phasing out national currencies of EU countries. South America The sluggish economies of Brazil, by a new emphasis on free markets for all their citizens, and Mexico, under economist president Ernesto Zedillo elected in 1994, were in their best shape by the late 1990s. Technology and science Technology The 1990s were a revolutionary decade for digital technology. Between 1990 and 1997, individual personal computer ownership in the US rose from 15% to 35%. Cell phones of the early-1990s and earlier ones were very large, lacked extra features, and were used by only a few percent of the population of even the wealthiest nations. Only a few million people used online services in 1990, and the World Wide Web, which would have a significant impact on technology for many decades, had only just been invented. The first web browser went online in 1993 and by 2001, more than 50% of some Western countries had Internet access, and more than 25% had cell phone access. Electronics and communications On 6 August 1991, CERN, a pan European organization for particle research, publicized the new World Wide Web project. Although the basic applications and guidelines that make the Internet possible had existed for almost two decades, the network did not gain a public face until the 1990s. Driven by mass adoption, consumer personal computer specifications increased dramatically during the 1990s, from 512 KB RAM 12 MHz Turbo XTs in 1990, to 25–66 MHz 80486-class processor at the start of the popularization of the World Wide Web mid-decade, to over 1 GHz CPUs with close to a gigabyte of RAM by 2000. Y2K spread fear throughout the United States and eventually the world in the last half of the decade, particularly in 1999, about possible massive computer malfunctions on 1 January 2000. As a result, many people stocked up on supplies for fear of a worldwide disaster. After significant effort to upgrade systems on the part of software engineers, no failures occurred when the clocks rolled over into 2000. Advancements in computer modems, ISDN, cable modems, and DSL lead to faster connections to the Internet. The first Pentium microprocessor is introduced and developed by the Intel Corporation. Email becomes popular; as a result, Microsoft acquires the popular Hotmail webmail service. Instant messaging and the buddy list feature becomes popular. AIM and ICQ are two early protocols. Businesses start to build e-commerce websites; e-commerce-only companies such as Amazon.com, eBay, AOL, and Yahoo! grow rapidly. The introduction of affordable, smaller satellite dishes and the DVB-S standard in the mid-1990s expanded satellite television services that carried up to 500 television channels. The first MP3 player, the MPMan, is released in late spring of 1998. It came with 32 MB of flash memory expandable to 64 MB. By the mid-2000s, the MP3 player would overtake the CD player in popularity. The first GSM network is launched in Finland in 1991. Digital single-lens reflex cameras and regular digital cameras become commercially available. They would replace film cameras by the mid-2000s. IBM introduces the wide Microdrive hard drive in 170 MB and 340 MB capacities. Apple in 1998 introduces the iMac all-in-one computer, initiating a trend in computer design towards translucent plastics and multicolor case design, discontinuing many legacy technologies like serial ports, and beginning a resurgence in the company's fortunes that continues to this day. CD burner drives are introduced. The CD-ROM drive became standard for most personal computers during the decade. The DVD media format is developed and popularized along with a plethora of Flash memory card standards in 1994. Pagers are initially popular but ultimately are replaced by mobile phones by the early-2000s. Hand-held satellite phones are introduced towards the end of the decade. The 24-hour news cycle becomes popular with the Gulf War between late 1990 and early 1991 and CNN's coverage of Desert Storm and Desert Shield. Though CNN had been running 24-hour newscasts since 1980, it was not until the Gulf War that the general public took large notice and others imitated CNN's non-stop news approach. Portable CD players, introduced during the late 1980s, became very popular and had a profound impact on the music industry and youth culture during the 1990s. Software Microsoft Windows operating systems become virtually ubiquitous on IBM PC compatibles. Microsoft introduces Windows 3.1, Windows 95, and Windows 98 to the market, which gain immediate popularity. Macintosh System 7 was released in 1991. For much of the decade, Apple would struggle to develop a next-generation operating system, starting with Copland and culminating in its December 1996 buyout of NeXT and the 1999 release of Mac OS X Server 1.0. The development of web browsers such as Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer makes surfing the World Wide Web easier and more user friendly. The Java programming language is developed by Sun Microsystems (now Oracle). In 1991, development of the free Linux kernel is started by Linus Torvalds in Finland. Rail Transportation The opening of the Channel Tunnel between France and the United Kingdom saw the commencement by the three national railway companies of Belgium, France and the United Kingdom, respectively SNCB/NMBS, SNCF and British Rail of the joint Eurostar service. On 14 November 1994 Eurostar services began between Waterloo International station in London, Gare du Nord in Paris and Brussels South in Brussels. In 1995 Eurostar was achieving an average end-to-end speed of between London and Paris. On 8 January 1996 Eurostar launched services from a second railway station in the UK when Ashford International was opened. Journey times between London and Brussels were reduced by the opening of the High Speed 1 line on 14 December 1997. Automobiles The 1990s began with another recession that dampened car sales. General Motors suffered huge losses thanks to an inefficient structure, stale designs, and poor quality. Sales improved with the economy by the mid-1990s, but GM's US market share gradually declined to less than 40% (from a peak of 50% in the 1970s). While the new Saturn division fared well, Oldsmobile fell sharply and attempts to remake the division as a European-style luxury car were unsuccessful. Cars in the 1990s had a rounder, more streamlined shape than those from the 1970s and 1980s; this style would continue early into the 2000s and to a lesser extent later on. Chrysler ran into financial troubles again as the 1990s started. Like GM, the company too had a stale model lineup (except for the best-selling minivans) that was largely based on the aging K-car platform. In 1992, chairman Lee Iacocca retired, and the company began a remarkable revival, introducing the new LH platform and "Cab-Forward" styling, along with a highly successful redesign of the full-sized Dodge Ram in 1994. Chrysler's minivans continued to dominate the market despite increasing competition. In 1998, Daimler-Benz (the parent company of Mercedes-Benz) merged with Chrysler. The following year, it was decided to retire Plymouth, which had been on a long decline since the 1970s. Ford continued to fare well in the 1990s, with the second and third generations of the Ford Taurus being named the best selling car in the United States from 1992 to 1996. However, the Taurus would be outsold and dethroned by the Toyota Camry starting in 1997, which became the best-selling car in the United States for the rest of the decade and into the 2000s. Ford also introduced the Ford Explorer, 1991 being the first model year. Fords Explorer became the best-selling SUV on the market; outselling both the Chevy Blazer and Jeep Cherokee. Japanese cars continued to be highly successful during the decade. The Honda Accord vied with the Taurus most years for being the best-selling car in the United States during the early part of the decade. Although launched in 1989, the luxury brands Lexus and Infiniti began car sales of 1990 model year vehicles and saw great success. Lexus would go on to outsell Mercedes-Benz and BMW in the United States by 1991, and would outsell Cadillac and Lincoln by the end of the decade. SUVs and trucks became hugely popular during the economic boom in the second half of the decade. Many makes that had never built a truck before started selling SUVs. Car styling during the 1990s became gradually more round and ovoid, the third-generation Taurus and Mercury Sable being some of the more extreme examples. Safety features such as airbags and shoulder belts became mandatory equipment on new cars. Science Physicists develop M-theory. Detection of extrasolar planets orbiting stars other than the sun. In the United Kingdom, the first cloned mammal, Dolly the sheep was confirmed by the Roslin Institute, and was reported by global media on 26 February 1997. Dolly would trigger a raging controversy on cloning and bioethical concerns regarding possible human cloning continue to this day. Human Genome Project begins. DNA identification of individuals finds wide application in criminal law. Hubble Space Telescope was launched in 1990 and revolutionized astronomy. Unfortunately, a flaw in its main mirror caused it to produce fuzzy, distorted images. This was corrected by a shuttle repair mission in 1993. Protease inhibitors introduced allowing HAART therapy against HIV; drastically reduces AIDS mortality. NASA's spacecraft Pathfinder lands on Mars and deploys a small roving vehicle, Sojourner, which analyzes the planet's geology and atmosphere. The Hale–Bopp comet swings past the sun for the first time in 4,200 years in April 1997. Development of biodegradable products, replacing products made from styrofoam; advances in methods for recycling of waste products (such as paper, glass, and aluminum). Genetically engineered crops are developed for commercial use. Discovery of dark matter, dark energy, brown dwarfs, and first confirmation of black holes. The Galileo probe orbits Jupiter, studying the planet and its moons extensively. Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 (formally designated D/1993 F2, nicknamed String of Pearls for its appearance) was a comet that broke apart and collided with Jupiter in July 1994, providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of solar system objects.. The Global Positioning System (GPS) becomes fully operational. Proof of Fermat's Last Theorem is discovered by Andrew Wiles. Construction started in 1998 on the International Space Station. Environment At the beginning of the decade, sustainable development and environmental protection became serious issues for governments and the international community. In 1987, the publication of the Brundtland Report by the United Nations had paved the way to establish an environmental governance. In 1992 the Earth Summit was held in Rio de Janeiro, in which several countries committed to protect the environment, signing a Convention on Biological Diversity. The prevention of the destruction of the tropical rainforests of the world is a major environmental cause that first came into wide public concern in the early 1990s, and has continued and accelerated. The Chernobyl disaster had significant impact on public opinion at the end of the 1980s, and the fallout was still causing cancer deaths well into the 1990s and possibly even into the 21st century. All along the 1990s, several environmental NGOs helped improve environmental awareness among public opinion and governments. The most famous of these organizations during this decade was Greenpeace, which did not hesitate to lead illegal actions in the name of environmental preservation. These organizations also drew attention on the large deforestion of the Amazon Rainforest during the period. Global warming as an aspect of climate change also became a major concern, and the creation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) after the Earth Summit helped coordinate efforts to reduce carbon emissions in the atmosphere. From 1995, the UNFCCC held annual summits on climate change, leading to the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in December 1997, a binding agreement signed by several developed countries. Society The 1990s represented continuing social liberalization in most countries, though coupled with an increase in the influence of capitalism, which would continue until the Great Recession of the late 2000s/early 2010s. Youth culture in the 1990s responded to this by embracing both environmentalism and entrepreneurship. Western world fashions reflected this by often turning highly individualistic and/or counter-cultural, which was influenced by Generation X and early millennials: tattoos and body piercing gained popularity, and "retro" styles inspired by fashions of the 1960s and 1970s were also prevalent. Some young people became increasingly involved in extreme sports and outdoor activities that combined embracing athletics with the appreciation of nature. Those born from 1990 to 1996 are generally considered part of the Millennial Generation, along with those born in the 1980s, while those born from 1997 onward are often considered part of Generation Z, the post-Millennial generation. In 1990, the World Health Organization removed homosexuality from its list of diseases. Increasing acceptance of homosexuality occurred in the western world, slowly starting in the early 1990s. Third-wave feminism Anita Hill and other women testify before the United States Congress on being sexually harassed by Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas. Thomas was narrowly confirmed by the United States Senate, but Hill's testimony, and the testimony of other harassed women, begins a national debate on the issue. Record numbers of women are elected to high office in the United States in 1992, the "Year of the Woman." Violence against women takes center stage as an important issue internationally. In the United States the Violence Against Women Act was passed, which greatly affected the world community through the United Nations. The law's author, Joe Biden, and UN Ambassador and Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, and Hillary Clinton (see below) become vocal advocates of action against violence against women. Women reach great heights of power in the United States government. Hillary Clinton, leading policy proposals, traveling abroad as a State Department representative to 82 nations, advising her husband, and being elected a Senator (in 2000), is the most openly empowered and politically powerful First Lady in American history; Madeleine Albright and Janet Reno take two of the cabinet's top jobs as United States Secretary of State (#1), and United States Attorney General (#4), respectively. Sheila Widnall becomes head and Secretary of the Air Force and Ruth Bader Ginsburg joins Sandra Day O'Connor as the second woman on the U.S. Supreme Court. More nations than ever before are led by elected women Presidents and Prime Ministers. Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto's 1988 victory in Pakistan makes women leaders in Muslim states unextraordinary. In Turkey, Tansu Çiller became the first female prime minister in 1993 (till 1996). In popular culture, British pop group the Spice Girls also played a part in the feminist movement, boosting popularity with their slogan "Girl Power!", while country music superstar Shania Twain declared female supremacy in her 1995 hit song "Any Man of Mine." Additional significant worldwide events Worldwide New Year's Eve celebrations on December 31, 1999 welcoming the year 2000. Europe 1991 – January Events (Lithuania) - Soviet Union military troops attack Lithuanian independence supporters in Vilnius, killing 14 people and wounding 1000. In Paris, Diana, Princess of Wales and her friend, Dodi Al-Fayed, were killed in a car accident in August 1997, when their chauffeured, hired Mercedes-Benz S-Class crashed in the Pont de l'Alma tunnel. The chauffeur, Henri Paul died at the scene, as did Al-Fayed. Diana and an Al-Fayed bodyguard, Trevor Rees-Jones, survived the accident. The Princess of Wales died at a Paris hospital hours later. The bodyguard, Rees-Jones, is the sole survivor of the now infamous accident. Mother Teresa, the Roman Catholic nun who won the Nobel Peace Prize, dies at age 87. The birth of the "Second Republic" in Italy, with the Mani Pulite investigations of 1994. The Channel Tunnel across the English Channel opens in 1994, connecting France and England. it is the third-longest rail tunnel in the world, but with the undersea section of being the longest undersea tunnel in the world. The resignation of President Boris Yeltsin on 31 December 1999 resulting in Prime Minister Vladimir Putin's succession to the position. North America O. J. Simpson murder case – O. J. Simpson's trial, described in the American media as the "trial of the century" and enormous United States media attention is focused on the trial. On October 3, 1995, Simpson was found "not guilty" of double-murder of ex-wife Nicole Brown Simpson and her friend, Ronald Goldman. With help from clinical fertility drugs, an Iowa mother, Bobbie McCaughey, gave birth to the first surviving septuplets in 1997. There followed a media frenzy and widespread support for the family. John F. Kennedy, Jr., his wife Carolyn Bessette and sister-in-law Lauren Bessette are killed when Kennedy's private plane crashes off the coast of Martha's Vineyard in July 1999. Debate on assisted suicide highly publicized by Michigan doctor Jack Kevorkian, charged with multiple counts of homicide of his terminally ill patients through the decade. Beer keg registration becomes popular public policy in United States. The 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus' discovery of the Americas in 1992 was popularly observed in the United States, despite controversy and protests against the victimization of Native Americans by Columbus' expeditions. The holiday was labeled by some as racist, in view of Native American experiences of colonialism, slavery, genocide, and cultural destruction. Matthew Shepard is murdered near the University of Wyoming for being gay. This sparks intense national and international media attention and outrage. He becomes a major symbol in the LGBT rights movement and the fight against homophobia. Shanda Sharer was murdered on January 11, 1992. She was lured away from her house and held captive by a group of teenage girls. She was tortured for hours and burned alive. She died from smoke inhalation. Those that were found guilty and sentenced to prison were Melinda Loveless, Laurie Tackett, Hope Rippey, and Toni Lawrence. According to Melinda, she was jealous of the relationship that her former partner Amanda Heavrin had with Shanda Sharer. Karla Homolka was arrested with her husband, Paul Bernardo in 1993. Both sexually tortured and killed their victims. Their first victim was Karla's 15-year-old sister Tammy Homolka. The second and third victims were Leslie Mahaffy and Kristen French. Karla told the investigators that she reluctantly did what Paul told her to do because he was abusive and was given a deal. She was sentenced to only 12 years in prison (10 years for Mahaffy and French but only two years for Tammy). Later, investigators discovered videotapes of the crimes which proved that Karla was a willing participant. But by that time the deal had already been made. In 1995, Paul was sentenced to life in prison. Karla was released from prison in 2005. Polly Klaas (January 3, 1981 – October 1993) was kidnapped by Richard Allen Davis from her home during a slumber party. She was later strangled to death. After her death, her father, Marc Klaas, established the KlaasKids Foundation. Jonbenet Ramsey (August 6, 1990 – December 25, 1996) was a child beauty pageant contestant who was missing and found dead in her Boulder, Colorado, home. The crime terrified the nation and the world. Her parents were initially considered to be suspects in her death but were cleared in 2003 when DNA from her clothes were tested. To this day, her murderer has not been found and brought to justice. Lorena Bobbitt was charged with malicious wounding for severing husband John Bobbitt's penis after she was repeatedly sexually assaulted by Bobbitt, for which he was charged. Both parties were acquitted of their respective charges. American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor John Denver died in a plane crash in Monterey Bay near Pacific Grove in October 12 1997. Scandal rocked the sport of figure skating when skater Nancy Kerrigan was attacked during practice by an assailant hired by Jeff Gillooly, former husband of skater Tonya Harding. The attack was carried out in an attempt to injure Kerrigan's leg to the point of being unable to compete in the upcoming 1994 Winter Olympics, thereby securing Harding a better spot to win a gold medal. Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold kill 13 people then themselves in the Columbine High School shooting in April 1999, which would lead to inspiring many future school shooters, which have become a uniquely American phenomenon, with more than 230 school shootings occurring since Columbine. Asia Massive immigration wave of Jews from the Commonwealth of Independent States to Israel – With the end of the Soviet Union, Israel faced a mass influx of Russian Jews, many of whom had high expectations the country was unable to meet. Israel also came under Iraqi missile attack during the Gulf War, but acquiesced to US pressure not to retaliate militarily, which could have disrupted the US-Arab alliance. The US and Netherlands then rushed anti-missile batteries to Israel to defend the country against missile attacks. Vizconde massacre – On 30 June 1991 Three members of the Vizconde Family: Estrellita, Carmela and Jennifer were found dead inside of their house in BF Homes, Parañaque, Metro Manila, Philippines. it was described in the Philippines as the "trial of the century". in 2010 Hubert Webb and his men were later acquitted by the Supreme Court for failure of the prosecution to prove their guilt beyond reasonable doubt. The Spratly Islands issue became one of the most controversial in Southeast Asia. The closing Mass of the X World Youth Day 1995 was held in Rizal Park on 15 January 1995, attended by more than 5 million people. This is the record gathering of the Roman Catholic Church. The Philippines celebrates the 100-year anniversary of Philippine Independence in 1998 with its theme: "Kalayaan: Kayamanan ng Bayan". Popular culture Film Dogme 95 becomes an important European artistic motion picture movement by the end of the decade. The first full-length CGI movie, Pixar's Toy Story, is released, revolutionizing animated films. Titanic becomes a cultural phenomenon throughout the world, and eventually becomes the highest-grossing film of all time, grossing over $1.8 billion worldwide. It would hold this record for over a decade until 2010 when director James Cameron had another one of his films take the title, that being Avatar. Family animated feature films began to gain popularity during the decade, though the late-1990s (1997, 1998 and 1999) were more known. Don Bluth's animation studio released a number of underperfoming family animated films such as Rock-a-Doodle, Thumbelina and The Pebble and the Penguin and closed down in 1995. In 1994, former Disney employee Jeffrey Katzenberg founded DreamWorks SKG which would produce its first two animated films: The Prince of Egypt and Antz which were both aimed more at adults than children and were both critical and commercially successful. Meanwhile, films by Walt Disney Feature Animation became popular once more when the studio returned to making family traditionally animated musical classic films, most notable films were Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin, The Nightmare Before Christmas and The Lion King. This era was known as the Disney Renaissance. Other significant animated films have also gained cult status such as The Jetsons Movie, The Princess and the Goblin, Happily Ever After, An American Tail: Fievel Goes West, Ferngully: The Last Rainforest, Tom and Jerry: The Movie, The Thief and the Cobbler, Once Upon a Forest, We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story, Batman: Mask of the Phantasm, Felidae, The Swan Princess, Balto, Beavis and Butt-Head Do America, Cats Don't Dance, Anastasia, Quest for Camelot, The Rugrats Movie, Kirikou and the Sorceress, The King and I, South Park: Bigger, Longer, Uncut and The Iron Giant. Live-action films featuring computer-animated characters became popular with films such as Casper, James and the Giant Peach, 101 Dalmatians, Men in Black, Small Soldiers and Stuart Little, although live-action/traditional cel animated film featuring traditional characters like Cool World, The Pagemaster and Space Jam were also prevalent. Japanese anime films continued in the 1990s as Studio Ghibli's continued to dominate with films such as Only Yesterday, Porco Rosso, Pom Poko, Whisper of the Heart, Princess Mononoke (which became the highest-grossing anime film at the time) and My Neighbors the Yamadas. Other significant anime films which gained cult status include Roujin Z, Ramayana: The Legend of Prince Rama, Patlabor 2: The Movie, Ninja Scroll, Street Fighter II: The Animated Movie, Ghost in the Shell, Memories, The End of Evangelion, Perfect Blue, Jin-Roh: The Wolf Brigade, and the Pokémon film series which started with the first two entries Pokémon: The First Movie and Pokémon: The Movie 2000. Award winners {| class="wikitable" |- ! style="width:9%"|Award ! style="width:9%"|1990 ! style="width:9%"|1991 ! style="width:9%"|1992 ! style="width:9%"|1993 ! style="width:9%"|1994 ! style="width:9%"|1995 ! style="width:9%"|1996 ! style="width:9%"|1997 ! style="width:9%"|1998 ! style="width:9%"|1999 |- | Academy Award for Best Picture winners | Dances with Wolves | The Silence of the Lambs | Unforgiven | Schindler's List | Forrest Gump | Braveheart | The English Patient | Titanic | Shakespeare in Love | American Beauty |- | Palme d'Or winners at the Cannes Film Festival| Wild at Heart | Barton Fink | The Best Intentions | Farewell My Concubine and The Piano | Pulp Fiction | Underground | Secrets & Lies | Taste of Cherry and The Eel | Eternity and a Day | Rosetta |- | César Award for Best Film winners| Cyrano de Bergerac | Tous les matin du monde | Savage Nights | Smoking/No Smoking | Wild Reeds | La haine | Ridicule | Same Old Song | The Dreamlife of Angels | Venus Beauty Institute |- | Golden Lion winners at the Venice Film Festival''' | Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead| Close to Eden| The Story of Qiu Ju| Short Cuts and Three Colours: Blue| Vive L'Amour and Before the Rain| Cyclo| Michael Collins| Fireworks| The Way We Laughed| Not One Less|} Highest-grossing The 25 highest-grossing films of the decade are: Music The 1990s were a decade that saw marketing become more segmented, as MTV gradually shifted away from music videos beginning in 1992 and radio splintered into narrower formats aimed at various niches. However, they are perhaps best known for grunge, gangsta rap, R&B, teen pop; eurodance, electronic dance music, the renewed popularity of punk rock mainly because of the band Green Day (which would also help create a new genre pop punk) and for being the decade that alternative rock became mainstream. U2 was one of the most popular 1990s bands, their groundbreaking Zoo TV and PopMart tours were the top selling tours of 1992 and 1997. Glam metal dies out through its own accord in the music mainstream by 1991. Grunge became popular in the early 1990s due to the success of Nirvana's Nevermind, Pearl Jam's Ten, Alice in Chains' Dirt and Soundgarden's Badmotorfinger. Pop punk also becomes popular with such artists as Green Day, Blink-182, Weezer, Social Distortion, the Offspring, Bad Religion, NOFX and Rancid. Other successful alternative acts included Red Hot Chili Peppers, R.E.M., Nickelback, Creed, Radiohead, Gin Blossoms, Soul Asylum, Third Eye Blind, Stone Temple Pilots, Faith No More, the Smashing Pumpkins, Live, Everclear, Bush, Screaming Trees and Ween. Dr. Dre's 1992 album The Chronic provided a template for modern gangsta rap, and gave rise to other emerging artists of the genre, including Snoop Dogg. Due to the success of Death Row Records and Tupac Shakur, West Coast gangsta rap commercially dominated hip hop during the early-to-mid 1990s, along with Bad Boy Records and the Notorious B.I.G. on the East Coast. Hip hop became the best selling music genre by the mid-1990s. In the United Kingdom, the uniquely British alternative rock Britpop genre emerged as part of the more general Cool Britannia culture, with Oasis, Blur, Pulp, Suede, Supergrass and Elastica. The impact of boy band pop sensation Take That lead to the formation of other boy bands in the UK and Ireland such as East 17 and Boyzone. Female pop icons Spice Girls took the world by storm, becoming the most commercially successful British group since the Beatles, the Rolling Stones and Led Zeppelin. Also, R&B has Des'Ree, Mark Morrison and Sade. Their global success brought about a widespread scene of teen pop acts around the world such as All Saints, Backstreet Boys, Hanson, NSYNC, Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera who came to prominence into the new millennium. 1991 also saw the death of Queen frontman Freddie Mercury from AIDS-related pneumonia. Most musicians from Canada (Snow, Celine Dion, The Barenaked Ladies, Shania Twain, Len, Sarah McLachlan, and Alanis Morissette) became known worldwide. Contemporary R&B and quiet storm continued in popularity among adult audiences, which began during the 1980s. Popular African-American contemporary R&B artists included Mariah Carey, D'Angelo, Lauryn Hill, Whitney Houston, Brandy, En Vogue, TLC, Destiny's Child, Toni Braxton, Boyz II Men, Dru Hill and Vanessa L. Williams. The Tibetan Freedom Concert brought 120,000 people together in the interest of increased human rights and autonomy for Tibet from China. Freddie Mercury, Kurt Cobain, Selena, Tupac Shakur and the Notorious B.I.G. are the most publicized music-related deaths of the decade, in 1991, 1994, 1995, 1996, and 1997 respectively. Richey Edwards of Manic Street Preachers was publicized in the media in 1991 following an incident involving Steve Lamacq backstage after a live show, in which Edwards carved '4 Real' into his arm. Edwards disappeared in 1995, which was highly publicized. He is still missing, but was presumed dead in 2008. Controversy surrounded the Prodigy with the release of the track "Smack My Bitch Up". The National Organization for Women (NOW) claimed that the track was "advocating violence against women" due to the lyrics of that song. The music video (directed by Jonas Åkerlund) featured a first-person POV of someone going clubbing, indulging in drugs and alcohol, getting into fist fights, abusing women and picking up a prostitute. At the end of the video the camera pans over to a mirror, revealing the subject to be a woman. 1994 became a breakthrough year for punk rock in California, with the success of bands like Bad Religion, Social Distortion, Blink-182, Green Day, the Offspring, Rancid and similar groups following. This success would continue to grow over the next decade, the 2000s. The 1990s also became the most important decade for ska punk/reggae rock, with the success of many bands like Buck-O-Nine, Goldfinger, Less Than Jake, the Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Murphy's Law, No Doubt, Reel Big Fish, Save Ferris, Sublime and Sugar Ray. The rave movement that emerged in the late 1980s rose. Rave spawned genres such as Intelligent dance music and Drum and bass. The latter is an offshoot of jungle techno and breakbeat. Popular artists included Moby, Fatboy Slim, Björk, Aphex Twin, Orbital, the Orb, the Chemical Brothers, Basement Jaxx, Todd Terry, 808 State, Primal Scream, the Shamen, the KLF and the Prodigy. The rise of industrial music, somewhat a fusion of synthpop and heavy metal, rose to worldwide popularity with bands like Godflesh, Nine Inch Nails, Rammstein, Ministry and Marilyn Manson. Groove metal was born through the efforts of Pantera, whose seventh studio album Far Beyond Driven (1994) was notable for going number one on Billboard 200. Another heavy metal subgenre called nu metal, which mixed metal with hip hop influences, becomes popular with bands like Korn, Slipknot and Limp Bizkit selling millions of albums worldwide. Metallica's 1991 eponymous album Metallica is the best-selling album of the SoundScan era, while extreme metal acts such as Death, Mayhem, Darkthrone, Emperor, Cannibal Corpse and others experienced popularity throughout the decade. In the 1990s, country music became a worldwide phenomenon thanks to Billy Ray Cyrus, Shania Twain and Garth Brooks. The latter enjoyed one of the most successful careers in popular music history, breaking records for both sales and concert attendance throughout the decade. The RIAA has certified his recordings at a combined (128× platinum), denoting roughly 113 million United States shipments. Other artists that experienced success during this time included Clint Black, Sammy Kershaw, Aaron Tippin, Travis Tritt, Suzy Bogguss, Alan Jackson, Lorrie Morgan and the newly formed duo of Brooks & Dunn; George Strait, whose career began in the 1980s, also continued to have widespread success in this decade and beyond. Female artists such as Reba McEntire, Faith Hill, Martina McBride, Deana Carter, LeAnn Rimes and Mary Chapin Carpenter all released platinum selling albums in the 1990s. The Dixie Chicks became one of the most popular country bands in the 1990s and early 2000s. Their 1998 debut album Wide Open Spaces went on to become certified 12x platinum while their 1999 album Fly went on to become 10x platinum. Television TV shows, mostly sitcoms, were popular with the American audience. Series such as Roseanne, Coach, Empty Nest, Mr. Belvedere, 227, Cheers, The Cosby Show, Growing Pains, Night Court, The Hogan Family, A Different World, Amen, ALF, Perfect Strangers, Family Matters, Charles in Charge, Saved by the Bell, My Two Dads, Newhart, Dear John, Designing Women, The Golden Girls, Who's the Boss?, Head of the Class, and Seinfeld, which premiered in the eighties, and Frasier, a spin-off of the 1980s hit Cheers were viewed throughout the 1990s. These sitcoms, along with Friends, That '70s Show, Ellen, The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, Full House, Nurses, Murphy Brown, The Wonder Years, Living Single, Step by Step, NewsRadio, Blossom, The King of Queens, Major Dad, Fired Up, Jesse, Parker Lewis Can't Lose, For Your Love, The Steve Harvey Show, The Larry Sanders Show, Sex and the City, Arliss, Dream On, Grace Under Fire, Mad About You, Sabrina the Teenage Witch, The Naked Truth, The Jeff Foxworthy Show, The Jamie Foxx Show, Smart Guy, The Wayans Bros., Malcolm & Eddie, Clueless, Moesha, The Parent 'Hood, Unhappily Ever After, Roc, Martin, Hangin' with Mr. Cooper, In Living Color, Sister, Sister, Boy Meets World, Ned and Stacey, Becker, Veronica's Closet, Two Guys and a Girl, The Drew Carey Show, Wings, The John Larroquette Show, Caroline in the City, Sports Night, Home Improvement, Will & Grace, Married... with Children, Evening Shade, Cosby, Spin City, The Nanny, 3rd Rock from the Sun, Suddenly Susan, Cybill, Just Shoot Me!, Everybody Loves Raymond, and Dharma and Greg turned TV in new directions and defined the humor of the decade. Furthermore, Saturday Night Live experienced a new era of success during the 1990s, launching the careers of popular comedians and actors such as Chris Farley, Dana Carvey, Phil Hartman, Adam Sandler, Will Ferrell, Molly Shannon, Mike Myers, Chris Rock, Norm McDonald, David Spade, Cheri Oteri and others. In early 1993, one of the last westerns ever to air on television was Walker, Texas Ranger, a crime drama which also starred Chuck Norris as the title character. Lasting for nine seasons, the show tackled a wide variety of subjects, and was one of the few shows ever to perform karate. 1993 also saw its debut of the medical–mystery drama, Diagnosis Murder, a comeback vehicle for Dick Van Dyke, who guest-starred on an episode of its sequel, Jake and The Fatman, where the show got off to a rocky start, and became one of television's long-running mysteries, that lasted until its cancelation in 2001. Medical dramas started to come into television in the 1990s. One show stood out as a critical and ratings success for NBC. In 1994, ER, which starred Anthony Edwards, Noah Wyle and George Clooney, was a domestic and international success, lasting until 2009 and spawning series such as Grey's Anatomy (2005–present). It made NBC the most watched channel in the United States. This show launched the career of George Clooney. That same year, Chicago Hope, that starred Héctor Elizondo, Mandy Patinkin and Adam Arkin, was also a popular series for CBS, lasting between 1994 and 2000.Beverly Hills, 90210 ran on Fox from 1990 to 2000. It established the teen soap genre paving the way for Dawson's Creek, Felicity, Party of Five, and other shows airing later in the decade. The show was then remade and renamed simply 90210 and premiered in 2008. Beverly Hills, 90210 spun-off Melrose Place, a popular TV show that dominated throughout the 1990s as well. Baywatch, a popular TV show that dominated throughout the 1990s, became the most watched TV show in history and influenced pop culture.Sex and the Citys straight portrayal of relationships and sexuality caused controversy and acclaim, leading to a new generation of sexually progressive television shows that would be seen in the 2000s. The fantasy and science fiction was popular on television, with NBC airing seaQuest DSV beginning in 1993, This series is a Steven Spielberg production, made Jonathan Brandis popular teen idol, but after three seasons it was canceled.Touched By an Angel, broadcast by CBS in 1994. The series was intended as the comeback vehicle of Della Reese, and also launched the career of Roma Downey. It wasn't an immediate hit, and was canceled the following year, but revived the following year, thanks to die hard fans who approached a letter-writing campaign, where it ran for eight more seasons. Crime drama and police detective shows returned after soap-operas died down. After the successful debuts of Law & Order, NYPD Blue and Homicide: Life on the Street, Nash Bridges, a comeback vehicle for Don Johnson, lasting six seasons (1996–2001) which also dealt with escapist entertainment, rather than tackling issues. Reality television began on MTV; this would grow in importance in the Western world into the next decade. During the mid-1990s, two of the biggest professional wrestling companies: World Championship Wrestling and World Wrestling Federation were in a ratings battle that was called the Monday Night Wars (1995–2001). Each company fought to draw more viewers to their respective Monday night wrestling show. The "War" ended in 2001 when WWE bought WCW. In November 2001, there was a Winner Takes All match with both companies in a Pay-Per-View called Survivor Series. WWF won the match; putting a final end to WCW. As an animated sitcom, The Simpsons, premiered on Fox in December 1989, became a domestic and international success in the 1990s. The show has aired more than 600 episodes and has become an institution of pop culture. It has spawned the adult-oriented animated sitcom genre, inspiring racier shows such as Beavis and Butt-head (1993–1997), Daria (1997–2001), along with South Park and Family Guy, the latter two of which began in 1997 and 1999 respectively and continue to air new episodes through the 2000s and into the 2010s. Japanese anime was popular in the 1980s, and expanded to a worldwide audience by the 1990s, for its expansive spectrum of story subjects and themes not limited to comedy and superhero action found in the US, and well produced, and well written, visual and story content that came to showcase animation's potential for emotional and intellectual depth and integrity on par with live action media to its viewers, and which also expanded to older and adult ages in the medium of animation. TV shows such as Sailor Moon, Digimon, Pokémon, Tenchi Muyo!, Detective Conan, Dragon Ball Z, Gundam Wing, Neon Genesis Evangelion, Ranma ½, Yu Yu Hakusho, Slayers, Rurouni Kenshin, Initial D, Gunsmith Cats, Outlaw Star, to anime movies such as Akira, Vampire Hunter D, My Neighbor Totoro, Princess Mononoke, Castle in the Sky, The Castle of Cagliostro, and imports by various distributors such as Viz, AnimEigo, Central Park Media, A.D. Vision, Pioneer Entertainment, Media Blasters, Manga Entertainment, and Celebrity, helped begin the mid to late 1990s and turn of the millennium introductory anime craze in the US, and the Cartoon Network anime block Toonami in 1997. American animated children's programs went through a renaissance during the decade with studios producing many critically acclaimed shows. Specifically Warner Bros-animated shows like Tiny Toon Adventures, Animaniacs, Batman: The Animated Series, and Superman: The Animated Series, as well as syndicated shows like Phantom 2040. Nickelodeon's first animated series (Doug, Rugrats, The Ren & Stimpy Show) premiered in 1991. The late 1990s also saw the evolution of a new TV genre: primetime game shows, popularized by the game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, hosted by Regis Philbin on ABC, as well as other first-run game shows aired in primetime on the newly launched Game Show Network. Fashion and body modification Significant fashion trends of the 1990s include: Earth and jewel tones, as well as an array of minimalistic style and design influences, characterize the 1990s, a stark contrast to the camp and bombast seen in the brightly colored fashion and design trends of the 1980s. The Rachel, Jennifer Aniston's hairstyle on the hit TV show Friends, became a cultural phenomenon with millions of women copying it worldwide. The Hi-top fade was very popular among African-Americans in the early 1990s. The Curtained Haircut increased in popularity in fashion and culture among teenage boys and young men in the 1990s, mainly after it was popularized in the film Terminator 2: Judgment Day by the actor Edward Furlong. The model 1300 Wonderbra style has a resurgence of popularity in Europe in 1992 which kicks off a multinational media sensation, the 1994 return of "The Wonderbra" brand, and a spike in push-up, plunge bras around the world. Additional fashion trends of the 1990s include the Tamagotchi, Rollerblades, Pogs and Dr. Martens shoes. Bleached blond hair became very popular in the late 1990s, as was men with short hair with the bangs "flipped up". The 1990s also saw the return of the 1970s teenage female fashion with long, straight hair and denim hot pants.Beverly Hills, 90210 sideburns also became popular in the early and mid-1990s. Slap bracelets were a popular fad among children, preteens and teenagers in the early 1990s and were available in a wide variety of patterns and colors. Also, popular among children were light-up sneakers, jelly shoes, and shoelace hairclips. The Grunge hype at the beginning of the decade popularized flannel shirts among both genders during the 1990s. Grunge and hip-hop inspired anti-fashion saw an expansion of the slouchy, casual styles of past decades, mostly seen in baggy and/or distressed jeans, cargo shorts and pants, baseball caps (often worn backwards), chunky sneakers, oversized sweatshirts, and loose-fitting tees with grandiloquent graphics and logos. Y2K fashion became popular in the late 1990s and early 2000s, as the new millennium began. This was marked by darker, slinkier, and more futuristic-looking clothing in the late 1990s. Tattoos and piercings Ironically, Tattoos and piercings will hit the mainstream. American model Christy Turlington revealed her belly button piercing at a fashion show in London in 1993. In the late 1990s, most females are getting lower back tattoos. Video games Video game consoles released in this decade included the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Neo Geo, Atari Jaguar, 3DO, Sega Saturn, PlayStation, Nintendo 64 and Dreamcast; while portable video game consoles included Game Gear, Atari Lynx and Game Boy Color. Super Mario World was the decade's best selling console video game, while Pokémon Red and Blue was the decade's best-selling portable video game; Super Mario 64 was the decade's best-selling fifth-generation video game, while Street Fighter II was the decade's highest-grossing arcade video game. Mario as Nintendo's mascot finds a rival in Sega's Sonic the Hedgehog with the release of Sonic the Hedgehog on the Mega Drive/Genesis in 1991. Sonic would go on to become on the most successful video game franchises of the decade and of all time. Popular notable video games of the 1990s include: Super Metroid, Metal Gear Solid, Super Mario World, Doom, Donkey Kong Country, Donkey Kong 64, Pokémon Red and Blue Versions, Pokémon Yellow Version, GoldenEye 007, Super Mario 64, The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, Gran Turismo, Mario Kart 64, Half-Life, Super Mario Kart, Radiant Silvergun, Rayman, Gunstar Heroes, Banjo-Kazooie, Soulcalibur, Star Fox series, Tomb Raider series, Final Fantasy, Sonic the Hedgehog series, Story of Seasons series, Tony Hawk's series, Crash Bandicoot series, Metal Slug series, Resident Evil series, Street Fighter II, Spyro the Dragon series, Commander Keen series, Test Drive series, Dance Dance Revolution series, Monkey Island series, Dune series, Mortal Kombat series, Warcraft series, Duke Nukem 3D, Tekken series, EarthBound, Fallout: A Post Nuclear Role Playing Game, and StarCraft. Sony's PlayStation becomes the top-selling game console and changes the standard media storage type from cartridges to compact discs in consoles. Crash Bandicoot is released on September 9, 1996, becoming one of the most successful platforming series for the Sony PlayStation. Tomb Raiders (PlayStation) Lara Croft became a video game sex symbol, becoming a recognizable figure in the entertainment industry throughout the late 1990s. 3-D graphics become the standard by end of decade. Although FPSs had long since seen the transition to full 3D, other genres begin to copy this trend by the end of the decade. Most notable first shooter games in the 1990s are GoldenEye 007 and Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six. The console wars, primarily between Sega (Mega Drive, marketed as the Sega Genesis in North America, introduced in 1988) and Nintendo (Super NES, introduced in 1990), sees the entrance of Sony with the PlayStation in 1994, which becomes the first successful CD-based console (as opposed to cartridges). By the end of the decade, Sega's hold on the market becomes tenuous after the end of the Saturn in 1999 and the Dreamcast in 2002. Arcade games rapidly decrease in popularity, mainly due to handheld and home consoles. Fighting games like Capcom's Street Fighter II, Sega's futuristic Virtua Fighter, and especially the more violent Mortal Kombat from Midway prompted the video game industry to accept a game rating system. Hundreds of knock-offs are widely popular in the mid-to-late 1990s. Doom (1993) bursts onto the world scene, and instantly popularizes the FPS genre. Half-Life (1998) features the next evolutionary step in the genre with continual progression of the game (no levels in the traditional sense) and an entirely in-person view, and becomes one of the most popular computer games in history. The real-time strategy (RTS) genre is introduced in 1992 with the release of Dune II. Warcraft: Orcs & Humans (1994) popularizes the genre, with Command & Conquer and Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness in 1995, setting up the first major real-time strategy competition and popularizing multiplayer capabilities in RTS games. StarCraft in 1998 becomes the second best-selling computer game of all time. It remains among the most popular multiplayer RTS games to this day, especially in South Korea. Homeworld in 1999 becomes the first successful 3D RTS game. The rise of the RTS genre is often credited with the fall of the turn-based strategy (TBS) genre, popularized with Civilization in 1991. Final Fantasy introduced (in North America) in 1990 for the NES, and remains among the most popular video game franchises, with many new titles to date and more in development, plus numerous spin-offs, sequels, films and related titles. Final Fantasy VII, released in 1997, especially popularized the series. Massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) see their entrance into the computer game world with Ultima Online in 1997, although they never gain widespread popularity until EverQuest and Asheron's Call in 1999. MMORPGs go on to become among the most popular genres in the first decade of the 21st century.Pokémon enters the world scene with the release of the original Game Boy Pokémon Red and Pokémon Green games in Japan in 1996, later changed to Pokémon Red and Pokémon Blue for worldwide release in 1998. It soon becomes popular in the United States, spurring the term Pokémonia and is adapted into a popular anime series and trading card game, among other media forms.Resident Evil is released in 1996. It becomes the most popular survival-horror series in video gaming well into the next decade and inspires several films.Crash Bandicoot is released in September 1996, becoming an innovative platformer for the PlayStation. The best selling games of the 1990s were as follows (note that some sources disagree on particular years): 1990: Super Mario World 1991: Sonic the Hedgehog 1992: Super Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins 1993: Super Mario All-Stars 1994: Donkey Kong Country 1995: Super Mario World 2: Yoshi’s Island or Mortal Kombat III 1996: Pokémon Red and Blue or Super Mario 64 1997: Gran Turismo or Mario Kart 64 1998: Pokémon Yellow or The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time 1999: Pokémon Gold and Silver or Donkey Kong 64 Internet Prominent websites / apps launched during the decade: IMDb (1993), EBay (1995), Amazon (1994), GeoCities (1994), Netscape (1994), Yahoo! (1995), AltaVista (1995), AIM (1997), ICQ (1996), Hotmail (1996), Google (1998), Napster (1999) The pioneering peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing internet service Napster, which was first launched in Fall 1999, was the first peer-to-peer software to become massively popular. While at the time it was possible to share files in other ways via the Internet (such as IRC and USENET), Napster was the first software to focus exclusively on sharing MP3 files. Napster was eventually forced to shutdown in July 2001 to prevent further copyright violations. Architecture The Petronas Twin Towers became two of the tallest man-made structures ever built after they officially opened on August 31, 1999. Sports The 1992 Summer Olympics are held in Barcelona, Spain. Major League Baseball players went on strike on August 12, 1994, thus ending the season and canceling the World Series for the first time in 90 years. The players' strike ended on March 29, 1995 when players and team owners came to an agreement. The 1991 World Series pitted the Atlanta Braves and the Minnesota Twins, two teams who finished last place in their respective divisions the previous season. The series would go all seven games won by the home teams that concluded in dramatic fashion with the Minnesota Twins claiming their second World Series title. American NBA basketball player Michael Jordan became a major sports and pop culture icon idolized by millions worldwide. He revolutionized sports marketing through deals with companies such as Gatorade, Hanes, McDonald's and Nike. His Chicago Bulls team won six NBA titles during the decade (1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997 and 1998). He was loved outside basketball thanks to his self-portrayal in the film Space Jam with the Looney Tune characters. The National Hockey League would expand from 21 to 30 teams. During the expansion years, several teams would relocate to new cities: the Winnipeg Jets moved to Phoenix, Arizona and became the Phoenix Coyotes, the Quebec Nordiques moved to Denver and became the Colorado Avalanche, the Hartford Whalers moved to Raleigh, North Carolina and became the Carolina Hurricanes, and the Minnesota North Stars moved to Dallas and became the Dallas Stars. The NHL's 1990s expansion saw new teams in cities that previously never had NHL hockey: San Jose (San Jose Sharks), Anaheim (Mighty Ducks of Anaheim), Nashville (Nashville Predators), Miami (Florida Panthers), and Tampa (Tampa Bay Lightning). The NHL also returned to Atlanta with the expansion Atlanta Thrashers. Two of the NHL's Original Six teams, the New York Rangers and the Detroit Red Wings would end long Stanley Cup championship droughts; the Rangers in 1994 after 54 years, and the Red Wings would win back to back Cups in 1997 and 1998 after 42 years. Canadian hockey star Mario Lemieux led the Pittsburgh Penguins, one of the original NHL expansion teams, to back-to-back Stanley Cup championships in 1991 and 1992. In addition to the Pittsburgh Penguins, three other NHL expansion teams went on to earn their first Stanley Cup championships: the New Jersey Devils in 1995, the Colorado Avalanche in 1996, and the Dallas Stars in 1999. Canadian hockey star Wayne Gretzky announced his retirement from the NHL in 1999. Upon his final game on April 18, he held 40 regular-season records, 15 playoff records, and six All-Star records. He is the leading point-scorer in NHL history, as well as the only NHL player to total over 200 points in one season – a feat he accomplished four times. In addition, he tallied over 100 points in 16 professional seasons, 14 of them consecutive. He played for four teams during his NHL career: the Edmonton Oilers, the Los Angeles Kings, the St. Louis Blues, and the New York Rangers. American cyclist Lance Armstrong won his first Tour de France in 1999, less than two years after battling testicular cancer. In professional wrestling, the boom period of the WWF from the late 1980s continued until 1993, led by such stars as Hulk Hogan and The Ultimate Warrior. A second boom period of the decade was introduced during the Monday Night Wars between the WWF and WCW from the middle of the decade to spawn the WWF's Attitude Era, home to some of the biggest names in Wrestling history such as The Undertaker, who would go on to have an undefeated streak at WrestleMania that would go on until WrestleMania XXX in April 2014, Stone Cold Steve Austin and The Rock and the highly popular nWo group, along with Sting and Goldberg who brought WCW major success. Manchester United won an unprecedented treble of the Premier League, FA Cup and Champions League after defeating Bayern Munich 2–1 in May 1999. The United States hosted the 15th staging of the World Cup in 1994. To this day, it holds the record for largest attendance per game during the World Cup finals (even after the tournament's expansion to 32 teams and 64 matches). Additionally, this led to the creation of the MLS. In motor racing, triple Formula One World Champion Ayrton Senna is fatally injured in a crash at San Marino in 1994. Michael Schumacher enters into the sport – winning his first two championships in 1994 and 1995. Dale Earnhardt wins the 1998 Daytona 500 and the NASCAR Winston Cup championship in 1990, 1991, 1993 and 1994. Indy Car racing delves into an organizational "Split". In the NFL, the San Francisco 49ers and the Washington Redskins showed promise of continuing their 80s glory by each team winning another Super Bowl at the beginning of the decade; but it was the Dallas Cowboys who made a gradual return to dynasty status, winning three Super Bowls (1992, 1993 and 1995) in a four-year span after a 14-year NFL championship drought. The Denver Broncos also won their first two Super Bowls after having lost four, winning consecutive championships of the 1997 and 1998 seasons. Florida State, 1987–2000 – At the height of Bobby Bowden's dominance, the Florida State Seminoles went 152–19–1, won nine ACC championships (1992–2000), two national championships (1993 and 1999), played for three more national championships (1996, 1998 and 2000), were ranked #1 in the pre-season AP poll 5 times (1988, 1991, 1993, 1995, and 1999), never lost the #1 AP ranking during 1999, produced 20 1st round NFL draft picks (including the 1997 offensive and defensive rookies of the year), won at least 10 games every year, and never finished a season ranked lower than fourth in the AP poll. Quarterbacks Charlie Ward and Chris Weinke won Heisman Trophies. The Nebraska Cornhuskers led by head coach Tom Osborne won three national championships in college football in a four-year span (1994, 1995, 1997) Led by head coach Jim Tressel, The Youngstown State Penguins claimed to be the "team of the '90s" by winning four national championships (1991, 1993, 1994, 1997) in division I-AA college football The Ultimate Fighting Championship (1993) and Pride Fighting Championship (1997) debut and evolve into the modern sport of Mixed Martial Arts. Major League Baseball added four teams, Miami Marlins (as Florida Marlins), Colorado Rockies, Tampa Bay Rays (as Tampa Bay Devil Rays), and the Arizona Diamondbacks, and moved one (Milwaukee Brewers) into the National League. The Florida Marlins would win the World Series in 1997 and 2003; the Arizona Diamondbacks would win the World Series in 2001, becoming the fastest expansion team to win a major championship for any major sport; the Colorado Rockies and Tampa Bay Rays would appear in the World Series in 2007 and 2008 respectively. In 1998, Canada wins gold metals for the first time in Disc ultimate at the WFDF World Ultimate Championship in Open, Mixed and Masters. In the 1996 Summer Olympics, the Women's Gymnastics team won the first team Gold Medal for the US in Olympic Gymnastics history. Literature The hugely successful Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling introduced in 1997. The series, with only seven main novels, would go on to become the best-selling book series in world history and adapted into a film series in 2001. John Grisham was the bestselling author in the United States in the 1990s, with over 60 million copies sold of novels such as The Pelican Brief, The Client, and The Firm. Other successful authors of the 1990s include Stephen King, Danielle Steel, Michael Crichton, and Tom Clancy.Goosebumps by R. L. Stine, the second highest-grossing book series in the world, introduced in 1992 and remained a dominant player in children's literature throughout and after the decade, but became a television series which aired on Fox Kids alongside a film version that released in 2015. People Actors & Entertainers Jason Alexander Tim Allen Gillian Anderson Pamela Anderson Jennifer Aniston Christina Applegate Kevin Bacon Alec Baldwin Antonio Banderas Roseanne Barr Drew Barrymore Kim Basinger Candice Bergen Elizabeth Berkley Sandra Bernhard Halle Berry Pierce Brosnan Sandra Bullock Brett Butler Nicolas Cage Dean Cain Neve Campbell Drew Carey George Carlin Jim Carrey Dana Carvey Jackie Chan Dave Chappelle George Clooney Kevin Costner Courteney Cox Marcia Cross Tom Cruise Billy Crystal Macaulay Culkin Matt Damon Ellen DeGeneres Robert De Niro Johnny Depp Leonardo DiCaprio Shannen Doherty Fran Drescher David Duchovny Anthony Edwards Chris Farley David Faustino Will Ferrell Laurence Fishburne Calista Flockhart Harrison Ford Jodie Foster Dennis Franz Morgan Freeman Janeane Garofalo Jennie Garth Sarah Michelle Gellar Mel Gibson Kathie Lee Gifford Peri Gilpin Danny Glover Whoopi Goldberg John Goodman Mark-Paul Gosselaar Kelsey Grammer Brian Austin Green Arsenio Hall Tom Hanks Woody Harrelson David Hasselhoff Teri Hatcher Ethan Hawke Mitch Hedberg Bill Hicks Anthony Hopkins Helen Hunt Samuel L. Jackson Angelina Jolie Tommy Lee Jones Michael Keaton Nicole Kidman Val Kilmer Greg Kinnear Lisa Kudrow Eriq La Salle Angela Lansbury Martin Lawrence Matt LeBlanc Jane Leeves Jay Leno David Letterman Heather Locklear Mario Lopez Julia Louis-Dreyfus Bill Maher John Mahoney Julianna Margulies Demi Moore Eddie Murphy Mike Myers Liam Neeson Craig T. Nelson Chuck Norris Conan O'Brien Ed O'Neill Jerry Orbach Al Pacino Gwyneth Paltrow Sean Penn Luke Perry Matthew Perry Joe Pesci Michelle Pfeiffer Regis Philbin David Hyde Pierce Brad Pitt Jason Priestley Dennis Quaid Keanu Reeves Paul Reiser Michael Richards Julia Roberts Chris Rock Rene Russo Meg Ryan Winona Ryder Katey Sagal Bob Saget Adam Sandler Susan Sarandon Arnold Schwarzenegger David Schwimmer Steven Seagal Jerry Seinfeld Garry Shandling Elisabeth Shue Sarah Silverman Will Smith Jimmy Smits Wesley Snipes David Spade Tori Spelling John Stamos Jon Stewart Patrick Stewart Sharon Stone Meryl Streep Jeffrey Tambor Tiffani-Amber Thiessen Uma Thurman John Travolta Jean-Claude Van Damme Denzel Washington Sam Waterston Robin Williams Bruce Willis Oprah Winfrey James Woods Noah Wyle Ian Ziering Athletes Andre Agassi Troy Aikman Charles Barkley Barry Bonds Martin Brodeur Roger Clemens Dale Earnhardt John Elway Patrick Ewing Brett Favre Tom Glavine Steffi Graf Wayne Gretzky Ken Griffey Jr. Tony Hawk Grant Hill Michael Irvin Jaromir Jagr Derek Jeter Randy Johnson Chipper Jones Michael Jordan Mario Lemieux Greg LeMond Greg Maddux Karl Malone Mark Messier Reggie Miller Alonzo Mourning Hakeem Olajuwon Shaquille O'Neal Gary Payton Scottie Pippen Jerry Rice Cal Ripken Jr. David Robinson Dennis Rodman Patrick Roy Joe Sakic Pete Sampras Barry Sanders Deion Sanders Brendan Shanahan Kelly Slater Emmitt Smith John Smoltz John Stockton Steve Yzerman Musicians Aaliyah Aerosmith Alan Jackson Alanis Morissette Alice In Chains A Tribe Called Quest Backstreet Boys Beck Blind Melon Blur Bon Jovi Boyz II Men Britney Spears Bryan Adams Busta Rhymes Celine Dion Clint Black Cocteau Twins Collective Soul The Cranberries Daft Punk Dave Matthews Band Deftones Depeche Mode Dr. Dre Eazy-E Elliott Smith Eminem Everclear Fiona Apple Foo Fighters Fugees Garth Brooks Gloria Estefan Goo Goo Dolls Green Day Hootie and the Blowfish Ice Cube Janet Jackson Jay-Z Korn Lenny Kravitz Madonna Mariah Carey Marilyn Manson Melissa Etheridge Metallica Michael Jackson The Mighty Mighty Bosstones Nas Nine Inch Nails Nirvana No Doubt The Notorious B.I.G. NSYNC Oasis Outkast Pantera Pearl Jam Phish R. Kelly R.E.M. Radiohead Rage Against the Machine Red Hot Chili Peppers Sean Combs Shania Twain Sheryl Crow Smashing Pumpkins Snoop Dogg Soundgarden Spice Girls Sting Stone Temple Pilots Sublime TLC Toni Braxton Tori Amos Tupac Shakur U2 Whitney Houston Wu-Tang Clan See also 1990s in music 1990s in fashion 1990s in television 1990s in science and technology 1990s in video gaming 1990s in literature Timeline The following articles contain brief timelines which list the most prominent events of the decade: 1990 • 1991 • 1992 • 1993 • 1994 • 1995 • 1996 • 1997 • 1998 • 1999 References Further reading Ash, Timothy Garton. History of the Present: Essays, Sketches, and Dispatches from Europe in the 1990s (2009) excerpts Bender, Thomas. "'Venturesome and Cautious': American History in the 1990s." Journal of American History (1994): 992–1003. in JSTOR Bentley, Nick, ed. British Fiction of the 1990s (Routledge, 2007). Berman, Milton. The Nineties in America (2009). Brügger, Niels, ed, Web25: Histories from the first 25 years of the World Wide Web (Peter Lang, 2017). Cornia, Giovanni Andrea, Ralph van der Hoeven, and Thandika Mkandawire. Africa's recovery in the 1990s: from stagnation and adjustment to human development (St. Martin's Press, 1992) O'Neill, William. A Bubble in Time: America During the Interwar Years, 1989-2001 (2009) Excerpt, popular history Parratt, Catriona M. "About Turns: Reflecting on Sport History in the 1990s." Sport History Review (1998) 29#1 pp: 4–17. Rubin, Robert, and Jacob Weisberg. In an uncertain world: tough choices from wall street to washington (2015), economic history. Sierz, Aleks. Modern British Playwriting: The 1990s: Voices, Documents, New Interpretations (A&C Black, 2012) Stiglitz, Joseph E. The roaring nineties: A new history of the world's most prosperous decade (Norton, 2004), economic history Turner, Alwyn. A Classless Society: Britain in the 1990s Aurum Press (2013) van der Hoeven, Arno. "Remembering the popular music of the 1990s: dance music and the cultural meanings of decade-based nostalgia." International journal of heritage studies (2014) 20#3 pp: 316–330. Yoda, Tomiko, and Harry Harootunian, eds. Japan After Japan: Social and Cultural Life from the Recessionary 1990s to the Present'' (2006) External links 20th century Contemporary history Articles containing video clips

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950s

1950s

The 1950s (pronounced nineteen-fifties; commonly abbreviated as the "Fifties" or the " '50s") (among other variants) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1950, and ended on December 31, 1959. Throughout the decade, the world continued its recovery from World War II, aided by the post-World War II economic expansion. The period also saw great population growth with increased birth rates and the emergence of the baby boomer generation. Despite this recovery, the Cold War developed from its modest beginnings in the late 1940s to a heated competition between the Soviet Union and the United States by the early 1960s. The ideological clash between communism and capitalism dominated the decade, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, with conflicts including the Korean War in the early 1950s, the Cuban Revolution, the beginning of the Vietnam War in French Indochina, and the beginning of the Space Race with the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957. Along with increased testing of nuclear weapons (such as RDS-37 and Upshot–Knothole), the tense geopolitical situation created a politically conservative climate. In the United States, a wave of anti-communist sentiment known as the Second Red Scare resulted in Congressional hearings by both houses in Congress. The beginning of decolonization in Africa and Asia also took place in this decade and accelerated in the following decade. Politics and wars Wars Cold War conflicts involving the influence of the rival superpowers of the Soviet Union and the United States Korean War (1950–1953) – The war, which lasted from June 25, 1950, until the signing of the Korean Armistice Agreement on July 27, 1953, started as a civil war between North Korea and the Republic of Korea (South Korea). When it began, North and South Korea existed as provisional governments competing for control over the Korean peninsula, due to the division of Korea by outside powers. While originally a civil war, it quickly escalated into a war between the Western powers under the United Nations Command led by the United States and its allies and the communist powers of the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. On September 15, General Douglas MacArthur conducted Operation Chromite, an amphibious landing at the city of Inchon (Song Do port). The North Korean army collapsed, and within a few days, MacArthur's army retook Seoul (South Korea's capital). He then pushed north, capturing Pyongyang in October. Chinese intervention the following month drove UN forces south again. MacArthur then planned for a full-scale invasion of China, but this was against the wishes of President Truman and others who wanted a limited war. He was dismissed and replaced by General Matthew Ridgeway. The war then became a bloody stalemate for the next two and a half years while peace negotiations dragged on. The war left 33,742 American soldiers dead, 92,134 wounded, and 80,000 missing in action (MIA) or prisoner of war (POW). Estimates place Korean and Chinese casualties at 1,000,000–1,400,000 dead or wounded, and 140,000 MIA or POW. The Vietnam War began in 1955. Diệm instituted a policy of death penalty against any communist activity in 1956. The Viet Minh began an assassination campaign in early 1957. An article by French scholar Bernard Fall published in July 1958 concluded that a new war had begun. The first official large unit military action was on September 26, 1959, when the Viet Cong ambushed two ARVN companies. Arab–Israeli conflict (from the early 20th century) Project SUNSHINE, carried out in 1953, was a US government study that involved cutting out body parts from the dead, especially children, to ascertain the impact of radioactive fallout on the world's populace. Suez Crisis (1956) – The Suez Crisis was a war fought on Egyptian territory in 1956. Following the nationalisation of the Suez Canal in 1956 by Gamal Abdel Nasser, the United Kingdom, France and Israel subsequently invaded. The operation was a military success, but after the United States and Soviet Union united in opposition to the invasion, the invaders were forced to withdraw. This was seen as a major humiliation, especially for the two Western European countries, and symbolizes the beginning of the end of colonialism and the weakening of European global importance, specifically the collapse of the British Empire. Algerian War (1954–1962) – An important decolonization war, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare, maquis fighting, terrorism against civilians, use of torture on both sides and counter-terrorism operations by the French Army. The war eventually led to the independence of Algeria from France. Internal conflicts Cuban Revolution (1953–1959) – The 1959 overthrow of Fulgencio Batista by Fidel Castro, Che Guevara and other forces resulted in the creation of the first communist government in the Western hemisphere. The Mau Mau began retaliating against the British in Kenya. This led to concentration camps in Kenya, a British military victory, and the election of moderate nationalist Jomo Kenyatta as leader of Kenya. The wind of destruction began in Rwanda in 1959 following the assault of Hutu politician Dominique Mbonyumutwa by Tutsi forces. This was the beginning of decades of ethnic violence in the country, which culminated in the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. Hungarian Revolution of 1956 – A massive, spontaneous popular uprising in the Soviet satellite state of Hungary against that country's Soviet-backed Marxist-Leninist regime, inspired by political changes in Poland and the Soviet Union. The uprising, fought primarily by students and workers, managed to fight the invading Soviet Army to a standstill, and a new, pro-reform government took power. While the top Soviet leaders even considered withdrawing from Hungary entirely, they soon crushed the Revolution with a massive second invasion, killing thousands of Hungarians and sending hundreds of thousands more into exile. This was the largest act of internal dissent in the history of the Soviet Bloc, and its violent suppression served to further discredit the Soviet Union even among its erstwhile supporters. Decolonization and independence Decolonization of former European Colonial empires. The French Fourth Republic in particular faced conflict on two fronts within the French Union, the Algerian War and the First Indo-China War. The Federation of Malaya peacefully gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1957. French rule ended in Algeria in 1958, Vietnam left French Indo-china in 1954. The rival states of North Vietnam and South Vietnam were formed. Cambodia and the Kingdom of Laos also gained independence, effectively ending French presence in Southeast Asia. Elsewhere the Belgian Congo and other African nations gained their independence from France, Belgium and the United Kingdom. Large-scale decolonization in Africa first began in the 1950s. In 1951, Libya became the first African country to gain independence in the decade, and in 1954 the Algerian War began. 1956 saw Sudan, Morocco, and Tunisia become independent, and the next year Ghana became the first sub-saharan African nation to gain independence. Prominent political events European Common Market – The European Communities (or Common Markets), the precursor of the European Union, was established with the Treaty of Rome in 1957. On November 1, 1950, two Puerto Rican nationalists staged an attempted assassination on U.S. President Harry S. Truman. The leader of the team Griselio Torresola had firearm experience and Oscar Collazo was his accomplice. They made their assault at the Blair House where President Truman and his family were staying. Torresola mortally wounded a White House policeman, Leslie Coffelt, who shot Torresola dead before expiring himself. Collazo, as a co-conspirator in a felony that turned into a homicide, was found guilty of murder and was sentenced to death in 1952 but then his sentence was later commuted to life in prison. On July 7, 1950, the first Group Areas Act was promulgated by the Parliament of South Africa and implemented over a period of several years. The passing of the Act contributed significantly to the period of institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa known as Apartheid, which lasted from 1948 to 1991. One of the most famous uses of the Group Areas Act was the destruction of Sophiatown, a suburb of Johannesburg, which began on the 9th of February 1955. Establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement, through the Bandung Conference of 1955, consisting of nations not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. Asia The U.S. ended its occupation of Japan, which became fully independent. Japan held democratic elections and recovered economically. Within a year of its establishment, the People's Republic of China had reclaimed Tibet and intervened in the Korean War, causing years of hostility and estrangement from the United States. Mao admired Stalin and rejected the changes in Moscow after Stalin's death in 1953, leading to growing tension with the Soviet Union. In 1950–1953 France tried to contain a growing communist insurgency led by Ho Chi Minh. After their defeat in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954 France granted independence to the nations of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. At the Geneva Conference of 1954 France and the Communists agreed to divide Vietnam and hold elections in 1956. The U.S. and South Vietnam rejected the Geneva accords and the division became permanent. The Chinese Civil War, which had started officially in 1927 and continued until the Second World War had ended on May 7, 1950. It resulted in the previous incumbent government in China, the Republic of China, retreating to the islands of Taiwan and Hainan until the Landing Operation on Hainan Island. Africa Africa experienced the beginning of large-scale top-down economic interventions in the 1950s that failed to cause improvement and led to charitable exhaustion by the West as the century went on. The widespread corruption was not dealt with and war, disease, and famine continued to be constant problems in the region. Egyptian general Gamel Abdel Nasser overthrew the Egyptian monarchy, establishing himself as President of Egypt. Nasser became an influential leader in the Middle East in the 1950s, leading Arab states into war with Israel, becoming a major leader of the Non-Aligned Movement and promoting pan-Arab unification. In 1957, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, after a series of negotiations with the then British empire, secured the independence of Ghana. Ghana was hitherto referred to as Gold Coast, a colony of the British Empire. Americas In the 1950s, America was the center of covert and overt conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States. Their varying collusion with national, populist, and elitist interests destabilized the region. The United States CIA orchestrated the overthrow of the Guatemalan government in 1954. In 1958, the military dictatorship of Venezuela was overthrown. This continued a pattern of regional revolution and warfare making extensive use of ground forces. In 1950, Greenland (27 May) became a Colony of the Kingdom of Denmark. North Greenland and South Greenland were united with one governor. In 1953, Greenland (5 June) was made an equal and integral part of Denmark (proper) as an Amt (country subdivision). In 1957, Dr. François Duvalier came to power in an election in Haiti. He later declared himself president for life, and ruled until his death in 1971. In 1959, Alaska (3 January) and Hawaii (21 August) became the 49th and 50th states respectively of the United States. In 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista in Cuba, establishing a communist government in the country. Although Castro initially sought aid from the US, he was rebuffed and later turned to the Soviet Union. NORAD signed in 1959 by Canada and the United States creating a unified North American air defense system. Brasília was built in 41 months, from 1956, and on April 21, 1960, became the capital of Brazil Europe With the help of the Marshall Plan, post-war reconstruction succeeded, with some countries (including West Germany) adopting free market capitalism while others adopted Keynesian-policy welfare states. Europe continued to be divided into Western and Soviet bloc countries. The geographical point of this division came to be called the Iron Curtain. Because previous attempts for a unified state failed, Germany remained divided into two states: the capitalist Federal Republic of Germany in the west and the socialist German Democratic Republic in the east. The Federal Republic identified itself as the legal successor to the fascist dictatorship and was obliged in paying war reparations. The GDR, however, denounced the fascist past completely and did not recognize itself as responsible for paying reparations on behalf of the Nazi regime. The GDR's more harsh attitude in suppressing anti-communist and Russophobic sentiment lingering in the post-Nazi society resulted in increased emigration to the west. While the United States military maintained its bases in western Europe, the Soviet Union maintained its bases in the east. In 1953, Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, died. This led to the rise of Nikita Khrushchev, who denounced Stalin and pursued a more liberal domestic and foreign policy, stressing peaceful competition with the West rather than overt hostility. There were anti-Stalinist uprisings in East Germany and Poland in 1953 and Hungary in 1956. Disasters Natural: On August 15, 1950, the 8.6 Assam–Tibet earthquake shakes the region with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme), killing between 1,500 and 3,300 people. On January 18, 1951 Mount Lamington erupted in Papua New Guinea, killing 3,000 people. On January 31, 1953, the North Sea flood of 1953 killed 1,835 people in the southwestern Netherlands (especially Zeeland) and 307 in the United Kingdom On September 9, 1954, the 6.7 Chlef earthquake shakes northern Algeria with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme). The shock destroyed Orléansville, left 1,243–1,409 dead, and 5,000 injured. On October 11, 1954 Hurricane Hazel crossed over Haiti, killing 1,000. On August 19, 1955 Hurricane Diane hit the northeastern United States, killing over 200 people, and causing over $1.0 billion in damage. On June 27, 1957 Hurricane Audrey demolished Cameron, Louisiana, US, killing 400 people. In April 1959, the Río Negro flooded central Uruguay. Typhoon Vera hit central Honshū on September 26, 1959, killing an estimated 5,098, injuring another 38,921, and leaving 1,533,000 homeless. Most of the damage was centered in the Nagoya area. On December 2, 1959, Malpasset Dam in southern France collapsed and water flowed over the town of Fréjus, killing 412. Non-natural: On March 12, 1950, an Avro Tudor plane carrying a rugby team crashed in Wales, killing 80 people. In early December 1952, the Great Smog of London caused major disruption by reducing visibility and even penetrating indoor areas, far more severely than previous smog events, called "pea-soupers". Government medical reports in the weeks following the event estimated that up to 4,000 people had died as a direct result of the smog and 100,000 more were made ill by the smog's effects on the human respiratory tract. On June 18, 1953, a USAF Douglas C-124 Globemaster II crashed after takeoff from Tachikawa, Japan, killing all 129 on board. On January 10, 1954, BOAC Flight 781, a new de Havilland Comet jetliner, disintegrated in mid-air due to structural failure and crashed off the Italian coast, killing all 35 on board. On June 30, 1956, a United Airlines Douglas DC-7 and a Trans World Airlines Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellation collided above the Grand Canyon in Arizona, killing all 128 people on board both aircraft. On July 25, 1956, the Italian ocean liner collided with the Swedish ocean liner MS Stockholm off the Nantucket, Massachusetts, coastline. 51 people were killed and the Andrea Doria sank the next morning. On February 6, 1958, British European Airways Flight 609 crashed on its third attempt to take off from a slush-covered runway at Munich-Riem Airport in Munich, West Germany. 23 people on board were killed (including 8 players of the Manchester United F.C. soccer team). On April 21, 1958, a mid-air collision between United Airlines Flight 736 and a USAF fighter jet killed 49 people. On August 14, 1958, a KLM Lockheed Constellation crashed into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Ireland, killing all 99 people aboard. Economics The United States was the most influential economic power in the world after World War II under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Inflation was moderate during the decade of the 1950s. The first few months had a deflationary hangover from the 1940s but the first full year ended with what looked like the beginnings of massive inflation with annual inflation rates ranging from 8% to 9% a year. By 1952 inflation subsided. 1954 and 1955 flirted with deflation again but the remainder of the decade had moderate inflation ranging from 1% to 3.7%. The average annual inflation for the entire decade was only 2.04%. Assassinations and attempts Prominent assassinations, targeted killings, and assassination attempts include: 1950: Harry S. Truman assassination attempt - two Puerto Rican nationalists attempted to assassinate President Truman in Washington, DC, killing two Secret Service agents. The president was not hurt. One of the assassins was killed in the incident and the other was sentenced to death. President Truman converted his sentence to life imprisonment. 1951: King Abdullah's assassination - King Abdullah I of Jordan was murdered during the Friday prayers in Jerusalem. With his assassination the possibility of peace negotiations between Israel and Jordan came to an end until the normalization of Israeli-Jordanian relations in 1994. 1955: The assassination of the President of Panama - the president of Panama José Antonio Remón Cantera was assassinated. 1956: The assassination of the Nicaraguan president - Anastasio Somoza García, the dictatorial president of Nicaragua, was killed by an assassin. After his death the throne took hold of his son, Luis Somosa DeBeila. 1959: The assassination of Sri Lanka's Prime Minister - Sri Lankan Prime Minister S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike was assassinated by a robed Buddhist monk as part of the Sinhalese-Tamil conflict. Science and technology Technology The recently invented bipolar transistor, though initially quite feeble, had clear potential and was rapidly improved and developed at the beginning of the 1950s by companies such as GE, RCA, and Philco. The first commercial transistor production started at the Western Electric plant in Allentown, Pennsylvania, in October, 1951 with the point contact germanium transistor. It wasn't until around 1954 that transistor products began to achieve real commercial success with small portable radios. A breakthrough in semiconductor technology came with the invention of the MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs, in November 1959. It revolutionized the electronics industry, and became the fundamental building block of the Digital Revolution. The MOSFET went on to become the most widely manufactured device in history. Television, which first reached the marketplace in the 1940s, attained maturity during the 1950s and by the end of the decade, most American households owned a TV set. A rush to produce larger screens than the tiny ones found on 1940s models occurred during 1950–52. In 1954, RCA intro Bell Telephone Labs produced the first Solar battery. In 1954, a yard of contact paper could be purchased for only 59 cents. Polypropylene was invented in 1954. In 1955, Jonas Salk invented a polio vaccine which was given to more than seven million American students. In 1956, a solar powered wrist watch was invented. A surprise came in 1957: a satellite named Sputnik 1 was launched by the Soviets. The space race began 4 months later as the United States launched a smaller satellite. Charles H. Townes builds the Maser in 1953 at the Columbia University. The Soviet Union launches Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite to orbit the earth on October 4, 1957. The United States conducts its first hydrogen bomb explosion test. The invention of the modern Solar cell. The first Passenger jets enter service. The U.S. uses Federal prisons, mental institutions and pharmacological testing volunteers to test drugs like LSD and chlorpromazine. Also started experimenting with the transorbital lobotomy. President Harry S. Truman inaugurated transcontinental television service on September 4, 1951, when he made a speech to the nation. AT&T carried his address from San Francisco and it was viewed from the west coast to the east coast at the same time. Science Francis Crick and James Watson discover the double-helix structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin contributed to the discovery of the double-helix structure. An immunization vaccine is produced for polio. The first successful ultrasound test of the heart activity. CERN is established. The world's first nuclear power plant is opened in Obninsk near Moscow. NASA is organized. The first human cervical cancer cells were cultured outside a body in 1951, from Henrietta Lacks. The cells are known as HeLa cells and are the first and most commonly used immortalised cell line. First transistor computer, built at the University of Manchester in November 1953. Popular culture Music Popular music in the early 1950s was essentially a continuation of the crooner sound of the previous decade, with less emphasis on the jazz-influenced big band style and more emphasis on a conservative, operatic, symphonic style of music. Frank Sinatra, Tony Bennett, Frankie Laine, Patti Page, Judy Garland, Johnnie Ray, Kay Starr, Perry Como, Bing Crosby, Rosemary Clooney, Dean Martin, Georgia Gibbs, Eddie Fisher, Teresa Brewer, Dinah Shore, Kitty Kallen, Joni James, Peggy Lee, Julie London, Toni Arden, June Valli, Doris Day, Arthur Godfrey, Tennessee Ernie Ford, Guy Mitchell, Nat King Cole, and vocal groups like the Mills Brothers, The Ink Spots, The Four Lads, The Four Aces, The Chordettes, The Fontane Sisters, The Hilltoppers and the Ames Brothers. Jo Stafford's "You Belong To Me" was the #1 song of 1952 on the Billboard Top 100 chart. The middle of the decade saw a change in the popular music landscape as classic pop was swept off the charts by rock-and-roll. Crooners such as Eddie Fisher, Perry Como, and Patti Page, who had dominated the first half of the decade, found their access to the pop charts significantly curtailed by the decade's end. doo-wop entered the pop charts in the 1950s. Its popularity soon spawns the parody "Who Put the Bomp". Rock-n-roll emerged in the mid-1950s with Sam Cooke, Elvis Presley, Jackie Wilson, Gene Vincent, Chuck Berry, Fats Domino, Little Richard, James Brown, Bo Diddley, Buddy Holly, Bobby Darin, Ritchie Valens, Duane Eddy, Eddie Cochran, Brenda Lee, Bobby Vee, Connie Francis, Johnny Mathis, Neil Sedaka, Pat Boone and Ricky Nelson being notable exponents. In the mid-1950s, Elvis Presley became the leading figure of the newly popular sound of rock and roll with a series of network television appearances and chart-topping records. Chuck Berry, with "Maybellene" (1955), "Roll Over Beethoven" (1956), "Rock and Roll Music" (1957) and "Johnny B. Goode" (1958), refined and developed the major elements that made rock and roll distinctive, focusing on teen life and introducing guitar solos and showmanship that would be a major influence on subsequent rock music. Bill Haley, Jerry Lee Lewis, The Everly Brothers, Carl Perkins, Johnny Cash, Conway Twitty, Johnny Horton, and Marty Robbins were Rockabilly musicians. Doo-wop was another popular genre at the time. Popular Doo Wop and Rock-n-Roll bands of the mid to late 1950s include The Platters, The Flamingos, The Dells, The Silhouettes, Frankie Lymon and The Teenagers, Little Anthony and The Imperials, Danny & the Juniors, The Coasters, The Drifters, The Del-Vikings and Dion and the Belmonts. The new music differed from previous styles in that it was primarily targeted at the teenager market, which became a distinct entity for the first time in the 1950s as growing prosperity meant that young people did not have to grow up as quickly or be expected to support a family. Rock-and-roll proved to be a difficult phenomenon for older Americans to accept and there were widespread accusations of it being a communist-orchestrated scheme to corrupt the youth, although rock and roll was extremely market based and capitalistic. Jazz stars in the 1950s who came into prominence in their genres called bebop, hard bop, cool jazz and the blues, at this time included Lester Young, Ben Webster, Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Miles Davis, John Coltrane, Thelonious Monk, Charles Mingus, Art Tatum, Bill Evans, Ahmad Jamal, Oscar Peterson, Gil Evans, Jerry Mulligan, Cannonball Adderley, Stan Getz, Chet Baker, Dave Brubeck, Art Blakey, Max Roach, the Miles Davis Quintet, the Modern Jazz Quartet, Ella Fitzgerald, Ray Charles, Sarah Vaughan, Dinah Washington, Nina Simone, and Billie Holiday. The American folk music revival became a phenomenon in the United States in the 1950s to mid-1960s with the initial success of The Weavers who popularized the genre. Their sound, and their broad repertoire of traditional folk material and topical songs inspired other groups such as the Kingston Trio, the Chad Mitchell Trio, The New Christy Minstrels, and the "collegiate folk" groups such as The Brothers Four, The Four Freshmen, The Four Preps, and The Highwaymen. All featured tight vocal harmonies and a repertoire at least initially rooted in folk music and topical songs. On 3 February 1959, a chartered plane transporting the three American rock and roll musicians Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens and J. P. "The Big Bopper" Richardson goes down in foggy conditions near Clear Lake, Iowa, killing all four occupants on board, including pilot Roger Peterson. The tragedy is later termed "The Day the Music Died", popularized in Don McLean's 1972 song "American Pie". This event, combined with the conscription of Elvis Presley into the US Army, is often taken to mark the point where the era of 1950s rock-and-roll ended. Television The 1950s are known as The Golden Age of Television by some people. Sales of TV sets rose tremendously in the 1950s and by 1950 4.4 million families in America had a television set. Americans devoted most of their free time to watching television broadcasts. People spent so much time watching TV, that movie attendance dropped and so did the number of radio listeners. Television revolutionized the way Americans see themselves and the world around them. TV affects all aspects of American culture. "Television affects what we wear, the music we listen to, what we eat, and the news we receive." Film European cinema experienced a renaissance in the 1950s following the deprivations of World War II. Italian director Federico Fellini won the first foreign language film Academy Award with La Strada and garnered another Academy Award with Nights of Cabiria. In 1955, Swedish director Ingmar Bergman earned a Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival with Smiles of a Summer Night and followed the film with masterpieces The Seventh Seal and Wild Strawberries. Jean Cocteau's Orphée, a film central to his Orphic Trilogy, starred Jean Marais and was released in 1950. French director Claude Chabrol's Le Beau Serge is now widely considered the first film of the French New Wave. Notable European film stars of the period include Brigitte Bardot, Sophia Loren, Marcello Mastroianni, Max von Sydow, and Jean-Paul Belmondo. Japanese cinema reached its zenith with films from director Akira Kurosawa including Rashomon, Ikiru, Seven Samurai, Throne of Blood, and The Hidden Fortress. Other distinguished Japanese directors of the period were Yasujirō Ozu and Kenji Mizoguchi. Russian fantasy director Aleksandr Ptushko's mythological epics Sadko, Ilya Muromets, and Sampo were internationally acclaimed as was Ballad of a Soldier, a 1959 Soviet film directed by Grigory Chukhray. In Hollywood, the epic Ben-Hur grabbed a record 11 Academy Awards in 1959 and its success gave a new lease of life to motion picture studio MGM. Beginning in 1953, with Shane and The Robe, widescreen motion pictures became the norm. The "Golden Era" of 3-D cinematography transpired during the 1950s. Animated films in the 1950s presented by Walt Disney included Alice in Wonderland, Cinderella, Peter Pan and Lady and the Tramp, followed by Sleeping Beauty. Art movements In the early 1950s Abstract expressionism and artists Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning were enormously influential. However, by the late 1950s Color Field painting and Barnett Newman and Mark Rothko's paintings became more in focus to the next generation. Pop art used the iconography of television, photography, comics, cinema and advertising. With its roots in dadaism, it started to take form towards the end of the 1950s when some European artists started to make the symbols and products of the world of advertising and propaganda the main subject of their artistic work. This return of figurative art, in opposition to the abstract expressionism that dominated the aesthetic scene since the end of World War II was dominated by Great Britain until the early 1960s when Andy Warhol, the most known artist of this movement began to show Pop Art in galleries in the United States. Fashion The 1950s saw the birth of the teenager and with it rock n roll and youth fashion dominating the fashion industry. In the UK the Teddy boy became both style icons and anti-authoritarian figures. While in America Greasers had a similar social position. Previously teenagers dressed similarly to their parents but now a rebellious and different youth style was being developed. This was particularly noticeable in the overtly sexual nature of their dress. Men wore tight trousers, leather jackets and emphasis was on slicked, greasy hair. New ideas meant new designers who had a concept of what was fashion. Fashion started gaining a voice and style when Christian Dior created “The New Look” collection. The 1950s was not only about spending on luxurious brands but also the idea of being comfortable was created. It was a time where resources were available and it was a new type of fashion. Designers were creating collections with different materials such as: taffeta, nylon, rayon, wool and leather that allowed different colors and patterns. People started wearing artificial fibers because it was easier to take care of and it was price effective. It was a time where shopping was part of a lifestyle. Different designers emerged or made a comeback on the 1950s because as mention before it was a time for fashion and ideas. The most important designers from the time were: Christian Dior: everything started in 1947 after World War II was over. Christian Dior found that there were a lot of resources in the market. He created the famous and inspirational collection named “The New Look.” This consisted on the idea of creating voluminous dresses that would not only represent wealth but also show power on women. This collection was the first collection to use 80 yards of fabric. He introduced the idea of the hourglass shape for women; wide shoulders, tight waistline and then voluminous full skirts. Dior was a revolutionary and he was the major influence for the next collections. He is known for always developing new ideas and designs, which led to a rapid expansion and becoming worldwide known. He had pressure to create innovative designs for each collection and Dior did manage to provide that to the consumers. He not only made the hourglass shape very famous but he also developed the H-line as well as the A and Y-Lines. Dior was a very important designer, he changed the way fashion was looked on the world but most importantly he reestablished Paris as a fashion capital. Cristobal Balenciaga: Cristobal Balenciaga a Spanish designer who opened his first couture house in 1915. In 1936, he went to Paris in order to avoid the Spanish Civil War, there he had inspiration for his fashion collections. His designs were an inspiration for emerging designers of the time. His legacy is as important as the one from Dior, revolutionaries. He was known for creating sack dresses, heavy volumes and balloon skirts. For him everything started when he worked for Marquesa de Casa Torre who became his patron and main source of inspiration. Marquesa de Casa Torre helped Balenciaga enter the world of couture. His first suit was very dramatic. The suit consisted on cutout and cut-ins the waist over a slim skirt, something not seen before. Balenciaga was a revolutionary designer who was not afraid to cut and let loose because he had everything under control. In the 1950s and 1960s his designs were well known for attention to color and texture. He was creating different silhouettes for women, in 1955 he created the tunic, 1957 the sack dress and 1958 the Empire styles. He was known for moving from tailored designs to shapeless allowing him to show portion and balance on the bodies. Showing that his designs evolved with time and maintained his ideologies. Coco Chanel: Her style was well known over the world and her idea of having functional luxurious clothing influenced other designers from the era. Chanel believed that luxurious should come from being comfortable that is why her designers were so unique and different from the time period, she also achieved her looks by adding accessories such as pearl necklaces. Chanel believed that even though Dior designs were revolutionary for the time period they did not managed to represent the women of the time. She believed women had to wear something to represent their survival to another war and their active roles in society. Coming back from a closed house of fashion was not easy for Chanel and competing against younger designers. The Chanel suit was known as a status symbol for wealthy and powerful women. Chanel influenced over the years and her brand is still one of the most influential brands for fashion. Sports Inaugural season of Formula One Olympics 1952 Summer Olympics held in Helsinki, Finland 1952 Winter Olympics held in Oslo, Norway 1956 Summer Olympics held in Melbourne, Australia 1956 Winter Olympics held in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy FIFA World Cups 1950 World Cup hosted by Brazil, won by Uruguay 1954 World Cup hosted by Switzerland, won by West Germany 1958 World Cup hosted by Sweden, won by Brazil The 1958 World Cup is notable for marking the debut on the world stage of a then largely unknown 17-year-old Pelé. People Politics Aleksey Innokentevich Antonov, Chief of General Staff of the Unified Armed Forces Warsaw Treaty Organization Eugene R. Black, President World Bank William Sterling Cole, Director-general International Atomic Energy Agency Manuel Fraga Iribarne, Secretary-general Latin Union André François-Poncet, Chairman of the Standing Commission International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement Louis Goffin, Secretary-general Western European Union Walter Hallstein, President of the European Commission Fritz Hess, Director Universal Postal Union Ivan Stepanovich Konev, Commander-in-chief of the Unified Armed Forces Warsaw Treaty Organization Henri St. Leger, Secretary-general International Organization for Standardization Robert C. Lonati, Secretary-general World Tourism Organization David A. Morse, Director-general International Labour Organization Arnold Duncan McNair, Baron McNair, President of the European Court of Human Rights Ove Nielsen, Secretary-general International Maritime Organization Maurice Pate, Executive Director United Nations Children's Fund Robert Schuman, President of the European Parliamentary Assembly Gustav Swoboda, Chief of the Secretariat World Meteorological Organization José Guillermo Trabanino Guerrero, Secretary-general Organization of Central American States Eric Wyndham White, Executive Secretary World Trade Organization Actors / Entertainers Abbott and Costello Julie Adams Eddie Albert Jack Albertson Steve Allen June Allyson Dev Anand Desi Arnaz James Arness Edward Arnold Fred Astaire Gene Autry Richard Attenborough Lauren Bacall Carroll Baker Lucille Ball Martin Balsam Anne Bancroft Brigitte Bardot Richard Basehart Anne Baxter Harry Belafonte Jean-Paul Belmondo Jack Benny Milton Berle Ingrid Bergman Charles Bickford Vivian Blaine Robert Blake Ann Blyth Richard Boone Stephen Boyd Ray Bolger Dirk Bogarde Humphrey Bogart Ernest Borgnine Marlon Brando Walter Brennan Lloyd Bridges Charles Bronson Mel Brooks Lenny Bruce Yul Brynner Edgar Buchanan Richard Burton George Burns Raymond Burr Sid Caesar James Cagney Rory Calhoun Claudia Cardinale Yvonne De Carlo Leslie Caron Art Carney John Carradine Diahann Carroll Johnny Carson John Cassavetes Jeff Chandler Carol Channing Cyd Charisse Lee Van Cleef Montgomery Clift Rosemary Clooney Lee J. Cobb Claudette Colbert Nat "King" Cole Joan Collins Sean Connery Gary Cooper William Conrad Joseph Cotten Jeanne Crain Joan Crawford Bing Crosby Tony Curtis Peter Cushing Robert Cummings Arlene Dahl Dorothy Dandridge Danielle Darrieux Linda Darnell Bette Davis Nancy Davis Sammy Davis Jr. Doris Day James Dean Ruby Dee Sandra Dee William Demarest Richard Denning Brandon deWilde Angie Dickinson Marlene Dietrich Troy Donahue Mamie Van Doren Diana Dors Bobby Driscoll Kirk Douglas Clint Eastwood Barbara Eden Anita Ekberg María Félix Mel Ferrer José Ferrer Peter Finch Barry Fitzgerald Rhonda Fleming Jo Van Fleet Errol Flynn Nina Foch Henry Fonda Joan Fontaine John Forsythe Glenn Ford Anne Francis William Frawley Annette Funicello Louis de Funès Clark Gable Eva Gabor Zsa Zsa Gabor Ava Gardner James Garner Judy Garland Vittorio Gassman John Gielgud Jackie Gleason Paulette Goddard Betty Grable Gloria Grahame Cary Grant Farley Granger Stewart Granger Kathryn Grayson Lorne Greene John Gregson Virginia Grey Alec Guinness Edmund Gwenn Tony Hancock Julie Harris Rex Harrison Laurence Harvey Olivia de Havilland Sterling Hayden Helen Hayes Susan Hayward Rita Hayworth Van Heflin Audrey Hepburn Katharine Hepburn Charlton Heston William Holden Judy Holliday Stanley Holloway James Hong Dennis Hopper Bob Hope Rock Hudson Jeffrey Hunter Tab Hunter Burl Ives Pedro Infante John Ireland Anne Jeffreys Van Johnson Glynis Johns Carolyn Jones Jennifer Jones Shirley Jones Katy Jurado Boris Karloff Danny Kaye Howard Keel Brian Keith Gene Kelly Grace Kelly Deborah Kerr Eartha Kitt Jack Klugman Don Knotts Dilip Kumar Kishore Kumar Meena Kumari Alan Ladd Burt Lancaster Angela Lansbury Piper Laurie Peter Lawford Cloris Leachman Christopher Lee Ruta Lee Janet Leigh Jack Lemmon Jerry Lewis Norman Lloyd June Lockhart Gina Lollobrigida Julie London Sophia Loren Peter Lorre Jack Lord Ida Lupino Darren McGavin Gordon MacRae Fred MacMurray Shirley MacLaine Jayne Mansfield Karl Malden Dorothy Malone Jean Marais Fredric March Dean Martin Lee Marvin Groucho Marx Giulietta Masina James Mason Marcello Mastroianni Jerry Mathers Walter Matthau Victor Mature Virginia Mayo Joel McCrea Dorothy McGuire John McIntire Steve McQueen Audrey Meadows Jayne Meadows Ralph Meeker Adolphe Menjou Burgess Meredith Toshiro Mifune Ray Milland John Mills Vera Miles Sal Mineo Carmen Miranda Cameron Mitchel Robert Mitchum Marilyn Monroe Yves Montand Ricardo Montalbán Agnes Moorehead Elizabeth Montgomery Roger Moore Jeanne Moreau Rita Moreno Harry Morgan Vic Morrow Audie Murphy Don Murray Patricia Neal Jorge Negrete Ricky Nelson Paul Newman Barbara Nichols Leslie Nielsen David Niven Kim Novak Edmond O'Brien Donald O'Connor Maureen O'Hara Maureen O'Sullivan Laurence Olivier Geraldine Page Janis Paige Eleanor Parker Jack Palance Gregory Peck George Peppard Anthony Perkins Jean Peters Donald Pleasence Christopher Plummer Sidney Poitier Dick Powell Jane Powell Tyrone Power Elvis Presley Robert Preston Vincent Price Jon Provost Anthony Quinn Tony Randall Ronald Reagan Donna Reed George Reeves Steve Reeves Carl Reiner Tommy Rettig Debbie Reynolds Thelma Ritter Jason Robards Cliff Robertson Edward G. 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Roy Campanella (baseball player) Ezzard Charles (boxer) Maureen Connolly (tennis player) Bob Cousy (basketball player) Zoltán Czibor Joe DiMaggio (baseball player) Harrison Dillard (American track and field athlete) Larry Doby (baseball player) Juan Manuel Fangio (motor racing driver) Nino Farina (motor racing driver) Whitey Ford (baseball player) Gyula Grosics Nándor Hidegkuti Ben Hogan (golf) Gordie Howe (Canadian ice hockey player) Rafer Johnson (American track and field athlete) Ingemar Johansson (boxer) Al Kaline (baseball player) Sándor Kocsis John Landy (Australian track and field athlete) Mihály Lantos Gyula Lóránt Mickey Mantle (baseball player) Rocky Marciano (boxer) Billy Martin (baseball player) Eddie Mathews (baseball player) Stanley Matthews (association footballer) Willie Mays (baseball player) George Mikan (basketball player) Stirling Moss (motor racing driver) Archie Moore (boxer) Stan Musial (baseball player) Bobo Olson (boxer) Floyd Patterson (boxer) Pelé (association footballer) Bob Pettit Ferenc Puskás (association footballer) Maurice Richard (Canadian ice hockey player) Jackie Robinson (baseball player) Frank Robinson (baseball player) Sugar Ray Robinson (boxer) Wilma Rudolph Bill Russell (basketball player) Sam Snead (golf) Duke Snider (baseball player) Warren Spahn (baseball player) Casey Stengel (baseball manager, former player) Chuck Taylor Johnny Unitas (American football player) Mal Whitfield (American track and field athlete) Ted Williams (baseball player) Billy Wright (association footballer) Lev Yashin (association footballer) József Zakariás Emil Zátopek See also 1950s in television 1950s in literature Post-World War II boom 1950s American automobile culture Timeline The following articles contain brief timelines which list the most prominent events of the decade: 1950 • 1951 • 1952 • 1953 • 1954 • 1955 • 1956 • 1957 • 1958 • 1959 Notes References Further reading Bessel, Richard and Dirk Schumann, eds. Life after Death: Approaches to a Cultural and Social History of Europe During the 1940s and 1950s (2003), essays by scholars on recovery from the war Judt, Tony. Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 (2005) London Institute of World Affairs, The Year Book of World Affairs 1957 (London 1957), comprehensive reference book covering 1956 in diplomacy, international affairs and politics for major nations and regions Great Britain Montgomery, John. The Fifties (1960), On Britain. Sandbrook, Dominic. Never had it so good: a history of Britain from Suez to the Beatles Hachette UK, (2015). Bering, Henrik. "Taking the great out of Britain." Policy Review, no. 133, (2005), p. 88+. online review Wybrow, Robert J. "Britain Speaks Out, 1937-87" (1989), Summaries of public opinion polls in Britain United States Dunar, Andrew J. America in the fifties (2006) Halberstam, David. The Fifties (1993) excerpt and text search Levine, Alan J. The Myth of the 1950s (2008) excerpt and text search Marling, Karal Ann. As Seen on TV: The Visual Culture of Everyday Life in the 1950s (Harvard University Press, 1996) 328 pp. Miller, Douglas T. and Marion Nowak. The fifties: the way we really were (1977) Stoner, John C., and Alice L. George. Social History of the United States: The 1950s (2008) Wills, Charles. America in the 1950s (Decades of American History) (2005) External links Heroes of the 1950s – slideshow by Life magazine Footage from the 1950s 1950s Video Timeline 20th century

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997

1997

Events January January 11 - Turkey threatens Cyprus on account of a deal to buy Russian S-300 missiles, prompting the Cypriot Missile Crisis. January 17 – A Delta II rocket carrying a military GPS payload explodes, shortly after liftoff from Cape Canaveral. January 18 – In northwest Rwanda, Hutu militia members kill 6 Spanish aid workers and three soldiers, and seriously wound another. January 19 – Yasser Arafat returns to Hebron after more than 30 years, and joins celebrations over the handover of the last Israeli-controlled West Bank city. January 20 – Bill Clinton is sworn in for a second term as President of the United States. January 23 – Madeleine Albright becomes the first female Secretary of State of the United States, after confirmation by the United States Senate. February February 4 On their way to Lebanon, two Israeli troop-transport helicopters collide, killing all 73 on board. After at first contesting the results, Serbian President Slobodan Milošević recognizes opposition victories in the November 1996 elections. February 10 – Sandline affair: Australian newspapers publish stories that the government of Papua New Guinea has brought mercenaries onto Bougainville Island. February 13 – STS-82: Tune-up and repair work on the Hubble Space Telescope is started by astronauts from the Space Shuttle Discovery. February 28 – North Hollywood shootout: Two robbers, wearing kevlar body armor, and armed with AK-47s containing armor-piercing bullets, injure 17 police officers and civilians in a gun battle. The incident sparks debate on the appropriate firepower for United States patrol officers to have available in similar situations in the future. March March 4 – U.S. President Bill Clinton bans federal funding for any research on human cloning. March 7 – In Sri Lanka, the Tamil Tigers overrun a military base and kill over 100 Sri Lankan troops. March 13 India's Missionaries of Charity chooses Sister Nirmala, to succeed Mother Teresa as its leader. The National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China creates a new Chongqing Municipality, out of part of Sichuan. March 14 – A study of gender reassignment of a boy who lost his penis to a botched circumcision is exposed as fraudulent. The supposedly successful outcome had been widely cited as proof that gender was determined by nurture, yet the patient, David Reimer, was deeply unhappy and had returned to his original gender by the age of 15, thus indicating the opposite thesis. March 16 – Sandline affair: On Bougainville Island, soldiers of commander Jerry Singirok arrest Tim Spicer and his mercenaries of the Sandline International. March 18 – The tail of a Russian An-24 charter plane breaks off while en route to Turkey, causing the plane to crash, killing all 50 on board, and resulting in the grounding of all An-24s. March 21 – In Zaire, Étienne Tshisekedi is appointed prime minister; he ejects supporters of Mobutu Sese Seko from his cabinet. March 22 – The Comet Hale–Bopp makes its closest approach to Earth. March 24 – The 69th Academy Awards, hosted by Billy Crystal, are held at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles, with The English Patient winning Best Picture. During the event, the DVD format is launched in the United States. March 24 – 26 – In San Diego, 39 Heaven's Gate cultists commit mass suicide at their compound. March 26 – Julius Chan resigns as prime minister of Papua New Guinea, effectively ending the Sandline affair. April April 3 – The Thalit massacre in Algeria: all but 1 of the 53 inhabitants of Thalit are killed by guerrillas. April 14 Fire breaks out in a pilgrim camp on the Plain of Mena, from Mecca; 343 die. Former S.S. Captain Erich Priebke is retried; on July 22 he is sentenced to fifteen years in prison. April 18 – The Red River of the North breaks through dikes and floods Grand Forks, North Dakota, and East Grand Forks, Minnesota, causing US$2 billion in damage. April 21 – A Pegasus rocket carries the remains of 24 people into earth orbit, in the first space burial. April 22 Haouch Khemisti massacre: 93 villagers are killed in Algeria. A 126-day hostage crisis at the residence of the Japanese ambassador in Lima, Peru. April 23 – 42 villagers are killed in the Omaria massacre in Algeria. April 29 The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), CWC treaty enters into force. Two trains crash at Hunan, China; 126 are killed. May May 1 - Tony Blair becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, as the Labour Party wins the 1997 United Kingdom general election and returns to government for the first time in 18 years. May 3 – Katrina and the Waves win the Eurovision Song Contest 1997 for the United Kingdom with "Love Shine a Light". May 9 – The first genetically modified three-parent baby is born. May 10 – The 7.3 Qayen earthquake strikes eastern Iran with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). At least 1,567 were killed and 2,300 were injured. May 11 – IBM's Deep Blue defeats Garry Kasparov in the last game of the rematch, the first time a computer beats a chess World champion in a match. May 12 The Russian–Chechen Peace Treaty is signed. An F1-rated tornado strikes downtown Miami, causing $525,000 in damages. Pictures and videos of this tornado made news headlines around the world. May 15 – The United States government acknowledges existence of the "Secret War" in Laos (1953–1975) during the Vietnam War, and dedicates the Laos Memorial in honor of Hmong and other "Secret War" veterans. May 16 President Mobutu Sese Seko is exiled from Zaire. U.S. President Bill Clinton issues a formal apology to the surviving victims of the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male and their families. May 17 – Troops of Laurent Kabila march into Kinshasa. May 23 – Mohammad Khatami wins the 1997 Iranian presidential election and becomes the first Iranian Reformist president. May 25 – A military coup in Sierra Leone replaces President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah with Major Johnny Paul Koroma. May 27 – The second-deadliest tornado of the 1990s hits in Jarrell, Texas, killing 27 people. May 31 – The 13-kilometer Confederation Bridge, the world's longest bridge spanning ice-covered waters, opens between Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick, Canada. June June 1 Socialist Party-led Centre-left coalition won the second-round in 1997 French legislative elections, began with the third Cohabitation (1997–2002). Hugo Banzer wins the Presidential elections in Bolivia. June 2 – In Denver, Colorado, Timothy McVeigh is convicted on 15 counts of murder and conspiracy for his role in the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing. June 10 – Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot orders the killing of his defense chief, Son Sen, and 11 of Sen's family members, before Pol Pot flees his northern stronghold. June 11 – In the United Kingdom, the House of Commons votes for a total ban on handguns. June 13 – A jury sentences Timothy McVeigh to death for his part in the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing. June 16 – About 50 people are killed in the Daïat Labguer (M'sila) massacre in Algeria. June 21 – The Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) plays its first game at The Great Western Forum in Los Angeles. June 25 A massive eruption of the Soufrière Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat leads to evacuation and eventual abandonment of the capital, Plymouth. An unmanned Progress spacecraft collides with the Russian space station Mir. June 26 – Bertie Ahern is appointed as the 10th Taoiseach of the Republic of Ireland and Mary Harney is appointed as the 16th, and first female, Tánaiste, after their parties, Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats respectively, win the 1997 General Election. June 26 – Bloomsbury Publishing publishes J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone in London. July July – The 1997 Central European flood occurs across Poland, Germany, and the Czech Republic. July 1 – The United Kingdom hands sovereignty of Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China. July 2 – The Bank of Thailand floats the baht, triggering the Asian financial crisis. July 4 – NASA's Pathfinder space probe lands on the surface of Mars. July 5 In Cambodia, Hun Sen of the Cambodian People's Party overthrows Norodom Ranariddh in a coup. The Egyptian Islamic Group announces a cessation-of-violence initiative. July 8 – NATO invites the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland to join the alliance in 1999. July 10 – In London, scientists report their DNA analysis findings from a Neanderthal skeleton, which support the out of Africa theory of human evolution, placing an "African Eve" at 100,000 to 200,000 years ago. July 11 – Thailand's worst hotel fire at Pattaya kills 90. July 13 – The remains of Che Guevara are returned to Cuba for burial, alongside some of his comrades. Guevara and his comrades were executed on October 9 1967 in Bolivia. July 15 – Spree killer Andrew Cunanan shoots fashion designer Gianni Versace dead outside Versace's Miami residence. July 17 – The F. W. Woolworth Company closes after 117 years in business. July 25 – K. R. Narayanan is sworn in as India's 10th president and the first member of the Dalit caste to hold this office. July 27 – About 50 are killed in the Si Zerrouk massacre in Algeria. July 30 – 18 people are killed in the Thredbo landslide in the Snowy Mountains resort in Australia. August August 1 – Boeing and McDonnell Douglas complete a merger. August 3 – Between 40 and 76 villagers are killed in the Oued El-Had and Mezouara massacre in Algeria. August 3 – 11 – Two of the three islands of the Union of the Comoros – Anjouan and Mohéli – attempt to revert to colonial rule by France. The plan fails when the French government of President Jacques Chirac refuses to recolonize them resulting in the two islands being reintegrated into the Comoros over the next two years. August 4 – Jeanne Calment, the oldest person ever, dies at age 122 years 164 days in Arles, France. August 6 – Korean Air Flight 801 crash lands west of Guam International Airport, resulting in the deaths of 228 people. August 14 - Pakistan celebrates 50 years of independence from the United Kingdom. August 15 - India celebrates 50 years of independence from the United Kingdom. August 20 – More than 60 are killed, 15 kidnapped in the Souhane massacre in Algeria. August 26 60–100 are killed in the Beni Ali massacre in Algeria. The Independent International Commission on Decommissioning is set up in Northern Ireland, as part of a peace process. August 29 – Over 98 (and possibly up to 400) are killed in the Rais massacre in Algeria. August 31 – Death of Diana, Princess of Wales: Diana, Princess of Wales is taken to a hospital after a car accident shortly after midnight, in the Pont de l'Alma road tunnel in Paris. She is pronounced dead at 4:00 am. September September 1 Dublin Regulation on treatment of applications for right of asylum under European Union law first comes into force. September 5 Over 87 are killed in the Beni Messous massacre in Algeria. The International Olympic Committee picks Athens, Greece, to be the host city for the 2004 Summer Olympics. September 6 – The funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales, takes place at Westminster Abbey, watched by over two billion people worldwide. September 11 – Scotland votes in favour of a devolved Parliament forming the Scottish Parliament less than two years later September 13 – Iraq disarmament crisis: An Iraqi military officer attacks an UNSCOM weapons inspector on board an UNSCOM helicopter, while the inspector attempts to take photographs of unauthorized movement of Iraqi vehicles inside a site designated for inspection. September 15 – The Norwegian parliamentary election was held in Norway. September 17 – Iraq disarmament crisis: While waiting for access to a site, UNSCOM inspectors witness and videotape Iraqi guards moving files, burning documents, and dumping waste cans into a nearby river. September 18 Wales votes in favour of devolution and the formation of a National Assembly for Wales. Al-Qaeda carries out a terrorist attack in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina. September 19 – 53 are killed in the Guelb El-Kebir massacre in Algeria. September 21 The Islamic Salvation Army, the Islamic Salvation Fronts' armed wing, declares a unilateral ceasefire in Algeria. St. Olaf's Church, a stone church from the 16th century in Tyrvää, Finland, is burnt down. September 25 – Iraq disarmament crisis: UNSCOM inspector Dr. Diane Seaman catches several Iraqi men sneaking out the back door of an inspection site, with log books for the creation of prohibited bacteria and chemicals. September 26 Garuda Indonesia Flight 152 crashes while on approach to Medan, North Sumatra, during the 1997 Southeast Asian haze, killing all 234 people on board. This becomes the deadliest aviation accident in Indonesian history. An earthquake strikes the Italian regions of Umbria and Marche, causing part of the Basilica of St. Francis at Assisi to collapse. October October 2 – British scientists Moira Bruce and John Collinge, with their colleagues, independently show that the new variant form of the Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease is the same disease as Bovine spongiform encephalopathy. October 3 – President of Paraguay, Juan Carlos Wasmosy, orders the arrest of political opponent Lino Oviedo. October 4 – Loomis Fargo Bank Robbery: The second largest cash robbery in U.S. history ($17.3 million, mostly in small bills) occurs at the Charlotte, North Carolina office of Wells Fargo. An FBI investigation eventually results in 24 convictions and the recovery of approximately 95% of the stolen cash. October 12 – Sidi Daoud massacre: 43 are killed at a false roadblock in Algeria. October 15 Andy Green sets the first supersonic land speed record for the ThrustSSC team, led by Richard Noble of the UK. ThrustSSC goes through the flying mile course at Black Rock Desert, Nevada at an average speed of 1,227.985 km/h (763.035 mph). NASA launches the Cassini–Huygens probe to Saturn. October 16 – The first color photograph appears on the front page of The New York Times. October 17 – The remains of Che Guevara are laid to rest with full military honours in a specially built mausoleum in the city of Santa Clara, Cuba, where he had won the decisive battle of the Cuban Revolution 39 years before. October 22 – Danish escaped criminal Steen Christensen robs the Hotel Palace in Helsinki, Finland, killing two police officers while evading capture. October 29 – Iraq disarmament crisis: Iraq says it will begin shooting down Lockheed U-2 surveillance planes being used by UNSCOM inspectors. November November 11 – Telecom companies WorldCom and MCI Communications announce a US$37 billion merger to form MCI WorldCom, the largest merger in U.S. history. November 12 – Mary McAleese is elected the eighth President of Ireland in succession to Mary Robinson, the first time in the world that one woman has succeeded another as elected head of state. November 13 – Ramzi Yousef is found guilty of masterminding the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. November 17 – In Luxor, Egypt, 62 people are killed by 6 Islamic militants outside the Temple of Hatshepsut. November 19 – In Des Moines, Iowa, Bobbi McCaughey gives birth to septuplets in the second known case where all seven babies are born alive, and the first in which all survive infancy. November 27 – NASA's Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission is launched, the start of the satellite component of the Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System. December December 1 – In the Indian state of Bihar, Ranvir Sena attacks the CPI(ML) Party Unity stronghold Lakshmanpur-Bathe, killing 63 lower caste people. December 3 – In Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, representatives from 121 countries sign a treaty prohibiting the manufacture and deployment of anti-personnel land mines. However, the United States, the People's Republic of China, Russia, South Korea and 32 other nations do not sign and/or ratify the treaty. December 10 – The capital of Kazakhstan is moved from Almaty to Astana. December 11 – The Kyoto Protocol is adopted by a United Nations committee. December 16 – In Japan, over 700 children suffer epilectic attacks due to an episode of the anime Pokémon. December 18 – In Australia, 20th Century Fox releases a feature-length film about a children's group named The Wiggles called The Wiggles Movie. December 19 Janet Jagan (widow of Cheddi Jagan) takes office in Guyana. James Cameron's Titanic, the then highest-grossing film of all time, premieres in the U.S. SilkAir Flight 185 crashes into the Musi River, near Palembang in Indonesia, killing 104. December 21 – Brazil beats Australia 6–0 in the Confederations Cup final. December 24 – 50–100 villagers are killed in the Sid El-Antri massacre in Algeria. December 27 – Ulster loyalist paramilitary leader Billy Wright is assassinated in Northern Ireland, inside Long Kesh prison. December 29 – Hong Kong begins to kill all the chickens within its territory (1.25 million) to stop the spread of a potentially deadly influenza strain. December 30 – Wilaya of Relizane massacres of December 30, 1997: In the worst incident in Algeria's insurgency, 400 are killed from four villages in the wilaya of Relizane. Date unknown The Toyota Prius, the first hybrid vehicle to go into full production, is unveiled in Japan on October 24, and goes on sale in Japan on December 9. It comes to U.S. showrooms on July 11, 2000. Births January January 1 Chidozie Awaziem, Nigerian footballer Chloé Dygert American professional cyclist January 2 – Gabriel Carlsson, Swedish ice hockey player January 4 – Pauline Schäfer, German gymnast January 5 – Mikhail Vorobyev, Russian ice hockey player January 7 – Lamar Jackson, American football player January 9 – Elvira Herman, Belarusian athlete January 11 – Cody Simpson, Australian singer-songwriter January 12 – Felix Sandström, Swedish ice hockey player January 13 Egan Bernal, Colombian road bicycle racer Connor McDavid, Canadian ice hockey player January 14 – Francesco Bagnaia, Italian motorcycle racer January 15 – Valentina Zenere, Argentine actress, model, and singer January 17 – Jake Paul, American actor January 18 – Denis Malgin, Swiss ice hockey player January 21 Jeremy Shada, American actor, voice actor, singer and musician Yang Yang, Chinese paralympic swimmer January 22 – Kole Sherwood, American ice hockey player January 23 Sophie Hahn, English paralympic sprinter Lexie Priessman, American artistic gymnast Ramadan Sobhi, Egyptian footballer Gudaf Tsegay, Ethiopian middle-distance runner January 25 – Noah Hanifin, American ice hockey player January 26 – Gedion Zelalem, American soccer player January 28 – Jeffrey Viel, Canadian ice hockey player January 29 Joel Eriksson Ek, Swedish ice hockey player Jack Roslovic, American ice hockey player January 30 – Shim Suk-hee, South Korean speed skater January 31 – Anatoliy Ryapolov, Russian long jumper February February 2 – Jaheel Hyde, Jamaican sprinter February 3 – Lewis Cook, English footballer February 7 – Anhelina Kalinina, Ukrainian tennis player February 8 – Kathryn Newton, American actress February 10 Josh Jackson, American basketball player Lilly King, American swimmer Chloë Grace Moretz, American actress Rozaliya Nasretdinova, Russian swimmer February 11 Nasty C, South African rapper Rosé, New Zealand singer February 14 – Breel Embolo, Swiss footballer February 22 – Anton Chupkov, Russian swimmer February 23 Érick Aguirre, Mexican footballer Jamal Murray, Canadian basketball player February 24 – César Montes, Mexican footballer February 25 Isabelle Fuhrman, American actress Santiago Ascacíbar, Argentinian footballer Katsiaryna Halkina, Belarusian rhythmic gymnast February 26 – Zheng Siwei, Chinese badminton player March March 2 – Becky G, American singer March 3 Camila Cabello, Cuban-American singer Jaime Carreño, Chilean footballer David Neres, Brazilian footballer March 4 – Matisse Thybulle, American basketball player March 6 – Alisha Boe, Norwegian actress March 8 Irene Ekelund, Swedish sprinter Jurina Matsui, Japanese singer March 10 – Belinda Bencic, Swiss tennis player March 13 – Rúben Neves, Portuguese footballer March 14 Simone Biles, American gymnast Dawid Kownacki, Polish footballer March 17 Konrad Bukowiecki, Polish athlete Katie Ledecky, American swimmer March 18 Ciara Bravo, American actress, voice artist, singer, and comedian Mario Burke, Barbadian sprinter March 19 – Rūta Meilutytė, Lithuanian swimmer March 20 – Bobby Cheng, Australian chess champion March 21 – Martina Stoessel, Argentine actress, singer, dancer, and model March 22 – Harry Wilson, Welsh footballer March 23 – Thiago Maia, Brazilian footballer March 27 A-Reece, South African hip hop artist Lisa, Thai rapper, singer, dancer, and model March 30 Gideon Adlon, American actress Cha Eun-woo, South Korean singer April April 1 – Asa Butterfield, English actor April 3 – Gabriel Jesus, Brazilian footballer April 6 – Pavel Zacha, Czech ice hockey player April 8 Kim Woo-jin, South Korean singer Roquan Smith, American football player April 9 – Michael Špaček, Czech ice hockey player April 10 – Alla Sosnitskaya, Russian artistic gymnast April 11 Max Clegg, English speedway racer Mélovin, Ukrainian singer-songwriter April 12 – Katelyn Ohashi, American artistic gymnast April 14 – D. J. Moore, American football player April 15 Jesse Little, American stock car racing driver Maisie Williams, English actress April 16 – Daniel Rioli, Australian rules footballer April 18 Donny van de Beek, Dutch footballer Matthias Blübaum, German chess grandmaster April 19 – Malcolm Perry, American football player April 20 – Alexander Zverev, German tennis player April 21 – Mikel Oyarzabal, Spanish footballer April 23 Zach Apple, American swimmer Kim Hae-jin, South Korean figure skater Peng Cheng, Chinese figure skater April 24 Kirill Aleshin, Russian ice dancer Arturo Deliser, Panamanian sprinter Lydia Ko, South Korean-born New Zealand golfer Veronika Kudermetova, Russian tennis player April 26 – Moritz Wagner, German basketball player April 27 – Livio Loi, Belgian motorcycle racer April 28 – Denzel Ward, American football player April 29 – Ekaterina Baturina, Russian artistic gymnast April 30 – T. J. Leaf, American basketball player May May 2 BamBam, Thai singer Blake Rutherford, American baseball first baseman and outfielder May 3 Desiigner, American hip hop artist Dwayne Haskins, American football player Ivana Jorović, Serbian tennis player May 4 Nicolas Prattes, Brazilian actor Jon Teske, American basketball player Ben Dolic, Slovenian singer May 5 – Mitch Marner, Canadian ice hockey player May 6 – Duncan Scott, Scottish swimmer May 7 Daria Kasatkina, Russian tennis player Youri Tielemans, Belgian footballer May 10 Richarlison, Brazilian footballer Enes Ünal, Turkish footballer May 11 – Lana Condor, American actress and dancer May 12 Frenkie de Jong, Dutch footballer Morgan Lake, English athlete Odeya Rush, Israeli-born American actress May 14 – Manushi Chhillar, Indian model, actress and beauty pageant titleholder won Miss World 2017 May 15 – Ousmane Dembélé, French footballer May 19 Oliver Kylington, Swedish ice hockey player Víctor Robles, Dominican baseball outfielder May 21 – Kevin Quinn, American actor May 22 – Lauri Markkanen, Finnish basketball player May 23 – Joe Gomez, English footballer May 26 – Julian Yee, Malaysian figure skater May 27 – Daron Payne, American football player May 30 – Jake Short, American actor May 31 – Cupcakke, American rapper June June 1 – Youssef En-Nesyri, Moroccan footballer June 5 Sam Darnold, American football quarterback Henry Onyekuru, Nigerian footballer June 6 – Grant Shoults, American swimmer June 7 – David Montgomery, American football player June 8 – Jeļena Ostapenko, Latvian tennis player June 9 – Shen Duo, Chinese swimmer June 10 – Sviatoslav Mykhailiuk, Ukrainian basketball player June 11 Kodak Black, American hip-hop artist Julia Lavrentieva, Ukrainian pair skater John Hunter Nemechek, American stock car racing driver June 13 Katie Lou Samuelson, American basketball player Yuta Watanabe, Japanese badminton player June 15 – Madison Kocian, American artistic gymnast June 17 – KJ Apa, New Zealand actor June 21 Rebecca Black, American singer Derrius Guice, American football player June 22 Lorenzo Dalla Porta, Italian motorcycle racer Dinah Jane, American singer June 23 Chen Qingchen, Chinese badminton player Antoine Olivier Pilon, French-Canadian actor June 25 Rodrigo Bentancur, Uruguayan footballer Bassem Srarfi, Tunisian footballer June 27 H.E.R., American singer Shannon Purser, American actress June 28 – Shakur Stevenson, American boxer June 29 – Jia Yifan, Chinese badminton player June 30 Avika Gor, Indian actress Iryna Shymanovich, Russian tennis player July July 1 – Grigoriy Oparin, Russian chess grandmaster July 2 – Marquese Chriss, American basketball player July 3 – Georgios Papagiannis, Greek basketball player July 4 Daniela Nieves, Venezuelan-American actress Jason Spevack, Canadian actor and filmmaker July 8 – Bryce Love, American football player and sprinter July 10 Ebba Andersson, Swedish cross-country skier Marilena Kirchner, German volksmusik and schlager singer July 12 – Malala Yousafzai, Pakistani activist and Nobel Prize laureate July 13 – Leo Howard, American actor and martial artist July 14 – Cengiz Ünder, Turkish footballer July 17 – Amadou Diawara, Guinese footballer July 18 Bam Adebayo, American basketball player Chiara Kreuzer, Austrian ski jumper Kwon Jin-ah, South Korean singer Noah Lyles, American sprinter Fionn Whitehead, English actor July 19 Kang Young-seo, South Korean alpine skier Zach Werenski, American ice hockey player July 22 – Field Cate, American actor July 24 Emre Mor, Turkish footballer Cailee Spaeny, American actress and singer Andreas Varady, Slovak jazz guitarist July 25 – Kayli Barker, American racing driver July 26 – Ewa Swoboda, Polish track and field sprinter July 27 – Craig Wighton, Scottish footballer July 28 – Bilal Ould-Chikh, Dutch-Moroccan footballer July 30 Teófimo López, American boxer Finneas O'Connell, American musician and actor August August 1 Kévin Aymoz, French figure skater Yomif Kejelcha, Ethiopian long-distance runner August 2 Ke Jie, Chinese professional go player Triston McKenzie, American baseball pitcher Christina Robinson, American actress August 3 Daniel Crowley, English footballer Ronald Jones II, American football player Key Glock, American rapper August 4 – Cinzia Zehnder, Swiss footballer August 5 Braxton Garrett, American baseball pitcher Olivia Holt, American actress and singer Wang Yibo, Chinese/Korean pop idol, dancer, singer and actor Adam Irigoyen, American actor Laura Waem, Belgian artistic gymnast August 6 – Sander Svendsen, Norwegian footballer August 7 – Kyler Murray, American football player August 8 – Corpse Husband, American internet personality August 9 – Leon Bailey, Jamaican footballer August 10 – Kylie Jenner, American reality television personality August 16 Greyson Chance, American singer, songwriter and pianist Piper Curda, American actress Tilly Keeper, English actress August 18 Josephine Langford, Australian actress Renato Sanches, Portuguese footballer August 19 – Maria Titova, Russian rhythmic gymnast August 22 – Lautaro Martínez, Argentine footballer August 23 – Lil Yachty, American rapper, singer and songwriter August 24 – Alan Walker, British-Norwegian music producer August 25 Bryana Salaz, American singer and actress Markus Thormeyer, Canadian swimmer Mike Weber, American football player August 28 Bazzi, American singer-songwriter Emilia McCarthy, Canadian actress August 29 – Ainsley Maitland-Niles, English footballer August 30 – Dana Gaier, American actress September September 1 Jungkook, South Korean singer, member of BTS Maria Stavitskaia, Russian figure skater September 2 – Brandon Ingram, American basketball player September 3 Hana Kimura, Japanese professional wrestler (d. 2020) Salome Pazhava, Georgian rhythmic gymnast September 6 Mallory Comerford, American swimmer Tsukushi, Japanese wrestler September 7 – Dean-Charles Chapman, English actor September 12 Almida de Val, Swedish curler Sydney Sweeney, American actress September 13 – Leah Keiser, American figure skater September 14 – Benjamin Ingrosso, Swedish singer-songwriter September 15 Jonatan Christie, Indonesian badminton player Forrest Whitley, American baseball pitcher September 16 Zsanett Kaján, Hungarian footballer Elena Kampouris, American actress Jackie Young, American basketball player September 17 Luke Greenbank, British swimmer Guan Xiaotong, Chinese actress Auston Matthews, American ice hockey player September 18 – Alisson Perticheto, Filipina figure skater September 20 – Aurélie Fanchette, Seychellois swimmer September 23 – John Collins, American basketball player September 24 – Malaya Watson, American singer and tuba player September 30 Yana Kudryavtseva, Russian rhythmic gymnast Max Verstappen, Dutch racing driver October October 1 – Jade Bird, English singer-songwriter October 2 – Tammy Abraham, English footballer October 3 Jin Boyang, Chinese figure skater Jonathan Isaac, American professional basketball player Jo-Ane van Dyk, South African javelin thrower October 4 – Seamus O'Connor, Irish snowboarder October 6 Kasper Dolberg, Danish footballer Tsao Chih-i, Taiwanese figure skater October 7 – Kira Kosarin, American actress and singer October 8 Steven Bergwijn, Dutch footballer Bella Thorne, American actress and singer October 9 – Angelica Moser, Swiss athlete October 10 – Grace Rolek, American actress October 16 Charles Leclerc, Monégasque racing driver Naomi Osaka, Japanese tennis player October 24 Claudia Fragapane, British artistic gymnast Park So-youn, South Korean figure skater October 25 – Federico Chiesa, Italian footballer October 27 Lonzo Ball, American basketball player Li Meiyi, Chinese pair skater October 28 – Sierra McCormick, American actress October 29 – Ale Müller, Mexican actress and singer October 31 Sydney Park, American actress and comedian Marcus Rashford, English footballer November November 1 Max Burkholder, American actor Alex Wolff, American singer-songwriter, musician, and actor November 3 – Lázaro Martínez, Cuban triple jumper November 4 Bea Binene, Filipino actress Stratos Iordanoglou, Greek basketball player November 6 – Hero Fiennes Tiffin, English actor and model November 10 – Daniel James, English-born Welsh footballer November 14 – Ivanna Sakhno, Ukrainian actress November 17 – Jacob Eason, American football player November 19 – Rachel Parsons, American ice dancer November 23 – Akari Takeuchi, Japanese singer November 29 Agata Kryger, Polish figure skater Ye Qiuyu, Chinese tennis player November 30 – Liu Huixia, Chinese diver December December 3 – Rashan Gary, American football linebacker December 5 Khaleel Ahmed, Indian cricketer Clara Rugaard, Danish actress and singer Sophie Simnett, English actress December 8 – Ilaria Käslin, Swiss artistic gymnast December 11 – Taylor Hickson, Canadian actress and singer December 14 – DK Metcalf, American football wide receiver December 15 – Magdalena Fręch, Polish tennis player December 16 Zara Larsson, Swedish singer and songwriter Bassam Al-Rawi, Iraqi-born Qatari footballer December 17 – Shoma Uno, Japanese figure skater December 18 – Ronald Acuña Jr., Venezuelan baseball outfielder December 20 De'Aaron Fox, American basketball player Suzuka Nakamoto, Japanese singer December 21 – Charlie McAvoy, American ice hockey player December 22 – Taylor Rapp, American football player December 23 Luka Jović, Serbian footballer Park Yoo-na, South Korean actress December 24 – Oreoluwa Cherebin, Grenadian swimmer December 27 Ana Konjuh, Croatian tennis player Zhao Ziquan, Chinese figure skater Vachirawit Chivaaree, Thai actor and singer December 30 – Anastasiya Malyavina, Ukrainian swimmer Deaths January January 1 – Townes Van Zandt, American folk singer (b. 1944) January 5 Bertil, Swedish prince, Duke of Halland (b. 1912) Burton Lane, American composer and lyricist (b. 1912) January 6 Teiichi Matsumaru, Japanese footballer (b. 1909) Catherine Scorsese, Italian-American actress (b. 1912) January 8 – Melvin Calvin, American chemist (b. 1911) January 9 Edward Osóbka-Morawski, Polish politician (b. 1909) Jesse White, American actor (b. 1917) January 10 Sheldon Leonard, American actor, director, and producer (b. 1907) Alexander R. Todd, Scottish chemist (b. 1907) January 12 – Charles Brenton Huggins, Canadian-born cancer researcher (b. 1901) January 14 – King Hu, Chinese film director and actor (b. 1932) January 17 Amha Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia (b. 1916) Clyde Tombaugh, American astronomer (b. 1906) January 18 Adriana Caselotti, American actress, voice actress and singer (b. 1916) Paul Tsongas, American politician (b. 1941) January 19 – James Dickey, American poet and novelist (b. 1923) January 21 Colonel Tom Parker, Dutch-born celebrity manager (b. 1909) Polly Ann Young, American actress (b. 1908) January 25 – Jeane Dixon, American astrologer (b. 1904) January 28 – Mikel Koliqi, Albanian cardinal (b. 1900) January 29 – Osvaldo Soriano, Argentine journalist and writer (b. 1943) February February 1 – Marjorie Reynolds, American actress (b. 1917) February 5 – Pamela Harriman, American diplomat (b. 1920) February 9 Brian Connolly, Scottish musician (b. 1945) Barry Evans, English actor (b. 1943) February 10 – Milton Cato, Prime Minister of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (b. 1915) February 16 Bozorg Alavi, Iranian writer and novelist (b. 1904) Chien-Shiung Wu, Chinese-American experimental physicist (b. 1912) February 19 – Deng Xiaoping, Chinese revolutionary, communist leader, and statesman (b. 1904) February 21 – Josef Posipal, Romanian-born German footballer (b. 1927) February 22 - Joey Aiuppa, American mobster (b. 1907) February 23 – Tony Williams, American musician (b. 1945) February 26 – David Doyle, American actor (b. 1929) March March 4 – Robert H. Dicke, American experimental physicist (b. 1916) March 6 Cheddi Jagan, President of Guyana (b. 1918) Michael Manley, 2-Time Prime Minister of Jamaica (b. 1924) March 7 Edward Mills Purcell, American physicist (b. 1912) Martin Kippenberger, German artist (b. 1953) March 9 The Notorious B.I.G., American rapper (b. 1972) Terry Nation, Welsh screenwriter (b. 1930) Jean-Dominique Bauby, French journalist and author (b. 1952) March 10 – LaVern Baker, American singer (b. 1929) March 11 – Lars Ahlin, Swedish author and aesthetician (b. 1915) March 14 Jurek Becker, Polish-born German writer (b. 1937) Fred Zinnemann, Austrian-born American film director (b. 1907) March 15 – Victor Vasarely, Hungarian-French artist (b. 1906) March 17 – Jermaine Stewart, American singer (b. 1957) March 19 – Willem de Kooning, Dutch artist (b. 1904) March 20 – Tony Zale, American boxer (b. 1913) March 21 – Wilbert Awdry, British children's writer (b. 1911) March 26 – Marshall Applewhite, American cult leader (b. 1931) March 31 Friedrich Hund, German physicist (b. 1896) Lyman Spitzer, American theoretical physicist and astronomer (b. 1914) April April 2 – Tomoyuki Tanaka, Japanese film producer (b. 1910) April 4 – Alparslan Türkeş, Turkish politician (b. 1917) April 5 Allen Ginsberg, American poet (b. 1926) Ignazio Buttitta, Sicilian dialectal poet (b. 1899) April 8 – Laura Nyro, American singer and composer (b. 1947) April 9 – Helene Hanff, American writer (b. 1916) April 10 Toshiro Mayuzumi, Japanese composer (b. 1929) Martin Schwarzschild, German-American astrophysicist (b. 1912) April 7 – Georgy Shonin, Russian cosmonaut (b. 1935) April 12 – George Wald, American scientist (b. 1906) April 13 – Shuhei Nishida, Japanese athlete (b. 1910) April 16 – Roland Topor, French illustrator (b. 1938) April 17 – Chaim Herzog, Israel politician, 6th President of Israel (b. 1918) April 20 – Jean Louis, American costume designer (b. 1907) April 21 Andrés Rodríguez, 47th President of Paraguay (b. 1923) Diosdado Macapagal, 9th President of the Philippines (b. 1910) April 24 – Eugene Stoner, American firearms designer and engineer (b. 1922) April 26 – John Beal, American actor (b. 1909) May May 1 – Bo Widerberg, Swedish film director (b. 1930) May 2 John Eccles, Australian neurophysiologist (b. 1903) Paulo Freire, Brazilian educator and philosopher (b. 1921) May 3, Narciso Yepes, Spanish guitarist (b. 1927) May 4 – Wijeyananda Dahanayake, 5th Prime Minister of Sri Lanka (b. 1901) May 5 – Walter Gotell, German actor (b. 1924) May 13 – Laurie Lee, English author (b. 1914) May 16 – Giuseppe De Santis, Italian film director (b. 1917) May 20 – Virgilio Barco Vargas, 27th President of Colombia (b. 1921) May 22 – Alfred Hershey, American biochemist (b. 1908) May 24 – Edward Mulhare, Irish actor (b. 1923) May 26 – Manfred von Ardenne, German physicist and inventor (b. 1907) May 29 – Jeff Buckley, American musician (b. 1966) June June 1 Robert Serber, American physicist (b. 1909) Nikolai Tikhonov, Soviet-Russian statesman (b. 1905) June 2 – Helen Jacobs, American tennis champion (b. 1908) June 4 – Ronnie Lane, English musician (b. 1946) June 6 – Magda Gabor, Hungarian-American actress (b. 1915) June 12 – Bulat Okudzhava, Soviet singer (b. 1924) June 14 – Richard Jaeckel, American actor (b. 1926) June 15 Edmond Leburton, 42nd Prime Minister of Belgium (b. 1915) Son Sen, Cambodian politician and criminal (b. 1930) June 18 Lev Kopelev, Soviet writer and dissident (b. 1912) Héctor Yazalde, Argentine footballer (b. 1946) June 21 – Shintaro Katsu, Japanese actor, singer, producer, and director (b. 1931) June 22 – Ted Gärdestad, Swedish singer, songwriter, and musician (b. 1956) June 23 – Betty Shabazz, American educator and activist (b. 1934) June 24 Don Hutson, American football player (b. 1913) Brian Keith, American actor (b. 1921) June 25 – Jacques Cousteau, French explorer (b. 1910) June 26 – Israel Kamakawiwoʻole, Hawaiian singer (b. 1959) June 29 – William Hickey, American actor (b. 1927) July July 1 – Robert Mitchum, American actor (b. 1917) July 2 – James Stewart, American actor and soldier (b. 1908) July 8 – Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem, 6th President of Bangladesh (b. 1916) July 9 – Aurelio González, Paraguayan footballer (b. 1905) July 13 – Alexandra Danilova, Russian-American ballerina and dance instructor (b. 1903) July 15 – Gianni Versace, Italian fashion designer (b. 1946) July 17 – Robert C. Weaver, American economist and academic (b. 1907) July 18 – Eugene Merle Shoemaker, American astronomer (b. 1928) July 20 – John Akii-Bua, Ugandan hurdler (b. 1949) July 23 Andrew Cunanan, American serial killer (b. 1969) Chūhei Nambu, Japanese athlete (b. 1904) July 24 William J. Brennan Jr., American Supreme Court Justice (b. 1906) Frank Parker, American tennis champion (b. 1916) July 25 – Ben Hogan, American golf champion (b. 1912) July 26 – Jaime Milans del Bosch, Spanish general and insurgent (b. 1915) July 28 Rosalie Crutchley, English actress (b. 1920) Seni Pramoj, Thai politician, 6th Prime Minister of Thailand (b. 1905) July 30 – Bảo Đại, Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1913) August August 1 Ngiratkel Etpison, 5th President of Palau (b. 1925) Sviatoslav Richter, Ukrainian pianist (b. 1915) August 2 William S. Burroughs, American author (b. 1914) Fela Kuti, Nigerian musician and political activist (b. 1938) August 4 – Jeanne Calment, French supercentenarian, oldest person ever lived (b. 1875) August 6 – Jürgen Kuczynski, German economist and communist (b. 1904) August 10 – Conlon Nancarrow, American-born composer (b. 1912) August 12 – Luther Allison, American musician (b. 1939) August 20 – Norris Bradbury, American physicist (b. 1909) August 21 Misael Pastrana Borrero, 23rd President of Colombia (b. 1923) Yuri Nikulin, Soviet and Russian actor and clown (b. 1921) August 22 – Matti Sippala, Finnish athlete (b. 1908) August 23 Eric Gairy, 1st Prime Minister of Grenada (b. 1922) John Kendrew, British molecular biologist (b. 1917) August 24 – Louis Essen, English physicist (b. 1908) August 27 – Sally Blane, American actress (b. 1910) August 30 – Ernst Wilimowski, German–Polish footballer (b. 1916) August 31 Diana, Princess of Wales (b. 1961) Dodi Fayed, Egyptian film producer (b. 1955) September September 1 – Zoltán Czibor, Hungarian footballer (b. 1929) September 2 – Viktor Frankl, Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist (b. 1905) September 4 Hans Eysenck, German-born British psychologist (b. 1916) Aldo Rossi, Italian architect and designer (b. 1931) September 5 Sir Georg Solti, Hungarian-born British conductor (b. 1912) Mother Teresa, Indian nun, missionary and saint (b. 1910) September 7 – Mobutu Sese Seko, 2nd President of Zaire (b. 1930) September 9 – Burgess Meredith, American actor (b. 1907) September 10 – Fritz Von Erich, American professional wrestler (b. 1929) September 12 – Stig Anderson, Swedish talent manager (b. 1931) September 17 Red Skelton, American actor and comedian (b. 1913) Jan P. Syse, Norwegian politician, Prime Minister of Norway (b. 1930) September 18 – Jimmy Witherspoon, American blues singer (b. 1920) September 19 – Rich Mullins, American Christian musician (b. 1955) September 23 – Shirley Clarke, American filmmaker (b. 1919) September 25 – Jean Françaix, French composer (b. 1912) September 28 – Ho Feng-Shan, Chinese diplomat (b. 1901) September 29 – Roy Lichtenstein, American artist (b. 1923) October October 1 – Francisco Aramburu, Brazilian footballer (b. 1922) October 4 Otto Ernst Remer, German Wehrmacht officer (b. 1912) Gunpei Yokoi, Japanese video game franchise creator (b. 1941) October 5 – Brian Pillman, American professional wrestler (b. 1962) October 7 − Orlando Ramón Agosti, Argentine general (b. 1924) October 11 – Ivan Yarygin, Soviet and Russian heavyweight wrestler (b. 1948) October 12 – John Denver, American musician (b. 1943) October 13 – Adil Çarçani, Albanian politician (b. 1922) October 14 – Harold Robbins, American writer (b. 1916) October 16 Princess Olga of Greece and Denmark (b. 1903) Audra Lindley, American actress (b. 1918) James A. Michener, American writer (b. 1907) October 19 Glen Buxton, American guitarist (b. 1947) Pilar Miró, Spanish screenwriter and film director (b. 1940) October 23 – Bert Haanstra, Dutch filmmaker (b. 1916) October 29 – Anton LaVey, American author, musician, and occultist (b. 1930) October 30 – Samuel Fuller, American screenwriter and director (b. 1912) November November 2 – Shōshin Nagamine, Japanese author and soldier, police officer, and karate master (b. 1907) November 5 – Isaiah Berlin, Russian-British social and political theorist (b. 1909) November 8 – Mohammad-Ali Jamalzadeh, Iranian author (b. 1892) November 9 - Carl Gustav Hempel, German philosopher from the Vienna and the Berlin Circle (b. 1905) November 11 – Rod Milburn, American athlete (b. 1950) November 16 - George O. Petrie, American actor and director (b. 1912) November 21 – Robert Simpson, English composer (b. 1921) November 22 Joanna Moore, American actress (b. 1934) Michael Hutchence, Australian singer-songwriter (b. 1960) November 24 – Barbara, French singer (b. 1930) November 25 – Hastings Banda, 1st President of Malawi (b. 1898) November 30 – Kathy Acker, American author (b. 1947) December December 1 – Stéphane Grappelli, French violinist (b. 1908) December 2 – Michael Hedges, American composer and guitarist (b. 1953) December 7 – Billy Bremner, British footballer (b. 1942) December 14 Stubby Kaye, American actor (b. 1918) Owen Barfield, British philosopher, poet, and critic (b. 1898) December 16 Lillian Disney, American artist (b. 1899) Nicolette Larson, American pop singer (b. 1952) December 18 – Chris Farley, American actor and comedian (b. 1964) December 19 Masaru Ibuka, Japanese electronics industrialist (b. 1908) Jimmy Rogers, American musician (b. 1924) December 20 Juzo Itami, Japanese film director (b. 1933) Denise Levertov, English-born American poet (b. 1923) December 23 – Stanley Cortez, American cinematographer (b. 1908) December 24 – Toshiro Mifune, Japanese actor (b. 1920) December 25 Denver Pyle, American actor (b. 1920) Anita Conti, French explorer and photographer (b. 1899) Anatoli Boukreev, Russian mountain climber (b. 1958) December 31 – Billie Dove, American actress (b. 1903) Nobel Prizes Chemistry – Paul D. Boyer, John E. Walker, Jens C. Skou Economics – Bank of Sweden – Robert C. Merton, Myron Scholes Literature – Dario Fo Peace – International Campaign to Ban Landmines and Jody Williams Physics – Steven Chu, Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, William D. Phillips Medicine – Stanley B. Prusiner References External links 1997 Year in Review – CNN

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948

1948

Events January January 1 The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is inaugurated. The Constitution of New Jersey (later subject to amendment) goes into effect. The railways of Britain are nationalized, to form British Railways. January 4 – Burma gains its independence from the United Kingdom, becoming an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President, and U Nu its first Prime Minister. January 5 Warner Brothers shows the first color newsreel (Tournament of Roses Parade and the Rose Bowl Game). The first Kinsey Report, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, is published in the United States. January 7 – Mantell UFO incident: Kentucky Air National Guard pilot Thomas Mantell crashes while in pursuit of an unidentified flying object. January 12 – Mahatma Gandhi begins his fast-unto-death in Delhi, to stop communal violence during the Partition of India. January 17 – A truce is declared between nationalist Indonesian and Dutch troops in Java. January 22 – British foreign secretary Ernest Bevin proposes the formation of a Western Union between Britain, France, and the Benelux countries, to stand up against the Soviet Union. The Treaty of Brussels is signed March 17 as a consequence, a predecessor to NATO. January 26 – Teigin poison case: a man masquerading as a doctor poisons 12 of 16 bank employees of the Tokyo branch of Imperial Bank and takes the money; artist Sadamichi Hirasawa is later sentenced to death for the crime, but is never executed. January 29 The Pakistan Socialist Party is founded in Karachi. A DC-3 aircraft crash at Los Gatos Creek, near Coalinga, California, kills 4 US citizens and 28 deportees, commemorated in a protest song (Deportee (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos)) by Woody Guthrie. January 30 Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi: Indian pacifist and leader Mahatma Gandhi is shot by Nathuram Godse in New Delhi. The 1948 Winter Olympics open in St Moritz, Switzerland. January 31 – The British crown colony of the Malayan Union, Penang and Malacca form the Federation of Malaya. February February 1 The Soviet Union begins to jam Voice of America broadcasts. The Federation of Malaya is proclaimed. February 4 – Ceylon (later known as Sri Lanka) becomes an independent kingdom, within the British Commonwealth. February 11 – General Douglas Gracey becomes Commander-in-chief of Pakistan Army. February 16 – Miranda, innermost of the large moons of Uranus, is discovered by Gerard Kuiper. February 18 – Éamon de Valera, Irish head of government from 1918 to 1932, loses power to an opposition coalition. John A. Costello is appointed Taoiseach by President Seán T. O'Kelly, until 1960. February 19 – The Conference of Youth and Students of Southeast Asia Fighting for Freedom and Independence convenes in Calcutta. February 21 – The United States stock car racing organization NASCAR is founded by Bill France, Sr. with other drivers. February 22 – The first of the Ben Yehuda Street bombings in Jerusalem kills between 49 and 58 civilians, and injures between 140 and 200. February 25 – 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état: Edvard Beneš, President of Czechoslovakia, cedes control of the country to the Communist Party, a day celebrated by that regime as "Victorious February" (; ) until November 1989. February 28 Accra Riots: Riots take place in Accra, capital of the British colony of Gold Coast, when a peaceful protest march by ex-servicemen is broken up by police, leaving several members of the group dead, among them Sergeant Adjetey, one of the leaders. The 2nd Congress of the Communist Party of India convenes in Calcutta. March March 8 – McCollum v. Board of Education: The United States Supreme Court rules that religious instruction in public schools violates the U.S. Constitution. March 12 – The Costa Rican Civil War begins. March 17 The Treaty of Brussels is signed by Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, providing for economic, social and cultural collaboration and collective self-defence. The Hells Angels motorcycle gang is founded in California. March 18 – The Round Table Conference convenes in The Hague, Netherlands, to prepare the decolonization process for the Caribbean island of Aruba and the other Dutch Colonies. Aruba presents the mandate of the Aruban People for Aruba to become an independent country, under the sovereignty of the House of Orange, based on Aruba's first state constitution presented officially since August 1947, and a (4th) member state of the future Dutch Commonwealth. March 20 Singapore holds its first elections. Renowned Italian conductor Arturo Toscanini makes his television debut, conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra in an all-Wagner program in the United States. The 20th Academy Awards Ceremony is held in Los Angeles. Gentleman's Agreement wins the Academy Award for Best Picture. April April – Children's Supermart, as predecessor of toys and children relative retailer brand on worldwide, Toys "R" Us was founded in Washington D.C., United States. April 1 – Physicists Ralph Asher Alpher and George Gamow publish the Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper, about the Big Bang. April 3 United States President Harry S. Truman signs the Marshall Plan, which authorizes $5 billion in aid for 16 countries. Jeju Uprising: Residents revolt on Jeju island, South Korea, eventually leading to the deaths of between 14,000 and 30,000. Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 is played on television in its entirety for the first time, in a series of concerts featuring Arturo Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra in the United States. The chorus is conducted by Robert Shaw. April 5 – 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine: Haganah launches Operation Nachshon, provoking the 1948 Palestinian exodus. April 7– The World Health Organization is established by the United Nations. April 9 Jorge Eliécer Gaitán's assassination provokes a violent riot in Bogotá (the Bogotazo), and a further 10 years of violence (La Violencia) across Colombia. The Deir Yassin massacre takes place, in British Mandatory Palestine. April 13 – The Hadassah medical convoy massacre takes place, in British Mandatory Palestine. April 16 – The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development is founded, as the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC). April 18 – Italian general election, 1948:: The first democratic general election with universal suffrage is held in Italy. The Christian Democracy party achieves a majority over the Popular Democratic Front Communist-Socialist coalition. April 19 Burma joins the United Nations. The American Broadcasting Company (otherwise known as ABC) begins television services, on WFIL-TV in Philadelphia (later WPVI-TV). April 22 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine: Battle of Haifa – Jewish paramilitary group Haganah captures Haifa from the Arab Liberation Army. WTVR begins television services. WTVR is the first TV station south of Washington D.C., giving it the nickname "The South's First Television station". April 23 – First National Games of Pakistan held in Karachi. April 24 – The Costa Rican Civil War ends. April 30 The Organization of American States (OAS) is founded. The English-built Land Rover is unveiled at the Amsterdam Motor Show. May May – The RAND Corporation is established, as an independent nonprofit policy research and analysis institution, in the United States. May 4 – Laurence Olivier's film version of Hamlet makes its world premiere in London. May 9 – Solar eclipse of May 9, 1948: An annular solar eclipse is visible in Japan and South Korea, and is the 32nd solar eclipse of Solar Saros 137. This eclipse is very short, lasting just 0.3 seconds. The path width is just about 200 meters wide (approximately 218 yards). May 11 – Luigi Einaudi becomes President of the Italian Republic. May 14 – The Israeli Declaration of Independence is made. David Ben-Gurion becomes the first prime minister, a provisional position that will become formalized on February 14, 1949. May 15 1948 Arab–Israeli War: The British Mandate of Palestine is officially terminated; expeditionary forces from Egypt, Transjordan, Syria and Iraq invade Israel, and clash with Israeli forces. The murder of a 3-year-old girl in Blackburn, England, leads to the fingerprinting of more than 40,000 men in the city, in an attempt to find the murderer. Australian cricket team in England in 1948: The touring Australians set an all-time first-class record, by scoring 721 runs in a day against Essex. May 16 – Chaim Weizmann is elected as the first President of Israel. May 18 – The first Legislative Yuan of the Republic of China officially convenes in Nanking. May 22 – The Soviets launch Operation Vesna, the largest Lithuanian deportation to Siberia. May 25 – The United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP) is founded at Ellinwood Malate Church in Manila. May 26 – The United States Congress passes Public Law 557, which permanently establishes the Civil Air Patrol as the auxiliary of the United States Air Force. May 28 – Daniel François Malan defeats Jan Smuts and becomes Prime Minister of South Africa, which starts in the era of apartheid (which is finally dismantled by F. W. de Klerk in 1994). May 29 – The Casimir effect is predicted by Dutch physicist Hendrik Casimir. May 30 – A dike along the Columbia River breaks, obliterating Vanport, Oregon, within minutes; 15 people die and tens of thousands are left homeless. June June 1 – Puma, a global sports goods brand, is founded in Bavaria, West Germany, by Rudolf Dassler, having split from his brother "Adi". June 3 – The Palomar Observatory telescope is finished in California. June 10 – Hasan Saka forms the new government of Turkey. (17th government; Hasan Saka had served twice as a prime minister) June 11 – The first monkey astronaut, Albert I, is launched into space from White Sands, New Mexico. June 15 – Chinese newspaper Renmin Ribao (People's Daily) is first published in Beijing, China. June 16 – Three armed men hijack the Cathay Pacific passenger plane Miss Macao and shoot the pilot; the plane crashes, killing 26 of 27 people on board. June 17 – United Airlines Flight 624, a Douglas DC-6, crashes near Mount Carmel, Pennsylvania, killing 43 and injuring 84 people on board. June 18 Malayan Emergency: A state of emergency is declared in the Federation of Malaya, due to a communist insurgency. LP record – Columbia Records introduces its long playing rpm phonograph format. June 20 – The U.S. Congress recesses for the remainder of 1948, after an overtime session closes at 7:00 a.m. (to be shortly interrupted by Truman's recall from Congressional recess for July 20, 1948). June 21 The Deutsche Mark becomes the official currency of the future Federal Republic of Germany. The Manchester Baby becomes the first stored-program computer to successfully execute a program. June 22 The ship brings a large group of Afro-Caribbean immigrants to Tilbury near London, the start of a large wave of immigration to Britain. David Lean's Oliver Twist, based on Charles Dickens's famous novel, premieres in the UK. It is banned for 3 years in the U.S., because of alleged antisemitism in depicting master criminal Fagin, played by Alec Guinness. June 24 Cold War: The Berlin Blockade begins. The first World Health Assembly of the World Health Organization is held in Geneva. June 26 William Shockley files the original patent for the grown-junction transistor, the first bipolar junction transistor. The Berlin Airlift begins. June 28 The Cominform Resolution marks the beginning of the Informbiro period in Yugoslavia, and the Soviet/Yugoslav split. The 6.8 Fukui earthquake strikes Fukui, Japan; 3,769 are killed, 22,203 injured. Lotte Group, a global conglomerate in Northeast Asia (South Korea and Japan), is founded. July July 5 – The National Health Service in the United Kingdom begins functioning, giving the right to universal healthcare, free at point of use. July 6 – The world's first Air Car-ferry service is flown by a Bristol Freighter of Silver City Airways, from Lympne to Le Touquet across the English Channel. July 13 – The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Churches reach an agreement, leading to the promotion of the Ethiopian church to the rank of an autocephalous Patriarchate. Five bishops are immediately consecrated by the Patriarch of Alexandria, and the successor to Abuna Qerellos IV is granted the power to consecrate new bishops, who are empowered to elect a new Patriarch for their church. July 15 The attempted assassination of Palmiro Togliatti, general secretary of the Italian Communist Party, results in numerous strikes all over the country. The first London chapter of Alcoholics Anonymous is founded. July 20 – Cold War: President Harry S. Truman issues the second peacetime military draft in the United States, amid increasing tensions with the Soviet Union (the first peacetime draft occurred in 1940 under President Roosevelt) Eugene Dennis, William Z. Foster, and ten other CPUSA leaders are arrested, and charged under the Alien Registration Act. July 22 – The Dominion of Newfoundland votes to join Canada, after a referendum. July 26 – U.S. President Truman signs Executive Order 9981, ending racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces. July 28 – Around 200 die in explosion at a chemical plant in Ludwigshafen, Germany. July 29 – The 1948 Summer Olympics begin in London, the first since the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. July 31 At Idlewild Field in New York, New York International Airport (later renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport) is dedicated. Elizabeth Bentley appears under subpoena before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) of the United States House of Representatives regarding Communist espionage; she implicates Whittaker Chambers. Claude Shannon publishes "A mathematical theory of communication" - the paper that laid the foundations for the field of "Information Theory" and all modern digital communications. August August 1 – The U.S. Air Force Office of Special Investigations is founded. August 3 – Whittaker Chambers appears under subpoena before the HUAC, and alleges that several former U.S. Federal officials were communists, including Harry Dexter White and Alger Hiss. August 5 – Alger Hiss appears before the HUAC, to deny the allegations of Whittaker Chambers. August 10–23 – The Herrenchiemsee convention prepares the draft for the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany. August 12 – Babrra massacre: About 600 unarmed members of the Khudai Khidmatgar movement are shot dead on the orders of the Chief Minister of the North-West Frontier Province, Abdul Qayyum Khan Kashmiri, on Babrra ground in the Hashtnagar region of Charsadda District, North-West Frontier Province (modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), Pakistan. August 13 – Harry Dexter White and Donald Hiss refute allegations of Communism by Whittaker Chambers, before the HUAC. August 14 – 1948 Ashes series: Australian batsman Don Bradman, playing his last Test cricket match, against England at The Oval, is bowled by Eric Hollies for a duck; however, "The Invincibles" win the match by an innings and 149 runs, and The Ashes 4–0. August 15 – The southern half of Korea is established as the Republic of Korea (South Korea). August 17 – The HUAC holds a private session between Alger Hiss and Whittaker Chambers. August 18 – The Danube Commission is created by the Belgrade Convention (enters into force 11 May 1949). August 20 – Lee Pressman, Nathan Witt, and John Abt, represented by Harold I. Cammer, plead the Fifth Amendment, in response to allegations of Communism by Whittaker Chambers before the HUAC. August 23 – The World Council of Churches is established in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. August 24 – The first meeting of the charter members of the American Chamber of Commerce in Japan (ACCJ) is held. August 25 – The HUAC holds its first-ever televised congressional hearing, featuring "Confrontation Day" between Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss. August 27 – Whittaker Chambers states that Alger Hiss was a communist on Meet the Press radio. September September 4 – Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands abdicates for health reasons. September 5 – Robert Schuman becomes Prime Minister of France. September 6 – Juliana is formally inaugurated to succeed her mother, as queen regnant of the Netherlands. September 9 – The northern half of Korea is formally declared the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea), with Kim Il-sung as prime minister. September 11 – Muhammad Ali Jinnah, founder and first Governor-General of Pakistan, dies. Pakistan is in a state of shock as it mourns the departure of the father of the nation. The day is a public holiday nationwide. September 13–18 – Indian annexation of Hyderabad ("Operation Polo"): The princely state of Hyderabad is invaded by the Indian Armed Forces in a "police action", in the aftermath of Pakistani leader Jinnah's death. The Nizam of Hyderabad surrenders his state, which is amalgamated into the newly independent Dominion of India; thousands are killed as a result of this event. September 13 – Margaret Chase Smith is elected United States Senator, and becomes the first woman to serve in both the U.S. House Of Representatives and the United States Senate. September 17 – Lehi members, also known as the Stern Gang, assassinate Swedish count Folke Bernadotte, United Nations Mediator in Palestine, in Jerusalem. September 18 – An inaugural motor race is held at Goodwood Circuit, West Sussex, England. September 20 – The city of Rabwah is established in Pakistan. September 27 – Alger Hiss files a slander suit against Whittaker Chambers, for his August 27 radio statement in the United States. September 29 – Laurence Olivier's film of Hamlet opens in the U.S. October October 5 – The International Union for the Protection of Nature (later known as the International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN) is established in Fontainebleau, France. October 6 – 1948 Ashgabat earthquake: A 7.3 earthquake near Ashgabat, Soviet Turkmenistan kills 10,000–110,000. October 10 – The R-1 missile on test becomes the first Soviet launch to enter space. October 16 – The 57th Street Art Fair in Chicago, the oldest juried art fair in the American Midwest, is founded. October 20 – Brandeis University is formally founded in Massachusetts. October 26 – Donora Smog of 1948: A killer smog settles into Donora, Pennsylvania. October 29 – 1948 Arab–Israeli War: Massacres of Palestinian Arab villagers by the Israel Defense Forces: Al-Dawayima massacre: Between 30 and 145 are killed. Safsaf massacre: At least 52 are killed. October 30 – A luzzu fishing boat overloaded with passengers capsizes and sinks in the Gozo Channel off Qala, Gozo, Malta, killing 23 of the 27 people on board. November November 1 The Foley Square trial of Eugene Dennis and ten other CPUSA leaders begins, in New York City. Athenagoras I is elected the 268th Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. A boiler and ammunition explosion aboard a merchant ship evacuating troops of the Republic of China Army from Yingkou, China for Taiwan causes thousands of deaths. November 2 – 1948 United States presidential election: Democratic incumbent Harry S. Truman defeats Republican Thomas E. Dewey, "Dixiecrat" Strom Thurmond, and Progressive party candidate Henry A. Wallace. November 12 – In Tokyo, an international war crimes tribunal sentences seven Japanese military and government officials to death, including General Hideki Tojo, for their roles in World War II. November 15 – Louis Stephen St. Laurent becomes Canada's 12th prime minister. November 16 Operation Magic Carpet to transport Jews from Yemen to Israel begins. The University of the Andes (Universidad de los Andes) is founded in Bogotá, Colombia. November 17 Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi divorces his second wife, the former Princess Fawzia of Egypt. Whittaker Chambers produces secret government papers, handwritten and typewritten by Alger Hiss, during pretrial examination. November 20 – Geoffrey B. Orbell rediscovers the Takahē, last seen 50 years previously, near Lake Te Anau, New Zealand. November 24 – In Venezuela, president Rómulo Gallegos is ousted by a military junta. November 27 – The Calgary Stampeders defeat the Ottawa Rough Riders 12–7 before 20,013 fans at Toronto's Varsity Stadium, to win their first Grey Cup, and complete the only perfect season to date in Canadian Football. December December 1 – José Figueres Ferrer abolishes the army in Costa Rica, making it the first country in history to do so. December 2 – The United States House Un-American Activities Committee subpoenas and retrieves the "Pumpkin Papers" from the farm of Whittaker Chambers. December 6 – Richard Nixon displays microfilm from the "Pumpkin Papers" to the press. December 9 – The United Nations General Assembly adopts the Genocide Convention. December 10 – The United Nations General Assembly adopts the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. December 11–12 – Malayan Emergency: Batang Kali massacre: Scots Guards shoot 24 Chinese villagers in Malaya. December 15 – The United States Department of Justice indicts Alger Hiss, on two counts of perjury. December 17 – The Finnish Security Police is established to remove communist leadership from its predecessor, the State Police. December 19 – In the American National Football League, the Philadelphia Eagles defeat the Chicago Cardinals 7–0, to win the championship. December 20 Indonesian National Revolution: The Dutch military captures Yogyakarta, the temporary capital of the newly formed Republic of Indonesia. American economist and former State Department official Laurence Duggan falls to his death, from the 16th story window of his Manhattan office. December 23 – Seven Japanese military and political leaders, convicted of war crimes by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, are executed by Allied occupation authorities, at Sugamo Prison in Tokyo, Japan. December 26 The last Soviet troops withdraw from North Korea. Cardinal József Mindszenty is arrested in Hungary, and accused of treason and conspiracy. December 28 – A Muslim Brotherhood member assassinates Egyptian Prime Minister Mahmud Fahmi Nokrashi. December 30 – The musical Kiss Me, Kate opens for the first of 1,077 performances in New York City. December 31 – Arab-Israeli War: Israeli troops drive Egyptians from the Negev. Date unknown The Fresh Kills Landfill, the world's largest, opens on Staten Island, New York. The Slovak city Gúta is renamed Kolárovo. The Vielha Tunnel is opened, giving access to the Val d'Aran in the Spanish Pyrenees; at this time it is the longest road tunnel in the world. The Oakridge Transit Centre opens in Vancouver, British Columbia. The last recorded sighting is made of the Caspian tiger, in Kazakhstan. A pack of wolves kills about 40 children in Darovskoy District, in Russia. The last edition of the Index Librorum Prohibitorum is published in the Vatican. Charles Warrell creates the first I-Spy books in the United Kingdom. Rev. W. Awdry's third book, James the Red Engine, is published in the United Kingdom. Inspired by World War II fighter planes, Cadillac introduces the first automobile to sport tailfins. The inaugural 6 Hours of Watkins Glen sports car endurance race is held in the United States. Births January January 1 – Allan Alcorn, American engineer January 2 Judith Miller, American journalist Joyce Wadler, American writer, memoirist Deborah Watling, English actress (d. 2017) January 3 Peggy Quince, U.S. Chief Justice, Supreme Court of Florida Don Johnson Jr., American politician, Georgia Wanda Seux, Paraguayan vedette, dancer, and actress January 4 – Jack Wagner, American Democratic politician January 5 Wally Foreman, Australian media icon (d. 2006) Ted Lange, African-American actor, director (The Love Boat) January 6 Guy Gardener, American astronaut Bob Wise, Former Governor of West Virginia January 7 Kenny Loggins, American rock singer (Footloose) Ichirou Mizuki, Japanese voice actor January 10 Remu Aaltonen, Finnish musician Donald Fagen, American rock keyboardist (Steely Dan) Teresa Graves, African-American actress and comedian (Get Christie Love) (d. 2002) Mischa Maisky, Latvian cellist January 11 Hiroshi Wajima, Japanese sumo wrestler (d. 2018) Terry Goodkind, American writer (d. 2020) Danne Larsson, Swedish musician January 12 Kenny Allen, English footballer Anthony Andrews, English actor January 13 V. Krishnasamy, Malaysian footballer (d. 2020) Françoise David, Canadian spokesperson January 14 T Bone Burnett, American record producer, musician Muhriz of Negeri Sembilan, Yamtuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan Carl Weathers, African-American actor, football player (Rocky IV, Action Jackson) January 15 – Ronnie Van Zant, American rock musician (Lynyrd Skynyrd) (d. 1977) January 16 John Carpenter, American film director, producer, screenwriter and composer Gregor Gysi, German politician Cliff Thorburn, Canadian snooker player Tsuneo Horiuchi, Japanese baseball pitcher, manager January 17 Billy T. James, New Zealand comedian, musician and actor (d. 1991) Davíð Oddsson, Prime Minister of Iceland January 18 – M. C. Gainey, American actor January 19 Frank McKenna, Premier of New Brunswick, Canadian Ambassador Michael J. Jackson, English actor January 20 Nancy Kress, American science fiction writer Jerry L. Ross, American air engineer January 21 – William E. Ingram Jr., Director of the U.S. Army National Guard January 23 Katharine Holabird, American writer Mitoji Yabunaka, Japanese politician January 27 – Mikhail Baryshnikov, Russian dancer January 28 – Charles Taylor, Liberian politician, 22nd President of Liberia January 29 – Marc Singer, Canadian actor (V) January 30 Akira Yoshino, Japanese chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Paul Magee, Provisional Irish Republican Army member January 31 Paul Jabara, American actor, singer and songwriter (d. 1992) Muneo Suzuki, Japanese politician February February 1 – Rick James, African-American urban singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist and record producer (d. 2004) February 2 Ina Garten, American cooking author Roger Williamson, British race car driver (d. 1973) February 3 Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo, East Timorean Catholic bishop, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize Henning Mankell, Swedish crime novelist (d. 2015) February 4 Alice Cooper, American hard rock singer and musician (School's Out) Ram Baran Yadav, President of Nepal February 5 Jim Dornan, Northern Irish obstetrician and gynecologist (d. 2021) Sven-Göran Eriksson, Swedish football manager Christopher Guest, American actor, screenwriter, director and composer (National Lampoon, Saturday Night Live) Barbara Hershey, American actress (Beaches) Tom Wilkinson, English actor February 7 – Jimmy Greenspoon, American keyboardist, composer (Three Dog Night) (d. 2015) February 8 – Dan Seals, American musician (d. 2009) February 9 David Hayman, Scottish film, television and stage actor, director Greg Stafford, American game designer, publisher (d. 2018) February 10 Ûssarĸak K'ujaukitsoĸ, Greenlandic Inuit politician, human rights activist (d. 2018) John Magnier, Irish businessman, thoroughbred racehorse breeder February 11 – Chris Rush, American stand-up comedian February 12 – Raymond Kurzweil, American inventor, author February 13 – Kitten Natividad, Mexican-American film actress February 14 Jackie Martling, American comedian, radio personality Wally Tax, Dutch musician (d. 2005) Raymond Teller, American illusionist and magician, one half of the duo Penn & Teller Yehuda Shoenfeld, Israeli physician, autoimmunity researcher February 15 – Larry DiTillio, American film and TV series writer (d. 2019) February 16 – Eckhart Tolle, German-Canadian spiritual author February 17 György Cserhalmi, Hungarian actor José José, Mexican singer, actor (d. 2019) February 18 – Sinéad Cusack, Irish actress February 19 Pim Fortuyn, Dutch politician, author (d. 2002) Tony Iommi, English heavy metal guitarist Elizabeth Sackler, American activist February 20 – Jennifer O'Neill, American model, actress February 21 – Christian Vander (musician), French drummer, founder of progressive rock/Zeuhl group Magma February 22 John Ashton, American actor Leslie H. Sabo Jr., American Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1970) February 24 Jayalalithaa, Indian politician, film actress (d. 2016) Walter Smith, Scottish football manager (d. 2021) February 25 – Danny Denzongpa, Indian actor February 28 Steven Chu, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate Mike Figgis, American director, screenwriter and composer Kjell Isaksson, Swedish pole vaulter Bernadette Peters, American actress, singer Mercedes Ruehl, American actress Alfred Sant, Leader of Malta Labour Party (1992–), Prime Minister of Malta (1996–1998) February 29 Khalid Salleh, Malaysian actor, poet (d. 2018) Ken Foree, American actor Henry Small, American-born Canadian singer March March 2 R. T. Crowley, American pioneer of electronic commerce Rory Gallagher, Irish musician (d. 1995) Jeff Kennett, Australian politician March 4 Lindy Chamberlain-Creighton, Australian author (A Cry in the Dark) James Ellroy, American writer Tom Grieve, American baseball player Leron Lee, American baseball player Chris Squire, English bassist (Yes) (d. 2015) Shakin' Stevens, Welsh singer Brian Cummings, American voice actor March 5 Eddy Grant, Guyanese British singer, musician ("Electric Avenue") Elaine Paige, English singer, actress March 6 – Anna Maria Horsford, African-American actress (Amen) March 8 Sinta Nuriyah, 4th First Lady of Indonesia, wife of Abdurrahman Wahid Jonathan Sacks, British Orthodox rabbi, philosopher, theologian, author and politician (d. 2020) March 9 László Lovász, Hungarian mathematician Jeffrey Osborne, African-American singer ("On the Wings of Love") March 10 – Doug Clark, American serial killer March 11 Roy Barnes, American politician, 80th Governor of Georgia Dominique Sanda, French actress March 12 – James Taylor, American singer, songwriter ("Fire and Rain") March 13 – Maurice A. de Gosson, Austrian mathematician March 14 Tom Coburn, American politician and physician (d. 2020) Billy Crystal, American actor, comedian March 15 – Sérgio Vieira de Mello, Brazilian diplomat (d. 2003) March 16 – Margaret Weis, American science fiction writer March 17 – William Gibson, American/Canadian writer March 18 Jessica B. Harris, American historian and journalist Bobby Whitlock, American singer and songwriter March 20 John de Lancie, American actor Bobby Orr, Canadian hockey player Helene Vannari, Estonian actress March 22 Inri Cristo, Brazilian educator who claims to be Jesus Christ reincarnated Wolf Blitzer, American television journalist (CNN) Andrew Lloyd Webber, English composer (Jesus Christ Superstar) March 25 – Bonnie Bedelia, American actress March 26 Nash the Slash (b. James Jeffrey Plewman), Canadian musician (d. 2014) Steven Tyler, American rock singer, songwriter (Aerosmith) March 28 Jayne Ann Krentz, American novelist Dianne Wiest, American actress March 29 Mike Heideman, American basketball coach (d. 2018) Bud Cort, American actor (Harold and Maude) March 30 – Eddie Jordan, Irish founder of Jordan Grand Prix March 31 Al Gore, 45th Vice President of the United States, 2000 Democratic nominee for president, environmentalist Rhea Perlman, American actress (Cheers) April April 1 – Jimmy Cliff, Jamaican singer, actor April 2 Bob Lienhard, American basketball player (d. 2018) Roald Als, Danish cartoonist April 3 – Carlos Salinas de Gortari, Mexican economist, politician and 53rd President of Mexico (1988-1994) April 4 Squire Parsons, American gospel singer, songwriter Dan Simmons, American fantasy, science fiction author Berry Oakley, American musician (d. 1972) April 5 – Neil Portnow, American President of The Recording Academy (NARAS) April 7 Arnie Robinson, American Olympic Long jump champion (d. 2020) John Oates, American rock singer, guitarist (Hall & Oates) Pietro Anastasi, Italian football player (d. 2020) April 9 – Jaya Bachchan, Indian actress and politician April 10 – Fauzi Bowo, Indonesian politician, diplomat and former governor of Jakarta April 12 Jeremy Beadle, English TV presenter (d. 2008) Don Fernando, American pornographic film actor, director Joschka Fischer, German politician Marcello Lippi, Italian football player, manager April 13 Nam Hae-il, 25th Chief of Naval Operations of the Republic of Korea Navy Mikhail Shufutinsky, Soviet, Russian singer, actor and TV presenter April 15 – Michael Kamen, American composer (d. 2003) April 16 Ammar El Sherei, Egyptian music icon, celebrity (d. 2012) Kazuyuki Sogabe, Japanese voice actor (d. 2006) April 17 Jan Hammer, Czechoslovakian composer, pianist and keyboardist Peter Jenni, Swiss experimental particle physicist April 18 – Avi Arad, Israeli-American film producer April 20 – Paul Milgrom, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate April 21 Paul Davis, American singer, songwriter (Cool Night) (d. 2008) Josef Flammer, Swiss ophthalmologist (after whom Flammer syndrome is named) April 24 – István Szívós, Hungarian water polo player (d. 2019) April 27 Amrit Kumar Bohara, Nepalese politician Frank Abagnale, American con man, imposter Si Robertson, American reality star, preacher, hunter, outdoorsman, and U.S. Army veteran April 28 Terry Pratchett, English comic fantasy, science fiction author (d. 2015) Marcia Strassman, American actress, singer (Welcome Back, Kotter) (d. 2014) April 29 – Michael Karoli, German musician (d. 2001) April 30 – Jocelyne Saab, Lebanese journalist, film director (d. 2019) May May 2 Vladimir Matorin, Russian opera singer Larry Gatlin, American singer, songwriter May 3 William H. Miller, American maritime historian Chris Mulkey, American actor May 4 Jan Kantůrek, Czech translator (d. 2018) Tanya Falan, American singer King George Tupou V of Tongo (d. 2012) May 5 Joe Esposito, American singer, songwriter Richard Pacheco, American pornographic actor Bill Ward, English rock drummer May 7 – Susan Atkins, convicted murderer and ex-follower of Charles Manson (d. 2009) May 8 Dame Felicity Lott, English soprano Stephen Stohn, Canadian television producer May 9 Steven W. Mosher, American social scientist, author Calvin Murphy, American basketball player, analyst May 10 – Meg Foster, American actress May 11 Pam Ferris, Welsh actress Shigeru Izumiya, Japanese musician May 12 Steve Winwood, English rock singer (Higher Love) Lindsay Crouse, American actress May 13 – Hawk Wolinski, American keyboardist May 14 – Bob Woolmer, Indian-born English cricket coach (d. 2007) May 15 Yutaka Enatsu, Japanese professional baseball pitcher Brian Eno, English musician, record producer May 16 – Jesper Christensen, Danish actor May 17 – Penny DeHaven, American country singer (d. 2014) May 18 Olivia Harrison, American author and film producer Mikko Heiniö, Finnish composer May 19 – Grace Jones, Jamaican singer, actress May 20 – Tesshō Genda, Japanese voice actor May 21 D'Jamin Bartlett, American musical theatre actress Elizabeth Buchan, English writer Jonathan Hyde, Australian-born English actor Carol Potter, American actress Leo Sayer, English rock musician (When I Need You) May 22 – Richard Baker (American politician), American politician May 23 – Gary McCord, American professional golfer May 25 – Klaus Meine, German singer (Scorpions) May 26 Dayle Haddon, Canadian model, actress Stevie Nicks, American rock singer, songwriter (Fleetwood Mac) May 27 – Wubbo de Boer, Dutch civil servant May 29 – Michael Berkeley, English composer May 30 – Paul L. Schechter, American astronomer and cosmologist May 31 Svetlana Alexievich, Belarusian writer of literary reportage, Nobel Prize laureate Lynda Bellingham, English actress, broadcaster and author (d. 2014) John Bonham, English rock drummer (Led Zeppelin) (d. 1980) Joseph A. Stirt, American anesthesiologist, author June June 1 Powers Boothe, American actor (Guyana Tragedy: The Story of Jim Jones) (d. 2017) Tom Sneva, American race car driver, Indianapolis 500 winner June 2 – Jerry Mathers, American actor (Leave It to Beaver) June 3 – Carlos Franzetti, Argentine composer and arranger June 4 Bob Champion, English jump jockey David Haskell, American actor (d. 2000) June 5 – Alex Sink, American politician June 6 – Richard Sinclair, English musician (Caravan) June 7 – Jim C. Walton, American business person, (′′Walmart′′) June 8 Jürgen von der Lippe, German television presenter, actor and comedian Jad Azkoul, Lebanese-American classical guitarist June 9 Gudrun Schyman, Swedish politician Gary Thorne, American play-by-play announcer June 10 – Subrata Roy, Indian businessman June 11 – Dave Cash, American baseball player June 12 – Sadegh Zibakalam, Iranian academic reformist June 13 – Garnet Bailey, Canadian hockey player, scout (d. 2001) June 14 – Laurence Yep, American author June 15 – Paul Michiels, Belgian singer, songwriter June 16 – Terry Schofield, American basketball player June 17 – Dave Concepción, Venezuelan baseball player June 18 – Sherry Turkle, American science/social studies professor Eliezer Halfin, Israeli wrestler (d. 1972) June 19 Nick Drake, English musician (d. 1974) Lea Laven, Finnish singer Phylicia Rashad, African-American actress (The Cosby Show) June 20 Diana Mara Henry, American freelance photojournalist Alan Longmuir, Scottish musician (d. 2018) Ludwig Scotty, President of Nauru Tina Sinatra, American former singer, actress, film producer, and memoirist June 21 Lionel Rose, Australian boxer (d. 2011) Jovan Aćimović, Serbian football player Raffaello Martinelli, Italian prelate Philippe Sarde, French film composer Andrzej Sapkowski, Polish writer Wolfgang Seel, German football player Greg Hyder, American professional basketball player June 22 Madeleine Meilleur, Canadian politician Takashi Sasano, Japanese actor Shōhaku Okumura, Japanese Soto Zen Peter Prijdekker, Dutch swimmer Sue Roberts, American professional golfer Todd Rundgren, American rock singer, record producer (Hello It's Me) Curtis Johnson, American football cornerback Franciszek Smuda, Polish football coach Panagiotis Xanthakos, Greek sports shoote Colin Waldron, English football defender June 23 Larry Coker, American football player, coach Jim Heacock, American defensive coordinator Luther Kent, American blues singer Clarence Thomas, African-American Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States June 24 Stephen Martin, Australian politician, senior academic and rugby league referee Patrick Moraz, Swiss keyboard player Janet Museveni, First Lady of Uganda Dave Orchard, South African cricketer Eigil Sørensen, Danish cyclist Jürgen Stars, German footballer Jenny Wood, Zimbabwean swimmer June 25 Kenn George, American businessman Michael Lembeck, American actor, television and film director Tom Rideout, Canadian politician June 26 David Vaughan, Welsh professional golfer John Pratt, English professional footballer Pablo Anaya Rivera, Mexican politician June 27 Vennira Aadai Nirmala, Tamil actress Michael J. Barrett, Guamanian politician Camile Baudoin, American rock guitarist June 28 Deborah Moggach, English writer Kathy Bates, American actress (Misery) Jimmy Thomson, Scottish professional footballer Brian Rowan, Scottish professional footballer June 29 Danny Adcock, Australian actor Vic Brooks, English cricketer Leo Burke, Canadian professional wrestler Fred Grandy, American actor, politician (The Love Boat) Helge Karlsen, Norwegian football player Ian Paice, English musician (Deep Purple) Usha Prashar, Baroness Prashar, crossbench member of the House of Lords June 30 Alice Wong, Canadian politician Dag Fornæss, Norwegian speed skater Peter Rossborough, English rugby union international Galarrwuy Yunupingu, Australian Indigenous community leader Vladimir Yakunin, Russian official, head of state-run Russian Railways Company Raymond Leo Burke, American cardinal, prelate July July 1 Ever Hugo Almeida, Paraguayan footballer John Ford, English-born rock musician (Strawbs), writer of Part of the Union Michael McGimpsey, Northern Ireland politician July 2 Mario Villanueva, Mexican politician Saul Rubinek, German-Canadian character actor, director, producer and playwright July 3 – Tarmo Koivisto, Finnish comics artist July 4 René Arnoux, French racing driver Louis Raphaël I Sako, Head of the Chaldean Catholic Church Ed Armbrister, Bahamian Major League Baseball outfielder Nazmul Hussain, Indian first-class cricketer Jeremy Spencer, British musician July 5 Tony DeMeo, American football coach, player Dave Lemonds, American baseball player Salomon Juan Marcos Issa, Mexican politician Lojze Peterle, Slovenian politician William Hootkins, American actor (d. 2005) July 6 Nathalie Baye, French actress Jeff Webb, American professional basketball player Arnaldo Baptista, Brazilian rock musician, composer Brad Park, Canadian NHL Defenseman Sid Smith, American football offensive lineman Eiko Segawa, Japanese female enka singer, actress Jan van der Veen, Dutch professional association football player July 7 Jerry Sherk, American football defensive tackle Jean LeClerc, Québécois actor Jean-Marie Colombani, French journalist Tan Lee Meng, Singaporean jurist Stuart Varney, British-American economic consultant Luis Estrada, Mexican football league forward, Olympic athlete July 8 – Raffi, Egyptian-born children's entertainer July 10 Theo Bücker, German football manager, player Mick Coop, English professional football right back Rich Hand, American professional baseball player July 12 Richard Simmons, American television personality, fitness expert Jay Thomas, American actor (d. 2017) July 13 Alf Hansen, Norwegian rower Daphne Maxwell Reid, African-American actress Don Sweet, Canadian star football kicker Robert A. Underwood, Guamanian politician, educator July 14 – Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu, Zulu king (d. 2021) July 15 Enriqueta Basilio, Mexican track and field athlete (d.2019) Richard Franklin, Australian film director (d. 2007) Twinkle, English singer, songwriter (d. 2015) July 16 Rubén Blades, Panamanian singer, actor and musician Rita Barberá, Spanish politician, Mayor of Valencia (d. 2016) Lars Lagerbäck, Swedish football manager, player Jeff Van Wagenen, American professional golfer Pinchas Zukerman, Israeli violinist July 17 Doug Berry, American Canadian football coach Alan Sieler, Australian cricketer July 18 – Hartmut Michel, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate July 20 Muse Watson, American actor Maroun Elias Nimeh Lahham, Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Tunis July 21 Beppe Grillo, Italian activist, blogger, comedian and actor Ed Hinton, American sportswriter Cat Stevens (b. Steven Georgiou, later known as Yusuf Islam), British singer, musician Garry Trudeau, American cartoonist (Doonesbury) Teruzane Utada, Japanese music executive producer, attendant Mikhail Zadornov, Russian stand-up comedian, writer Snooty, male Florida manatee (d. 2017) July 22 Susan Eloise Hinton, American author Otto Waalkes, German comedian, actor July 23 – John Cushnahan, Northern Irish politician July 25 Steve Goodman, American Grammy Award-winning folk music singer, songwriter (d. 1984) Tony Cline, American football player (d. 2018) July 27 – Peggy Fleming, American figure skater July 28 Gerald Casale, American director, singer (Devo)\ Georgia Engel, American actress (d. 2019) Sally Struthers, American actress, spokeswoman (All in the Family) July 30 Jean Reno, French actor Julia Tsenova, Bulgarian composer, musician (d. 2010) July 31 – Jonathan Dollimore, English academic sociologist, cultural theorist August August 2 Dennis Prager, American radio talk show host, author Bob Rae, Canadian politician August 3 – Jean-Pierre Raffarin, Prime Minister of France August 4 – Giorgio Parisi, Italian theoretical physicist and Nobel Prize laureate August 7 – James P. Allison, American immunologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine August 12 – Mizengo Pinda, 9th Prime Minister of Tanzania August 13 – Kathleen Battle, African-American soprano August 14 – Joseph Marcell, English actor August 15 Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi, Iranian cleric, politician (d. 2018) George Ryton, Singapore-born English Formula One engineer August 18 – Sean Scanlan, Scottish actor (d. 2017) August 19 – Loredana Lopez, Spanish singer (d. 1996) Robert Hughes, Australian actor Tipper Gore, Second Lady of the United States Deana Martin, American singer and actress August 20 John Noble, Australian actor Robert Plant, English singer (Led Zeppelin) Barbara Allen Rainey (b. Barbara Ann Allen), American aviator, first female pilot in the U.S. armed forces (d. 1982) August 21 Sharon M. Draper, American children's book author (Out of My Mind (Draper novel)) Peter Starkie, Australian rock guitarist (Skyhooks, Jo Jo Zep & The Falcons) August 22 – David Marks, American guitarist (The Beach Boys) August 23 – Lev Zeleny, Soviet, Russian physicist August 24 Jean-Michel Jarre, French electronic musician Sauli Niinistö, Finnish politician, 12th President of Finland Kim Sung-il, Chief of Staff of the Republic of Korea Air Force Vicente Sotto III, Filipino actor, host and politician August 25 – Tony Ramos, Brazilian actor August 27 – Sgt. Slaughter, American professional wrestler August 30 Lewis Black, American comedian Fred Hampton, African-American activist (d. 1969) Victor Skumin, Russian scientist, professor August 31 Cyril Jordan, American musician Holger Osieck, German football manager September September 1 – James Rebhorn, American actor (d. 2014) September 2 Nate Archibald, American basketball player Terry Bradshaw, American football player, sportscaster Christa McAuliffe, American teacher and astronaut (d. in Space Shuttle Challenger disaster 1986) September 3 Don Brewer, American drummer (Grand Funk Railroad) Levy Mwanawasa, Zambian president (d. 2008) September 4 Michael Berryman, American actor Samuel Hui, Hong Kong singer September 5 – Benita Ferrero-Waldner, Austrian diplomat, politician September 7 – Susan Blakely, American actress September 8 – The Great Kabuki, Japanese professional wrestler September 10 Judy Geeson, English actress Bob Lanier, American basketball player Margaret Trudeau (b. Margaret Sinclair), wife and mother of Prime Ministers of Canada Charlie Waters, American football player September 11 – John Martyn (b. Iain McGeachy), British folk-rock guitarist (d. 2009) September 13 Nell Carter, African-American singer, actress (Gimme a Break!) (d. 2003) Sitiveni Rabuka, 3rd Prime Minister of Fiji Kathleen Lloyd, American actress September 16 – Ron Blair, American rock bassist (Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers) September 17 Aidan Nichols, English Dominican priest and academic John Ritter, American actor (Three's Company) (d. 2003) September 19 Jeremy Irons, English actor Nadiya Tkachenko, Soviet pentathlete September 20 Rey Langit, Filipino journalist, radio host George R. R. Martin, American speculative fiction author September 22 Denis Burke, Australian politician Jim Byrnes, American voice actor, blues musician and actor Mark Phillips, British army captain, equestrian and first husband of Anne, Princess Royal September 23 – José Lavat, Mexican voice actor (d. 2018) September 24 – Phil Hartman, Canadian actor, comedian (Saturday Night Live) (d. 1998) September 25 Cäcilia Rentmeister, German art historian, gender researcher Vladimir Yevtushenkov, Russian oligarch September 26 Maurizio Gucci, Italian businessman, murder victim (d. 1995) Olivia Newton-John, English-born Australian singer, actress Vladimír Remek, Czech politician and cosmonaut September 27 Michele Dotrice, English actress A Martinez, American actor, singer September 29 Mark Farner, American rock guitarist, singer (Grand Funk Railroad) Bryant Gumbel, African-American television broadcaster (The Today Show) Theo Jörgensmann, German jazz clarinetist Burton Richardson, American game show announcer October October 1 Mark Landon, American actor (d. 2009) Sir Peter Blake, New Zealand yachtsman (k. 2001) October 2 Avery Brooks, American actor, musician Persis Khambatta, Indian actress, model (Star Trek: The Motion Picture) (d. 1998) Chris LeDoux, American singer, rodeo star (d. 2005) Donna Karan, American fashion designer October 4 Meg Bennett, American soap opera writer Iain Hewitson, New Zealand-Australian chef, restaurateur, author, and television personality October 6 Wendell Ladner, American basketball player (d. 1975) Gerry Adams, Northern Irish politician October 7 – Diane Ackerman, American poet, essayist October 8 Johnny Ramone, American guitarist (Ramones) (d. 2004) Baldwin Spencer, 3rd Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda October 9 Jackson Browne, American rock musician (Running on Empty) Ciarán Carson, Northern Irish poet, novelist Oliver Hart, English-born economist, Nobel Prize laureate October 11 Margie Alexander, American gospel, soul singer (d. 2013) Cynthia Clawson, American gospel singer October 12 – Rick Parfitt, English musician (Status Quo) (d. 2016) October 13 John Ford Coley, American rock musician (I'd Really Love to See You Tonight) Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Pakistani musician (d. 1997) Ted Poe, American politician October 14 Engin Arık, Turkish nuclear physicist (d. 2007) David Ruprecht, American actor, writer (Supermarket Sweep) John Otto, American politician (d. 2020) October 15 Renato Corona, Filipino jurist, lawyer (d. 2016) Chris de Burgh, born Christopher Davison, Argentine-born Anglo-Irish singer, songwriter October 16 Leo Mazzone, American baseball coach Hema Malini, Indian actress, writer, director, producer, dancer and politician October 17 Robert Jordan, American novelist (d. 2007) Margot Kidder, Canadian actress (Superman) (d. 2018) Akira Kushida, Japanese singer Ng Jui Ping, Singaporean entrepreneur and former army general (d. 2020) George Wendt, American actor (Cheers) October 18 Hans Köchler, Austrian philosopher Ntozake Shange, African-American playwright and poet (d. 2018) October 19 – Patrick Simmons, American musician (The Doobie Brothers) October 21 Tom Everett, American actor Allen Vigneron, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Detroit October 22 Lynette Fromme, American attempted assassin of Gerald Ford Debbie Macomber, American author October 23 – Sir Gerry Robinson, Irish-born British businessman October 25 Dave Cowens, American basketball player, coach Dan Gable, American wrestler, coach Dan Issel, American basketball player and coach October 26 – Toby Harrah, American baseball player October 28 – Telma Hopkins, African-American actress, singer (Tony Orlando and Dawn) October 29 – Kate Jackson, American actress (Charlie's Angels) October 30 – Garry McDonald, Australian actor, satirist, and comedian November November 1 – Anna Stuart, American actress November 3 – Lulu (b. Marie McDonald McLaughlin Lawrie), Scottish singer, actress (To Sir, with Love) November 4 Delia Casanova, Mexican actress Amadou Toumani Touré, 3rd President of Mali (d. 2020) November 5 Charles Bradley, African-American singer (d. 2017) Bob Barr, American politician Dallas Holm, American Christian musician Zacharias Jimenez, Filipino Roman Catholic bishop (d. 2018) Khalid Ibrahim Khan, Pakistani politician (d. 2018) William Daniel Phillips, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate November 6 – Glenn Frey, American guitarist, singer (Eagles) (d. 2016) November 7 – Jim Houghton, American actor, director November 9 Viktor Matviyenko, Ukrainian footballer, coach (d. 2018) Luiz Felipe Scolari, Brazilian football player, manager Kelly Harmon, American actress and model November 10 – Vincent Schiavelli, American character actor and food writer (d. 2005) November 12 Skip Campbell, American politician (d. 2018) Hassan Rouhani, 7th President of Iran Richard Roberts, American evangelist, son of Oral Roberts November 13 Humayun Ahmed, Bengali-language writer Lockwood Smith, New Zealand politician November 14 Charles, Prince of Wales (b. Prince Charles of Edinburgh), heir apparent to the British throne and son of Elizabeth II (at this time Duchess of Edinburgh) and The Duke of Edinburgh Robert Ginty, American actor, producer, screenwriter and director (d. 2009) Dee Wallace, American actress November 15 – James Kemsley, Australian cartoonist, actor (d. 2007) November 16 Chi Coltrane, American musician (Thunder and Lightning) Ken James, Australian actor Mutt Lange, Rhodesian-born record producer Mate Parlov, Yugoslav Olympic boxer (d. 2008) November 17 Howard Dean, American politician, 79th Governor of Vermont Tom Wolf, American politician, 47th Governor of Pennsylvania November 18 – Dom Irrera, American actor and stand-up comedian November 19 – Rance Allen, African-American gospel singer, preacher November 20 Harlee McBride, American actress John R. Bolton, U.S. Ambassador to the U.N., National Security Advisor Barbara Hendricks, American singer Richard Masur, American actor, director and president of the Screen Actors Guild November 21 Alphonse Mouzon, American jazz drummer (d. 2016) Michel Suleiman, President of Lebanon November 22 – Saroj Khan, Indian dance choreographer (d. 2020) November 23 Dominique-France Picard (aka Princess Fadila of Egypt), wife of King Fuad II of Egypt and the Sudan Ron Bouchard, American NASCAR driver (d. 2015) Gabriele Seyfert, East German figure skater Bonfoh Abass, Togolese politician and President of Togo (d. 2021) November 24 – Joe Howard, American actor November 25 – Antoine Sfeir, Franco-Lebanese journalist, professor (d. 2018) November 26 Elizabeth Blackburn, Australian-American biologist, winner of Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Gayle McCormick, American singer (Smith) (d. 2016) Marianne Muellerleile, American actress November 28 – Agnieszka Holland, Polish film, television director and screenwriter December December 2 T. Coraghessan Boyle, American writer Rajat Gupta, Indian-American businessman Patricia Hewitt, British Labour Party politician Toninho Horta, Brazilian singer, musician Christine Westermann, German television, radio host, journalist and author December 3 Rick Cua, American singer, evangelist Ozzy Osbourne, English singer (Black Sabbath) December 6 Keke Rosberg, Finnish Formula One champion Marius Müller-Westernhagen, German actor, musician JoBeth Williams, American actress, director Yoshihide Suga, Prime Minister of Japan December 7 Gary Morris, American country singer, actor Tony Thomas, American television and film producer Mads Vinding, Danish bassist December 10 – Abu Abbas, Palestine Liberation Front founder (d. 2004) December 11 – Chester Thompson, American rock drummer December 12 – Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, 20th President of Portugal December 13 Lillian Board, South African-born English Olympic athlete (d. 1970) Ted Nugent, American rock guitarist, singer, conservative political commentator (Cat Scratch Fever) David O'List, English rock guitarist December 14 Lester Bangs, American music journalist (d. 1982) Kim Beazley, Australian politician Dee Wallace, American actress December 15 Melanie Chartoff, American actress and singer (Rugrats) Charlie Scott, American basketball player December 18 – Edmund Kemper, American serial killer December 19 – Ken Brown, Canadian ice hockey player December 20 Abdulrazak Gurnah, Zanzibar-born novelist, Nobel Prize laureate Alan Parsons, English songwriter, musician and record producer December 21 Samuel L. Jackson, African-American actor, film producer Willi Resetarits, Austrian musician, cabaret artist December 22 Noel Edmonds, English TV presenter, DJ Steve Garvey, American baseball player Flip Mark, American child actor Lynne Thigpen, African-American actress (Godspell) (d. 2003) December 23 – Jim Ferguson, American guitarist, composer, educator, author and music journalist December 25 Alia Al-Hussein, born Alia Toukan, queen consort of Jordan (d. 1977) Barbara Mandrell, American country singer, musician and actress December 27 Ronnie Caldwell, American soul music, rhythm and blues musician (d. 1967) Gérard Depardieu, French actor December 28 – Mary Weiss, American singer (The Shangri-Las) December 29 – Peter Robinson, Northern Ireland First Minister December 31 Stephen Cleobury, English choral conductor (d. 2019) Joe Dallesandro, American model, actor Sandy Jardine, Scottish professional footballer, playing for Rangers and Hearts and representing Scotland (d. 2014) Donna Summer, African-American singer, actress (Love to Love You Baby) (d. 2012) Deaths January January 1 – Edna May, American actress (b. 1878) January 2 – Vicente Huidobro, Chilean poet (b. 1893) January 4 – Anna Kallina, Austrian actress (b. 1874) January 5 – Mary Dimmick Harrison, wife of President Benjamin Harrison (b. 1858) January 7 Charles C. Wilson, American actor (b. 1894) Maria de Maeztu Whitney, Spanish educator, feminist (b. 1882) January 8 Charles Magnusson, Swedish producer, screenwriter (b. 1878) Kurt Schwitters, German artist (b. 1887) Edward Stanley Kellogg, 16th Governor of American Samoa (b. 1870) January 12 – Herbert Allen Farmer, American criminal (b. 1891) January 19 – Tony Garnier, French architect (b. 1869) January 21 Eliza Moore, last person born into slavery in the United States (b. 1843) Naomasa Sakonju, Japanese admiral and war criminal (executed) (b. 1890) Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, Italian composer (b. 1876) January 24 Bill Cody, American actor (b. 1891) Maria Mandl, Austrian concentration camp guard and war criminal (executed) (b. 1912) January 26 – Georg Bruchmüller, German artillery officer (b. 1863) January 28 Therese Brandl, German concentration camp guard and war criminal (executed) (b. 1902) Anna Maria Gove, American physician (b. 1867) January 29 – King Tomislav II of Croatia (b. 1900) January 30 Nigel De Brulier, British actor (b. 1877) Sir Arthur Coningham, British air force air marshal (disappeared) (b. 1895) Mahatma Gandhi, Leader of Indian independence movement, (assassinated) (b. 1869) Orville Wright, American co-inventor of the airplane (b. 1871) February February 2 Thomas W. Lamont, American banker (b. 1870) Bevil Rudd, South African athlete (b. 1894) February 4 – Otto Praeger, American postal official, implemented U.S. Airmail (b. 1871) February 8 – Samuel P. Bush, American businessman, industrialist (b. 1863) February 9 – Karl Valentin, German actor (b. 1882) February 11 Sergei Eisenstein, Soviet film director (b. 1898) Sir Isaac Isaacs, 9th Governor-General of Australia (b. 1855) February 15 – Subhadra Kumari Chauhan, Indian poet (b. 1904) February 23 – John Robert Gregg, Irish-born inventor of shorthand (b. 1866) February 25 Alfredo Baldomir, Uruguayan politician, soldier, architect, 27th President of Uruguay and World War II leader (b. 1884) Alexander du Toit, South African geologist (b. 1878) Juan Esteban Montero, Chilean political figure, 20th President of Chile (b. 1879) February 27 – Patriarch Nicodim of Romania (b. 1864) March March 4 – Antonin Artaud, French playwright, actor and director (b. 1896) March 10 Zelda Fitzgerald, American wife of F. Scott Fitzgerald (b. 1900) Jan Masaryk, Czechoslovakian Foreign Minister (b. 1886) March 23 – George Milne, 1st Baron Milne, British field marshal (b. 1866) March 24 Nikolai Berdyaev, Soviet religious leader, political philosopher (b. 1874) Paolo Thaon di Revel, former admiral of the Royal Italian Navy (b. 1859) March 31 – Egon Erwin Kisch, Austrian journalist, author (b. 1885) April April 2 Biagio Biagetti, Italian painter (b. 1877) Baba Sawan Singh, Indian saint known as "The Great Master" (b. 1858) April 5 – Angelo Joseph Rossi, American political figure, Mayor of San Francisco (b. 1878) April 7 – Isabel Andreu de Aguilar, Puerto Rican writer, educator, philanthropist and activist (b. 1887) April 8 – Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni, Palestinian Arab nationalist (b. 1907) April 9 – Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, Colombian politician (assassinated) (b. 1903) April 12 – Masaomi Yasuoka, Japanese general (executed) (b. 1886) April 15 – Manuel Roxas, Filipino statesman, 5th President of the Philippines (b. 1892) April 17 – Kantarō Suzuki, Japanese admiral, 42nd Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1868) April 19 – Mikhail Rostovtsev, Soviet actor (b. 1872) April 20 – Mitsumasa Yonai, Japanese admiral and politician, 37th Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1880) April 21 – Carlos López Buchardo, Argentine composer (b. 1881) April 22 – Prosper Montagné, French chef and author (b. 1865) April 24 – Manuel Ponce, Mexican composer (b. 1882) April 25 – Gerardo Matos Rodriguez, Uruguayan composer, journalist and pianist (b. 1897) April 30 – Alfredo Miguel Aguayo Sánchez, Puerto Rican educator, writer (b. 1866) May May 9 – Viola Allen, American actress (b. 1867) May 13 Milan Begović, Yugoslavian writer (b. 1876) Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington (b. 1920) May 15 André Dauchez, French painter (b. 1870) Father Edward J. Flanagan, Irish-born American Roman Catholic priest, founder of Boys Town and monsignor (b. 1886) Toyoaki Horiuchi, Japanese general, Class B war criminal suspect (executed) (b. 1900) May 16 – Muhammad Habibullah, Indian politician (b. 1869) May 18 – Francisco Alonso, Spanish composer (b. 1887) May 19 – Maximilian Lenz, Austrian painter and sculptor (b. 1860) May 21 – Jacques Feyder, French filmmaker (b. 1885) May 22 – Claude McKay, Jamaican-born American writer and poet (b. 1889) May 25 – Witold Pilecki, Polish resistance leader (executed) (b. 1901) May 26 – Émile Gaston Chassinat, French egyptologist (b. 1868) May 28 – Unity Mitford, British socialite; friend of Adolf Hitler (b. 1914) May 29 – Dame May Whitty, British actress (b. 1865) May 30 – József Klekl, Slovene politician in Hungary (b. 1874) June June 1 – José Vianna da Motta, Portuguese pianist, teacher and composer (b. 1868) June 2 Viktor Brack, German doctor (executed) (b. 1904) Karl Brandt, German S.S. officer (executed) (b. 1904) Rudolf Brandt, German S.S. officer (executed) (b. 1909) Karl Gebhardt, German S.S. officer (executed) (b. 1897) Waldemar Hoven, German S.S. officer (executed) (b. 1903) Joachim Mrugowsky, German S.S. officer (executed) (b. 1905) Wolfram Sievers, German S.S. officer (executed) (b. 1905) June 6 – Louis Lumière, French film pioneer (b. 1864) June 8 – Giacomo Albanese, Italian mathematician (b. 1890) June 13 – Osamu Dazai, Japanese writer (b. 1909) June 16 – Eugênia Álvaro Moreyra, Brazilian journalist, actress and director (b. 1898) June 25 Bento de Jesus Caraça, Portuguese mathematician, economist and statistician (b. 1901) William C. Lee, American general (b. 1895) June 26 Nasib al-Bitar, Palestine jurist (b. 1890) Lilian Velez, Filipino actress (murdered) (b. 1924) June 30 – Prince Sabahaddin (b. 1879) July July 1 – Assunta Marchetti, Italian Roman Catholic religious professed and blessed July 4 Albert Bates, American criminal (b. 1893) Monteiro Lobato, Brazilian writer (b. 1882) July 5 Georges Bernanos, French writer (b. 1888) Charles Fillmore, American Protestant mystic (b. 1854) Carole Landis, American actress (b. 1919) July 9 James Baskett, African-American actor (Uncle Remus in Disney's Song of the South) (b. 1904) Alcibiades Diamandi, Greek political figure (b. 1893) July 11 King Baggot, American actor (b. 1879) Franz Weidenreich, German anatomist, physical anthropologist (b. 1873) July 14 Harry Brearley, British inventor of stainless steel (b. 1871) Marguerite Moreno, French actress (b. 1871) July 15 – John J. Pershing, American general (b. 1860) July 17 – Ildebrando Zacchini, Maltese painter, inventor and traveller (b. 1868) July 18 – Baldassarre Negroni, Italian director, screenwriter (b. 1877) July 21 – Arshile Gorky, Soviet-born painter (b. 1904) July 22 – Sud Mennucci, Brazilian journalist, educator (b. 1882) July 23 – D. W. Griffith, American film director (The Birth of a Nation) (b. 1875) July 24 – Pencho Zlatev, Bulgarian general, 25th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (b. 1881) July 26 – Antonin Sertillanges, French Catholic philosopher, spiritual writer (b. 1863) July 27 – Joe Tinker, American baseball player (Chicago Cubs), MLB Hall of Fame member (b. 1880) July 28 – Susan Glaspell, American playwright (b. 1876) July 31 – Lucy Mercer Rutherfurd, mistress of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (b. 1891) August August 3 – Tommy Ryan, American boxing champion (b. 1870) August 4 – Mileva Marić, Serbian physicist and mathematician, wife of Albert Einstein (b. 1875) August 7 – Charles Bryant, American actor (b. 1879) August 10 – Andrew Brown, Scottish soccer coach (b. 1870) August 11 – Kan'ichi Asakawa, Japanese historian (b. 1873) August 13 – Edwin Maxwell, Irish actor (b. 1886) August 16 – Babe Ruth, American baseball player (New York Yankees), MLB Hall of Fame member (b. 1895) August 26 – George Anderson, American actor (b. 1886) August 27 Cissie Cahalan, Irish trade union, feminist and suffragette (b. 1876) Charles Evans Hughes, 11th Chief Justice of the United States, 1916 Republican presidential candidate (b. 1862) September September 1 – Muhammad VII al-Munsif, ruler of Tunisia (1942–43) (b. 1881) September 2 – Sylvanus G. Morley, American scholar, World War I spy (b. 1883) September 3 – Edvard Beneš, Czechoslovakian politician, 4th Prime Minister of Czechoslovakia and 2-time President of Czechoslovakia (b. 1884) September 5 – Richard C. Tolman, American mathematical physicist (b. 1881) September 7 – André Suarès, French poet, critic (b. 1868) September 10 – Tsar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria (b. 1861) September 11 – Muhammad Ali Jinnah, founder, first Governor General of Pakistan (b. 1876) September 12 Rupert D'Oyly Carte, British hotelier, theatre owner and impresario (b. 1876) Carlo Servolini, Italian artist (b. 1876) September 13 – Paul Wegener, German actor, film director, and screenwriter; one of the pioneers of German Expressionism (b. 1874) September 17 Ruth Benedict, American anthropologist, folklorist (b. 1887) Folke Bernadotte, Swedish diplomat (assassinated) (b. 1895) Emil Ludwig, German-born Swiss historian, biographer (b. 1881) Raffaele Rossi, Italian Roman Catholic cardinal, eminence and servant of God (b. 1876) September 20 – Husain Salaahuddin, Famous Mahl writer (b. 1881) September 22 – Prince Adalbert of Prussia (b. 1884) September 24 – Warren William, American actor (b. 1894) September 26 – Gregg Toland, American cinematographer (b. 1904) September 27 – Frank Cellier, British actor (b. 1884) September 30 Vasily Kachalov, Soviet actor (b. 1875) Edith Roosevelt, First Lady of the United States (b. 1861) October October 1 Francisco Rodrigues da Cruz, Portuguese priest (b. 1859) Phraya Manopakorn Nititada, 1st Prime Minister of Siam (b. 1884) October 13 – Samuel S. Hinds, American actor (b. 1875) October 14 – Dale Fuller, American actress (b. 1885) October 15 – Edythe Chapman, American actress (b. 1863) October 18 – Walther von Brauchitsch, German field marshal (b. 1881) October 21 – Elissa Landi, Italian actress (b. 1904) October 24 – Franz Lehár, Hungarian composer (b. 1870) October 31 – Mary Nolan, American actress (b. 1905) November November 4 Albert Stanley, 1st Baron Ashfield, British-born American businessman (b. 1874) Filippo Perlo, Italian Roman Catholic prelate and missionary (b. 1873) November 7 – David Leland, American actor (b. 1932) November 8 – Archduke Peter Ferdinand of Austria (b. 1874) November 9 – Edgar Kennedy, American actor (b. 1890) November 10 Julius Curtius, German politician, diplomat (b. 1877) Jack Nelson, American actor, director (b. 1882) November 11 – Fred Niblo, American film director (b. 1874) November 12 – Umberto Giordano, Italian composer (b. 1867) November 17 – Oerip Soemohardjo, Indonesian general (b. 1893) November 21 – Béla Miklós, Hungarian military officer, politician and 38th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1890) November 23 – Hack Wilson, American baseball player (Chicago Cubs), MLB Hall of Fame member (b. 1900) November 28 – D. D. Sheehan, Irish politician (b. 1873) November 29 Maria Koppenhöfer, German actress (b. 1901) Roberto Omegna, Italian cinematographer, director (b. 1876) November 30 – Franco Vittadini, Italian composer (b. 1884) December December 3 Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, South African politician (b. 1894) Luis Orrego Luco, Chilean politician, lawyer, novelist and diplomat (b. 1866) Chano Pozo, Cuban percussionist (b. 1915) December 8 – Matthew Charlton, Australian politician (b. 1866) December 15 – João Tamagnini Barbosa, Portuguese military officer, politician and 69th Prime Minister of Portugal (b. 1883) December 20 – C. Aubrey Smith, British actor (b. 1863) December 21 – Władysław Witwicki, Polish psychologist, philosopher, translator, historian (of philosophy and art) and artist (b. 1878) December 23 – Japanese war leaders (hanged): Kenji Doihara, general (b. 1883) Kōki Hirota, diplomat and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1878) Seishirō Itagaki, military officer (b. 1885) Heitarō Kimura, general (b. 1888) Iwane Matsui, general (b. 1878) Akira Mutō, general (b. 1892) Hideki Tojo, general, 40th Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1884) December 26 – John Westley, American actor (b. 1878) December 28 Muhammad Saleh Akbar Hydari, Indian civil servant, politician (b. 1894) Mahmoud an-Nukrashi Pasha, Egyptian political figure, 27th Prime Minister of Egypt (assassinated) (b. 1888) December 30 – George Ault, American painter (b. 1891) December 31 – Sir Malcolm Campbell, English land, water racer (b. 1885) Nobel Prizes Physics – Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett Chemistry – Arne Tiselius Medicine – Paul Hermann Müller Literature – T. S. Eliot Peace – not awarded References Leap years in the Gregorian calendar

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1942

1942

Events Below, the events of World War II have the "WWII" prefix. January January 1 – WWII: The Declaration by United Nations is signed by China, the United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union, and 22 other nations, in which they agree "not to make any separate peace with the Axis powers". January 5 – WWII: Two prisoners, British officer Airey Neave and Dutch officer Anthony Luteyn, escape from Colditz Castle in Germany. After travelling for three days, they reach the Swiss border. January 7 – WWII: Battle of Slim River: Japanese forces of the 5th Division, supported by tanks, sweep through sixteen miles of British defenses, shattering the exhausted 11th Indian Division and inflicting some 3,000 casualties. Operation Typhoon, the German attempt to take Moscow, ends in failure. January 11 – WWII: Dutch East Indies campaign: Japan declares war on the Netherlands and the Dutch East Indies. Japanese forces invade Borneo and Celebes. Malayan Campaign: The Japanese capture Kuala Lumpur, the capital of the Federated Malay States. January 13 Heinkel test pilot Helmut Schenk becomes the first person to escape from a stricken aircraft with an ejection seat. Henry Ford patents a plastic automobile that would be 30% lighter than a conventional car. January 14 WWII: "Second Happy Time", the German submarine commanders' name for Operation Paukenschlag (Operation Drumbeat), the phase in the Battle of the Atlantic during which German submarines are successful in attacking Allied shipping along the East Coast of the United States, opens early this morning when German submarine U-123 under the command of Reinhard Hardegen sinks a Norwegian tanker within sight of Long Island, before entering New York Harbor and sinking a British tanker off Sandy Hook the following night, as she leaves heading south along the coast. U-boat successes continue until around June 12. The Sikorsky R-4 first flies in the United States; it will become the first mass-produced helicopter. January 16 – American film actress Carole Lombard and her mother are among all 22 killed aboard TWA Flight 3 when the Douglas DC-3 plane crashes into Potosi Mountain near Las Vegas while she is returning from a tour to promote the sale of war bonds. January 17 – WWII: South African forces of the British 8th Army conquer the Halfaya Pass (or Hellfire Pass). The Halfaya garrison of 4,200 men of the Italian 55th Division "Savona" and 2,100 Germans surrender. January 19 – WWII: Japanese forces invade Burma. The following Commands of the United States Eighth Air Force are established: VIII Bomber Command initially at Langley Field in Virginia, and VIII Fighter Command at Selfridge Field in Michigan. January 20 – The Holocaust: Nazis at the Wannsee Conference in Berlin decide that the "Final Solution (Endlösung) to the Jewish problem" is deportations to extermination camps. January 21 – WWII: Erwin Rommel launches his new offensive in Cyrenaica. January 23 – WWII: The Battle of Rabaul begins. January 25 – WWII: German forces under Erwin Rommel of Panzer Group Afrika reaches Msus. General Alfred Godwin-Austin orders the 4th Indian Division from the British 13th Corps to evacuate Benghazi. Thailand declares war on the United States and the United Kingdom. January 26 – WWII: The first American forces arrive in Europe, landing in Northern Ireland. January 31 – WWII: Malayan Campaign: The last organized Allied forces leave British Malaya, ending the 54-day campaign, and the Johor–Singapore Causeway is severed. February February 1 – WWII: The Kriegsmarine introduces the M4 (German Navy 4-rotor) Enigma machine for U-boat traffic, blinding Allied cryptanalysts to their radio signals for most of the year. The Command staff of the United States Eighth Air Force reaches England. Mao Zedong makes a speech on "Reform in Learning, the Party and Literature", starting the Yan'an Rectification Movement in the Communist Party of China. February 3 – WWII: Rommel suspends his offensive in Cyrenaica. February 7 – United States Maritime Commission fleet operations are transferred to the War Shipping Administration (lasting until September 1, 1946). February 8 – WWII: Battle of Singapore: Japanese forces of the 5th Division and 18th Division (some 23,000 men) begin to cross the Johor Strait and attack the Australian 22nd Brigade (some 3,000 men) at Singapore. The Top United States military leaders hold their first formal meeting, to discuss American military strategy in the war. António Óscar Carmona is elected president of Portugal. Daylight saving time goes into effect in the United States. February 9 – The ocean liner catches fire while being converted into the troopship USS Lafayette (AP-53) for WWII at Pier 88 in New York City; she capsizes early the following morning. February 11–13 – WWII: Operation Cerberus: A Kriegsmarine (German navy) squadron comprising the Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen and their escort, dash from Brest through the English Channel to German ports; the British fail to sink any of them. February 14–18 – Battle of Bilin River: Indian forces of the 17th Division under General John Snyth are ordered to halt the Japanese advance, but are outflanked and retreat to the Sittang River. February 14 – WWII: Battle of Palembang: Japanese paratroopers (240 men) are dropped near Palembang, and capture the oil refinery complex undamaged. Dutch forces counter-attack and manage to retake the complex but take heavy losses. A planned demolition fails to do any serious damage to the refinery, but the oil stores are set ablaze. The SS Vyner Brooke, Scottish steamship, is bombed and sunk by Japanese planes while evacuating nurses and wounded servicemen from Singapore. Rescue boats with many survivors reach Bangka Island. February 15 – WWII: Fall of Singapore: Commonwealth forces under General Arthur Percival surrender to the Japanese 25th Army. About 80,000 British, Indian, Australian, and local troops become prisoners of war, joining the 50,000 soldiers taken in the Malayan campaign. February 16 – WWII: Bangka Island Massacre: Japanese soldiers machine-gunned 22 Australian Army nurses and 60 Australian and British soldiers and crew members, who have survived the sinking of SS Vyner Brooke. February 18 – WWII: Japanese occupation of Singapore: Sook Ching – Japanese forces begin the systematic extermination of perceived hostile elements among Chinese Singaporeans. More than 200 American sailors die in Newfoundland when runs aground near Chambers Cove and runs aground at Lawn Point. February 19 – WWII: Bombing of Darwin: The Japanese 1st Air Fleet under Admiral Chūichi Nagumo bombs Darwin, Australia. This force comprises the aircraft carriers Akagi, Kaga, Hiryū and Sōryū and a powerful force of escorting surface ships. During the attack, 188 planes led by Mitsuo Fuchida destroy 11 vessels and wreck a lot of the harbor infrastructure, killing some 240 people. A returning Japanese fighter plane crashes on Melville Island (Australia) and its pilot, Hajime Toyoshima, becomes the first Japanese captured on Australian soil, when indigenous resident Matthias Ulungura takes him prisoner. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs Executive Order 9066, allowing the United States military to define areas as exclusionary zones. These zones affect the Japanese on the West Coast, and Germans and Italians primarily on the East Coast. February 19–23 – WWII: Battle of Sittang Bridge: Indian forces of the 17th Division are ordered to defend the Sittang Bridge, but eventually blow up the bridge to halt the Japanese advance to Rangoon. Survivors of the 17th Division (some 3.500 soldiers) swam and ferried themselves over the Sittang River. February 20 – Lieutenant Edward O'Hare becomes America's first U.S. Navy flying ace of the war. February 21 – WWII: Invasion of Sumatra: Japanese forces of the 38th Division under General Tadayoshi Sano capture Tanjungkarang airfield, which is put to work for air operations against Java. February 22 – WWII: General George Marshall transmits a direct order to General MacArthur in President Roosevelt's name, ordering MacArthur himself to turn over command of the Philippines to a subordinate, and report to Australia to assume command of the large American force being built up there. The orders are worded to allow MacArthur to choose the exact moment of his departure; for various reasons, he will not leave until March 11. February 23 – WWII: fires 17 high-explosive shells toward an oil refinery near Santa Barbara, California, causing little damage. February 24 Struma disaster: , carrying Jewish refugees from Axis-allied Romania to British-administered Palestine, is torpedoed and sunk by , killing about 791 men, women, and children, with only 1 survivor. Propaganda: The Voice of America begins broadcasting. Internment of Japanese Canadians is ordered. February 25 – "Battle of Los Angeles": Over 1,400 AA shells are fired at an unidentified, slow-moving object (probably a meteorological balloon) in the skies over Los Angeles. The appearance of the object triggers an immediate wartime blackout over most of Southern California, with thousands of air raid wardens being deployed throughout the city. At least 5 deaths are related to the incident. Despite the several-hour barrages no planes are downed. February 26 The worst coal dust explosion to date, in Honkeiko, China, claims 1,549 lives. The United States Advertising Council, a predecessor of Ad Council, is founded. The 14th Academy Awards ceremony is held in Los Angeles; How Green Was My Valley wins Best Picture. February 27 – WWII: Battle of the Java Sea: An allied (ABDA) task force of 14 vessels under Dutch command, trying to stem a Japanese invasion of the Dutch East Indies, is defeated by a 19-vessel Japanese task force in the Java Sea; 2.300 sailors die, including the commander, Admiral Karel Doorman; Japanese attain naval hegemony in East-Asia. The USS Langley, first aircraft carrier of the United States Navy, is attacked by 9 Japanese bombers while ferrying a cargo of USAAF P-40 fighters to Java. Langley is so badly damaged that she has to be scuttled to avoid falling into Japanese hands. March March – Construction begins on the Badger Army Ammunition Plant, the largest in the United States during WWII. March 6 – Yugoslav Partisans, operating in Nazi-occupied Serbia, assassinate Đorđe Kosmajac in Belgrade. March 9 – WWII: Executive order 9082 (February 28, 1942) comes into effect, reorganizing the United States Army into three major commands: Army Ground Forces, Army Air Forces, and Services of Supply, later redesignated Army Service Forces, with Henry H. Arnold as Commanding General of the United States Army Air Forces. March 11 – WWII: Douglas MacArthur's escape from the Philippines – U.S. General Douglas MacArthur, his family and key members of his staff are evacuated by PT boat, under cover of evening darkness, from Corregidor in the Philippines. Command of U.S. forces in the Philippines passes to Major General Jonathan M. Wainwright. March 15 – WWII: Dünamünde Action: 1,900 central European Jews are shot dead north east of Riga, 1,840 are killed on the 26th. March 16 – WWII: New Zealand and Australia declare war on Thailand. March 17 – The Holocaust: Operation Reinhard – The Nazi German Bełżec extermination camp opens in occupied Poland, about 1 km south of the railroad station at Bełżec in the Lublin district of the General Government. At least 434,508 people are killed here up to December 1942. March 18 – Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the United States, signs Executive Order 9102, creating the War Relocation Authority (WRA), which becomes responsible for the internment of Americans of Japanese and, to a lesser extent, German and Italian descent, many of them legal citizens. March 20 – WWII: After being forced to flee the Philippines, U.S. General Douglas MacArthur announces (in Terowie, South Australia), "I came through and I shall return." March 22 – WWII: Second Battle of Sirte in the Mediterranean Sea – Escorting warships of a British convoy to Malta ward off a much more powerful Regia Marina (Italian Navy) squadron, north of the Gulf of Sirte. March 23 – WWII: The Germans burn down the Ukrainian village of Yelino (Koriukivka Raion), killing 296 civilians. March 24 – The evacuation of Polish nationals from the Soviet Union begins. It is conducted in two phases: until April 5; and between August 10 and 30, 1942, by sea from Krasnovodsk to Pahlavi (Anzali), and (to a lesser extent) overland from Ashkabad to Mashhad. In all, 115,000 people are evacuated, 37,000 of them civilians, 18,000 children (7% of the number of Polish citizens originally exiled to the Soviet Union). March 25–26 – The Holocaust: First mass transport of Jews to Auschwitz concentration camp, 997 women and girls from Poprad transit camp in the Slovak Republic. March 28 – WWII: St Nazaire Raid (Operation Chariot) – British Commandos raid Saint-Nazaire on the coast of Western France, to put its dockyard facilities out of action. Bombing of Lübeck in World War II: St. Mary's Church, Lübeck is destroyed by an Allied bombing raid. March 29 – WWII: Following a coup d'état, the Free Republic of Nias is proclaimed by a group of freed Nazi German prisoners in the Indonesian island of Nias; the republic exists for less than a month until the island is fully occupied by Japanese troops. March 31 – WWII: Battle of Christmas Island – Japanese troops occupy Christmas Island without resistance, following a mutiny by British Indian Army troops against their British officers. April April The Holocaust: the Nazi German extermination camp Sobibór opens in occupied Poland, on the outskirts of the town of Sobibór. Between April 1942 and October 1943, at least 160,000 people are killed here. 77 Uzbek prisoners of war held at Amersfoort concentration camp in the occupied Netherlands are shot by Nazi German guards, 24 of their compatriots having previously died there as a result of forced starvation. April 3 – WWII: Japanese forces begin the last phase of the Battle of Bataan, an all-out assault on the United States and Filipino troops on the Bataan Peninsula. April 5 – WWII: Easter Sunday Raid – Aircraft of the Japanese Navy attack Colombo, Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Royal Navy cruisers and are sunk southwest of the island. April 9 – WWII: The Bataan Peninsula falls, and the Bataan Death March begins. The Japanese Navy launches an air raid on Trincomalee in Ceylon (Sri Lanka); the Royal Navy aircraft carrier and Royal Australian Navy destroyer are sunk off the country's East Coast. April 10 – The Holocaust: Construction of the Nazi German extermination camp Treblinka II commences in occupied Poland near the village of Treblinka. Between July 23, 1942, and October 1943, around 850,000 people are killed here, more than 800,000 of whom are Jews. April 12 – Disney's Bambi is released in theaters everywhere. April 13 – The United States Federal Communications Commission's minimum programming time required of television stations is cut from 15 hours to 4 hours a week during the war. April 14 WWII: British submarine is probably sunk by Axis forces in the Mediterranean. WWII: is sunk by off North Carolina. April 15 – WWII: Award of the George Cross to Malta: King George VI awards the George Cross to the island of Malta to mark the Siege of Malta, saying, "To honor her brave people I award the George Cross to the Island Fortress of Malta, to bear witness to a heroism and a devotion that will long be famous in history" (from January 1 to July 24, there is only one 24-hour period during which no bombs fall on this tiny island). April 17 – WWII: Henri Giraud, the French commander captured in 1940, escapes from Königstein Fortress. April 18 – WWII: Doolittle Raid: A small force of B-25 Mitchell bomber aircraft, commanded by then-Lieutenant Colonel James "Jimmy" Doolittle bomb Tokyo, Japan. April 23 WWII: Exeter becomes the first historic English city bombed as part of the Baedeker Blitz, in retaliation for the British bombing of Lübeck. Exeter-born William Temple is enthroned as Archbishop of Canterbury. April 25 – Princess Elizabeth registers for war service in the U.K. April 26 WWII: The Reichstag meets for the last time, dissolving itself and proclaiming Adolf Hitler the "Supreme Judge of the German People", granting him the power of life and death over every German citizen. A gas and coal dust explosion at Benxihu Colliery in Manchukuo kills as many as 1,549 workers, the world's all-time worst mining disaster. April 27 WWII: A national plebiscite is held in Canada on the issue of conscription. The Jewish Star of David is required wearing for all Jews in the Netherlands and Belgium; Jews in other Nazi-controlled countries have already been wearing it. April 29 – WWII: An explosion at a chemical factory in Tessenderlo, Belgium leaves 200 dead and 1,000 injured. May May – Operation Pluto: The plan to construct oil pipelines under the English Channel, between England and France, is tested in the River Medway. May 3–4 – WWII: Tulagi is invaded by Japanese forces in the British Solomon Islands of the South Pacific, as part of Operation Mo. May 5 – WWII: Battle of Madagascar (Operation Ironclad) begins when British forces land on the Vichy French colony of Madagascar. On May 7 the northern city of Diego Suarez surrenders. May 7 – WWII: On Corregidor, the last American and Filipino forces in the Philippines under command of 2LT Robert L. Obourn (92nd Coast Artillery Regiment, G Battery) from Fort Mills, surrender to the Japanese as directed by Lt. Gen. Jonathan M. Wainwright, the overall commander. May 8 – WWII: The Battle of the Kerch Peninsula: The German 11th Army begins Operation Trappenjagd (Bustard Hunt) and destroys the bridgehead of the three Soviet Armies (44th, 47th, and 51st) defending the Kerch Peninsula, in the eastern part of the Crimea. The Battle of the Coral Sea (first battle in naval history where 2 enemy fleets fight without seeing each other's fleets) ends in an Allied victory. The Battle of the Kerch Peninsula: German and Romanian forces launch Unternehmen Trappenjagd (Operation Bustard Hunt), aiming at defeating the Soviet Crimean Front defending the Kerch Peninsula. The battle ends in Axis victory. May 8/9 – WWII: At night, gunners of the Ceylon Garrison Artillery on Horsburgh Island in the Cocos Islands mutiny. The mutiny is crushed, and 3 soldiers are executed (the only British Commonwealth soldiers to be executed for mutiny during the Second World War). May 12 – WWII: Second Battle of Kharkiv: In the eastern Ukraine, the Soviet Army initiates a major offensive to capture the city of Kharkiv from the German Army, only to be encircled and destroyed. is sunk by American submarine . May 15 – WWII: In the United States, a bill creating the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) is signed into law. May 20 – The first African-American seamen are taken into the United States Navy. May 21 – WWII: Mexico declares war against Nazi Germany, after the sinking of the Mexican tanker Faja de Oro by off Key West. May 26 – WWII: Battle of Bir Hakeim: The Free French and British troops slow the German advance in North Africa. The Anglo-Soviet Treaty of 1942, to help establish a military and political alliance between the USSR and the British Empire, is signed in London by foreign Secretary Anthony Eden and Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov. May 27 – WWII: Operation Anthropoid: Czech paratroopers attempt to assassinate Reinhard Heydrich in Prague, and succeed in wounding him. May 29 – Thai spelling reform of 1942 is initiated by the government of Prime Minister Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram with his office announcing a simplification of the Thai alphabet. The announcement is published in the Royal Gazette on June 1. The reform is canceled by the government of Khuang Aphaiwong on August 2, 1944. May 30–31 – WWII: Bombing of Cologne – British RAF Bomber Command's "Operation Millennium", its first "1,000 bomber raid", with associated fires make 13,000 families homeless and kills around 475 people, mostly civilians; 3,330 non-residential buildings are destroyed. May 31–June 1 – WWII: Attack on Sydney Harbour: Japanese midget submarines infiltrate Sydney Harbour in Australia, in an attempt to attack Allied warships. June June 1 WWII: Mexico declares war on Germany, Italy, and Japan. The Grand Coulee Dam is finished on the Columbia River. June 4 – WWII: Reinhard Heydrich succumbs to wounds sustained on May 27, from Czechoslovakian paratroopers acting in Operation Anthropoid. June 5 – The United States declares war on Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania. June 4–June 7 – WWII: Battle of Midway: The Japanese naval advance in the Pacific is halted. June 7 – WWII: Japanese forces invade the Aleutian Islands (the first invasion of American soil in 128 years). June 8 – WWII: Attack on Sydney Harbour: The Australian cities of Sydney and Newcastle are shelled by Japanese submarines. The eastern suburbs of both cities are damaged, and the east coast is blacked out. June 9 – WWII: Nazis burn the Czech village of Lidice, in reprisal for the killing of Reinhard Heydrich. June 10 – WWII: The Gestapo massacres 173 male residents of Lidice, Czechoslovakia in retaliation for the killing of Reinhard Heydrich. June 12 – The Holocaust: On her 13th birthday, Anne Frank makes the first entry in her new diary. June 13 – WWII: The United States opens its Office of War Information, a propaganda center. June 18 – WWII: The SS surrounds the church where Jan Kubiš and Jozef Gabčík, the assassins of Reinhard Heydrich, are hiding. Kubiš is fatally wounded in the ensuing shootout, and Gabčík commits suicide to avoid capture. June 23 – The experimental early-type nuclear reactor L-IV has an accident, becoming the first nuclear accident in history and consisting of a steam explosion and reactor fire in Leipzig. June 28 – WWII: The Germans launch Case Blue, Army Group South's drive to Stalingrad and the Baku Oil fields. June 29 – WWII: The German Eleventh Army under Erich von Manstein takes Sevastopol, although fighting rages until July 9. July July – The Holocaust: Inmates of Westerbork transit camp in the occupied Netherlands begin to be shipped to Nazi extermination camps. From now until 1944 around 107,000, mostly Jewish, from here will be killed. July 1–July 27 – WWII: First Battle of El Alamein: British forces prevent a second advance by Axis forces into Egypt. July 3 – WWII: Guadalcanal, occupied only by aborigines, falls to the Japanese Naval construction force deployed to construct an airfield on the island. July 4 – WWII in the European Theater of Operations: Twenty-four ships are sunk by German bombers and submarines after Convoy PQ 17 to the Soviet Union is scattered in the Arctic Ocean to evade the German battleship Tirpitz. The United States Eighth Air Force inauspiciously flies its first mission in Europe, using borrowed British planes, and bombs targets in the Netherlands, such as De Kooy Airfield, attached to the Den Helder Naval Base. Three of six aircraft return; For this mission, Captain Charles C. Kegelman is the first member of the Force to be awarded the U.S. Distinguished Flying Cross. July 6 – The Holocaust: Anne Frank's family goes into hiding in an attic above her father's office in an Amsterdam warehouse. July 8 – Turkish prime minister Refik Saydam dies while working in the office. For one day he is succeeded by Ahmet Fikri Tüzer. July 9 – Şükrü Saracoğlu forms the new (13th) government in Turkey. July 13 – WWII: U-boats sink three merchant ships in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. July 14 – WWII: Bastille Day Gaullist demonstrations in Vichy France; 2 women are shot dead by members of the fascist French Popular Party (PPF) in Marseille. Germany introduces the Ostvolk Medal for Soviet personnel in the Wehrmacht. July 16 The Holocaust: By order of the Vichy France government headed by Pierre Laval, French police officers round-up 13,000–20,000 Jews and imprison them in the Winter Velodrome. Georges Bégué and others escape from the Mauzac prison camp. July 18 – WWII: The Germans test fly the Messerschmitt Me 262 (using only its jet engines) for the first time. July 19 – WWII: Battle of the Atlantic: German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the last U-boats to withdraw from there the United States Atlantic coast positions, in response to an effective American convoy system. July 21 – WWII: The Japanese establish a beachhead on the north coast of New Guinea in the Buna-Gona area; a small Australian force begins a rearguard action on the Kokoda Track campaign. July 22 – The Holocaust: The systematic deportation of Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto begins. July 23 – The Holocaust: The gas chambers at Treblinka extermination camp begin operation, killing 6,500 Jews newly arrived from the Warsaw Ghetto. July 29 – The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union institutes the Order of Suvorov and Order of Kutuzov and reinstates the Order of Alexander Nevsky. July 30 – WWII: WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service), the United States Naval Reserve (Women's Reserve), is signed into law. The SS Robert E. Lee is sunk in the Gulf of Mexico by , which is itself sunk by the escorting patrol craft. July 31 – The Oxford Committee for Famine Relief (Oxfam) is founded in England. August August 4 – WWII: Operation Letica: An assassination attempt on Serbian fascist Minister of Finance Dušan Letica, by a group Yugoslav Resistance fighters, fails. August 7 – WWII: Guadalcanal Campaign – The U.S. Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps begin the first American offensive of the war, with an amphibious landing on the island of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. August 8 WWII: Allied North Atlantic convoy SC 94 loses 10 ships, as the first to be heavily attacked by U-boats resuming mid-Atlantic wolf pack attacks, through the climactic winter of 1942–43. WWII: In Washington, D.C., six German saboteurs are executed for their role in the failed mission Operation Pastorius (2 others are cooperative and receive sentences of life imprisonment instead, being freed a few years after the end of the war). August 9 Indian leader Mohandas Gandhi is arrested in Bombay, by British forces. Start, led by the goalkeeper Nikolai Trusevich, play football against the German Luftwaffe team Flakelf in Nazi-occupied Kyiv. Against all odds, they win 5–3. Eight of them are later arrested and tortured, and at least four are killed. Leningrad première of Shostakovich's Symphony No. 7, with the city still under siege. August 11 – Hedy Lamarr's and her friend George Antheil's frequency-hopping system for radio-controlled torpedoes is granted a patent under . In 1962 (at the time of the Cuban missile crisis), an updated version of their design will at last appear on Navy ships. August 13 – A Quit India resolution is passed by the Bombay session of the All India Congress Committee (AICC), which leads to the start of a historical civil disobedience movement across India. August 15 – WWII: American tanker reaches Malta, as part of the convoy of Operation Pedestal. August 16 Polish-Jewish teacher Janusz Korczak follows a group of Jewish children into the Treblinka extermination camp. U.S. Navy blimp L-8 (Flight 101) comes ashore near San Francisco, eventually coming down in Daly City (the crew is missing). August 17 – WWII: Heavy bombers of the U.S. Eighth Air Force, based in England, conduct their first raid against occupied France. August 19 – WWII: Dieppe Raid: Allied forces raid Dieppe, France. August 20 – Plutonium is isolated for the first time, at the Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago. August 21 – WWII: Battle of the Tenaru: Allies defeat Japanese land forces on Guadalcanal. August 22 – WWII: Brazil declares war on Germany and Italy. August 23 – WWII: Battle of Stalingrad begins: German troops reach the suburbs of Stalingrad. August 24 WWII: Charge of the Savoia Cavalleria at Izbushensky: An Italian cavalry regiment attacks Soviet forces with drawn sabers at Izbushensky, Russia, one of the last major cavalry charges. WWII: Allied North Atlantic convoy ON 122 is attacked by U-boats, which sink 4 ships. WWII: The 2-day Battle of the Eastern Solomons begins: Bombers from carrier USS Saratoga sink Japanese aircraft carrier Ryūjō near Santa Isabel Island, helping to lead to an Allied victory. August 25 WWII: Battle of Milne Bay opens, when Japanese marines land at Milne Bay. Dunbeath air crash: Prince George, Duke of Kent, brother to King George VI and King Edward VIII, is among 14 to die in a military aircraft accident at Morven, Scotland, at the age of 39. August 27–28 – Sarny Massacre: Nazi troops and the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police systematically execute more than 14,000 people, mostly Jews, in and around Sarny in German-occupied Poland. August 28 – Polish writer Zofia Kossak-Szczucka, as head of the underground organization Front for the Rebirth of Poland, publishes in Warsaw her Protest! against the mass murder of Jews in German-occupied Poland. August 30 – Luxembourg is formally annexed to the German Reich. August 30–September 5 – WWII: Battle of Alam el Halfa – British forces in the Western Desert resist a German attack. August 31 – The 1942 Luxembourgish general strike is launched, to protest against forced conscription in Luxembourg. September September 2 – The island of Les Casquets in the Channel Islands is raided by the forerunner of the British SAS, the SSRF, led by Major Gus March-Phillipps; this is one of the first raids by Anders Lassen VC. In the raid, the entire garrison of 7 is abducted and returned to England as prisoners, and the radio and lighthouse wrecked. September 3 – The Holocaust: A German attempt to liquidate the Jewish Łachwa Ghetto in occupied Poland leads to an uprising, probably the first ghetto uprising of the war. September 5 WWII: Battle of Milne Bay: Japanese forces suffer their first defeat on land. The Holocaust: The Jews of Wolbrom in occupied Poland are rounded up by the Germans and their Ukrainian collaborators. September 9 – WWII: A Japanese floatplane drops incendiary devices at Mount Emily, near Brookings, Oregon, in the first of two "Lookout Air Raids", the first bombing of the continental United States. September 10 WWII: North Atlantic convoy ON 127 is attacked by U-boats, sinking 6 ships. The Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS) begins operation in the United States. September 12 – The , carrying civilians, Allied soldiers, and Italian prisoners of war, is torpedoed off the coast of West Africa and sinks, killing 1,649 people. September 15 – The Women's Flying Training Detachment (WFTD) is established in the United States. September 24 – WWII: Andrée Borrel and Lise de Baissac become the first female SOE agents to be parachuted into occupied France. September 26 – The Holocaust: Nazi official August Frank issues the August Frank memorandum, setting out how the belongings of "evacuated" (i.e. murdered) Jews are to be disposed of. September 27 – WWII: Both the commerce raiding German auxiliary cruiser Stier and American Liberty ship sink, following a gun battle in the South Atlantic. Hilfskreuzer Stier is the only commerce raider to be sunk by a defensively equipped merchant ship. October October 2 British cruiser collides with liner (carrying troops from the United States) off the coast of Donegal and sinks; 338 drown. WWII: Japanese troopship Lisbon Maru sinks, following a torpedo attack the previous day by submarine off the coast of China; 829 are killed, mostly British prisoners of war who (unknown to the attacker) were being held on board. October 3 – The first A-4 rocket is successfully launched from Test Stand VII at Peenemünde, Germany. The rocket flies 147 kilometers and reaches an altitude of 84.5 kilometers, becoming the first man-made object to reach space. October 9 WWII: Third Battle of the Matanikau on Guadalcanal: American forces defeat the Japanese. The Statute of Westminster Adoption Act, passed by the Parliament of Australia, formalizes Australian autonomy from the United Kingdom. October 11 – WWII: Battle of Cape Esperance: On the northwest coast of Guadalcanal, United States Navy ships intercept and defeat a Japanese fleet, on their way to reinforce troops on the island. October 13 – WWII: North Atlantic convoy SC 104 is attacked by U-boats, sinking seven ships. October 14 The Holocaust: The International Committee of the Red Cross, meeting in special session at the Hotel Métropole, Geneva, Switzerland, declines to issue an international appeal condemning the holding of civilians in Nazi concentration camps. WWII: A U-boat sinks the ferry off Newfoundland, killing 137. October 16 A cyclone and consequential floods in the Bay of Bengal kill 40,000 people, with particularly heavy damage around Contai. Animated short film The Mouse of Tomorrow, featuring the debut of Mighty Mouse (as "Super Mouse"), is released in the United States. October 18 – WWII: Hitler issues the Commando Order, which stipulates that all Allied commandos encountered by German forces should be executed immediately without trial, even in proper uniforms, in response to the Dieppe Raid and Operation Basalt conducted by the Allies. After the war, the Nuremberg trials finds this order a direct violation of the laws and customs of war. October 21 – A Royal New Zealand Air Force torpedo bomber sinks the German MS Palatia, with a loss of 946 lives. October 23 – Award-winning composer and songwriter Ralph Rainger ("Thanks for the Memory") is among 12 people killed in a mid-air collision between an American Airlines DC-3 and a U.S. Army bomber near Palm Springs, California. October 23–26 – WWII: Battle for Henderson Field: Japanese forces fail to recapture Henderson Field airfield in Guadalcanal from the Americans. October 23–November 4 – WWII: Second Battle of El Alamein: British troops go on the offensive against the Axis forces. October 26 – WWII: Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands: Two Japanese aircraft carriers are heavily damaged and one U.S. Navy carrier is sunk. October 28 Film actor Errol Flynn is accused of statutory rape by two teenage girls. The Alaska Highway is completed. October 29 – The Holocaust: In the United Kingdom, leading clergymen and political figures hold a public meeting to register outrage over Nazi Germany's persecution of Jews. October 30 – WWII: U-boats sink 11 ships, attacking diversionary convoy SL 125, but move out of the path of approaching troopships, carrying Allied Operation Torch invasion forces. British sailors board as it sinks in the Mediterranean and retrieves its Enigma machine and codebooks. November November 1 – WWII: North Atlantic convoy SC 107 is heavily attacked by U-boats, sinking 15 ships. November 2 – A USAAF squadron, including B-24 Liberators, intercepts many Luftwaffe patrols off the coast of Oran, Algeria. November 3 – WWII: Second Battle of El Alamein: German forces under Erwin Rommel are forced to retreat during the night. November 6 – WWII: Battle of Madagascar ends when Vichy French forces on Madagascar sign an armistice with the Allies. November 8 – WWII: Operation Torch: the United States and the United Kingdom forces land in French North Africa. French Resistance Coup in Algiers: 400 French civil resisters neutralize the Vichyist XIXth Army Corps and the Vichyist generals (Juin, Darlan, etc.), thus allowing the immediate success of Operation Torch in Algiers, and ultimately the whole of French North Africa. November 9 – WWII: U.S. serviceman Edward Leonski is hanged at Melbourne's Pentridge Prison, for the "Brown-Out" murders of three women in May. November 10 – WWII: In violation of a 1940 armistice, Germany invades Vichy France, following French Admiral François Darlan's agreement to an armistice with the Allies in North Africa. November 12 – WWII: Guadalcanal Campaign: A naval battle near Guadalcanal starts between Japanese and American forces. November 13 – WWII: Guadalcanal Campaign: Aviators from the sink the Japanese battleship Hiei. British forces capture Tobruk. November 15 – WWII: The Naval Battle of Guadalcanal ends: Although the United States Navy suffers heavy losses, it retains control of Guadalcanal. British forces capture Derna, Libya. November 18 – WWII: North Atlantic convoy ON 144 is attacked by U-boats, sinking 5 ships. November 19 – WWII: Battle of Stalingrad: Soviet Union forces under General Georgy Zhukov launch the Operation Uranus counter-attacks at Stalingrad, turning the tide of the battle in the USSR's favor. November 20 – WWII: British forces capture Benghazi. November 21 – The completion of the Alaska Highway (also known as the Alcan Highway) is celebrated (however, the "highway" is not usable by general vehicles until 1943). November 22 – WWII: Battle of Stalingrad: The situation for the German attackers of Stalingrad seems desperate during the Soviet counter-attack Operation Uranus, and General Friedrich Paulus sends Adolf Hitler a telegram, saying that the German Sixth Army is surrounded. November 23 – WWII A U-boat sinks the off the coast of Brazil. One crewman, Chinese second steward Poon Lim, is separated from the others and spends 130 days adrift, until he is rescued on April 3, 1943. Legislation approves the United States Coast Guard Women's Reserve, to help fill jobs and free men to serve during the war effort. They are known as the SPARS ("Semper Paratus, Always Ready!") November 25–26 – WWII: Operation Harling: A British Special Operations Executive team, together with Greek Resistance fighters, blows up the Gorgopotamos viaduct, in the first major sabotage act in occupied continental Europe. November 26 – The movie Casablanca premières at the Hollywood Theater in New York City. November 27 – WWII: At Toulon, the French navy scuttles its ships and submarines, to keep them out of Nazi hands. November 28 Cocoanut Grove fire: A fire in the Cocoanut Grove night club in Boston, Massachusetts, kills 491. The large-scale German "pacification" of the Zamojszczyzna region of Poland begins. November 29 – The Blue Star Line cargo liner runs aground on the Skeleton Coast of Namibia. Crew and passengers survive, following a 26-day overland trek to Windhoek. November 30 – WWII: Battle of Tassafaronga – In a nighttime naval battle as part of the Guadalcanal Campaign, ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy defeat those of the United States Navy. December December 1 – Gasoline rationing begins in the United States. December 2 – Manhattan Project: Below the bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago, a team led by Enrico Fermi initiates the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction (a coded message, "The Italian navigator has landed in the new world" is then sent to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt). December 4 The Holocaust: In Warsaw, two women, Zofia Kossak and Wanda Filipowicz, risk their lives by setting up the Council for the Assistance of the Jews. WWII: USAAF bombers make their first raid on Italy. December 6 – Stary Ciepielów and Rekówka massacre: 5 families in Occupied Poland are executed by the Ordnungspolizei as part of the German retribution against Poles who helped Jews. December 7 – WWII: British commandos conduct Operation Frankton, a raid on shipping in Bordeaux Harbour. The battleship is launched at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. December 8 – A fire at Seacliff Lunatic Asylum in New Zealand kills 39 patients. December 10 – The Holocaust: The Polish government-in-exile sends copies of The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied Poland, including Raczyński's Note, the first official report on The Holocaust, to 26 governments who signed the Declaration by United Nations. December 12 – WWII: German troops began Operation Winter Storm, an attempt to relieve encircled Axis forces during the Battle of Stalingrad. December 15 – WWII: Guadalcanal Campaign – Battle of Mount Austen, the Galloping Horse, and the Sea Horse: the United States and allied forces begin to attack Japanese positions near the Matanikau River. December 17 – The Allies issue the Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations (as the answer to Raczyński's Note), the first time they publicly acknowledge the Holocaust. December 22 An avalanche in Aliquippa, Pennsylvania, kills 26, including Vulcan Crucible Steel heir-apparent Samuel A. Stafford Sr., when two 100 ton boulders fall on a bus filled with wartime steelworkers on their way home. An airplane carrying prominent Ustashe general Jure Francetić crashes. Francetić dies as a result of the injuries on December 27. December 24 – French Admiral Darlan, the former Vichy leader who has switched over to the Allies following the Torch landings, is assassinated in Algiers. December 27 – The Union of Pioneers of Yugoslavia is founded. December 28 – North Atlantic Convoy ON 154 is heavily attacked by U-boats, sinking 13 ships. December 31 - The Times Square Ball in Times Square, New York City isn't dropped for the first time. Instead, there is a moment of silence at midnight, followed by the sound of bells playing from sound trucks at the base of One Times Square. Date unknown DDT is first used as a pesticide. circa JuneThe 1942 FIFA World Cup competition in Association football, which Nazi Germany sought to host, is not held, due to World War II. Births January January 1 Adil Abdul-Mahdi, 49th Prime Minister of Iraq Alassane Ouattara, 5th President of the Ivory Coast Gennadi Sarafanov, Russian cosmonaut (d. 2005) January 2 – Dennis Hastert, American politician January 3 László Sólyom, President of Hungary John Thaw, English actor (d. 2002) January 4 Bolaji Akinyemi, Nigerian professor of political science Jaber Al-Mubarak Al-Hamad Al-Sabah, 7th Prime Minister of Kuwait Dame Marcela Contreras, Chilean-British immunologist and educator John McLaughlin, English guitarist, bandleader and composer January 5 Terenci Moix, Spanish writer (d. 2003) Maurizio Pollini, Italian pianist Charlie Rose, American television anchor and talk show host January 7 – Vasily Alekseyev, Soviet weightlifter (d. 2011) January 8 Stephen Hawking, British physicist (d. 2018) Junichiro Koizumi, 56th Prime Minister of Japan January 9 – Lee Kun-hee, South Korean businessman (d. 2020) January 10 – Walter Hill, American film director, screenwriter, and producer January 11 – Clarence Clemons, African-American saxophonist (d. 2011) January 12 Ramiro de León Carpio, 31st President of Guatemala (d. 2002) Michel Mayor, Swiss astronomer, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics January 14 – Yogesh Kumar Sabharwal, Chief Justice of India January 16 René Angélil, Canadian singer and manager (d. 2016) Richard Bohringer, French actor Nicole Fontaine, French politician (d. 2018) Zhao Zhongxiang, Chinese television host (d. 2020) January 17 Muhammad Ali, African-American boxer, activist, and philanthropist (d. 2016) Ita Buttrose, Australian journalist Antonio Fraguas de Pablo, Spanish graphic humorist (d. 2018) January 19 – Michael Crawford, English actor, singer and entertainer January 21 – Edwin Starr, singer (d. 2003) January 22 Jaime Humberto Hermosillo, Mexican film director (d. 2020) Mimis Domazos, Greek footballer Amine Gemayel, 12th President of Lebanon January 23 Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat, 1st President of Mongolia Salim Ahmed Salim, 4th Prime Minister of Tanzania January 25 – Eusébio, Mozambican Portuguese footballer (d. 2014) January 27 – Tasuku Honjo, Japanese immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate in Physiology or Medicine January 28 Hans Jürgen Bäumler, German figure skater, actor, pop singer and television host Sjoukje Dijkstra, Dutch figure skater Erkki Pohjanheimo, Finnish TV-producer and director January 29 – Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez, Cuban military officer, legislator, and cosmonaut January 30 – Marty Balin, American singer, songwriter, and musician (d. 2018) January 31 Daniela Bianchi, Italian actress Derek Jarman, English director and writer (d. 1994) February February 1 Bibi Besch, Austrian-American actress (d. 1996) Terry Jones, Welsh actor and writer (d. 2020) Masa Saito, Japanese professional wrestler (d. 2018) February 2 – Graham Nash, English rock musician February 7 – Bernard Lietaer, Belgian engineer and economist (d. 2019) February 8 – Gordon Morritt, English footballer (d. 2018) February 9 Manuel Castells, Spanish sociologist Carole King, American singer and composer February 12 Ehud Barak, 10th Prime Minister of Israel Lionel Grigson, British jazz pianist, composer, writer, educator (d. 1994) February 13 Carol Lynley, American actress (d. 2019) Peter Tork, American musician and actor (d. 2019) Donald E. Williams, American astronaut (d. 2016) February 14 – Michael Bloomberg, American businessman and philanthropist, founder of Bloomberg L.P. and 108th Mayor of New York City February 15 Sadou Hayatou, 4th Prime Minister of Cameroon (d. 2019) Sherry Jackson, American actress February 20 Phil Esposito, Canadian hockey player Mitch McConnell, American politician February 21 – Margarethe von Trotta, German actress, film director and writer February 22 – Christine Keeler, English model (d. 2017) February 24 – Joe Lieberman, American politician February 25 – Karen Grassle, American actress February 26 – Jozef Adamec, Slovak football player and manager (d. 2018) February 27 – Robert H. Grubbs, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2021) February 28 Brian Jones, English musician (d. 1969) Dino Zoff, Italian footballer and manager March March 2 John Irving, American author Lou Reed, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013) March 5 Felipe González, Prime Minister of Spain Mike Resnick, American science fiction author (d. 2020) March 7 Tammy Faye Bakker, American evangelist, singer and television personality (d. 2007) Michael Eisner, American film studio executive March 9 – John Cale, Welsh composer and musician March 12 – Ratko Mladić, former Bosnian Serb military leader March 13 Dave Cutler, American software engineer Scatman John, American musician (d. 1999) March 15 – The Iron Sheik, Iranian-American wrestler March 16 – James Soong, Taiwan politician March 17 – John Wayne Gacy, American serial killer (d. 1994) March 19 – José Serra, Brazilian politician March 23 Walter Rodney, Guyanese historian and political figure Michael Haneke, Austrian director and screenwriter March 25 Aretha Franklin, American singer, songwriter, actress, and civil rights activist (d. 2018) Richard O'Brien, English-New Zealand actor March 26 – Erica Jong, American author March 26 – Edvard Schiffauer, Czech composer. March 27 John E. Sulston, British chemist; recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2018) Michael York, English actor March 28 Daniel Dennett, American philosopher Neil Kinnock, British Labour leader Mike Newell, British film director Conrad Schumann, East German border guard (d. 1998) Jerry Sloan, American basketball player and coach (d. 2020) March 29 Kenichi Ogata, Japanese voice actor Scott Wilson, American actor (d. 2018) March 30 – Ruben Kun, Nauruan politician and former President of Nauru April April 1 – Samuel R. Delany, American science fiction author April 2 Leon Russell, American singer, songwriter, pianist and guitarist (d. 2016) Roshan Seth, British actor April 3 Marsha Mason, American actress Wayne Newton, American entertainer and singer Billy Joe Royal, American singer (d. 2015) April 5 Allan Clarke, English musician Peter Greenaway, English filmmaker and artist April 6 Barry Levinson, American film producer and director Anita Pallenberg, German-Italian actress, artist, and model (d. 2017) April 7 – Jeetendra, Indian actor April 8 Roger Chapman, British rock singer Douglas Trumbull, American film director and special effects artist (d. 2022) April 9 – Brandon deWilde, American actor (d. 1972) April 10 – Hayedeh, Iranian singer (d. 1990) April 12 Carlos Reutemann, Argentine racing driver and politician (d. 2021) Jacob Zuma, 4th President of South Africa April 14 Valeriy Brumel, Russian athlete (d. 2003) Valentin Lebedev, Russian cosmonaut April 15 – Julie Sommars, American actress April 17 Kenas Aroi, Nauruan politician (d. 1991) David Bradley, English actor April 18 Jeff Kimpel, American atmospheric scientist (d. 2020) Jochen Rindt, German-born racing driver (d. 1970) April 19 – Alan Price, English musician and keyboardist April 20 Casimir Oyé-Mba, 3rd Prime Minister of Gabon (d. 2021) Arto Paasilinna, Finnish author (d. 2018) April 21 – Geoffrey Palmer, 33rd Prime Minister of New Zealand April 22 – Rudolf Jaenisch, German-American biologist April 23 Sandra Dee, American actress (d. 2005) Christian Frémont, French politician (d. 2014) April 24 – Barbra Streisand, American singer, actress, composer, and film director April 25 – Jon Kyl, American politician April 26 – Bobby Rydell, American singer April 27 Ruth Glick, American writer Jim Keltner, American drummer Valeri Polyakov, Russian cosmonaut April 29 – Galina Kulakova, Soviet athlete May May 1 – Jean Saubert, American alpine ski racer (d. 2007) May 2 – Jacques Rogge, 8th President of the International Olympic Committee (d. 2021) May 3 – Věra Čáslavská, Czech gymnast (d. 2016) May 5 Marc Alaimo, American actor Tammy Wynette, American country singer (d. 1998) May 6 – Ariel Dorfman, Argentine/Chilean novelist, playwright and essayist May 8 Peter Corris, Australian academic, historian, journalist and a novelist (d. 2018) Terry Neill, Northern Irish footballer and manager May 9 Tommy Roe, American singer-songwriter John Ashcroft, 79th United States Attorney General May 12 – Ian Dury, British musician (d. 2000) May 13 – Vladimir Dzhanibekov, Soviet cosmonaut May 14 Byron Dorgan, American author, businessman, attorney and politician Tony Pérez, Cuban-American professional baseball player and manager May 15 Barnabas Sibusiso Dlamini, 2-Time Prime Minister of Swaziland (d. 2018) Anthony W. England, American astronaut Jusuf Kalla, 10th and 12th Vice President of Indonesia May 17 Philippe Gondet, French footballer (d. 2018) Taj Mahal, African-American singer and guitarist May 19 – Gary Kildall, American computer scientist and microcomputer entrepreneur (d. 1994) May 20 Lynn Davies, Welsh track and field athlete Carlos Hathcock, American Marine sniper (d. 1999) David Proval, American actor May 21 – Robert C. Springer, American astronaut and test pilot May 22 Roger Brown, American basketball player (d. 1997) Ted Kaczynski, American domestic terrorist, mathematics professor, and anarchist author Barbara Parkins, Canadian actress May 24 Ichirō Ozawa, Japanese politician Fraser Stoddart, Scottish-born scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry May 25 – José Mário Branco, Portuguese singer-songwriter, actor, and record producer (d. 2019) May 28 – Stanley B. Prusiner, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine May 29 – Kevin Conway, American actor and director (d. 2020) June June 2 Tony Buzan, English author and educational consultant (d. 2019) Eduard Malofeyev, Russian footballer and coach June 3 – Curtis Mayfield, African-American musician (d. 1999) June 5 – Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, President of Equatorial Guinea and Chairperson of the African Union June 6 – Sandra Morgan, Australian swimmer June 7 Muammar Gaddafi, Libyan revolutionary, politician, and political theorist (d. 2011) Anneke Grönloh, Dutch singer (d. 2018) June 8 – Jacques Dubochet, Swiss biophysicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry June 10 – Preston Manning, Canadian politician June 12 – Bert Sakmann, German physiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine June 13 – Abdulsalami Abubakar, President of Nigeria June 16 Giacomo Agostini, Italian motorcycle racer John Rostill, English bassist, musician and composer (d. 1973) June 17 – Mohamed El Baradei, Egyptian International Atomic Energy Agency director, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize June 18 Roger Ebert, American film critic and television personality (d. 2013) Thabo Mbeki, South African politician and 12th President of South Africa Paul McCartney, English musician and composer Nick Tate, Australian actor Hans Vonk, Dutch conductor (d. 2004) June 20 – Brian Wilson, American singer, composer and producer (The Beach Boys) June 22 Toyohiro Akiyama, Japanese cosmonaut Eumir Deodato, Brazilian pianist, composer, arranger and producer Laila Freivalds, Swedish politician June 23 – Martin Rees, British cosmologist and astrophysicist June 24 Michele Lee, American actress and singer Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, Chilean politician and 33rd President of Chile June 25 Willis Reed, African-American basketball player, coach and general manager Michel Tremblay, French-Canadian novelist and playwright June 26 Gilberto Gil, Brazilian singer, politician Larry Taylor, American bass guitarist (Canned Heat) (d. 2019) June 27 – Bruce Johnston, American singer and songwriter (The Beach Boys) June 28 Chris Hani, South African politician (d. 1993) Rupert Sheldrake, British biochemist Frank Zane, American professional bodybuilder and author June 30 Robert Ballard, American explorer, Navy officer and professor Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo, 4th President of Burkina Faso Friedrich von Thun, Austrian actor July July 1 Geneviève Bujold, Canadian actress Andraé Crouch, American gospel singer (d. 2015) Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri, 6th Vice President of Iraq (d. 2020) Wim T. Schippers, Dutch artist, comedian, television director, and voice actor Timothy Yang, Taiwanese diplomat and politician July 2 Vicente Fox, Mexican businessman, politician, and 55th President of Mexico (2000–2006) Mukhtar Shakhanov, Kazakh writer and lawmaker Ahmet Türk, Kurdish nationalist Juan Cutillas, footballer and Spanish soccer coach July 3 Kevin Johnson, Australian singer-songwriter Eddy Mitchell, French singer and actor July 4 – Prince Michael of Kent July 5 Louise Shaffer, American actress, script writer, and author Hannes Löhr, German footballer (d. 2016) July 6 – Raymond Depardon, French photographer, photojournalist and documentary filmmaker July 7 Carmen Duncan, Australian actress and activist (d. 2019) Abdul Hamid II, Pakistani field hockey player Thomas D. Pollard, American educator, cell biologist and biophysicist July 8 – Phil Gramm, American economist and politician July 9 – Richard Roundtree, African-American actor July 10 Ronnie James Dio, American musician (d. 2010) Pyotr Klimuk, Russian cosmonaut Mirjana Marković, Serbian politician, 3rd First Lady of Yugoslavia (d. 2019) Lopo do Nascimento, 1st Prime Minister of Angola Sixto Rodriguez, American singer-songwriter July 11 Tomasz Stańko, Polish trumpeter, composer and improviser (d. 2018) Jean Jourden, French cyclist Vitorino, Portuguese singer-songwriter July 13 Harrison Ford, American actor Roger McGuinn, American musician (The Byrds) July 14 – Javier Solana, Spanish politician and diplomat July 15 David A. Granger, President of Guyana Mil Máscaras, Mexican professional wrestler July 16 – Margaret Court, Australian tennis player July 17 Connie Hawkins, American basketball player (d. 2017) Zoot Money, English vocalist, keyboardist and bandleader July 18 Prince Alexandre of Belgium (d. 2009) Giacinto Facchetti, Italian footballer (d. 2006) Adolf Ogi, member of the Swiss Federal Council July 19 – Frederick Kantor, American physicist July 20 – Salvatore Lo Piccolo, Italian mafioso July 21 Alfred Gomolka, German politician Véronique Vendell, French actress July 22 – Toyohiro Akiyama, Japanese TV journalist and astronaut July 23 – Myra Hindley, English multiple murderer (d. 2002) July 24 – Chris Sarandon, American actor July 26 – Hannelore Elsner, German actress (d. 2019) July 27 – Dennis Ralston, American tennis player July 29 – Tony Sirico, American actor August August 1 Jerry Garcia, American musician (d. 1995) Giancarlo Giannini, Italian actor August 2 – Isabel Allende, Chilean writer August 4 Don S. Davis, American actor (d. 2008) David Lange, 32nd Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 2005) August 6 – Evelyn Hamann, German actress (d. 2007) August 7 Tobin Bell, American actor Garrison Keillor, American writer and radio host Carlos Monzón, Argentine professional boxer (d. 1995) Caetano Veloso, Brazilian composer, singer, guitarist, writer, and political activist August 9 Miguel Littín, Chilean film director, screenwriter, film producer and novelist David Steinberg, Canadian comedian, actor, writer, director, and author August 10 – Agepê, Brazilian singer/composer (d. 1995) August 13 Hissène Habré, 1st Prime Minister and 5th President of Chad (d. 2021) Robert L. Stewart, American astronaut August 17 – Muslim Magomayev, Soviet, Azerbaijani and Russian singer (d. 2008) August 19 – Fred Thompson, American politician and actor (d. 2015) August 20 – Isaac Hayes, African-American singer and actor (d. 2008) August 22 – Uğur Mumcu, Turkish journalist and writer (d. 1993) August 23 Nancy Richey, American tennis player Susana Vieira, Brazilian actress August 24 Hans Peter Korff, German actor Karen Uhlenbeck, American mathematician August 25 Nathan Deal, American politician, 82nd Governor of Georgia Imogen Hassall, English actress (d. 1980) Howard Jacobson, British novelist and journalist August 26 – John E. Blaha, American astronaut August 27 Daryl Dragon, American musician (d. 2019) Tom Belsø, Danish motor racing driver (d. 2020) August 28 – José Eduardo dos Santos, 2nd President of Angola August 29 – Sterling Morrison, American musician (d. 1995) August 30 – John Kani, South African actor, director and playwright September September 1 – C. J. Cherryh, American writer September 2 – Robert Shapiro, American lawyer and entrepreneur September 3 Michael Hui, Hong Kong film comedian Al Jardine, American musician September 4 – Raymond Floyd, American golfer September 5 Denise Fabre, French television personality Werner Herzog, German filmmaker Eduardo Mata, Mexican conductor and composer (d. 1995) September 6 Mel McDaniel, American country singer (d. 2011) Carol Wayne, American television and film actress (d. 1985) September 7 – Alan Oakes, English footballer September 8 – Želimir Žilnik, Serbian film director September 11 – Lola Falana, American singer, dancer, model and actress September 13 – Hissène Habré, 7th President of Chad September 14 Arturo Macapagal, Filipino shooter (d. 2015) Bernard MacLaverty, Irish writer September 15 Robert Lau Hoi Chew, Malaysian politician (d. 2010) Wen Jiabao, Premier of the People's Republic of China Emmerson Mnangagwa, 3rd President of Zimbabwe September 17 – Lupe Ontiveros, American actress (d. 2012) September 18 – Wolfgang Schäuble, German politician September 19 – Freda Payne, American singer and actress September 20 – Rose Francine Rogombé, Gabonese lawyer and politician (d. 2015) September 21, Luis Mateo Díez, Spanish writer September 22 Wu Ma, Chinese film actor, director, producer and writer (d. 2014) Marlena Shaw, American jazz singer David Stern, American commissioner of the National Basketball Association (d. 2020) September 25 – Dee Dee Warwick, American singer (d. 2008) September 26 – Ingrid Becker, German athlete September 28 Marshall Bell, American actor Pierre Clémenti, French actor (d. 1999) Tim Maia, Brazilian musician, songwriter and businessman (d. 1998) September 29 Felice Gimondi, Italian racing cyclist (d. 2019) Madeline Kahn, American actress (d. 1999) Ian McShane, English actor Bill Nelson, American politician and astronaut Jean-Luc Ponty, French jazz violinist September 30 Gus Dudgeon, English record producer (d. 2002) Frankie Lymon, American singer (d. 1968) Sture Pettersson, Swedish cyclist (d. 1983) October October 1 – Günter Wallraff, German investigative journalist October 2 – Asha Parekh, Indian actress, film director and producer October 3 Earl Hindman, American actor (d. 2003) Roberto Perfumo, Argentine footballer and sports commentator (d. 2016) October 6 – Britt Ekland, Swedish actress October 7 Ronald Baecker, American computer scientist Joy Behar, American comedian and television personality October 8 Stanley Bates, British actor and screenwriter Nguyễn Minh Triết, 6th President of Vietnam October 9 – Shukri Ghanem, Libyan politician (d. 2012) October 10 Janis Hansen, American singer and author (d. 2017) Radu Vasile, Prime Minister of Romania (d. 2013) October 11 – Amitabh Bachchan, Indian actor, film producer, and television host October 12 – Daliah Lavi, Israeli actress and singer (d. 2017) October 13 Rutanya Alda, Latvian-American actress Jerry Jones, American football team owner October 19 – Andrew Vachss, American author and attorney (d. 2021) October 20 Christel DeHaan, German-American businesswoman and philanthropist (d. 2020) Arto Paasilinna, Finnish writer (d. 2018) Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, German biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine October 21 – Judy Sheindlin, American retired judge turned television personality (Judge Judy) October 22 Bobby Fuller, American rock singer, songwriter, and guitarist (d. 1966) Annette Funicello, American actress and singer (d. 2013) Pedro Morales, Puerto Rican professional wrestler (d. 2019) October 23 Michael Crichton, American author (d. 2008) Anita Roddick, British businesswoman, human rights activist and campaigner (d. 2007) October 24 – Frank Delaney, Irish-born novelist, journalist and broadcaster (d. 2017) October 25 – Gloria Katz, American screenwriter and film producer (d. 2018) October 26 – Bob Hoskins, British actor (d. 2014) October 27 Philip Catherine, Belgian jazz guitarist Lee Greenwood, American country singer and songwriter October 28 – Kees Verkerk, Dutch speed skater October 29 – Bob Ross, American painter and television presenter (d. 1995) October 31 George Brizan, 8th Prime Minister of Grenada (d. 2012) David Ogden Stiers, American actor and voice-over artist (d. 2018) November November 1 Larry Flynt, American publisher (Hustler'') (d. 2021) Ralph Klein, Canadian politician (d. 2013) Marcia Wallace, American actress and comedian (d. 2013) November 2 Shere Hite, American-born German sexologist (d. 2020) Stefanie Powers, American actress November 5 – Pierangelo Bertoli, Italian singer-songwriter (d. 2002) November 6 – Jean Shrimpton, English model and actress November 7 Tom Peters, American writer Johnny Rivers, American musician, singer and songwriter November 8 Angel Cordero, Jr., Puerto Rican jockey Sandro Mazzola, Italian footballer Fernando Sorrentino, Argentine writer November 10 Robert F. Engle, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate Hans-Rudolf Merz, Swiss federal councillor November 11 – K. Connie Kang, Korean American journalist and author (d. 2019) November 15 – Daniel Barenboim, Argentine-born pianist and conductor November 16 – Joanna Pettet, British-born Canadian actress November 17 Derek Clayton, Australian long-distance runner Bob Gaudio, American musician Kang Kek Iew, Cambodian politician and criminal (d. 2020) István Rosztóczy, Hungarian microbiologist (d. 1993) Martin Scorsese, American film director November 18 Linda Evans, American actress Susan Sullivan, American actress November 19 – Calvin Klein, American fashion designer November 20 Joe Biden, 46th President of the United States Bob Einstein, American actor, producer and screenwriter (d. 2019) November 21 – Al Matthews, African-American actor and singer (d. 2018) November 22 Francis K. Butagira, Ugandan ambassador Dick Stockton, American sports announcer Guion Bluford, African-American astronaut November 23 – Susan Anspach, American actress (d. 2018) November 24 – Billy Connolly, Scottish comedian and singer November 25 – Rosa von Praunheim, German film director, author and painter November 26 – Olivia Cole, African-American actress (d. 2018) November 27 Manolo Blahnik, Spanish shoe designer Jimi Hendrix, American guitarist (d. 1970) November 28 – Eric Shinseki, American U.S. Army General November 29 Michael Craze, British actor (d. 1998) Philippe Huttenlocher, Swiss baritone November 30 – André Brahic, French astrophysicist (d. 2016) December December 2 – Francisque Ravony, 7th Prime Minister of Madagascar (d. 2003) December 3 – Alice Schwarzer, German feminist, founder and publisher of the German feminist journal EMMA December 4 Al Hunt, American columnist Gemma Jones, British actress December 6 Chelsea Brown, American actress (d. 2017) Peter Handke, Austrian novelist December 7 Harry Chapin, American singer-songwriter (d. 1981) Reginald F. Lewis, American Business Tycoon and Philanthropist (d. 1993) Peter Tomarken, American game-show host (d. 2006) December 8 – Toots Hibbert, Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter (d. 2020) December 9 Dick Butkus, American football player Billy Bremner, Scottish footballer (d. 1997) December 15 – Kathleen Blanco, American politician, 54th Governor of Louisiana (d. 2019) December 17 Muhammadu Buhari, Nigerian army general and 15th President of Nigeria Paul Butterfield, American musician (d. 1987) December 19 Milan Milutinovic, President of Serbia Gene Okerlund, American wrestling announcer (d. 2019) December 20 – Bob Hayes, African-American athlete (d. 2002) December 21 Hu Jintao, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, 6th President of the People's Republic of China Carla Thomas, American singer December 27 Muruga Booker, American drummer, composer, inventor, artist and recording artist Charmian Carr, American actress (d. 2016) Thomas Menino, 53rd Mayor of Boston, Massachusetts (d. 2014) December 29 – Rajesh Khanna, Indian actor (d. 2012) December 30 Betty Aberlin, American actress Vladimir Bukovsky, Russian-born British human rights activist and political dissident (d. 2019) Anne Charleston, Australian actress Allan Gotthelf, American philosopher (d. 2013) Janko Prunk, Slovenian historian Michael Nesmith American musician, singer-songwriter, producer (d. 2021) December 31 – Taufiq Kiemas, 5th First Spouse of Indonesia (d. 2013) Deaths January January 2 – Ivande Kaija, Soviet writer and feminist (b. 1876) January 3 – Charles Mann Hamilton, American politician (b. 1874) January 4 Sydney Fairbrother, British actress (b. 1872) Mel Sheppard, American Olympic athlete (b. 1883) Otis Skinner, American actor (b. 1858) January 6 Emma Calvé, French soprano (b. 1858) Henri de Baillet-Latour, 3rd President of the International Olympic Committee (b. 1876) January 8 – Chaudhry Afzal Haq, Indian writer and humanitarian (b. 1891) January 9 Heber Doust Curtis, American astronomer (b. 1872) Jan Graliński, Polish general (b. 1895) January 13 Vladimir Ignatowski, Soviet physicist (b. 1875) Emil Szramek, Polish Roman Catholic priest, martyr and saint (b. 1887) Albert Jean Baptiste Marie Vayssière, French biologist and scientist (b. 1854) January 14 – Porfirio Barba-Jacob, Colombian poet and writer (b. 1883) January 16 Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, 2nd youngest son of Queen Victoria (b. 1850) Sir Jeremiah Colman, 1st Baronet, British industrialist (b. 1859) Carole Lombard, American actress (b. 1908) January 17 – Walther von Reichenau, German field marshal (b. 1884) January 18 – James P. Parker, United States Navy commodore (b. 1855) January 21 Christiaan Cornelissen, Dutch writer, economic and trade unionist (b. 1864) Isidoro Diéguez Dueñas, Spanish bricklayer (b. 1909) Jesús Larrañaga, Spanish communist leader (b. 1901) January 22 Walter Sickert, British Impressionist painter (b. 1860) Racho Petrov, Bulgarian general and politician, 12th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (b. 1861) January 23 Prince Ludwig Gaston of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (b. 1870) Nazareno Strampelli, Italian agronomist and plant breeder (b. 1866) January 26 – Felix Hausdorff, German mathematician (suicide) (b. 1868) January 27 – Kaarel Eenpalu, Estonian journalist and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1888) January 29 – Viktor Esbensen, Norwegian mariner (b. 1881) February February 2 Ado Birk, Estonian politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1883) Leonetto Cappiello, Italian poster designer and painter (b. 1875) February 7 – Dorando Pietri, Italian Olympic athlete (b. 1885) February 8 – Fritz Todt, Nazi German engineer (b. 1891) February 9 – Lauri Kristian Relander, 2nd President of Finland (b. 1883) February 11 Jamnalal Bajaj, Indian industrialist and philanthropist (b. 1889) Ugo Pasquale Mifsud, 3rd Prime Minister of Malta (b. 1889) February 12 – Grant Wood, American painter (b. 1891) February 13 Otakar Batlička, Czechoslovakian adventurer and journalist (b. 1895) Epitácio Pessoa, Brazil jurist and politician, 11th President of Brazil (b. 1865) February 14 – Mirosław Ferić, Polish pilot of the No. 303 Squadron in Northolt (b. 1915) February 16 – Ettore Arrigoni degli Oddi, Italian ornithologist (b. 1867) February 19 – Frank Abbandando, American gangster (b. 1910) February 20 – Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa, Ruler of Bahrain (b. 1872) February 22 – Stefan Zweig, Austrian writer (b. 1881) February 27 Robert William Chapman, Australian engineer and mathematician (b. 1866) Joseph Emile Harley, American army officer and politician (b. 1880) February 28 – Karel Doorman, Dutch admiral (b. 1889) March March 1 George S. Rentz, United States Navy Chaplain and Navy Cross winner (b. 1882) Cornelius Vanderbilt III, American military officer, inventor, and engineer (b. 1873) March 2 Gustave Anjou, Swedish genealogist (b. 1863) Sergei Solovyov, Soviet Orthodox priest and blessed (b. 1885) March 3 – Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, Italian nobleman and military officer, Viceroy of Italian East Africa (b. 1898) March 4 – Gheorghe Adamescu, Romanian historian and bibliographer (b. 1869) March 7 – Pierre Semard, French Communist leader (b. 1887) March 8 – José Raúl Capablanca, Cuban chess player (b. 1888) March 10 – Frederick Behre, American artist (b. 1863) March 11 José Camprubí, Spanish publisher (b. 1879) Raoul Dandurand, Canadian politician (b. 1861) March 12 Robert Bosch, German industrialist, engineer and inventor (b. 1861) Sir William Henry Bragg, British physicist, chemist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1862) Enric Morera i Viura, Andorran composer (b. 1865) March 14 René Bull, British illustrator and photographer (b. 1872) Friedrich Karl Georg Fedde, German botanist (b. 1873) March 15 – Vasile Demetrius, Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian writer, poet and translator (b. 1878) March 17 – Nada Dimić, Yugoslav Communist leader (b. 1923) March 20 – Vasily Kalafati, Soviet and Russian composer (b. 1869) March 21 – J. S. Woodsworth, Canadian politician (b. 1874) Václav Morávek, Czech general and warrior (b. 1904) March 23 Ludwig von Höhnel, Austrian naval officer and explorer (b. 1857) Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear, 20th President of Argentina (b. 1868) March 26 – Gustav Hinrichs, German-born American conductor and composer (b. 1850) March 27 Jannion Steele Elliott, British ornithologist and naturalist (b. 1871) John W. Wilcox, Jr., American admiral (lost overboard) (b. 1882) Julio González, Spanish sculptor and painter (b. 1876) March 28 – Miguel Hernández, Spanish poet and playwright (b. 1910) April April 2 – Édouard Estaunié, French novelist (b. 1862) April 4 James Bede, American politician (b. 1856) Jan Daszewski, Polish fighter pilot (b. 1916) April 6 – Isidro Michel López, Mexican military officer, leader of the Mexican Revolution (b. 1870) April 7 – Anandshankar Dhruv, Indian scholar, writer, educationist and editor (b. 1869) April 11 – Frederick Hobbs, New Zealand-born singer and actor (b. 1874) April 12 – Arnold Keppel, 8th Earl of Albemarle, British soldier and politician (b. 1858) April 13 Julia Danzas, Soviet and Russian Roman Catholic religious leader and blessed (b. 1879) Sir James Fergusson, British admiral (b. 1881) April 15 Robert Musil, Austrian novelist (b. 1880) Joshua Pim, Irish tennis player (b. 1869) April 16 – Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, granddaughter of Queen Victoria (b. 1878) April 17 Renward Brandstetter, Swiss philologist and linguist (b. 1860) Adolph Daniel Edward Elmer, American botanist (b. 1870) Jean Baptiste Perrin, French physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1870) April 18 Grażyna Chrostowska, Polish poet and activist (b. 1921) Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, American heiress, socialite and sculptor (b. 1875) April 21 – Gustav Stickley, American furniture designer and architect (b. 1858) April 23 – Olga Benário Prestes, German-born Brazilian militant (b. 1908) April 24 Camille du Gast, French pioneer (b. 1868) Deenanath Mangeshkar, Indian singer and composer (b. 1900) Lucy Maud Montgomery, Canadian writer (b. 1874) April 25 – Zygmunt Kisielewski, Polish writer (b. 1882) April 27 – Arthur L. Bristol, American admiral (b. 1886) April 30 – Lilian Whiting, American writer and editor (b. 1847) May May 2 – José Abad Santos, Filipino chief justice of the Supreme Court (b. 1886) May 3 – Thorvald Stauning, 9th Prime Minister of Denmark (b. 1873) May 4 – Józef Czempiel, Polish Roman Catholic priest, martyr and blessed (b. 1883) May 5 – Habib Pacha Es-Saad, 3rd Prime Minister and 2nd President of Lebanon (b. 1867) May 7 – Felix Weingartner, Austrian conductor (b. 1863) May 9 – Graham McNamee, American radio announcer (b. 1888) May 10 – Joe Weber, American vaudevillian (b. 1867) May 11 – Sakutarō Hagiwara, Japanese poet and writer (b. 1886) May 12 – Hannu Hannuksela, Finnish general (b. 1893) May 14 – Frank Churchill, American composer (b. 1901) May 16 Kaneko Kentarō, Japanese diplomat and statesman (b. 1853) Bronisław Malinowski, Polish anthropologist (b. 1884) Maria Michał Kowalski, Polish priest and blessed (b. 1871) May 19 – A. E. Waite, British occultist (b. 1857) May 20 John D. Craddock, American politician (b. 1881) Charles E. Dietrich, American politician (b. 1889) John Goodall, English footballer (b. 1863) May 22 Stjepan Filipović, Yugoslav national hero (b. 1916) Tateo Katō, Japanese fighter ace (b. 1903) May 24 – Ivan Horbachevsky, Austrian chemist and politician (b. 1854) May 25 – Emanuel Feuermann, Austrian cellist (b. 1902) May 27 – Chen Duxiu, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (b. 1879) May 29 John Barrymore, American actor (b. 1882) Akiko Yosano, Japanese author and poet (b. 1878) May 30 – Félix Cadras, French lace designer and militant (b. 1906) June June 4 Eusebio Ayala, 29th President of Paraguay (1921–23, 1932–36) (b. 1875) Reinhard Heydrich, headed the Nazi Reich Main Security Office and was Reich governor of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1904) Eugene E. Lindsey, United States Navy officer (b. 1905) June 5 Virginia Lee Corbin, American actress (b. 1910) Tamon Yamaguchi, Japanese admiral, killed in action at the Battle of Midway (b. 1892) Ryusaku Yanagimoto, Japanese rear admiral, killed in action at the Battle of Midway (b. 1894) June 7 – Alan Blumlein, British electronics engineer (b. 1903) June 11 Charles Berthézenne, French politician (b. 1871) Michael Kitzelmann, German army officer (b. 1916) June 14 – Fyodor Braun, Soviet-born German scholar (b. 1862) June 18 – David Hawthorne, British actor (b. 1888) Jozef Gabčík, Slovak soldier and resistance fighter, a member of the team part of Operation Anthropoid (b. 1912) Jan Kubiš, Czech soldier and resistance fighter, a member of the team part of Operation Anthropoid (b. 1913) Josef Valčík, Czech soldier and resistance fighter, a member of the team part of Operation Anthropoid (b. 1914) Adolf Opálka, Czech soldier and resistance fighter, a member of the team part of Operation Anthropoid (b. 1915) June 19 Ahmad II of Tunis, Ruler of Tunisia (b. 1862) Frank Irons, American Olympic athlete (b. 1886) June 21 – Pope John XIX of Alexandria (b. 1855) June 22 – Branko Kadia, Jordan Misja and Perlat Rexhepi, Albanian student activists June 23 – William Couper, American sculptor (b. 1853) June 25 Arthur Anderson, Australian architect (b. 1868) Zénon Bernard, Luxembourgish communist politician (b. 1893) June 26 John Gary Evans, American politician (b. 1863) Stanisław Skarżyński, Polish army officer (b. 1899) Gene Stack, 1st American major league baseball player to be drafted during World War II as well as the first to die in service (b. 1920) June 30 Billy Bennett, American actor (b. 1887) William Henry Jackson, American photographer (b. 1843) July July 1 Peadar Toner Mac Fhionnlaoich, Irish-language writer (b. 1857) Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski, Polish general, diplomat and politician, Interim President of Poland (b. 1881) July 2 Rudi Čajavec, Yugoslav poet (b. 1911) Joseph Domachowski, American politician (b. 1872) July 4 – Józef Kowalski, Polish Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1911) July 8 Louis Franchet d'Espèrey, French general (b. 1856) Refik Saydam, 4th Prime Minister of Turkey (b. 1881) July 9 Kelly Harrell, American surburbia musician (b. 1889) Pauline of the Agonizing Heart of Jesus, Brazilian Roman Catholic religious sister and saint (b. 1865) July 12 – Mary Hayden, Irish historian and activist (b. 1862) July 13 – Joaquín Sánchez de Toca, Spanish conservative politician and Prime Minister of Spain (b. 1852) July 14 – Sébastien Faure, French anarchist and activist (b. 1858) July 15 Wenceslao Vinzons, Filipino politician and resistance leader (bayoneted to death) (b. 1910) Roberto María Ortiz, 24th President of Argentina (b. 1886) July 16 – Sir Alfred Flux, British economist and statistician (b. 1867) July 17 – Tinus de Jongh, South African painter (b. 1885) July 18 George Beeby, Australian politician, judge and author (b. 1869) George Sutherland, British-born American Supreme Court Justice (b. 1862) July 23 Arístides Chavier Arévalo, Puerto Rican composer and pianist (b. 1867) Adam Czerniaków, Polish engineer and senator (suicide) (b. 1880) July 24 – Edwin Cooper, British architect (b. 1874) July 25 – Tom Reynolds, British actor (b. 1866) July 26 Roberto Arlt, Argentine writer (b. 1900) Titus Brandsma, Dutch Discalced Carmelite friar, Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1881) July 28 – Sir Flinders Petrie, British Egyptologist (b. 1853) July 29 – Louis Borno, Haitian lawyer and politician, 28th President of Haiti (b. 1865) July 30 Jimmy Blanton, American bassist (b. 1918) Leopold Mandić, Yugoslav Capuchin friar and Roman Catholic priest and saint (b. 1866) July 31 Jožka Jabůrková, Czechoslovakan journalist, writer and translator (b. 1896) Sir Francis Younghusband, British explorer and army officer (b.1863) August August 3 Franciszka Arnsztajnowa, Polish poet and playwright (b. 1865) James Cruze, American actor and director (b. 1884) Guglielmo Ferrero, Italian historian, journalist and novelist (b. 1871) Gustav Indrebø, Norwegian philologist (b. 1889) Richard Willstätter, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1872) August 7 Louis J. Carpellotti, American marine (b. 1918) Charles E. Ford, American film director and producer (b. 1899) Janusz Korczak, Polish educator, author and pediatrician (b. 1878) August 8 – Leopold Janikowski, Polish explorer and ethnographer (b. 1855) August 9 – Terea Benedicta of the Cross, German philosopher, Roman Catholic nun, martyr and saint (assassinated) (b. 1891) August 10 – Kazimierz Dembowski, Polish Roman Catholic clergyman and martyr (b. 1912) August 11 – Sabina Spielrein, Russian physician and psychoanalyst (b. 1885) August 12 Pasquale Amato, Italian baritone (b. 1878) Mykola Burachek, Soviet painter (b. 1871) Phillips Holmes, American actor (b. 1907) August 13 Jorge Cuesta, Mexican chemist, writer and editor (b. 1903) Elina González Acha de Correa Morales, Argentinian educator, scientist and activist (b. 1861) August 15 – Mahadev Desai, Indian independence activist and writer (b. 1892) August 16 – André Heuzé, French director, screenwriter and playwright (b. 1880) August 18 Agathe Lasch, German philologist (b. 1879) Henry DeWitt Hamilton, American general (b. 1863) August 19 – Heinrich Rauchinger, Polish-born Austrian painter (b. 1858) August 21 – Kiyonao Ichiki, Japanese army officer (killed in action) (b. 1892) August 22 – Michel Fokine, Soviet choreographer and dancer (b. 1880) August 23 Jorge Colaço, Portuguese painter (b. 1868) Franciszek Dachtera, Polish Roman Catholic priest, martyr and blessed (b. 1910) August 24 Doyle Clayton Barnes, American naval aviator (b. 1912) Edward Kaźmierski, Polish Roman Catholic priest, martyr and blessed (b. 1919) August 25 Prince George, Duke of Kent, 4th eldest son of George V (b. 1902) Józef Lewartowski, Polish politician and revolutionary (b. 1895) August 26 – Irena Bernášková, Czechoslovakian journalist and resistance member (b. 1904) August 27 – Lev Nussimbaum, Russian and Azerbaijani novelist (b. 1905) August 28 – Archduke Joseph Ferdinand of Austria (b. 1872) August 29 Charles Urban, American film producer (b. 1867) Fabio Fiallo, Dominican writer, poet and politician (b. 1866) Dominik Jędrzejewski, Polish Roman Catholic priest, martyr and blessed (b. 1886) August 30 – Martin Kirschner, German surgeon (b. 1869) September September 1 – Clotilde Apponyi, Hungarian women's rights activist and diplomat (b. 1867) September 3 – Rubén Ruiz Ibárruri, Spanish communist leader (b. 1920) September 4 – Herbert A. Calcaterra, American navy sailor (b. 1920) September 5 – François de Labouchère, French pilot (b. 1917) September 7 – Cecilia Beaux, American portraitist (b. 1855) September 8 – Adam Bargielski, Polish Roman Catholic priest, martyr and blessed (b. 1903) September 9 – Adele Kurzweil, Austrian Holocaust victim (b. 1925) September 14 Sister Fausta Labrador, Filipino Roman Catholic nun and Servant of God (b. 1858) E. S. Gosney, American philanthropist and eugenicist (b. 1855) September 20 – Kanaklata Barua, Indian freedom fighter (b. 1924) September 27 Fernando Díaz de Mendoza y Guerrero, Spanish actor (b. 1897) Bronisław Kostkowski, Polish Roman Catholic priest, martyr and blessed (b. 1915) September 29 – Matangini Hazra, Indian revolutionary (shot) (b. 1870) September 30 Hans-Joachim Marseille, German World War II fighter ace (b. 1919) Leonīds Breikšs, Latvian poet, journalist and patriot (b. 1908) William V. Pacelli, American politician (b. 1893) October October 1 – Ants Piip, 7th Prime Minister and 1st State Elder of Estonia (b. 1884) October 2 – Alois Eliáš, Czech general and politician (b. 1890) October 3 Ludwik Ćwikliński, Prussian philologist and professor (b. 1853) Olaf Huseby, Norwegian-born American publisher (b. 1856) October 5 – Giuseppe Cassioli, Italian painter and sculptor (b. 1865) October 6 Siegmund Glücksmann, German politician (b. 1884) Lorenzo Aguirre, Spanish painter (b. 1884) Wacław Wąsowicz, Polish painter (b. 1891) October 7 – Maria Antonina Kratochwil, Polish Roman Catholic nun, martyr and blessed (b. 1881) October – Effie Ellsler, American actress (b. 1855) October 9 – William T. Hanna, American marine (b. 1920) October 10 – Arnold Majewski, Finnish military hero of Polish descent (killed in action) (b. 1892) October 12 – Aritomo Gotō, Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1888) October 15 – Dame Marie Tempest, British actress (b. 1864) October 18 – Federico Ferrari Orsi, Italian army officer (b. 1886) October 19 – Paul Nikolaus Cossmann, German journalist (b. 1869) October 20 – May Robson, Australian actress (b. 1858) October 22 – Staf De Clercq, Belgian collaborator and nationalist (b. 1884) October 23 – Ralph Rainger, American composer and songwriter (b. 1901) October 24 Dimitri Amilakhvari, French military officer (b. 1906) St John Hutchinson, British barrister and politician (b. 1884) James C. Morton, American actor (b. 1884) October 26 – William Finnemann, Filipino Roman Catholic priest, archbishop and servant of God (b. 1882) October 27 – Helmuth Hübener, German youth political activist against the Hitler regime (b. 1925) October 28 – Alexander von Dassel, German magistrate (b. 1854) October 31 – Emilio Caldara, Italian politician (b. 1868) November November 1 – Hugo Distler, German composer (b. 1908) November 2 – Elihu Grant, American scholar and writer (b. 1873) November 3 Eric Abrahamsson, Swedish actor (b. 1890) Amédé Ardoin, American musician (b. 1898) November 5 George M. Cohan, American songwriter and entertainer (b. 1878) Kiyoura Keigo, Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1850) November 9 – Edna May Oliver, American actress (b. 1883) November 11 Hector Abbas, Dutch actor (b. 1884) Merton Beckwith-Smith, British army officer (b. 1890) November 12 – Laura Hope Crews, American actress (b. 1879) November 13 Daniel J. Callaghan, American admiral and Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1890) Norman Scott, American admiral and Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1889) November 15 – Prince Heinrich XXXIII Reuss of Köstritz (b. 1879) November 16 – Joseph Schmidt, Polish tenor (b. 1904) November 19 Ilya Fondaminsky, Soviet author (b. 1880) Bruno Schulz, Polish writer and painter (shot) (b. 1892) November 21 Count Leopold Berchtold, Austro-Hungarian foreign minister (b. 1863) J. B. M. Hertzog, Boer General and 3rd Prime Minister of South Africa (b. 1866) November 23 Tomitarō Horii, Japanese general (b. 1890) Hernando Siles Reyes, Bolivian politician, 31st President of Bolivia (b. 1882) November 24 Guido Masiero, Italian World War I flying ace and aviation pioneer (b. 1895) Francesco Agello, Italian aviator (b. 1902) November 25 – Mihail Dragomirescu, Romanian aesthetician, theorist and critic (b. 1868) November 26 Mohammad Ali Foroughi, Iranian diplomat, politician, teacher and writer, 3-time Prime Minister of Iran (b. 1877) Sigtryggur Jonasson, Canadian politician (b. 1852) November 27 – Hermann Harms, German botanist (b. 1870) November 28 – Marceli Nowotko, Polish activist (b. 1893) November 29 – William Stamps Farish II, American pioneer (b. 1881) November 30 – Buck Jones, American actor (b. 1891) December December 1 Teddy Sheean, Royal Australian Navy sailor, killed in action at the Battle of Timor (b. 1923) Leon Wachholz, Polish scientist and medical examiner (b. 1867) December 3 – Wilhelm Junk, Czechoslovakian natural historian, bibliographer and entomologist (b. 1866) December 5 – Richard Tucker, American actor (b. 1884) December 6 Karl Herxheimer, German dermatologist (b. 1861) Amos Rusie, American baseball player and MLB Hall of Famer (b. 1871) December 7 – Orland Steen Loomis, Governor of Wisconsin (b. 1893) December 8 Prince Eitel Friedrich of Prussia (b. 1883) Albert Kahn, American architect (b. 1869) December 9 – Séraphine Louis, French painter (b. 1864) December 12 Robert Danneberg, Austrian politician (b. 1882) Helen Westley, American actress (b. 1875) December 13 Hakeem Fateh Mohammad Sehwani, Indian scholar, poet, literary, journalist and politician (b. 1882) Wlodimir Ledóchowski, Polish Jesuit priest and servant of God (b. 1866) December 17 – Edith Pretty, British landowner (b. 1883) December 19 – Carl Gustav Fleischer, Norwegian general (b. 1883) December 21 – Franz Boas, German anthropologist (b. 1858) December 22 – Robert Kosch, Prussian general (b. 1856) December 23 – Konstantin Balmont, Soviet poet and translator (b. 1867) December 24 – François Darlan, French admiral and politician, 81st Prime Minister of France (assassinated) (b. 1881) December 27 – William G. Morgan, American inventor of volleyball (b. 1870) December 30 – Nevile Henderson, British diplomat (b. 1882) References

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998

1998

1998 was designated as the International Year of the Ocean. Events January January 6 – The Lunar Prospector spacecraft is launched into orbit around the Moon, and later finds evidence for frozen water, in soil in permanently shadowed craters near the Moon's poles. January 8 – Ramzi Yousef is sentenced to life in prison for planning the first World Trade Center bombing in 1993. January 11 – Over 100 people are killed in the Sidi-Hamed massacre in Algeria. January 12 – Nineteen European nations agree to forbid human cloning. January 14 – The World Trade Center is robbed by Mafia Member Ralph Guarino. January 17 – The Drudge Report breaks the story about U.S. President Bill Clinton's alleged affair with Monica Lewinsky, which would lead to the House of Representatives' impeachment of him. February February 3 – Cavalese cable car disaster: a United States military pilot causes the deaths of 20 people near Trento, Italy, when his low-flying EA-6B Prowler severs the cable of a cable-car. February 4 – The 5.9 Afghanistan earthquake shakes the Takhar Province with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII (Very strong). With up to 4,000 killed, and 818 injured, damage is considered extreme. February 7–22 – The 1998 Winter Olympics are held in Nagano, Japan. February 20 – Iraq disarmament crisis: Iraqi President Saddam Hussein negotiates a deal with U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan, allowing weapons inspectors to return to Baghdad, preventing military action by the United States and Britain. February 28 A massacre in Likoshane, FR Yugoslavia starts the Kosovo War. A study led by Andrew Wakefield is published in The Lancet suggesting an alleged link between MMR vaccine and autism. Now known to be full of data manipulation, the study was instantly controversial and fueled the nascent anti-vaccination movement. Although subsequent large epidemiological research found no link between vaccines and autism, the study contributed – in the following years and decades – to a sharp drop in vaccination rates and the resurgence of measles in several countries. The study, fully retracted in 2010, was later characterised as "perhaps the most damaging medical hoax of the 20th Century". March March 1 – Titanic becomes the first film to gross US$1 billion. March 2 – Data sent from the Galileo probe indicates that Jupiter's moon Europa has a liquid ocean under a thick crust of ice. March 5 – NASA announces that the Clementine probe orbiting the Moon has found enough water in polar craters to support a human colony and rocket fueling station. March 11 – 1998 Danish general election: Prime Minister Poul Nyrup Rasmussen is re-elected. March 13 – The High-Z Supernova Search Team becomes the first team to publish evidence that the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate. March 23 – The 70th Academy Awards ceremony, hosted for the 6th time by Billy Crystal, is held at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles, California. Titanic wins 11 Oscars including Best Picture. March 26 – Oued Bouaicha massacre in Algeria: 52 people are killed with axes and knives; 32 of the killed are babies under the age of two. April April 5 – In Japan, the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge linking Shikoku with Honshū and costing about US$3.6 billion, opens to traffic, becoming the largest suspension bridge in the world. April 6 – Pakistan tests medium-range missiles capable of hitting India. April 10 – Good Friday Agreement: 1 hour after the end of the talks deadline, the Belfast Agreement is signed between the Irish and British governments and most Northern Ireland political parties, with the notable exception of the Democratic Unionist Party. April 20 – The alleged date the German Red Army Faction (created 1970) is dissolved. April 23 – The Yugoslav Army ambushes a group of Kosovo Liberation Army fighters attempting to smuggle weapons from Albania into Kosovo, killing 19. May May 11 India conducts three underground nuclear tests in Pokhran, including one thermonuclear device. The first euro coins are minted in Pessac, France. Because the final specifications for the coins were not finished in 1998, they will have to be melted and minted again in 1999. May 12 - Trisakti shootings: Indonesian soldiers open fire on unarmed protesters, killing 4 people. May 13–14 – Riots directed against Chinese Indonesians break out in Indonesia, killing around 1,000 people. May 19 The Galaxy IV communications satellite fails, leaving 80–90% of the US's pagers without service. The wreck of the aircraft carrier , sunk during the Battle of Midway in 1942, is found near Midway Atoll by a team led by former US Navy officer Robert D. Ballard. May 21 – Suharto (elected 1967) resigns after 31 years as President of Indonesia, effectively ending the New Order period. It is his 7th consecutive re-election by the Indonesian Parliament (MPR). Suharto's hand-picked Vice President, B. J. Habibie, becomes Indonesia's third president. May 22 - Expo '98 (1998 Lisbon World Exposition) in Portugal opened doors to 30 September 1998. The theme of the fair was "The Oceans, a Heritage for the Future". May 28 – Nuclear testing: In response to a series of Indian nuclear tests, Pakistan explodes five nuclear devices of its own in the Chaghai hills of Baluchistan, codenamed Chagai-I, prompting the United States, Japan and other nations to impose economic sanctions. Pakistan celebrates Youm-e-Takbir annually. May 30 A 6.5 magnitude earthquake hits northern Afghanistan, killing up to 5,000. A second nuclear test, codenamed Chagai-II, is conducted and supervised by the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC). June June 1 – European Central Bank established, replacing the European Monetary Institute. June 3 – Eschede train disaster: an Intercity-Express high-speed train derails between Hanover and Hamburg, Germany, causing 101 deaths. June 7 Former Brigadier-General Ansumane Mané seizes control over military barracks in Bissau, marking the beginning of the Guinea-Bissau Civil War (1998–99). James Byrd Jr. is beaten and dragged to death by three white men in Jasper, Texas. Two are subsequently executed. June 10–July 12 – The 1998 FIFA World Cup in France: France beats Brazil 3–0 in the FIFA World Cup Final. June 10 – The Organisation of African Unity passes a resolution which states that its members will no longer comply with punitive sanctions applied by the UN Security Council against Libya. June 27 – Kuala Lumpur International Airport officially opened, becoming the new international gateway into Malaysia. June 30 – Philippine Vice President Joseph Estrada is sworn in as the 13th President of the Philippines. July July 5 – Japan launches a probe to Mars, joining the United States and Russia as an outer space-exploring nation. July 6 – The new Hong Kong International Airport at Chek Lap Kok opens, while the old Kai Tak Airport closes. July 17 At a conference in Rome, 120 countries vote to create a permanent International Criminal Court to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression. In Saint Petersburg, Nicholas II of Russia and his family are buried in St. Catherine Chapel, 80 years after he and his family were killed by the Bolsheviks in 1918. The 7.0 Papua New Guinea earthquake shakes the region near Aitape with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). This submarine earthquake triggered a landslide that caused a destructive tsunami, leaving more than 2,100 dead and thousands injured. July 21 – September 5 – The 1998 Sydney water crisis involved the suspected contamination by the microscopic pathogens cryptosporidium and giardia of the water supply system of Greater Metropolitan Sydney. July 24 – Russell Eugene Weston Jr. enters the United States Capitol Building and opens fire, killing two members of the United States Capitol Police, Jacob Chestnut and John Gibson. August August 4 – The Second Congo War begins; 5.4 million people die before it ends in 2003, making it the bloodiest war, to date, since World War II. August 7 Yangtze River Floods: in China the Yangtze river breaks through the main bank; before this, from August 1–5, peripheral levees collapsed consecutively in Jiayu County Baizhou Bay. The death toll exceeds 12,000, with many thousands more injured. 1998 U.S. embassy bombings: the bombings of the United States embassies in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya, kill 224 people and injure over 4,500; they are linked to terrorist Osama bin Laden, an exile of Saudi Arabia. August 15 – The Omagh bombing is carried out in Northern Ireland by the Real Irish Republican Army. Shortly after these events, the group would call a ceasefire in response, signaling an end to the 30+ year conflict known as the Troubles. August 22 – An annular solar eclipse is visible in Sumatra, Borneo and Pacific. The Moon was 10.6 days past perigee and 5.2 days before apogee. August 26 – Clube de Regatas Vasco da Gama wins the Libertadores Cup after a 2–1 win against Barcelona S.C. August 30 – The First Google Doodle celebrates Burning Man. September September 2 A McDonnell Douglas MD-11 airliner (Swissair Flight 111) crashes near Peggy's Cove, Nova Scotia, after taking off from New York City en route to Geneva; all 229 people on board are killed. A United Nations court finds Jean-Paul Akayesu, the former mayor of a small town in Rwanda, guilty of nine counts of genocide, marking the first time that the 1948 law banning genocide is enforced. September 2 – Anwar Ibrahim was sacked from Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia position by Mahathir Mohamad. He later charged as sodomy trial in court. September 4 – Google, Inc. is founded in Menlo Park, California, by Stanford University PhD candidates Larry Page and Sergey Brin. September 5 – The Government of North Korea adopts a military dictatorship on its 50th anniversary. September 8 – St. Louis Cardinals first baseman Mark McGwire hits his 62nd home run of the season, thus breaking the single season record of 61 which had been held by Roger Maris since 1961. September 10 – At midnight, a shooting occurs aboard an Akula-class nuclear-powered attack submarine of the Russian Navy docked in the northern Russian port city of Severomorsk. September 11 – 1998 Commonwealth Games was held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. September 12 – The Cuban Five intelligence agents are arrested in Miami, and convicted of espionage. The agents claim they were not spying against the United States Government but against the Cuban exile community in Miami. September 24 – Iranian President Mohammad Khatami retracts a fatwa against Satanic Verses author Salman Rushdie that was in force since 1989 stating that the Iranian government will "neither support nor hinder assassination operations on Rushdie". September 29 – Nipah virus epidemic begins in Malaysia. October October 1 – Europol is established when the Europol Convention signed by all of its member states comes into force. October 3 – 1998 Australian federal election: John Howard's Liberal/National Coalition Government is re-elected with a substantially reduced majority, defeating the Labor Party led by Kim Beazley. October 6 – Matthew Shepard, a gay University of Wyoming student, is beaten and left for dead outside of Laramie, Wyoming. The subsequent media coverage, followed by his death on October 12, opens a larger conversation on homophobia in the United States. October 10 – Indictment and arrest of Augusto Pinochet: General Augusto Pinochet, Chilean dictator from 1973 to 1990, is indicted for human rights violations he committed in Chile by Spanish magistrate Baltasar Garzón. 6 days later British police place him under house arrest during his medical treatment in the UK. This is a leading case in the law of universal jurisdiction. October 17 – 1998 Jesse pipeline explosion: An oil pipeline explosion in Jesse, Nigeria results in 1,082 deaths. October 29 Hurricane Mitch makes landfall in Central America, killing an estimated 11,000 people. STS-95: Former astronaut John Glenn returns to space, as a payload specialist. November November 11 – Tencent, a multinational technology company, is founded in Shenzhen, China. November 17 – Voyager 1 overtakes Pioneer 10 as the most distant man-made object from the Solar System, at a distance of . November 20 – A Russian Proton rocket is launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, carrying the first segment of the International Space Station, the 21-ton Zarya Module. November 24 – A declassified report by Swiss International Olympic Committee official Marc Hodler reveals that bribes had been used to bring the 2002 Winter Olympics to Salt Lake City during bidding process in 1995. The IOC, the Salt Lake Organizing Committee, the United States Olympic Committee and the United States Department of Justice immediately launch an investigation into the scandal. December December 4 – The Space Shuttle Endeavour launches the first American component to the International Space Station, the Unity module on STS-88. It docks with Zarya two days later. December 6 – Hugo Chávez, politician and former member of the Venezuelan military, is elected President of Venezuela. December 14 – The Yugoslav Army ambushes a column of 140 Kosovo Liberation Army militants attempting to smuggle arms from Albania into Kosovo, killing 36. December 16 – Iraq disarmament crisis: U.S. President Bill Clinton orders airstrikes on Iraq. UNSCOM withdraws all weapons inspectors from Iraq. December 19 – The U.S. House of Representatives forwards articles of impeachment against President Clinton to the Senate, making him the second president to be impeached in the nation's history. December 29 – Khmer Rouge leaders apologize for the post-Vietnam War genocide in Cambodia that killed more than one million people in the 1970s. December 31 The first leap second since June 30, 1997, occurs. In the Eurozone, the currency rates of this day are fixed permanently. Date unknown Ibrahim Hanna, the last native speaker of Mlahsô, dies in Qamishli, Syria, making the language effectively extinct. Also, the last native speaker of related Bijil Neo-Aramaic, Mrs. Rahel Avraham, dies in Jerusalem. In Australia, The Wiggles re-release three videos after the video release of The Wiggles Movie, including Yummy Yummy, Wiggle Time, and Wiggledance!. However, Yummy Yummy and Wiggle Time contains new footage, as they have been re-recorded, Wiggledance! cuts out the song "Vini Vini". Births January January 1 – Sara Ahmed, Egyptian weightlifter January 2 – Timothy Fosu-Mensah, Dutch footballer January 3 – Patrick Cutrone, Italian footballer January 4 – Liza Soberano, Filipino actress and singer January 9 – Kerris Dorsey, American actress and singer January 11 Louisa Johnson, English singer Odessa Young, Australian actress January 12 – Juan Foyth, Argentine footballer January 13 – Gabrielle Daleman, Canadian figure skater January 17 – Anthony Zambrano, Colombian sprinter January 18 Vashti Cunningham, American track and field athlete Éder Militão, Brazilian footballer Lisandro Martínez, Argentinian footballer January 20 – Frances Tiafoe, American tennis player January 23 XXXTentacion, American rapper (d. 2018) Cole Custer, NASCAR Driver January 28 – Ariel Winter, American actress and voice actress January 31 Amadou Haidara, Malian footballer Bradie Tennell, American figure skater February February 3 – Yang Hao, Chinese diver February 4 Scott Jones, English paralympic athlete Malik Monk, American basketball player February 8 – Rui Hachimura, Japanese basketball player February 11 – Khalid, American singer and songwriter February 14 – Sander Berge, Norwegian footballer February 15 Zachary Gordon, American actor George Russell, British racing driver February 24 – Mariel Pamintuan, Filipino actress February 24 – Ismaïla Sarr, Senegalese footballer February 27 – Elisa Balsamo, Italian cyclist March March 3 – Jayson Tatum, American basketball player March 4 – Obi Toppin, American basketball player March 5 – Merih Demiral, Turkish footballer March 7 – Amanda Gorman, American poet and activist March 10 – Justin Herbert, American football quarterback March 13 – Jack Harlow, American rapper March 18 Zane Waddell, South African swimmer Abigail Cowen, American actress March 19 – Sakura Miyawaki, Japanese singer, former member of IZ*ONE March 22 – Paola Andino, Puerto-Rican-American actress March 25 – Vergil Ortiz Jr., American professional boxer March 26 Daria Grushina, Russian ski jumper Satoko Miyahara, Japanese figure skater March 30 Kalyn Ponga, Australian rugby league footballer Im Sung-jae, South Korean golfer March 31 – Anna Seidel, German short track speed skater April April 3 – Paris Jackson, American actress and model April 6 Peyton List, American actress and model Spencer List, American actor April 8 – Renan Lodi, Brazilian footballer April 9 – Elle Fanning, American actress and model April 10 Anna Pogorilaya, Russian figure skater Fedor Chalov, Russian footballer April 15 – Dorsa Derakhshani, Iranian chess player April 19 – Patrik Laine, Finnish ice hockey player April 21 – Jarrett Allen, American basketball player April 24 – Ryan Newman, American actress and model April 26 – Jan-Krzysztof Duda, Polish chess grandmaster April 30 – Olivia DeJonge, Australian actress May May 2 – Jonathan Ikoné, French footballer May 5 Tijana Bogdanović, Serbian taekwondo practitioner Olli Juolevi, Finnish ice hockey player Aryna Sabalenka, Belarusian tennis player May 7 Jimmy Donaldson, American YouTuber Dani Olmo, Spanish footballer May 12 – Mohamed Bamba, American basketball player May 14 – Aaron Ramsdale, English footballer May 17 – Abdulrahman Akkad, Syrian Blogger LGBT activist May 18 – Polina Edmunds, American figure skater May 19 – Alex Král, Czech footballer May 23 Salwa Eid Naser, Bahraini track and field sprinter Steve Lacy, American musician, singer, songwriter and record producer May 28 – Dahyun, South Korean singer, rapper, and dancer May 29 Markelle Fultz, American basketball player Lucía Gil, Spanish singer and actress June June 1 – Aleksandra Soldatova, Russian rhythmic gymnast June 5 Yulia Lipnitskaya, former Russian figure skater Maxim Burov, Russian freestyle skier June 11 – Charlie Tahan, American actor June 15 – Alexander Samarin, Russian figure skater June 16 Ritsu Doan, Japanese footballer Lauren Taylor, American actress and singer June 19 Suzu Hirose, Japanese actress and model Atticus Shaffer, American actor June 23 – Josip Brekalo, Croatian footballer June 24 – Pierre-Luc Dubois, Canadian ice hockey player June 25 – Kyle Chalmers, Australian swimmer June 29 – Michael Porter Jr., American basketball player June 30 – Houssem Aouar, French footballer July July 3 – Pedro Piquet, Brazilian racing driver July 7 – Dylan Sprayberry, American actor July 8 Maya Hawke, American actress and model Jaden Smith, American rapper, singer, songwriter, and actor Daria Spiridonova, Russian artistic gymnast July 9 – Robert Capron, American actor July 10 Kimia Alizadeh, Iranian taekwondo athlete Haley Pullos, American actress July 12 – Shai Gilgeous-Alexander, Canadian basketball player July 16 – Rina Matsuno, Japanese singer, model, and actress (d. 2017) July 17 – Don Felipe de Marichalar y Borbón, Spanish noble July 18 Devin Bush Jr., American football player Luísa Sonza, Brazilian singer-songwriter. July 21 – Kim Magnus, South Korean Olympic cross-country skier July 22 Madison Pettis, American actress and model Federico Valverde, Uruguayan footballer Khairul Hafiz Jantan, Malaysian sprinter July 23 – Deandre Ayton, Bahamian basketball player July 24 – Bindi Irwin, Australian television personality and conservationist July 28 – Frank Ntilikina, French basketball player July 30 – Gery-Nikol, Bulgarian singer July 31 – Rico Rodriguez, American actor August August 2 – Giarnni Regini-Moran, British artistic gymnast August 3 – Cozi Zuehlsdorff, American actress, pianist, and singer August 4 – Lil Skies, American rapper August 5 João Almeida, Portuguese cyclist Mimi Keene, English actress Daniil Pakhomov, Russian swimmer August 8 Shawn Mendes, Canadian singer-songwriter Ryan Garcia, American professional boxer August 9 Jorrit Croon, Dutch hockey player Panagiotis Retsos, Greek footballer August 10 Diptayan Ghosh, Indian chess grandmaster Eythóra Thorsdóttir, Dutch gymnast August 11 – Juan Miguel Echevarría, Cuban long jumper August 12 Stefanos Tsitsipas, Greek tennis player Rudy Pankow, American actor August 13 Arina Averina, Russian rhythmic gymnast Dina Averina, Russian rhythmic gymnast Carter Hart, Canadian ice hockey goaltender August 18 Tenshin Nasukawa, Japanese kickboxer and mixed martial artist Clairo, American singer-songwriter August 24 – Marc Hirschi, Swiss cyclist August 25 Abraham Mateo, Spanish singer and actor China Anne McClain, American actress and singer August 27 – Kevin Huerter, American basketball player August 28 – Weston McKennie, American footballer September September 5 – Matteo Rizzo, Italian figure skater September 10 – Sheck Wes, American rapper September 17 – Richard Wang, Canadian chess champion September 18 – Christian Pulisic, American soccer player September 18 – Sukhwinder Singh, First Indian Director Of Interns September 19 – Trae Young, American basketball player September 20 – Rashid Khan, Afghan cricket player September 21 Tadej Pogačar, Slovenian cyclist Miguel Tanfelix, Filipino actor September 28 Máscara de Bronce, Mexican wrestler Aleksandra Goryachkina, Russian chess Grandmaster September 30 – Trevi Moran, American recording artist, singer and YouTube personality October October 1 – Jehan Daruvala, Indian racing driver October 5 – Exequiel Palacios, Argentinian footballer October 7 – Trent Alexander-Arnold, English footballer October 9 Tako Natsvlishvili, Georgian model Patson Daka, Zambian footballer October 10 Nash Aguas, Filipino actor Fabio Di Giannantonio, Italian motorcycle racer October 17 – Erin Kellyman, British actress October 22 Ianis Hagi, Romanian footballer Roddy Ricch, American rapper October 23 – Amandla Stenberg, American actress and singer October 25 Lee Know, Korean vocalist Juan Soto, Dominican baseball outfielder October 27 – Dayot Upamecano, French footballer October 28 Nolan Gould, American actor Perrine Laffont, French mogul skier October 29 Maria Kharenkova, Russian artistic gymnast Lance Stroll, Canadian racing driver November November 1 – Marie-Antoinette Katoto, French footballer November 2 – Elkie, South Korean based singer and actress November 3 – Maddison Elliott, Australian paralympic swimmer November 4 – Achraf Hakimi, Moroccan footballer November 5 – Takehiro Tomiyasu, Japanese footballer November 12 – Elias Pettersson, Swedish ice hockey player November 14 – Sofia Kenin, American tennis player November 15 – Hinako Shibuno, Japanese golfer November 17 Devin Haney, American professional boxer Kara Hayward, American actress November 23 – Bradley Steven Perry, American actor November 26 – Aubrey Joseph, American actor and rapper November 29 – Ayumu Hirano, Japanese snowboarder December December 2 – Juice Wrld, American rapper and singer (d. 2019) December 4 – Si Yajie, Chinese diver December 5 – Conan Gray, American singer December 6 – Joe Fraser, British artistic gymnast December 8 Owen Teague, American actor Matthew Wilson, Australian swimmer Tanner Buchanan, American actor December 14 Yan Dhanda, English footballer Maggie Voisin, American freestyle skier December 16 – Zhou Jieqiong, Chinese singer December 17 – Martin Ødegaard, Norwegian footballer December 18 – Simona Quadarella, Italian swimmer December 19 – Frans Jeppsson Wall, Swedish singer December 20 – Kylian Mbappé, French football player December 22 G Hannelius, American actress and singer Casper Ruud, Norwegian tennis player Latto, American rapper December 24 – Nikita Howarth, New Zealand paralympic swimmer December 28 – Jared Gilman, American actor December 29 Paris Berelc, American actress and model Victor Osimhen, Nigerian footballer Kaz Grala, American Race Car Driver December 30 Zachary Brault-Guillard, Canadian footballer Jutta Leerdam, Dutch speed skater Deaths January January 1 Åke Seyffarth, Swedish speed skater (b. 1919) Helen Wills, American tennis player (b. 1905) January 4 Carlo Ludovico Bragaglia, Italian film director (b. 1894) Mae Questel, American actress (b. 1908) January 5 – Sonny Bono, American singer, actor, and politician (b. 1935) January 6 – Georgy Sviridov, Soviet and Russian composer (b. 1915) January 7 – Vladimir Prelog, Croatian chemist (b. 1906) January 8 – Michael Tippett, English composer (b. 1905) January 9 – Kenichi Fukui, Japanese chemist (b. 1918) January 11 – Klaus Tennstedt, German conductor (b. 1926) January 15 Duncan McNaughton, Canadian Olympic athlete (b. 1910) Gulzarilal Nanda, Indian politician and economist (b. 1898) Junior Wells, American harmonica player (b. 1934) January 19 – Carl Perkins, American guitarist (b. 1932) January 21 – Jack Lord, American actor (b. 1920) January 23 Hilla Limann, President of Ghana (b. 1934) Alfredo Ormando, Italian writer (b. 1958) January 26 – Shinichi Suzuki, Japanese musician and educator (b. 1898) January 28 – Shotaro Ishinomori, Japanese manga artist (b. 1938) February February 2 Haroun Tazieff, French volcanologist and geologist (b. 1914) Raymond Cattell, British and American psychologist (b. 1905) February 3 – Karla Faye Tucker, American convicted murderer (b. 1959) February 6 Falco, Austrian rock musician (b. 1957) Carl Wilson, American musician, singer, and songwriter (b. 1946) Nazim al-Kudsi, 26th Prime Minister of Syria and 14th President of Syria (b. 1906) February 8 Halldór Laxness, Icelandic writer (b. 1902) Enoch Powell, British politician (b. 1912) Julian Simon, American economist and author (b. 1932) February 9 – Maurice Schumann, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1911) February 17 – Ernst Jünger, German military hero, philosopher and entomologist (b. 1895) February 23 – Philip Abbott, American actor (b. 1924) February 24 – Henny Youngman, English-born comedian (b. 1906) February 26 – Theodore Schultz, American economist (b. 1902) February 27 George H. Hitchings, American scientist (b. 1905) J. T. Walsh, American actor (b. 1943) February 28 – Dermot Morgan, Irish actor and comedian (b. 1952) March March 1 – Jean Marie Balland, French cardinal (b. 1934) March 5 – Donald Woods, Canadian-American actor (b. 1906) March 7 Josep Escolà, Spanish footballer (b. 1914) Adem Jashari, Kosovo-Albanian militant separatist (b. 1955) March 10 – Lloyd Bridges, American actor (b. 1913) March 12 Judge Dread, English musician (b. 1945) Beatrice Wood, American artist and ceramicist (b. 1893) March 13 Bill Reid, Canadian artist (b. 1920) Hans von Ohain, German physicist (b. 1911) March 15 Benjamin Spock, American rower, pediatrician, and author (b. 1903) Dušan Pašek, Slovak ice hockey player (b. 1960) Tim Maia, Brazilian musician, songwriter and businessman (b. 1942) March 16 – Derek Barton, British chemist (b. 1918) March 25 – Daniel Massey, English actor (b. 1933) March 27 – Ferdinand Anton Ernst Porsche, Austrian auto designer and businessman (b. 1909) March 31 – Bella Abzug, American lawyer, feminist activist, and politician (b. 1920) April April 1 Gene Evans, American actor (b. 1920) Rozz Williams, American singer (b. 1963) April 3 Charles Lang, American cinematographer (b. 1901) Rob Pilatus, German singer and dancer (b. 1965) Wolf Vostell, German painter and sculptor (b. 1932) April 5 – Cozy Powell, English rock drummer (b. 1947) April 6 Rudy Dhaenens, Belgian road bicycle racer (b. 1961) Wendy O. Williams, American singer (b. 1949) Tammy Wynette, American singer (b. 1942) April 11 – Rodney Harvey, American actor and model (b. 1967) April 13 – Patrick de Gayardon, French skydiver and skysurfing pioneer (b. 1960) April 15 – Pol Pot, 30th Prime Minister of Democratic Kampuchea and Cambodian Khmer Rouge leader (b. 1925) April 16 Alberto Calderón, Argentine mathematician (b. 1920) Fred Davis, English snooker player (b. 1913) Marie-Louise Meilleur, Canadian supercentenarian (b. 1880) April 17 – Linda McCartney, American photographer and musician (b. 1941) April 18 – Terry Sanford, American politician (b. 1917) April 19 – Octavio Paz, Mexican diplomat and writer (b. 1914) April 21 – Jean-François Lyotard, French philosopher, sociologist, and literary theorist (b. 1924) April 23 Konstantinos Karamanlis, Greek politician (b. 1907) James Earl Ray, American assassin (b. 1928) April 25 – Christian Mortensen, Danish supercentenarian (b. 1882) April 27 Carlos Castaneda, American anthropologist and author (b. 1925) Anne Desclos, French writer (b. 1907) April 30 – Nizar Qabbani, Syrian diplomat, poet and publisher (b. 1923) May May 1 – Eldridge Cleaver, American political activist and writer (b. 1935) May 2 Justin Fashanu, British footballer (b. 1961) Hide, Japanese musician (b. 1964) Maidie Norman, American actress (b. 1912) May 3 Gene Raymond, American actor (b. 1908) Gojko Šušak, Croatian politician (b. 1945) May 5 – Frithjof Schuon, Swiss author, poet and painter (b. 1907) May 6 Chatichai Choonhavan, 17th Prime Minister of Thailand (b. 1920) Erich Mende, German politician (b. 1916) May 7 Allan McLeod Cormack, South African–born physicist (b. 1924) Eddie Rabbitt, American musician (b. 1941) May 8 – Johannes Kotkas, Estonian heavyweight Greco-Roman wrestler (b. 1915) May 9 – Alice Faye, American actress and singer (b. 1915) May 10 – Clara Rockmore, American musician (b. 1911) May 14 Marjory Stoneman Douglas, American conservationist and writer (b. 1890) Frank Sinatra, American actor and singer (b. 1915) May 15 – Naim Talu, 15th Prime Minister of Turkey (b. 1919) May 19 – Sōsuke Uno, 47th Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1922) May 21 – Douglas Fowley, American actor (b. 1911) May 22 – John Derek, American actor and film director (b. 1926) May 28 – Phil Hartman, Canadian-American actor, writer, and comedian (b. 1948) May 29 Orlando Anderson, American criminal and gangster (b. 1974) Barry Goldwater, American politician (b. 1909) June June 2 – Junkyard Dog, American pro wrestler (b. 1952) June 5 – Jeanette Nolan, American actress (b. 1911) June 8 – Sani Abacha, 10th President of Nigeria (b. 1943) June 9 – Lois Mailou Jones, African-American artist (b. 1905) June 10 – Hammond Innes, English author (b. 1914) June 11 – Dame Catherine Cookson, English author (b. 1906) June 13 – Birger Ruud, Norwegian athlete (b. 1911) June 20 – Conrad Schumann, East German border guard (b. 1942) June 23 – Maureen O'Sullivan, Irish-American actress (b. 1911) June 25 – Lounès Matoub, Algerian Berber singer (b. 1956) July July 3 – Danielle Bunten Berry, American software developer (b. 1949) July 6 – Roy Rogers, American singer and actor (b. 1911) July 8 – Lilí Álvarez, Spanish tennis player, author, and feminist (b. 1905) July 14 – Nguyễn Ngọc Loan, South Vietnamese general (b. 1930) July 17 – Joseph Maher, Irish-born American actor (b. 1933) July 21 Alan Shepard, American astronaut (b. 1923) Robert Young, American actor (b. 1907) July 22 – Hermann Prey, German bass-baritone (b. 1929) July 27 – Binnie Barnes, British-born American actress (b. 1903) July 29 – Jerome Robbins, American choreographer and director (b. 1918) July 30 – Buffalo Bob Smith, American children's television host (b. 1917) August August 1 – Eva Bartok, Hungarian actress (b. 1927) August 2 Otto Bumbel, Brazilian professional football manager (b. 1914) Shari Lewis, American ventriloquist (b. 1933) August 3 Reizo Koike, Japanese swimmer (b. 1915) Alfred Schnittke, Russian-born composer (b. 1934) August 4 – Yury Artyukhin, Russian cosmonaut (b. 1930) August 5 Otto Kretschmer, German U-boat commander (b. 1912) Todor Zhivkov, 6th President of Bulgaria (b. 1911) August 6 – André Weil, French mathematician (b. 1906) August 8 – László Szabó, Hungarian chess grandmaster (b. 1917) August 9 – Frankie Ruiz, American salsa singer and songwriter (b. 1958) August 13 Nino Ferrer, French singer (b. 1934) Julien Green, French-born American writer (b. 1900) August 17 Władysław Komar, Polish track and field athlete (b. 1940) Raquel Rastenni, Danish singer (b. 1915) Tadeusz Ślusarski, Polish track and field athlete (b. 1950) August 18 – Persis Khambatta, Indian actress and model (b. 1948) August 19 – Vasily Arkhipov, Soviet Navy officer (b. 1926) August 24 – E. G. Marshall, American actor (b. 1914) August 25 – Lewis F. Powell Jr., American Supreme Court Justice (b. 1907) August 26 Wade Dominguez, American actor, model, singer, and dancer (b. 1966) Frederick Reines, American physicist (b. 1918) September September 2 Jackie Blanchflower, Northern Irish footballer (b. 1933) Allen Drury, American writer (b. 1918) September 5 Willem Drees Jr., Dutch politician (b. 1922) Leo Penn, American actor and director (b. 1921) September 6 – Akira Kurosawa, Japanese screenwriter, producer, and director (b. 1910) September 8 – Leonid Kinskey, Russian-born actor (b. 1903) September 9 – Lucio Battisti, Italian singer (b. 1943) September 11 – Dane Clark, American actor (b. 1912) September 13 – George Wallace, American politician (b. 1919) September 14 Yang Shangkun, 4th President of the People's Republic of China (b. 1907) Johnny Adams, American singer (b. 1932) September 15 – Fred Alderman, American sprint runner (b. 1905) September 19 – Patricia Hayes, British character actress and comedian (b. 1909) September 20 – Muriel Humphrey Brown, American politician (b. 1912) September 21 – Florence Griffith Joyner, American athlete (b. 1959) September 23 – Mary Frann, American actress (b. 1943) September 26 – Betty Carter, American jazz singer (b. 1929) September 30 Bruno Munari, Italian-born industrial designer (b. 1907) Robert Lewis Taylor, American author (b. 1912) October October 2 Gene Autry, American actor, singer, and sports team owner (b. 1907) Olin J. Eggen, American astronomer (b. 1919) Olivier Gendebien, Belgian race car driver (b. 1924) October 3 – Roddy McDowall, British-born American actor (b. 1928) October 6 – Rolan Bykov, Soviet and Russian actor, director and producer (b. 1929) October 9 – Ian Johnson, Australian cricketer (b. 1917) October 10 – Clark Clifford, American lawyer and politician (b. 1906) October 11 – Richard Denning, American actor (b. 1914) October 12 – Matthew Shepard, American murder victim (b. 1976) October 16 – Jon Postel, American Internet pioneer (b. 1943) October 17 – Joan Hickson, British actress (b. 1906) October 22 – Eric Ambler, British writer (b. 1909) October 24 – Pino Dordoni, Italian athlete (b. 1926) October 26 – Kenkichi Iwasawa, Japanese mathematician (b. 1917) October 27 – Reidar Kvammen, Norwegian footballer (b. 1914) October 28 Tommy Flowers, English engineer (b. 1905) James Goldman, American writer (b. 1927) October 29 – Ted Hughes, English poet (b. 1930) October 30 – Apo Lazaridès, French cyclist (b. 1925) November November 3 – Bob Kane, American comic book creator (b. 1915) November 5 – Momoko Kōchi, Japanese actress (b. 1932) November 6 Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim, 5th President of the Comoros (b. 1936) Niklas Luhmann, German sociologist (b. 1927) November 8 – Jean Marais, French actor (b. 1913) November 10 Jean Leray, French mathematician (b. 1906) Mary Millar, British actress and singer (b. 1936) November 13 Edwige Feuillère, French actress (b. 1907) Valerie Hobson, English actress (b. 1917) Red Holzman, American basketball coach (b. 1920) Hendrik Timmer, Dutch sportsman (b. 1904) November 15 Stokely Carmichael, Trinidadian-American civil rights activist (b. 1941) Ludvík Daněk, Czechoslovak discus thrower (b. 1937) November 17 Efim Geller, Soviet chess player and grandmaster (b. 1925) Esther Rolle, American actress (b. 1920) November 19 Louis Dumont, French anthropologist (b. 1911) Alan J. Pakula, American film director (b. 1928) November 20 Roland Alphonso, Jamaican musician (b. 1931) Galina Starovoytova, Soviet dissident (b. 1946) November 22 – Stu Ungar, American professional poker player (b. 1953) November 25 – Flip Wilson, American actor and comedian (b. 1933) December December 1 – Freddie Young, American cinematographer (b. 1902) December 2 – Mikio Oda, Japanese athlete (b. 1905) December 6 – César Baldaccini, French sculptor (b. 1921) December 7 – Martin Rodbell, American scientist (b. 1925) December 8 – Michael Craze, British actor (b 1942) December 9 – Archie Moore, American professional boxer (b. 1916) December 12 – Lawton Chiles, American politician (b. 1930) December 14 – Norman Fell, American actor (b. 1924) December 16 – William Gaddis, American writer (b. 1922) December 18 – Lev Dyomin, Russian cosmonaut (b. 1926) December 20 Irene Hervey, American actress (b. 1909) Alan Hodgkin, British scientist (b. 1914) December 23 David Manners, Canadian-American actor (b. 1900) Michelle Thomas, American actress and comedian (b. 1968) December 25 Richard Paul, American actor (b. 1940) John Pulman, English snooker player (b. 1923) December 29 – Don Taylor, American actor and film director (b. 1920) December 30 – Keisuke Kinoshita, Japanese film director (b. 1912) Nobel Prizes Physics – Robert B. Laughlin, Horst L. Störmer, Daniel Chee Tsui Chemistry – Walter Kohn, John Pople Medicine – Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro, Ferid Murad Literature – José Saramago Peace – John Hume and David Trimble Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel – Amartya Sen Fields Medal Richard Ewen Borcherds, William Timothy Gowers, Maxim Kontsevich, Curtis T. McMullen References External links 1998 Year in Review - CNN/Sports Illustrated

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1907

1907

Events January January 14 – 1907 Kingston earthquake: A 6.5 Mw earthquake in Kingston, Jamaica, kills between 800 and 1,000. February February 11 – The French warship Jean Bart sinks off the coast of Morocco. February 7 – The "Mud March", the first large procession organized by the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), takes place in London. February 12 – The steamship Larchmont collides with the Harry Hamilton in Long Island Sound; 183 lives are lost. February 16 – SKF, a worldwide mechanical parts manufacturing brand (mainly, bearing and seal), is founded in Gothenburg, Sweden. February 21 – The English mail steamship Berlin is wrecked off the Hook of Holland; 142 lives are lost. February 24 – The Austrian Lloyd steamship Imperatrix, from Trieste to Bombay, is wrecked on Cape of Crete and sinks; 137 lives are lost. March March The steamship Congo collides at the mouth of the Ems River with the German steamship Nerissa; 7 lives are lost. The French warship Jena is blown up at Toulon; 120 lives are lost. The 1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt results in possibly as many as 11,000 deaths. The Diamond Sūtra, a woodblock printed Buddhist scripture dated 868, is discovered by Aurel Stein in the Mogao Caves in China; it is "the earliest complete survival of a dated printed book". Pablo Picasso completes his painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon. March 5 – At the opening of the new State Duma in Saint Petersburg, Russia, 40,000 demonstrators are dispersed by Russian troops. March 11 – The Prime Minister of Bulgaria, Dimitar Petkov, is assassinated by an anarchist in Sofia. March 15–16 – Elections to the new Parliament of Finland are the first in the world for a national assembly with woman candidates, as well as the first elections in Europe where universal suffrage is applied; 19 women are elected. March 22 – The first taxicabs with taximeters begin operating in London. March 25 – The first university sports federation in Europe is established in Hungary, with the participation or support of the associations of ten universities and colleges. c. March 28 – The volcano Ksudach erupts, in the Kamchatka Peninsula. April April 7 – Hershey Park opens in Hershey, Pennsylvania. April 17 The first Minas Geraes-class battleship is laid down for Brazil, by Armstrong Whitworth on the River Tyne, in England, triggering the South American dreadnought race. Today is the all-time busiest day of immigration to the United States through Ellis Island; this will be the busiest year ever seen here, with 1.1 million immigrants arriving. April 24 – Al Ahly SC is founded in Cairo by Omar Lotfi, as a gathering place for Egyptian students' unions in the struggle against colonization; it is the first association football club officially founded in Egypt or Africa. May May 3 – Turkish Football team Fenerbahçe was founded in Istanbul. May 13 – The 5th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party convenes in secret in London. June June 5 – Shastri Yagnapurushdas consecrates the murtis of both Sahajanand Swami and Gunatitanand Swami in a single central shrine, thus establishing the Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha, later a United Nations affiliate organization. June 10–August 10 – The Peking to Paris motor race is won by Prince Scipione Borghese, driving a 7-litre 35/45 hp Itala. June 15 – The Second Hague Peace Conference opens at The Hague. June 22 – The London Underground's Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway opens. June 26 – Tiflis bank robbery: Bolsheviks attack a cash-filled bank coach in the centre of Tiflis, Georgia, killing 40 people. July July 1 – The Orange River Colony gains autonomy, as the Orange Free State. July 6 – Guardians of the Irish Crown Jewels notice that they have been stolen. July 15 – The London Electrobus Company started running the first ever service of battery-electric buses between London's Victoria Station and Liverpool Street. July 21 – The sinks after colliding with the lumber schooner San Pedro, off Shelter Cove, California, resulting in 88 deaths. July 24 – The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907 brings the government and military of the protectorate of Korea more firmly under Japanese control. August August 1–9 – Robert Baden-Powell leads the first Scout camp on Brownsea Island, England. August 17 – Pike Place Market in Seattle, Washington officially opens for business. August 24–31 – The International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam meets in the Netherlands. August 28 – UPS is founded by James E. (Jim) Casey in Seattle, Washington. August 29 – The partially completed superstructure of the Quebec Bridge collapses entirely, claiming the lives of 76 workers. August 31 – Count Alexander Izvolsky and Sir Arthur Nicolson sign the Anglo-Russian Entente in Saint Petersburg, bringing a pause in The Great Game in Central Asia, and establishing the Triple Entente. September September 7 – British passenger liner sets out on her maiden voyage, from Liverpool (England) to New York City. September 26 – New Zealand and Newfoundland become dominions. October October – A committee of the Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language, made up of academics including Otto Jespersen, Wilhelm Ostwald and Roland Eötvös meet in Paris to select a language for international use. The committee ultimately decides to reform Esperanto. October 17 – Guglielmo Marconi initiates commercial transatlantic radio communications, between his high power longwave wireless telegraphy stations in Clifden, Ireland and Glace Bay, Nova Scotia. October 18 – The Hague Convention is revised by the (second) Hague Peace Conference (effective 26 January, 1910). October 24 – A major United States financial crisis is averted when J. P. Morgan, E. H. Harriman, James Stillman, Henry Clay Frick and other Wall Street financiers create a $25,000,000 pool to invest in the shares on the plunging New York Stock Exchange, ending the bank panic of 1907. October 27 – Černová massacre: Fifteen people are shot during the consecration of a Catholic church in Hungary (modern-day Slovakia). October 31 – The Parliament of Finland approved the Prohibition Act, but the law was not implemented because it was not ratified by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia. November November 4 – Russian immigrant bakers Perry and Ben Feigenson, began transforming their cake frosting flavors into The Feigenson Brothers Bottling Works soft drink recipe, later shortened to Faygo. November 16 British passenger liner RMS Mauretania, the world's largest and fastest at this date, sets out on her maiden voyage from Liverpool to New York. President Theodore Roosevelt proclaims that Oklahoma has become the 46th state in the United States. November 21 – Washington State College defeats the University of Washington 10-5 in the Apple Cup in college football, played in Seattle. November 25 – The Church of God in Christ, which becomes the fifth-largest African-American Pentecostal-Holiness Christian denomination in the United States, is founded by Bishop Charles Harrison Mason in Memphis, Tennessee. December December 6 – Monongah Mining disaster: A coal mine explosion kills 362 workers in Monongah, West Virginia. December 8 – Upon the death of Oscar II, he is succeeded by his son Gustaf V, as king of Sweden. December 14 – The largest sailing ship ever built, the 7-masted Thomas W. Lawson, is wrecked in the Isles of Scilly. December 16 – The American Great White Fleet begins its circumnavigation of the world. December 17 – Ugyen Wangchuck becomes the first Druk Gyalpo (king of Bhutan). December 19 – An explosion in a coal mine in Jacobs Creek, Pennsylvania kills 239. December 21 – Santa María School massacre: In Chile, soldiers fire at striking mineworkers gathered in the Santa María School in Iquique; over 2,000 are killed. December 31 – The first ever "ball drop" is held in Times Square, in New York City. Date unknown The triode thermionic amplifier invented by Lee de Forest, starting the development of electronics as a practical technology. The Autochrome Lumière is the first commercial color photography process. Indiana, in the United States, becomes the world's first legislature to place laws permitting compulsory sterilization for eugenic purposes on the statute book. The Moine Thrust Belt in Scotland is identified, one of the first to be discovered anywhere. The Landsforbundet for Kvinders Valgret is founded. James Murray Spangler invents the first Hoover vacuum cleaner. Henri Matisse begins to teach at the Académie Matisse in Paris, a private and non-commercial art school. Births January January 1 – Aftab Ali, Bengali politician, social reformer (d. 1972) January 3 – Ray Milland, Welsh actor, film director (d. 1986) January 5 – Volmari Iso-Hollo, Finnish athlete (d. 1969) January 8 – Keizō Hayashi, Japanese civil servant, military official (d. 1991) January 11 – Pierre Mendès France, French politician, 142nd Prime Minister of France (d. 1982) January 12 – Sergei Korolev, Russian rocket scientist (d. 1966) January 16 – Alexander Knox, Canadian actor, novelist (d. 1995) January 17 – Henk Badings, Dutch composer (d. 1987) January 18 – Lina Haag, German World War II resistance fighter (d. 2012) January 20 Manfred von Ardenne, German research and applied physicist, inventor (d. 1997) Paula Wessely, Austrian actress (d. 2000) January 22 – Dixie Dean, English football player (d. 1980) January 23 – Hideki Yukawa, Japanese physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981) January 24 Maurice Couve de Murville, Prime Minister of France (d. 1999) Sultan Ismail Nasiruddin Shah, King of Malaysia (d. 1979) January 27 – Joyce Compton, American actress (d. 1997) January 29 – Bil Dwyer, American cartoonist and humorist (d. 1987) February February 1 – Günter Eich, German writer (d. 1972) February 5 Birgit Dalland, Norwegian politician (d. 2007) Pierre Pflimlin, French politician (d. 2000) Sergio Méndez Arceo, Roman Catholic bishop of Cuernavaca, Mexico 1953-1983 (d. 1992) February 6 – Russell Gleason, American actor (d. 1945) February 9 Pierre Aliker, French-Martinican politician (d. 2013) Trường Chinh, President of Vietnam (d. 1988) February 12 – Clifton C. Edom, American photojournalism educator (d. 1991) February 15 Jean Langlais, French composer, organist (d. 1991) Cesar Romero, American actor (d. 1994) February 18 – Oscar Brodney, American screenwriter (d. 2008) February 21 – W. H. Auden, English poet (d. 1973) February 22 Sheldon Leonard, American actor, writer, director, and producer (d. 1997) Robert Young, American actor (d. 1998) February 25 – Kathryn Wasserman Davis, American philanthropist (d. 2013) February 26 Dub Taylor, American actor (d. 1994) Rosebud Yellow Robe, Native American folklorist, educator, and author (d. 1992) February 27 – Mildred Bailey, American singer (d. 1951) February 28 – Milton Caniff, American cartoonist (d. 1988) March March 8 – Konstantinos Karamanlis, Greek politician (d. 1998) March 9 – Mircea Eliade, Romanian religious historian, writer (d. 1986) March 12 Arthur Hewlett, British actor (d. 1997) Dorrit Hoffleit, American astronomer (d. 2007) March 15 – Zarah Leander, Swedish actress, singer (d. 1981) March 16 Frances Fuller, American actress (d. 1980) Hans Kleppen, Norwegian ski jumper (d. 2009) March 17 Takeo Miki, 41st Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1988) Jean Van Houtte, 38th Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 1991) March 18 – John Zachary Young, English biologist (d. 1997) March 23 – Daniel Bovet, Swiss-born scientist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1992) March 27 – Mary Treen, American actress (d. 1989) March 28 – Lúcia Santos, Portuguese nun, visionary (d. 2005) March 29 – Braguinha, Brazilian songwriter (d. 2006) March 30 – Friedrich August Freiherr von der Heydte, German Luftwaffe officer (d. 1994) April April 1 – Shivakumara Swami, Hindu religious figure and humanitarian (d. 2019) April 10 – Germán Suárez Flamerich, Venezuelan lawyer, politician and 50th President of Venezuela (d. 1990) April 11 Paul Douglas, American actor (d. 1959) April 12 – Felix de Weldon, Austrian-born sculptor (d. 2003) April 13 – Harold Stassen, American politician (d. 2001) April 14 – François Duvalier, 32nd President of Haiti (d. 1971) April 15 – Nikolaas Tinbergen, Dutch ornithologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988) April 16 – Joseph-Armand Bombardier, Canadian inventor, founder of Bombardier Inc. (d. 1964) April 21 – Wade Mainer, American singer, banjoist (d. 2011) April 23 James Hayter, British actor (d. 1983) Fritz Wotruba, Austrian sculptor (d. 1975) April 24 – William Sargant, British psychiatrist (d. 1988) April 26 – Ilias Tsirimokos, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1968) April 29 Tino Rossi, French singer (d. 1983) Fred Zinnemann, Austrian director (d. 1997) May May 1 – Oliver Hill, American lawyer (d. 2007) May 2 – Pinky Lee, American comedian (d. 1993) May 3 – Dorothy Young, American entertainer (d. 2011) May 4 – Walter Walsh, American FBI agent, Olympic shooter, and USMC instructor (d. 2014) May 5 – Iryna Vilde, Ukrainian writer (d. 1982) May 9 – Baldur von Schirach, Nazi official (d. 1974) May 11 – Kent Taylor, American actor (d. 1987) May 12 – Katharine Hepburn, American actress (d. 2003) May 13 – Dame Daphne du Maurier, English author (d. 1989) May 14 Ayub Khan, President of Pakistan (d. 1974) Johnny Moss, American poker player (d. 1995) Bob Tisdall, Irish Olympic athlete (d. 2004) May 22 Hergé, Belgian cartoonist (d. 1983) Laurence Olivier, English stage, screen actor and director (d. 1989) May 25 – U Nu, Burmese politician (d. 1995) May 26 – John Wayne, American actor, film director (d. 1979) May 27 Rachel Carson, American environmental writer (d. 1964) Carl Falck, Norwegian businessman (d. 2016) May 30 Elly Beinhorn, German pilot (d. 2007) Germaine Tillion, French anthropologist, member of French Resistance (d. 2008) June June 1 – Frank Whittle, British jet engine developer (d. 1996) June 4 Rosalind Russell, American actress (d. 1976) Jacques Roumain, Haitian writer, politician, and advocate of Marxism (d. 1944) June 5 – Rudolf Peierls, German-British physicist (d. 1995) June 7 – Arthur Marshall Davis, American judge (d. 1963) June 14 – René Char, French poet (d. 1988) June 16 – Jack Albertson, American actor, comedian (d. 1981) June 19 Clarence Wiseman, Salvation Army general (d. 1985) George de Mestral, Swiss inventor (d. 1990) June 22 – Wesley E. Brown, American district court judge (d. 2012) June 23 – James Meade, English economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995) June 24 – Jean Schlumberger, French jewelry designer (d. 1987) June 25 Franca Dominici, Italian actress, voice actress (d. 1999) J. Hans D. Jensen, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973) June 26 – Joan Harrison, English screenwriter, producer (d. 1994) June 27 – John McIntire, American actor (d. 1991) June 28 Junius Driggs, American businessman (d. 1994) Franciszka Themerson, Polish-born British artist, filmmaker (d. 1989) June 29 – Junji Nishikawa, Japanese football player (d. ?) July July 3 Horia Sima, Romanian fascist politician (d. 1993) Nora Thompson Dean, Indigenous American (Lenape) linguist (d. 1984) July 4 Henning Holck-Larsen, Danish engineer and businessman (d. 2003) Emilio Ochoa, Cuban dentist, politician (d. 2007) July 6 Frida Kahlo, Mexican painter (d. 1954) George Stanley, Canadian historian, author, soldier, teacher, public servant, and designer (d. 2002) July 7 Walter Dieminger, German space scientist (d. 2000) Robert A. Heinlein, American science fiction author (d. 1988) Pavel Sudoplatov, Russian Lieutenant General (d. 1996) Prince Vasili Alexandrovich of Russia (d. 1989) July 9 Teresa Jungman, English socialite (d. 2010) Philip Klutznick, American administrator (d. 1999) July 10 John Michaels, American pitcher (d. 1996) Lê Duẩn, Vietnamese politician (d. 1986) July 13 – George Weller, American novelist, playwright, and journalist (d. 2002) July 14 Annabella, French actress (d. 1996) Maria Matray, German screenwriter and actress (d. 1993) July 15 Paterson Fraser, English Royal Air Force (d. 2001) Shōshin Nagamine, Japanese author and soldier, police officer, and karate master (d. 1997) Mona Rico, Mexican-born American actress (d. 1994) July 16 – Barbara Stanwyck, American actress (d. 1990) July 19 Giulio Balestrini, Italian football player (d. ?) Isabel Jewell, American actress (d. 1972) Paul Magloire, President of Haiti (d. 2001) July 21 A. D. Hope, Australian poet and essayist (d. 2000) Georg Rydeberg, Swedish actor (d. 1983) July 22 Jack Dennington, Australian rules footballer (d. 1994) Aldo Donelli, American football player and coach, soccer player, and college athletics administrator (d. 1994) Zubir Said, Singaporean composer of Singapore's national anthem (d. 1987) July 25 – Johnny Hodges, American alto saxophonist (d. 1970) July 27 Ross Alexander, American actor (d. 1937) Richard Beesly, British Olympic gold medal rower (d. 1965) July 29 – Melvin Belli, American lawyer (d. 1996) August August 1 – Elisabeth Johansen, Greenlandic midwife and politician (d. 1993) August 2 – Mary Hamman, American writer and editor (d. 1984) August 3 Ernesto Geisel, 29th President of Brazil (d. 1996) Yang Shangkun, 4th President of the People's Republic of China (d. 1998) Irene Tedrow, American actress (d. 1995) August 7 Bernard Brodie, English-American chemist and "founder of modern pharmacology" (d. 1989) Albert Kotin, American painter (d. 1980) August 8 – Benny Carter, American musician (d. 2003) August 12 Joe Besser, American comedian (d. 1988) Benjamin Sheares, 2nd President of Singapore (d. 1981) August 13 – Viscount William Waldorf Astor, British politician (d. 1966) August 14 – Stanley Adams, American lyricist and songwriter (d. 1994) August 15 – Bob Pearson, British variety performer with his brother Alf as half of Bob and Alf Pearson (d. 1985) August 20 – Alan Reed, American actor and voice actor (d. 1977) August 21 John G. Trump, American electrical engineer, inventor, and physicist (d. 1985) Hy Zaret, American lyricist and composer (d. 2007) August 24 Bruno Giacometti, Swiss architect (d. 2012) Gil Perkins, Australian actor and stuntman (d. 1999) August 28 – Rupert Hart-Davis, British publisher (d. 1999) August 29 – Lurene Tuttle, American character actress (d. 1986) August 31 Argentina Brunetti, Argentinian actress and writer (d. 2005) Augustus F. Hawkins, American politician and civil rights lawmaker (d. 2007) Ramon Magsaysay, 7th President of the Philippines (d. 1957) September September 2 Evelyn Hooker, American psychologist (d. 1996) Miriam Seegar, American actress (d. 2011) September 3 – Loren Eiseley, American author (d. 1977) September 4 Frances Griffiths, Cottingley Fairies girl (d. 1986) Reggie Nalder, Austrian actor (d. 1991) September 12 Spud Chandler, American baseball player (d. 1990) Louis MacNeice, Northern Irish poet (d. 1963) September 15 Jimmy Wallington, American radio personality (d. 1972) Fay Wray, Canadian-born actress (d. 2004) September 17 – Warren E. Burger, 15th Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1995) September 18 Leon Askin, Austrian actor (d. 2005) Elza Brandeisz, Hungarian dancer, teacher (d. 2018) Edwin McMillan, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991) September 19 – Lewis F. Powell Jr., Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (d. 1998) September 22 – Maurice Blanchot, French philosopher, writer (d. 2003) September 23 – Duarte Nuno, Duke of Braganza, pretender to the throne of Portugal (d. 1976) September 26 Anthony Blunt, British art historian, spy (d. 1983) Bep van Klaveren, Dutch boxer (d. 1992) September 27 – Zhang Chongren, Chinese artist (d. 1998) September 28 – Heikki Savolainen, Finnish artistic gymnast (d. 1997) September 29 Gene Autry, American actor, singer, and businessman (d. 1998) George W. Jenkins, American businessman (d. 1996) October October 1 – Ödön Pártos, Hungarian-Israeli violist, composer (d. 1977) October 2 Alexander R. Todd, Scottish chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997) Víctor Paz Estenssoro , 45th President of Bolivia (d. 2001) October 5 – Elva Ruby Miller, American singer (d. 1997) October 6 – Francisco Gabilondo Soler, Mexican singer, composer (d. 1990) October 9 – Lord Hailsham, British politician (d. 2001) October 15 – Varian Fry, American journalist, rescuer (d. 1967) October 17 – John Marley, American actor (d. 1984) October 19 – Roger Wolfe Kahn, American bandleader (d. 1962) October 20 – Arlene Francis, Amcerican actress (d. 2001) October 24 – Rafael Godoy, Colombian composer (d. 1973) October 28 John Hewitt, Irish poet (d. 1987) Sergio Méndez Arceo, 7th Mexican bishop of Cuernavaca 1953-1982, and advocate of Liberation theology (d. 1991). October 30 – Sol Tax, American anthropologist (d. 1995) November November 1 – Homero Manzi, Argentine tango lyricist, author (d. 1951) November 6 – Charles W. Yost, American ambassador (d. 1981) November 7 – Dumitru Coliu, Romanian communist activist and politician (d. 1979) November 9 – Louis Ferdinand, Prince of Prussia (d. 1994) November 10 John Moore, British author (d. 1967) Salme Reek, Estonian actress (d. 1996) November 11 Viktoria Brezhneva, First Lady of the Soviet Union (d. 1995) Günter Fronius, Transylvanian Saxon entrepreneur (d. 2015) November 14 Howard W. Hunter, 14th president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1995) Astrid Lindgren, Swedish children's writer (d. 2002) William Steig, American cartoonist (d. 2003) November 15 – Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg, German aristocrat, military officer (d. 1944) November 16 – Burgess Meredith, American actor, director (d. 1997) November 18 Compay Segundo, Cuban musician (d. 2003) Gustav Nezval, Czech actor (d. 1998) November 19 Luigi Beccali, Italian Olympic athlete (d. 1990) Hans Liska, Austrian-German artist (d. 1983) November 23 – Run Run Shaw, Hong Kong media mogul (d. 2014) November 26 – Ruth Patrick, American botanist (d. 2013) November 27 – L. Sprague de Camp, American writer (d. 2000) November 28 – Alberto Moravia, Italian novelist (d. 1990) November 28 – Katharine Bartlett, American physical anthropologist, museum curator (d. 2001) November 30 – Jacques Barzun, French-born American historian (d. 2012) December December 1 – Joey Aiuppa, American mobster (d. 1997) December 5 – Lin Biao, Chinese communist military leader (d. 1971) December 6 – Helli Stehle, Swiss actress, radio presenter (d. 2017) December 10 – Lucien Laurent, French footballer (d. 2005) December 12 – Roy Douglas, British composer (d. 2015) December 14 – Beatriz Costa, Portuguese actress (d. 1996) December 15 – Oscar Niemeyer, Brazilian architect (d. 2012) December 16 – Barbara Kent, Canadian silent film actress (d. 2011) December 19 – Jimmy McLarnin, Irish-born boxer (d. 2004) December 22 – Peggy Ashcroft, British actress (d. 1991) December 23 – James Roosevelt, American businessman, politician (d. 1991) December 25 Cab Calloway, American jazz singer and bandleader (d. 1994) Glenn McCarthy, American oil tycoon, businessman (d. 1988) December 27 – Johann Wilhelm Trollmann, German boxer (d. 1943) Deaths January January 3 – Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Iran (b. 1853) January 13 – Jakob Hurt, Estonian folklorist, theologian, and linguist (b. 1839) January 14 – Hermann Iseke, German doctor (b. 1856) January 19 – Giuseppe Saracco, 15th Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1821) January 21 – Graziadio Isaia Ascoli, Italian linguist (b. 1829) January 31 – Timothy Eaton, Canadian department store founder (b. 1834) February February 2 – Dmitri Mendeleev, Russian chemist (b. 1834) February 7 – Preston Leslie, 26th Governor of Kentucky and 9th territorial Governor of Montana (b. 1819) February 12 – Muriel Robb, English tennis player (b. 1878) February 13 – Marcel Alexandre Bertrand, French geologist (b. 1847) February 16 Giosuè Carducci, Italian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1835) Clémentine of Orléans, daughter of King Louis-Philippe of France (b. 1817) February 17 – Henry Steel Olcott, American officer, theosophist (b. 1832) February 20 – Henri Moissan, French chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1852) February 21 – Erik Gustaf Boström, 7th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1842) February 26 – C. W. Alcock, English footballer, journalist, and football promoter (b. 1842) March March 7 – Charlotta Raa-Winterhjelm, Swedish actress (b. 1838) March 9 – Frederic George Stephens, English art critic (b. 1828) March 10 – George Douglas-Pennant, 2nd Baron Penrhyn, Welsh industrialist (b. 1836) March 11 Jean Casimir-Perier, 6th President of France (b. 1847) Dimitar Petkov, 14th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (assassinated) (b. 1847) March 18 – Marcellin Berthelot, French chemist (b. 1827) March 19 Thomas Bailey Aldrich, American poet and novelist (b. 1836) Mariano Baptista , 23rd President of Bolivia (b. 1832) March 23 – Konstantin Pobedonostsev, Russian statesman (b. 1827) March 25 – Ernst von Bergmann, Baltic German surgeon (b. 1836) April April 6 – William Henry Drummond, Irish-Canadian poet (b. 1854) April 14 – Frank Manly Thorn, American lawyer, politician, government official, essayist, journalist, humorist, inventor, and 6th Superintendent of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey (b. 1836) April 23 – Alferd Packer, American cannibal (b. 1842) May May 1 – Melissa Elizabeth Riddle Banta, American poet (b. 1834) May 4 – John Watts de Peyster, American author, philanthropist, and soldier (b. 1821) May 6 – Emanuele Luigi Galizia, Maltese architect, civil engineer (b. 1830) May 12 – Joris-Karl Huysmans, French author (b. 1848) May 19 – Sir Benjamin Baker, English civil engineer (b. 1840) May 26 – Ida Saxton McKinley, First Lady of the United States (b. 1847) May 27 – Kevork Chavush, Armenian national hero (b. 1870) June June 4 – Agathe Backer-Grøndahl, Norwegian pianist and composer (b. 1847) June 6 – J. A. Chatwin, English architect (b. 1830) June 14 Bartolomé Masó, Cuban patriot (b. 1830) William Le Baron Jenney, American architect, engineer (b. 1832) June 23 – Hod Stuart, Canadian professional ice hockey player, killed in diving accident (b. 1879) June 25 – Sir John Hall, 12th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1824) June 29 – Maximilian Cercha, Polish painter and drawer (b. 1818) July July 13 – Heinrich Kreutz, German astronomer (b. 1854) July 14 – Sir William Perkin, English chemist (b. 1838) July 15 - Qin Jin, Chinese poet, revolutionary (b. 1875) July 28 – Mildred Amanda Baker Bonham, American travel writer (b. 1840) August August – Dinqinesh Mercha, empress consort of Ethiopia (b. 1815) August 1 Lucy Mabel Hall-Brown, American physician and writer (b. 1843) Ernesto Hintze Ribeiro, 3-time Prime Minister of Portugal (b. 1849) August 3 – Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Irish-American Beaux-Arts sculptor (b. 1848) August 4 – Richard Meade, Lord Gilford, British admiral (b. 1832) August 13 – Hermann Carl Vogel, German astrophysicist (b. 1841) August 15 – Joseph Joachim, Austrian violinist (b. 1831) August 25 Mary Elizabeth Coleridge, British poet, novelist (b. 1861) Alexandre Franquet, French admiral (b. 1828) August 30 – Richard Mansfield, Anglo-American actor (b. 1857) September September 4 – Edvard Grieg, Norwegian composer (b. 1843) September 6 – Sully Prudhomme, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1839) September 9 – Ernest Roland Wilberforce, English bishop (b. 1840) September 12 – Ilia Chavchavadze, Georgian writer, Orthodox priest and saint (b. 1837) September 19 – Jacob Morenga, Namibian rebel leader (b. 1875) September 22 – Wilbur Olin Atwater, American chemist (b. 1844) September 30 – Sir John Ardagh, British army general (b. 1840) October October 10 – Adolf Furtwängler, German archaeologist, historian (b. 1853) October 30 – Caroline Dana Howe, American author (b. 1824) November November 1 – Alfred Jarry, French writer (b. 1873) November 6 – Sir James Hector, Scottish geologist (b. 1834) November 14 – Andrew Inglis Clark, Australian jurist and politician (b. 1848) November 15 – Raphael Kalinowski, Polish Discalced Carmelite friar and saint (b. 1835) November 16 – Robert I, Duke of Parma, last ruling Duke of Parma (b. 1848) November 17 – Sir Francis McClintock, Irish explorer and admiral in British Royal Navy (b. 1819) November 20 – Paula Modersohn-Becker, German painter (b. 1876) November 22 – Asaph Hall, American astronomer (b. 1829) November 23 – Naimuddin, Bengali writer and Islamic scholar (b. 1832) November 25 – Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen, Danish explorer (b. 1872) November 28 – Stanisław Wyspiański, Polish writer, painter and architect (b. 1869) November 30 – Ludwig Levy, German architect (b. 1854) December December 4 – Luis Sáenz Peña, 12th President of Argentina (b. 1822) December 8 – King Oscar II of Sweden (b. 1829) December 15 – Carola of Vasa, queen consort of Saxony (b. 1833) December 17 – William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, Irish-born physicist and engineer (b. 1824) December 20 – Helen Louisa Bostwick Bird, American author (b. 1826) December 21 – Klara Hitler, Austrian mother of Adolf Hitler (b. 1860) December 23 – Pierre Janssen, French astronomer (b. 1824) December 28 – Kate Stone, American diarist (b. 1841) December 31 – Jules de Trooz, 18th Prime Minister of Belgium (b. 1857) Date unknown Ellen Russell Emerson, American ethnologist (b. 1837) Sarah Gibson Humphreys, American author and suffragist (b. 1830) Joseph Stannah, Founder of Stannah Lifts (b. 1836) Nobel Prizes Physics – Albert Abraham Michelson Chemistry – Eduard Buchner Medicine – Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran Literature – Rudyard Kipling Peace – Ernesto Teodoro Moneta, Louis Renault References Further reading Gilbert, Martin. A History of the Twentieth Century: Volume 1 1900-1933 (1997); global coverage of politics, diplomacy and warfare; pp 143-57. International Year Book: 1907 (1908) 1002pp, worldwide coverage online edition

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968

1968

The year was highlighted by protests and other unrests that occurred worldwide. Events January January 5 – "Prague Spring": Alexander Dubček is chosen as leader of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. January 10 – John Gorton is sworn in as 19th Prime Minister of Australia, taking over from John McEwen after being elected leader of the Liberal Party the previous day, following the disappearance of Harold Holt. Gorton becomes the only Senator to become Prime Minister, though he immediately transfers to the House of Representatives through the 1968 Higgins by-election in Holt's vacant seat. January 15 – The 1968 Belice earthquake in Sicily kills 380 and injures around 1,000. January 17 Lyndon B. Johnson requests a bill ending the gold convertibility of the U.S. dollar. The USS Enterprise arrives in Sasebo, Japan, sparking an anti-war protest organized by student group Zengakuren. January 21 Vietnam War: Battle of Khe Sanh – One of the most publicized and controversial battles of the war begins, ending on April 8. 1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash: A U.S. B-52 Stratofortress crashes in Greenland, discharging 4 nuclear bombs. January 22 – Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In debuts on NBC television in the United States. January 23 – North Korea seizes the , claiming the ship violated its territorial waters while spying. January 25 – Israeli submarine sinks in the Mediterranean Sea, killing 69. January 28 – French submarine Minerve sinks in the Mediterranean Sea, killing 52. January 30 – Vietnam War: The Tet Offensive begins as Viet Cong forces launch a series of surprise attacks across South Vietnam. January 31 Viet Cong soldiers attack the Embassy of the United States, Saigon. Nauru president Hammer DeRoburt declares independence from Australia. February February 1 Vietnam War: A Viet Cong officer named Nguyễn Văn Lém is executed by Nguyễn Ngọc Loan, a South Vietnamese National Police Chief. The event is photographed by Eddie Adams. The photo makes headlines around the world, eventually winning the 1969 Pulitzer Prize, and sways U.S. public opinion against the war. The Pennsylvania Railroad and the New York Central Railroad merge to form Penn Central, the largest ever corporate merger up to this date. February 6–February 18 – The 1968 Winter Olympics are held in Grenoble, France. February 8 – American civil rights movement: A civil rights protest staged at a white-only bowling alley in Orangeburg, South Carolina is broken up by highway patrolmen; 3 college students are killed. February 11 Border clashes take place between Israel and Jordan. Madison Square Garden in New York City opens at its current location. February 12 – Vietnam War: Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất massacre. February 13 – Civil rights disturbances occur at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. February 17 – Administrative reforms in Romania divide the country into 39 counties. February 19 The Florida Education Association (FEA) initiates a mass resignation of teachers to protest state funding of education. This is, in effect, the first statewide teachers' strike in the United States. NET televises the very first episode of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood. A fight in the University of Tokyo Medical School breaks out, leading to protests by students that lead to the 1968–69 Japanese university protests. February 24 – Vietnam War: The Tet Offensive is halted; South Vietnam recaptures Huế. February 25 – Vietnam War: Hà My massacre. March March 1 – United Kingdom Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968 receives Royal assent. March 2 – Baggeridge Colliery closes marking the end of over 300 years of coal mining in the Black Country of England. March 6 – Un-recognized Rhodesia executes 3 black citizens, the first executions since UDI, prompting international condemnation. March 7 – Vietnam War: The First Battle of Saigon ends. March 8 The first student protests spark the 1968 Polish political crisis. The Soviet ballistic missile submarine K-129 sinks with all 98 crew members, about 90 nautical miles (104 miles or 167 km) southwest of Hawaii. March 10–11 – Vietnam War: Battle of Lima Site 85, the largest single ground combat loss of United States Air Force members (12) during the (at this time) secret war later known as the Laotian Civil War. March 11 – U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson mandates that all computers purchased by the federal government support the ASCII character encoding. March 12 Mauritius achieves independence from British rule. U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson barely edges out antiwar candidate Eugene McCarthy in the New Hampshire Democratic primary, a vote which highlights the deep divisions in the country, and the party, over Vietnam. March 13 – The first Rotaract club is chartered in North Charlotte, North Carolina. March 14 – Nerve gas leaks from the U.S. Army Dugway Proving Ground near Skull Valley, Utah. March 15 – British Foreign Secretary George Brown resigns. March 16 Vietnam War – My Lai Massacre: American troops kill scores of civilians. The story will first become public in November 1969 and will help undermine public support for the U.S. efforts in Vietnam. U.S. Senator Robert F. Kennedy enters the race for the Democratic Party presidential nomination. March 17 – A demonstration in London's Grosvenor Square against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War leads to violence; 91 people are injured, 200 demonstrators arrested. March 18 – Gold standard: The United States Congress repeals the requirement for a gold reserve to back U.S. currency. March 19–23 – Afrocentrism, Black Power, Vietnam War: Students at Howard University in Washington, D.C., signal a new era of militant student activism on college campuses in the U.S. Students stage rallies, protests and a 5-day sit-in, laying siege to the administration building, shutting down the university in protest over its ROTC program and the Vietnam War, and demanding a more Afrocentric curriculum. March 21 – Battle of Karameh March 22 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit ("Danny the Red") and 7 other students occupy the administrative offices of the University of Nanterre, setting in motion a chain of events that lead France to the brink of revolution in May. March 24 – Aer Lingus Flight 712 crashes en route from Cork to London near Tuskar Rock, Wexford, killing 61 passengers and crew. March 28 – Brazilian high school student Edson Luís de Lima Souto is shot by the police in a protest for cheaper meals at a restaurant for low-income students. The aftermath of his death is one of the first major events against the military dictatorship. March 30 – Paradiso in Amsterdam opened its doors under the name 'Cosmic Relaxation Centre Paradiso' March 31 – U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson announces he will not seek re-election. April April 2 Bombs explode at midnight in two department stores in Frankfurt-am-Main; Andreas Baader and Gudrun Ensslin are later arrested and sentenced for arson. In a television special broadcast in the United States on NBC, white British singer Petula Clark touches African American singer Harry Belafonte affectionately on the arm. The film 2001: A Space Odyssey premieres in Washington, D.C. First appearance of Our Lady of Zeitoun, a Marian apparition in Cairo. April 3 Martin Luther King Jr. delivers his "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech in Memphis, Tennessee. American movie Planet of the Apes is released in theaters. April 4 Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.: Martin Luther King Jr. is shot dead at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. King-assassination riots erupt in major American cities, lasting for several days afterwards. Apollo program: Apollo-Saturn mission 502 (Apollo 6) is launched, as the second and last unmanned test-flight of the Saturn V launch vehicle. AEK Athens wins the FIBA European Cup Winners Cup Final in basketball against Slavia Prague, in front of a record attendance of 80,000 spectators. It is the first major European trophy won at club level of any sport in Greece. April 6 "La, la, la" by Massiel (music and lyrics by Manuel de la Calva and Ramón Arcusa) wins the Eurovision Song Contest 1968 for Spain, at the Royal Albert Hall in London. A shootout between Black Panthers and police in Oakland, California, results in several arrests and deaths, including 17-year-old Panther Bobby Hutton. Richmond, Indiana explosion: A double explosion in downtown Richmond kills 41 and injures 150. April 7 – British racing driver Jim Clark is killed in a Formula 2 race at Hockenheim. April 8 – The Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (under Department of Justice) (BNDD) is created. April 10 – The ferry strikes a reef at the mouth of Wellington Harbour, New Zealand, with the loss of 53 lives, in Cyclone Giselle, which has created the windiest conditions ever recorded in New Zealand. April 11 Josef Bachmann tries to assassinate Rudi Dutschke, leader of the left-wing movement (APO) in Germany, and tries to commit suicide afterwards, failing in both, although Dutschke dies of his brain injuries 11 years later. German left-wing students blockade the Springer Press HQ in Berlin and many are arrested (one of them Ulrike Meinhof). U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1968. MGM's classic film The Wizard of Oz makes its NBC debut after being telecast on CBS since 1956 in the United States. It will remain on NBC for the next 8 years. April 18 – John Rennie's 1831 New London Bridge is sold to Arizona entrepreneur Robert P. McCulloch and is rebuilt in Lake Havasu City, Arizona, reopening on October 5, 1971. April 20 Pierre Elliott Trudeau becomes the 15th Prime Minister of Canada. British politician Enoch Powell makes his controversial Rivers of Blood speech in Birmingham. April 23 President Mobutu releases captured mercenaries in the Congo. Surgeons at the Hôpital de la Pitié, Paris, perform Europe's first heart transplant, on Clovis Roblain. The United Methodist Church is created by the union in Dallas, Texas, of the former Methodist and Evangelical United Brethren churches. April 23–30 – Vietnam War: Columbia University protests of 1968 – Student protesters at Columbia University in New York City take over administration buildings and shut down the university. April 26 – The nuclear weapon "Boxcar" is tested at the Nevada Test Site in the biggest detonation of Operation Crosstie. April 29 – The musical Hair officially opens on Broadway. May May 2 – The Israel Broadcasting Authority commences television broadcasts. May 3 – Braniff Flight 352 crashes near Dawson, Texas, killing all 85 people on board. May 8 – The Kray twins were arrested. May 11 – The Montreal Canadiens defeat the St. Louis Blues in a four-game sweep to win the Stanley Cup. May 13 – Paris student riots: One million march through the streets of Paris. May 13 – Manchester City wins the 1967–68 Football League First Division by 2 clear points, over club rivals Manchester United May 14 – The Beatles announce the creation of Apple Records in a New York press conference. May 15 – An outbreak of severe thunderstorms produces tornadoes, causing massive damage and heavy casualties in Charles City, Iowa, Oelwein, Iowa, and Jonesboro, Arkansas. May 16 – Ronan Point, a 23 floor tower block in Canning Town, east London, partially collapses after a gas explosion, killing 5. May 17 – The Catonsville Nine enter the Selective Service offices in Catonsville, Maryland, take dozens of selective service draft records, and burn them with napalm as a protest against the Vietnam War. May 18 Mattel's Hot Wheels toy cars are introduced. West Bromwich Albion win the Football Association Cup, defeating Everton 1–0 after extra time. The winning goal is scored by Jeff Astle. May 19 A general election is held in Italy. Nigerian forces capture Port Harcourt and form a ring around the Biafrans. This contributes to a humanitarian disaster as the surrounded population already suffers from hunger and starvation. May 22 – The U.S. nuclear-powered submarine Scorpion sinks with 99 men aboard, 400 miles southwest of the Azores. May 23 – The Federal University of São Carlos is established in São Carlos, Brazil. May 27 – Japanese student group Zenkyoto forms as violent student protests in Japan intensify. May 29 – Manchester United wins the European Cup Final, becoming the first English team to do so. May 30 – Bobby Unser wins the Indianapolis 500. June June 2 – Student demonstrations in Yugoslavia start in Belgrade. June 3 – Radical feminist Valerie Solanas shoots Andy Warhol at his New York City studio, The Factory; he survives after a 5-hour operation. June 4 – The Standard & Poor's 500 index in the United States closes above 100 for the first time, at 100.38. June 5 – Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy: U.S. presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy is shot at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles. Sirhan Sirhan is arrested. June 6 – Robert Kennedy dies from his injuries after being shot the previous day, aged 42. June 7 – The Ford sewing machinists strike for equal pay starts at the Ford Dagenham plant in London. June 8 – James Earl Ray is arrested for the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April. June 10 – Italy beats Yugoslavia 2–0 in a replay to win the 1968 European Championship. The original final on June 8 ended 1–1. June 12 – The horror film Rosemary's Baby premieres in the U.S. June 17 – The Malayan Communist Party launches a second insurgency and the state of emergency is again imposed in Malaysia. June 20 – Austin Currie, Member of the Parliament of Northern Ireland, along with others, squats a house in Caledon to protest discrimination in housing allocations. June 23 Puerta 12 tragedy: A football stampede in Buenos Aires leaves 74 dead and 150 injured. The first round of voting takes place in the French legislative elections scheduled following the public unrest of May. June 26 The Bonin Islands are returned to Japan after 23 years of occupation by the United States Navy. The "March of the One Hundred Thousand" takes place in Rio de Janeiro as crowds demonstrate against the Brazilian military government. June 30 – The Lockheed C-5 Galaxy heavy military transport aircraft first flies in the U.S. This model will still be in service 50 years later. July July 1 The Central Intelligence Agency's Phoenix Program is officially established. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty opens for signature. July 4 – Yachtsman Alec Rose, 59, receives a hero's welcome as he sails into Portsmouth, England after his 354-day round-the-world trip. July 13 – 1968 flu pandemic: Influenza A virus subtype H3N2 first recorded in Hong Kong. July 15 – The soap opera One Life to Live premieres on ABC television in the United States. July 17 – Saddam Hussein becomes Vice Chairman of the Revolutionary Council in Iraq after a coup d'état. July 18 – The semiconductor company Intel is founded. July 20 – The first International Special Olympics Summer Games are held at Soldier Field in Chicago, Ill, with about 1,000 athletes with intellectual disabilities. July 23–28 – Black militants led by Fred (Ahmed) Evans engage in a fierce gunfight with police in the Glenville Shootout of Cleveland, Ohio, in the United States. July 25 – Pope Paul VI publishes the encyclical entitled Humanae vitae, on birth control. July 26 – Vietnam War: South Vietnamese opposition leader Trương Đình Dzu is sentenced to 5 years hard labor, for advocating the formation of a coalition government as a way to move toward an end to the war. July 29 Arenal Volcano erupts in Costa Rica for the first time in centuries. Yorkshire Television starts broadcasting. July 30 – Thames Television starts transmission in London. July 31 – BBC television sitcom Dad's Army is broadcast for the first time in the UK. August August 1 – The Municipal University of São Caetano do Sul is established in São Caetano do Sul, São Paulo. August 2 – The 7.6 Casiguran earthquake affects the Aurora province in the Philippines with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), killing at least 207 and injuring 261. August 5–8 – The Republican National Convention in Miami Beach, Florida nominates Richard Nixon for U.S. president and Spiro Agnew for vice president. August 11 – The last steam passenger train service runs in Britain. A selection of British Railways steam locomotives make the 120-mile journey from Liverpool to Carlisle and return to Liverpool – the journey is known as the Fifteen Guinea Special. August 18 – Two charter buses are forced into the Hida River on National Highway Route 41 in Japan in an accident caused by heavy rain; 104 are killed. August 20–21 – Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia: The 'Prague Spring' of political liberalization ends, as 750,000 Warsaw Pact troops and 6,500 tanks with 800 aircraft invade Czechoslovakia, the largest military operation in Europe since the end of World War II. August 21 – The Medal of Honor is posthumously awarded to James Anderson Jr.; he is the first black U.S. Marine to be given this award. August 24 – Canopus (nuclear test): France explodes its first hydrogen bomb in a test at Fangataufa atoll in French Polynesia. August 22–30 – Police clash with anti-war protesters in Chicago outside the 1968 Democratic National Convention, which nominates Hubert Humphrey for U.S. president and Edmund Muskie for vice president. The riots and subsequent trials are an essential part of the activism of the Youth International Party. August 28 – John Gordon Mein, U.S. Ambassador to Guatemala, is assassinated on the streets of Guatemala City, the first U.S. Ambassador assassinated in the line of duty. August 29 – Crown Prince Harald of Norway marries Sonja Haraldsen, the commoner he has dated for 9 years. September September 6 – Swaziland becomes independent. September 7 – 150 women (members of New York Radical Women) arrive in Atlantic City, New Jersey to protest against the Miss America Pageant, as exploitative of women. Led by activist and author Robin Morgan, it is one of the first large demonstrations of Second Wave Feminism as Women's Liberation begins to gather much media attention. The crash of Air France Flight 1611 kills 95 people, including French Army General René Cogny as the Caravelle jetliner plunges into the Mediterranean Sea while making its approach to Nice following its departure from the island of Corsica. The International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) is founded. September 8 - Arthur Ashe wins the first US Open of the Open Era, also becoming the first black male to capture the title. Virginia Wade wins the women's singles title. September 13 Albania officially withdraws from the Warsaw Pact upon the Soviet Union-led Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, having already ceased to participate actively in Pact activity since 1962. U.S. Army Major General Keith L. Ware, World War II Medal of Honor recipient, is killed when his helicopter is shot down in Vietnam. He is posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. An agreement for merger between the General Electric Company and English Electric, the largest industrial merger in the UK up to that time. September 14 – Detroit Tiger Denny McLain becomes the first baseball pitcher to win 30 games in a season since 1934. He remains the last player to accomplish the feat. September 17 – The D'Oliveira affair: The Marylebone Cricket Club tour of South Africa is cancelled when the South Africans refuse to accept the presence of Basil D'Oliveira, a Cape Coloured, in the side. September 18 – Popular Canadian band Rush is formed. September 20 – Hawaii Five-O debuts on CBS, and eventually becomes the longest-running crime show in television history, until Law & Order overtakes it in 2003. September 21 – The Soviet's Zond 5 unmanned lunar flyby mission returns to earth, with its first-of-a-kind biological payload intact. September 23 – Vietnam War: The Tet Offensive comes to an end in South Vietnam. September 24 – 60 Minutes debuts on CBS and is still on the air as of 2021. September 27 – Marcelo Caetano becomes prime minister of Portugal. September 29 – A referendum in Greece gives more power to the military junta. September 30 – Boeing introduces its largest passenger aircraft up to that time, the Boeing 747 at a public event at Paine Field, near Everett, Washington. October October – Golgo 13, which becomes Japan's longest-running ongoing manga, makes its debut on Big Comic. October 1 – Night of the Living Dead premieres in the United States. October 2 – Tlatelolco massacre: A student demonstration ends in bloodbath at La Plaza de las Tres Culturas in Tlatelolco, Mexico City, Mexico, 10 days before the inauguration of the 1968 Summer Olympics. 300-400 are estimated to have been killed. October 3 – In Peru, Juan Velasco Alvarado takes power in a revolution. October 5 – Police baton civil rights demonstrators in Derry, Northern Ireland, marking the beginning of The Troubles. October 7 – At the height of protests against the Vietnam War, José Feliciano performed "The Star-Spangled Banner" at Tiger Stadium in Detroit during Game 5 pre-game ceremonies of the 1968 World Series between the Tigers and the St. Louis Cardinals. His personalized, slow, Latin jazz performance proved highly controversial, opening the door for later interpretations of the national anthem. October 8 – Vietnam War – Operation Sealords: United States and South Vietnamese forces launch a new operation in the Mekong Delta. October 10 – 1968 World Series: The Detroit Tigers defeat the St. Louis Cardinals in the best of 7 series (4 games to 3) after being down 3 games to 1, completing an unlikely comeback against the heavily favored Cardinals led by the overpowering right-handed pitcher Bob Gibson. The final score of Game 7 is 4–1. October 11 Apollo program: NASA launches Apollo 7, the first manned Apollo mission (Wally Schirra, Donn Eisele, Walter Cunningham). Mission goals include the first live television broadcast from orbit and simulating lunar module rendezvous and docking, using the S-IVB rocket stage as a test target. In Panama, a military coup d'état, led by Col. Boris Martinez and Col. Omar Torrijos, overthrows the democratically elected (but highly controversial) government of President Arnulfo Arias. Within a year, Torrijos ousts Martinez and takes charge as de facto Head of Government in Panama. October 12–27 – The Games of the XIX Olympiad are held in Mexico City, Mexico. October 12 – Equatorial Guinea receives its independence from Spain. October 14 – Vietnam War: The United States Department of Defense announces that the United States Army and United States Marines will send about 24,000 troops back to Vietnam for involuntary second tours. October 16 In Mexico City, African-American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos raise their fists in a black power salute after winning, respectively, the gold and bronze medals in the Olympic men's 200 metres. Kingston, Jamaica is rocked by the Rodney Riots, provoked by the banning of Walter Rodney from the country. October 18 – US athlete Bob Beamon breaks the long jump world record by 55 cm / 21¾ ins at the Olympics in Mexico City. His record stands for 23 years, and is still the second longest jump in history. October 20 – Former U.S. First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy marries Greek shipping tycoon Aristotle Onassis on the Greek island of Skorpios. October 22 – The Gun Control Act of 1968 is enacted. October 25 – Led Zeppelin makes their first live performance, at Surrey University in England October 31 – Vietnam War: Citing progress in the Paris peace talks, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson announces to the nation that he has ordered a complete cessation of "all air, naval, and artillery bombardment of North Vietnam" effective November 1. November November 5 1968 U.S. presidential election: Republican candidate Richard Nixon defeats the Democratic candidate, Vice President Hubert Humphrey, and American Independent Party candidate George Wallace. Luis A. Ferré, of the newly formed New Progressive Party is elected Governor of Puerto Rico, by beating incumbent governor Roberto Sánchez Vilella of the People's Party, Luis Negrón López of the Popular Democratic Party and Antonio J. Gonzalez of the Puerto Rican Independence Party, he also becomes the first "statehooder" governor of the Island. November 11 – A second republic is declared in the Maldives. November 14 – Yale University announces it is going to admit women. November 15 – Vietnam War: Operation Commando Hunt is initiated to interdict men and supplies on the Ho Chi Minh trail, through Laos into South Vietnam. By the end of the operation, 3 million tons of bombs are dropped on Laos, slowing but not seriously disrupting trail operations. November 17 British European Airways introduces the BAC One-Eleven into commercial service. The Heidi Game: NBC cuts off the final 1:05 of an Oakland Raiders–New York Jets football game to broadcast the pre-scheduled Heidi. Fans are unable to see Oakland (which had been trailing 32–29) score 2 late touchdowns to win 43–32; as a result, thousands of outraged football fans flood the NBC switchboards to protest. November 19 – In Mali, President Modibo Keïta's regime is overthrown in a bloodless military coup led by Moussa Traoré. November 20 – The Farmington Mine disaster in Farmington, West Virginia, kills seventy-eight men. November 22 The Beatles release their self-titled album popularly known as the White Album. "Plato's Stepchildren", 12th episode of Star Trek 3rd season is aired, featuring the first-ever interracial kiss on U.S. national television between Lieutenant Uhura and Captain James T. Kirk. November 24 – 4 men hijack Pan Am Flight 281 from JFK International Airport, New York to Havana, Cuba. November 26 – Vietnam War: United States Air Force First Lieutenant and Bell UH-1F helicopter pilot James P. Fleming rescues an Army Special Forces unit pinned down by Viet Cong fire, earning a Medal of Honor for his bravery. December December 3 – The videotaped NBC television special Singer Presents...ELVIS (sponsored by The Singer Company, the American sewing machine manufacturer) marks the comeback of Elvis Presley after the legendary musician has been away from singing. December 6 – The Rolling Stones release Beggars Banquet, which contains the classic song "Sympathy for the Devil." December 9 – Douglas Engelbart publicly demonstrates his pioneering hypertext system, NLS, in San Francisco, together with the computer mouse, at what becomes retrospectively known as "The Mother of All Demos". December 10 – Japan's biggest heist, the never-solved "300 million yen robbery", occurs in Tokyo. December 11 The film Oliver! based on the hit London and Broadway musical, opens in the U.S. after being released first in England. It goes on to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus is filmed but is not released until 1996. December 13 – Prompted by growing unrest and a perceived proliferation of "pro-communist" violent actions, Brazilian president Artur da Costa e Silva enacts the so-called AI-5, the fifth of a series of non-constitutional emergency decrees allegedly to help "stabilize" the country after the turmoils of the early 1960s. December 17 – In England, Mary Bell, aged 11, is found guilty of murdering two small boys and sentenced to life in detention, but is released from prison in 1980 and granted anonymity. December 20 – The Zodiac Killer is believed to have shot Betty Lou Jensen and David Faraday on Lake Herman Road, Benicia, San Francisco Bay, California, his first confirmed victims. December 22 David Eisenhower, grandson of former U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, marries Julie Nixon, the daughter of U.S. President-elect Richard Nixon. Mao Zedong advocates that educated urban youth in China be sent for re-education in the countryside. It marks the start of the "Up to the mountains and down to the villages" movement. December 24 – Apollo program: The manned U.S. spacecraft Apollo 8 enters orbit around the Moon. Astronauts Frank Borman, Jim Lovell and William Anders become the first humans to see the far side of the Moon and planet Earth as a whole, as well as having traveled further away from Earth than any people in history. Anders photographs Earthrise. The crew also give a reading from the Book of Genesis. December 26 – Led Zeppelin make their American debut in Denver. December 28 – Israeli forces fly into Lebanese airspace, launching an attack on the airport in Beirut and destroying more than a dozen aircraft. Dates unknown The Khmer Rouge is officially formed in Cambodia as an offshoot movement of the Vietnam People's Army from North Vietnam to bring communism to the nation. A few years later, they will become bitter enemies. United Artists pulls eleven Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies cartoons in its library from television due to the depiction of racist stereotypes towards African-Americans. These cartoons come to be known as the Censored Eleven. An oil field is confirmed in Northern Alaska: the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field. Midea Group, a well-known home appliance worldwide, founded in Guangdong Province, China. Births January January 1 Darren Greer, Canadian writer Davor Šuker, Croatian footballer January 2 Violet Berlin, British presenter and script writer Cuba Gooding Jr., African-American actor January 3 – Matheus Nachtergaele, Brazilian actor and director January 5 DJ BoBo, Swiss singer, songwriter and dancer Andrzej Gołota, Polish boxer Carrie Ann Inaba, American choreographer, game show host and singer January 6 Blanca Eekhout, Venezuelan politician John Singleton, African-American film director and writer (d. 2019) January 8 – James Brokenshire, British politician (d. 2021) January 9 Joey Lauren Adams, American actress Mikhail Gremyatskiy, retired Russian professional footballer Silver King, Mexican professional wrestler (d. 2019) January 11 – Benjamin List, German organic chemist, recipient of Nobel Prize in Chemistry January 12 Rachael Harris, American actress and comedian Heather Mills, British former model and second ex-wife of Sir Paul McCartney January 13 – Pat Onstad, Canadian footballer January 14 Anthony Meindl, American screenwriter, actor and writer LL Cool J, African-American rapper and actor January 15 – Chad Lowe, American actor and director January 16 David Catania, American politician and lawyer Stephan Pastis, American cartoonist Atticus Ross, English musician, songwriter, record producer and audio engineer January 17 – Svetlana Masterkova, Russian athlete January 19 Kimberly Bergalis, American woman who alleges she had contracted HIV from her dentist (d. 1991) Matt Hill, Canadian voice actor January 21 – Charlotte Ross, American actress January 22 – Guy Fieri, American chef January 24 Michael Kiske, German musician Mary Lou Retton, American gymnast January 25 – Carolina Ferraz, Brazilian actress, television presenter and model January 26 Eric Davis, American football player Novala Takemoto, Japanese author and fashion designer January 27 – Mike Patton, American singer January 28 – Sarah McLachlan, Canadian singer January 29 – Edward Burns, American actor January 30 – King Felipe VI of Spain February February 1 Lisa Marie Presley, American singer Mark Recchi, Canadian ice hockey player Pauly Shore, American actor February 3 David Scarboro, English actor (d. 1988) Vlade Divac, Serbian basketball player Marwan Khoury, Lebanese singer and composer February 4 – Saravanan Murugan, Malaysian politician February 5 Roberto Alomar, American baseball player Marcus Grönholm, Finnish rally driver Qasim Melho, Syrian television actor February 6 The Lady of Rage, American rapper February 7 Mark Tewksbury, Canadian former competition swimmer Sully Erna, American singer-songwriter and musician Peter Bondra, Slovakian ice hockey player Porntip Nakhirunkanok, Miss Universe 1988 February 8 Gary Coleman, African-American actor (d. 2010) April Stewart, American voice actress February 9 – Alejandra Guzmán, Mexican singer-songwriter, actress, and musician February 10 Laurie Foell, New Zealand/Australian actress Atika Suri, Indonesian television newscaster February 11 Lavinia Agache, Romanian artistic gymnast Mo Willems, American animator February 12 Chris McCandless, American hiker (d. 1992) Josh Brolin, American actor Chynna Phillips, American singer and actress February 13 Kelly Hu, American actress, voice artist, former fashion model and beauty queen Niamh Kavanagh, Irish singer, Eurovision Song Contest 1993 winner February 14 Jules Asner, American model and television personality Phill Lewis, American actor, comedian and director February 15 – Gloria Trevi, Mexican singer and actress February 18 Molly Ringwald, American actress Dennis Satin, German film director February 21 – Pellom McDaniels, American football player (d. 2020) February 22 Bradley Nowell, American musician (d. 1996) Jeri Ryan, American actress February 24 Andy Berman, American actor, director, producer, writer, voice artist, and comedian Mitch Hedberg, American stand-up comedian (d. 2005) February 26 Tim Commerford, American musician Jeff Forshaw, British particle physicist February 27 Shuhaimi Shafiei, Malaysian politician (d. 2018) Matt Stairs, Canadian baseball player February 29 – Sam Sneed, American producer and rapper March March 1 Kat Cressida, American voice actress Kunjarani Devi, Indian weightlifter Muho Noelke, German Zen master March 2 – Daniel Craig, British actor March 3 – Brian Leetch, American ice hockey player March 4 Giovanni Carrara, Venezuelan Major League Baseball player Patsy Kensit, British actress March 5 Gordon Bajnai, Hungarian Prime Minister Ambrose Mandvulo Dlamini, 10th Prime Minister of Eswatini (d. 2020) March 6 Moira Kelly, American actress Mara Maravilha, Brazilian singer, songwriter, television presenter, actress and businesswoman March 7 – Jeff Kent, American baseball player March 10 – Alma Čardžić, Bosnian singer March 11 Lisa Loeb, American singer Dominic Mafham, English actor March 12 Tammy Duckworth, American politician Aaron Eckhart, American actor March 13 Akira Nogami, Japanese professional wrestler Masami Okui, Japanese singer March 14 Megan Follows, Canadian-American actress James Frain, British actor March 15 Mark McGrath, American singer Terje Riis-Johansen, Norwegian politician Sabrina Salerno, Italian singer March 16 David MacMillan, Scottish-born organic chemist, recipient of Nobel Prize in Chemistry Trevor Wilson, American basketball player March 17 – Nika Rurua, Georgian politician (d. 2018) March 19 – Mots'eoa Senyane, Lesotho diplomat March 20 Carlos Almeida, Cape Verdean long-distance runner Ultra Naté, American singer, songwriter, record producer, DJ and promoter March 22 – Euronymous, Norwegian musician (d. 1993) March 23 Damon Albarn, English singer-songwriter and musician Fernando Hierro, Spanish footballer Mike Atherton, English cricketer March 25 – Cathy Dennis, British singer-songwriter, record producer and actress March 26 Kenny Chesney, American country music singer James Iha, American rock musician March 27 – Ben Koldyke, American actor March 28 – Iris Chang, American author (d. 2004) March 29 Alan Budikusuma, Indonesian badminton player Lucy Lawless, New Zealand actress and singer March 30 – Celine Dion, Canadian singer April April 1 Julia Boutros, Lebanese singer Andreas Schnaas, German director April 3 Michael Reisz, American actor, voice actor, writer and producer Charlotte Coleman, English actress (d. 2001) April 4 – Zwelonke Sigcawu, South African politician and Xhosa royal (d. 2019) April 5 Paula Cole, American singer Stewart Lee, English stand-up comedian April 7 – Jože Možina, Slovenian historian, sociologist and journalist April 8 Patricia Arquette, American actress Shawn Fonteno, American actor and rapper Stretch, American rapper and record producer (d. 1995) April 11 Andrey Melnikov, Soviet military (d. 1988) Dimitri Diatchenko, American actor and musician (d. 2020) April 12 Marvin Connor, Anguillan football player Adam Graves, Canadian ice hockey player Ott, English musician and record producer April 13 – Jørn Stubberud, Norwegian musician April 14 – Anthony Michael Hall, American actor and singer April 15 – Stacey Williams, American model April 16 Greg Baker, American actor and musician Martin Dahlin, Swedish football player Vickie Guerrero, American professional wrestler April 17 Julie Fagerholt, Danish fashion designer Adam McKay, American film director, producer, screenwriter, comedian, and actor April 18 – David Hewlett, English-born Canadian actor, writer and director April 19 Bekka Bramlett, American singer Ashley Judd, American actress April 20 J. D. Roth, American television host Yelena Välbe, Russian cross-country skier April 23 – Timothy McVeigh, American terrorist (d. 2001) April 24 Stacy Haiduk, American actress Yuji Nagata, Japanese professional wrestler April 25 – Brad McQuaid, American video game designer (d. 2019) April 26 – Maarit Feldt-Ranta, Finnish politician (d. 2019) April 28 – Howard Donald, British singer (Take That) April 29 Michael Herbig, German film director, actor and author Darren Matthews, English professional wrestler Carnie Wilson, American singer and television host May May 1 – Oliver Bierhoff, German footballer May 2 Jeff Agoos, American soccer player Hikaru Midorikawa, Japanese voice actor Eric Holcomb, American politician, 51st governor of Indiana May 3 Nina Paley, American cartoonist Li Yong (television host), Chinese host (d. 2018) May 4 Julian Barratt, English comedian, actor, musician and music producer Momoko Kikuchi, Japanese actress and singer May 5 – John Soko, Zambian footballer (d. 1993) May 7 Eagle-Eye Cherry, Swedish-born musician Traci Lords, American actress May 8 – Mickaël Madar, French footballer May 9 – Marie-José Pérec, French athlete May 10 – Al Murray, English comedian May 12 – Tony Hawk, American skateboarder May 13 Sonja Zietlow, German television presenter Scott Morrison, 30th Prime Minister of Australia May 16 – Chingmy Yau, Hong Kong actress May 17 – Constance Menard, French professional dressage rider May 18 – Vanessa Leggett, American freelance journalist, author, lecturer and First Amendment advocate May 19 – Kyle Eastwood, American jazz bass musician May 20 Timothy Olyphant, American actor Waisale Serevi, Fijian rugby player May 22 Michael Kelly, American actor Graham Linehan, Irish television writer and director May 23 – John Ortiz, American actor May 24 – Charles De'Ath, English actor May 26 – Crown Prince Frederik of Denmark May 27 Jeff Bagwell, American baseball player Frank Thomas, American baseball player May 28 Kylie Minogue, Australian actress and singer Tetsu Nagasawa, Japanese footballer & manager May 30 – Zacarias Moussaoui, French-Moroccan 9/11 conspirator June June 1 – Jason Donovan, Australian actor and singer June 2 Beetlejuice, American entertainer, member of the Wack Pack (The Howard Stern Show) Jon Culshaw, English impressionist June 4 Scott Wolf, American actor June 5 – Sandra Annenberg, Brazilian newscaster, previously actress June 7 – Carla Marins, Brazilian actress June 8 – Eduardo Moscovis, Brazilian actor June 9 – Aleksandr Konovalov, Russian lawyer and politician June 10 Bill Burr, American comedian Nobutoshi Canna, Japanese voice actor Ananda Sukarlan, Indonesian composer and pianist June 12 Christy Martin, American boxer Bobby Sheehan, American musician and songwriter (d. 1999) June 13 Denise Pearson, British musician June 14 Yasmine Bleeth, American actress Faizon Love, Cuban-American actor and comedian June 16 – James Patrick Stuart, American actor and voice actor June 17 Derya Arbaş, Turkish American actress (d. 2003) Mikhail Yeryomin, Soviet football goalkeeper (d. 1991) June 20 Jon Glaser, American comedian and writer Mateusz Morawiecki, Polish banker and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Poland Robert Rodriguez, American film director June 23 – Lee Jae-yong, South Korean business magnate June 24 – Boris Gelfand, Israeli chess grandmaster June 25 – Albert Fulivai, Tongan rugby league player June 26 Armand de Las Cuevas, French racing cyclist (d. 2018) Paolo Maldini, Italian football player Jovenel Moïse, 42nd President of Haiti (d. 2021) Iwan Roberts, Welsh footballer June 28 Chayanne, Puerto Rican-American singer Adam Woodyatt, English actor June 29 Theoren Fleury, Canadian ice hockey player Brian d'Arcy James, American actor and musician June 30 – Phil Anselmo, American heavy metal vocalist July July 1 Jordi Mollà, Spanish actor, director, filmmaker, writer, and artist Hanan Saeed Mohsen al-Fatlawi, Iraqi politician July 2 Ilian Iliev, Bulgarian football midfielder Ron Goldman, American model, waiter and murder victim (d. 1994) July 3 Ramush Haradinaj, 3rd Prime Minister of Kosovo Teppo Numminen, Finnish ice hockey player July 5 Bernie Paz, Peruvian actor Ken Akamatsu, Japanese manga artist Michael Stuhlbarg, American actor Nardwuar, Canadian interviewer and musician Darin LaHood, American attorney and politician July 6 – Rashid Sidek, Malaysian badminton player and coach July 7 Jorja Fox, American actress Danny Jacobs, American actor and voice actor Allen Payne, American actor Sarah Thyre, American actress and writer Jeff VanderMeer, American writer July 8 Billy Crudup, American actor Akio Suyama, Japanese voice actor Josephine Teo, Singaporean politician Michael Weatherly, American actor July 9 – Eduardo Santamarina, Mexican actor July 10 – Hassiba Boulmerka, Algerian athlete July 11 – Conrad Vernon, American voice actor and director July 12 – Paul Hopkins, Canadian actor July 13 Robert Gant, American actor Omi Minami, Japanese voice actress July 14 – Samantha Gori, Italian basketball player July 15 Leticia Calderón, Mexican actress Eddie Griffin, American actor and comedian July 16 Dhanraj Pillay, Indian field hockey player Barry Sanders, American football player Olga de Souza, Brazilian-Italian singer, model and dancer July 17 Darren Day, British actor and TV presenter Beth Littleford, American actress and comedian July 18 – Grant Bowler, New Zealand-born Australian actor July 19 William Houston, English actor Robert Flynn, American vocalist and guitarist (Machine Head) Jim Norton, American comedian July 21 Johnnie Barnes, American football player Brandi Chastain, American footballer Xu Wei, Chinese rock musician July 23 Gary Payton, African-American basketball player Stephanie Seymour, American model and actress July 24 Kristin Chenoweth, American soprano and actress Laura Leighton, American actress July 25 – John Grant, American singer-songwriter July 26 – Olivia Williams, English actress July 27 Julian McMahon, Australian actor Cliff Curtis, New Zealand actor Glen Murakami, American animator, animation director and producer July 28 – Rachel Blakely, Australian actress July 30 Terry Crews, African-American actor and former NFL player Robert Korzeniowski, Polish athlete August August 1 – Pavo Urban, Croatian photographer (d. 1991) August 3 Tom Long, American-Australian actor (d. 2020) Rod Beck, American baseball player (d. 2007) August 4 Lee Mack, English actor and stand-up comedian Olga Neuwirth, Austrian composer August 5 Terri Clark, Canadian country music singer Marine Le Pen, French politician Colin McRae, Scottish rally car driver (d. 2007) August 7 – Lynn Strait, American musician (d. 1998) August 8 – Kimberly Brooks, American actress and voice artist August 9 Gillian Anderson, American actress Eric Bana, Australian actor James Roy, Australian author August 10 Greg Hawgood, Canadian ice hockey player Cate Shortland, Australian film and television director August 11 Anna Gunn, American actress Sophie Okonedo, English actress Noordin Mohammad Top, Malaysian Islamist terrorist (d. 2009) August 12 Pablo Rey, Spanish painter Paul Tucker, English songwriter and record producer Kōji Yusa, Japanese voice actor August 14 Catherine Bell, American actress Darren Clarke, Northern Irish professional golfer Jason Leonard, English rugby player Terry Notary, American actor and movement coach August 15 – Debra Messing, American actress August 17 Roger Sylvester, British man who died in police custody (d. 1999) Ed McCaffrey, American football player Helen McCrory, English actress (d. 2021) Bruno van Pottelsberghe, Belgian economist August 18 – Justin Strzelczyk, American football offensive tackle (d. 2004) August 19 - Ahmed Best, American actor August 20 Klas Ingesson, Swedish footballer (d. 2014) Yuri Shiratori Japanese actress and singer Bai Yansong, Chinese host August 21 – Dina Carroll, British singer August 23 - Krishna Kumar Kunnath, Indian Singer August 24 Shoichi Funaki, Japanese professional wrestler Hiroshi Kitadani, Japanese singer Tim Salmon, American baseball player August 25 – Rachael Ray, American television chef and host August 26 – Benjamin Atkins, American serial killer (d. 1997) August 27 – Luis Tascón, Venezuelan politician (d. 2010) August 28 Billy Boyd, Scottish actor Tom Warburton, American animator August 31 Valdon Dowiyogo, Nauruan politician and Australian football player Hideo Nomo, Japanese baseball player September September 1 Mohamed Atta, 9/11 ringleader of the hijackers and pilot of American Airlines Flight 11 (d. 2001) Atsuko Yuya, Japanese voice actress September 3 Raymond Coulthard, English actor Rama Messinger, Israeli actress and voice actress (d. 2015) September 4 John DiMaggio, American voice actor and comedian Mike Piazza, American baseball player September 5 – Thomas Levet, French golfer September 7 Marcel Desailly, French footballer Lucy Robinson, British actress September 9 – Julia Sawalha, English actress September 10 Big Daddy Kane, American hip-hop artist Guy Ritchie, British film director September 11 Kay Hanley, American musician Tetsuo Kurata, Japanese actor September 13 – Laura Cutina, Romanian artistic gymnast September 15 – Danny Nucci, American actor September 16 – Marc Anthony, American actor and singer September 17 Marie-Chantal, Crown Princess of Greece Anastacia, American singer-songwriter Tito Vilanova, Spanish football manager (d. 2014) September 18 – Toni Kukoč, Croatian basketball player September 20 Philippa Forrester, British TV presenter Van Jones, African-American author Leah Pinsent, Canadian actress Darrell Russell, American race car driver (d. 2004) September 21 Lisa Angell, French singer Kevin Buzzard, British mathematician Ricki Lake, American actress, producer, and television presenter September 22 Megan Hollingshead, American voice actress Mihai Răzvan Ungureanu, 62nd Prime Minister of Romania September 23 Yvette Fielding, English television presenter Michelle Thomas, American actress (d. 1998) September 24 – Davide Garbolino, Italian voice actor, dubbing director, and television presenter September 25 Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau, (d. 2013) John A. List, American economist Will Smith, African-American actor and rapper September 26 James Caviezel, American actor Michelle Meldrum, American guitarist (d. 2008) Tricia O'Kelley, American actress Ben Shenkman, American television, film and stage actor September 27 Mari Kiviniemi, 62nd Prime Minister of Finland Patrick Muldoon, American actor Paul Rudish, American voice actor and animator September 28 Mika Häkkinen, Finnish double Formula 1 world champion Sean Levert, American singer-songwriter (d. 2008) Naomi Watts, British actress and film producer Trish Keenan, Lead vocalist and founding member of electronic band Broadcast (band) September 29 Patrick Burns, American paranormal investigator and television personality Alex Skolnick, American jazz/heavy metal guitarist Samir Soni, Indian film and TV actor September 30 - Bennet Omalu, Nigerian pathologist October October 1 Mark Durden-Smith, British television presenter Jay Underwood, American actor October 2 Lucy Cohu, English actress Victoria Derbyshire, English broadcast presenter Jana Novotná, Czech tennis player (d. 2017) October 3 – Paul Crichton, English footballer October 4 Beverley Allitt, British serial killer of children Tim Wise, American activist and writer October 7 Luminița Anghel, Romanian dance/pop recording artist, songwriter, television personality and politician Thom Yorke, British singer-songwriter October 8 Daniela Castelo, Argentine journalist (d. 2011) Emily Procter, American actress October 9 Troy Davis, American high-profile death row inmate and human rights activist (d. 2011) Pete Docter, American animator, director October 10 Bart Brentjens, Dutch mountainbiker Feridun Düzağaç, Turkish rock singer-songwriter October 11 Tiffany Grant, American voice actress Jane Krakowski, American actress Brett Salisbury, American football quarterback October 12 Paul Harragon, Australian rugby league player Hugh Jackman, Australian actor, singer, and producer October 13 Preet Bharara, Indian-American politician Tisha Campbell-Martin, American actress and singer October 14 Matthew Le Tissier, English footballer October 15 Didier Deschamps, French footballer Jyrki 69, Finnish singer Vanessa Marcil, American actress October 16 – Todd Stashwick, American actor and writer October 17 Alejandra Ávalos, Mexican artist, singer, songwriter, actress, model, dancer, philanthropist, television host, entrepreneur and record producer Ziggy Marley, Jamaican musician and oldest son of Bob Marley 19 October Yayan Ruhian, Indonesian Stuntman, Actor October 20 Damien Timmer, British joint-managing director, television producer, television executive producer Wee Ka Siong, Malaysian politician October 22 Jimmy Schulz, German technology executive and politician (d. 2019) Shaggy, Jamaican singer October 23 – Charles Joseph Martin, 2024 US Presidential Candidate October 24 – Mark Walton, American story artist, actor October 27 – Alain Auderset, Swedish writer October 28 – Juan Orlando Hernández, 55th President of Honduras October 29 Tsunku, Japanese singer, music producer and song composer John Farley, American actor and comedian October 30 Moira Quirk, English actress and voice actress Jack Plotnick, American film and television actor, writer, and producer November November 1 – Silvio Fauner, Italian cross-country skier November 2 – Neal Casal, American guitarist, singer, songwriter, and photographer (d. 2019) November 3 – Debbie Rochon, Canadian actress November 4 Lee Germon, New Zealand cricketer Daniel Landa, Czech composer, singer and actor Miles Long, American pornographic actor and director November 5 Mr. Catra, Brazilian musician (d. 2018) Terry McGurrin, Canadian actor, comedian and writer Sam Rockwell, American actor Seth Gilliam, African-American actor November 6 – Kelly Rutherford, American actress November 7 – Ignacio Padilla, Mexican writer (d. 2016) November 8 Parker Posey, American actress Zara Whites, Dutch actress November 9 – Nazzareno Carusi, Italian classical pianist November 10 – Tracy Morgan, African-American actor and comedian November 12 Kathleen Hanna, American musician and activist Aya Hisakawa, Japanese voice actress Sammy Sosa, Dominican Major League Baseball player November 13 – Pat Hentgen, American baseball player November 15 Fausto Brizzi, Italian screenwriter and film director Ol' Dirty Bastard, American rapper (d. 2004) November 16 – Tammy Lauren, American actress November 18 Barry Hunter, Northern Irish footballer and football manager Luizianne Lins, Brazilian politician Gary Sheffield, American retired baseball player Owen Wilson, American actor and comedian November 19 – Mark Bonnar, Scottish actor November 20 Chew Chor Meng, Singaporean Chinese television actor John Trobaugh, American artist and photographer November 21 Qiao Hong, Chinese table tennis player Alex James, English musician Sean Schemmel, American voice actor, ADR director, musician and screenwriter November 23 – Hamid Hassani, Iranian scholar November 24 Phil Starbuck, former English footballer Awie, Malaysian rock singer yukihiro, Japanese musician Todd Beamer, passenger on board United Airlines Flight 93 (d. 2001) November 25 Tunde Baiyewu, British singer Jacqueline Hennessy, Canadian actress and talk show host Jill Hennessy, Canadian actress Erick Sermon, African-American rapper, musician, and record producer November 27 Michael Vartan, French actor Veronika Neugebauer, German actress and voice actress (d. 2009) November 28 – Ken, Japanese musician November 29 Iolanda Nanni, Italian politician (d. 2018) Eiji Ezaki, Japanese professional wrestler (d. 2016) Jonathan Knight, American singer November 30 Rica Matsumoto, Japanese actress, voice actress and singer December December 2 Lucy Liu, American actress, voice actress, director, singer, dancer, model, and artist Joshua Seth, American voice actor and hypnotist Rena Sofer, American actress December 3 Brendan Fraser, Canadian-American actor Montell Jordan, American singer December 4 Tahir Dawar, Pakistani police officer and Pashto poet (d. 2018) December 5 Margaret Cho, American actress and comedian Wendi Deng, Chinese-born American businesswoman December 7 Greg Ayres, American voice actor Mark Geyer, Australian rugby league player December 8 Michael Cole, American television sports commentator Mike Mussina, American baseball player December 9 – Kurt Angle, American amateur and professional wrestler, 1996 Olympic gold medalist December 11 Emmanuelle Charpentier, French biochemist, recipient of Nobel Prize in Chemistry Monique Garbrecht-Enfeldt, German speed skater Eula Valdez, Filipino actress 13 December – Morgan Rose, American drummer December 16 – Tom Spurgeon, American journalist, comics critic and editor (d. 2019) December 17 – Paul Tracy, Canadian race car driver December 18 Rachel Griffiths, Australian actress Casper Van Dien, American actor and producer December 19 – Ken Marino, American actor and comedian December 21 Khrystyne Haje, American actress Vanessa Marquez, American actress (d. 2018) December 22 – Dina Meyer, American actress December 23 – Manuel Rivera-Ortiz, American photographer December 24 – Choi Jin-sil, South Korean actress and model (d. 2008) December 25 – Helena Christensen, Danish model December 26 Dennis Knight, American professional wrestler Malcolm L. McCallum, American herpetologist, conservation biologist, and environmental scientist December 28 Deanna Favre, American activist and wife of Brett Favre Lior Ashkenazi, Israeli actor December 29 – Tricia Leigh Fisher, American actress and singer December 30 – Fabrice Guy, French Olympic skier Unknown date Eleonora Requena, Venezuelan poet. Deaths January January 4 Armando Castellazzi, Italian footballer and manager (b. 1904) Joseph Pholien, Belgian politician, 37th Prime Minister of Belgium (b. 1884) January 6 – Karl Kobelt, 2-time President of the Swiss Confederation (b. 1891) January 7 Gholamreza Takhti, Iranian wrestler (b. 1930) Mario Roatta, Italian general (b. 1887) January 9 – Kōkichi Tsuburaya, Japanese athlete (b. 1940) January 10 Ali Fuat Cebesoy, Turkish politician (b. 1882) Eben Dönges, acting Prime Minister of South Africa and elected President of South Africa (b. 1898) January 15 – Leopold Infeld, Polish physicist (b. 1898) January 18 – John Ridgely, American actor (b. 1909) January 21 – Georg Dertinger, German politician (b. 1902) January 22 Aleksandr Arbuzov, Russian chemist (b. 1877) Duke Kahanamoku, American Olympic swimmer (b. 1890) January 29 – Tsuguharu Foujita, Japanese-French painter and printmaker (b. 1886) February February 4 Eddie Baker, American actor (b. 1897) Neal Cassady, American author and poet (b. 1926) February 7 – Nick Adams, American actor (b. 1931) February 10 – Pitirim Sorokin, Russian-American sociologist (b. 1889) February 11 – Howard Lindsay, American playwright (b. 1888) February 13 Mae Marsh, American actress (b. 1894) Ildebrando Pizzetti, Italian composer (b. 1880) February 15 – Little Walter, American blues musician, singer, and songwriter (b. 1930) February 17 – Sir Donald Wolfit, English actor (b. 1902) February 19 – Georg Hackenschmidt, German strongman and professional wrestler (b. 1877) February 20 – Anthony Asquith, British director and writer (b. 1902) February 21 – Howard Florey, Australian-born pharmacologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine (b. 1898) February 22 – Peter Arno, American cartoonist (b. 1904) February 25 – Camille Huysmans, Belgian politician, 34th Prime Minister of Belgium (b. 1871) February 27 Frankie Lymon, American singer (b. 1942) Hertha Sponer, German physicist and chemist (b. 1895) February 29 – Hugo Benioff, American seismologist (b. 1899) March March 6 – Joseph W. Martin Jr., American politician (b. 1884) March 8 – Jerzy Braun, Polish athlete (b. 1911) March 14 – Erwin Panofsky, German-Jewish art historian (b. 1892) March 15 – Khuang Aphaiwong, 4th Prime Minister of Thailand, country leader during World War II (b. 1902) March 16 – Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Italian composer (b. 1895) March 20 – Carl Theodor Dreyer, Danish film director (b. 1889) March 23 – Edwin O'Connor, American journalist, novelist, and radio commentator (b. 1918) March 24 – Alice Guy-Blaché, French filmmaker (b. 1873) March 27 – Yuri Gagarin, Soviet cosmonaut, first human in space (b. 1934) April April 1 – Lev Landau, Russian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1908) April 4 – Martin Luther King Jr., American civil rights leader, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1929) Assis Chateaubriand, Brazilian newspaper magnate (b. 1892) April 7 – Jim Clark, Scottish racing driver and double Formula One World Champion (b. 1936) April 8 – Harold D. Babcock, American astronomer (b. 1882) April 15 – Boris Lyatoshinsky, Ukrainian composer, conductor, and teacher (b. 1895) April 16 Fay Bainter, American actress (b. 1893) Albert Betz, German physicist (b. 1885) Edna Ferber, American writer (b. 1885) April 24 Tommy Noonan, American actor (b. 1921) Walter Tewksbury, American athlete (b. 1876) April 25 – Gunnar Andersen, Norwegian footballer and ski jumper (b. 1890) April 26 – John Heartfield, German visual artist (b. 1891) May May 5 – Albert Dekker, American actor (b. 1905) May 7 – Lurleen Wallace, American politician (b. 1926) May 9 Finlay Currie, Scottish actor (b. 1878) Marion Lorne, American actress (b. 1883) Mercedes de Acosta, American poet, playwright, and novelist (b. 1892) May 10 – Scotty Beckett, American child actor (b. 1929) May 11 – Robert Burks, American cinematographer (b. 1909) May 14 – Husband E. Kimmel, American admiral (b. 1882) May 25 – Georg von Küchler, German field marshal and war criminal (b. 1881) May 26 – Little Willie John, American R&B singer (b. 1937) May 28 Kees van Dongen, Dutch-French painter (b. 1877) Fyodor Okhlopkov, Soviet sniper (b. 1908) June June 1 – Helen Keller, American activist and spokeswoman for the deaf and blind (b. 1880) June 2 – R. Norris Williams, American tennis player (b. 1891) June 4 – Dorothy Gish, American actress (b. 1898) June 6 Randolph Churchill, British politician, son of Winston Churchill (b. 1911) Robert F. Kennedy, American lawyer and politician (United States Senator, U.S. Attorney General) (b. 1925) June 7 – Dan Duryea, American actor (b. 1907) June 14 Karl-Birger Blomdahl, Swedish composer (b. 1916) Salvatore Quasimodo, Italian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1901) June 15 – Wes Montgomery, American jazz guitarist (b. 1923) June 17 – José Nasazzi, Uruguayan footballer (b. 1901) June 18 – Nikolaus von Falkenhorst, German general and war criminal (b. 1885) June 25 – Tony Hancock, English comedian and actor (b. 1924) July July 1 Fritz Bauer, German judge and prosecutor (b. 1903) Virginia Weidler, American actress (b. 1927) July 2 Zaki al-Arsuzi, Syrian philosopher, philologist, sociologist, and historian (b. 1899) Francis Brennan, American cardinal (b. 1894) July 9 Viktor Blinov, Russian ice hockey player (b. 1945) Alexander Cadogan, British diplomat (b. 1884) July 12 – José Bordas Valdez, 43rd President of the Dominican Republic (b. 1874) July 14 – Konstantin Paustovsky, Russian-Soviet writer (b. 1892) July 15 – Cai Chusheng, Chinese film director (b. 1906) July 18 – Corneille Heymans, Belgian physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1892) July 20 – Joseph Keilberth, German conductor (b. 1908) July 21 – Ruth St. Denis, American dancer (b. 1879) July 22 – Giovannino Guareschi, Italian journalist (b. 1908) July 23 Luigi Cevenini, Italian footballer and coach (b. 1895) Sir Henry Dale, English pharmacologist and physiologist (b. 1875) July 27 – Lilian Harvey, Anglo-German actress and singer (b. 1906) July 28 Otto Hahn, German chemist, discoverer of nuclear fission, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1879) Ángel Herrera Oria, Spanish journalist, politician, cardinal and servant of God (b. 1886) August August 3 – Konstantin Rokossovsky, Soviet officer, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1896) August 5 – Luther Perkins, American guitarist (b. 1928) August 19 – George Gamow, Soviet-American theoretical physicist and cosmologist (b. 1904) August 25 – Stan McCabe, Australian cricketer (b. 1910) August 26 – Kay Francis, American actress (b. 1905) August 27 Robert Z. Leonard, American film director (b. 1889) Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent (b. 1906) August 30 – William Talman, American actor (b. 1915) August 31 – Dennis O'Keefe, American actor (b. 1908) September September 3 – Juan José Castro, Argentine composer and conductor (b. 1895) September 7 – Lucio Fontana, Italian painter and sculptor (b. 1899) September 13 – Frank Barson, English footballer (b. 1891) September 17 – Armand Blanchonnet, French Olympic cyclist (b. 1903) September 18 Franchot Tone, American actor (b. 1905) Francis McDonald, American actor (b. 1891) September 19 Chester Carlson, American physicist, and inventor (b. 1906) Red Foley, American singer (b. 1910) September 23 – Pio of Pietrelcina, Italian Roman Catholic priest and saint (b. 1887) September 24 – Virginia Valli, American actress (b. 1898) September 28 – Sir Norman Brookes, Australian tennis champion (b. 1877) October October 1 – Romano Guardini, Italian-German Catholic priest and theologian (b. 1885) October 2 – Marcel Duchamp, French artist (b. 1887) October 4 Francis Biddle, American politician (b. 1886) Hitoshi Imamura, Japanese general (b. 1886) October 13 Manuel Bandeira, Brazilian poet, literary critic, and translator (b. 1886) Bea Benaderet, American actress (b. 1906) John L. Hines, American general, Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army (b. 1868) October 15 Franz Beyer, German general (b. 1892) Herbert Copeland, American biologist (b. 1902) October 18 – Lee Tracy, American actor (b. 1898) October 26 – Sergei Natanovich Bernstein, Russian and Soviet mathematician (b. 1880) October 27 – Lise Meitner, German-Austrian physicist, discoverer of nuclear fission (b. 1878) October 28 – Hans Cramer, German general (b. 1896) October 30 Ramon Novarro, Mexican-born American actor (b. 1899) Conrad Richter, American writer (b. 1890) November November 1 – Georgios Papandreou, 3-Time Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1888) November 6 – Charles Munch, French conductor (b. 1891) November 7 – Alexander Gelfond, Soviet mathematician (b. 1906) November 8 – Wendell Corey, American actor (b. 1914) November 9 Jan Johansson, Swedish jazz pianist (b. 1931) Gerald Mohr, American actor (b. 1914) November 11 – Jeanne Demessieux, French composer (b. 1921) November 14 – Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Spanish philologist and historian (b. 1869) November 15 – Charles Bacon, American athlete (b. 1885) November 16 Augustin Bea, German cardinal (b. 1881) Carl Bertilsson, Swedish gymnast (b. 1889) November 17 – Mervyn Peake, English writer, artist, poet, and illustrator (b. 1911) November 18 – Walter Wanger, American film producer (b. 1894) November 20 – Helen Gardner, American actress (b. 1884) November 25 – Upton Sinclair, American writer (b. 1878) November 26 – Arnold Zweig, German writer, pacifist and socialist (b. 1887) November 28 – Enid Blyton, English writer (b. 1897) November 30 – Charles Henry Bartlett, British cyclist (b. 1885) December December 1 Hugo Haas, Czech actor, director and writer (b. 1901) Darío Moreno, Turkish-Jewish polyglot singer, composer, lyricist, and guitarist (b. 1921) December 4 – Archie Mayo, American actor and director (b. 1891) December 5 – Fred Clark, American actor (b. 1914) December 9 – Enoch L. Johnson, American political boss and racketeer (b. 1883) December 10 Karl Barth, German Protestant theologian (b. 1888) Thomas Merton, American author (b. 1915) December 12 Tim Ahearne, Irish athlete (b. 1885) Tallulah Bankhead, American actress (b. 1902) December 18 – Giovanni Messe, Italian field marshal and politician (b. 1883) December 19 – Norman Thomas, American socialist (b. 1884) December 20 Max Brod, Czech-born Israeli composer, writer and biographer (b. 1884) John Steinbeck, American writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1902) December 30 Trygve Lie, 1st Secretary General of the United Nations (b. 1896) Kirill Meretskov, Soviet military officer, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1897) December 31 – George Lewis, American musician (b. 1900) Date unknown Sami as-Solh, 5-Time Prime Minister of Lebanon (b. 1887) Nobel Prizes Physics – Luis Walter Alvarez Chemistry – Lars Onsager Physiology or Medicine – Robert W. Holley, Har Gobind Khorana, Marshall W. Nirenberg Literature – Yasunari Kawabata Peace – René Cassin References Further reading Sherman, Daniel J. et al. eds. The Long 1968: Revisions and New Perspectives (Indiana University Press; 2013) 382 pages; essays by scholars on the cultural and political impact of 1968 in France, Mexico, Northern Ireland, the United States, etc. Kurlansky, Mark. (2004). 1968: The Year that Rocked the World. London: Jonathan Cape. NPR "Echoes of 1968" report series. 1968 – The Year in Sound An Audiofile produced by Lou Zambrana of WCBS Newsradio 880 (WCBS-AM New York) Part of WCBS 880's celebration of 40 years of newsradio. Time, 40th Anniversary Special (2008). "1968: The Year That Changed the World." Newsweek. "1968: The Year That Made Us Who We Are." November 19, 2007. 1968: The Year That Shaped a Generation, time.com, January 11, 1988. Magnum Photos, Historic photos from 1968 BBC Radio 4 – 1968 Myth or Reality? – six months of 'news on this day' programmes and documentaries Interactive 1968 Timeline Reflections on 1968 Read people's memories of the year 1968. Minnesota Historical Society External links Leap years in the Gregorian calendar

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1929

1929

This year marked the end of a period known in American history as the Roaring Twenties after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 ushered in a worldwide Great Depression. In the Americas, an agreement was brokered to end the Cristero War, a Catholic counter-revolution in Mexico. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, a British high court, ruled that Canadian women are persons in the Edwards v. Canada (Attorney General) case. The 1st Academy Awards for film were held in Los Angeles, while the Museum of Modern Art opened in New York City. The Peruvian Air Force was created. In Asia, the Republic of China and the Soviet Union engaged in a minor conflict after the Chinese seized full control of the Manchurian Chinese Eastern Railway, which ended with a resumption of joint administration. In the Soviet Union, General Secretary Joseph Stalin expelled Leon Trotsky and adopted a policy of collectivization. The Grand Trunk Express began service in India. Rioting between Muslims and Jews in Jerusalem over access to the Western Wall took place in the Middle East. The centenary of Western Australia was celebrated. The Afghan Civil War, which started in November in the preceding year, continued until October. The Kellogg–Briand Pact, a treaty renouncing war as an instrument of national policy, went into effect. In Europe, the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy signed the Lateran Treaty. The Idionymon law was passed in Greece to outlaw political dissent. Spain hosted the Ibero-American Exposition which featured pavilions from Latin American countries. The German airship LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin flew around the world in 21 days. Summary Middle East, Asia, and Pacific Isles On August 1 of this year the 1929 Palestine riots broke out between Palestinians and Jews over control of the Western Wall. The rioting, initiated in part when British police tore down a screen the Jews had constructed in front of the Wall, continued until the end of the month. In total, 133 Jews and 116 Palestinians were killed. Two of the more famous incidents occurring during these riots were the August 23–24 1929 Hebron massacre, in which almost 70 Jews were killed by Palestinians and the remaining Jews are forced to stay at Hebron. The Palestinians had been told that Jews were killing Palestinians. Jews would not return to Hebron until after the Six-Day War in 1967. The other major clash was the 1929 Safed massacre, in which 18–20 Jews were killed by Palestinians in Safed in similar fashion. Elsewhere in the Middle East, Iraq took a big step toward gaining independence from the British. The Iraqi government had, since the end of World War I and the beginning of the British Mandate in the Middle East, consistently resisted British hegemony. In September, Great Britain announced it would support Iraq's inclusion in the League of Nations, signaling the beginning of the end of their direct control of the region. Early in 1929, the Afghan Civil War saw the Afghan leader King Amanullah lose power to the Saqqawists under Habibullāh Kalakāni. Kalakani's rule, however, only lasted nine months. Nadir Shah replaced him in October, starting a line of monarchs which would last 40 years. In India, a general strike in Bombay continued throughout the year despite efforts by the British. On December 29, the All India Congress in Lahore declared Indian independence from Britain, something it had threatened to do if Britain did not grant India dominion status. China and Russia engaged in a minor conflict after China seized full control of the Manchurian Chinese Eastern Railway. Russia counterattacked and took the cities of Hailar and Manchouli after issuing an ultimatum demanding joint control of the railway to be reinstated. The Chinese agreed to the terms on November 26. The Japanese would later see this defeat as a sign of Chinese weakness, leading to their taking control of Manchuria. The Far East began to experience economic problems late in the year as the effects of the Great Depression began to spread. Southeast Asia was especially hard hit as its exports (spice, rubber, and other commodities) were more sensitive to economic problems. In the Pacific, on December 28 – "Black Saturday" in Samoa – New Zealand colonial police killed 11 unarmed demonstrators, an event which led the Mau movement to demand independence for Samoa. Europe Western In 1929, the Fascist Party in Italy tightened its control. National education policy took a major step towards being completely taken over by the agenda of indoctrination. In that year, the Fascist government took control of the authorization of all textbooks, all secondary school teachers were required to take an oath of loyalty to Fascism, and children began to be taught that they owed the same loyalty to Fascism as they did to God. On February 11, Mussolini signed the Lateran Treaty, making Vatican City a sovereign state. On July 25, Pope Pius XI emerged from the Vatican and entered St. Peter's Square in a huge procession witnessed by about 250,000 persons, thus ending nearly 60 years of papal self-imprisonment within the Vatican. Italy used the diplomatic prestige associated with this successful agreement to adopt a more aggressive foreign policy. Germany experienced a major turning point in this year due to the economic crash. The country had experienced prosperity under the government of the Weimar Republic until foreign investors withdrew their German interests. This began the crumbling of the Republican government in favor of Nazism. In 1929, the number of unemployed reached three million. On July 27, the Geneva Convention, held in Switzerland, addressed the treatment of prisoners of war in response to problems encountered during World War I. On May 31, the British general election returned a hung parliament yet again, with the Liberals in position to determine who would have power. These elections were known as the "Flapper" elections due to the fact that it was the first British election in which women under 30 could vote. A week after the vote, on June 7 the Conservatives conceded power rather than ally with the Liberals. Ramsay MacDonald founded a new Labour government the next day. 1929 is regarded as a turning point by French historians, who point out that it was last year in which prosperity was felt before the effects of the Great Depression. The Third Republic had been in power since before World War I. On July 24, French prime minister Raymond Poincaré resigned for medical reasons; he was succeeded by Aristide Briand. Briand adopted a foreign policy of both peace and defensive fortification. The Kellogg–Briand Pact, renouncing war as an instrument of foreign policy, went into effect in this year (it was first signed in Paris in 1928 by most leading world powers). The French began work on the Maginot Line in this year, as a defense against a possible German attack, and on September 5 Briand presented a plan for the United States of Europe. On October 22, Briand was replaced as Prime Minister by André Tardieu. Primo de Rivera's dictatorship in Spain experienced growing dissatisfaction among students and academics, as well as businessmen who blamed the government for recent economic woes. Many called for a fascist regime, like that in Italy. Eastern In May, Joseph Stalin consolidated his power in the Soviet Union by sending Leon Trotsky into exile. The only country that would grant Trotsky asylum was Turkey, in return for his help during Turkey's civil war. He and his family left the USSR aboard ship on February 12. Stalin turned on his former political ally, Nikolai Bukharin, who was the last real threat to his power. By the end of the year Bukharin had been defeated. Once Stalin was in power, he turned his former support for Lenin's New Economic Policy into opposition. In November, Stalin declared that it "The Year of the Great Breakthrough" and stated that the country would focus on industrial programs as well as on collectivizing the grain supply. He hoped to surpass the West not only in agriculture, but in industry. Millions of Soviet farmers were removed from their private farms, their property was collected, and they were moved to state-owned farms. Stalin emphasized in 1929 a campaign demonizing kulaks as a plague on society. Kulak property was taken and they were deported by cattle train to areas of frozen tundra. The timber market in Finland began to decline in 1929 due to the Great Depression, as well as the Soviet Union's entrance into the market. Financial and political problems culminated in the birth of the fascist Lapua Movement on November 23 in a demonstration in Lapua. The movement's stated aim was Finnish democracy and anti-communism. The Finnish legislature received heavy pressure to remove basic rights from Communist groups. Politics in Lithuania was heated, as President Voldemaras was unpopular in some quarters, and survived an assassination attempt in Kaunas. Later, while attending a meeting of the League of Nations, he was ousted in a coup by President Smetona, who made himself dictator. Upon Voldemaras' removal from office, Geležinis Vilkas went underground and received aid and encouragement in its activities from Germany. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was renamed the "Kingdom of Yugoslavia" as King Alexander sought to unite the South Slavs under his rule. The state's new Monarchy replaced the old parliament, which had been dominated by Serbs. North America In October 1929, the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council overturned a ruling by the Supreme Court of Canada that women could not be members of the legislature. This case, which came to be known as the Persons Case, had important ramifications not just for the rights of women but because in overturning the case, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council engendered a radical change in the Canadian judicial approach to the Canadian constitution, an approach that has come to be known as the "living tree doctrine". The five women who initiated the case are known in Canada as the Famous Five. In November, the 1929 Grand Banks earthquake occurred off the south coast of Newfoundland in the Atlantic Ocean. It registered as a Richter magnitude 7.2 submarine earthquake centered on Grand Banks, broke 12 submarine transatlantic telegraph cables and triggered a tsunami that destroyed many south coast communities in the Burin Peninsula area, killing 28 (as of 1997, Canada's most lethal earthquake). Ross-Loos Medical Group is established in downtown Los Angeles by two physicians, Donald E. Ross and H. Clifford Loos - the first HMO in the United States. The Mexican Cristero War continued in 1929 as clerical forces attempted an assassination of the provisional president in a train bombing in February. The attempt failed. Plutarco Calles, at the center of power for the anti-clerics, continued to gather power in Mexico City. His government was considered an enemy to more conservative Mexicans who held to traditional forms of government and more religious control. Calles founded the National Revolutionary Party early in the year to increase his power; a party which was, ironically, seen by foreigners as fascist and which was in opposition to the Mexican Right. A special election was held in this year, which Jose Vasconselos lost to Ortiz Rubio. By this time, the war had ended. The last group of rebels was defeated on June 4, and in the same month US Ambassador Dwight Morrow initiated talks between parties. On June 21 an agreement was brokered ending the Cristero War. On June 27, church bells rang and mass was held publicly for the first time in three years. The agreement heavily favored the government, as priests were required to register with the government and religion was banned from schools. The major event of the year for the United States was the stock market crash on Wall Street, which was to have international effects. On September 3, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) peaked at 381.17, a height it would not reach again until November 1954. Then, from October 24–October 29, stock prices suffered three multi-digit percentage drops, wiping out more than $30 billion from the New York Stock Exchange (10 times greater than the annual budget of the federal government). On December 3 U.S. President Herbert Hoover announced to the U.S. Congress that the worst effects of the recent stock market crash were behind the nation, and that the American people had regained faith in the economy. Literature, arts, and entertainment Literature of the time reflected the memories many harbored of the horrors of World War I. A major seller was All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque. Remarque was a German who had fought in the war at age eighteen and been wounded in the Third Battle of Ypres. He stated that he intended the book to tell the story "of a generation of men who, even though they may have escaped its shells, were destroyed by the war." Another 1929 book reflecting on World War I was Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms, as well as Good-Bye to All That by Robert Graves. In lighter media, a few stars of the comic industry made their debut, including Tintin, a comic book character created by Hergé, who would appear in over 200 million comic books in 60 languages. Popeye, another comic strip character created by Elzie Crisler Segar, also appeared in this year. Within the film industry, on May 16 the 1st Academy Awards were presented at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel, with Wings winning Best Picture. Also, Hallelujah! became the first Hollywood film to contain an entirely black cast, and Atlantic, a film about the Titanic, is an early sound-on-film movie. The arts were in the midst of the Modernist movement, as Pablo Picasso painted two cubist works, Woman in a Garden and Nude in an Armchair, during this year. The surrealist painters Salvador Dalí and René Magritte completed several works, including The First Days of Spring and The Treachery of Images. On November 7 in New York City, the Museum of Modern Art opened to the public. The latest in modern architecture was also represented by the Barcelona Pavilion in Spain, and the Royal York Hotel in Toronto, at its completion the tallest building in the British Empire. Science and technology The year saw several advances in technology and exploration. On June 27 the first public demonstration of color TV was held by H. E. Ives and his colleagues at Bell Telephone Laboratories in New York. The first images were a bouquet of roses and an American flag. A mechanical system was used to transmit 50-line color television images between New York and Washington. The BBC broadcast a television transmission for the first time. By November, Vladimir Zworykin had taken out the first patent for color television. On November 29, Bernt Balchen, U.S. Admiral Richard Byrd, Captain Ashley McKinley, and Harold June, became the first to fly over the South Pole. Within the year, Britain, Australia and New Zealand began a joint Antarctic Research Expedition, and the German airship Graf Zeppelin began a round-the-world flight (ended August 29). This year Ernst Schwarz describes Bonobo (Pan paniscus) as a different species from common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), both closely related phylogenetically to human beings. During the year 1929, there were two solar eclipses and two penumbral lunar eclipses: 1929 May 9 = Total Solar Eclipse 1929 May 23 = Penumbral Lunar Eclipse 1929 November 1 = Annular Solar Eclipse 1929 November 17 = Penumbral Lunar Eclipse Events January January 1 - The U.S. Army Air Corps airplane ? begins a six-day non-stop endurance flight over Southern California, using aerial refueling. January 6 6 January Dictatorship: King Alexander of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes suspends his country's constitution. Albanian missionary sister Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu, later known as Mother Teresa, arrives in Calcutta from Ireland to begin her work in India. January 10 – The first appearance of Hergé's Belgian comic book hero Tintin, as Tintin in the Land of the Soviets (Les Aventures de Tintin, reporter..., au pays des Soviets), begins serialization in the children's newspaper supplement, Le Petit Vingtième. January 17 – The comic strip hero Popeye first appears in Thimble Theatre. January 17 – Kabul falls to Habibullāh Kalakāni's forces, beginning a 9-month period of Saqqawist rule in Afghanistan while the Afghan Civil War continues. January 29 – All Quiet on the Western Front (Im Westen nichts Neues), by Erich Maria Remarque, is published in book form. February February 9 – "Litvinov's Pact" is signed in Moscow by the Soviet Union, Poland, Estonia, Romania and Latvia, who agree not to use force to settle disputes between themselves. February 10 – Liga Espanola, a professional football league of Spain, is founded. February 11 – The Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See of the Catholic Church sign the Lateran Treaty, to establish the Vatican City as an independent sovereign enclave within Rome, resolving the "Roman Question". February 14 – "Saint Valentine's Day Massacre": Five gangsters (rivals of Al Capone), plus a civilian, are shot dead in Chicago. February 21 – In the first battle of the Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong against the Nationalist government of China, a 24,000-strong rebel force led by Zhang Zongchang is defeated at Zhifu by 7,000 NRA troops. February 26 – Grand Teton National Park is established by the United States Congress. March March 2 – The longest bridge in the world at this time, the San Francisco Bay Toll-Bridge, opens. March 3 – A revolt by Generals José Gonzalo Escobar and Jesús María Aguirre fails in Mexico. March 4 Herbert Hoover is sworn in, as the 31st President of the United States. The National Revolutionary Party (Partido Nacional Revolucionario) is established in Mexico, by ex-President Plutarco Elías Calles. Under a succession of names, it will hold power in the country continuously for the next 71 years. March 17 – Second of the Davos University Conferences opens in Switzerland; this includes the Cassirer–Heidegger debate in philosophy. March 28 – Japanese forces withdraw from Shandong province to their garrison in Tsingtao, bringing an end to the Jinan Incident. March 30 – Imperial Airways begins operating the first commercial flights between London and Karachi. April April 3 – Persia signs the Litvinov Protocol. May May 1 – The 7.2 Kopet Dag earthquake shakes the Iran-Turkmenistan border region, with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), killing up to 3,800 and injuring 1,121. May 7 – "The Battle Of Blood Alley" is fought by a razor gang in Sydney, Australia. May 16 – The 1st Academy Awards are presented in a 15-minute ceremony at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel, honoring the best movies of 1927 and 1928, Wings (1927) winning Best Picture. Gerald Duffy (died 1928) receives the only Academy Award for Best Title Writing ever awarded (for his intertitles to the silent film The Private Life of Helen of Troy (1927)). May 31 – The United Kingdom general election again returns a hung parliament; the Liberals in Parliament determine which party will govern. June June 1 – The 1st Conference of the Communist Parties of Latin America is held in Buenos Aires. June 3 – The Treaty of Lima settles a border dispute between Peru and Chile. June 7 – The Lateran Treaty, making Vatican City a sovereign state, is ratified. June 8 – Ramsay MacDonald forms the United Kingdom's second Labour government. June 21 – An agreement brokered by U.S. Ambassador Dwight Whitney Morrow helps end the Cristero War in Mexico. June 27 – The first public demonstration of color TV is held, by H. E. Ives and his colleagues at Bell Telephone Laboratories in New York. The first images are a bouquet of roses and an American flag. A mechanical system is used to transmit 50-line color television images between New York and Washington. July July 11 – In the Soviet Union, a secret decree of the Sovnarkom creates the backbone of the Gulag system. July 24 The Kellogg–Briand Pact, renouncing war as an instrument of foreign policy, goes into effect (it was first signed in Paris on August 27, 1928, by most leading world powers). Union Airways Pty. Ltd. is founded, to be nationalised as South African Airways, on 1 February 1934. July 25 – Pope Pius XI emerges from the Apostolic Palace, and enters St. Peter's Square in a huge procession witnessed by about 250,000 persons, thus ending nearly 60 years of self-imposed status by the papacy as Prisoner in the Vatican. July 27 The Geneva Convention addresses the treatment of prisoners of war. The Red Crescent is adopted as an additional emblem of the League of Red Cross Societies. July 29 - the French prime minister Raymond Poincaré resigns, and is succeeded by Aristide Briand. August August 8–29 – German rigid airship LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin makes a circumnavigation of the Northern Hemisphere eastabout out of Lakehurst, New Jersey, including the first nonstop flight of any kind across the Pacific Ocean (Tokyo–Los Angeles). August 16 – The 1929 Palestine riots break out between Palestinians and Jews in Mandatory Palestine, and continue until the end of the month. In total, 133 Jews and 116 Palestinians are killed. August 20 – John Logie Baird's experimental 30-line television system is first transmitted, by the British Broadcasting Corporation. August 23–24 – The 1929 Hebron massacre: 65–68 Jews are killed by Palestinians and the remaining Jews are forced to leave Hebron. August 29 The 1929 Safed massacre: 18–20 Jews are killed in Safed by Palestinian Arabs. The collides with the oil tanker S.C.T. Dodd off the California coast, causing the San Juan to sink in 3 minutes, killing 77 people. August 31 – The Young Plan, which sets the total World War I reparations owed by Germany at US$26,350,000,000 to be paid over a period of 58½ years, is finalized. September September 3 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average peaks at 381.17, a height it would not reach again until November 1954. September 5 – Aristide Briand presents his plan for the United States of Europe. September 7 – The steamship SS Kuru sank in Lake Näsijärvi near Tampere, Finland, leading to 138 people drowning. September 17 – A coup ousts Augustinas Voldemaras from his Prime Minister position in Lithuania; he is replaced by the brother-in-law of President Antanas Smetona, Juozas Tūbelis. September 30 – Fritz von Opel pilots the first rocket-powered aircraft, the Opel RAK.1, in front of a large crowd in Frankfurt am Main. October October 3 – The country officially known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes changes its name to Kingdom of Yugoslavia. October 6 – Serie A, the top-class professional football league of Italy, replaces the Divisione Nazionale. October 12 – 1929 Australian federal election: The Labor Party, led by James Scullin, defeats the Nationalist/Country Coalition Government, led by Prime Minister Stanley Bruce. Scullin will be sworn in on October 22nd. Notably, this is the first occasion in Australian political history where a sitting Prime Minister loses his own seat (the second being John Howard in 2007). October 13 – Afghan Civil War ends. October 18 – On appeal from the Supreme Court of Canada on behalf of "The Famous Five" Canadian women in the landmark case of Edwards v. Canada (Attorney General), the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom announces that women are "persons" under the British North America Acts, and thus eligible for appointment to the Senate of Canada. October 22 – The government of Aristide Briand falls in France. October 24–29 – Wall Street Crash of 1929: Three multi-digit percentage drops wipe out more than $30 billion from the New York Stock Exchange (10 times greater than the annual budget of the federal government). October 25 – Former U.S. Interior Secretary Albert B. Fall is convicted of bribery for his role in the Teapot Dome scandal, becoming the first Presidential cabinet member to go to prison for actions in office. October 30 – The Stuttgart Cable Car is constructed in Stuttgart, Germany. November November – Vladimir Zworykin takes out the first patent for color television. November 1 An annual solar eclipse is seen over the Atlantic Ocean and Africa. Conscription in Australia ends. November 7 – In New York City, the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) opens to the public. The first exhibition Cézanne, Gauguin, van Gogh and Seurat (November 7 – December 7) is seen by 47.000 visitors; the curator is Alfred H. Barr. November 15 – Atlantic, a film about the sinking of the RMS Titanic, is released in the U.K., the first British sound-on-film movie and, in its simultaneously-shot German-language version, the first to be released in Germany. November 18 – The 1929 Grand Banks earthquake occurs. November 29 – Bernt Balchen, U.S. Admiral Richard Byrd, Captain Ashley McKinley and Harold June become the first to fly over the South Pole. December December – New York toy salesman Edwin S. Lowe popularizes Bingo after coming across the game of "Beano" in Atlanta, Georgia. After someone accidentally yelled "bingo" instead of "beano" with a group of friends in Brooklyn, New York, he began production of the game, going on to develop more than 6,000 card combinations under E. S. Lowe company, as the popularity of the game grew to become a national pastime. December 27 – Soviet General Secretary Joseph Stalin orders the "liquidation of the kulaks as a class". December 28 – "Black Saturday" in Samoa: New Zealand colonial police kill 11 unarmed demonstrators, an event which leads the Mau movement to demand independence for Samoa. December 29 – The All India Congress in Lahore demands Indian independence. Births January January 1 Haruo Nakajima, Japanese actor (d. 2017) Latif-ur-Rehman, Indian field hockey player (d. 1987) January 2 – Tellervo Koivisto, Finnish politician and First Lady of Finland January 3 Sergio Leone, Italian director (d. 1989) Gordon Moore, American computing entrepreneur January 4 – Günter Schabowski, official of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (d. 2015) January 5 – Alexandre Jany, French swimmer and water polo player (d. 2001) January 7 – Terry Moore, American actress January 8 – Saeed Jaffrey, Indian-born actor (d. 2015) January 9 – Brian Friel, Irish dramatist (d. 2015) January 10 – Tony Soper, English naturalist, author and broadcaster January 11 Nureddin al-Atassi, Syrian philatelist, 54th Prime Minister of Syria and 17th President of Syria (d. 1992) Dmitri Bruns, Estonian architect (d. 2020) Wanda Wiłkomirska, Polish violinist, teacher (d. 2018) January 12 Irena Homola-Skąpska, Polish historian (d. 2017) Alasdair MacIntyre, Scottish philosopher Jaakko Hintikka, Finnish philosopher, logician (d. 2015) January 14 – Alex Treves, Italian-American Olympic fencer (d. 2020) January 15 – Martin Luther King Jr., African-American civil rights leader, Nobel laureate (d. 1968) January 17 Tan Boon Teik, Attorney-General of Singapore (d. 2012) Jacques Plante, Canadian hockey player (d. 1986) January 19 Edmundo Abaya, Filipino Catholic archbishop (d. 2018) Carl-Ebbe Andersen, Danish rower (d. 2009) January 20 Jimmy Cobb, American jazz drummer (d. 2020) Masaharu Kawakatsu, Japanese zoologist January 23 Patriarch Filaret, former Patriarch of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kiev Patriarchate John Charles Polanyi, Canadian chemist, Nobel laureate January 25 – Benny Golson, American jazz musician January 26 Jules Feiffer, American cartoonist and author Sumiteru Taniguchi, Japanese anti-nuclear weapons activist (d. 2017) January 27 Mohamed Al-Fayed, Egyptian business magnate Hans Berliner, American chess player, writer and professor (d. 2017) Barbara York Main, Australian arachnologist and adjunct professor (d. 2019) Richard Ottinger, American politician January 28 Acker Bilk, British clarinetist (d. 2014) Edith M. Flanigen, American chemist Ali Mirzaei, Iranian weightlifter (d. 2020) Claes Oldenburg, American artist Clothespin (Oldenburg) January 30 Isamu Akasaki, Japanese physicist and Nobel laureate (d. 2021) Jacqueline van Maarsen, Dutch writer January 31 Rudolf Mössbauer, German physicist and Nobel laureate (d. 2011) Jean Simmons, English-American actress (d. 2010) February February 1 – Basilio Lami Dozo, Argentine dictator (d. 2017) February 2 – Věra Chytilová, Czech director (d. 2014) February 5 Hal Blaine, American drummer and session musician (d. 2019) Luc Ferrari, French composer (d. 2005) Fred Sinowatz, 18th Chancellor of Austria (d. 2008) February 6 Sixten Jernberg, Swedish Olympic cross-country skier (d. 2012) Pierre Brice, French actor (d. 2015) February 10 Hallgeir Brenden, Norwegian Olympic cross-country skier (d. 2007) Jerry Goldsmith, American composer, conductor (d. 2004) February 11 – Gunvor Pontén, Swedish actress February 14 Vic Morrow, American actor, director (Combat) (d. 1982) James Nelligan, American politician February 15 Graham Hill, English racing driver (d. 1975) Kauko Armas Nieminen, Finnish physicist (d. 2010) Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Palestinian academic (d. 2001) James Schlesinger, American politician (d. 2014) February 16 – Kazimierz Kutz, Polish film director and politician (d. 2018) February 17 Paul Meger, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2019) Alejandro Jodorowsky, Chilean-French director and screenwriter Patricia Routledge, English actress, singer February 18 Roland Minson, American basketball player and coach (d. 2020) Len Deighton, British author February 21 – Chespirito (Roberto Gómez Bolaños), Mexican actor, comedian (d. 2014) February 22 James Hong, Chinese American actor, director Miloš Radulović, President of Yugoslavia (d. 2017) Rebecca Schull, American actress February 23 – Patriarch Alexy II of Russia (d. 2008) February 24 Nils Petter Sundgren, Swedish film critic and television presenter (d. 2019) Zdzisław Beksiński, Polish surrealist painter (d. 2005) Modesta Lavana, Mexican healer and activist for indigenous rights in Hueyapan (d. 2010) February 26 Ina'am Al-Mufti, Jordanian politician (d. 2018) Paolo Ferrari, Italian actor (d. 2018) February 27 – Rube Bjorkman, American ice hockey player and coach February 28 Hayden Fry, American football player and coach (d. 2019) Frank Gehry, Canadian-born American architect Rangaswamy Srinivasan, Indian-American physical chemist and inventor March March 1 – Georgi Markov, Bulgarian dissident (d. 1978) March 4 Columba Domínguez, Mexican actress (d. 2014) Cyril Robinson, English footballer (d. 2019) Bernard Haitink, Dutch conductor (d. 2021) March 6 Gale McArthur, American basketball player (d. 2020) Fazil Iskander, Abkhaz writer (d. 2016) Ho Dam, North Korean politician (d. 1991) Günter Kunert, German writer (d. 2019) March 7 – Marion Marlowe, American singer and actress (d. 2012) March 8 Hebe Camargo, Brazilian television presenter, actress and singer (d. 2012) Elaine Edwards, American politician (d. 2018) March 9 Desmond Hoyte, 3rd Prime Minister of Guyana, 4th President of Guyana (d. 2002) Zillur Rahman, President of Bangladesh (d. 2013) March 10 – Lolita Rodrigues, Brazilian actress and presenter March 13 Peter Breck, American actor, drama teacher (d. 2012) Paek Nam-sun, North Korean Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2007) Joseph Mascolo, American musician, actor (d. 2016) March 14 Michael D. Coe, American archaeologist, anthropologist, epigrapher and author (d. 2019) Bob Goalby, American golfer (d. 2022) March 15 – Cecil Taylor, African-American jazz pianist, composer, and poet (d. 2018) March 16 Gennady Bukharin, Soviet Olympic canoeist (d. 2020) Betty Johnson, American singer Nadja Tiller, Austrian actress March 17 – Howie Winter, American mob boss (d. 2020) March 18 – Christa Wolf, German literary critic, novelist, and essayist (d. 2011) March 20 – Germán Robles, Spanish-Mexican film, theater, television, and voice actor (d. 2015) March 22 Yayoi Kusama, Japanese contemporary artist P. Ramlee, Malaysian film actor, director, singer, songwriter, composer, and producer (d. 1973) March 23 – Sir Roger Bannister, British athlete (d. 2018) March 25 Harris W. Fawell, American politician (d. 2021) Abdul Hamid Omar, 1st Chief Justice of Malaysia (d. 2009) March 26 – Edward Sorel, American illustrator and caricaturist March 29 Richard Lewontin, American biologist, geneticist and academic (d. 2021) Lennart Meri, President of Estonia (d. 2006) Olga Tass, Hungarian Olympic gymnast (d. 2020) April April 1 Barbara Bryne, English actress Milan Kundera, Czech writer April 3 – Poul Schlüter, Danish politician (d. 2021) April 5 Lucina da Costa Gomez-Matheeuws, Dutch Antillean politician (d. 2017) Ivar Giaever, Norwegian physicist and Nobel Prize laureate Nigel Hawthorne, English actor (d. 2001) Joe Meek, English record producer, sound engineer, and songwriter (d. 1967) April 6 André Previn, German-American pianist, conductor and composer (d. 2019) Christos Sartzetakis, Greek politician (d. 2022) April 7 – Madavoor Vasudevan Nair, Indian Kathakali dancer (d. 2018) April 8 – Jacques Brel, Belgian singer (d. 1978) April 9 – Fred Hollows, New Zealand-Australian ophthalmologist (d. 1993) April 10 Duje Bonačić, Croatian rower (d. 2020) Mike Hawthorn, British racing driver (d. 1959) Max von Sydow, Swedish actor (d. 2020) April 13 – Yvonne Clark, American engineer (d. 2019) April 14 Gerry Anderson, English television, film producer, director and writer, (Thunderbirds) (d. 2012) Paavo Berglund, Finnish conductor, violinist (d. 2012) Chadli Bendjedid, 3rd President of Algeria (d. 2012) April 17 – James Last, German composer and bandleader (d. 2015) April 21 Estrella Zeledón Lizano, Costa Rican politician, First Lady (d. 2019) Bevin Hough, New Zealand sportsman (d. 2019) April 22 Michael Atiyah, British-Lebanese mathematician (d. 2019) John Nicks, English figure skater and skating coach April 24 Shammi, Indian actress (d. 2018) Rajkumar, Indian actor and singer (d. 2006) April 25 – Abderrahmane Mahjoub, French and Moroccan international football (soccer) midfielder (d. 2011) April 26 – Alexandre Lamfalussy, Hungarian-Belgian economist and central banker (d. 2015) April 28 – Evangelina Elizondo, Mexican actress (d. 2017) April 30 – Klausjürgen Wussow, German theatre, television actor (d. 2007) May May 1 – Ralf Dahrendorf, Anglo-German sociologist (d. 2009) May 2 Eddie Garcia, Filipino actor and director (d. 2019) Link Wray, American rock and roll musician (d. 2005) Édouard Balladur, 91st Prime Minister of France May 3 – Per-Ingvar Brånemark, Swedish physician, "father of modern dental implantology" (d. 2014) May 4 Ronald Golias, Brazilian comedian and actor (d. 2005) Audrey Hepburn, British actress and activist (d. 1993) May 5 – Ilene Woods, American singer, actress (d. 2010) May 6 – Paul Lauterbur, American chemist and Nobel laureate (d. 2007) May 8 Claude Castonguay, Canadian politician and businessman (d. 2020) Girija Devi, Indian classical singer (d. 2017) Miyoshi Umeki, Japanese singer, actress (d. 2007) May 11 – Margaret Kerry, American actress, dancer, and motivational speaker May 12 Don Gibson, English footballer Ágnes Heller, Hungarian philosopher (d. 2019) Sam Nujoma, 1st President of Namibia May 13 – Ângela Maria, Brazilian singer and actress (d. 2018) May 15 – Otar Patsatsia, Georgian politician (d. 2021) May 16 Betty Carter, African-American jazz singer (d. 1998) Adrienne Rich, American poet and essayist (d. 2012) May 20 Ahmed Hamdi, Egyptian soldier (d. 1973) Pedro Trebbau, German-born Venezuelan zoologist (d. 2021) May 25 – Beverly Sills, American operatic soprano, director of the New York City Opera (d. 2007) May 26 Ernie Carroll, Australian television personality and producer John Jackson, English businessman Alfred Kunz, German-Canadian composer (d. 2019) May 29 Peter Higgs, British theoretical physicist and Nobel Prize laureate Dwijen Sharma, Bangladeshi naturalist (d. 2017) May 30 – Doina Cornea, Romanian human rights activist, professor (d. 2018) May 31 Joseph Bernardo, French Olympic swimmer Menahem Golan, Israeli director and producer (d. 2014) June June 3 – Werner Arber, Swiss microbiologist and Nobel laureate June 4 Rolf Leeser, Dutch footballer and fashion designer (d. 2018) Karolos Papoulias, President of Greece (d. 2021) June 6 Sunil Dutt, Hindi film actor (d. 2005) Albert Kalonji, Congolese politician (d. 2015) June 7 – John Turner, 17th Prime Minister of Canada (d. 2020) June 8 – Gastone Moschin, Italian actor (d. 2017) June 10 Ian Sinclair, Australian politician E. O. Wilson, American biologist (d. 2021) James McDivitt, American astronaut June 12 – Anne Frank, German-born diarist, Holocaust victim (d. 1945) June 16 Edith Thallaug, Norwegian actress and opera singer (d. 2020) Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, Emir of Kuwait (d. 2020) June 18 – Jürgen Habermas, German sociologist and philosopher June 21 – Ramón Luis Rivera, Puerto Rican politician June 23 June Carter Cash, American singer (d. 2003) Mario Ghella, Italian racing cyclist Claude Goretta, Swiss television producer, film director (d. 2019) June 24 Carolyn S. Shoemaker, American astronomer (d. 2021) Yaakov Agmon, Israeli theatre producer, manager, and director (d. 2020) June 25 Eric Carle, American designer, illustrator, and writer (d. 2021) Benny Schmidt, Danish modern pentathlete June 26 – Milton Glaser, American graphic designer, illustrator and teacher (d. 2020) June 27 H. Ian Macdonald, Canadian economist and civil servant Gennady Osipov, Russian scientist, sociologist and philosopher June 28 – Alfred Miodowicz, Polish politician June 29 Pete George, American weightlifter Lalla Fatima Zohra, Moroccan aristocrat (d. 2014) June 30 Othmar Mága, German conductor (d. 2020) Ron Phoenix, English footballer (d. 2021) Yang Ti-liang, Hong Kong judge July July 1 Gerald Edelman, American biologist and Nobel laureate (d. 2014) Jack Storey, Australian rules footballer July 2 Daphne Hasenjäger, South African athlete Imelda Marcos, former First Lady of the Philippines July 5 Chikao Ōtsuka, Japanese actor, voice actor and father of Akio Ōtsuka (d. 2015) Katherine Helmond, American actress (d. 2019) Thérèse Quentin, French actress (d. 2015) July 6 Hélène Carrère d'Encausse, secretary of the Académie française, historian specializing in Russian history Jean-Pierre Mocky, French film director, actor, screenwriter and producer (d. 2019) July 7 – Sergio Romano, Italian writer, journalist, and historian July 8 Milena Greppi, Italian hurdler (d. 2016) Héctor López, Panamanian baseball player July 9 Elon Lages Lima, Brazilian mathematician (d. 2017) King Hassan II of Morocco (d. 1999) Chi Haotian, Chinese general July 10 Franco Graziosi, Italian actor Winnie Ewing, Scottish nationalist politician José Vicente Rangel, Venezuelan politician (d. 2020) July 13 Svein Ellingsen, Norwegian visual artist, hymnist (d. 2020) Sofia Muratova, Soviet artistic gymnast (d. 2006) July 14 Jean Konan Banny, Ivorian politician (d. 2018) Sonja Kastl, Croatian film and stage actress, teacher, dancer and choreographer Kailash Chandra Joshi, Indian politician of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) (d. 2019) Syed Rahim, Indian cricketer (d. 2014) July 17 Sergei K. Godunov, Russian mathematician, academic Arthur Frommer, American writer, publisher and consumer advocate Vasco Modena, Italian racing cyclist (d. 2016) July 18 Dick Button, American figure skater Roy Killin, Canadian footballer A V Swamy, Indian politician (d. 2019) July 19 Gaston Glock, Austrian businessman and inventor Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, French historian Ronald Melzack, Canadian physiologist and professor (d. 2019) Orville Turnquest, Bahamian politician July 20 – Irving Wardle, English writer and theatre critic July 21 Birger Asplund, Swedish hammer thrower Idrissa Dione, French boxer Albert Kwesi Ocran, Ghanaian soldier, politician (d. 2019) July 22 – Midhat J. Gazalé, French international telecommunications, space consultant (d. 2009) July 24 Peter Yates, English film director and producer (d. 2011) Paolo Paoloni, Italian actor (d. 2019) July 25 Vasily Shukshin, Russian actor, writer, screenwriter and film director (d. 1974) Manuel Olivencia, Spanish economist, diplomat (d. 2018) Somnath Chatterjee, Indian politician (d. 2018) July 27 Jean Baudrillard, French sociologist, philosopher, cultural theorist and political commentator (d. 2007) Jack Higgins, British novelist July 28 – Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, First Lady of the United States (d. 1994) July 31 – Don Murray, American actor August August 1 Flerida Ruth Pineda-Romero, Filipino judge (d. 2017) Hafizullah Amin, Afghan politician and statesman (d. 1979) August 2 Irwin Fridovich, American biochemist (d. 2019) José Afonso, Portuguese singer-songwriter, teacher and activist (d. 1987) August 4 – Vellore G. Ramabhadran, Mridangam artiste from Tamil Nadu, India (d. 2012) August 5 Ottó Boros, Hungarian water polo player (d. 1988) Nathalia Timberg, Brazilian actress August 8 Ronnie Biggs, British criminal (d. 2013) Luis García Meza , 57th President of Bolivia (d. 2018) August 15 – Carlo Ripa di Meana, Italian politician (d. 2018) August 16 – Fritz Von Erich, American professional wrestler (d. 1997) August 17 – Francis Gary Powers, American U-2 spy plane pilot (d. 1977) August 21 – Ahmed Kathrada, South African politician, political prisoner and anti-apartheid activist (d. 2017) August 23 Zoltán Czibor, Hungarian footballer (d. 1997) Vera Miles, American actress Peter Thomson, Australian golfer (d. 2018) August 24 Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader, Nobel laureate (d. 2004) Alix, Princess of Ligne, Princess of Luxembourg (d. 2019) Alberto Zalamea Costa, Colombian journalist, politician and diplomat (d. 2011) August 25 Salleh Abas, Malaysian judge and politician (d. 2021) Dominique Fernandez, French writer September September 1 "Mad Dog" Vachon, Canadian professional wrestler (d. 2013) Květa Fialová, Czech actress (d. 2017) September 3 Irene Papas, Greek actress Armand Vaillancourt, Québécois Canadian sculptor, painter and performance artist September 5 – Bob Newhart, American comedian and actor September 10 – Arnold Palmer, American golfer (d. 2016) September 11 – Eve Brent, American actress (d. 2011) September 14 – Hans Clarin, German actor (d. 2005) September 15 John Julius Norwich, British historian, travel writer and television personality (d. 2018) Murray Gell-Mann, American physicist and Nobel laureate (d. 2019) September 16 Margarita Carrera, Guatemalan philosopher, professor and writer (d. 2018) Jamshid bin Abdullah, last Sultan of Zanzibar September 17 – Stirling Moss, British Formula One racing driver (d. 2020) September 18 – Armando, Dutch artist (d. 2018) September 19 – Luigi Taveri, Swiss motorcycle road racer (d. 2018) September 20 – Anne Meara, American actress and comedian (d. 2015) September 21 Sándor Kocsis, Hungarian football player (d. 1979) Bernard Williams, English philosopher (d. 2003) September 22 Hédi Váradi, Hungarian actress (d. 1987) Carlo Ubbiali, Italian motorcycle road racer (d. 2020) September 23 – Johan Claassen, South African rugby player (d. 2019) September 24 – Tunku Abdul Malik, Raja Muda of Kedah (d. 2015) September 25 Barbara Walters, American journalist Ronnie Barker, English actor, comedian and writer (d. 2005) September 28 Lata Mangeshkar, Indian singer (d. 2022) Nikolai Ryzhkov, Soviet and Russian politician September 29 – Giorgio Bàrberi Squarotti, Italian academic, poet (d. 2017) September 30 – Mir Hazar Khan Khoso, Prime Minister of Pakistan (d. 2021) October October 1 – Maitama Sule, Nigerian politician (d. 2017) October 2 – Hong Song-nam, 8th Premier of North Korea (d. 2009) October 5 Yuri Artsutanov, Russian engineer (d. 2019) Richard F. Gordon Jr., American astronaut (d. 2017) October 8 – Arthur Bisguier, American chess Grandmaster, chess promoter, and writer (d. 2017) October 9 – Ana Luisa Peluffo, Mexican actress October 15 Hubert Dreyfus, American philosopher (d. 2017) Antonino Zichichi, Italian physicist October 16 – Fernanda Montenegro, Brazilian actress October 18 – Violeta Chamorro, President of Nicaragua October 21 – Ursula K. Le Guin, American science-fiction, fantasy author (d. 2018) October 22 Patsy Elsener, American diver (d. 2019) Lev Yashin, Russian footballer (d. 1990) October 24 George Crumb, American composer (d. 2022) Ronald E. Rosser, American Medal of Honour recipient (d. 2020) October 25 David McReynolds, American political activist (d. 2018) Claude Rouer, French Olympic road cyclist (d. 2021) LaDell Andersen, American college and basketball coach (d. 2019) October 28 – Joan Plowright, English actress October 29 – Yevgeny Primakov, Russian politician, diplomat (d. 2015) October 30 – Jean Chapman, English author October 31 Bud Spencer, Italian actor (d. 2016) Muktha Srinivasan, Indian film director, producer (d. 2018) November November 2 Rachel Ames, American actress Muhammad Rafiq Tarar, 9th President of Pakistan Richard E. Taylor, Canadian-born physicist and Nobel laureate (d. 2018) November 5 – Lennart Johansson, Swedish sports official and 5th president of UEFA (d. 2019) November 6 – June Squibb, American actress November 7 Benny Andersen, Danish author, poet and pianist (d. 2018) Eric R. Kandel, Austrian-born neuroscientist, Nobel laureate November 8 – Jona Senilagakali, Prime Minister of Fiji (d. 2011) November 9 – Imre Kertész, Hungarian writer, Nobel laureate (d. 2016) November 10 – Ninón Sevilla, Cuban-born Mexican film actress, dancer (d. 2015) November 11 – LaVern Baker, American singer (d. 1997) November 12 Grace Kelly, American actress, later Princess of Monaco (d. 1982) Michael Ende, German fantasy writer (d. 1995) Hind Rostom, Egyptian actress (d. 2011) November 13 – Fred Phelps, American pastor, activist (Westboro Baptist Church) (d. 2014) November 15 Ed Asner, American actor and voice actor (d. 2021) Gombojavyn Ochirbat, Mongolian politician November 17 – Gorō Naya, Japanese actor, voice actor, narrator and theatre director, older brother of Rokurō Naya (d. 2013) November 18 – Francisco Savín, Mexican conductor, composer (d. 2018) November 20 Jerry Hardin, American actor Milkha Singh, Indian track and field athlete (d. 2021) Raymond Lefèvre, French conductor, arranger, composer (d. 2008) November 24 Franciszek Kokot, Polish nephrologist (d. 2021) George Moscone, American attorney, politician and 37th Mayor of San Francisco (d. 1978) November 26 – Betta St. John, American actress, singer and dancer November 28 Berry Gordy, African-American record producer, songwriter Thomas Remengesau Sr., 4th President of Palau (d. 2019) November 30 – Dick Clark, American television entertainer (d. 2012) December December 1 David Doyle, American actor (d. 1997) Alfred Moisiu, 7th President of Albania December 6 Philippe Bouvard, French television and radio presenter Nikolaus Harnoncourt, Austrian conductor (d. 2016) Alain Tanner, Swiss film director December 9 Bob Hawke, 23rd Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2019) John Cassavetes, American actor and director (d. 1989) December 12 – Toshiko Akiyoshi, Japanese pianist and composer December 13 – Christopher Plummer, Canadian actor (d. 2021) December 14 – Fernando Sebastián Aguilar, Spanish cardinal (d. 2019) December 15 – Dina bint Abdul-Hamid, former Queen of Jordan (d. 2019) December 16 Nicholas Courtney, British actor (d. 2011) Arthur Fitzsimons, Irish football player, manager (d. 2018) December 17 – William Safire, American author, columnist, journalist, and presidential speechwriter (d. 2009) December 18 – Yeoh Tiong Lay, Malaysian businessman (d. 2017) December 19 – David Douglas, 12th Marquess of Queensberry, Scottish potter and aristocrat December 20 David H. Gambrell, American attorney (d. 2021) Selim Hoss, 3-time Prime Minister of Lebanon Lee Hyun-jae, South Korean politician Milan Panić, Serbian politician December 22 – Wazir Mohammad Indian-Pakistani cricketer December 23 Chet Baker, American jazz musician (d. 1988) Monique Watteau, Belgian writer and artist December 26 Kathleen Crowley, American actress (d. 2017) Régine, Belgian-French singer Taarak Mehta, Indian playwright, humorist (d. 2017) December 27 – Tommy Rall, American actor and dancer (d. 2020) December 28 – Efraín Goldenberg, Peruvian politician, finance minister and foreign relations minister December 29 Matt "Guitar" Murphy, American blues musician (d. 2018) Susie Garrett, American actress (d. 2002) December 31 – Doug Anthony, 2nd Deputy Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2020) Deaths January January 5 Marc McDermott, Australian-born American actor (b. 1881) Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia (b. 1856) January 13 – Wyatt Earp, American gunfighter (b. 1848) January 15 – Sir William Dawkins, British geologist and archaeologist (b. 1837) January 24 – Wilfred Baddeley, English tennis player (b. 1872) January 30 Franklin J. Drake, American admiral (b. 1846) La Goulue, French dancer (b. 1866) February February 3 – José Gutiérrez Guerra , Bolivian economist and statesman, 28th President of Bolivia (b. 1869) February 6 – Maria Christina of Austria, Queen Regent of Spain (b. 1858) February 7 – Édouard Hugon, French philosopher, theologian (b. 1867) February 11 – Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein (b. 1840) February 12 – Lillie Langtry, British singer, actress (b. 1853) February 14 – Thomas Burke, American Olympic athlete (b. 1875) February 18 – William Russell, American actor (b. 1884) February 24 – Frank Keenan, American actor (b. 1858) February 27 – Briton Hadden, co-founder of Time Magazine (b. 1898) March March 1 – Royal Hurlburt Weller, American politician (b. 1881) March 2 – Sir Edward Seymour, British admiral (b. 1840) March 5 – David Dunbar Buick, Scottish-American inventor (b. 1854) March 12 – Asa Griggs Candler, American businessman, politician (b. 1851) March 15 – Pinetop Smith, African-American blues pianist (b. 1904) March 18 – William P. Cronan, American Naval Governor of Guam (b. 1879) March 20 – Ferdinand Foch, French commander of Allied forces in World War I (b. 1851) March 23 – Maurice Sarrail, French general (b. 1856) March 25 – Robert Ridgway, American ornithologist (b. 1850) March 29 – Sir Hugh John Macdonald, 8th premier of Manitoba (b. 1850) April April 4 Karl Benz, German automotive pioneer (b. 1844) William Michael Crose, United States Navy Commander, 7th Naval Governor of American Samoa (b. 1867) April 12 – Enrico Ferri, Italian criminologist (b. 1856) April 22 – Henry Lerolle, French painter (b. 1848) April 24 – Caroline Rémy de Guebhard, French feminist (b. 1855) May May 2 Segundo de Chomón, Spanish film director (b. 1871) Charalambos Tseroulis, Greek general (b. 1879) May 12 – Charles Swickard, German-American film director (b. 1861) May 13 – Arthur Scherbius, German electrical engineer, mathematician, cryptanalyst and inventor (b. 1878) May 21 – Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1847) May 23 – John G. Jacobson, American businessman and politician (b. 1869) May 25 – Ernest Monis, 56th Prime Minister of France (b. 1846) June June 5 – Sir Cecil Burney, British admiral of the fleet (b. 1858) June 8 – Bliss Carman, Canadian poet (b. 1861) June 11 – William D. Boyce, American entrepreneur, founder of the Boy Scouts of America (b. 1858) June 16 – Bramwell Booth, General of The Salvation Army (b. 1856) June 21 – Leonard Hobhouse, British political theorist, sociologist (b. 1864) June 24 – Queenie Newall, British Olympic archer (b. 1854) June 26 – Amandus Adamson, Estonian sculptor (b. 1855) June 28 – Edward Carpenter, English poet (b. 1844) July July 2 – Gladys Brockwell, American actress (b. 1893) July 3 – Dustin Farnum, American actor (b. 1874) July 9 – Cack Henley, American baseball player (b. 1884) July 11 – Ali Ahmad Khan, Afghan politician, emir (b. 1883) July 12 – Robert Henri, American painter (b. 1865) July 15 – Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Austrian writer (b. 1874) August August – Mary MacLane, Canadian feminist writer (b. 1881) August 3 Emile Berliner, German-born inventor (b. 1851) Thorstein Veblen, Norwegian-American economist (b. 1857) August 4 – Carl Auer von Welsbach, Austrian chemist and inventor (b. 1858) August 5 – Dame Millicent Fawcett, British suffragist, feminist (b. 1847) August 10 – Aletta Jacobs, Dutch physician and women's suffrage activist (b. 1854) August 13 – Sir Ray Lankester, British zoologist (b. 1847) August 14 – Henry Horne, 1st Baron Horne, British general (b. 1861) August 19 – Sergei Diaghilev, Russian ballet impresario (b. 1872) August 22 – Otto Liman von Sanders, German general (b. 1855) August 26 – Sir Ernest Satow, British diplomat, scholar (b. 1843) August 27 – Herman Potočnik, Slovenian rocket engineer (b. 1892) September September 2 – Paul Leni, German filmmaker (b. 1885) September 12 – Rainis, Latvian poet, playwright (b. 1865) September 23 – Richard Adolf Zsigmondy, Austrian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1865) September 24 – Mahidol Adulyadej, Thai doctor, father of King Rama IX (b. 1892) September 25 – Miller Huggins, American baseball manager, MLB Hall of Famer (b. 1879) September 27 – Johnny Hill, British, European, and World flyweight boxing champion (b. 1905) September 29 – Tanaka Giichi, 26th Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1864) October October 1 – Antoine Bourdelle, French sculptor (b. 1861) October 3 Jeanne Eagels, American actress (b. 1890) Gustav Stresemann, German statesman, 16th Chancellor of Germany, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1878) October 5 – Varghese Payyappilly Palakkappilly, Indian Syro-Malabar Catholic priest and venerable (b. 1876) October 20 – José Batlle y Ordóñez, 3-time President of Uruguay (b. 1856) October 21 – Vasil Radoslavov, 7th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (b. 1854) October 26 – Aby Warburg, German historian, cultural theorist (b. 1866) October 27 Georg von der Marwitz, German general (b. 1856) Théodore Tuffier, French surgeon (b. 1857) October 28 – Bernhard von Bülow, German count and statesman, 8th Chancellor of Germany (b. 1849) October 29 – Emily Robin, English Madame (b. 1874) October 31 – António José de Almeida, Portuguese political figure, 64th Prime Minister of Portugal and 6th President of Portugal (b. 1866) November November 1 – Habibullāh Kalakāni, deposed Emir of Afghanistan (b. 1891) November 6 – Prince Maximilian of Baden, Chancellor of Germany (b. 1867) November 14 – Joe McGinnity, American baseball player, MLB Hall of Famer (b. 1871) November 15 – Léon Delacroix, former Prime Minister of Belgium (b. 1867) November 17 – Herman Hollerith, American businessman, inventor (b. 1860) November 24 Georges Clemenceau, Prime Minister of France, leader of the World War I (b. 1841) Raymond Hitchcock, American actor (b. 1865) November 26 – Chandra Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana, 13th Prime Minister of Nepal (b. 1863) December December 10 Frederick Abberline, Chief Inspector of the London Metropolitan Police, investigator in the Jack the Ripper murders (b. 1843) Harry Crosby, American publisher, poet (b. 1898) December 14 – Henry B. Jackson, British admiral (b. 1855) December 17 Manuel Gomes da Costa, Portuguese general, politician and 10th President of Portugal (b. 1863) Arthur G. Jones-Williams, British aviator (b. 1898) December 20 – Émile Loubet, French politician, 8th President of France (b. 1838) December 21 – I. L. Patterson, American politician, 18th Governor of Oregon (b. 1859) December 29 – Wilhelm Maybach, German automobile designer (b. 1846) Nobel Prizes Physics – Louis de Broglie Chemistry – Arthur Harden, Hans Karl August Simon von Euler-Chelpin Physiology or Medicine – Christiaan Eijkman, Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins Literature – Thomas Mann Peace – Frank Billings Kellogg References Sources The 1930s Timeline: 1929 – from American Studies Programs at The University of Virginia

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961

1961

As MAD Magazine pointed out on its cover for the March 1961 issue, this was the first "upside-up" year — i.e., one in which the numerals that form the year look the same as when the numerals are rotated upside down, a strobogrammatic number — since 1881. The next such year will be 6009. Events January January 3 United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower announces that the United States has severed diplomatic and consular relations with Cuba (Cuba–United States relations are restored in 2015). Aero Flight 311 (Koivulahti air disaster): Douglas DC-3C OH-LCC of Finnish airline Aero crashes near Kvevlax (Koivulahti), on approach to Vaasa Airport in Finland, killing all 25 on board, due to pilot error: an investigation finds that the captain and first officer were both exhausted for lack of sleep, and had taken excessive alcohol at the time of the crash. It remains the deadliest air disaster to occur in the country. January 5 Italian sculptor Alfredo Fioravanti marches into the U.S. Consulate in Rome, and confesses that he was part of the team that forged the Etruscan terracotta warriors in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. After the 1960 military coup, General Cemal Gürsel forms the new government of Turkey (25th government). January 7 – Following a four-day conference in Casablanca, five African chiefs of state announce plans for a NATO-type African organization to ensure common defense. The Charter of Casablanca involves the Casablanca Group: Morocco, the United Arab Republic, Ghana, Guinea, and Mali. January 8 – In France, a referendum supports Charles de Gaulle's policies on independence for Algeria. January 9 – British authorities announce they have uncovered a large Soviet spy ring, the Portland Spy Ring, in London. January 17 President Dwight Eisenhower gives his final State of the Union Address to Congress. In a Farewell Address the same day, he warns of the increasing power of a "military–industrial complex." Patrice Lumumba of the Republic of Congo is assassinated. January 20 – John F. Kennedy is sworn in as the 35th President of the United States. January 24 – A B-52 Stratofortress, with two nuclear bombs, crashes near Goldsboro, North Carolina. January 25 In Washington, D.C., President John F. Kennedy delivers the first live presidential news conference. In it, he announces that the Soviet Union has freed the two surviving crewmen of a USAF RB-47 reconnaissance plane, shot down by Soviet flyers over the Barents Sea on July 1, 1960 (see RB-47H shot down). Disney's One Hundred and One Dalmatians is released in cinemas. Acting to halt 'leftist excesses', a junta composed of two army officers and four civilians takes over El Salvador, ousting another junta that had ruled for three months. January 28 – Supercar, the first family sci-fi TV series filmed in Supermarionation, debuts on ATV in the UK. January 30 – President John F. Kennedy delivers his first State of the Union Address. January 31 – Ham, a 37-pound (17-kg) male chimpanzee, is rocketed into space aboard Mercury-Redstone 2, in a test of the Project Mercury spacecraft, designed to carry United States astronauts into space. February February 1 – The United States tests its first Minuteman I intercontinental ballistic missile. February 3 – China buys grain from Canada for $60 million. February 4 – The Portuguese Colonial War begins in Angola. February 5–9 – In Congo, President Joseph Kasa-Vubu names Joseph Iléo as the new Prime Minister. February 9 – The Beatles at The Cavern Club: Lunchtime – The Beatles perform under this name at The Cavern Club for the first time following their return to Liverpool from Hamburg, George Harrison's first appearance at the venue. On March 21 they begin regular performances here. February 12 – The USSR launches Venera 1 towards Venus. February 13 – The Congo government announces that villagers have killed Patrice Lumumba. February 14 – Discovery of the chemical elements: Element 103, Lawrencium, is first synthesized in Berkeley, California. February 15 United States President John F. Kennedy warns the Soviet Union to avoid interfering with the United Nations' pacification of the Congo. Sabena Flight 548 crashes near Brussels, Belgium, killing 73, including the entire United States figure skating team and several coaches. The total solar eclipse of February 15, 1961, visible in the southern part of Europe, occurs. February 26 – Hassan II is pronounced King of Morocco. March March–April – Drilling for Project Mohole is undertaken off the coast of Guadalupe Island, Mexico. March 1 – United States President John F. Kennedy establishes the Peace Corps. March 3 – Hassan II is crowned King of Morocco. March 8 Max Conrad circumnavigates the earth in 8 days, 18 hours and 49 minutes, setting a new world record. The first U.S. Polaris submarines arrive at Holy Loch in Scotland. March 11 – "Barbie" gets a boyfriend, when the "Ken" doll is introduced in the United States. March 13 Black and white £5 notes cease to be legal tender in the UK. 1961 Kurenivka mudslide: A dam bursts in Kiev, USSR, killing 145. United States delegate to the United Nations Security Council Adlai Stevenson votes against Portuguese policies in Africa. United States President John F. Kennedy proposes a long-term "Alliance for Progress", between the United States and Latin America. Cyprus joins the Commonwealth of Nations, becoming the first small country in the Commonwealth. Monash University in Melbourne, Australia takes in its first students. A second B-52 crashes near Yuba City, California, after cabin pressure is lost and the fuel runs out. Two nuclear weapons are found unexploded. March 15 South Africa announces it will withdraw from the Commonwealth of Nations, upon becoming a republic (31 May). The nation rejoins the organization in 1994. The Union of Peoples of Angola, led by Holden Roberto, attacks strategic locations in the north of Angola. These events result in the beginning of the colonial war with Portugal. March 18 A ceasefire takes effect in the Algerian War of Independence. Nous les amoureux by Jean-Claude Pascal (music by Jacques Datin, text by Maurice Vidalin) wins the Eurovision Song Contest 1961 for Luxembourg. March 29 – The Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, allowing residents of Washington, D.C. to vote in presidential elections. March 30 – The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs is signed at New York. April April 5 – The New Guinea Council of Western Papua is installed. April 8 – British India Steam Navigation Company passenger ship blows up and sinks off Dubai; 238 passengers and crew are killed. April 11 – The trial of Nazi Adolf Eichmann begins in Jerusalem. April 12 Vostok 1: Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human in space, orbiting the Earth once before parachuting to the ground. Albert Kalonji takes the title Emperor Albert I Kalonji of South Kasai. Bernard Schwarz gets the patent for the body electrode. April 13 – In Portugal, a coup attempt against António de Oliveira Salazar fails. April 17 The Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba begins; it fails by April 19. The 33rd Academy Awards ceremony is held in Santa Monica, California: The Apartment (1960) wins most awards, including Best Picture. April 18 – Portugal sends its first military reinforcement to Angola. April 20 – Fidel Castro announces that the Bay of Pigs Invasion has been defeated. April 22 – Algiers putsch: Four French generals who oppose de Gaulle's policies in Algeria fail in a coup attempt. April 23 – Judy Garland performs in a legendary comeback concert at Carnegie Hall in New York City. April 24 – Swedish warship Vasa, sunk on her maiden voyage in 1628, is recovered from Stockholm Harbor. April 27 President Kennedy urges newspapers to consider national interest in times of struggle against "a monolithic and ruthless conspiracy", in an address before the American Newspaper Publishers Association. Sierra Leone becomes independent from the United Kingdom. May May 4 – U.S. Freedom Riders begin interstate bus rides, to test the new U.S. Supreme Court integration decision. May 5 – Mercury program: Alan Shepard becomes the first American in space, aboard Mercury-Redstone 3. May 6 – Tottenham Hotspur F.C. becomes the first team in the 20th century to win the English league and cup double. , this is the last time Tottenham have won the English League. May 8 – Briton George Blake is sentenced to 42 years imprisonment for spying. May 9 – In a speech on "Television and the Public Interest" to the National Association of Broadcasters, FCC chairman Newton N. Minow describes commercial television programming as a "vast wasteland". May 14 – Civil rights movement: A Freedom Riders bus is fire-bombed near Anniston, Alabama, and the civil rights protestors are beaten by an angry mob of Ku Klux Klan members. May 15 – J. Heinrich Matthaei alone performs the Poly-U-Experiment, and is the first person to recognize and understand the genetic code. This is the birthdate of modern genetics. May 16 – Park Chung-hee takes over in a military coup, in South Korea. May 19 – Venera 1 becomes the first man-made object to fly-by another planet by passing Venus (however, the probe has lost contact with Earth a month earlier, and does not send back any data). May 21 – Civil rights movement: Alabama Governor John Patterson declares martial law in an attempt to restore order, after race riots break out. May 22 – An earthquake rocks New South Wales. May 24 – Civil rights movement: Freedom Riders are arrested in Jackson, Mississippi for "disturbing the peace", after disembarking from their bus. May 25 – Apollo program: President Kennedy announces, before a special joint session of Congress, his goal to put a man on the Moon before the end of the decade. May 27 – Tunku Abdul Rahman, Prime Minister of Malaya, holds a press conference in Singapore, announcing his idea to form the Federation of Malaysia, comprising Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak, Brunei and North Borneo (Sabah). May 28 – Peter Benenson's article "The Forgotten Prisoners" is published in several internationally read newspapers. This is later considered the founding of the human rights organization Amnesty International. May 30 – Rafael Leónidas Trujillo, totalitarian despot of the Dominican Republic since 1930, is killed in an ambush, putting an end to the second longest-running dictatorship in Latin American history. May 31 In France, rebel generals Maurice Challe and Andre Zelelr are sentenced to 15 years in prison. South Africa becomes a republic, and officially leaves the Commonwealth of Nations. President John F. Kennedy and Charles de Gaulle meet in Paris. Benfica beats Barcelona 3–2 at Wankdorf Stadium, Bern and wins the 1960–61 European Cup (football). June June 1 – Ethiopia experiences its most devastating earthquake of the 20th century, with a magnitude of 6.7. The town of Majete is destroyed, 45% of the houses in Karakore collapse, of the main road north of Karakore are damaged by landslides and fissures, and 5,000 inhabitants in the area are left homeless. June 4 – Vienna summit: John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev meet during two days in Vienna. They discuss nuclear tests, disarmament and Germany. June 16 – Russian ballet dancer Rudolf Nureyev requests asylum in France, while in Paris with the Kirov Ballet. June 17 A Paris-to-Strasbourg train derails near Vitry-le-François; 24 are killed, 109 injured. The New Democratic Party of Canada is founded, with the merger of the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) and the Canadian Labour Congress. June 19 – The British protectorate ends in Kuwait and it becomes an emirate. June 22 – Moise Tshombe is released for lack of evidence of his connection to the murder of Patrice Lumumba. June 23 – The Antarctic Treaty comes into effect. June 25 – Iraqi president Abd al-Karim Qasim announces his intention to annex newly independent Kuwait (such an annexation will occur in 1990). June 27 – Kuwait requests British help against the Iraqi threat; the United Kingdom sends in troops. July July 4 – Soviet submarine K-19 suffers a reactor leak in the North Atlantic. July 5 – The first Israeli rocket, Shavit 2, is launched. July 8 – A mine explosion in Czechoslovakia leaves 108 dead. July 12 A Czechoslovakian Ilyushin Il-18 crashes while attempting to land at Casablanca, Morocco, killing all 72 persons on board. Two dams that supplied water to the City of Pune, India burst, causing death of more than 1000 residents. July 17 – Baseball legend Ty Cobb dies at the age of 74, at Emory University Hospital. July 21 – Mercury program: Virgil I. Grissom, piloting the Mercury-Redstone 4 spacecraft Liberty Bell 7, becomes the second American to go into space (sub-orbital). After splashdown, the hatch prematurely opens, and the spacecraft sinks (it is recovered in 1999). July 25 – U.S. President John F. Kennedy gives a widely watched TV speech on the Berlin crisis, warning "we will not be driven out of Berlin." Kennedy urges Americans to build fallout shelters, setting off a four-month debate on civil defense. July 31 At Fenway Park in Boston, the first Major League Baseball All-Star Game tie occurs, when the game is stopped in the 9th inning due to rain (the only tie until 2002). Ireland submits the first application from a non-founding country to join the European Economic Community. August August – The United States founds the Alliance for Progress. August 1 – The Six Flags Over Texas theme park officially opens to the public. August 4 – Barack Obama, who in 2009 became the first African-American president of the United States, was born in Honolulu, Hawaii. August 6 – Vostok 2: Soviet cosmonaut Gherman Titov becomes the second human to orbit the Earth, and the first to be in outer space for more than one day. August 7 – Vostok 2 lands in the Soviet Union. August 10 – The United Kingdom applies for membership in the European Economic Community. August 11 – An annular solar eclipse is visible from the Southern Ocean. August 13 – Construction of the Berlin Wall begins, restricting movement between East Berlin and West Berlin, and forming a clear boundary between West Germany and East Germany, Western Europe and Eastern Europe. On August 22 Ida Siekmann jumps from a window in her tenement building trying to flee to the West, becoming the first of at least 138 people to die at the Wall. August 21 – Jomo Kenyatta is released from prison in Kenya. August 25 – João Goulart replaces Jânio Quadros as President of Brazil (he is ousted in 1964). August 30 – The Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness is signed at the United Nations in New York, coming into effect December 13, 1975. September September 1 The Eritrean War of Independence officially begins, with the shooting of the Ethiopian police by Hamid Idris Awate. The first meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement is held. The Soviet Union resumes nuclear testing, escalating fears over the ongoing Berlin crisis. September 7 – Tom and Jerry make a return with their first cartoon short since 1958, Switchin' Kitten. The new creator, Gene Deitch, makes 12 more Tom and Jerry shorts through 1962. September 10 – During the F1 Italian Grand Prix on the circuit of Monza, German Wolfgang von Trips, driving a Ferrari, crashes into a stand, killing 14 spectators and himself. September 12 – The African and Malagasy Union is founded. September 14 The new military government of Turkey sentences 15 members of the previous government to death. The Focolare Movement opens its first North American center in New York. September 17 Military rulers in Turkey hang former prime minister Adnan Menderes, together with the former Minister of Foreign Affairs Fatin Rüştü Zorlu and former Minister of Finance Hasan Polatkan. The world's first retractable roof stadium, the Civic Arena, opens in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. September 18 – United Nations Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld dies in an air crash, en route to Katanga, Congo. September 21 – In France, the OAS slips an anti-de Gaulle message into TV programming. September 24 The old Deutsche Opernhaus in the Berlin neighborhood of Charlottenburg is returned to its newly rebuilt house, as the Deutsche Oper Berlin. In the U.S., the Walt Disney anthology television series, renamed Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color, moves from ABC to NBC after seven years on the air, and begins telecasting its programs in color for the first time. Years later, after Disney's death, the still-on-the-air program will be renamed The Wonderful World of Disney. September 28 – A military coup in Damascus, Syria effectively ends the United Arab Republic, the union between Egypt and Syria. September 30 – The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is formed to replace the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC). October October 1 – Baseball player Roger Maris of the New York Yankees hits his 61st home run in the last game of the season, against the Boston Red Sox, setting a new record for the longer baseball season. The record for the shorter season is still held by Babe Ruth. October 5 – Breakfast at Tiffany's (film) was theatrically released by Paramount Pictures, to critical and commercial success. October 10 – A volcanic eruption on Tristan da Cunha causes the whole population to be evacuated to Britain, where they will remain until 1963. October 12 – The death penalty is abolished in New Zealand. October 17 – Paris massacre of 1961: French police in Paris attack about 30,000 protesting a curfew applied solely to Algerians. The official death toll is 3, but human rights groups claim 240 dead. October 18 – West Side Story is released as a film in the United States. October 19 – The Arab League takes over protecting Kuwait; the last British troops leave. October 25 – The first edition of Private Eye, the British satirical magazine, is published. October 26 – Cemal Gürsel becomes the fourth president of Turkey (his former title is head of state and government; he is elected as president by constitutional referendum). October 27 An armistice begins in Katanga, Congo. Mongolia and Mauritania join the United Nations. Confrontation at Checkpoint Charlie: A standoff between Soviet and American tanks in Berlin, Germany heightens Cold War tensions. Fahrettin Özdilek becomes the acting prime minister of Turkey. October 29 DZBB-TV Channel 7, the Philippines' third TV station, is launched. Devrim, the first ever car designed and produced in Turkey, is released. The project has been completed in only 130 days almost from scratch, a period including decision on the project, research, design, development and production of four vehicles. October 30 Nuclear weapons testing: The Soviet Union detonates a 58-megaton yield hydrogen bomb known as Tsar Bomba, over Novaya Zemlya (it remains the largest ever man-made explosion). The Note Crisis: The Soviet Union issues a diplomatic note to Finland, proposing military co-operation. October 31 Hurricane Hattie devastates Belize City, Belize killing over 270. After the hurricane, the capital moves to the inland city of Belmopan. Joseph Stalin's body is removed from the Lenin Mausoleum. November November 1 The Hungry generation Movement is launched in Calcutta, India. The Interstate Commerce Commission's federal order banning segregation at all interstate public facilities officially comes into effect. November 2 – Kean opens at Broadway Theater in New York City for 92 performances. November 3 – The United Nations General Assembly unanimously elects Burmese diplomat U Thant to the position of acting Secretary-General. November 6 – The US government issues a stamp honoring the 100th birthday of James Naismith. November 8 Imperial Airlines Flight 201/8 crashes while attempting to land at Richmond, Virginia, killing 77 persons on board. KVN, Russia's longest running TV show, airs for the first time on Soviet television. November 9 – Robert White records a world air speed record of , in an X-15. November 10 – Catch-22 by Joseph Heller is first published, in the US. November 11 Congolese soldiers murder 13 Italian United Nations pilots. Stalingrad is renamed Volgograd. November 14 – Yves Saint Laurent, a luxury fashion brand of France, founded in Rue La Boetie, Paris. November 17 – Michael Rockefeller, son of New York Governor and later Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, disappears in the jungles of New Guinea. November 18 – U.S. President John F. Kennedy sends 18,000 military advisors to South Vietnam. November 19 – Rebellion of the Pilots: A military uprising overthrows the Trujillo regime in the Dominican Republic. November 20 – İsmet İnönü of the CHP forms the new government of Turkey (26th government, first coalition in Turkey, partner AP). November 21 – The "La Ronde" opens in Honolulu, the first revolving restaurant in the United States. November 24 – The World Food Programme (WFP) is formed as a temporary United Nations program. November 30 – The Soviet Union vetoes Kuwait's application for United Nations membership. December December 1 – Netherlands New Guinea raises the new Morning Star flag, and changes its name to West Papua. December 2 – Cold War: In a nationally broadcast speech, Cuban leader Fidel Castro announces he is a Marxist–Leninist, and that Cuba will adopt socialism. December 5 – U.S. President John F. Kennedy gives support to the Volta Dam project in Ghana. December 9 Tanganyika gains independence as a Commonwealth realm, with Julius Nyerere as its first Prime Minister, with Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of Tanganyika, and represented locally by the Governor-General of Tanganyika. 1961 Australian federal election: Robert Menzies' Liberal/Country Coalition Government is re-elected with a one-seat majority, narrowly defeating the Labor Party led by Arthur Calwell. One of the closest election results in Australian history, such a result will not be replicated again until 2016. Notably, former Prime Minister Earle Page loses his seat, although he dies a few days later, never knowing the result. December 10 – The Soviet Union severs diplomatic relations with Albania. December 11 American involvement in the Vietnam War officially begins, as the first American helicopters arrive in Saigon, along with 400 U.S. personnel. Adolf Eichmann is pronounced guilty of crimes against humanity by a panel of three Israeli judges, and sentenced to death. December 14 – Walt Disney's first live-action Technicolor musical, Babes in Toyland, a remake of the famous Victor Herbert operetta, is released, but flops at the box office. December 15 – An Israeli war crimes tribunal sentences Adolf Eichmann to death, for his part in The Holocaust. December 17 – A circus tent fire in Niterói, Brazil kills 323. December 18 – India opens hostilities in its annexation of Portuguese India, the colonies of Goa, Damao and Diu. December 19 The Portuguese surrender Goa to India, after 400 years of Portuguese rule. Indonesian president Sukarno announces that he will take West Irian by force, if necessary. December 21 – In Congo, Katangan prime minister Moise Tshombe recognizes the Congolese constitution. December 23 – Luxembourg's national holiday, the Grand Duke's Official Birthday, is set on June 23 by Grand Ducal decree. December 30 – Congolese troops capture Albert Kalonji of South Kasai (who soon escapes). December 31 – Ireland's first national television station, Telefís Éireann (later RTÉ), begins broadcasting. Date unknown Sheila Burnford's The Incredible Journey, a story of three pets travelling through the Canadian wilderness, is published in the United Kingdom. Births January January 2 Gabrielle Carteris, American actress, and trade union leader Neil Dudgeon, English actor Todd Haynes, American film director January 5 – Iris DeMent, American singer, songwriter January 7 – Supriya Pathak, Indian actress January 8 – Calvin Smith, American athlete January 9 Al Jean, American television writer Candi Milo, American voice, film, and television actress January 10 Evan Handler, American actor January 11 Lars-Erik Torph, Swedish rally driver (d. 1989) Jasper Fforde, British fantasy novelist Karl Habsburg-Lothringen, Austrian politician, noble January 13 Wayne Coyne, American musician, frontman of the band The Flaming Lips Julia Louis-Dreyfus, American actress, producer and comedian January 14 Rob Hall, New Zealand mountaineer (d. 1996) Mike Tramp, Danish rock singer (White Lion) January 17 – Maia Chiburdanidze, Georgian chess player January 18 Peter Beardsley, English footballer Mark Messier, Canadian hockey player Bob Peterson, American animator and voice actor January 19 – William Ragsdale, American actor January 22 Daniel Johnston, American singer-songwriter, musician and artist (d. 2019) Shigeru Nakahara, Japanese voice actor January 24 – Guido Buchwald, German footballer January 25 – Vivian Balakrishnan, Singaporean politician January 26 – Wayne Gretzky, Canadian hockey player January 27 Gillian Gilbert, British keyboard player Saifuddin Abdullah, Malaysian politician January 28 – Arnaldur Indriðason, Icelandic writer January 29 – Petra Thümer, German swimmer January 30 – Dexter King, American social activist, son of Martin Luther King Jr. February February 1 – Volker Fried, German field hockey player February 3 Vyacheslav Shverikas, Russian politician (d. 2021) Jim Balsillie, Canadian CEO and philanthropist February 4 – Aleksandr Nikitin, Russian football coach and player (d. 2021) February 5 – Flordelis, Brazilian pastor, singer and politician February 6 – Yuko Kobayashi, Japanese voice actress February 7 – Allen West, African-American politician February 9 – Jussi Lampi, Finnish musician and actor February 11 – Mary Docter, American speed skater February 12 – David Graeber, American anthropologist, anarchist activist and author (d. 2020) February 13 – Henry Rollins, American musician and activist February 14 – Maria do Carmo Silveira, Prime Minister of São Tomé and Príncipe February 15 Benoît Chamoux, French alpinist (d. 1995) Cheam Channy, Cambodian politician (d. 2018) February 16 – Niko Nirvi, Finnish journalist February 17 Meir Kessler, Israeli rabbi Andrey Korotayev, Russian anthropologist, economic historian and sociologist February 18 – Hironobu Kageyama, Japanese singer February 19 – Justin Fashanu, English footballer (d. 1998) February 20 Dwayne McDuffie, American writer of comics and television (d. 2011) Phil Powers, American alpinist Imogen Stubbs, British actress and playwright February 21 Christopher Atkins, American actor Abhijit Banerjee, Indian-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences Geoff Moore, American Christian musician February 22 – Akira Takasaki, Japanese guitarist February 23 – Tatiana Cordero, Ecuadorian feminist activist (d. 2021) February 25 – Davey Allison, American race car driver (d. 1993) February 27 – James Worthy, American basketball player and analyst February 28 Mark Latham, Australian politician Richard Waugh, Canadian voice actor March March 1 – Michael Sundin, English television presenter (d. 1989) March 3 Milorad Mandić, Serbian actor (d. 2016) Mary Page Keller, American actress John Matteson, Pulitzer Prize-winning American biographer March 4 Ray Mancini, American boxer Steven Weber, American actor Roger Wessels, South African golfer March 5 – Charles Poliquin, Canadian strength coach March 6 – John Blake, American football coach (d. 2020) March 9 Mike Leach, American college football coach Rick Steiner, American professional wrestler March 10 Mike Bullard, American hockey player Laurel Clark, American astronaut (d. 2003) Mitch Gaylord, American gymnast March 11 – Elias Koteas, Canadian film and television actor March 13 - Vasily Ignatenko, Soviet firefighter at the Chernobyl disaster (d. 1986) March 14 Kim Boyce, American Christian musician Gary Dell'Abate, American radio producer Marc Koska, English businessman and inventor Hiro Matsushita, Japanese Businessman and Former Racing driver March 16 Brett Kenny, Australian rugby league player Todd McFarlane, Canadian comic book creator and entrepreneur Michiru Ōshima, Japanese composer March 17 Umayya Abu-Hanna, Palestine-born Finnish writer and politician Alexander Bard, Swedish musician (Army of Lovers) Sam Bowie, American basketball player Dana Reeve, American actress, singer and activist (d. 2006) Casey Siemaszko, American actor March 21 Kassie DePaiva, American actress Lothar Matthäus, German footballer March 22 Simon Furman, British comic book writer March 23 Norrie McCathie, Scottish footballer (d. 1996) Ali Hewson, Irish activist and businesswoman Helmi Johannes, Indonesian television newscaster March 24 Mitsuru Ogata, Japanese voice actor Yanis Varoufakis, Greek economist, Greek Finance Minister March 25 – Reggie Fils-Aimé, American businessman March 26 – William Hague, former UK Foreign Secretary and former Leader of the UK Conservative Party March 27 – Tak Matsumoto, Japanese guitarist (B'z) March 28 – Byron Scott, American basketball player and coach March 29 Amy Sedaris, American actress, comedian and writer Gerardo Teissonniere, Puerto Rican pianist March 30 – Doug Wickenheiser, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1999) March 31 – Gary Winick, American filmmaker (d. 2011) April April 1 Susan Boyle, Scottish singer Kujira, Japanese voice actress April 2 – Christopher Meloni, American actor April 3 Elizabeth Gracen, American beauty queen, actress and model Eddie Murphy, African-American actor and comedian Edward Highmore, English actor April 5 – Lisa Zane, American actress April 6 – Gene Eugene, Canadian actor and singer (d. 2000) April 7 DONDI, American graffiti artist (d. 1998) Thurl Bailey, American basketball player April 9 Mick Kennedy, Irish footballer (d. 2019) April Boy Regino, Filipino musician (d. 2020) April 10 – Rudy Dhaenens, Belgian road bicycle racer (d. 1998) April 11 – Vincent Gallo, American actor April 12 – Lisa Gerrard, Australian musician April 14 Robert Carlyle, Scottish film and television actor Neil Dougherty, American basketball coach (d. 2011) Humberto Martins, Brazilian actor April 17 Igor Lavrinenko, Belarusian politician (d. 2021) Frank J. Christensen, American labor leader Boomer Esiason, American football player and color commentator Greg Gianforte, U.S. Representative from Montana's at large district Daphna Kastner, Canadian actress April 18 – Jane Leeves, English actress April 20 Konstantin Lavronenko, Russian actor Don Mattingly, American baseball player April 21 John Jairo Arias Tascón 'Pinina', Colombian criminal (d. 1990) Cathy Cavadini, American voice actress April 22 – Alo Mattiisen, Estonian musician and composer (d. 1996) April 23 Dirk Bach, German actor and comedian (d. 2012) George Lopez, American actor and comedian April 26 Mike Francis, Italian singer and composer (d. 2009) Anthony Cumia, American radio personality April 27 – Moana Pozzi, Italian pornographic actress, television personality and politician (d. 1994) April 28 – Futoshi Matsunaga, Japanese serial killer April 29 – Fumihiko Tachiki, Japanese voice actor April 30 – Isiah Thomas, African-American basketball player, coach and team owner May May 1 – Marilyn Milian, American judge May 2 – Steve James, English snooker player May 3 Joe Murray, American animator David Vitter, U.S. Senator (R-LA) May 4 Jay Aston, British singer (Bucks Fizz) Mary Elizabeth McDonough, American actress, producer, director and author May 5 Mike Dunleavy, American politician and the 12th governor of Alaska. Hiroshi Hase, Japanese professional wrestler May 6 George Clooney, American actor Wally Wingert, American actor and voice actor Frans Timmermans, Dutch politician and European Commissioner May 7 – Robert Spano, American conductor and pianist May 8 Bill de Blasio, 109th Mayor of New York City Janet McTeer, British actress Akira Taue, Japanese professional wrestler May 9 Rene Capo, American judoka (d. 2009) John Corbett, American actor and country music singer May 10 – Danny Carey, American drummer (Tool, Pigmy Love Circus) May 11 Paul Begala, American political commentator Lar Park Lincoln, American actress May 12 – Billy Duffy, British guitarist (The Cult) May 13 – Dennis Rodman, American basketball player and actor May 14 Urban Priol, German Kabarett artist and comedian Tim Roth, English actor and director May 15 - Larry Holden, American actor (d. 2011) May 16 Solveig Dommartin, French actress (d. 2007) Kevin McDonald, Canadian actor, voice actor and comedian Charles Wright, American professional wrestler May 17 – Enya, Irish musician May 18 – Jim Bowden, American baseball executive May 20 – Clive Allen, British footballer May 21 – Brent Briscoe, American actor and screenwriter (d. 2017) May 22 Mike Breen, American sports announcer Ann Cusack, American actress May 23 Mitar Subotić, Serbian musician and composer (d. 1999) Karen Duffy, American actress May 24 – Ilaria Alpi, Italian journalist (d. 1994) May 27 – Peri Gilpin, American actress May 28 – Roland Gift, British singer and musician (Fine Young Cannibals) May 29 – Melissa Etheridge, American musician May 30 Ralph Carter, American actor Harry Enfield, English comedian, actor, writer and director May 31 Ray Cote, Canadian ice hockey player Justin Madden, Australian footballer and politician Lea Thompson, American actress June June 1 Paul Coffey, Canadian hockey player Dilipkumar Viraji Thakor, Indian politician June 2 – Dez Cadena, American musician June 3 Lawrence Lessig, American academic and political activist Ed Wynne, English musician (Ozric Tentacles) June 4 El DeBarge, American urban singer; was member of American urban group DeBarge Sam Harris, American actor and pop musician June 5 Mary Kay Bergman, American voice actress (d. 1999) Anthony Burger, American musician and singer (d. 2006) Rosie Kane, Member of Scottish Parliament June 6 – Tom Araya, Chilean-born rock musician (Slayer) June 8 – Katy Garbi, Greek singer June 9 Michael J. Fox, Canadian-American actor, producer and author Aaron Sorkin, American screenwriter, producer and playwright June 10 Kim and Kelley Deal, American musicians Maxi Priest, born Max Elliott, British reggae singer June 12 – Yuri Rozanov, Russian sports TV commentator (d. 2021) June 14 – Boy George, born George O'Dowd, British singer-songwriter and music producer June 15 Dave McAuley, Northern Irish boxer Greg Kouri, Lebanese-Canadian investor, real estate businessman, and co-founder of Zip2 June 17 Muslimgauze, British ethnic electronica and experimental musician (d. 1999) Kōichi Yamadera, Japanese voice actor June 18 Sakahoko Nobushige, Japanese sumo wrestler (d. 2019) Andrés Galarraga, Venezuelan baseball player Alison Moyet, English singer-songwriter June 19 – Bidhya Devi Bhandari, 2nd President of Nepal June 20 – Karin Kania, German speed skater June 21 Iztok Mlakar, Slovenian singer-songwriter and theatre actor Joko Widodo, 7th President of Indonesia June 23 Zoran Janjetov, Serbian comic artist David Leavitt, American novelist June 24 Raja Yong Sofia, Malaysian aristocrat Lisa Bevill, American Christian musician Iain Glen, Scottish actor Curt Smith, British singer and keyboardist June 25 Jamil Khir Baharom, Malaysian politician and former military officer Ricky Gervais, English comedian, actor, writer, director, and singer in Seona Dancing June 26 – Greg LeMond, American cyclist June 27 Tim Whitnall, English playwright, screenwriter and actor Meera Syal, British-Indian comedian and actress June 28 Jeff Malone, American basketball player Eliezer Melamed, Israeli rabbi June 29 Greg Hetson, American rock guitarist Sharon Lawrence, American actress, singer and dancer July July 1 Diana, Princess of Wales, born The Hon. Diana Spencer, English princess consort as first wife of Charles, Prince of Wales (d. 1997) Vito Bratta, American rock guitarist Ivan Kaye, English actor Jefferson King, British bodybuilder and wrestler Carl Lewis, American athlete Fredy Schmidtke, German track cyclist (d. 2017) Michelle Wright, Canadian country music artist July 2 Tetchie Agbayani, Filipina actress Jimmy McNichol, American child actor Samy Naceri, French actor Ram Chiang, Hong Kong actor and singer-composer July 3 Tatiana Aleshina, Russian composer, singer-songwriter, theater artist and poet Mosi Alli, Tanzanian sprinter Suzanne Dando, English Olympic gymnast Joe Moreira, Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioner and mixed martial artist July 4 Charles Hector, Malaysian human rights advocate and activist Andrew Zimmern, American television personality (Bizarre Foods) July 5 – Patrizia Scianca, Italian voice actress July 6 Richard Mofe-Damijo, Nigerian actor Rick Price, Australian singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist and record producer July 7 Peter Michael Escovedo, American percussionist and musical director Eric Jerome Dickey, American writer July 8 Toby Keith, American country music singer Olaf Johannessen, Faroese stage and actor July 9 – Raymond Cruz, American actor July 10 Jacky Cheung, Hong Kong singer and actor Lee Heung-sil, South Korean footballer Liyel Imoke, Nigerian politician Killion Munyama, Zambian-Polish economist, academic lecturer and politician July 11 João Donizeti Silvestre, Brazilian businessman, historian, biologist and politician Ron Luce, American writer Ophir Pines-Paz, Israeli politician Sylvester Tung Kiem San, Indonesian bishop July 12 – Mark McGann, English actor, director, writer and musician July 13 – Stelios Manolas, Greek footballer July 14 – Jackie Earle Haley, American actor July 15 Forest Whitaker, African-American actor and film director David Cicilline, American politician July 16 Li Ruiying, Chinese media personality and politician J. Alan Brogan, Irish programmer July 17 António Costa, Portuguese politician, 119th Prime Minister (2015–present) Jeremy Hardy, English comedian (d. 2019) Guru, American rapper (Gang Starr) (d. 2010) Zbigniew Zamachowski, Polish actor July 18 – Elizabeth McGovern, American actress and musician July 19 Noriyuki Abe, Japanese anime director Maria Filatova, Soviet gymnast Benoît Mariage, Belgian film director Lisa Lampanelli, American stand-up comedian, actress and insult comic Campbell Scott, American actor, director, producer and voice artist July 21 Kenji Haga, Japanese entertainment talent, actor and businessperson Mokgweetsi Masisi, 5th President of Botswana July 22 Masumi Hayashi, Japanese serial killer Porfirije, born Prvoslav Perić, Serbian Patriarch Irina Rozanova, Russian actress Keith Sweat, American singer July 23 Martin Gore, British musician and songwriter Michael Durant, American military pilot Milind Gunaji, Indian actor, model, television show host Woody Harrelson, American actor and comedian David Kaufman, American actor and voice actor July 24 – Joseph Kony, Ugandan insurgent, leader of the Lord's Resistance Army July 25 Katherine Kelly Lang, American actress Hugo Teufel III, American lawyer and government official, 2nd Chief Privacy Officer, Department of Homeland Security July 26 Raquel Dodge, General Prosecutor of Brazil Gary Cherone, American rock singer-songwriter David Heyman, English film producer, founder of Heyday Films Keiko Matsui, Japanese pianist and composer Dimitris Saravakos, Greek footballer July 27 Ed Orgeron, American football coach Erez Tal, Israeli television host July 28 Mustafa El Haddaoui, Moroccan footballer Aleksandr Kurlovich, Soviet-Belarusian Olympic weightlifter (d. 2018) July 30 – Laurence Fishburne, African-American actor and film director August August 1 – Danny Blind, Dutch footballer August 2 – Pete de Freitas, English musician and producer (d. 1989) August 3 Art Porter Jr., American jazz saxophonist (d. 1996) Molly Hagan, American actress Nick Harvey, English politician August 4 Pumpuang Duangjan, Thai megastar singer and actress (d. 1992) Robin Carnahan, Secretary of State of Missouri Barack Obama, 44th President of the United States Lauren Tom, American actress and voice artist August 5 Mercedes Aráoz, 1st Vice President of Peru Janet McTeer, English actress Hishamuddin Hussein, Malaysian politician August 7 Ileen Getz, American actress (d. 2005) Brian Conley, English actor, comedian, singer and presenter Yelena Davydova, Soviet gymnast Maggie Wheeler, American actress August 8 The Edge, Irish rock guitarist (U2) Bruce Matthews, American football player Rikki Rockett, American rock drummer (Poison) August 9 Brad Gilbert, American tennis player John Key, 38th Prime Minister of New Zealand August 10 – Beatrice Alda, American actress and filmmaker August 11 Suniel Shetty, Indian actor, producer and entrepreneur Jukka Tapanimäki, Finnish game programmer (d. 2000) August 12 – Lawrence, English musician August 13 Mahesh Anand, Indian actor (d. 2019) Dawnn Lewis, American voice actress Koji Kondo, Japanese video game composer (Nintendo) August 14 – Susan Olsen, American actress August 15 – Suhasini Maniratnam, Indian actress August 16 Elpidia Carrillo, Mexican-American actress Urara Takano, Japanese voice actress August 17 – Uwe Schmitt, German sprinter and hurdler (d. 1995) August 18 Huw Edwards, BAFTA award-winning Welsh journalist and presenter Bob Woodruff, American television journalist and activist August 19 – Tony Longo, American actor (d. 2015) August 20 Plamen Nikolov, Bulgarian footballer Linda Manz, American actress (d. 2020) Manuel Merino, Peruvian politician, 68th President of Peru August 21 – Stephen Hillenburg, American marine biologist, cartoonist and animator (d. 2018) August 22 – Roland Orzabal, British musician and songwriter August 23 Bhupesh Baghel, Indian politician and current Chief Minister of Chhattisgarh Alexandre Desplat, French film composer August 24 – Jared Harris, English actor August 25 Billy Ray Cyrus, American actor and singer Benjamin Bwalya, Zambian footballer and coach (d. 1999) August 27 – Tom Ford, American fashion designer and film director August 28 Jennifer Coolidge, American actress and comedian Deepak Tijori, Indian actor and director August 30 – Brian Mitchell, South African boxer August 31 – Saleem, Malaysian singer (d. 2018) September September 1 Bam Bam Bigelow, American professional wrestler (d. 2007) Boney James, American saxophonist, songwriter and record producer September 2 Eugenio Derbez, Mexican actor, comedian and filmmaker Carlos Valderrama, Colombian footballer Ron Wasserman, American composer Anthony Wong Chau-sang, Hong Kong actor September 3 Andy Griffiths, Australian author Iwan Fals, Indonesian singer-songwriter Yermi Kaplan, Israeli musician September 5 – Marc-André Hamelin, Canadian pianist and composer September 6 Bruce W. Smith, American animator, director and producer Paul Waaktaar-Savoy, Norwegian rock musician and songwriter (A-ha) September 7 – Kevin Kennedy, British actor September 11 E.G. Daily, American actress, voice actress and singer Virginia Madsen, American actress September 12 – Mylène Farmer, Canadian singer and songwriter September 13 – Dave Mustaine, American metal singer, guitarist September 14 – Martina Gedeck, German actress September 15 Terry Lamb, Australian rugby league player and coach Dan Marino, American football player Colin McFarlane, British actor and voice actor Lidia Yusupova, Chechen human-rights lawyer September 16 – Jen Tolley, American-Canadian actress and singer September 17 – Jim Cornette, American author and podcaster September 18 – James Gandolfini, American actor and producer (d. 2013) September 20 – Lisa Bloom, American lawyer September 22 Bonnie Hunt, American actress, comedian, writer, director and television producer Catherine Oxenberg, American actress September 23 Chi McBride, American actor William C. McCool, U.S. Navy Commander and astronaut (d. 2003) September 24 Fiona Corke, Australian actress Michael Tavera, American composer September 25 Heather Locklear, American actress Steve Scott, British journalist and presenter September 26 – Wes Hopkins, American football player (d. 2018) September 27 Andy Lau, Hong Kong actor and singer Melissa Newman, American artist and singer September 28 Yordanka Donkova, Bulgarian athlete Wayne Westner, South African golfer (d. 2017) September 29 – Julia Gillard, 27th Prime Minister of Australia September 30 Crystal Bernard, American actress and singer Gary Coyne, Australian rugby league player Eric Stoltz, American actor and director Sally Yeh, Hong Kong singer and actress October October 1 Gary Ablett, Australian rules footballer Rico Constantino, American professional wrestler October 3 – Ludger Stühlmeyer, German cantor, composer and musicologist October 4 Philippe Russo, French singer Jon Secada, Cuban-American singer-songwriter October 5 – Matthew Kauffman, American journalist, George Polk Award winner October 6 – Mark Shasha, American artist, author and illustrator October 10 – Jodi Benson, American actress and singer October 11 Amr Diab, Egyptian singer Steve Young, American football player October 12 – Diego García, Spanish long-distance athlete (d. 2001) October 13 Rachel De Thame, English gardener and television presenter Doc Rivers, American basketball player and coach October 14 – Jim Burns, British science-fiction illustrator October 15 – Meera Sanyal, Indian banker (d. 2019) October 16 Chris Doleman, American football player (d. 2020) Scott O'Hara, American pornographic performer, author, poet, editor and publisher (d. 1998) Paul Vaessen, English footballer (d. 2001) Randy Vasquez, American actor Kim Wayans, American actress, comedian, producer, writer and director October 18 Wynton Marsalis, African-American trumpeter and composer Rick Moody, American writer Gladstone Small, Barbadian-English cricketer October 19 – Cliff Lyons, Australian rugby league player October 20 Les Stroud, Canadian survival expert, filmmaker and musician Michie Tomizawa, Japanese voice actress October 22 Todd Oldham, American designer Robert Torti, American actor and singer October 24 – Dave Meltzer, American wrestling journalist October 25 Ward Burton, American NASCAR driver Pat Sharp, British radio DJ and host Chad Smith, American musician October 26 – Dylan McDermott, American actor October 29 – Randy Jackson, African-American pop singer (The Jackson 5) October 30 – Dmitry Muratov, Russian campaigning journalist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize October 31 Alonzo Babers, American runner Peter Jackson, New Zealand film director Larry Mullen, Jr., Irish rock drummer (U2) November November 1 Anne Donovan, American basketball player and coach (d. 2018) Heng Swee Keat, Singaporean politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore November 2 Lisa de Cazotte, American soap opera producer (d. 2019) k.d. lang, Canadian singer and songwriter November 3 – David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon November 4 Daron Hagen, American composer Dominic Heale, British journalist and newsreader Ralph Macchio, American actor Jeff Probst, American television personality Jerry Sadowitz, American-born British stand-up comic and card magician Nigel Worthington, Northern Irish footballer and football manager November 5 – Alan G. Poindexter, American astronaut (d. 2012) November 9 Jill Dando, British journalist and television presenter (d. 1999) Jackie Kay, Scottish poet and novelist November 12 – Nadia Comăneci, Romanian gymnast November 14 Ben Coleman, American basketball player (d. 2019) Jurga Ivanauskaitė, Lithuanian writer (d. 2007) D. B. Sweeney, American actor November 16 Andrea Prodan, Scottish-Italian film actor, composer and musician Corinne Hermès, French singer, Eurovision Song Contest 1983 winner November 18 Michael Hawley, American academic and artist (d. 2020) Steven Moffat, Scottish screenwriter Anthony Warlow, Australian singer November 19 – Meg Ryan, American actress and film director November 20 – Dave Watson, English footballer November 21 – Maria Kawamura, Japanese voice actress November 22 Mariel Hemingway, American actress Stephen Hough, British-Australian pianist Randal L. Schwartz, American computer programmer November 24 – Arundhati Roy, Indian writer and activist November 25 – Matthias Freihof, German television actor and director November 27 Lieselotte Lauer, (child family name: Schröder) german company SEL (Standard Elektrik Lorenz) Reported missing since July 1992 November 28 – Alfonso Cuarón, Mexican film director, screenwriter and producer November 29 Kim Delaney, American actress Tom Sizemore, American actor December December 1 – Salahuddin Ayub, Malaysian politician December 3 – Marcelo Fromer, Brazilian guitarist December 4 Rocky Dennis, American teenager who had craniodiaphyseal dysplasia (d. 1978) Frank Reich, American football player December 5 Alan Davies, English-Welsh international footballer (d. 1992) Laura Flanders, British born American journalist December 6 - Colin Salmon, British actor December 8 – Ann Coulter, American author, conservative commentator and attorney December 9 Beril Dedeoğlu, Turkish politician and academic (d. 2019) David Anthony Higgins, American actor December 10 Pasang Lhamu Sherpa, Nepalese Buddhist (d. 1993) Nia Peeples, American actress December 12 Daniel O'Donnell, Irish singer Sarah Sutton, British actress December 13 Karen Witter, American actress and model Per Øystein Sørensen, Norwegian lead singer Fra Lippo Lippi December 15 – Karin Resetarits, Austrian journalist and politician December 16 Bill Hicks, American comedian (d. 1994) Jon Tenney, American actor Sam Robards, American actor Shane Black, American film director December 19 Eric Allin Cornell, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate Matthew Waterhouse, British actor Reggie White, American football player (d. 2004) December 20 – Mohammad Fouad, Arab singer and actor December 21 – Francis Ng, Hong Kong actor December 22 – Kassim Majaliwa, 10th Prime Minister of Tanzania December 23 – Ezzat el Kamhawi, Egyptian novelist December 24 Ilham Aliyev, 7th Prime Minister of Azerbaijan and 4th President of Azerbaijan Wade Williams, American actor December 25 Íngrid Betancourt, Colombian senator Ghislaine Maxwell, British socialite David Thompson, 6th Prime Minister of Barbados (d. 2010) December 26 – John Lynch, Northern Irish actor December 27 – Guido Westerwelle, German politician (d. 2016) December 29 – Jim Reid, Scottish musician December 30 Douglas Coupland, Canadian author Bill English, 39th Prime Minister of New Zealand Sean Hannity, American radio/television host and conservative commentator Ben Johnson, Canadian athlete Deaths January January 3 – Auvergne Doherty, Australian businesswoman (b. 1896) January 4 – Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1887) January 8 – František Flos, Czech novelist (b. 1864) January 9 – Emily Greene Balch, American writer and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1867) January 10 – Dashiell Hammett, American writer (b. 1894) January 13 Nino Marchesini, Italian actor (b. 1895) Blanche Ring, American singer and actress (b. 1871) January 14 – Barry Fitzgerald, Irish actor (b. 1888) January 17 – Patrice Lumumba, 1st Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (b. 1925) January 18 – Thomas Anthony Dooley III, physician (b. 1927) January 21 Blaise Cendrars, Swiss writer (b. 1887) John J. Becker, American composer and pianist (b. 1886) January 24 – Alfred Carlton Gilbert, American swimmer and inventor (b. 1884) January 26 – Stan Nichols, English cricketer (b. 1900) January 29 – Jesse Wallace, American naval officer, 29th Governor of American Samoa (b. 1899) January 30 – Dorothy Thompson, American journalist (b. 1893) February February 2 – Anna May Wong, Chinese-American actress (b. 1905) February 3 – Viscount Dunrossil, Australian Governor-General (b. 1893) February 4 Hazel Heald, American writer (b. 1896) Sir Philip Game, British army officer, colonial governor and police officer (b. 1876) February 6 – Lawrence Dundas, 2nd Marquess of Zetland, British politician (b. 1876) February 7 – William Duncan, American actor (b. 1879) February 9 – Carlos Luz, Brazilian politician, 19th President of Brazil (b. 1894) February 12 – Richmond K. Turner, American admiral (b. 1885) February 13 – Arthur Ripley, American film director (b. 1897) February 15 – Laurence Owen, American figure skater (b. 1944) February 16 – Dazzy Vance, American baseball player (Brooklyn Dodgers) and a member of the MLB Hall of Fame (b. 1891) February 17 Horatio Berney-Filkin, British army general (b. 1892) Nita Naldi, American actress (b. 1894) February 20 – Percy Grainger, Australian composer (b. 1882) February 22 George de Cuevas, Chilean-American ballet impresario and choreographer (b. 1885) Nick LaRocca, American jazz musician (b. 1889) February 26 Karl Albiker, German sculptor (b. 1878) Uberto De Morpurgo, Italian tennis player (b. 1896) King Mohammed V of Morocco (b. 1909) February 28 – Aaron S. "Tip" Merrill, American admiral (b. 1890) March March 3 – Paul Wittgenstein, Austrian-born pianist (b. 1887) March 6 – George Formby, British singer, comedian and actor (b. 1904) March 8 Sir Thomas Beecham, English conductor (b. 1879) Gala Galaction, Romanian writer (b. 1879) March 12 Victor d'Arcy, British Olympic athlete (b. 1887) Belinda Lee, English actress (b. 1935) March 17 – Susanna M. Salter, first woman mayor in the United States (b. 1860) March 22 – Nikolai Massalitinov, Soviet-born Bulgarian actor (b. 1880) March 23 – Valentin Bondarenko, Russian cosmonaut (b. 1937) March 25 – Arthur Drewry, English administrator, 5th President of FIFA (b. 1891) March 26 – Carlos Duarte Costa, Brazilian Roman Catholic archbishop and saint, founder of the Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church (b. 1888) April April 2 – Wallingford Riegger, American music composer (b. 1885) April 3 – Eliseo Mouriño, Argentine footballer (b. 1927) April 6 – Jules Bordet, Belgian immunologist and microbiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1870) April 7 Vanessa Bell, English artist and interior designer (b. 1879) Jesús Guridi, Spanish Basque composer (b. 1886) Marian Driscoll Jordan, American actress and radio personality (b. 1898) April 9 – Ahmet Zog/Zog I, Skanderberg III, Albanian political leader, 11th Prime Minister of Albania, 7th President of Albania and King of Albania (b. 1895) April 10 – Sir John Hope Simpson, British politician (b. 1868) April 11 – Padma Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana, 16th Prime Minister of Nepal (b. 1882) April 12 Mbarek Bekkay, 1st Prime Minister of Morocco (b. 1907) Aziz Ezzat Pasha, Egyptian politician (b. 1869) April 19 – Manuel Quiroga, Spanish violinist (b. 1892) April 21 – James Melton, American tenor (b. 1904) April 24 – Lee Moran, American actor (b. 1888) April 25 Robert Garrett, American Olympic athlete (b. 1875) George Melford, American actor (b. 1877) April 27 Roy Del Ruth, American film director (b. 1893) Minoru Sasaki, Japanese general (b. 1893) April 30 Dickie Dale, English motorcycle road racer (b. 1927) Jessie Redmon Fauset, American editor, writer and educator (b. 1882) May May 3 Lajos Dinnyés, 41st Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1901) Maurice Merleau-Ponty, French phenomenological philosopher (b. 1908) May 6 – Lucian Blaga, Romanian poet and philosopher (b. 1895) May 13 – Gary Cooper, American actor, best known for his role in High Noon (b. 1901) May 14 – Albert Sévigny, Canadian politician (b. 1881) May 16 – George A. Malcolm, American jurist and educator (b. 1881) May 22 – Joan Davis, American actress (b. 1912) May 30 – Rafael Trujillo, Dominican politician and soldier, 2-time President of the Dominican Republic (b. 1891) May 31 – Walter Little, Canadian politician (b. 1877) June June – Constantin Constantinescu-Claps, Romanian general (b. 1884) June 6 – Carl Jung, Swiss psychiatrist (b. 1875) June 9 – Camille Guérin, French bacteriologist and immunologist (b. 1872) June 14 – Eddie Polo, Austrian-American actor (b. 1875) June 16 – Marcel Junod, Swiss physician (b. 1904) June 17 Jeff Chandler, American actor (b. 1918) Thomas Darden, American Rear admiral, 37th Governor of American Samoa (b. 1900) June 18 – Eddie Gaedel, American with dwarfism (b. 1925) June 19 – Sir Richard Turner, Canadian general, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1871) June 23 – Nikolai Malko, Soviet conductor (b. 1883) June 24 William J. Connors, American politician (b. 1891) George Washington Vanderbilt III, American philanthropist (b. 1914) June 25 – John Alexander Douglas McCurdy, Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia and pilot (b. 1886) June 27 Paul Guilfoyle, American actor (b. 1902) Mukhtar Auezov, Kazakh writer (b. 1897) June 30 – Lee de Forest, American inventor (b. 1873) July July 1 Nasuhi al-Bukhari, Syrian soldier and politician, 12th Prime Minister of Syria (b. 1881) Louis-Ferdinand Céline, French writer (b. 1894) July 2 – Ernest Hemingway, American writer, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1899) July 4 – Franklyn Farnum, American actor (b. 1878) July 6 Konstantinos Logothetopoulos, Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1878) Woodall Rodgers, American politician, 43rd Mayor of Dallas (b. 1890) July 9 – Whittaker Chambers, American spy and witness in Hiss case (b. 1901) July 15 – Nina Bari, Russian mathematician (b. 1901) July 17 – Ty Cobb, American baseball player and a member of the Baseball Hall of Fame (b. 1886) July 23 Esther Dale, American actress (b. 1885) Valentine Davies, American screenwriter (b. 1905) Princess Teru of Japan (b. 1925) July 28 – Harry Gribbon, American actor of silent films (b. 1885) August August 1 – Domingo Pérez Cáceres, Spanish Roman Catholic priest and saint (b. 1892) August 4 Zoltán Tildy, 39th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1889) Maurice Tourneur, French film director (b. 1873) August 5 – Sidney Holland, New Zealand politician, 25th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1893) August 8 – Mei Lanfang, Beijing opera star (b. 1894) August 9 – Walter Bedell Smith, American general and diplomat (b. 1895) August 11 – William Jackson, American gangster (b. 1920) August 14 Henri Breuil, French priest, archaeologist, anthropologist and ethnologist (b. 1877) Clark Ashton Smith, American writer and sculptor (b. 1893) August 20 – Percy Williams Bridgman, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1882) August 23 Gotthard Sachsenberg, German World War I naval aviator and fighter ace (b. 1891) Beals Wright, American tennis player (b. 1879) August 26 Howard P. Robertson, American physicist (b. 1903) Gail Russell, American actress (b. 1924) August 30 Charles Coburn, American actor (b. 1877) Cristóbal de Losada y Puga, Peruvian mathematician and mining engineer (b. 1894) September September 1 – Eero Saarinen, Finnish architect (b. 1910) September 3 Richard Mason, British explorer (b. 1934) September 4 – Charles D.B. King, President of Liberia from 1920 to 1930 (b. 1875) September 7 – Pieter Gerbrandy, Prime Minister of the Netherlands 1940 to 1945 (b. 1885) September 16 Percy Chapman, English cricketer (b. 1900) Hasan Fehmi, Turkish politician (b. 1879) September 17 Miguel Gómez Bao, Spanish-born Argentine actor (b. 1894) Adnan Menderes, Turkish statesman, 9th Prime Minister of Turkey (executed) (b. 1899) September 18 Dag Hammarskjöld, Swedish diplomat, politician and author, 2nd Secretary General of the United Nations, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1905) September 21 – Georgia Ann Robinson, community worker and first African American woman to be appointed a Los Angeles police officer (b. 1879) September 22 – Marion Davies, American actress (b. 1897) September 23 – Elmer Diktonius, Finnish poet and composer (b. 1896) September 24 – Sumner Welles, American diplomat (b. 1892) September 25 – Frank Fay, American vaudeville comedian and film and stage actor (b. 1891) September 26 Robert L. Eichelberger, American general (b. 1886) Juanita Hansen, American actress (b. 1895) September 27 – H.D. (Hilda Doolittle), American poet and novelist (b. 1886) October October 1 – Donald Cook, American actor (b. 1901) October 2 – Essington Lewis, Australian industrialist (b. 1881) October 4 Metropolitan Benjamin (Fedchenkov), Soviet Orthodox missionary and writer, Exarch of Russian Church in North America (b. 1880) Max Weber, Polish-American artist (b. 1881) October 6 – J. Reuben Clark, American politician and Mormon leader (b. 1871) October 11 Lucy Tayiah Eads, Kaw tribal chief (b. 1888) Chico Marx, American comedian (b. 1887) October 13 Louis Rwagasore, 2nd Prime Minister of Burundi (assassinated) (b. 1932) Maya Deren, Russian-born filmmaker (b. 1917) Zoltán Korda, Hungarian screenwriter and director (b. 1895) Dun Karm Psaila, Maltese writer (b. 1871) October 14 Paul Ramadier, French politician, 63rd Prime Minister of France (b. 1888) Harriet Shaw Weaver, English political activist (b. 1876) October 19 Şemsettin Günaltay, Turkish historian and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Turkey (b. 1883) Sergio Osmeña, Filipino politician, 4th President of the Philippines (b. 1878) October 21 – Karl Korsch, German Marxist theoretician (b. 1886) October 22 Joseph Schenck, Russian-born film studio executive (b. 1878) Aloys Van de Vyvere, 25th Prime Minister of Belgium (b. 1871) October 26 – Milan Stojadinović, 12th Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (b. 1888) October 30 – Luigi Einaudi, Italian economist and politician, 2nd President of Italy (b. 1874) November November 1 – Mordecai Ham, American evangelist (b. 1877) November 2 James Thurber, American humorist (b. 1894) Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa I, 12th Hakim of Bahrain (b. 1894) November 3 – Thomas Flynn, British Roman Catholic prelate and reverend (b. 1880) November 9 – Ferdinand Bie, Norwegian Olympic athlete (b. 1888) November 15 Elsie Ferguson, American actress (b. 1883) Johanna Westerdijk, Dutch plant pathologist (b. 1883) November 16 – Sam Rayburn, Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (b. 1882) November 22 – Anselmo Alliegro y Milá, Cuban politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Cuba, leader of World War II (b. 1899) November 24 – Ruth Chatterton, American actress, novelist and aviator (b. 1892) November 25 – Adelina de Lara, British composer (b. 1872) November 30 Anna Gould, American heiress and socialite, daughter of financier Jay Gould (b. 1875) Ehrenfried Pfeiffer, German scientist (b. 1899) December December 2 Dulcie Mary Pillers, English medical illustrator (b. 1891) Herbert Pitman, British sailor, third officer of the (b. 1877) December 3 – Pat O'Hara Wood, Australian tennis player (b. 1891) December 6 – Frantz Fanon, Caribbean philosopher (b. 1925) December 10 – Elwyn Welch, New Zealand farmer, ornithologist, conservationist and Open Brethren missionary (b. 1925) December 13 – Anna Mary Robertson Moses aka Grandma Moses, American naïve painter (b. 1860) December 15 – Gioacchino Failla, Italian-born American physicist (b. 1891) December 20 Moss Hart, American dramatist (b. 1904) Sir Earle Page, Australian politician, 11th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1880) December 23 Kurt Meyer, German Generalmajor der Waffen-SS'' and war criminal (b. 1910) Fanny Schoonheyt, Dutch Communist Lieutenant in the Spanish Civil War. (b. 1912) December 25 – Otto Loewi, German-born pharmacologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1873) December 27 – Bernard McConville, American screenwriter (b. 1887) December 28 – Edith Wilson, First Lady of the United States from 1915 to 1921 (b. 1872) December 29 Anton Flettner, German aviation engineer and inventor (b. 1885) Sibyl Morrison, first female barrister in New South Wales, Australia (b. 1895) Nobel Prizes Physics – Robert Hofstadter, Rudolf Mössbauer Chemistry – Melvin Calvin Physiology or Medicine – Georg von Békésy Literature – Ivo Andrić Peace – Dag Hammarskjöld (posthumously) See also Upside down year References

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1895

1895

Events January–March January 5 – Dreyfus affair: French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his army rank, and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. January 12 – The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty is founded in England by Octavia Hill, Robert Hunter and Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley. January 13 – First Italo-Ethiopian War: Battle of Coatit – Italian forces defeat the Ethiopians. January 17 – Félix Faure is elected President of the French Republic, after the resignation of Jean Casimir-Perier. February 9 – Mintonette, later known as volleyball, is created by William G. Morgan at Holyoke, Massachusetts. February 11 – The lowest ever UK temperature of is recorded at Braemar, in Aberdeenshire. This record is equalled in 1982, and again in 1995. February 14 – Oscar Wilde's last play, the comedy The Importance of Being Earnest, is first shown at St James's Theatre in London. February 20 The gold reserve of the U.S. Treasury is saved, when J. P. Morgan and the Rothschilds loan $65 million worth of gold to the United States government. The offering of syndicate bonds sells out only 22 minutes after the New York market opens, and just two hours after going on sale in London. Venezuelan crisis of 1895: U.S. President Grover Cleveland signs into law a bill resulting from the proposition of House Resolution 252, by William Lindsay Scruggs and Congressman Leonidas Livingston, to the third session of the 53rd Congress of the United States of America. The bill recommends that Venezuela and Great Britain settle their dispute by arbitration. February 25 – The first rebellions of the Cuban War of Independence break out. March 1 – William Lyne Wilson is appointed United States Postmaster General. March 3 – In Munich, Germany, bicyclists have to pass a test and display license plates. March 4 – Japanese troops capture Liaoyang, and land in Taiwan. March 15 Bridget Cleary is killed and her body burned in County Tipperary, Ireland, by her husband, Michael; he is subsequently convicted and imprisoned for manslaughter, his defence being a belief that he had killed a changeling left in his wife's place after she had been abducted by fairies. Heian Shrine is completed in Kyoto, Japan. March 18 – The first worldwide gasoline bus route is started in Germany, between Siegen and Netphen. March 30 – Rudolf Diesel patents the Diesel engine in Germany. April–June April 6 – Oscar Wilde is arrested in London for "gross indecency", after losing a criminal libel case against the Marquess of Queensberry. April 7 – Nansen's Fram expedition to the Arctic reaches 86°13.6'N, almost 3° beyond the previous Farthest North attained. April 14 – A major earthquake severely damages Ljubljana, the capital of Carniola. April 16 – The town of Sturgeon Falls, Ontario, is incorporated. April 17 – The Treaty of Shimonoseki is signed between China and Japan. This marks the end of the First Sino-Japanese War, and the defeated Qing Empire is forced to renounce its claims on Korea, and to concede the southern portion of Fengtien province, Taiwan, and the Pescadores Islands to Japan. The huge indemnity exacted from China is used to establish the Yawata Iron and Steel Works in Japan. April 22 – Gongche Shangshu movement: 603 candidates sign a 10,000-word petition against the Treaty of Shimonoseki. April 27 – The historic Spiral Bridge is constructed to carry U.S. 61 over the Mississippi River, at Hastings, Minnesota. The picturesque bridge is one-of-a-kind, and serves the citizens of Hastings for 56 years, until it is demolished in 1951. May 1 – Dundela Football, Sports & Association Club is formed in Belfast. May 2 – Gongche Shangshu movement: Thousands of Beijing scholars and citizens protest against the Treaty of Shimonoseki. May 9 – Thirteen workers are killed by soldiers of the Russian Empire during the Yaroslavl Great Manufacture strike. May 18 – The first motor race in Italy is held. It runs on a course from Turin to Asti and back, a total of . Five entrants start the event; only three complete it. It is won by Simone Federman in a four-seat Daimler Omnibus, at an average speed of . May 24 – Anti-Japanese officials, led by Tang Jingsong in Taiwan, declare independence from the Qing Dynasty, forming the short-lived Republic of Formosa. May 25 – R. v. Wilde: Oscar Wilde is convicted in London of "unlawfully committing acts of gross indecency with certain male persons" (under the Labouchere Amendment) and given a two years' sentence of hard labour, during which he will write De Profundis. May 27 – In re Debs: The Supreme Court of the United States decides that the federal government has the right to regulate interstate commerce, legalizing the military suppression of the Pullman Strike. June 5 – The Liberal Revolution begins in Ecuador, making the civil war more intense in this country. June 11 Britain annexes Tongaland, between Zululand and Mozambique. The Paris–Bordeaux–Paris race is held, sometimes called the first automobile race in history. June 20 The Kiel Canal, connecting the North Sea to the Baltic across the base of the Jutland peninsula in Germany, is officially opened. The Treaty of Amapala establishes the union of Nicaragua, Honduras and El Salvador (which ends in 1898). June 28 – The United States Court of Private Land Claims rules that James Reavis's claim to the Barony of Arizona is "wholly fictitious and fraudulent". July–September July 10–11 – The Doukhobors' pacifist protests culminate in the "burning of the arms" in the South Caucasus. July 15 – Archie MacLaren scores an English County Championship cricket record innings of 424 for Lancashire, against Somerset, at Taunton. This record lasted until 1994. July 31 – The Basque Nationalist Party (Euzko Alderdi Jeltzalea-Partido Nacionalista Vasco) is founded by Sabino Arana. August 7 – The Aljaž Tower, a symbol of the Slovenes, is erected on Mount Triglav. August 10 – The first ever indoor promenade concert, origin of The Proms, is held at the Queen's Hall in London, opening a series conducted by Henry Wood. August 19 – American frontier murderer and outlaw John Wesley Hardin is killed by an off-duty policeman, in a saloon in El Paso, Texas. August 29 The Northern Rugby Football Union (the modern-day Rugby Football League) is formed at a meeting of 21 rugby clubs at the George Hotel, Huddersfield, in the north of England, leading to the creation of the sport of rugby league football. The Mat Salleh Rebellion in North Borneo is incited. September – Shelbourne F.C. is founded in Dublin, Ireland. September 3 – The first professional American football game is played, in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, between the Latrobe YMCA and the Jeannette Athletic Club (Latrobe wins 12–0). September 7 – The first game of what will become known as rugby league football is played in England, starting the 1895–96 Northern Rugby Football Union season. September 18 Booker T. Washington delivers the Atlanta Compromise speech. Daniel David Palmer performs the first chiropractic spinal adjustment, on Harvey Lillard, whose complaint was partial deafness after an injury. September 24–October 3 – the Automobile Club de France sponsors the longest race to date, a event, from Bordeaux to Agen and back. Because it is held in ten stages, it can be considered the first rally. The first three places are taken by two Panhards and a three-wheeler De Dion-Bouton. October–December October Rudyard Kipling publishes the story Mowgli Leaves the Jungle Forever in The Cosmopolitan illustrated magazine in the United States (price 10 cents), collected in The Second Jungle Book, published in England in November. The London School of Economics holds its first classes in London, England. October 1 – French troops capture Antananarivo, Madagascar. October 2 – Peiyang University, as predecessor of Tianjin University, as representative institution of higher education school in China, was founded in former Qing Dynasty. October 8 – The Eulmi Incident: Empress Myeongseong of Korea is killed at her private residence within Gyeongbokgung Palace by Japanese agents. October 22 – Montparnasse derailment: A locomotive runs through the exterior wall of the Gare Montparnasse terminus, in Paris. October 23 – The city of Tainan, last stronghold of the Republic of Formosa, capitulates to the forces of the Empire of Japan, ending the short-lived republic, and beginning the era of Taiwan under Japanese rule. October 31 – A major earthquake occurs in the New Madrid Seismic Zone of the midwestern United States, the last to date. November 1 – The Berlin Wintergarten theatre was the site of the first cinema ever, with a short movie presented by the Skladanowsky brothers November 5 – George B. Selden is granted the first U.S. patent for an automobile. November 8 – Wilhelm Röntgen discovers a type of radiation (later known as X-rays). November 17 – Flamengo, a well known professional football club in Brazil, is officially founded. November 25 – Oscar Hammerstein opens the Olympia Theatre, the first theatre to be built in New York City's Times Square district. November 27 – At the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris, Alfred Nobel signs his last will and testament, setting aside his estate to establish the Nobel Prize after his death. November 28 – Chicago Times-Herald race: The first American automobile race in history is sponsored by the Chicago Times-Herald. Press coverage first arouses significant American interest in the automobile. December Ottoman troops burn 3,000 Armenians alive in Urfa . The Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War begins. December 7 – A corps of 2,350 Italian troops, mostly Askari, are crushed by 30,000 Abyssinian troops at Amba Alagi. December 11 – Svante Arrhenius becomes the first scientist to deliver quantified data about the sensitivity of global climate to atmospheric carbon dioxide (the "Greenhouse effect"), as he presents his paper "On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air Upon The Temperature of the Ground" to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. December 15 – The railways of the Cape of Good Hope, Colony of Natal, the Orange Free State, the South African Republic and southern Mozambique are all linked at Union Junction near Alberton. December 18 – The Laurin & Klement automobile brand, predecessor of Škoda Auto, is founded as a bicycle manufacturer in Central Bohemian Region, Kingdom of Bohemia (modern-day Czech Republic). December 24 Kingstown lifeboat disaster: 15 crew are lost when their life-boat capsizes, while trying to rescue the crew of the SS Palme off Kingstown (modern-day Dún Laoghaire), near Dublin, Ireland. George Washington Vanderbilt II officially opens his Biltmore Estate, inviting his family and guests to celebrate his new home in Asheville, North Carolina. December 28 – Auguste and Louis Lumière show their first moving picture film in Paris. Date unknown The world's first portable handheld electric drill is developed, by brothers Wilhelm and Carl Fein in Germany. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky proposes a space elevator. Grace Chisholm Young becomes the first woman awarded a doctorate at a German university. W. E. B. Du Bois becomes the first African American to receive a Ph.D. from Harvard University. The Swarovski Company is founded by Armand Kosman, Franz Weis and Daniel Swarovski in the Austrian Tyrol, for the production of crystal glass. The name HP Sauce is first registered in the United Kingdom for a brown sauce. The Duck Reach Power Station opens in Tasmania (the first publicly owned hydroelectric plant in the Southern Hemisphere). The first Boxer dog show is held at Munich, Germany. A huge crowd at the first Welsh Grand National at Ely Racecourse, Cardiff, breaks down barriers and almost overwhelms police trying to keep out gatecrashers. German trade unions have c. 270,000 members. Raiffeisen Cooperative Credit and Saving Bank, as predecessor of Rabo Bank, a multiple financial service on worldwide, founded in Netherlands. Births January January 1 Bert Acosta, American aviator (d. 1954) J. Edgar Hoover, American Federal Bureau of Investigation director (d. 1972) January 4 – Leroy Grumman, American aeronautical engineer, test pilot and industrialist (d. 1982) January 5 – A. Edward Sutherland, English film director and actor (d. 1973) January 9 – Lucian Truscott, American general (d. 1965) January 11 – Graciela Amaya de García, Mexican feminist, organizer (d. 1995) January 15 Leo Aryeh Mayer, Israeli professor, scholar of Islamic art (d. 1959) Artturi Ilmari Virtanen, Finnish chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973) January 19 Isamu Chō, Japanese general (d. 1945) Arthur Coningham, British air force air marshal (d. 1948) January 21 Cristóbal Balenciaga, Spanish-French couturier (d. 1972) Davíð Stefánsson, Icelandic poet (d. 1964) January 23 – Raymond Griffith, American actor (d. 1957) January 30 Marianne Golz, Austrian-born opera singer and World War II resistance member (d. 1943) Wilhelm Gustloff, German-born Swiss Nazi party leader (d. 1936) February February 2 – George Halas, American football player, coach, and co-founder of the National Football League (d. 1983) February 6 – Babe Ruth, American baseball player (d. 1948) February 8 – Khorloogiin Choibalsan, Marshal of the Mongolian People's Republic, Prime Minister of the Mongolian People's Republic (d. 1952) February 10 – John Black, English chairman of Standard-Triumph (d. 1965) February 14 – Max Horkheimer, German philosopher, sociologist (d. 1973) February 15 – Earl Thomson, Canadian athlete (d. 1971) February 18 (O.S. 6 February) – Semyon Timoshenko, Soviet general, Marshal of the Soviet Union (d. 1970) February 19 Louis Calhern, American actor (d. 1956) Diego Mazquiarán, Spanish matador (d. 1940) February 21 – Henrik Dam, Danish biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1976) February 25 – Lew Andreas, American basketball coach (d. 1984) February 27 – Edward Brophy, American character actor (d. 1960) February 28 Louise Lovely, Australian actress (d. 1980) Marcel Pagnol, French novelist, playwright (d. 1974) March March 3 Ragnar Frisch, Norwegian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973) Matthew Ridgway, United States Army Chief of Staff, Commander of NATO (d. 1993) March 4 Mikuláš Galanda, Slovak painter and illustrator (d. 1938) Shemp Howard, American actor, comedian (The Three Stooges) (d. 1955) Milt Gross, American comic book illustrator, animator (d. 1953) March 12 – William C. Lee, American general (d. 1948) March 20 Robert Benoist, French race car driver, war hero (d. 1944) Johnny Morrison, American professional baseball player (d. 1966) March 22 – Archie Cameron, Australian politician (d. 1956) March 23 – Encarnacion Alzona, Filipino historian (d. 2001) March 27 – Ruth Snyder, American murderer (d. 1928) March 28 Archduke Joseph Francis of Austria, (d. 1957) Donald Grey Barnhouse, American theologian, pastor, author, and radio pioneer (d. 1960) Spencer W. Kimball, 12th president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1985) James McCudden, British World War I flying ace (d. 1918) March 29 Ernst Jünger, German military hero, philosopher and entomologist (d. 1998) George Vasey, Australian general (d. 1945) March 30 – Carl Lutz, Swiss-American WWII humanitarian (d. 1975) April April 1 – Alberta Hunter, American singer (d. 1984) April 3 – Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Italian composer (d. 1968) April 4 – John Kotelawala, 3rd Prime Minister of Sri Lanka (d. 1980) April 5 – Mike O'Dowd, American boxer (d. 1957) April 10 – Elena Aiello, Italian Roman Catholic professed religious (d. 1961) April 12 – John Erskine, Lord Erskine, British soldier and politician (d. 1953) April 13 – Olga Rudge, American violinist (d. 1996) April 14 – Anton Reinthaller, Austrian right-wing politician (d. 1958) April 15 Corrado Alvaro, Italian verismo' writer and journalist (d. 1968) Clark McConachy, New Zealand snooker, billiards player (d. 1980) April 19 – Antonio Locatelli, Italian aviator and journalist (d. 1936) April 20 – Emile Christian, American musician (d. 1973) April 25 – Stanley Rous, English administrator, 6th President of FIFA (d. 1986) April 26 – Hans Kopfermann, German physicist (d. 1963) April 29 – Malcolm Sargent, English conductor (d. 1967) May May 1 – Nikolai Yezhov, Soviet politician and police chief, Great Purge Perpetrator (d. 1940) May 2 – Lorenz Hart, US lyricist (d. 1943) May 5 – Charles Lamont, Russian-born film director (d. 1993) May 6 – Rudolph Valentino, Italian actor (d. 1926) May 8 – Fulton J. Sheen, American Catholic archbishop, television personality (d. 1979) May 9 – Richard Barthelmess, American actor (d. 1963) May 10 – Kama Chinen, Japanese supercentenarian, last surviving person born in 1895 (d. 2010) May 11 – Jiddu Krishnamurti, Indian philosopher, speaker, and writer (d. 1986) May 12 – William Giauque, Canadian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1982) May 15 – Prescott Bush, American banker and politician (d. 1972) May 17 Saul Adler, Russian-born British-Israeli expert on parasitology (d. 1966) May 21 – Lázaro Cárdenas, 44th President of Mexico, 1934-1940 (d. 1970) May 25 – Dorothea Lange, American documentary photographer, photojournalist (d. 1965) June June 3 – K. M. Panikkar, Indian scholar, diplomat and journalist (d. 1963) June 4 – Dino Grandi, Italian Fascist politician (d. 1988) Russell Hicks, American actor (d. 1957) June 5 – William Boyd, American actor (d. 1972) June 10 – Hattie McDaniel, actress, first African-American woman to win an Academy Award (in 1939) (d. 1952) June 12 Eugénie Brazier, French cook (d. 1977) Wilfrid Kent Hughes, Australian Olympian and politician (d. 1970) June 15 – Irina Odoyevtseva, Russian poet, novelist and memoirist (d. 1990) June 17 Louise Fazenda, American actress (d. 1962) Ruben Rausing, Swedish entrepreneur, founder of Tetra Pak (d. 1983) June 21 – John Wesley Snyder, American businessman and Cabinet Secretary (d. 1985) June 23 – Joseph Vogt, German classical historian (d. 1986) June 24 Jack Dempsey, American boxer (d. 1983) Juan Miles, Argentine polo player (d. 1981) June 28 – Kazimierz Sikorski, Polish composer (d. 1986) June 29 Dorothy Stuart Russell, Australian-British pathologist (d. 1983) June 30 – Heinz Warneke, American sculptor (d. 1983) July July 1 – Lucy Somerville Howorth, American lawyer, feminist and politician (d. 1997) July 2 Leslie Frise, British aerospace engineer and aircraft designer (d. 1979) Pavel Osipovich Sukhoi, Russian aircraft engineer (d. 1975) July 3 – Jean Paige, American actress (d. 1990) July 4 – Irving Caesar, American lyricist, theater composer (d. 1996) July 5 – Frederic McGrand, Canadian physician and politician (d. 1988) July 8 Heinrich-Hermann von Hülsen, German major general (d. 1982) Igor Tamm, Russian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971) July 9 Joe Gleason, American pitcher (d. 1990) Frederick Melrose Horowhenua Hanson, New Zealand soldier, engineer, military leader and public servant (d. 1979) Gunnar Aaby, Danish soccer player (d. 1966) July 10 Andrew Earl Weatherly, American philatelist (d. 1981) Carl Orff, German composer (d. 1982) Nahum Goldmann, leading Zionist (d. 1982) July 12 Kirsten Flagstad, Norwegian soprano (d. 1982) Buckminster Fuller, American architect (d. 1983) July 14 Jin Yuelin, Chinese philosopher (d. 1984) LeRoy Prinz, American choreographer, director and producer (d. 1983) July 18 – Olga Spessivtseva, Russian ballerina (d. 1991) July 19 Snake Henry, American baseball player (d. 1987) Tee Tee Luce, Burmese philanthropist (d. 1982) Xu Beihong, Chinese painter (d. 1953) July 20 – Chapman Revercomb, American politician and lawyer (d. 1979) July 21 Adam Papée, Polish fencing star (d. 1990) Henry Lynn, American film director, screenwriter, and producer (d. 1984) Ken Maynard, American actor (d. 1973) July 22 – León de Greiff, Colombian poet (d. 1976) July 23 – Aileen Pringle, American actress (d. 1989) July 24 – Robert Graves, English writer (d. 1985) July 25 Yvonne Printemps, French singer and actress (d. 1977) Ingeborg Spangsfeldt, Danish actress (d. 1968) July 26 Gracie Allen, American actress, comedian (d. 1964) Kenneth Harlan, American actor (d. 1967) July 30 – Joseph DuMoe, American football coach (d. 1959) August August 6 – Ernesto Lecuona, Cuban pianist, composer (d. 1963) August 8 Aimé Giral, French rugby player (d. 1915) Jean Navarre, French World War I fighter ace (d. 1919) August 10 – Harry Richman, American entertainer (d. 1972) August 12 – Lynde D. McCormick, American admiral (d. 1956) August 13 – István Barta, Hungarian water polo player (d. 1948) August 16 Liane Haid, Austrian actress (d. 2000) Lucien Littlefield, American actor (d. 1960) August 18 – Sibyl Morrison, Australian barrister (d. 1961) August 19 – François Demol, Belgian footballer (d. 1966) August 24 Guido Masiero, Italian World War I flying ace, aviation pioneer (d. 1942) Tuanku Abdul Rahman, King of Malaysia (d. 1960) September September 1 Chembai, Indian Carnatic musician (d. 1974) Engelbert Zaschka, German helicopter pioneer (d. 1955) September 6 – Margery Perham, English Africanist (d. 1982) September 7 – Sir Brian Horrocks, British general (d. 1985) September 8 – Sara García, Mexican actress (d. 1980) September 11 – Vinoba Bhave, Indian religious leader (d. 1982) September 13 Ruth McDevitt, American actress (d. 1976) Bernard Warburton-Lee, British naval officer, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1940) September 18 John Diefenbaker, 13th Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1979) Tomoji Tanabe, Japanese supercentenarian (d. 2009) September 20 – Lloyd W. Bertaud, American aviator (d. 1927) September 21 – Juan de la Cierva, Spanish civil engineer, aviator, aeronautical engineer and inventor of the autogyro (d. 1936) September 22 – Paul Muni, Austro-Hungarian-born American actor (d. 1967) September 24 – André Frédéric Cournand, French-born physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1988) September 29 – Joseph Banks Rhine, American parapsychologist (d. 1980) September 30 – Aleksandr Vasilevsky, Soviet general, Marshal of the Soviet Union (d. 1977) October October 1 – Liaquat Ali Khan, 1st Prime Minister of Pakistan (d. 1951) October 3 – Sergei Aleksandrovich Yesenin, Russian lyric poet (d. 1925) October 4 Buster Keaton, American actor, film director (d. 1966) Richard Sorge, Soviet spy (k. 1944) October 7 – Ferdinand Čatloš, Slovak military officer and politician (d. 1972) October 8 Juan Perón, two-time President of Argentina (d. 1974) King Zog of Albania (d. 1961) October 9 – Ivan Yumashev, Soviet admiral (d. 1972) October 10 – Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen, German field marshal (d. 1945) October 13 Cemal Gürsel, Turkish army officer, President (d. 1966) Mike Gazella, American baseball player (d. 1978) October 14 – Silas Simmons, American Pre-Negro league baseball player, longest-lived professional baseball player (d. 2006) October 17 – Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes, 21st President of Guatemala (d. 1982) October 19 – Lewis Mumford, American historian (d. 1990) October 20 – Evelyn Brent, American actress (d. 1975) Rex Ingram, African American actor (d. 1969) Morrie Ryskind, American dramatist (d. 1985) October 21 – Edna Purviance, American actress (d. 1958) October 22 – Rolf Nevanlinna, Finnish mathematician (d. 1980) October 24 – Charles Walter Allfrey, British general (d. 1964) October 25 – Levi Eshkol, Israeli Prime Minister (d. 1969) October 26 – Laura Třešňáková°, Czech actress (d. 1969) °-See Czech Wikipedia Page. October 28 – Ismail of Johor, Malaysian sultan (d. 1981) October 30 Gerhard Domagk, German bacteriologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (declined) (d. 1964) Dickinson W. Richards, American physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1973) October 31 – Basil Liddell Hart, British military historian (d. 1970) November November 4 – Thomas G. W. Settle, American record-setting balloonist and admiral (d. 1980) November 5 – Walter Gieseking, German pianist (d. 1956) November 10 Franz Bachelin, German art director (d. 1980) John Knudsen Northrop, American airplane manufacturer (d. 1981) November 14 Walter Freeman, American physician (d. 1972) November 15 Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia (d. 1918) Antoni Słonimski, Polish poet, writer (d. 1976) November 16 – Paul Hindemith, German composer (d. 1963) November 17 – Mikhail Bakhtin, Russian philosopher, literary scholar (d. 1975) November 25 Wilhelm Kempff, German pianist (d. 1991) Helen Hooven Santmyer, American writer (d. 1986) Ludvík Svoboda, 8th President of Czechoslovakia (d. 1979) November 29 Busby Berkeley, American film director, choreographer (d. 1976) William Tubman, 19th President of Liberia (d. 1971) December December 2 – Harriet Cohen, English pianist (d. 1967) December 3 – Sheng Shicai, Chinese warlord (d. 1970) December 5 – Mamerto Urriolagoitía, 43rd President of Bolivia (d. 1974) December 9 Whina Cooper, New Zealand schoolteacher, historian, and activist (d. 1994) Dolores Ibárruri, Spanish republican leader (d. 1989) December 11 Kiyoto Kagawa, Japanese admiral (d. 1943) Leo Ornstein, Russian-American composer (d. 2002) December 14 Paul Éluard, French poet (d. 1952) King George VI of the United Kingdom (d. 1952) December 24 – Marguerite Williams, African-American geologist (d.1991?) Date unknown Corneliu Carp, Romanian general (d. 1982) Husayn Al-Khalidi, Prime Minister of Jordan (d. 1966) Deaths January–June January 3 – Mary Torrans Lathrap, American temperance reformer (b. 1838) January 4 – William Loring, British admiral (b. 1811) January 9 – Aaron Lufkin Dennison, American watchmaker (b. 1812) January 10 – Benjamin Godard, French composer (b. 1849) January 19 – António Luís de Seabra, 1st Viscount of Seabra, Portuguese magistrate and politician (b. 1798) January 24 – Lord Randolph Churchill, British statesman (b. 1849) January 25 – T. Muthuswamy Iyer, Lawyer, first Indian Judge of the Madras high court (b. 1832) January 26 – Arthur Cayley, British mathematician, (b. 1821) January 28 – François Certain de Canrobert, French general, Marshal of France (b. 1809) February 9 – Ōdera Yasuzumi, Japanese general (killed in action) (b. 1846) February 10 – Liu Buchan, Chinese admiral (suicide) (b. 1852) February 12 – Ding Ruchang, Chinese army officer, admiral (killed in action) (b. 1836) February 18 – Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen, Austrian general (b. 1817) February 20 – Frederick Douglass, American ex-slave and author (b. c.1818) February 25 – Henry Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare, politician (b. 1815) February 26 – Salvador de Itúrbide y Marzán, Prince of Mexico (b. 1849) March 2 – Berthe Morisot, French painter (b. 1841) March 3 – Geoffrey Hornby, British admiral (b. 1825) March 9 – Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, Austrian writer for whom the word masochism is named (b. 1836) March 10 – Charles Frederick Worth, English-born couturier (b. 1825) March 13 – Louise Otto-Peters, German women's rights movement activist (b. 1819) March 30 – Beauchamp Seymour, British admiral (b. 1821) April 17 – Jorge Isaacs, Colombian writer, politician and explorer (b. 1837) April 25 – Emily Thornton Charles, American newspaper founder (b. 1845) May 19 – José Martí, Cuban independence leader (b. 1853) May 21 – Franz von Suppé, Austrian composer (b. 1819) May 23 – Franz Ernst Neumann, German mineralogist, physicist and mathematician (b. 1798) May 26 – Ahmed Cevdet Pasha, Ottoman statesman (b. 1822) May 28 – Walter Q. Gresham, American politician (b. 1832) May 30 – Joseph Marello, Italian Roman Catholic prelate (b. 1844) June 4 – Abu Bakar of Johor, Malaysian sultan (b. 1833) June 6 – Gustaf Nordenskiöld, Swedish explorer (b. 1868) June 13 – Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla, Prime Minister of Spain (b. 1833) June 27 – Sophie Adlersparre, Swedish feminist and magazine editor (b. 1823) June 29 Thomas Henry Huxley, English evolutionary biologist (b. 1825) Green Clay Smith, American politician (b. 1826) Floriano Vieira Peixoto, 2nd president of Brazil (b. 1839) Émile Munier, French artist (b. 1840) July–December July 18 – Stefan Stambolov, 9th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (assassinated) (b. 1854) July 28 – Edward Beecher, American theologian (b. 1803) July 29 – Floriano Peixoto, 2nd President of Brazil (b. 1839) August 4 – Louis-Antoine Dessaulles, Quebec journalist, politician (b. 1818) August 5 – Friedrich Engels, German communist philosopher (b. 1820) August 8 – Howell Edmunds Jackson, American Supreme Court Justice (b. 1832) August 22 – Luzon B. Morris, American politician (b. 1827) September 8 – Adam Opel, German founder of the automobile company Adam Opel AG (b. 1837) September 26 – Ephraim Wales Bull, American horticulturalist, creator of the Concord grape (b. 1806) September 28 – Louis Pasteur, French microbiologist, chemist (b. 1822) October 8 – Empress Myeongseong (Queen Min), last Korean empress (assassinated) (b. 1851) October 13 - Franklin Leonard Pope, American engineer, explorer, and inventor (b. 1840) October 25 – Sir Charles Hallé, German-born pianist, conductor (b. 1819) October 27/28 – Adele Spitzeder, German actress, folk singer and confidence trickster (b. 1832) November 5 – Prince Kitashirakawa Yoshihisa of Japan (b. 1847) November 23 – Mauritz de Haas, Dutch-American marine painter (b. 1832) November 24 – Ludwik Teichmann, Polish anatomist (b. 1823) November 27 – Alexandre Dumas, fils, French novelist and playwright (b. 1824) December 12 – Allen G. Thurman, American politician (b. 1813) December 13 – Ányos Jedlik, Hungarian physicist, inventor of the dynamo (b. 1800) December 27 – Eivind Astrup, Norwegian Arctic explorer (b. 1871) Date unknown Adelia Cleopatra Graves, American educator (b. 1821) References Sources Appletons' Annual Cyclopaedia and Register of Important Events of the Year 1895: Embracing Political, Military, and Ecclesiastical Affairs; Public Documents; Biography, Statistics, Commerce, Finance, Literature, Science, Agriculture, and Mechanical Industry'' (1896); highly detailed compilation of facts and primary documents; worldwide coverage. not online.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967

1967

Events January January 1 – Canada begins a year-long celebration of the 100th anniversary of Confederation, featuring the Expo 67 World's Fair. January 5 Spain and Romania sign an agreement in Paris establishing full consular and commercial relations (not diplomatic ones). Charlie Chaplin launches his last film, A Countess from Hong Kong, in the UK. January 6 – Vietnam War: USMC and ARVN troops launch Operation Deckhouse Five in the Mekong Delta. January 8 – Vietnam War: Operation Cedar Falls starts. January 12 – Dr. James Bedford becomes the first person to be cryonically preserved with the intent of future resuscitation. January 13 – A military coup occurs in Togo under the leadership of Étienne Eyadema. January 14 The New York Times reports that the U.S. Army is conducting secret germ warfare experiments. The Human Be-In takes place in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco; the event sets the stage for the Summer of Love. January 15 Louis Leakey announces the discovery of pre-human fossils in Kenya; he names the species Kenyapithecus africanus. American football: The Green Bay Packers defeat the Kansas City Chiefs 35–10 in the First AFL-NFL World Championship Game at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. January 18 Albert DeSalvo is convicted of numerous crimes and sentenced to life in prison. Jeremy Thorpe becomes leader of the UK's Liberal Party. January 23 In Munich, the trial begins of Wilhelm Harster, accused of the murder of 82,856 Jews (including Anne Frank) when he led German security police during the German occupation of the Netherlands. He is eventually sentenced to 15 years in prison. Milton Keynes (England) is founded as a new town by Order in Council, with a planning brief to become a city of 250,000 people. Its initial designated area enclosed three existing towns and twenty one villages. The area to be developed was largely farmland, with evidence of permanent settlement dating back to the Bronze Age. January 25 – South Vietnamese junta leader and Prime Minister Nguyen Cao Ky fired rival, Deputy Prime Minister and Defence Minister Nguyen Huu Co while the latter was overseas on a diplomatic visit. January 26 The Parliament of the United Kingdom decides to nationalise 90% of the nation's steel industry. Chicago's largest-ever blizzard begins. January 27 Apollo 1: U.S. astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee are killed when fire breaks out in their Apollo spacecraft during a launch pad test. The United States, Soviet Union and United Kingdom sign the Outer Space Treaty (ratified by USSR May 19; comes into force October 10), prohibiting weapons of mass destruction from space. January 31 – West Germany and Romania establish diplomatic relations. February February 2 – The American Basketball Association is formed. February 3 – Ronald Ryan becomes the last man hanged in Australia, for murdering a guard while escaping from prison in December 1965. February 4 – The Soviet Union protests the demonstrations before its embassy in Beijing. February 5 NASA launches Lunar Orbiter 3. Italy's first guided missile cruiser, the Vittorio Veneto, is launched. General Anastasio Somoza Debayle becomes president of Nicaragua. February 6 – Alexei Kosygin arrives in the UK for an 8-day visit. He meets The Queen on February 9. February 7 The Chinese government announces that it can no longer guarantee the safety of Soviet diplomats outside the Soviet Embassy building. Serious bushfires in southern Tasmania claim 62 lives, and destroys 2,642.7 square kilometres (653,025.4 acres) of land. Mazenod College, Victoria, opens in Australia. February 10 – The 25th Amendment to the United States Constitution (presidential succession and disability) is ratified. February 11 – Burgess Ice Rise, lying off the west coast of Alexander Island, Antarctica, is first mapped by the British Antarctic Survey (BAS). February 13 – American researchers discover the Madrid Codices by Leonardo da Vinci in the National Library of Spain. February 15 – The Soviet Union announces that it has sent troops near the Chinese border. February 18 – New Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison claims he will solve the John F. Kennedy assassination, and that a conspiracy was planned in New Orleans. February 22 Suharto takes power from Sukarno in Indonesia (see Transition to the New Order and Supersemar). Donald Sangster becomes the new Prime Minister of Jamaica, succeeding Alexander Bustamante. February 23 Trinidad and Tobago is the first Commonwealth nation to join the Organization of American States. The 25th Amendment to the United States Constitution is enacted. February 24 – Moscow forbids its satellite states to form diplomatic relations with West Germany. February 25 The Chinese government announces that it has ordered the army to help in the spring seeding. Britain's second Polaris missile submarine, HMS Renown, is launched. February 26 – A Soviet nuclear test is conducted at the Semipalatinsk Test Site, Eastern Kazakhstan. February 27 – The Dutch government supports British EEC membership. March March 1 The city of Hatogaya, Saitama, Japan, is founded. Brazilian police arrest Franz Stangl, ex-commander of Treblinka and Sobibór extermination camps. The Red Guards return to schools in China. The Queen Elizabeth Hall is opened in London. Óscar Gestido is sworn in as President of Uruguay after 15 years of collegiate government. March 4 The first North Sea gas is pumped ashore at Easington, East Riding of Yorkshire. Queens Park Rangers become the first 3rd Division side to win the English Football League Cup at Wembley Stadium, defeating West Bromwich Albion 3–2. March 5 – Mohammad Mosaddegh (or Mosaddeq; ; ), deposed Iranian prime minister, dies after fourteen years of house arrest. March 6 – Mark Twain Tonight starring Hal Holbrook as Mark Twain, premieres on CBS television in the United States. March 7 – U.S. labor union leader Jimmy Hoffa begins his 8-year sentence for attempting to bribe a jury. March 9 – Joseph Stalin's daughter, Svetlana Alliluyeva, defects to the United States via the U.S. Embassy in New Delhi. March 11 – The first phase of the Cambodian Civil War begins between the Kingdom of Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge. March 12 The Indonesian State Assembly takes all presidential powers from Sukarno and names Suharto as acting president (Suharto resigned in 1998). The Velvet Underground's first album, The Velvet Underground & Nico, is released in the United States. It is initially a commercial failure but receives widespread critical and commercial acclaim in later years. March 13 – Moise Tshombe, ex-prime minister of Congo, is sentenced to death in absentia. March 14 The body of U.S. President John F. Kennedy is moved to a permanent burial place at Arlington National Cemetery. Nine executives of the German pharmaceutical company Grunenthal are charged for breaking German drug laws because of thalidomide. March 16 – In the Aspida case in Greece, 15 officers are sentenced to 2–18 years in prison, accused of treason and intentions of staging a coup. March 17 - The Grateful Dead debut their first album 'the Grateful Dead' consisting of the songs; The Golden Road, Beat it down on the Line, Good morning little schoolgirl, Cold rain and snow, Sitting on top of the world, Morning dew, New new minglewood blues, and Viola Lee blues March 18 Torrey Canyon oil spill: The supertanker runs aground between Land's End and the Scilly Isles off the coast of Britain. The classic Pirates of the Caribbean attraction opens at Disneyland, California. March 19 – A referendum in French Somaliland favors the connection to France. March 21 A military coup takes place in Sierra Leone. Vietnam War: In ongoing campus unrest, Howard University students protesting the Vietnam War, the ROTC program on campus and the draft, confront Gen. Lewis Hershey, then head of the U.S. Selective Service System, and as he attempts to deliver an address, shout him down with cries of "America is the Black man's battleground!" Charles Manson is released from Terminal Island. Telling the authorities that prison had become his home, he requested permission to stay. Upon his release, he relocates to San Francisco where he spends the Summer of Love. March 26 In New York City, 10,000 gather for the Central Park be-in. Jim Thompson, co-founder of the Thai Silk Company, disappears from the Cameron Highlands. March 28 – Pope Paul VI issues the encyclical Populorum progressio. March 29 A 13-day TV strike begins in the United States. The first French nuclear submarine, Le Redoutable, is launched. The SEACOM Asian telephone cable is inaugurated. Torrey Canyon oil spill: British Fleet Air Arm and Royal Air Force aircraft bomb and sink the grounded supertanker . March 31 – U.S. President Lyndon Johnson signs the Consular Treaty. April April 1 – A new South Vietnamese constitution is adopted. April 2 – A United Nations delegation arrives in Aden as its independence approaches. The delegation leaves April 7, accusing British authorities of lack of cooperation. The British say the delegation did not contact them. April 4 – Martin Luther King Jr. denounces the Vietnam War during his sermon at the Riverside Church in New York City. April 6 – Georges Pompidou begins to form the next French government. April 7 – Six-Day War (approach): Israeli fighters shoot down 7 Syrian MIG-21s. April 8 – Puppet on a String by Sandie Shaw (music and lyrics by Bill Martin and Phil Coulter) wins the Eurovision Song Contest 1967 for the United Kingdom. April 9 – The first Boeing 737 (a 100 series) takes its maiden flight. April 10 The AFTRA strike is settled just in time for the 39th Academy Awards ceremony to be held, hosted by Bob Hope. Best Picture goes to A Man for All Seasons. Oral arguments begin in the landmark Supreme Court of the United States case Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967), challenging the State of Virginia's statutory scheme to prevent marriages between persons solely on the basis of racial classifications. April 12 – The Ahmanson Theatre opens in Los Angeles. April 13 – Conservatives win the Greater London Council elections. April 14 – In San Francisco, 10,000 march against the Vietnam War. April 15 Large demonstrations are held against the Vietnam War in New York City and San Francisco. The march, organized by the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam, from Central Park to the United Nations drew hundreds of thousands of people, including Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Harry Belafonte, James Bevel, and Dr. Benjamin Spock, who marched and spoke at the event. A simultaneous march in San Francisco was attended by Coretta Scott King. Scotland defeats England 3–2 at Wembley Stadium, with goals from Law, Lennox and McCalligog, in the British Championships. This is England's first defeat since they won the World Cup, and ends a 19-game unbeaten run. April 20 The Surveyor 3 probe lands on the Moon. A Globe Air Bristol Britannia turboprop crashes at Nicosia, Cyprus, killing 126 people. April 21 Greece suffers a military coup by a group of military officers, who establish a military dictatorship led by Georgios Papadopoulos; future-Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou remains a political prisoner to December 25. The dictatorship ends in 1974. An outbreak of tornadoes strikes the upper Midwest section of the United States (in particular the Chicago area, including the suburbs of Belvidere and Oak Lawn, Illinois where 33 people are killed and 500 injured). April 23 – A group of young leftist radicals are expelled from the Nicaraguan Socialist Party (PSN). This group goes on to found the Socialist Workers Party (POS). April 24 Soyuz 1: Vladimir Komarov becomes the first Soviet cosmonaut to die, when the parachute of his space capsule fails during re-entry. In the NBA, the Philadelphia 76ers defeat the San Francisco Warriors 125–122 in game six to win the title. Some say this team is arguably the greatest of all time. A total lunar eclipse took place. April 27 – Montreal, Quebec, Expo 67, a World's Fair to coincide with the Canadian Confederation centennial, officially opens with Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson igniting the Expo Flame in the Place des Nations. April 28 In Houston, Texas, boxer Muhammad Ali refuses military service. He is stripped of his boxing title and barred from professional boxing for the next three years. Expo 67 opens to the public, with over 310,000 people attending. Al Carter from Chicago is the first visitor as noted by Expo officials. The U.S. aerospace manufacturer McDonnell Douglas is formed through a merger of McDonnell Aircraft and Douglas Aircraft (it becomes part of The Boeing Company three decades later). April 29 – Fidel Castro announces that all intellectual property belongs to the people and that Cuba intends to translate and publish technical literature without compensation. April 30 – Moscow's 537 m tall TV tower is finished. May May 1 Elvis Presley and Priscilla Beaulieu are married in Las Vegas. GO Transit, Canada's first interregional public transit system, is established. May 2 The Toronto Maple Leafs win the Stanley Cup. It is their last Stanley Cup and last finals appearance to date. It will turn out to be the last game in the Original Six era. Six more teams will be added in the fall. Harold Wilson announces that the United Kingdom has decided to apply for EEC membership. May 4 – Lunar Orbiter 4 is launched by the United States. May 6 Dr. Zakir Hussain is the first Muslim to become president of India. Four hundred students seize the administration building at Cheyney State College, now Cheyney University of Pennsylvania, the oldest institute for higher education for African Americans. Hong Kong 1967 riots: Clashes between striking workers and police kill 51 and injure 800. May 8 – The Philippine province of Davao is split into three: Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, and Davao Oriental. May 9 - Took place a partial solar eclipse. May 10 – The Greek military government accuses Andreas Papandreou of treason. May 11 – The United Kingdom and Ireland apply officially for European Economic Community membership. May 12 – The Jimi Hendrix Experience release their debut album, Are You Experienced. May 15 – The Waiting period leading up to the Six-Day War begins. May 17 Syria mobilizes against Israel. President Gamal Abdal Nasser of Egypt demands withdrawal of the peacekeeping UN Emergency Force in the Sinai. U.N. Secretary-General U Thant complies (May 18). May 18 Tennessee Governor Ellington repeals the "Monkey Law" (officially the Butler Act; see the Scopes Trial). In Mexico, schoolteacher Lucio Cabañas begins guerrilla warfare in Atoyac de Alvarez, west of Acapulco, in the state of Guerrero. NASA announces the crew for the Apollo 7 space mission (the first in the Apollo series with a crew): Wally Schirra, Donn F. Eisele, and R. Walter Cunningham. May 19 — Yuri Andropov becomes KGB chief in the Soviet Union. May 20 — The Spring Mobilization Conference, a gathering of 700 antiwar activists is held in Washington D.C. to chart the future moves for the U.S. antiwar movement May 22 – The Innovation department store in the centre of Brussels, Belgium, burns down. It is the most devastating fire in Belgian history, resulting in 323 dead and missing and 150 injured. May 23 A significant worldwide geomagnetic flare unfolded. Radio emissions coming from the Sun jammed military surveillance radars. Egypt closes the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, blockading Israel's southern port of Eilat, and Israel's entire Red Sea coastline. May 25 Celtic F.C. becomes the first Northern European football club to win the European Cup (now Champions League). May 26 – The Beatles release Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, nicknamed "The Soundtrack of the Summer of Love"; it will be number one on the albums charts throughout the summer of 1967. May 27 Naxalite Guerrilla War: Beginning with a peasant uprising in the town of Naxalbari, this Marxist/Maoist rebellion sputters on in the Indian countryside. The guerrillas operate among the impoverished peasants, fighting both the government security forces and private paramilitary groups funded by wealthy landowners. Most fighting takes place in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh. The Australian referendum, 1967 passes with an overwhelming 90% support, removing, from the Australian Constitution, 2 discriminatory sentences referring to Indigenous Australians. It signifies Australia's first step in recognising Indigenous rights. The folk rock band Fairport Convention plays their first gig in Golders Green, North London. May 30 – Biafra, in eastern Nigeria, announces its independence, which is not recognized. June June 2 Protests in West Berlin against the arrival of the Shah of Iran turn into fights, during which 27-year-old student Benno Ohnesorg is killed by a police officer. His death results in the founding of the terrorist group 2 June Movement. Luis Monge is executed in Colorado's gas chamber, in the last pre-Furman execution in the United States. June 4 – Stockport air disaster: British Midland flight G-ALHG crashes in Hopes Carr, Stockport, killing 72 passengers and crew. June 5 Moshe Dayan becomes Israel's Minister of Defense. Six-Day War begins: Israel launches Operation Focus, an attack on Egyptian Air Force airfields; the allied armies of Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Jordan invade Israel. Battle of Ammunition Hill, start of the Jordanian campaign Murderer Richard Speck is sentenced to death in the electric chair for killing 8 student nurses in Chicago. June 7 East Jerusalem is captured in a battle conducted by Israeli forces, without the use of artillery, in order to avoid damage to the Holy City. Two members of the American rock group Moby Grape are arrested for contributing to the delinquency of minors. June 8 USS Liberty incident: A U.S. Navy ship is attacked by Israeli forces, apparently in error, killing 34 crew. Egypt severed diplomatic relations with the United States June 10 Six-Day War ends: Israel and Syria agree to a United Nations-mediated cease-fire. The Soviet Union severs diplomatic relations with Israel. Margrethe, heir apparent to the throne of Denmark, marries French count Henri de Laborde de Monpezat. June 11 – A race riot occurs in Tampa, Florida after the shooting death of Martin Chambers by police while he was allegedly robbing a camera store. The unrest lasts several days. June 12 Loving v. Virginia: The United States Supreme Court declares all U.S. state laws prohibiting interracial marriage to be unconstitutional. Venera program: Venera 4 is launched by the Soviet Union (the first space probe to enter another planet's atmosphere and successfully return data). June 13 – Solicitor General Thurgood Marshall is nominated as the first African American justice of the United States Supreme Court. June 14 – Mariner program: Mariner 5 is launched toward Venus. June 14 – 15 – Glenn Gould records Prokofiev's Seventh Piano Sonata, Op. 83, in New York City (his only recording of a Prokofiev composition). June 16 – The Monterey Pop Festival begins and is held for 3 days. June 17 – The People's Republic of China tests its first hydrogen bomb. June 18 – Eighteen British soldiers are killed in the Aden police mutiny. June 23 – Cold War: U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson meets with Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin in Glassboro, New Jersey, for the 3-day Glassboro Summit Conference. Johnson travels to Los Angeles for a dinner at the Century Plaza Hotel where earlier in the day thousands of war protesters clashed with L.A. police. June 25 – 400 million viewers watch Our World, the first live, international, satellite television production. It features the live debut of The Beatles' song "All You Need Is Love". June 26 Pope Paul VI ordains 27 new cardinals (one of whom is the future Pope John Paul II). The Buffalo Race Riot begins, lasting until July 1; leads to 200 arrests. June 27 – The first automatic cash machine (voucher-based) is installed, in the office of Barclays Bank in Enfield, England. June 28 – Israel declares the annexation of East Jerusalem. June 30 – Moise Tshombe, former President of Katanga and former prime minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, is kidnapped to Algeria. July July 1 Canada celebrates its first one hundred years of Confederation. The EEC joins with the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Atomic Community, to form the European Communities (from the 1980s usually known as European Community [EC]). Seaboard Air Line Railroad merges with Atlantic Coast Line Railroad to become Seaboard Coast Line Railroad, first step to today's CSX Transportation. The first UK colour television broadcasts begin on BBC2. The first one is from the Wimbledon tennis championships. A full colour service begins on BBC2 on December 2. American Samoa's first constitution becomes effective. July 3 – A military rebellion led by Belgian mercenary Jean Schramme begins in Katanga, Democratic Republic of the Congo. July 4 – The British Parliament decriminalizes homosexuality. July 5 – Troops of Belgian mercenary commander Jean Schramme revolt against Mobutu Sese Seko, and try to take control of Stanleyville, Congo. July 6 Nigerian Civil War: Nigerian forces invade the secessionist Biafra May 30. A level crossing collision between a train loaded with children and a tanker-truck near Magdeburg, East Germany kills 94 people, mostly children. July 7 – All You Need Is Love is released in the UK. July 10 Heavy massive rains and a landslide at Kobe and Kure, Hiroshima, Japan, kill at least 371. New Zealand decimalises its currency from pound to dollar at £1 to $2 ($1 = 10/-). July 12 The Greek military regime strips 480 Greeks of their citizenship. 1967 Newark riots: After the arrest of an African-American cab driver for allegedly illegally driving around a police car and gunning it down the road, race riots break out in Newark, New Jersey, lasting 5 days and leaving 26 dead. July 14 The Bee Gees release their first international album Bee Gees' 1st in the UK. Near Newark, New Jersey, the Plainfield, NJ, riots take place. July 16 – A prison riot in Jay, Florida leaves 37 dead. July 18 – The United Kingdom announces the closing of its military bases in Malaysia and Singapore. Australia and the U.S. disapprove. July 19 A race riot breaks out in the North Side of Minneapolis on Plymouth Street during the Minneapolis Aquatennial Parade; businesses are vandalized and fires break out in the area, although the disturbance is quelled within hours. However, the next day a shooting sets off another incident in the same area that leads to 18 fires, 36 arrests, 3 shootings, 2 dozen people injured, and damages totaling 4.2 million. Two more such incidents occur during the following two weeks. Eighty-two people are killed in a collision between Piedmont Airlines Flight 22 and a Cessna 310 near Hendersonville, North Carolina. July 20 – Chilean poet Pablo Neruda receives the first Viareggio-Versile prize. July 23 – 31 – 12th Street Riot: In Detroit, one of the worst riots in United States history begins on 12th Street in the predominantly African American inner city: 43 are killed, 342 injured and 1,400 buildings burned. July 24 – During an official state visit to Canada, French President Charles de Gaulle declares to a crowd of over 100,000 in Montreal: Vive le Québec libre! (Long live free Quebec!). The statement, interpreted as support for Quebec independence, delights many Quebecers but angers the Canadian government and many English Canadians. July 29 An explosion and fire aboard the U.S. Navy aircraft carrier in the Gulf of Tonkin leaves 134 dead. Georges Bidault moves to Belgium where he receives political asylum. An earthquake in Caracas, Venezuela leaves 240 dead. July 30 – The 1967 Milwaukee race riots begin, lasting through August 3 and leading to a ten-day shutdown of the city from August 1. August August 1 - UAC TurboTrain maiden voyage. August 1 – Race riots in the United States spread to Washington, D.C.. August 2 - The movie, In the Heat of the Night, starring Sidney Poitier, is released and is later named the best picture of the year. August 2 – The Turkish football club Trabzonspor is established in Trabzon. August 5 – Pink Floyd releases their debut album The Piper at the Gates of Dawn in the United Kingdom. August 6 – A pulsar is noted by Jocelyn Bell and Antony Hewish. The discovery is first recorded in print in 1968: "An entirely novel kind of star came to light on Aug. 6 last year [...]". The date of the discovery is not recorded. August 7 Vietnam War: The People's Republic of China agrees to give North Vietnam an undisclosed amount of aid in the form of a grant. A general strike in the old quarter of Jerusalem protests Israel's unification of the city. August 8 – The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is founded in Bangkok, Thailand. August 9 – Vietnam War – Operation Cochise: United States Marines begin a new operation in the Que Son Valley. August 10 – Belgian mercenary Jean Schramme's troops take the Congolese border town of Bukavu. August 13 – The first line-up of Fleetwood Mac makes their live debut at the Windsor Jazz and Blues Festival. August 14 – Wonderful Radio London shuts down at 3:00 PM in anticipation of the Marine Broadcasting Offences Act. Many fans greet the staff upon their return to London that evening with placards reading "Freedom died with Radio London". August 15 – The United Kingdom Marine Broadcasting Offences Act declares participation in offshore pirate radio illegal. Radio Caroline defies the Act and continues broadcasting. August 19 – West Germany receives 36 East German prisoners it has "purchased" through the border posts of Herleshausen and Wartha. August 21 A truce is declared in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Two U.S. Navy jets stray into the airspace of the People's Republic of China following an attack on a target in North Vietnam and are shot down. Lt. Robert J. Flynn, the only survivor, is captured alive and will be held prisoner by China until 1973. August 24 – Pakistan's first steel mill is inaugurated in Chittagong, East Pakistan (Bangladesh). August 25 – American Nazi Party leader George Lincoln Rockwell is assassinated in Arlington, Virginia. August 27 The East Coast Wrestling Association is established. Beatles manager Brian Epstein is found dead in his locked bedroom. August 29 – The final episode of The Fugitive airs on ABC. The broadcast attracts 78 million viewers, one of the largest audiences for a single episode in U.S. television history. August 30 – Thurgood Marshall is confirmed as Justice of the United States Supreme Court. He is the first African American to hold the position. September September 1 The Khmer–Chinese Friendship Association is banned in Cambodia. Ilse Koch, known as the "Witch of Buchenwald", commits suicide in the Bavarian prison of Aichach. September 3 Nguyễn Văn Thiệu is elected President of South Vietnam. At 5:00 a.m. local time, all road traffic in Sweden switches from left-hand traffic pattern to right-hand traffic. September 4 – Vietnam War – Operation Swift: The United States Marines launch a search and destroy mission in Quảng Nam and Quảng Tín provinces. The ensuing 4-day battle in Que Son Valley kills 114 Americans and 376 North Vietnamese. September 5 – The television series The Prisoner has its world broadcast premiere on the CTV Television Network in Canada. September 10 – In a Gibraltar sovereignty referendum, only 44 voters out of 12,182 in the British Crown colony of Gibraltar support union with Spain. September 17 A riot during a football match in Kayseri, Turkey leaves 44 dead, about 600 injured. Jim Morrison and The Doors defy CBS censors on The Ed Sullivan Show, when Morrison sings the word "higher" from their #1 hit Light My Fire, despite having been asked not to. September 18 – Love Is a Many Splendored Thing debuts on U.S. daytime television and is the first soap opera to deal with an interracial relationship. CBS censors find it too controversial and ask for it to be stopped, causing show creator Irna Phillips to quit. September 27 – The arrives in Southampton at the end of her last transatlantic crossing. September 29 Tangerine Dream is founded by Edgar Froese in West-Berlin. The classic sci-fi TV series Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons broadcasts on ITV. September 30 – In the United Kingdom, BBC Radio completely restructures its national programming: the Light Programme is split between new national pop station Radio 1 (modelled on the successful pirate station Radio London) and Radio 2; the cultural Third Programme is rebranded as Radio 3; and the primarily-talk Home Service becomes Radio 4. October October 1 - India gains victory in Nathu La and Cho La clashes. October 3 – An X-15 research aircraft with test pilot William J. Knight establishes an unofficial world fixed-wing speed record of Mach 6.7. October 4 Omar Ali Saifuddin III of Brunei abdicates in favour of his son, His Majesty Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah. The Shag Harbour UFO incident occurs. October 6 – Southern California's Pacific Ocean Park, known as the "Disneyland By The Sea", closes down. October 8 – Guerrilla leader Che Guevara and his men are captured in Bolivia; they are executed the following day. October 12 Vietnam War: U.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk states during a news conference that, because of North Vietnam's opposition, proposals by the U.S. Congress for peace initiatives are futile. The Naked Ape, by Desmond Morris, is published. October 14 – Quebec Nationalism: René Lévesque leaves the Liberal Party. October 16 – Thirty-nine people, including singer-activist Joan Baez, are arrested in Oakland, California, for blocking the entrance of that city's military induction center. October 17 The musical Hair opens off-Broadway. It moves to Broadway the following April. Vietnam War: The Battle of Ong Thanh takes place. October 18 Vietnam War: Students at the University of Wisconsin–Madison protest over recruitment by Dow Chemical on the university campus; 76 are injured in the resulting riot. Walt Disney's 19th full-length animated feature The Jungle Book, the last animated film personally supervised by Disney, is released and becomes an enormous box-office and critical success. On a double bill with the film is the (now) much less well-known true-life adventure, Charlie the Lonesome Cougar. The Venera 4 probe descends through the Venusian atmosphere. A total lunar eclipse occurred. October 19 – The Mariner 5 probe flies by Venus. October 20 – Patterson–Gimlin film: Roger Patterson and Robert Gimlin's famous film of an unidentified animate cryptid, thought to be Bigfoot or Sasquatch, is recorded at Bluff Creek, California. October 21 Approximately 70,000 Vietnam War protesters march in Washington, D.C. and rally at the Lincoln Memorial; in a successive march that day, 50,000 people march to the Pentagon, where Allen Ginsberg, Abbie Hoffman, and Jerry Rubin symbolically chant to "levitate" the building and "exorcise the evil within." An Egyptian surface-to-surface missile sinks the Israeli destroyer Eilat, killing 47 Israeli sailors. Israel retaliates by shelling Egyptian refineries along the Suez Canal. October 23 – Charles de Gaulle becomes the first French Co-Prince of Andorra to visit his Andorran subjects. In addition to being President of France, de Gaulle is a joint ruler (along with Spain's Bishop of Urgel) of the tiny nation located in the mountains between France and Spain, pursuant to the 1278 agreement creating the nation. October 25 – The Abortion Act 1967 passes in the British Parliament and receives royal assent two days later. October 26 The coronation ceremony of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran, ruler of the nation since 1941, takes place. U.S. Navy pilot John McCain is shot down over North Vietnam and taken prisoner. His capture is confirmed two days later, and he remains a prisoner of war for more than five years. October 27 French President Charles de Gaulle vetoes British entry into the European Economic Community for the second time in the decade. London criminal Jack McVitie is murdered by the Kray twins, a crime that eventually leads to their imprisonment and downfall. October 29 President Joseph Mobutu of the Democratic Republic of the Congo launches an offensive against mercenaries in Bukavu. Expo 67 closes in Montreal, after having attracted more than 50 million visitors in six months. October 30 – Hong Kong 1967 riots: British troops and Chinese demonstrators clash on the border of China and Hong Kong. November November – Islamabad officially becomes Pakistan's political capital, replacing Karachi. November 2 Vietnam War: U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson holds a secret meeting with a group of the nation's most prestigious leaders ("the Wise Men") and asks them to suggest ways to unite the American people behind the war effort. They conclude that the American people should be given more optimistic reports on the progress of the war. A non-central total solar eclipse took place. November 3 – Vietnam War – Battle of Dak To: Around Đắk Tô (located about 280 miles north of Saigon near the Cambodian border), heavy casualties are suffered on both sides; U.S. troops narrowly win the battle on November 22. November 4 – 5 – In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, mercenaries of Jean Schramme and Jerry Puren withdraw from Bukavu, over the Shangugu Bridge, to Rwanda. November 6 – The Rhodesian parliament passes pro-Apartheid laws. November 7 U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967, establishing the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. Carl B. Stokes is elected Mayor of Cleveland, Ohio, becoming the first African American elected mayor of a major United States city. The 50th anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution is celebrated in the Soviet Union. November 8 – The BBC's first local radio station (BBC Radio Leicester) is launched. November 9 – Apollo program: NASA launches the first Saturn V rocket, successfully carrying the Apollo 4 test spacecraft from Cape Kennedy into Earth orbit. November 11 – Vietnam War: In a ceremony in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 3 United States prisoners of war are released by the Viet Cong and turned over to American "New Left" antiwar activist Tom Hayden. November 14 – The Congress of Colombia, in commemoration of the 150-year anniversary of the death of Policarpa Salavarrieta, declares this day as the "Day of the Colombian Woman". November 15 General Georgios Grivas and his 10,000 strong Greek Army division are forced to leave Cyprus, after 24 Turkish Cypriot civilians are killed by the Greek Cypriot National Guard in the villages of Kophinou and Ayios Theodhoros; relations sour between Nicosia and Athens. Turkey flies sorties into Greek territory, and masses troops in Thrace on her border with Greece. Test pilot Michael Adams is killed when his X-15 rocket plane tumbles out of control during atmospheric re-entry and disintegrates. November 17 Vietnam War: Acting on optimistic reports he was given on November 13, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson tells the nation that, while much remains to be done, "We are inflicting greater losses than we're taking ... We are making progress." (Two months later the Tet Offensive by the Viet Cong is widely reported as a Viet Cong victory by the U.S. press and thus as a major setback to the U.S.) French author Régis Debray is sentenced to 30 years imprisonment in Bolivia. (He will be released in 1970 after less than three years imprisonment.) November 18 – The UK pound is devalued from £1 = US$2.80 to £1 = US$2.40. November 19 – The establishment of TVB, the first wireless commercial television station in Hong Kong. November 20 – The "population clock" of the United States Census Bureau records the U.S. population at 200 million people at 11:03 a.m. Washington, D.C. time. November 21 – Vietnam War: United States General William Westmoreland tells news reporters: "I am absolutely certain that whereas in 1965 the enemy was winning, today he is certainly losing." November 22 – UN Security Council Resolution 242 is adopted by the UN Security Council, establishing a set of principles aimed at guiding negotiations for an Arab–Israeli peace settlement. November 25 – 1967 Australian Senate election: The Liberal/Country Coalition Government led by Prime Minister Harold Holt lost two seats, while the Labor Party led by Gough Whitlam failed to make any gains. The Democratic Labor Party won the two seats from the Liberals and gained the sole balance of power in the Senate. November 26 – Major floods hit Lisbon, Portugal, killing 462. November 27 – The Beatles release Magical Mystery Tour in the U.S. as a full album. The songs added to the original six songs on the double EP include "All You Need Is Love", "Penny Lane", "Strawberry Fields Forever", "Baby, You're a Rich Man" and "Hello, Goodbye". Release as a double EP will not take place in the UK until December. November 28 – The first pulsar to be discovered by Earth observers is found in the constellation of Vulpecula by astronomers Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish, and is given the name PSR B1919+21. November 29 – Vietnam War: U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara announces his resignation to become president of the World Bank. McNamara's resignation follows U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson's outright rejection of McNamara's early November recommendations to freeze troop levels, stop the bombing of North Vietnam, and hand over ground fighting to South Vietnam. November 30 Zulfikar Ali Bhutto founds the Pakistan People's Party and becomes its first chairman. It has gone on to become one of Pakistan's major political parties (alongside the Pakistan Muslim League) that is broken into many factions, bearing the same name under different leaders, such as the Pakistan's Peoples Party Parliamentarians (PPPP). The People's Republic of South Yemen becomes independent of the United Kingdom. Pro-Soviet communists in the Philippines establish Malayang Pagkakaisa ng Kabataan Pilipino as its new youth wing. U.S. Senator Eugene McCarthy announces his candidacy for the Democratic Party presidential nomination, challenging incumbent President Lyndon B. Johnson over the Vietnam War. December December 1 The Jimi Hendrix Experience releases Axis: Bold as Love. The RMS Queen Mary is retired. Her place is taken by the Queen Elizabeth 2. December 3 – Christiaan Barnard carries out the world's first heart transplant at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa. December 4 At 6:50 PM, a volcano erupts on Deception Island in Antarctica. Vietnam War: U.S. and South Vietnamese forces engage Viet Cong troops in the Mekong Delta (235 of the 300-strong Viet Cong battalion are killed). December 5 – In New York City, Benjamin Spock and Allen Ginsberg are arrested for protesting against the Vietnam War. December 6 – Vice President Jorge Pacheco Areco is sworn in as President of Uruguay after President Oscar Gestido dies in office. December 8 – Magical Mystery Tour is released by The Beatles as a double EP in the UK, while the only psychedelic rock album by The Rolling Stones, Their Satanic Majesties Request, is released in the UK and in the USA. December 9 Nicolae Ceaușescu becomes the Chairman of the Romanian State Council, making him the de facto leader of Romania. Jim Morrison is arrested on stage in New Haven, Connecticut for attempting to spark a riot in the audience during a concert. December 11 – Supersonic airliner Concorde is unveiled in Toulouse, France. December 12 – Guess Who's Coming to Dinner, one of the seminal race relations films of the 1960s, is released to theaters. December 13 – King Constantine II of Greece flees the country when his coup attempt fails. December 15 – The Silver Bridge over the Ohio River in Point Pleasant, West Virginia, collapses, killing 46 people. December 17 – Harold Holt, 17th Prime Minister of Australia, disappears when swimming at Cheviot Beach, 60 km from Melbourne. He was briefly replaced as Prime Minister by John McEwen, until the Liberal Party elected Minister for Education and Science John Gorton as leader. December 19 – Professor John Archibald Wheeler coined the astronomical term black hole. December 26 – The Beatles' film Magical Mystery Tour receives its world première on BBC Television in the UK. December 29 – Hyundai Motor founded in South Korea. December 31 The Green Bay Packers become the first team in the modern era to win their third consecutive NFL Championship. They defeat the Dallas Cowboys 21-17 in what becomes known as "The Ice Bowl". Motorcycle daredevil Evel Knievel attempts to jump 141 feet over the Caesars Palace Fountains on the Las Vegas Strip. Knievel crashes on landing and the accident is caught on film. Date unknown Warner Bros. becomes a wholly owned subsidiary of Seven Arts Productions, thus becoming Warner Bros.-Seven Arts. The Jari project begins in the Amazon. Albania is officially declared an atheist state by its leader, Enver Hoxha. The University of Winnipeg is founded in Canada. Lonsdaleite (the rarest allotrope of carbon) is first discovered in the Barringer Crater, Arizona. St Christopher's Hospice, the world's first purpose-built secular hospice specialising in palliative care of the terminally ill, is established in South London by Dame Cicely Saunders with the support of Albertine Winner. PAL is first introduced in Germany. Gunsmoke, after 12 seasons and with declining ratings, almost gets cancelled, but protests from viewers, network affiliates and even members of Congress and especially William S. Paley, the head of the network, lead the network to move the series from its longtime late Saturday time slot to early Mondays for the fall—displacing Gilligan's Island, which initially had been renewed for a fourth season but is cancelled instead. Gunsmoke would remain on CBS until 1975. Lech Wałęsa goes to work in Gdańsk shipyards. The Greek military junta exiles Melina Mercouri. Parker Morris Standards become mandatory for all housing built in new towns in the United Kingdom. Sabon typeface, designed by Jan Tschichold, introduced. Gabriel García Márquez's influential novel One Hundred Years of Solitude is published (in Spanish). The first edition of the book, A Short History of Pakistan, is published by Karachi University, Pakistan. Fernand Braudel begins publication of Civilisation matérielle, économie et capitalisme, XVe-XVIIIe siècle. The National Hockey League adds six more teams, doubling its size. The teams are the St. Louis Blues, Oakland Seals, Minnesota North Stars, Los Angeles Kings, Philadelphia Flyers, and Pittsburgh Penguins. Births January January 1 Sunny Chan, Hong Kong actor Derrick Thomas, American football player (d. 2000) January 2 Marcelo Costa de Andrade, Brazilian serial killer Tia Carrere, American actress Jón Gnarr, Icelandic comedian and politician Gary Larson, Australian rugby league player Francois Pienaar, South African rugby union player and coach January 4 – Marina Orsini, Canadian actress January 6 - A. R. Rahman, Indian composer, singer, and music producer January 7 David Berman, American musician (Silver Jews), singer, poet, and cartoonist (d. 2019) Nick Clegg, British politician Irrfan Khan, Indian actor (d. 2020) Mark Lamarr, British comedian, TV and radio presenter Ricky Stuart, Australian rugby league player and coach January 8 Małgorzata Foremniak, Polish actress R. Kelly, American R&B singer, songwriter, and convicted sex offender January 9 Dale Gordon, English footballer Dave Matthews, South African–born American musician January 11 – Michael Healy-Rae, Irish politician January 12 – Vendela Kirsebom, Norwegian supermodel January 13 Matjaž Cvikl, Slovenian footballer (d. 1999) Suzanne Cryer, American actress January 14 Kerri Green, American actress and film director Leo Ortolani, Italian comic book author Emily Watson, English actress January 15 – Lisa Lisa, American actress and singer January 16 – Andrea James, American producer and author January 17 – Song Kang-ho, Korean actor January 18 Kim Perrot, American basketball player (d. 1999) Iván Zamorano, Chilean footballer January 19 – Christine Tucci, American actress January 20 Wigald Boning, German actor, singer, writer and television presenter Kellyanne Conway, American pollster, political consultant, and pundit Aderonke Apata, advocate for LGBT equality, lesbian, human rights activist, feminist, and former asylum seeker. January 21 – Artashes Minasian, Armenian chess grandmaster January 23 Magdalena Andersson, 34th Prime Minister of Sweden Belkis Ayón, Cuban printmaker (d. 1999) Mohammad Daud Miraki, Afghan politician and activist Naim Süleymanoğlu, Turkish weightlifter (d. 2017) January 24 Phil LaMarr, American actor, voice actor, comedian, and writer John Myung, American musician January 25 Nozomu Sasaki, Japanese voice actor Voltaire, Cuban singer January 28 – Bongani Mayosi, South African cardiology professor (d. 2018) January 29 – Khalid Skah, Moroccan long-distance runner January 31 Randy Bernard, former CEO of Professional Bull Riders and IndyCar, current co-manager of Garth Brooks Fat Mike, American musician and producer Roberto Palazuelos, Mexican actor Joey Wong, Taiwanese actress February February 1 – Meg Cabot, American teen author February 2 Doc Hammer, American actor and voice artist Jenny Lumet, American actress Frederick Pitcher, Nauruan politician February 4 – Sergei Grinkov, Russian figure skater (d. 1995) February 5 – Chris Parnell, American actor, voice artist, comedian, and singer February 6 – Izumi Sakai, Japanese singer (Zard) (d. 2007) February 7 – Cheung Man, Hong Kong actress February 9 Todd Pratt, American baseball player Dan Shulman, Canadian sports announcer February 10 Laura Dern, American actress Ivan Francescato, Italian rugby union player (d. 1999) Vince Gilligan, American writer, director and producer Armand Serrano, Filipino animator Maria Rosa Candido, Italian short track speed skater (d. 1993) February 11 Hank Gathers, American college basketball player (d. 1990) Paul McLoone, Irish radio presenter, voice actor, former radio producer and frontman with The Undertones February 12 Sophie Fiennes, English film director and producer Chitravina N. Ravikiran, Indian composer and musician February 13 – Carolyn Lawrence, American actress and voice actress February 14 Mark Rutte, Dutch politician, 50th Prime Minister of the Netherlands since 2010. Sir Stelios Haji-Ioannou, British-Greek entrepreneur February 15 Dan Farr, American entrepreneur, Founder of Salt Lake Comic Con Trond Egil Soltvedt, Norwegian footballer February 18 Marco Aurélio, Brazilian footballer Roberto Baggio, Italian football player Colin Jackson, British former sprint and hurdling athlete John Valentin, American baseball player February 19 - Benicio del Toro, Puerto Rican-American actor February 20 Kurt Cobain, American musician (Nirvana) (d. 1994) David Herman, American actor Andrew Shue, American actor and activist Kath Soucie, American voice actress Lili Taylor, American actress February 22 Bentley Mitchum, American actor Paul Lieberstein, American screenwriter and actor February 25 – Oleg Babak, Soviet army officer (d. 1991) February 26 Currie Graham, Canadian actor Kazuyoshi Miura, Japanese footballer February 27 – Jonathan Ive, British industrial designer (Apple Inc.) February 28 – Laurence Treil, French model and actress March March 1 Michael Mronz, German sports and events manager George Eads, American actor Rosyam Nor, Malaysian actor March 3 Alexander Volkov, Russian tennis player (d. 2019) Hans Teeuwen, Dutch comedian March 4 Daryll Cullinan, South African cricketer Tim Vine, English comedian and actor March 6 Connie Britton, American actress Glenn Greenwald, American journalist and author Mihai Tudose, Prime Minister of Romania March 7 – Jean-Pierre Barda, Swedish singer (Army of Lovers) March 9 – Nikolas Vogel, German actor and news camera operator (d. 1991) March 11 John Barrowman, Scottish-American actor and singer Cynthia Klitbo, Mexican actress George Gray, American comedian and game show announcer March 12 – Massimiliano Frezzato, Italian comic writer March 13 – Andrés Escobar, Colombian football player (d. 1994) March 14 – Tomáš Cihlář, Czech chemist and virologist March 15 Naoko Takeuchi, Japanese artist Pierre Coffin, French film director and voice actor (Despicable Me, Minions) March 16 Lauren Graham, American actress and singer John Mangum, American professional football player March 17 – Billy Corgan, American musician and songwriter March 18 Taiten Kusunoki, Japanese actor and voice artist Andre Rison, American pro football player March 21 – Jonas Berggren, Swedish musician March 22 – Mario Cipollini, Italian cyclist March 25 Matthew Barney, American sculptor, photographer and filmmaker Debi Thomas, American figure skater March 27 Kenta Kobashi, Japanese professional wrestler Talisa Soto, American actress March 30 Albert-László Barabási, Romanian-born Hungarian-American physicist Christopher Bowman, American figure skater (d. 2008) Megumi Hayashibara, Japanese actress and voice actress April April 2 – Renée Estevez, American actress and writer April 4 – Xenia Seeberg, German actress April 5 Anu Garg, Indian-American writer and speaker Troy Gentry, American country musician (Montgomery Gentry) (d. 2017) April 6 Kathleen Barr, Canadian voice actress Jonathan Firth, English actor Mika Koivuniemi, Finnish ten-pin bowler April 9 Sam Harris, American neuroscientist and political podcast host Alex Kahn, American artist April 11 – Liina Olmaru, Estonian actress April 14 Steve Chiasson, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1999) Jeff Jarrett, American professional wrestler April 15 Frankie Poullain, British rock bassist Dara Torres, American swimmer April 17 Henry Ian Cusick, Scottish-Peruvian actor and director Kimberly Elise, African-American actress Marquis Grissom, American baseball player Liz Phair, American musician April 18 – Maria Bello, American actress April 20 Mike Portnoy, American musician Lara Jill Miller, American actress Raymond van Barneveld, Dutch darts player April 22 Sheryl Lee, American actress Sherri Shepherd, American comedian and TV show host April 23 Melina Kanakaredes, American actress Eleonora De Angelis, Italian voice actress April 24 Dino Rađa, Croatian basketball player Shannon Larkin, American drummer April 26 Glenn Jacobs (a.k.a. "Kane"), American professional wrestler Marianne Jean-Baptiste, English actress, singer-songwriter, composer and director April 27 Simcha Barbiro, Israeli actor and voice actor Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands, King of the Netherlands Aki Avni, Israeli actor April 28 – Kevin Jubinville, Canadian actor April 29 Curtis Joseph, Canadian hockey player Igor Meda, former Russian professional footballer Rachel Williams, American model, actress and television presenter April 30 Philipp Kirkorov, Soviet-Russian pop singer, actor and producer Steven Mackintosh, English actor May May 1 Scott Coffey, American actor and director Kenny Hotz, Canadian entertainer Tim McGraw, American country singer May 4 Ana Gasteyer, American actress Akiko Yajima, Japanese voice actress May 5 Takehito Koyasu, Japanese voice actor Bill Ward, English actor May 8 – Angus Scott, British sports television presenter May 10 – Nobuhiro Takeda, Japanese footballer and sportscaster May 11 – Géza Röhrig, Hungarian actor and poet May 12 Brent Forrester, American writer and producer Bill Shorten, Australian politician May 13 Chuck Schuldiner, American singer and guitarist (d. 2001) Melanie Thornton, American singer (La Bouche) (d. 2001) May 14 – Tony Siragusa, American football player May 15 Madhuri Dixit, Indian actress John Smoltz, American baseball player Ernesto Araújo, Brazil's former Minister of Foreign Affairs May 17 – Greg Florimo, Australian rugby league player and administrator May 19 – Geraldine Somerville, Irish actress May 20 – Pavlos, Crown Prince of Greece May 21 – Chris Benoit, Canadian professional wrestler (d. 2007) May 22 – Brooke Smith, American actress May 24 Andrey Borodin, Russian banker Eric Close, American actor Heavy D, Jamaican-born American rapper, singer, record producer, and actor (d. 2011) Bruno Putzulu, French actor May 25 Poppy Z. Brite, American author Andrew Sznajder, Canadian tennis player May 26 Stacy Compton, American racing driver Eddie McClintock, American actor Kristen Pfaff, American bassist (d. 1994) May 27 Paul Gascoigne, English footballer Kai Pflaume, German television presenter and game show host Kristen Skjeldal, Norwegian Olympic skier May 28 – Glen Rice, American basketball player May 29 Heidi Mohr, German footballer (d. 2019) Noel Gallagher, British musician (Oasis) May 31 Sandrine Bonnaire, French actress Phil Keoghan, New Zealand-born television host (The Amazing Race) Kenny Lofton, American baseball player June June 1 – Roger Sanchez, American DJ June 2 - Nadhim Zahawi, Iraqi-born British politician June 3 Anderson Cooper, American television journalist Tamás Darnyi, Hungarian swimmer Christopher Walker, Gibraltarian triathlete and cyclist June 5 Joe DeLoach, American athlete Ron Livingston, American actor June 6 Max Casella, American actor Tristan Gemmill, English actor Paul Giamatti, American actor June 7 Olli Mustonen, Finnish pianist and composer Dave Navarro, American guitarist and singer (Jane's Addiction, Red Hot Chili Peppers) June 8 Efan Ekoku, Nigerian footballer Jasmin Tabatabai, German/Iranian actress and musician June 9 Jian Ghomeshi, Iranian-Canadian radio personality Rubén Maza, Venezuelan long-distance runner June 10 Emma Anderson, British musician and songwriter (Lush and Sing-Sing) Darren Robinson, African-American rapper (The Fat Boys) (d. 1995) Elizabeth Wettlaufer, Canadian nurse and serial killer June 14 – Rushan Abbas, Uyghur-American activist June 15 Fred Tatasciore, American voice actor Yūji Ueda, Japanese voice actor June 16 Jürgen Klopp, German footballer and manager of Liverpool F.C. Ike Shorunmu, Nigerian football goalkeeper June 19 Bjørn Dæhlie, Norwegian Olympic skier Mia Sara, American actress June 20 Nicole Kidman, American-born Australian actress June 21 – Yingluck Shinawatra, Thai politician, 28th Prime Minister of Thailand June 23 – Yoko Minamino, Japanese Idol star and actress June 24 Richard Kruspe, German rock musician (Rammstein) Janez Lapajne, Slovenian film director June 26 Kaori Asoh, Japanese voice actress and singer Luisito Espinosa, Filipino boxer June 28 – Lars Riedel, German Olympic athlete June 29 Carl Hester, British dressage rider Melora Hardin, American actress and singer June 30 Quốc Bảo, Vietnamese songwriter and record producer Sture Fladmark, Norwegian football manager and player Babak NikTalab, Persian poet. Robert Więckiewicz, Polish film and television actor July July 1 Pamela Anderson, Canadian actress and model Luca Bottale, Italian voice actor Ritchie Coster, English film, television, and theatre actor Kim Komando, American talk radio program host Peter Plate, German musician, singer, songwriter and record producer July 2 Maïtena Biraben, French-Swiss television presenter and producer Paul Wekesa, Kenyan tennis player July 4 – Greg Kuperberg, Polish-American mathematician July 5 Silvia Ziche, Italian comics artist Steffen Wink, German actor July 6 Wendell Lawrence, Bahamian triple jumper Heather Nova, Bermudian singer-songwriter July 7 – Tom Kristensen, Danish racing driver July 8 Jordan Chan, Hong Kong singer and actor Henry McKop, Zimbabwean football defender July 9 Gunnar Axén, Swedish politician Mark Stoops, American football coach July 10 Tom Meents, American monster truck driver Ikki Sawamura, Japanese model, film and television actor, and television presenter July 11 – Jhumpa Lahiri, British-born Indian-American author July 12 John Petrucci, American musician Count Jefferson von Pfeil und Klein-Ellguth July 13 Benny Benassi, Italian DJ, record producer and remixer Akira Hokuto, Japanese women's professional wrestler July 14 Patrick J. Kennedy, American politician Robin Ventura, American baseball player July 15 Christopher Golden, American novelist Adam Savage, American TV show host Michael Tse, Hong Kong actor July 16 Jonathan Adams, American actor and voice actor Brian Baker, American actor Will Ferrell, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter Joel Stransky, South African rugby union player Mihaela Stanulet, Romanian artistic gymnast July 17 – Regina Lund, Swedish actress and singer July 18 Vin Diesel, American actor and film director Martin Eric Ain, Swiss-American musician (d. 2017) July 19 Rageh Omaar, broadcaster Lee Hsing-wen, Taiwanese actor July 20 Reed Diamond, American actor Courtney Taylor-Taylor, American singer-songwriter, frontman of The Dandy Warhols July 22 Irene Bedard, American actress Jeremy Callaghan, Papua New Guinean actor Rhys Ifans, Welsh actor and musician July 23 – Philip Seymour Hoffman, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2014) July 25 Matt LeBlanc, American actor Wendy Raquel Robinson, American actress Margarita Zavala, Mexican lawyer and politician, First Lady of Mexico Magdalena Forsberg, Swedish biathlete July 26 – Jason Statham, English actor, martial artist, and former diver July 28 Jakob Augstein, German journalist and publisher Taka Hirose, Japanese musician (Feeder) July 30 Marisol Espinoza, Peruvian politician, 1st Vice President of Peru A. W. Yrjänä, Finnish rock musician and poet July 31 Tony Bancroft, American artist (Disney) Rodney Harvey, American actor and model (d. 1998) Minako Honda, Japanese singer and musical actress (d. 2005) Elizabeth Wurtzel, author and feminist (d. 2020) August August 2 – Aaron Krickstein, American tennis player August 3 – Mathieu Kassovitz, French movie director and actor August 4 Tom Anderson, American partner at Optima Public Relations Arbaaz Khan, Indian actor Michael Marsh, American athlete August 5 Patrick Baumann, Swiss basketball executive and player and coach (d. 2018) Thomas Lang, Austrian drummer August 7 Eston Mulenga, Zambian footballer (d. 1993) Charlotte Lewis, English actress August 8 Yūki Amami, Japanese actress Sable, American wrestler, model and actress August 9 – Deion Sanders, American pro football and baseball player August 10 – Riddick Bowe, American boxer August 11 Enrique Bunbury, Spanish singer-songwriter Collin Chou, Taiwanese martial arts actor Joe Rogan, American comedian and television host Massimiliano Allegri, former Italian association football player and coach August 12 Andy Hui, Hong Kong singer and actor Emil Kostadinov, Bulgarian football player Regilio Tuur, Dutch boxer August 13 Amélie Nothomb, Belgian writer Jeanine Áñez, President of Bolivia August 15 – Brahim Boutayeb, Moroccan long-distance runner August 16 Mark Coyne, Australian rugby league player Ulrika Jonsson, Swedish-born television personality Pamela Smart, American murderer August 18 – Daler Mehndi, Indian singer August 19 Satya Nadella, Indian-American businessman and current CEO of Microsoft Deborah Kafoury, Oregon Elected Leader August 21 Carrie-Anne Moss, Canadian actress Serj Tankian, Lebanese-born singer (System of a Down) August 22 Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje, Nigerian-British actor and model Ty Burrell, American actor and comedian Yukiko Okada, Japanese idol singer (d. 1986) Layne Staley, American rock musician (Alice in Chains) (d. 2002) August 25 Tom Hollander, English actor Eckart von Hirschhausen, German physician and comedian August 26 Michael Gove, British politician András Rosztóczy, Hungarian gastroenterologist August 27 Ogie Alcasid, Filipino singer-songwriter, comedian, parodist, and actor Bob Nastanovich, American musician (Pavement, Silver Jews) August 28 – Masaaki Endoh, Japanese singer August 29 Neil Gorsuch, Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court since 2017 Anton Newcombe, American musician (The Brian Jonestown Massacre) August 30 – Frederique van der Wal, Dutch supermodel 31 August – Gene Hoglan, American drummer September September 3 Drena De Niro, American actress Luis Gonzalez, American baseball player September 5 Kōichi Morishita, Japanese long-distance runner Arnel Pineda, Filipino singer-songwriter (Journey) Matthias Sammer, German football player Jane Sixsmith, English field hockey player September 6 – Macy Gray, African-American urban musician September 9 – Akshay Kumar, Indian actor September 11 – Harry Connick Jr., American singer and actor September 12 Louis C.K., American comedian and actor Rob Renzetti, American animator and director September 13 Michael Johnson, American sprinter Temur Kabisashvili, retired Georgian professional football player Tim "Ripper" Owens, American rock singer (Judas Priest, Iced Earth, Yngwie Malmsteen) September 18 Tara Fitzgerald, British actress Mónica Kräuter, Venezuelan chemist and professor September 19 – Aleksandr Karelin, Russian Greco-Roman wrestler September 20 – Kristen Johnston, American actress September 21 Faith Hill, American country singer Suman Pokhrel, Nepalese poet September 22 Jason Moran, Australian criminal (d. 2003) Félix Savón, Cuban boxer Michelle Ruff, American voice actress September 23 Masashi Nakayama, Japanese footballer Jenna Stern, American actress September 25 Melissa De Sousa, American actress Audrey Wasilewski, American actress and voice actress September 27 – Debi Derryberry, American voice actress September 28 Mira Sorvino, American actress Moon Zappa, American actress, musician and author September 30 – Andrea Roth, Canadian actress October October 1 Gillian Welch, American country singer-songwriter October 2 Frankie Fredericks, Namibian athlete Lew Temple, American actor October 3 Jay Taylor, American basketball player (d. 1998) Tiara Jacquelina, Malaysian actress Rob Liefeld, American author and illustrator Denis Villeneuve, Canadian film director and writer October 4 – Liev Schreiber, American actor and film director October 5 Rex Chapman, American basketball player Guy Pearce, English-born Australian actor October 6 Bruno Bichir, Mexican actor Sergi López Segú, Spanish footballer (d. 2006) October 7 Samir Guesmi, French actor Toni Braxton, American R&B singer October 9 Maurice Banach, German footballer (d. 1991) Eddie Guerrero, Mexican-American professional wrestler (d. 2005) October 10 – Gavin Newsom, American politician, 40th Governor of California October 11 Artie Lange, American actor, comedian and radio personality Peter Thiel, German-American entrepreneur and venture capitalist October 13 Trevor Hoffman, American Major League Baseball player Hannu Lintu, Finnish conductor Javier Sotomayor, Cuban high jumper Kate Walsh, American actress October 16 – Davina McCall, British TV presenter and UK Big Brother host October 17 – René Dif, Danish-Algerian singer (Aqua) October 18 – Eric Stuart, American voice actor, singer, and voice director October 19 – Yōji Matsuda, Japanese actor and voice actor October 20 Kerrod Walters, Australian rugby league player Kevin Walters, Australian rugby league player and coach October 21 – Pam Rehm, American poet October 22 Salvatore Di Vittorio, Italian composer-conductor Ulrike Maier, Austrian alpine skier (d. 1994) Carlos Mencia, Latino-American actor and standup comedian October 24 Andrea Hirata, Indonesian author Jacqueline McKenzie, Australian actress October 26 – Keith Urban, New Zealand-born Australian country music singer October 27 – Scott Weiland, American musician (d. 2015) October 28 Julia Roberts, American actress Sophie, Hereditary Princess of Liechtenstein October 29 Joely Fisher, American actress Péter Kun, Hungarian guitarist (d. 1993) Rufus Sewell, English actor Beth Chapman, American bounty hunter (d. 2019) October 30 Ty Detmer, American NFL quarterback; 1990 Heisman Trophy winner Gavin Rossdale, English singer-songwriter and actor October 31 Vanilla Ice, American rapper Buddy Lazier, American race car driver November November 1 – Tina Arena, Australian singer-songwriter November 2 Akira Ishida, Japanese voice actor Scott Walker, American legislator and politician; 45th Governor of Wisconsin (2011–2019) November 3 – Steven Wilson, British musician November 4 – Keith English, American politician (d. 2018) November 5 – Judy Reyes, American actress November 6 Pervin Buldan, Turkish-Kurdish politician Rebecca Schaeffer, American actress (d. 1989) November 7 Father Paulo Ricardo, Brazilian Catholic priest, TV host, writer, and professor Noraini Ahmad, Malaysian politician David Guetta, French DJ and songwriter Sharleen Spiteri, Scottish singer-songwriter November 8 – Courtney Thorne-Smith, American actress November 11 – Gil de Ferran, Brazilian race car driver November 13 Juhi Chawla, Indian actress, model, and film producer Jimmy Kimmel, American comedian and talk show host Steve Zahn, American actor November 14 Letitia Dean, English actress Mary Woodvine, British actress November 15 François Ozon, French writer and director E-40, American rapper November 16 – Lisa Bonet, American actress November 19 - Zuhdi Jasser, American religious commentator and medical doctor November 20 – Teoman, Turkish rock singer and songwriter November 21 – Ken Block, American racing driver November 22 Boris Becker, German tennis player Mark Ruffalo, American actor Bart Veldkamp, Dutch-born speed skater November 23 – Salli Richardson, American actress November 24 - Jon Hein, American radio personality November 25 Anthony Nesty, Surinamese swimmer Mikey D, American rapper November 28 – Anna Nicole Smith, American model and actress (d. 2007) November 29 – Fernando Ramos da Silva, Brazilian actor, known as Pixote (d. 1987) December December 1 Néstor Carbonell, American actor, director and screenwriter Reggie Sanders, American Major League Baseball outfielder December 4 – Adamski, English dance music producer December 5 – Knez, Montenegrin singer December 6 – Judd Apatow, American screenwriter and producer December 7 – Tino Martinez, American baseball player December 8 – Kotono Mitsuishi, Japanese voice actress December 9 Joshua Bell, American violinist Caryn Kadavy, American figure skater December 11 DJ Yella, American DJ and record producer Mo'Nique, African-American actress and comedian Peter Kelamis, Australian voice actor December 12 – John Randle, American football player December 13 Jamie Foxx, African-American actor and singer Yūji Oda, Japanese singer and actor December 14 Ewa Białołęcka, Polish writer Louise Lear, English weather presenter (BBC) Ángel García Yáñez, Mexican federal senator (2018–2024) December 15 – Mo Vaughn, American baseball player December 16 Donovan Bailey, Canadian athlete Miranda Otto, Australian actress December 17 – Gigi D'Agostino, Italian musician and DJ December 18 Robert Wahlberg, American actor Toine van Peperstraten, Dutch sports journalist December 19 Criss Angel, American musician, magician, illusionist, escapologist and stunt performer Charles Austin, American Olympic athlete December 20 – Eugenia Cauduro, Mexican actress and model December 21 Mikheil Saakashvili, Georgian politician, 3rd President of Georgia and Governor of Odessa Oblast Masamune Kusano, Japanese musician December 22 Juan Manuel Bernal, Mexican actor Richey Edwards, Welsh musician (d. 1995) Dan Petrescu, Romanian footballer December 23 – Carla Bruni, Italian-French model, singer-songwriter and First Lady of France Deaths January January 3 Mary Garden, Scottish-American opera singer (b. 1874) Jack Ruby, American nightclub owner and convicted criminal, best known as the murderer of Lee Harvey Oswald (b. 1911) January 4 – Donald Campbell, English water and land speed record seeker (b. 1921) January 9 – Waldo Frank, American novelist and historian (b. 1889) January 12 – Holland Smith, American general (b. 1882) January 14 – Miklós Kállay, 34th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1887) January 17 Evelyn Nesbit, American actress and model (b. 1884) Barney Ross, American boxer (b. 1909) January 21 – Ann Sheridan, American actress (b. 1915) January 22 – Jobyna Ralston, American actress (b. 1899) January 23 – Holcombe Ward, American tennis player (b. 1878) January 24 – Luigi Federzoni, Italian Fascist politician (b. 1878) January 27 Crew of Apollo 1 (launch pad fire): Ed White, American astronaut (b. 1930) Gus Grissom, American astronaut (b. 1926) Roger Chaffee, American astronaut (b. 1935) David Maxwell Fyfe, 1st Earl of Kilmuir, British politician, lawyer, and judge (b. 1900) Alphonse Juin, Marshal of France (b. 1888) Luigi Tenco, Italian singer-songwriter (b. 1938) January 28 – Leonhard Seppala, Norwegian-American sled dog breeder, trainer and musher (b. 1877) January 31 – Eddie Tolan, American athlete (b. 1908) February February 3 – Joe Meek, English record producer and sound engineer (b. 1929) February 6 Martine Carol, French actress (b. 1920) Henry Morgenthau Jr., United States Secretary of the Treasury during World War II (b. 1891) February 7 – David Unaipon, Australian author and inventor (b. 1872) February 8 – Victor Gollancz, British publisher (b. 1893) February 13 – Abelardo L. Rodríguez, substitute president of Mexico (1932-1934) (b. 1889) February 14 – Sig Ruman, German actor (b. 1884) February 15 – Antonio Moreno, Spanish actor (b. 1887) February 16 – Smiley Burnette, American actor (b. 1911) February 17 – Ciro Alegría, Peruvian journalist, politician, and novelist (b. 1909) February 18 – J. Robert Oppenheimer, American physicist (b. 1904) February 21 – Charles Beaumont, American writer (b. 1929) February 24 – Franz Waxman, German-American composer (b. 1906) February 28 – Henry Luce, American publisher (b. 1898) March March 2 Gordon Harker, English actor (b. 1885) José Martínez Ruiz, 'Azorín', Spanish writer (b. 1873) March 5 Mischa Auer, Russian-born actor (b. 1905) Mohammad Mosaddegh, Iranian politician, 35th Prime Minister of Iran (b. 1882) Georges Vanier, Canadian Governor General (b. 1888) March 6 Nelson Eddy, American singer and actor (b. 1901) Zoltán Kodály, Hungarian composer (b. 1882) March 7 – Alice B. Toklas, American personality (b. 1877) March 11 – Geraldine Farrar, American soprano (b. 1882) March 23 – Pete Johnson, American boogie-woogie and jazz pianist, songwriter (b. 1904) March 27 – Jaroslav Heyrovský, Czech chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1890) March 30 – Jean Toomer, American writer (b. 1894) March 31 Don Alvarado, American actor (b. 1904) Rodion Malinovsky, Soviet military commander and Minister of Defence (b. 1898) April April 5 – Hermann Joseph Muller, American geneticist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1890) April 13 – Luis Somoza Debayle, 26th President of Nicaragua (b. 1922) April 15 – Totò, Italian actor (b. 1898) April 17 – Red Allen, American jazz trumpeter (b. 1908) April 18 – Friedrich Heiler, German theologian and historian (b. 1892) April 19 Konrad Adenauer, German statesman, 27th Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (b. 1876) William Boyle, 12th Earl of Cork and Orrery, British admiral of the fleet (b. 1873) April 22 – Tom Conway, British actor (b. 1904) April 23 – Edgar Neville, Spanish playwright and film director (b. 1899) April 24 – Vladimir Komarov, Soviet cosmonaut (b. 1927) April 25 – Joseph Boxhall, British sailor, fourth officer of the (b. 1884) April 29 – Anthony Mann, American actor and director (b. 1906) May May 6 – Zhou Zuoren, Chinese writer (b. 1885) May 7 – Judith Evelyn, American actress (b. 1909) May 8 Laverne Andrews, American singer (b. 1911) Elmer Rice, American playwright (b. 1892) May 10 – Lorenzo Bandini, Italian Formula One driver (b. 1935) May 12 – John Masefield, English poet and novelist (b. 1878) May 15 – Edward Hopper, American painter (b. 1882) May 18 – Andy Clyde, Scottish actor (b. 1892) May 21 Géza Lakatos, Hungarian general and politician, 36th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1890) Rexhep Mitrovica, Albanian politician, 18th Prime Minister of Albania (b. 1888) May 22 Langston Hughes, American writer, novelist, playwright, and columnist (b. 1902) Josip Plemelj, Slovene mathematician (b. 1873) May 27 Tilly Edinger, German-born American scientist, founder of paleoneurology (b. 1897) Johannes Itten, Swiss painter (b. 1888) May 29 – Georg Wilhelm Pabst, Austrian film director (b. 1885) May 30 – Claude Rains, British actor (b. 1889) May 31 – Billy Strayhorn, American composer and pianist (b. 1915) June June 3 – Arthur Tedder, British air force general, Marshal of the Royal Air Force (b. 1890) June 5 – Arthur Biram, Israeli philosopher and educator, and Israel Prize recipient (b. 1878) June 6 – Edward Givens, American astronaut (b. 1930) June 7 – Dorothy Parker, American writer (b. 1893) June 10 – Spencer Tracy, American actor (b. 1900) June 11 – Wolfgang Köhler, German psychologist (b. 1887) June 13 Gerald Patterson, Australian tennis champion (b. 1895) Edward Ellington, British military officer; Marshal of the Royal Air Force (b. 1877) June 14 – Eddie Eagan, American sportsman (b. 1897) June 16 – Reginald Denny, English actor (b. 1891) June 17 – Vernon Huber, American admiral and 36th Governor of American Samoa (b. 1899) June 26 – Françoise Dorléac, French actress (b. 1942) June 29 Primo Carnera, Italian boxer (b. 1906) Jayne Mansfield, American actress (b. 1933) July July 1 – Gerhard Ritter, German historian (b. 1888) July 8 Fatima Jinnah, Pakistan's "Mother of the Nation" (b. 1893) Vivien Leigh, English actress (b. 1913) July 9 – Eugen Fischer, German professor of medicine, anthropology and eugenics (b. 1874) July 13 – Tommy Lucchese, Italian-American gangster (b. 1899) July 14 – Tudor Arghezi, Romanian writer (b. 1880) July 17 Cyril Ring, American film actor (b. 1892) John Coltrane, American jazz saxophonist (b. 1926) July 18 – Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco, 26th President of Brazil (plane crash) (b. 1897) July 19 – John T. McNaughton, United States Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs and an advisor to Robert McNamara (plane crash) (b. 1921) July 20 – Lewis H. Brereton, American aviation pioneer and air force general (b. 1890) July 21 Jimmie Foxx, American baseball player (Philadelphia Athletics) and member of the MLB Hall of Fame (b. 1907) Albert Lutuli, South African politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1898) Basil Rathbone, British actor (b. 1892) July 22 – Carl Sandburg, American poet (b. 1878) August August 1 Richard Kuhn, Austrian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1900) Adrien Arcand, Canadian politician (b. 1899) August 9 Joe Orton, English playwright (b. 1933) Anton Walbrook, Austrian actor (b. 1896) August 13 – Jane Darwell, American actress (b. 1879) August 15 René Magritte, Belgian painter (b. 1898) Manuel Prado Ugarteche, 50th & 54th President of Peru (b. 1889) August 19 Isaac Deutscher, British Marxist historian (b. 1907) Hugo Gernsback, Luxembourg-born editor and publisher (b. 1884) August 22 – Gregory Goodwin Pincus, American biologist and researcher (b. 1903) August 23 – Nathaniel Cartmell, American Olympic athlete (b. 1883) August 24 – Henry J. Kaiser, American industrialist (b. 1882) August 25 Stanley Bruce, 8th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1883) Paul Muni, American actor (b. 1895) George Lincoln Rockwell, American Nazi Party leader (b. 1918) August 27 – Brian Epstein, English band manager (The Beatles) (b. 1934) August 30 Samuel Mosberg, American boxer, Olympic champion (b. 1896) Ad Reinhardt, American painter (b. 1913) August 31 Ilya Ehrenburg, Russian writer (b. 1891) Mikhail Kovalyov, Soviet general (b. 1897) September September 1 James Dunn, American actor (b. 1901) Ilse Koch, Nazi German war criminal (b. 1906) Siegfried Sassoon, British poet (b. 1886) September 3 – Francis Ouimet, American professional golfer (b. 1893) September 8 – Juliusz Rómmel, Polish general (b. 1881) September 12 – Vladimir Bartol, Slovene author (b. 1903) September 13 – Varian Fry, American journalist (b. 1907) September 18 – John Cockcroft, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1897) September 27 – Prince Felix Yusupov, Russian assassin of Rasputin (b. 1887) September 29 – Carson McCullers, American writer (b. 1917) October October 3 Woody Guthrie, American folk musician (b. 1912) Sir Malcolm Sargent, English conductor (b. 1895) Pinto Colvig, American actor, newspaper cartoonist, and circus performer (b. 1892) October 5 – Clifton Williams, American astronaut (b. 1932) October 7 – Sir Norman Angell, British politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1872) October 8 – Clement Attlee, British politician, 60th Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1883) October 9 Gordon Allport, American psychologist (b. 1897) Che Guevara, Argentine communist revolutionary (b. 1928) Cyril Norman Hinshelwood, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1897) Joseph Pilates, German physical culturist and developer of Pilates (b. 1883) Edith Storey, American actress (b. 1892) October 12 – Nat Pendleton, American actor and Olympic wrestler (b. 1895) October 17 – Xuantong Emperor, last Emperor of China (b. 1906) October 20 – Shigeru Yoshida, Japanese diplomat and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1878) October 21 – Ejnar Hertzsprung, Danish chemist and astronomer (b. 1873) October 29 – Julien Duvivier, French film director (b. 1896) October 30 – Charles Trowbridge, American actor (b. 1882) November November 7 – John Nance Garner, 32nd Vice President of the United States (b. 1868) November 9 – Charles Bickford, American actor (b. 1891) November 13 – Harriet Cohen, English pianist (b. 1895) November 15 – Alice Lake, American actress (b. 1895) November 19 – Casimir Funk, Polish biochemist (b. 1884) November 25 – Ossip Zadkine, Russian sculptor, painter and lithographer (b. 1890) November 26 – Albert Warner, American film producer (b. 1884) November 28 – Léon M'ba, 1st President of Gabon (b. 1902) November 29 – Ferenc Münnich, 47th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1886) December December 4 Daniel Jones, British phonetician (b. 1881) Bert Lahr, American actor (b. 1895) December 8 – Robert Henry Lawrence Jr., American astronaut (b. 1935) December 10 – Otis Redding, American singer (b. 1941) December 11 Howard Freeman, American actor (b. 1899) Victor de Sabata, Italian conductor and composer (b. 1892) December 17 – Harold Holt, 17th Prime Minister of Australia (body never found) (b. 1908) December 21 Stuart Erwin, American actor (b. 1903) Ejnar Hertzsprung, Danish chemist and astronomer (b. 1873) December 26 – Sydney Barnes, English cricketer (b. 1873) December 27 – Ferran Sunyer i Balaguer, Spanish mathematician (b. 1912) December 28 – Katharine McCormick, American suffragist (b. 1875) December 29 – Paul Whiteman, American bandleader (b. 1890) December 30 – Vincent Massey, Canadian Governor General (b. 1887) Date unknown Fathollah Khan Akbar, Iranian cabinet minister, 17th Prime Minister of Iran (b. 1878) Nobel Prizes Physics – Hans Bethe Chemistry – Manfred Eigen, Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, George Porter Physiology or Medicine – Ragnar Granit, Haldan Keffer Hartline, George Wald Literature – Miguel Ángel Asturias Peace – not awarded References Sources 1967 – Headlines A report from Michael Wallace of WCBS Newsradio 880 (WCBS-AM New York) Part of WCBS 880's celebration of 40 years of newsradio. 1967 – The Year in Sound An Audiofile produced by Lou Zambrana of WCBS Newsradio 880 (WCBS-AM New York) Part of WCBS 880's celebration of 40 years of newsradio. Everything you want to know about the Expo 67

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973

1973

Events January January 1 The United Kingdom, Ireland and Denmark enter the European Economic Community, which later becomes the European Union. CBS sells the New York Yankees for $10 million to a 12-person syndicate led by George Steinbrenner (3.2 million dollars less than the price CBS paid for the Yankees). January 14 Elvis Presley's concert in Hawaii is the first worldwide telecast by an entertainer that is watched by more people than watched the Apollo moon landings. American football: The Miami Dolphins complete the first and only perfect season in National Football League history by defeating the Washington Redskins 14–7 in Super Bowl VII at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. January 15 – Vietnam War: Citing progress in peace negotiations, U.S. President Richard Nixon announces the suspension of offensive action in North Vietnam. January 17 – Ferdinand Marcos becomes President for Life of the Philippines. January 18 – Eleven Labour Party councillors in Clay Cross, Derbyshire, England, are ordered to pay £6,985 for not enforcing the Housing Finance Act. January 20 – Richard Nixon is sworn in for a second term as President of the United States. Nixon is the only person to be have sworn in twice as President (1969, 1973) and Vice President of the United States (1953, 1957). January 21 – The Communist League is founded in Denmark. January 22 Roe v. Wade: The U.S. Supreme Court overturns state bans on abortion. George Foreman defeats Joe Frazier to win the heavyweight world boxing championship. A Royal Jordanian Boeing 707 flight from Jeddah crashes in Kano, Nigeria; 176 people are killed. Former U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson dies at his Stonewall, Texas, ranch, leaving no former U.S. president living until the resignation of Richard Nixon in 1974. The crew of Apollo 17 addresses a joint session of Congress after the completion of the final Apollo Moon landing mission. January 23 Eldfell on the Icelandic island of Heimaey erupts. U.S. President Richard Nixon announces that a peace accord has been reached in Vietnam. January 25 – English actor Derren Nesbitt is convicted of assaulting his wife Anne Aubrey. January 27 – U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War ends with the signing of the Paris Peace Accords. January 30 - The rock band Kiss plays its first concert for an audience of fewer than ten people at the Popcorn Pub in Queens NY. January 31 – Pan American and Trans World Airlines cancel their options to buy 13 Concorde airliners. February February 6 – Toronto: Construction on the CN Tower begins. February 8 – A military insurrection in Uruguay poses an institutional challenge to President Juan María Bordaberry. February 11 – Vietnam War: The first American prisoners of war are released from Vietnam. February 12 – Ohio becomes the first U.S. state to post distance in metric on signs (see Metrication in the United States). February 13 – The United States dollar is devalued by 10%. February 16 – The Court of Appeal of England and Wales rules that The Sunday Times can publish articles on thalidomide and Distillers Company, despite ongoing legal actions by parents (the decision is overturned in July by the House of Lords). February 21 – Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114 (Boeing 727) is shot down by Israeli fighter aircraft over the Sinai Desert, after the passenger plane is suspected of being an enemy military plane. Only 5 (1 crew member and 4 passengers) of 113 survive. February 22 – Sino-American relations: Following President Richard Nixon's visit to mainland China, the United States and the People's Republic of China agree to establish liaison offices. February 26 – Edward Heath's British government publishes a Green Paper on prices and incomes policy. February 27 – The American Indian Movement occupies Wounded Knee, South Dakota. February 28 The Republic of Ireland general election is held. Liam Cosgrave becomes the new Taoiseach. The landmark postmodern novel Gravity's Rainbow by Thomas Pynchon is published. March March 1 Charlotte's Web, the animated film based on the children's book of the same name, is released. Dick Taverne, having resigned from the Parliament of the United Kingdom on leaving the Labour Party, is re-elected as a 'Democratic Labour' candidate. Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon, one of rock's landmark albums, is released in the US. It is released in the UK on March 24. March 2 – Wellington Street bus station in Perth, Australia, is opened by western Australia's premier John Tonkin March 3 – Tottenham Hotspur wins the Football League Cup final at Wembley, beating Norwich City 1–0. March 7 – Comet Kohoutek is discovered. March 8 Northern Ireland sovereignty referendum (the "Border Poll"): 98.9% of those voting in the province want Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom. Turnout is 58.7%, although less than 1% for Catholics. This is the first referendum on regional government in the U.K. Provisional Irish Republican Army bombs explode in Whitehall and the Old Bailey in London. March 10 – Sir Richard Sharples, Governor of Bermuda, is assassinated in Government House. March 12 – Last episode of original Laugh-In airs on NBC. The show will continue with re-runs until May 14, 1973. March 17 Elizabeth II opens the modern London Bridge. Many of the few remaining United States soldiers begin to leave Vietnam. One reunion of a former POW with his family is immortalized in the Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph Burst of Joy. March 20 – A British government White Paper on Northern Ireland proposes the re-establishment of an Assembly elected by proportional representation, with a possible All-Ireland council. March 21 – The Lofthouse Colliery disaster occurs in Great Britain. Seven miners are trapped underground; none survive. March 23 – Watergate scandal (United States): In a letter to Judge John Sirica, Watergate burglar James W. McCord, Jr. admits that he and other defendants have been pressured to remain silent about the case. He names former Attorney General John Mitchell as 'overall boss' of the operation. March 26 – TV soap opera The Young and the Restless and game show The $10,000 Pyramid debuts on CBS. March 27 – At the 45th Academy Awards, The Godfather wins best picture. March 29 – The last United States soldier leaves Vietnam. April April 1 India launches the wildlife conservation program Project Tiger. Value Added Tax (VAT) is introduced in the United Kingdom. Beginning of the 1973 meat boycott in the United States April 2 – The LexisNexis computerized legal research service begins. April 3 – The first handheld mobile phone call is made by Martin Cooper of Motorola in New York City. April 4 – The World Trade Center complex in New York City is officially dedicated with a ribbon-cutting ceremony. April 5 Fahri Korutürk becomes the sixth president of Turkey. Pioneer 11 is launched on a mission to study the Solar System. April 6 – Ron Blomberg of the New York Yankees becomes the first designated hitter in Major League Baseball. April 7 – Tu te reconnaîtras by Anne-Marie David (music by Claude Morgan, text by Vline Buggy) wins the Eurovision Song Contest 1973 for Luxembourg. April 8 – Artist Pablo Picasso dies at his home in France. April 10 – Operation Spring of Youth: Israeli commandos raid Beirut, assassinating 3 leaders of the Palestinian Resistance Movement. The Lebanese army's inaction brings the immediate resignation of Prime Minister Saeb Salam, a Sunni Muslim. April 10 – The Islamic Republic of Pakistan introduced its new constitution, its supreme law. April 11 – The British House of Commons votes against restoring capital punishment by a margin of 142 votes. April 12 – The Labour Party wins control of the Greater London Council. April 15 – Naim Talu, a former civil servant, forms the new government of Turkey (36th government). April 17 The German counter-terrorist force GSG 9 is officially formed in response to the Munich massacre. Federal Express officially begins operations, with the launch of 14 small aircraft from Memphis International Airport. On that night, Federal Express delivers 186 packages to 25 U.S. cities from Rochester, New York, to Miami, Florida. The Morganza Spillway on the Mississippi River in Pointe Coupee Parish, Louisiana is opened for the first time in order to prevent catastrophic flooding in Baton Rouge and New Orleans. April 26 – The first day of trading on the Chicago Board Options Exchange. April 28 The last section of the IRT Third Avenue Line from 149th Street to Gun Hill Road in The Bronx is closed. Six Irishmen, including Joe Cahill, are arrested by the Irish Naval Service off County Waterford, on board a coaster carrying 5 tons of weapons destined for the Provisional Irish Republican Army. April 30 – Watergate scandal: President Richard Nixon announces that White House Counsel John Dean has been fired and that Attorney General Richard Kleindienst has resigned along with staffers H. R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman. May May 1 – An estimated 1,600,000 workers in the United Kingdom stop work in support of a Trades Union Congress "day of national protest and stoppage" against the Government's anti-inflation policy. May 3 – The Sears Tower in Chicago is topped-out, becoming the world's tallest building at . May 5 Shambu Tamang becomes the youngest person to climb to the summit of Mount Everest. Sunderland A.F.C. defeats Leeds United A.F.C. in the 1973 FA Cup Final. Secretariat wins the Kentucky Derby in a dramatic come from behind victory and sets the new and still existing Derby record of 1:59 2/5ths. Led Zeppelin plays before 56,800 persons at Tampa Stadium on the band's 1973 North American Tour, thus breaking the August 15, 1965, record of 55,600 set by The Beatles at Shea Stadium. May 8 – A 71-day standoff between federal authorities and American Indian Movement activists who were occupying the Pine Ridge Reservation at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, ends with the surrender of the militants. May 10 The Montreal Canadiens win the Stanley Cup 4 games to 2 over the Chicago Blackhawks, Yvan Cournoyer was voted MVP. The Polisario Front, a Sahrawi movement dedicated to the independence of Spanish Sahara, is formed. The New York Knicks defeat the Los Angeles Lakers, 102–93 in Game 5 of the NBA Finals to win the NBA title. May 11 – The Data Act (Sw. Datalagen) − the world's first national data protection law − is enacted in Sweden. May 13 Bobby Riggs challenges and defeats Margaret Court, the world's #1 women's player, in a nationally televised tennis match set in Ramona, CA northeast of San Diego. Riggs wins 6–2, 6-1 which leads to the huge Battle of the Sexes match against Billie Jean King later in the year on September 20. May 14 Skylab, the United States' first space station, is launched. The British House of Commons votes to abolish capital punishment in Northern Ireland. May 17 – Watergate scandal: Televised hearings begin in the United States Senate. May 18 – Second Cod War: Joseph Godber, British Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, announces that Royal Navy frigates will protect British trawlers fishing in the disputed limit around Iceland. May 19 – Secretariat wins the Preakness Stakes by 2 lengths over the amazingly quick second placed Sham. A malfunction in the track's timing equipment prevented a confirmed new track record. May 22 – Lord Lambton resigns from the British government over a 'call girl' scandal. May 23 – The Royal Canadian Mounted Police celebrate their 100th anniversary. May 24 – Earl Jellicoe, Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Lords in Britain, resigns over a separate prostitution scandal. May 25 Skylab 2 (Pete Conrad, Paul Weitz, Joseph Kerwin) is launched on a mission to repair damage to the recently launched Skylab space station. Héctor José Cámpora becomes democratic president of the Argentine Republic ending the 1966 to 1973 Revolución Argentina military dictatorship. May 27 – Soviet copyright law begins to recognize foreign copyrights. May 30 – Gordon Johncock wins the Indianapolis 500 in the Patrick Racing Special Eagle-Offenhauser, after only 133 laps, due to rain. (The race was begun May 28 but called due to rain.) June June 1 – The Greek military junta abolishes the monarchy and proclaims a republic. June 3 – A Tupolev Tu-144 crashes at the Paris air show; 15 are killed. June 4 – A United States patent for the Docutel automated teller machine is granted to Donald Wetzel, Tom Barnes and George Chastain. June 9 – Secretariat wins the Belmont Stakes shattering the record by an unbelievable 2 seconds, becoming the first Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing winner since 1948. June 10 – Henri Pescarolo and co-driver Gérard Larrousse (both France) win the 24 Hours of Le Mans in the Equipe Matra MS670B. June 17 – The submersible Johnson Sea Link becomes entangled on the wreckage of the off Key West, Florida. The submersible is brought to the surface the following day, but two of the four men aboard die of carbon dioxide poisoning. June 18 – U.S. President Richard Nixon begins several talks with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev. June 20 – The Ezeiza massacre occurs in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Snipers shoot at left-wing Peronists, killing at least 13 and injuring more than 300. June 22 – W. Mark Felt ("Deep Throat") retires from the Federal Bureau of Investigation. June 23 – A house fire in Kingston upon Hull, England, which kills a six-year-old boy is passed off as an accident; it later emerges as the first of 26 fire deaths caused over the next seven years by arsonist Peter Dinsdale. June 24 Leonid Brezhnev addresses the American people on television, the first Soviet leader to do so. UpStairs Lounge arson attack, an as-yet unsolved attack on a gay bar in New Orleans, Louisiana, in which 32 patrons died. June 25 Erskine Hamilton Childers is elected the 4th President of Ireland. Watergate scandal: Former White House counsel John Dean begins his testimony before the Senate Watergate Committee. June 26 – At Plesetsk Cosmodrome, nine persons are killed in the explosion of a Cosmos 3-M rocket. June 27 – Coup d'état in Uruguay: pressed by the military, President Juan María Bordaberry dissolves Parliament; a 12-year-long civic-military dictatorship begins. June 28 – Elections are held for the Northern Ireland Assembly, which will lead to power-sharing between unionists and nationalists in Northern Ireland for the first time. June 29 – Tanquetazo: failed coup attempt in Chile led by Lieutenant Colonel Roberto Souper against the government of Socialist president Salvador Allende. June 30 – A very long total solar eclipse occurs. During the entire second millennium, only seven total solar eclipses exceeded seven minutes of totality. July July 1 – The United States Drug Enforcement Administration is founded. July 2 – The United States Congress passes the Education of the Handicapped Act (EHA) mandating special education federally. July 3 – Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). July 4 – MLB: The New York Mets fall 12 games back in last place of the National League Eastern Division. July 5 The Isle of Man Post begins to issue its own postage stamps. The catastrophic BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion) occurs in Kingman, Arizona, following a fire that broke out as propane was being transferred from a railroad car to a storage tank, killing 11 firefighters. This explosion becomes a classic incident, studied in fire department training programs worldwide. July 6 – St Andrew's Cathedral, Singapore is gazetted as a national monument. July 10 – The Bahamas gains full independence within the Commonwealth of Nations. July 11 – Varig Flight 820 crashes near Orly, France; 123 people are killed. July 12 – National Personnel Records Center fire: A major fire destroys the entire 6th floor of the United States National Personnel Records Center in St. Louis, Missouri. July 16 – Watergate scandal: Former White House aide Alexander Butterfield informs the United States Senate Watergate Committee that President Richard Nixon had secretly recorded potentially incriminating conversations. July 17 – King Mohammed Zahir Shah of Afghanistan is deposed by his cousin Mohammed Daoud Khan while in Italy undergoing eye surgery. July 20 France resumes nuclear bomb tests in Mururoa Atoll, over the protests of Australia and New Zealand. Bruce Lee, American actor, philosopher, founder of Jeet Kune Do, dies in Hong Kong of cerebral edema (six days later his final film, Enter the Dragon, is released). July 21 – Lillehammer affair: Agents of Mossad, the Israeli secret intelligence agency, shoot and kill a Moroccan waiter in Lillehammer, Norway, mistakenly believing him to be a senior member of the Palestinian Black September Organization. July 23 – The Avianca Building in Bogotá, Colombia, suffers a serious fire, in which four people are killed. July 25 – The Soviet Mars 5 space probe is launched. July 28 The Summer Jam at Watkins Glen, a massive rock festival featuring the Grateful Dead, The Allman Brothers Band and The Band, attracts over 600,000 music fans. Skylab 3 (Owen Garriott, Jack Lousma, Alan Bean) is launched, to conduct various medical and scientific experiments aboard Skylab. July 29 – Formula One racing driver Roger Williamson dies in an accident, witnessed live on European television, during the 1973 Dutch Grand Prix. July 30 – An 11-year legal action for the victims of Thalidomide ends. July 31 Militant protesters led by Ian Paisley disrupt the first sitting of the Northern Ireland Assembly. A Delta Air Lines DC-9 aircraft flying as Delta Air Lines Flight 173 lands short of Boston's Logan Airport runway in poor visibility, striking a sea wall about 165 feet (50 m) to the right of the runway centerline and about 3,000 feet (914 m) short. All 6 crew members and 83 passengers are killed, 1 of the passengers dying several months after the accident. August August 1 – Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) inaugurated. August 2 – A flash fire kills 51 at the Summerland amusement centre at Douglas, Isle of Man. August 5 Black September members open fire at the Athens airport; 3 are killed, 55 injured. Mars 6, also known as 3MP No.50P, is a Soviet spacecraft launched to explore Mars. August 8 South Korean politician Kim Dae-jung is kidnapped in Tokyo by the KCIA. American serial killer, rapist, kidnapper and torturer Dean Corll is shot to death by one of his teenage accomplices, Elmer Wayne Henley, at Corll's Pasadena, Texas home. Henley turns himself in and confesses, uncovering the Houston Mass Murders, a series of murders in which 28 young boys have been abducted, tortured and murdered by Corll and his accomplices Henley and David Brooks (who is also arrested). August 11 – DJ Kool Herc originates the hip hop music genre in New York City. August 15 – The U.S. bombing of Cambodia ends, officially halting 12 years of combat activity in Southeast Asia according to the Case–Church Amendment-an act that prohibits military operations in Laos, Cambodia, and North and South Vietnam as a follow up of the Paris Peace Accords. August 23 – The Norrmalmstorg robbery occurs, famous for the origin of the term Stockholm syndrome. September September 3 – The British Trades Union Congress expels 20 members for registering under the Industrial Relations Act 1971. September 9 – Scottish racing driver Jackie Stewart becomes World Drivers' Champion when his Tyrrell 003-Cosworth places fourth in the 1973 Italian Grand Prix at Monza. September 11 Chile's democratically elected government is overthrown in a violent military coup after serious political instability. President Salvador Allende allegedly commits suicide during the coup in the presidential palace, and General Augusto Pinochet heads a US-backed military junta that governs Chile for the next 16 years. American singer Art Garfunkel finally releases his solo debut album Angel Clare, 17 years after starting his career. September 15 – Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden dies. His grandson, Carl XVI Gustaf, becomes king. September 18 – The two German Republics, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), are admitted to the United Nations. September 20 The "Battle of the Sexes": Billie Jean King defeats Bobby Riggs in a televised tennis match, 6–4, 6–4, 6–3, at the Astrodome in Houston, Texas. With an attendance of 30,492, this remains the largest live audience ever to see a tennis match in US history. The global audience that views on television in 36 countries is estimated at 90 million. Singer-songwriter Jim Croce dies following a gig at Northwestern State University in Natchitoches, Louisiana, having boarded a small chartered plane that crashes on takeoff; all six people aboard are killed. Baseball legend Willie Mays announces his retirement. September 22 – Henry Kissinger, United States National Security Advisor, starts his term as United States Secretary of State. September 23 – In American football, the Oakland Raiders defeat the Miami Dolphins 12–7, ending the Dolphins' unbeaten streak at 18. It is the Miami Dolphins' first loss since January 16, 1972 in Super Bowl VI. September 27 Soviet space program: Soyuz 12 (Vasily Lazarev, Oleg Makarov), the first Soviet manned flight since the Soyuz 11 tragedy in 1971, is launched. Luís Cabral declares the independence of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau from the Estado Novo regime in Portugal. It is later granted in September 1974. September 28 – The ITT Building in New York City is bombed in protest at ITT's alleged involvement in the September 11, 1973, coup d'état in Chile. September 30 – Yankee Stadium, known as "The House That Ruth Built", closes for a two-year renovation at a cost of $160 million. The New York Yankees play all of their home games at Shea Stadium in 1974 and 1975. October October 5 – Elton John releases his most successful album, Goodbye Yellow Brick Road. October 6 Yom Kippur War begins: The fourth and largest Arab–Israeli conflict begins, as Egyptian and Syrian forces attack Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights on Yom Kippur. French Formula One driver François Cevert is killed in the Tyrrell 003-Cosworth during the U.S. Grand Prix. Cevert's teammate, World Champion Jackie Stewart, announces his retirement after the event. October 8 – LBC Radio begins broadcasting on 97.3 FM in London. October 10 Spiro T. Agnew resigns as Vice President of the United States and then, in federal court in Baltimore, pleads no contest to charges of income tax evasion on $29,500 he received in 1967, while he was governor of Maryland. He is fined $10,000 and put on 3 years' probation. The New York Mets win the National League pennant. October 14 – Thai popular uprising Students revolt in Bangkok – In the Thammasat student uprising over 100,000 people protest in Thailand against the Thanom military government, 77 are killed and 857 are injured by soldiers, Thailand. October 15 – Typhoon Ruth crosses Luzon, Philippines, killing 27 people and causing $5 million in damage. October 17 – An OPEC oil embargo against several countries supporting Israel triggers the 1973 energy crisis. October 20 The Saturday Night Massacre: U.S. President Richard Nixon orders Attorney General Elliot Richardson to dismiss Watergate Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox. Richardson refuses and resigns, along with Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus. Solicitor General Robert Bork, third in line at the Department of Justice, then fires Cox. The event raises calls for Nixon's impeachment. The Sydney Opera House is opened by Elizabeth II after 14 years of construction work. October 21 – The Oakland Athletics defeat the New York Mets 5–2 to win the World Series 4 games to 3. October 25 – The Yom Kippur War ends. October 26 – The United Nations recognizes the independence of Guinea-Bissau. October 27 – The Canon City meteorite, a 1.4 kilogram chondrite type meteorite, strikes Earth in Fremont County, Colorado. October 30 – The Bosphorus Bridge in Istanbul, Turkey is completed, connecting the continents of Europe and Asia over the Bosporus for the first time in history. October 31 – Mountjoy Prison helicopter escape: Three Provisional Irish Republican Army members escape from Mountjoy Prison, Dublin, Republic of Ireland after a hijacked helicopter lands in the exercise yard. November November 1 – Watergate scandal: Acting Attorney General Robert Bork appoints Leon Jaworski as the new Watergate Special Prosecutor. November 3 Pan Am cargo flight 160, a Boeing 707-321C, crashes at Logan International Airport, Boston, killing 3 people. Mariner program: NASA launches Mariner 10 toward Mercury (on March 29, 1974, it becomes the first space probe to reach that planet). November 7 – The Congress of the United States overrides President Richard Nixon's veto of the War Powers Resolution, which limits presidential power to wage war without congressional approval. November 8 – Millennium '73, a festival hosted by Guru Maharaj Ji at the Astrodome, is called by supporters the "most significant event in human history". November 11 – Egypt and Israel sign a United States-sponsored cease-fire accord. November 14 – In the United Kingdom, Princess Anne marries Captain Mark Phillips in Westminster Abbey (they divorce in 1992). November 16 Skylab program: NASA launches Skylab 4 (Gerald Carr, William Pogue, Edward Gibson) from Cape Canaveral, Florida, on an 84-day mission. U.S. President Richard Nixon signs the Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act into law, authorizing the construction of the Alaska Pipeline. November 17 Watergate scandal: In Orlando, Florida, U.S. President Richard Nixon tells 400 Associated Press managing editors "I am not a crook." The Athens Polytechnic uprising occurs against the military regime in Athens, Greece. November 21 – U.S. President Richard Nixon's attorney, J. Fred Buzhardt, reveals the existence of an 18-minute gap in one of the White House tape recordings related to Watergate. November 25 – Greek dictator Georgios Papadopoulos is ousted in a military coup led by Brigadier General Dimitrios Ioannidis. November 27 – The United States Senate votes 92–3 to confirm Gerald Ford as Vice President of the United States. November 29 – 104 people are killed in a Taiyo department store fire in Kumamoto, Kyūshū, Japan. November – Queen Sisowath Kossamak of Cambodia is released from house arrest to Beijing. December December – Chile breaks diplomatic contacts with Sweden. December 1 – Papua New Guinea gains self-government from Australia. December 3 – Pioneer program: Pioneer 10 sends back the first close-up images of Jupiter. December 6 – The United States House of Representatives votes 387–35 to confirm Gerald Ford as Vice President of the United States; he is sworn in the same day. December 14 – Rhodesia executes two Blacks at Salisbury Central Prison for murder December 15 – Gay rights: The American Psychiatric Association removes homosexuality from its DSM-II. December 16 – O. J. Simpson of the Buffalo Bills became the first running back to rush for 2,000 yards in a pro football season. December 18 Soviet space program: Soyuz 13 (Pyotr Klimuk, Valentin Lebedev) is launched. The Islamic Development Bank is created as a specialized agency of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) (effective August 12, 1974). December 20 – Spanish prime minister Luis Carrero Blanco is assassinated in Madrid by the separatist organization ETA. December 28 – The Endangered Species Act is passed in the United States. December 30 – Terrorist Carlos fails in his attempt to assassinate British businessman Joseph Sieff. December 31 – In the United Kingdom, coal shortages caused by industrial action result in the implementation of the Three-Day Week electricity consumption reduction measure. Date unknown ODECA functions are suspended. Economist E. F. Schumacher publishes his book Small Is Beautiful. The New York Bible Society International's New International Version of the New Testament translated into modern American English is published. The National House Building Council is formed in the United Kingdom. The COSC The Swiss Official Chronometer testing Institute is founded in Switzerland by 5 Watch Cantons & Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry. The title Queen of Australia is created by the Royal Style and Titles Act. A large Song dynasty trade ship of c. 1277 A.D. is dredged up from the waters near the southern coast of China with 12 compartments in its hull. It confirms the descriptions of bulkheaded hull compartments for junks in Zhu Yu's Pingzhou Table Talks of 1119. The Sentosa Musical Fountain opens alongside the Fountain Gardens in Sentosa, Singapore. 5 teams tie for the rugby championship: Wales, England, France, Ireland, and Scotland. Lite Beer is introduced in the U.S. by the Miller Brewing Company. 1973 - Stadtbahnwagen B hybrid tram-train on heavy rail tracks developed. First modern premetro since interurbans. Births January January 1 Jimi Mistry, English actor Bryan Thao Worra, Lao writer January 3 – Jaroslav Švach, Czech footballer (d. 2020) January 4 Thuliswa Nkabinde-Khawe, South African politician (d. 2019) Greg de Vries, Canadian ice hockey player January 5 – Uday Chopra, Indian actor January 6 – Scott Ferguson, Canadian ice hockey player January 7 – Jonna Tervomaa, Finnish singer January 9 – Sean Paul, Jamaican singer January 10 – Ajit Pai, American politician and telecommunications director, Chairman of the Federal Communications Commission January 11 - Rahul Dravid, Indian cricket player and coach. January 12 Brian Culbertson, American contemporary jazz/R&B/funk musician, instrumentalist, producer and performer Joseph M. Smith, American actor, writer and producer Hande Yener, Turkish singer January 13 Nikolai Khabibulin, Russian hockey player Gloria Yip, Hong Kong actress January 14 Václav Burda, Czech ice hockey player (d. 2018) Giancarlo Fisichella, Italian race car driver Katie Griffin, Canadian actress and singer January 15 Essam El Hadary, Egyptian goalkeeper Tomáš Galásek, Czech football player Maksim Martynov, Russian engineer January 16 Josie Davis, American actress Liliana Barba, Mexican actress, voice actress and ADR director Marlies Somers, Dutch voice actress January 17 Cuauhtémoc Blanco, Mexican football and politician, Governor of Morelos 2018-2024 Chris Bowen, Australian politician Ari Lasso, Indonesian singer January 18 Burnie Burns, American filmmaker Crispian Mills, British musician (The Jeevas, Kula Shaker) Ben Willbond, English actor and screenwriter January 19 Ann Kristin Aarønes, Norwegian footballer Marta Cattani, Italian basketball player Wang Junxia, Chinese long-distance runner Karen Lancaume, French pornographic film actress (d. 2005) Antero Manninen, Finnish cellist Yevgeny Sadovyi, Russian swimmer Aaron Yonda, American YouTube celebrity January 21 – Chris Kilmore, American rock DJ (Incubus) January 22 – Abi Tucker, Australian actor and singer January 26 Brendan Rodgers, Northern Irish football manager Jörn Weisbrodt, German arts administrator January 27 – Shadmehr Aghili, Iranian pop singer, musician and composer January 29 Louise Hindsgavl, Danish artist Jason Schmidt, American baseball player January 30 – Jalen Rose, American basketball player January 31 Portia de Rossi, Australian actress Inés González Árraga, Venezuelan chemist and political prisoner. Shingo Katayama, Japanese golfer Daniel Lewis Lee, American white supremacist and convicted murderer (d. 2020) February February 1 Yuri Landman, Dutch artist and musician Nick Mitchell, American wrestler Makiko Ohmoto, Japanese voice actress Óscar Pérez Rojas, Mexican football goalkeeper February 2 – Aleksander Tammert, Estonian discus thrower February 3 – Ilana Sod, Mexican journalist February 4 Oscar De La Hoya, American boxer James Hird, Australian rules footballer for Essendon Brett Hestla, American musician and record producer. February 5 Trijntje Oosterhuis, Dutch pop singer Luke Ricketson, Australian rugby league player Deng Yaping, Chinese table tennis player February 7 Turki Al-Dakhil, Saudi journalist Angel Aquino, Filipina model, actress and host Juwan Howard, American retired professional basketball player Mie Sonozaki, Japanese voice actress Kate Thornton, British television presenter February 8 – Sonia Deol, British-Asian presenter February 9 – Svetlana Boginskaya, Soviet gymnast Makoto Shinkai, Japanese animator and filmmaker February 10 Núria Añó, Spanish writer Gunn-Rita Dahle, Norwegian mountain biker February 11 Jeon Do-yeon, South Korean actress Mishal Husain, British news presenter for the BBC Haruhi Terada, Japanese voice actress Varg Vikernes, Norwegian rock musician February 12 – Tara Strong, Canadian actress and voice actress February 13 – Ian Duncan, Baron Duncan of Springbank, English politician February 14 – Steve McNair, American football player (d. 2009) February 15 Anna Dogonadze, German trampoline gymnast Amy Van Dyken, American swimmer February 16 – Cathy Freeman, Australian athlete February 17 – Jen Taylor, American voice actress February 18 – Claude Makélélé, French footballer February 19 Eric Lange, American actor Christopher Kerze, American Missing Teenager February 20 Priyanshu Chatterjee, Indian film actor, previously model Kimberley Davies, Australian actress February 21 – Heri Joensen, Faroese musician (Týr) February 22 Mr. Niebla, Mexican professional wrestler (d. 2019) Shota Arveladze, Georgian football player Gustavo Assis-Brasil, Brazilian guitarist Scott Phillips, American rock drummer February 24 Alexei Kovalev, Russian ice hockey player Chris Fehn, American musician Yordan Yovchev, Bulgarian gymnast February 25 Julio Iglesias Jr., Spanish singer Anson Mount, American actor February 26 ATB, German DJ and music producer Anders and Jonas Björler, guitarists Marshall Faulk, American football player Ole Gunnar Solskjær, Norwegian footballer Jenny Thompson, American swimmer February 27 – Peter Andre, English singer and television personality February 28 Eric Lindros, Canadian hockey player Masato Tanaka, Japanese professional wrestler March March 1 Jack Davenport, English actor Ahmed El Sakka, Egyptian action actor Anton Gunn, American politician Kathrine Lee-Hinton, American flight attendant Chris Webber, American basketball player March 3 – Dejan Bodiroga, Serbian basketball player March 5 – Ryan Franklin, American baseball pitcher March 6 Peter Lindgren, Swedish musician Rumi Ochiai, Japanese voice actress March 7 – Rick Emerson, American talk show host and author 8 March – Tony Campos, American bassist March 9 Aaron Boone, American baseball player Matteo Salvini, Italian politician Uribe DJ, Colombian radio personality and television host March 10 Eva Herzigová, Czech model and actress John LeCompt, American musician Dan Swanö, Swedish musician March 13 Edgar Davids, Dutch footballer David Draiman songwriter and lead singer for the band Disturbed Ólafur Darri Ólafsson, Icelandic actor March 14 – Betsy Brandt, American actress March 15 – Lee Jung-jae, South Korean actor and model March 17 – Caroline Corr, Irish musician (The Corrs) March 18 – Luci Christian, American voice actress March 19 Magnus Hedman, Swedish footballer Simmone Jade Mackinnon, Australian actor March 20 Arjun Atwal, Indian golfer Cedric Yarbrough, American comedian, actor, voice artist and singer Talal Khalifa Aljeri, Kuwaiti businessman March 23 Jerzy Dudek, Polish footballer Jason Kidd, American basketball player March 24 Jacek Bąk, Polish footballer Jim Parsons, American actor and comedian Sakura Tange, Japanese voice actress March 25 – Anders Fridén, Swedish musician March 26 T. R. Knight, American actor Larry Page, American entrepreneur, founder and CEO of Google (2011-2015) March 27 – Sayaka Aoki, Japanese comedian March 28 Matt Nathanson, American singer-songwriter Umaga, Samoan-American professional wrestler (d. 2009) March 29 Brandi Love, American porn actress Marc Overmars, Dutch footballer March 30 – DJ AM, American DJ (d. 2009) April April 1 Stephen Fleming, New Zealand cricket captain Rachel Maddow, American political commentator Kris Marshall, British actor April 2 Simon Farnaby, English actor, writer and comedian Roselyn Sánchez, Puerto Rican-American actress April 3 Jamie Bamber, English actor Prabhu Deva, Indian actor Matthew Ferguson, Canadian actor Adam Scott, American actor April 4 David Blaine, American magician Loris Capirossi, Italian motorcycle racer April 5 Élodie Bouchez, French actress Cho Sung-min, South Korean baseball pitcher (d. 2013) Pharrell Williams, American musician and producer (The Neptunes) April 6 Lori Heuring, American actress Franck Marchis, American astronomer Rie Miyazawa, Japanese actress and singer Cindy Robinson, American voice actress April 7 – Christian O'Connell, British radio DJ and presenter April 8 – Emma Caulfield, American actress April 10 Roberto Carlos, Brazilian footballer Davide Cecotti, Italian footballer Selahattin Demirtaş, Turkish-Kurdish politician April 11 Jennifer Esposito, American actress Kris Marshall, English actor April 12 Christina Moore, American actress Amr Waked, Egyptian film, television and stage actor April 13 – Sergey Shnurov, Russian singer April 14 – Adrien Brody, American actor April 15 – Emanuel Rego, Brazilian beach volleyball player April 16 Akon, Senegalese American rapper, R&B singer-songwriter and record producer Teddy Cobeña, Spanish-Ecuadorian sculptor April 18 – Haile Gebrselassie, Ethiopian long-distance runner April 19 – George Gregan, Australian rugby union footballer April 21 Steve Backshall, English naturalist, writer and television presenter Mark Dexter, British actor Katsuyuki Konishi, Japanese voice actor April 22 – Christopher Sabat, American voice actor April 23 Cem Yılmaz, Turkish comedian and actor Zubin Damania, American physician and Internet personality April 24 Brian Marshall, American musician, songwriter, record producer and real estate broker Yevgeny Shabayev, Russian artistic gymnast (d. 1998) Sachin Tendulkar, Indian cricketer Lee Westwood, English golfer April 25 – Fredrik Larzon, Swedish rock musician (Millencolin) April 26 – Lee Woon-jae, South Korean footballer April 27 – Sharlee D'Angelo, Swedish guitarist April 28 Melissa Fahn, American actress Jorge Garcia, American actor and comedian Elisabeth Röhm, German-American actress April 29 Miguel Ángel Falasca, Spanish volleyball player and head coach (d. 2019) David Belle, French actor and stunt performer April 30 Leigh Francis, British comedian Jeff Timmons, American singer May May 1 Paul Burke, Irish rugby player Diana Hayden, Miss World and Indian actress Oliver Neuville, German footballer May 2 – Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck, German director May 3 Brad Martin, American musician Michael Reiziger, Dutch footballer May 4 – Guillermo Barros Schelotto, Argentine footballer May 5 David Hagen, Scottish footballer (d. 2020) Johan Hedberg, Swedish retired hockey goaltender also known as "Moose" May 7 – Paolo Savoldelli, Italian professional road racing cyclist May 8 Giant Ochiai, Japanese professional wrestler and mixed martial artist (d. 2003) Hiromu Arakawa, Japanese manga artist Marcus Brigstocke, British comedian May 9 – Tegla Loroupe, Kenyan long-distance runner May 10 Keylla Hernandéz, Puerto Rican television reporter (d. 2018) Gareth Ainsworth, English footballer Rüştü Reçber, Turkish football goalkeeper May 12 Mackenzie Astin, American actor Forbes March, American actor Robert Tinkler, Canadian voice actor May 14 Natalie Appleton, Canadian singer (All Saints) Shanice, African-American singer May 16 Muna AbuSulayman, Influential Arab and Muslim Media personality Jason Acuña, American skateboarder and actor Tori Spelling, American actress Kōsuke Toriumi, Japanese voice actor May 17 Sasha Alexander, American actress Joshua Homme, American musician Tamsier Joof, British dancer, choreographer and entrepreneur (of Senegalese and Gambian descent) May 18 – Kaz Hayashi, Japanese professional wrestler May 19 – Dario Franchitti, Scottish racecar driver May 20 Elsa Lunghini, French actress and singer Kaya Yanar, German comedian May 21 – Noel Fielding, British comedian May 23 Emperor Magus Caligula, Swedish Musician Jacopo Gianninoto, Italian musician May 24 Bartolo Colón, Dominican baseball player Dermot O'Leary, British television presenter Ruslana, Ukrainian pop star, activist, Eurovision Song Contest 2004 winner May 25 Jean-Pierre Canlis, American glass artist Ai Kobayashi, Japanese voice actress Demetri Martin, American actor and comedian May 27 – Jack McBrayer, American actor and comedian May 30 Leigh Francis, British comedian Minae Noji, American actress May 31 Cadaveria, Italian singer (Opera IX) Dominique van Roost, Belgian tennis player June June 1 Fred Deburghgraeve, Belgian swimmer Adam Garcia, Australian actor and singer Heidi Klum, German model Derek Lowe, American baseball player June 2 Carlos Acosta, Cuban-born ballet dancer Kevin Feige, American film producer and president of Marvel Studios June 8 – Lexa Doig, Canadian actress June 9 – Tedy Bruschi, American football player June 10 – Faith Evans, American singer June 12 Mitsuki Saiga, Japanese voice actress Darryl White, Australian footballer June 13 Sam Adams, American football player Ogie Banks, American voice actor June 14 – Ceca Raznatovic, Serbian folk singer June 15 Neil Patrick Harris, American actor, comedian, singer, presenter and host Dean McAmmond, Canadian hockey player Greg Vaughan, American actor June 17 – Louis Leterrier, French film director June 18 – Yumi Kakazu, Japanese voice actress June 19 Yuko Nakazawa, Japanese singer Gobind Singh Deo, Malaysian politician June 20 – Chino Moreno, American musician June 21 Zuzana Čaputová, Slovak politician, President of Slovakia Juliette Lewis, American actress Francesca Martiradonna, Italian basketball player Fedja van Huêt, Dutch actor Frank Vogel, American basketball coach June 22 Carson Daly, American television personality, host of NBC's The Voice and Last Call with Carson Daly Giorgio Pasotti, Italian actor and martial arts athlete June 23 Davies Chisopa, Zambian politician Gurbir Grewal, American attorney and prosecutor, Attorney General of New Jersey Marija Naumova (Marie N), Latvian singer, Eurovision Song Contest 2002 winner June 24 Alexander Beyer, German actor Matt Drummond, Australian film director, screenwriter and visual effects supervisor Jonathan Lambert, French actor and comedian Charles Venn, English actor June 25 Jamie Redknapp, English footballer Nuno Resende, Portuguese singer Tengku Zafrul Aziz, Malaysian banker and investor June 26 Paweł Małaszyński, Polish actor Samuel Benchetrit, French writer, actor, scenarist and director June 27 Razaaq Adoti, British actor, producer and screenwriter Olve Eikemo, Norwegian musician Gonzalo López-Gallego, Spanish film director June 28 Adrián Annus, Hungarian athlete Frost, Norwegian musician Andre Lange, German Olympic bobsledder June 29 Samir Choughule, Indian actor and writer Kento Masuda, Japanese composer and recording artist June 30 Robert Bales, United States Army staff-sergeant and suspect of the Kandahar massacre Chan Ho Park, Korean Major League Baseball player Hidetada Yamagishi, Japanese bodybuilder July July 1 Akhilesh Yadav, Indian politician Brenton Brown, South African-American Christian musician and worship leader July 2 – Peter Kay, British comedian July 3 Antonio Filippini, Italian footballer Emanuele Filippini, Italian footballer Emma Cunniffe, British actress Jonah Lotan, Israeli actor Mimi Miyagi, Filipino model, pornographic actress, film director and actress Owen H.M. Smith, American television producer, writer, actor and comedian Patrick Wilson, American actor July 4 Gackt, Japanese singer-songwriter and actor Mathieu Chantelois, Canadian television personality, journalist, magazine editor and marketing executive July 5 Joe, American singer-songwriter and record producer Dominic Power, English actor Marcus Allbäck, Swedish footballer and coach Andrei Zibrov, Russian actor July 6 Charizma, African-American rapper (d. 1993) Pablo Escudero Morales, Mexican lawyer and politician William Lee Scott, American actor Jehangir Wadia, Indian businessman July 7 Troy Garity, American actor Yoon Kyung-shin, South Korean handball player John Lapus, Filipino actor, host and comedian Luciano Nassyn, Brazilian singer Natsuki Takaya, Japanese manga artist July 8 Kathleen Robertson, Canadian actress and producer Medi Sadoun, French actor Sebastian Maniscalco, American stand-up comedian and actor July 9 Kelly Holcomb, American football player Enrique Murciano, American actor July 10 Neil Bannister, English cricketer Craig Heap, English gymnast Julián Legaspi, Uruguayan-Peruvian actor McNeil Hendricks, South African rugby union player Annie Mumolo, American actress, screenwriter, comedian and producer Andrej Hrnčiar, Slovak actor and politician Martin S. Jensen, Danish professional football goalkeeper Oleksandr Yanukovych, Ukrainian dentist and businessman July 11 Link Abrams, American-New Zealand basketball player Andrew Bird, American violinist and singer-songwriter Marcelo Charpentier, Argentine tennis player Konstantinos Kenteris, Greek athlete Kris Steele, American politician Mohsen Torky, Iranian football player July 12 Inoke Afeaki, Tongan rugby union footballer Christian Vieri, Italian footballer July 13 Roberto Martínez, Spanish football manager Danny Williams, British professional boxer July 14 Kanaka, South Indian actress Halil Mutlu, Bulgaria-born Turkish weightlifter Candela Peña, Spanish actress July 15 John Dolmayan, Lebanese-born rock drummer for the band System of a Down Brian Austin Green, American actor Yasemin Şamdereli, Turkish-German actress, screenwriter and film director July 16 Tim Ryan, American politician Stefano Garzelli, Italian professional road racing cyclist Yoshihiko Hakamada, Japanese actor Jonas Chernick, Canadian actor and screenwriter Graham Robertson, American filmmaker and author July 17 Tony Dovolani, Kosovar-American ballroom dancer Daimaou Kosaka, Japanese comedian Eric Moulds, American football player Liam Kyle Sullivan, American comedian July 18 – Chi In-jin, South Korean boxer July 19 Aílton, Brazilian football player Nathalie Boltt, South African actress Diether Ocampo, Filipino actor, singer and model Wayne Rigby, British boxer Toni Brogno, Belgian football striker Saïd Taghmaoui, French-American actor and screenwriter July 20 Roberto Orci, Mexican-American screenwriter and producer Peter Forsberg, Swedish hockey player Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway Raymart Santiago, Filipino television host, actor, action star and comedian July 21 – Ali Landry, American actress July 22 Rufus Wainwright, American-Canadian singer-songwriter and composer Jaime Camil, Mexican actor and singer Daniel Jones, Australian musician and record producer July 23 Omar Epps, American actor Nomar Garciaparra, American baseball player Fran Healy, Scottish singer-songwriter Monica Lewinsky, American White House intern July 24 – Jamie Denbo, American actress July 25 David Denman, American actor Dani Filth, British vocalist Kevin Phillips, English footballer Tony Vincent, American actor and singer July 26 – Kate Beckinsale, English actress July 27 Abe Cunningham, American drummer Gorden Tallis, Australian rugby league player July 28 – Steve Staios, Canadian ice hockey player July 29 – Wanya Morris, American singer July 30 Markus Näslund, Swedish ice hockey player Sonu Nigam, Indian singer July 31 – Jacob Aagaard, Danish-Scottish chess player August August 1 Tempestt Bledsoe, American actress Edurne Pasaban, Basque Spanish mountaineer August 2 Miguel Mendonca, Anglo-Azorean writer Susie O'Neill, Australian swimmer August 3 – Stephen Graham, English actor August 4 – Marcos, Brazilian footballer August 5 Michael Hollick, American actor Sean Sherk, American mixed martial artist, UFC Lightweight Champion August 6 Asia Carrera, American actress Vera Farmiga, American actress, director and producer August 7 – Giorgi Balashvili, former Georgian professional football player August 8 Jessica Calvello, American voice actress Scott Stapp, American singer-songwriter (Creed) August 9 Kevin McKidd, Scottish actor Filippo Inzaghi, Italian footballer Oleksandr Ponomariov, Ukrainian singer August 10 – Javier Zanetti, Argentine football player August 11 – Carolyn Murphy, American model August 12 – Richard Reid, English terrorist August 13 – Ryoko Shinohara, Japanese actress August 14 Jared Borgetti, Mexican footballer Jay-Jay Okocha, Nigerian footballer Kieren Perkins, Australian swimmer Thyra von Westernhagen, German noblewoman and landowner August 15 Kris Mangum, Professional football player Adnan Sami, Turkish music composer, pianist, singer August 16 Damian Jackson, American baseball player Mauricio Islas, Mexican actor August 19 Marco Materazzi, Italian football player HRH Crown Princess Mette-Marit of Norway August 20 – Todd Helton, American baseball player August 21 Sergey Brin, Russian-born American entrepreneur, co-founder of Google Steve McKenna, American hockey player Nikolai Valuev, Russian heavyweight boxing champion August 22 Howie D., American singer (Backstreet Boys) Kristen Wiig, American actress, comedian and writer August 23 Chelsi Smith, American actress, singer, television host and beauty queen (d. 2018) Joey Cramer, Canadian child actor August 24 Dave Brown, English comedian Dave Chappelle, African-American actor and comedian Inge de Bruijn, Dutch swimmer Grey DeLisle, American voice actress, comedian and singer-songwriter Carmine Giovinazzo, American actor August 25 – Hayko, Armenian singer (d. 2021) August 26 - Andy Muschietti, Argentine film director and screenwriter August 28 – Kirby Morrow, Canadian actor, comedian and writer (d. 2020) August 29 Abdo Hakim, Lebanese actor and voice actor Jason Spisak, American actor, voice actor and producer August 30 – Lisa Ling, American journalist September September 1 – Ram Kapoor, Indian actor September 3 Alexandra Kerry, American actress, filmmaker, director and producer Jennifer Paige, American singer-songwriter September 4 Jason David Frank, American actor and martial artist Diosbelys Hurtado, Cuban boxer Lazlow Jones, American writer, producer, director, talk show host and voice actor September 5 Paddy Considine, British actor, filmmaker and musician Rose McGowan, American actress Rachel Sheherazade, Brazilian journalist September 6 Carlo Cudicini, Italian footballer Greg Rusedski, Canadian-British tennis player September 7 – Shannon Elizabeth, American actress September 8 Khamis Al-Dosari, Saudi Arabian footballer (d. 2020) Troy Sanders, American musician (Mastodon, Killer Be Killed) September 9 Kazuhisa Ishii, Japanese baseball player Jennie Kwan, American actress and voice actress September 11 - Sohrab Bakhtiarizadeh, Iranian footballer September 12 Tarana Burke, American civil rights activist Darren Campbell, British athlete Maximiliano Hernández, American actor Paul Walker, American actor (d. 2013) September 13 Fabio Cannavaro, Italian footballer Travis Knight, American animator, producer and director September 14 Andrew Lincoln, English actor Nas, African-American rapper September 15 Julie Cox, English actress Indira Levak, Croatian lead vocalist of Colonia Lidija Perkov, Croatian writer, poet and journalist Prince Daniel, Duke of Västergötland, né Olof Daniel Westling, Swedish prince, married to Crown Princess Victoria September 17 – Ada Choi, Hong Kong actress September 18 Paul Brousseau, Canadian ice hockey player James Marsden, American actor Ami Onuki, Japanese singer Mark Shuttleworth, South African entrepreneur September 19 José Azevedo, Portuguese cyclist David Zepeda, Mexican actor, model and singer September 20 Jo Pavey, British athlete Li Xiaomeng, Chinese television host September 21 – Oswaldo Sánchez, Mexican footballer September 22 Craig McRae, Australian footballer Yoo Chae-yeong, South Korean singer and actress Bob Sapp, American professional wrestler, actor, American football player, kickboxer and mixed martial artist September 24 – Eddie George, American football player September 25 Bridget Marquardt, American television personality, model and actress Bridgette Wilson-Sampras, American actress September 26 – Lainey Lui, Canadian television personality, co-host of etalk September 29 Alfie Boe, English tenor Joe Hulbig, American ice hockey player September 30 – David Ury, American actor October October 1 – Christian Borle, American actor and singer October 2 Melissa Harris-Perry, African-American political commentator Lene Nystrøm, Norwegian singer (Aqua) Proof, American rapper (D12) (d. 2006) Verka Serduchka, Ukrainian Drag queen, comedian and singer, Eurovision Song Contest 2007 runner-up October 3 Neve Campbell, Canadian actress Richard Ian Cox, Welsh voice actor and radio host October 4 Chris Parks, American professional wrestler Craig Robert Young, British actor and singer (Deuce) October 5 – Annabelle Chvostek, Canadian singer-songwriter October 6 – Ioan Gruffudd, Welsh actor October 8 – Kari Korhonen, Finnish cartoonist October 9 Steve Burns, American actor, musician and television host Fabio Lione, Italian singer October 10 – Mario Lopez, American actor October 11 Takeshi Kaneshiro, Taiwanese/Japanese actor Daisuke Sakaguchi, Japanese voice actor October 13 Matt Hughes, American mixed martial arts fighter Nanako Matsushima, Japanese actress October 14 George Floyd, African-American victim of police brutality (d. 2020) Steven Bradbury, Australian short track speed skater Masato Sakai, Japanese voice actor and actor Lasha Zhvania, Georgian politician October 15 Susy Pryde, New Zealand cyclist Dax Riggs, American musician October 16 – Todd van der Heyden, Canadian journalist and news anchor October 18 Sergey Bezrukov, Russian screen and stage actor Rachel Nichols, American sports journalist Alex Tagliani, Canadian race car driver Black Child, rapper from Queens October 19 – Joaquin Gage, Canadian ice hockey player October 21 – Beverley Turner, British television and radio presenter October 22 – Ichiro Suzuki, Japanese baseball player October 23 – Malaika Arora, Indian actress, dancer, model, VJ and television personality October 24 Kurt Kuenne, filmmaker, known for documentary Dear Zachary Levi Leipheimer, American professional cyclist October 25 – Lamont Bentley, American actor and rapper (d. 2005) October 26 Seth MacFarlane, American actor, screenwriter, producer, director and singer Taka Michinoku, Japanese professional wrestler October 28 Maryam Nawaz, Pakistani politician Montel Vontavious Porter, WWE Raw wrestler October 29 – Robert Pires, French football player October 30 Silvia Corzo, Colombian newsreader Edge, Canadian professional wrestler and 4-time WWE Champion October 31 – Beverly Lynne, American actress November November 1 Assia, Algerian singer Li Xiaoshuang, Chinese gymnast Aishwarya Rai, Indian actress, Miss World 1994 November 2 – Marisol Nichols, American actress November 3 Kirk Jones, African-American rapper (Onyx) Mick Thomson, American guitarist November 4 – Steven Ogg, Canadian actor November 5 Johnny Damon, American baseball player Peter Emmerich, American illustrator November 6 – Rumi Shishido, Japanese voice actress and singer November 7 – Yunjin Kim, South Korean-American film and theater actress November 8 David Muir, American journalist and news anchor November 9 Alyson Court, Canadian actress and voice actress Nick Lachey, American actor, singer and television personality and host Maija Vilkkumaa, Finnish pop rock singer November 10 Jacqui Abbott, English singer Róbert Gulya, Hungarian composer November 11 – Jason White, American musician November 13 – Jordan Bridges, American actor November 14 Andrew Strong, Irish singer and actor Dana Snyder, American stand-up comedian, actor, voice actor and producer Mikey Kelley, American voice actor Hila Elmalich, Israeli fashion model (d. 2007) Lawyer Milloy, American football player November 16 – Marcus Lemonis, Lebanese-American businessman, investor and television personality November 19 Billy Currington, American country singer Savion Glover, American tap dancer, actor and choreographer November 20 Sav Rocca, American football player and Australian rules footballer Simone D'Andrea, Italian voice actor November 22 Cassie Campbell, Canadian ice hockey forward and CBC commentator Eliana, Brazilian television hostess, actress and singer November 24 – Amy Hayes, American ring announcer and model November 26 – Peter Facinelli, American actor November 27 Satyendra Dubey, Indian Engineering Service officer (d. 2003) Tadanobu Asano, Japanese actor and musician Sharlto Copley, South African producer, actor and director November 28 Rob Conway, American professional wrestler Jade Puget, American guitarist Gina Tognoni, American actress November 29 Ryan Giggs, Welsh footballer Raphael Smith, South African screenwriter and songwriter November 30 John Moyer, American bassist Nimród Antal, Hungarian-American film director, screenwriter and actor Christian, Canadian professional wrestler Angélica, Brazilian television presenter, actress and singer Im Chang-jung, South Korean actor December December 1 Lombardo Boyar, American stand-up, comedian, actor and voice artist Kieron Durkan, English footballer (d. 2018) Brian Froud, Canadian actor and voice actor December 2 Monica Seles, Hungarian-Yugoslavian tennis player Jan Ullrich, German professional road bicycle racer December 3 Holly Marie Combs, American actress Francisco Islas Rueda, Mexican professional wrestler December 4 Tyra Banks, American supermodel, talk show host Michael Jackson, English football defender Steven Menzies, Australian rugby league player December 5 Arik Benado, Israeli footballer Neil Codling, Member of Suede Sorin Grindeanu, 65th Prime Minister of Romania Mikelangelo Loconte, Italian singer Shalom Harlow, Canadian model and actress December 7 Carrie Kei Heim, American actress, lawyer and writer Terrell Owens, American football player Damien Rice, Irish singer-songwriter, musician and record producer December 8 – Corey Taylor, American rock vocalist (Slipknot, Stone Sour) December 9 – Bárbara Padilla, American operatic soprano December 10 Arden Myrin, American comedian Gabriela Spanic, Venezuelan-Mexican actress December 11 – Mos Def, African-American rapper and actor December 12 Tony Hsieh, American venture capitalist and businessman, CEO of Zappos (d. 2020) Paz Lenchantin, Argentine-American musician December 14 Tom S. Englund, Swedish musician Tomasz Radzinski, Canadian footballer Thuy Trang, Vietnamese-born actress (d. 2001) December 15 – Surya Bonaly, French figure skater December 16 Mariza, Portuguese fado singer Scott Storch, American hip-hop producer December 17 Martha Erika Alonso Hidalgo, Mexican politician (d. 2018) Rian Johnson, American filmmaker Paula Radcliffe, British athlete December 18 – Darryl Brown, Trinidad and West Indian cricketer December 20 – Antti Kasvio, Finnish swimmer December 21 – Mike Alstott, American football player December 24 Paul Foot, English comedian Stephenie Meyer, American novelist Kerry Nettle, Australian politician December 25 – Chris Harris, American professional wrestler December 26 – Reichen Lehmkuhl, American lawyer, businessman, reality show winner, previously model and occasional actor December 27 Wilson Cruz, American actor Elizabeth Rodriguez, American actress Kristoffer Zegers, Dutch composer December 28 Seth Meyers, American actor and comedian, currently hosts Late Night with Seth Meyers Ids Postma, Dutch speed skater December 29 Pimp C, American rap artist (d. 2007) Theo Epstein, American baseball general manager December 30 Jason Behr, American actor Ato Boldon, West Indian athlete Jason Molina, American musician (d. 2013) December 31 – Nikolay Tsiskaridze, Russian dancer Date unknown Tiago Carneiro da Cunha, Brazilian artist Iliana Hernández, Cuban journalist Matthew Walker, English sleep scientist Deaths January January 2 – Eleazar López Contreras, 45th President of Venezuela (b. 1883) January 16 – Nellie Yu Roung Ling, Chinese dancer, former lady-in-waiting in Qing imperial court (b. 1889) January 22 – Lyndon B. Johnson, 36th President of the United States (b. 1908) January 23 – Kid Ory, American musician (b. 1886) January 24 – J. Carrol Naish, American actor (b. 1896) January 26 – Edward G. Robinson, American actor (b. 1893) January 28 – John Banner, Austrian-born actor (b. 1910) January 31 Ragnar Frisch, Norwegian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1895) Jack MacGowran, Irish film actor (b. 1918) February February 11 – J. Hans D. Jensen, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1907) February 15 Wally Cox, American actor (b. 1924) Tim Holt, American actor (b. 1919) February 16 – Francisco Caamaño, 50th President of the Dominican Republic (executed) (b. 1932) February 18 – Frank Costello, Italian-American Mafia gangster and crime boss (b. 1891) February 19 Ivan T. Sanderson, Scottish-American naturalist, cryptozoologist and writer (b. 1911) Joseph Szigeti, Hungarian violinist (b. 1892) February 22 Elizabeth Bowen, Irish novelist (b. 1899) Katina Paxinou, Greek actress (b. 1900) February 23 – Dickinson W. Richards, American physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1895) February 24 – Manolo Caracol, Spanish flamenco singer (b. 1909) February 28 – Cecil Kellaway, South African actor (b. 1890) March March 3 – Vera Panova, Soviet-Russian writer (b. 1905) March 6 – Pearl S. Buck, American writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1892) March 8 Benjamín de Arriba y Castro, Spanish Roman Catholic archbishop and cardinal (b. 1886) Ron "Pigpen" McKernan, American rock musician (Grateful Dead) (b. 1945) March 10 – Robert Siodmak, German-born American director (b. 1900) March 12 – Frankie Frisch, American baseball player (St. Louis Cardinals) and a member of the MLB Hall of Fame (b. 1898) March 13 – Melville Cooper, British actor (b. 1896) March 17 – Giuseppe Ferretto, Italian Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1899) March 18 Johannes Aavik, Estonian philologist (b. 1880) Lauritz Melchior, Danish opera singer (b. 1890) March 20 – Adolf Strauss, German general (b. 1879) March 22 – Hilda Geiringer, Austrian mathematician (b. 1893) March 23 – Ken Maynard, American actor (b. 1895) March 25 – Edward Steichen, American photographer (b. 1879) March 26 Sir Noël Coward, English composer and playwright (b. 1899) George Sisler, American baseball player (St. Louis Browns) and a member of the MLB Hall of Fame (b. 1893) April April 8 – Pablo Picasso, Spanish artist (b. 1881) April 12 – Arthur Freed, American film producer (b. 1894) April 13 Henry Darger, American outsider artist (b. 1892) Dudley Senanayake, 2nd Prime Minister of Sri Lanka (b. 1911) April 14 – Károly Kerényi, Hungarian philologist and mythologist (b. 1897) April 16 Nino Bravo, Spanish singer (b. 1944) Istvan Kertesz, Hungarian conductor (b. 1929) April 19 – Hans Kelsen, Austrian-born legal theorist (b. 1881) April 20 – Robert Armstrong, American actor (b. 1890) April 21 Merian C. Cooper, American aviator, director, and producer (b. 1893) Sir Arthur Fadden, Australian politician, 13th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1894) April 25 Fuad Chehab, 8th President of Lebanon (b. 1902) Frank Jack Fletcher, American admiral (b. 1885) April 26 – Irene Ryan, American actress (b. 1902) April 28 – Jacques Maritain, Catholic philosopher (b. 1882) May May 1 – Asger Jorn, Danish painter (b. 1914) May 6 – Myrna Fahey, American actress (b. 1933) May 8 – Alexander Vandegrift, American general (b. 1887) May 11 – Lex Barker, American actor (b. 1919) May 12 – Frances Marion, American screenwriter (b. 1888) May 16 – Jacques Lipchitz, French-American sculptor (b. 1891) May 18 – Jeannette Rankin, American politician (b. 1880) May 20 – Jarno Saarinen, Finnish motorcycle racer (b. 1945) May 21 Ivan Konev, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1897) Vaughn Monroe, American singer (b. 1911) May 26 Karl Löwith, German philosopher (b. 1897) May 27 – Constantin Daicoviciu, Romanian historian and archaeologist (b. 1898) May 29 – P. Ramlee, Malaysian film actor, director, singer, songwriter, composer, and producer (b. 1929) June–July June 1 – Mary Kornman, American actress (b. 1915) June 8 – Emmy Göring nee'' Sonnemann, German actress, second wife of Hermann Göring (b. 1893) June 9 – Erich von Manstein, German field marshal (b. 1887) June 10 – William Inge, American playwright (b. 1913) June 18 – Roger Delgado, English actor (b. 1918) June 23 – Fay Holden, American actress (b. 1893) June 24 – Mary Carr, American actress (b. 1874) June 26 – Ernest Truex, American actor (b. 1889) June 29 – Germán Valdés, Mexican actor, singer and comedian (b. 1915) June 30 Nancy Mitford, English novelist (b. 1904) Vasyl Velychkovsky C.Ss.R, Ukrainian Catholic bishop, martyr and blessed (b. 1903) July 2 Betty Grable, American actress (b. 1916) George Macready, American actor (b. 1899) July 6 Joe E. Brown, American actor and comedian (b. 1891) Otto Klemperer, German-born conductor (b. 1885) July 7 Max Horkheimer, German philosopher and sociologist (b. 1895) Veronica Lake, American actress (b. 1922) July 8 Ben-Zion Dinur, Russian-born Israeli educator, historian and politician (b. 1884) Wilfred Rhodes, English cricketer (b. 1877) July 11 Alexander Mosolov, Russian composer (b. 1900) Robert Ryan, American actor (b. 1909) July 12 – Lon Chaney Jr., American actor (b. 1906) July 13 – Willy Fritsch, German actor (b. 1901) July 18 – Jack Hawkins, British actor (b. 1910) July 20 Mikhail Isakovsky, Russian poet (b. 1900) Bruce Lee, Chinese-American martial artist and actor (b. 1940) Robert Smithson, American artist (b. 1938) July 23 – Eddie Rickenbacker, American World War I flying ace and race car driver (b. 1890) July 24 – Julián Acuña Galé, Cuban botanist (b. 1900) July 25 Dezső Pattantyús-Ábrahám, Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1875) Louis St. Laurent, 12th Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1882) July 26 – Konstantinos Georgakopoulos, Greek lawyer and professor, 152nd Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1890) July 29 Henri Charrière, French writer (b. 1906) Julio Adalberto Rivera Carballo, 34th President of El Salvador (b. 1921) Roger Williamson, British race car driver (b. 1948) July 31 – Annibale Bergonzoli, Italian general (b. 1884) August August 1 Gian Francesco Malipiero, Italian composer (b. 1882) Walter Ulbricht, East German politician, former leader of the Communist Party and 2nd head of State of the GDR (b. 1893) Nikos Zachariadis, Greek politician, former leader of the Communist Party of Greece (b. 1903) August 2 – Jean-Pierre Melville, French film director (b. 1917) August 4 – Eddie Condon, American jazz musician (b. 1905) August 6 Fulgencio Batista, 9th and 12th President of Cuba (b. 1901) James Beck, British actor (b. 1929) August 9 – Charles Daniels, American Olympic swimmer (b. 1885) August 10 – Douglas Kennedy, American actor (b. 1915) August 11 – Peggie Castle, American actress (b. 1927) August 12 Walter Rudolf Hess, Swiss physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881) Karl Ziegler, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1898) August 16 Veda Ann Borg, American actress (b. 1915) Selman Waksman, Ukrainian-American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1888) August 17 Conrad Aiken, American writer (b. 1889) Jean Barraqué, French composer (b. 1928) Paul Williams, American singer (The Temptations) (b. 1939) August 18 François Bonlieu, French Olympic alpine skier (b. 1937) Basil Brooke, 1st Viscount Brookeborough, British politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Northern Ireland (b. 1888) August 30 – Michael Dunn, American actor (b. 1934) August 31 – John Ford, American film director (b. 1894) September September 2 – J. R. R. Tolkien, British writer (b. 1892) September 9 – S. N. Behrman, American playwright, screenwriter, and biographer (b. 1893) September 11 – Salvador Allende, 30th President of Chile (b. 1908) September 12 – Marjorie Merriweather Post, American businesswoman (b. 1887) September 13 Betty Field, American actress (b. 1913) Sajjad Zaheer, Urdu writer and revolutionary (b. 1899) September 15 – King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden (b. 1882) September 16 Rafael Franco, 33rd President of Paraguay (b. 1896) Víctor Jara, Chilean political activist and singer-songwriter (b. 1932) September 18 – Théo Lefèvre, 39th Prime Minister of Belgium (b. 1914) September 19 – Gram Parsons, American musician (b. 1946) September 20 Jim Croce, American songwriter (b. 1943) Glenn Strange, American actor (b. 1899) Ben Webster, American jazz saxophonist (b. 1909) September 22 – Paul van Zeeland, 29th Prime Minister of Belgium (b. 1893) September 23 – Pablo Neruda, Chilean poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1904) September 24 – Josué de Castro, Brazilian writer, physician, geographer and activist against hunger (b. 1908) September 26 – Anna Magnani, Italian actress (b. 1908) September 28 Norma Crane, American actress (b. 1928) Mantan Moreland, American actor and comedian (b. 1902) September 29 – W. H. Auden, English poet (b. 1907) October October 1 – Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal, former Prime Minister of Afghanistan (b. 1921) October 2 Paul Hartman, American dancer and actor (b. 1904) Paavo Nurmi, Finnish Olympic athlete (b. 1897) October 6 Sidney Blackmer, American actor (b. 1895) François Cevert, French race car driver (b. 1944) October 7 – Bonner Fellers, United States Army general (b. 1896) October 8 – Gabriel Marcel, French Catholic existential thinker (b. 1889) October 9 – Sister Rosetta Tharpe, American singer and guitarist (b. 1915) October 10 – Ludwig von Mises, Austrian economist (b. 1881) October 16 – Gene Krupa, American jazz drummer (b. 1909) October 17 – Ingeborg Bachmann, Austrian poet and author (b. 1926) October 18 Leo Strauss, German-American political philosopher (b. 1899) Walt Kelly, American cartoonist (b. 1913) Crane Wilbur, American actor (b. 1886) October 19 – Margaret Caroline Anderson, American magazine publisher (b. 1886) October 22 – Pablo Casals, Spanish cellist and conductor (b. 1876) October 25 – Abebe Bikila, Ethiopian Olympic athlete (b. 1932) October 26 – Semyon Budyonny, Cossack cavalryman and Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1883) October 27 – Allan Lane, American actor (b. 1909) October 28 Cleo Moore, American actress (b. 1928) Taha Hussein, Egyptian writer (b. 1889) November November 3 Arturo de Córdova, Mexican actor (b. 1908) Marc Allégret, French film director (b. 1900) November 7 – Kiyohide Shima, Japanese admiral (b. 1890) November 11 Hassan al-Hudaybi, Egyptian general (b. 1891) Artturi Ilmari Virtanen, Finnish chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1895) November 12 – Wacław Stachiewicz, Polish writer, geologist, and general (b. 1894) November 13 B. S. Johnson, English experimental novelist (b. 1933) Lila Lee, American actress (b. 1901) Bruno Maderna, Italian conductor and composer (b. 1920) Elsa Schiaparelli, Italian fashion designer (b. 1890) November 16 – Alan Watts, British philosopher (b. 1915) November 18 – Alois Hába, Czech composer and musicologist (b. 1893) November 20 – Allan Sherman, American comedy writer, television producer, and song parodist (b. 1924) November 23 Sessue Hayakawa, Japanese-born American actor and film director (b. 1889) Constance Talmadge, American actress (b. 1898) November 25 Albert DeSalvo, American criminal, suspect in the Boston Strangler case (b. 1931) Laurence Harvey, English actor (b. 1928) November 28 – John Rostill, English bassist, musician and composer (The Shadows) (b. 1942) December December 1 – David Ben-Gurion, 1st Prime Minister of Israel (b. 1886) December 3 – Adolfo Ruiz Cortines, 47th President of Mexico (b. 1889) December 4 Lauri Lehtinen, Finnish Olympic athlete (b. 1908) Michael O'Shea, American actor (b. 1906) December 5 – Sir Robert Watson-Watt, Scottish engineer, radar pioneer (b. 1892) December 12 Atilio García, Argentine-born Uruguayan football player (b. 1914) Naokuni Nomura, Japanese admiral and Minister of the Navy (b. 1885) December 13 – Giuseppe Beltrami, Italian Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1889) December 16 – Sid Barnes, Australian cricketer (b. 1916) December 17 – Charles Greeley Abbot, American astrophysicist (d. 1872) December 20 Luis Carrero Blanco, Spanish admiral and politician, 69th Prime Minister of Spain (b. 1904) Bobby Darin, American singer, songwriter, musician, actor, dancer, impressionist and TV presenter (b. 1936) December 22 – James Anderson, Australian tennis champion (b. 1894) December 23 – Gerard Kuiper, Dutch-born American astronomer (b. 1905) December 25 İsmet İnönü, Turkish general and statesman, 3-time Prime Minister of Turkey and 2nd President of Turkey during World War II (b. 1884) Gabriel Voisin, French aviation pioneer (b. 1880) December 26 William Haines, American actor (b. 1900) Harold B. Lee, American president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1899) Nobel Prizes Physics – Leo Esaki, Ivar Giaever, Brian David Josephson Chemistry – Ernst Otto Fischer, Geoffrey Wilkinson Medicine – Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen Literature – Patrick White Peace – Henry Kissinger, Lê Đức Thọ Economics – Wassily Leontief References

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983

1983

The year 1983 saw both the official beginning of the Internet and the first mobile cellular telephone call. Events January January 1 – The migration of the ARPANET to TCP/IP is officially completed (this is considered to be the beginning of the true Internet). January 10 – Canada and the United States launch the television series Jim Henson's Fraggle Rock, an educational co-production advocating tolerance. January 19 – High-ranking Nazi war criminal Klaus Barbie is arrested in Bolivia. January 24 – Twenty-five members of the Red Brigades are sentenced to life imprisonment for the 1978 murder of Aldo Moro. January 25 – IRAS is launched from Vandenberg AFB, to conduct the world's first all-sky infrared survey from space. January 26 – Lotus 1-2-3 is released for IBM PC compatible computers. January 31 – Seatbelt use for drivers and front seat passengers becomes mandatory in the United Kingdom. February February 2 – Giovanni Vigliotto goes on trial on charges of polygamy involving 105 women. February 3 Prime Minister of Australia Malcolm Fraser is granted a double dissolution of both houses of parliament, for elections on March 5, 1983. Bill Hayden resigns as leader of the Australian Labor Party, and in the subsequent leadership spill Bob Hawke is elected as Hayden's successor unopposed. February 5 – 6 – The team of A. J. Foyt, Preston Henn, Bob Wollek and Claude Ballot-Lena won the 24 hours of Daytona in a Porsche 935 February 6 – Klaus Barbie is officially charged with war crimes. February 8 – The race horse Shergar is stolen from his owner's stud farm in County Kildare, Ireland, by an armed gang. February 12 – 100 women protest in Lahore, Pakistan, against military dictator Zia-ul-Haq's proposed Law of Evidence. The women were tear-gassed, baton-charged and thrown into lock-up. They were successful in repealing the law. February 13 A cinema fire in Turin, Italy, kills 64 people. Two US Marshals are killed and three lawmen are wounded in a shootout with Gordon Kahl in Medina, North Dakota. February 16 – The Ash Wednesday bushfires in Victoria and South Australia claim the lives of 75 people, in one of Australia's worst bushfire disasters. February 18 The Venezuelan bolívar is devalued and exchange controls are established in an event now referred to as Black Friday by many Venezuelans (the Bolívar had been the most stable and internationally accepted currency). Nellie massacre: Over 2,000 people, mostly Bangladeshi Muslims, are massacred in Assam, India, during the Assam agitation. Wah Mee massacre: 13 people are killed in an attempted robbery in the Chinatown area of Seattle, United States. February 24 A special commission of the Congress of the United States releases a report critical of the practice of Japanese internment during World War II. Bermondsey by-election (U.K.): Simon Hughes's defeat of Peter Tatchell is criticised for alleged homophobia. February 28 – The final episode of M*A*S*H airs, setting the record for most watched television episode and reaching a total audience estimated at 125 million, which remains unsurpassed. March March 1 – The Balearic Islands and Madrid become Autonomous communities of Spain. March 1 – First collection of twelve Swatch models was introduced in Zürich, Switzerland March 5 – Australian federal election: The Labor Party led by Bob Hawke defeats the Liberal/National Coalition Government led by Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser. Hawke would be sworn in on March 11. As soon as the results became clear, Fraser resigned from the Liberal leadership; he would be replaced by outgoing Minister for Industry and Commerce Andrew Peacock. March 8 – IBM releases the IBM PC XT. March 9 Anne Burford resigns as head of the United States Environmental Protection Agency amid scandal. The 3D printer is invented by Chuck Hull. March 16 – The Ismaning radio transmitter (last wooden radio tower in Germany) is demolished.　 March 21 – Yamoussoukro, officially becomes the Ivorian political capital after transfer from Abidjan. March 23 – Strategic Defense Initiative: U.S. President Ronald Reagan makes his initial proposal to develop technology to intercept enemy missiles. The media dub this plan "Star Wars". March 25 – Motown celebrates its 25th anniversary with the television special Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever, during which Michael Jackson performs Billie Jean and introduces the moonwalk. April April 3 – In Mexico, the 2nd festival of the popular Juguemos a Cantar series begins, it ends five weeks later on May 1. April 4 – The Space Shuttle Challenger is launched on its maiden voyage: STS-6. April 11 – Spain's Seve Ballesteros won the 47th PGA Masters Tournament April 13 – Minnesota's largest retailer Target Corporation expands into California, opening 11 stores. April 18 The 1983 United States embassy bombing in Beirut kills 63 people. Channel broadcasting is founded by the Disney Channel. April 22 – A reactor shut-down due to failure of fuel rods occurs at Kursk Nuclear Power Plant, Russia. April 25 – Cold War: Manchester, Maine, U.S., schoolgirl Samantha Smith is invited to visit the Soviet Union by its leader Yuri Andropov, after he read her letter in which she expressed fears about nuclear war. May May 6 – Stern magazine publishes the "Hitler Diaries" (which are later found to be forgeries). May 11 Sir Laurence Street is called on to head a Royal Commission after New South Wales Premier Neville Wran is alleged by the ABC program Four Corners to have attempted to influence the NSW magistracy. Wran temporarily hands over power to his deputy. Aberdeen F.C. beat Real Madrid 2–1 (after extra time) to win the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1983 and become only the third Scottish side to win a European trophy. May 14 – Dundee United F.C. are crowned champions of Scotland for the first time in their history by winning the Scottish Premier Division, on the final day of the league season at the home of their city rivals Dundee F.C., Dens Park. May 17 – Lebanon, Israel, and the United States sign an agreement on Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon. May 17 – New York Islanders beat the Edmonton Oilers four games to none to win the Stanley Cup May 20 Two separate research groups led by Robert Gallo and Luc Montagnier independently declare that a novel retrovirus may have been infecting people with HIV/AIDS, and publish their findings in the same issue of the journal Science. Church Street bombing. A car bombing in Pretoria, South Africa, kills 19 people. The bomb had been planted by members of Umkhonto we Sizwe, a military wing of the African National Congress. May 25 – Hamburger SV beat Juventus 1-0 in the final of the European Cup. May 26 – The 7.8 Sea of Japan earthquake shakes northern Honshu with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). A destructive tsunami is generated that leaves about 100 people dead. May 27 – Benton fireworks disaster. An explosion at an unlicensed and illegal fireworks operation near Benton, Tennessee kills eleven and injures one. The blast is heard within a radius of . May 28 The 9th G7 summit begins at Williamsburg, Virginia. Golgo 13: The Professional is released in cinemas in Japan. May 29 – Tom Sneva wins the Indianapolis 500 May 29 – Neil Bonnett wins the 24th running of the world 600 at Charlotte Motor Speedway May 31 – The Philadelphia 76ers defeat the LA Lakers to sweep the NBA championship in four games. June June – Throughout the local summer, many Midwestern American states are affected by a severe drought that causes water shortages. June 4 – Fugitive tax protester Gordon Kahl, who has been on the run for four months, is killed in a shootout with police in Smithville, Arkansas, along with a local sheriff. June 5 – Rede Manchete is founded in São Paulo, Brazil. It was defunct in 1999. June 9 – Britain's Conservative government, led by Margaret Thatcher, is re-elected by a landslide majority. June 13 – Pioneer 10 passes the orbit of Neptune, becoming the first man-made object to leave the vicinity of the major planets of the Solar System. June 16 – Cork Graham is caught off the Vietnamese island of Phú Quốc looking for treasure buried by Captain Kidd. He is convicted and imprisoned until 1984 for illegal entry. June 18 Sally Ride becomes the first American woman in space aboard Space Shuttle Challenger on the STS-7 mission. Iranian teenager Mona Mahmudnizhad and nine other women are hanged because they are members of the Baháʼí Faith. June 18 – 19 – The team of Vern Schuppan, Al Holbert and Hurley Haywood wins the 24 Hours of Le Mans. June 25 – India wins the Cricket World Cup, defeating the West Indies by 43 runs. June 30 – A total loss of coolant occurs at the Embalse Nuclear Power Station, Argentina. It is classified as an "Accident With Local Consequences" – level 4 on the International Nuclear Event Scale. July July 1 A North Korean Ilyushin Il-62M jet, en route to Conakry Airport in Guinea, crashes into the Fouta Djall Mountains in Guinea-Bissau, killing all 23 people on board. The High Court of Australia blocks construction of the Franklin Dam in Tasmania. A technical failure causes the release of iodine-131 from the Philippsburg Nuclear Power Plant, Germany. July 15 Nintendo's Family Computer, also known as the Famicom, goes on sale in Japan. The Orly Airport attack in Paris leaves eight dead and 55 injured. July 16 – Sikorsky S-61 disaster: A helicopter crashes off the Isles of Scilly, causing 20 fatalities. July 20 – The government of Poland announces the end of martial law and amnesty for political prisoners. July 21 – The lowest temperature on Earth is recorded in Vostok Station, Antarctica with −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F). July 22 – Australian Dick Smith completes his solo circumnavigation in a helicopter. July 23 Gimli Glider: Out of fuel, Air Canada Flight 143 glides in to land in Gimli, Manitoba. 13 Sri Lanka Army soldiers are killed after a deadly ambush by the militant Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, starting the Sri Lankan Civil War which continued until 2009. Heavy massive rain and mudslides at western Shimane Prefecture, Japan, kill 117. July 24 – The Black July anti-Tamil riots begin in Sri Lanka, killing between 400 and 3,000. Black July is generally regarded as the beginning of the Sri Lankan Civil War. July 28 – New South Wales premier Neville Wran is exonerated by the Street Royal Commission, over claims raised by the ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) programme Four Corners, that he attempted to influence the NSW magistracy. August August 1 – America West Airlines begins operations out of Phoenix, Arizona and Las Vegas, Nevada. August 4 – Thomas Sankara becomes President of Upper Volta. August 18 Hurricane Alicia hits the Texas coast, killing 22 and causing over US$3.8 billion (2005 dollars) in damage. 5 people are killed and 18 others injured when a road train is deliberately driven into a motel at Ayers Rock in the Northern Territory of Australia (the driver, Douglas Edward Crabbe, is convicted in March 1984). August 21 – Benigno Aquino Jr., Philippines opposition leader, is assassinated in Manila just as he returns from exile. August 26 – Heavy rain triggers flooding at Bilbao, Spain, and surrounding areas, killing 44 people and causing millions in damages. August 30 – Guion Bluford becomes the first African-American in space aboard Space Shuttle Challenger on the STS-8 mission. September September 1 – Cold War: Korean Air Lines Flight 007 is shot down by Soviet Union Air Force Su-15 Flagon pilot Major Gennadi Osipovich near Moneron Island when the commercial aircraft enters Soviet airspace. All 269 on board are killed, including U.S. Congressman Larry McDonald. September 4 – Six men walk underwater across Sydney Harbour – in 48 hours. September 6 – The Soviet Union admits to shooting down Korean Air Lines Flight 007, stating that the pilots did not know it was a civilian aircraft when it violated Soviet airspace. September 9 – Iraqi club Al-Shorta wins the 1983 President's Gold Cup by defeating Malaysia 2–0 in the final. September 15 – Huey Lewis and the News's album Sports was released. September 16 – President Ronald Reagan announces that the Global Positioning System (GPS) will be made available for civilian use. September 17 – Vanessa L. Williams becomes the first African American to be crowned Miss America, in Atlantic City, New Jersey. September 18 – U.S. heavy metal band Kiss officially appears in public without makeup for the first time on MTV. September 19 – Saint Kitts and Nevis becomes an independent state. September 23 Gulf Air Flight 771 crashes in the United Arab Emirates after a bomb explodes in the baggage compartment, killing 117. Violence erupts in New Caledonia between native Kanaks and French expatriates. The French government withdraws the promise of independence. September 25 – Maze Prison escape: 38 Provisional Irish Republican Army prisoners, armed with 6 handguns, hijack a prison lorry and smash their way out of HM Prison Maze in Northern Ireland, in the largest prison escape since World War II and in British history. September 26 1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident: Soviet military officer Stanislav Petrov averts a worldwide nuclear war by correctly identifying a warning of attack by U.S. missiles as a false alarm. The Soyuz T-10-1 mission ends in a pad abort at the Baikonur Cosmodrome, when a pad fire occurs at the base of the Soyuz U rocket during the launch countdown. The escape tower system, attached to the top of the capsule containing the crew and Soyuz spacecraft, fires immediately, pulling the crew safe from the vehicle a few seconds before the rocket explodes, destroying the launch complex. The Australian yacht Australia II wins the America's Cup, the first successful challenge to the New York Yacht Club's 132-year defence of the sailing trophy. September 27 – The GNU Project is announced publicly on the net.unix-wizards and net.usoft newsgroups. October October 2 – Neil Kinnock is elected leader of the British Labour Party. October 4 – British entrepreneur Richard Noble sets a new land speed record of 633.468 mph (1,019.468 km/h), driving Thrust2 at the Black Rock Desert, Nevada. October 9 – The Rangoon bombing kills South Korea's Foreign Minister, Lee Bum Suk, and 21 others. The perpetrators are believed to be North Koreans. October 12 – Japan's former Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka is found guilty of taking a $2 million bribe from Lockheed, and sentenced to 4 years in jail. October 13 – The world's first mobile cellular telephone call is made, in Chicago, United States. October 16 – The Baltimore Orioles beat the Philadelphia Phillies 4 games to 1 to win the World Series baseball championship in the United States. October 19 – Maurice Bishop, Prime Minister of Grenada, and 40 others are assassinated in a military coup. October 21 – At the 17th General Conference on Weights and Measures, the metre is defined in terms of the speed of light as the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second. October 22 – In Bonn, West Germany, people demonstrate for nuclear disarmament. October 23 – Beirut barracks bombing: Simultaneous suicide truck-bombings destroy both the French Army and United States Marine Corps barracks in Beirut, killing 241 U.S. servicemen, 58 French paratroopers and 6 Lebanese civilians. October 25 Invasion of Grenada by United States troops at the behest of Eugenia Charles of Dominica, a member of the Organization of American States. Word processor software Multi-Tool Word, soon to become Microsoft Word, is released in the United States. It is primarily the work of programmers Richard Brodie and Charles Simonyi. Free demonstration copies on disk are distributed with the November issue of PC World magazine. October 30 – Argentine general election: The first democratic elections in Argentina after seven years of military rule are held. November November 2 Martin Luther King Jr. Day: At the White House Rose Garden, U.S. President Ronald Reagan signs a bill creating a federal holiday on the third Monday of every January to honor American civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. It is first observed in 1986. South Africa approves a new constitution granting limited political rights to Coloureds and Asians as part of a series of reforms to apartheid. Chrysler introduces the Dodge Caravan, the first "minivan". November 3 The Reverend Jesse Jackson announces his candidacy for the 1984 United States' Democratic Party presidential nomination. Commencement of the battle of Tripoli between Arafat loyalists and PLO dissidents. November 5 – Byford Dolphin rig diving bell accident: Off the coast of Norway, 5 divers are killed and 1 severely wounded in an explosive decompression accident. November 7 Able Archer 83: Many Soviet officials misinterpret this NATO exercise as a nuclear first strike, causing the last nuclear scare of the Cold War. 1983 U.S. Senate bombing A bomb explodes in the United States Senate with the intent to kill Republican senators; no one is injured. The perpetrators are members of the May 19th Communist Organization. November 11 – Ronald Reagan becomes the first U.S. president to address the National Diet, Japan's national legislature. November 13 – The first United States cruise missiles arrive at RAF Greenham Common in England amid protests from peace campaigners. November 14 – The immunosuppressant cyclosporine is approved by the FDA, leading to a revolution in the field of transplantation. November 15 – The Turkish part of Cyprus declares independence. November 16 – A jury in Gretna, Louisiana, US acquits Ginny Foat of the murder of Argentine businessman Moses Chaiyo. November 17 – The Zapatista Army of National Liberation is founded in Mexico. November 18 – A Christmas Story is released. November 19 – An attempted hijacking of Aeroflot Flight 6833 in Soviet Georgia results in several dead and wounded. November 24 – Lynda Mann, 15, is found raped and strangled in the village of Narborough, England (Colin Pitchfork is sentenced to life imprisonment in 1988). November 26 – Brink's-Mat robbery: In London, 6,800 gold bars worth nearly GB£26 million are taken from the Brink's-Mat vault at Heathrow Airport. Only a fraction of the gold is ever recovered, and only 2 men are convicted of the crime. November 27 – Colombian Avianca Flight 11 crashes near Barajas Airport in Madrid, Spain, killing 181 of the 192 on board. December December 2 – Michael Jackson's Thriller video is aired on MTV for the first time. December 4 United States Navy aviator Lt's. Mark Lange and Bobby Goodman are shot down in an A-6 Intruder over Lebanon and captured by Syrians; Lt. Lange dies of his injuries; Lt. Goodman is released 30 days later after the intervention of the Reverend Jesse Jackson. General elections are celebrated in Venezuela in which the opposition party, Democratic Action, wins a majority in both chambers of the Venezuelan Congress and the presidency for the 1984–1989 period under Jaime Lusinchi. Voter turn out is 87.3% and Lusinchi obtains 58.4% of the votes. Solar eclipse of December 4, 1983. December 5 – ICIMOD is established and inaugurated with its headquarters in Kathmandu, Nepal, and legitimised through an Act of Parliament in Nepal this same year. December 7 – Two Spanish passenger planes collide on the foggy runway at a Madrid airport, killing 90. December 9 – The Australian dollar is floated, by Federal treasurer Paul Keating. Under the old flexible peg system, the Reserve Bank bought and sold all Australian dollars and cleared the market at the end of the day. This initiative is taken by the government of Bob Hawke. December 10 – Military rule ends and democracy is restored in Argentina, with the beginning of Raúl Alfonsín's first term as President of Argentina. December 13 – Turgut Özal, of ANAP forms the new government of Turkey (45th government); beginning of a new civilian regime. December 17 A discothèque fire in Madrid, Spain, injuring 47 and killing 83 people. Harrods bombings: a Provisional IRA car bomb kills 6 people and injures 90 outside Harrods in London. December 19 – The Jules Rimet Trophy is stolen from the Brazilian Soccer Confederation building in Rio de Janeiro. , the trophy has not been recovered. December 27 A propane explosion in Buffalo, New York, US kills five firefighters and two civilians. Pope John Paul II visits Rebibbia prison to forgive his would-be assassin Mehmet Ali Ağca. December 29 – The Reverend Jesse Jackson travels to Syria to secure the release of U.S. Navy Lieutenant Robert Goodman, who has been in Syrian captivity since being shot down over Lebanon during a bombing mission. December 31 Brunei gains independence from the United Kingdom. Two bombs explode in France; one on a Paris train kills 3 and injures 19. The other at Marseille station kills 2 and injures 34. Date unknown I. M. Pei wins the Pritzker Architecture Prize. Zlatko Ugljen receives the Aga Khan Award for Architecture for Šerefudin's White Mosque, built in Visoko. The Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE) program is launched in the United States. Flashdance and Return of the Jedi are box-office hits. Gérard Debreu wins the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. Leopold Kohr, the people of Belau, Amory and Hunter Lovins/Rocky Mountain Institute and Manfred Max Neef/CEPAUR win the Right Livelihood Award. McDonald's introduces the McNugget. Kary Mullis discovers polymerase chain reaction while working for Cetus. The DeLorean Motor Company ceases production. The meteorological 1982–83 El Niño event brings severe weather worldwide. A severe drought affects the Midwest, Great Plains and parts of the Southern United States between May and September. Ronald Reagan declassifies GPS for public use; it will be shut down again in 1990 for the Gulf War and re-activated again in 1993. The capital of the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire is changed from Abidjan to Yamoussoukro. Births January January 2 – Kate Bosworth, American actress January 3 – Precious Lara Quigaman, Filipina model, host and actress January 4 Will Bynum, American basketball player Kerry Condon, Irish actress January 7 Tosin Abasi, Nigerian-American musician (Animals As Leaders) Brett Dalton, American actor Natalie Gulbis, American golfer January 8 Chen Xiexia, Chinese weightlifter Chris Masters, American wrestler January 9 – Gala Évora, Spanish actress January 10 – Li Nina, Chinese aerial free-style skier January 13 Imran Khan, Bollywood actor Julian Morris, British actor Ronny Turiaf, French basketball player January 14 – Takako Uehara, Japanese singer January 16 Marwan Kenzari, Dutch actor Emanuel Pogatetz, Austrian footballer January 18 Jung Yu-mi, South Korean actress Samantha Mumba, Irish singer and actress January 19 Øystein Pettersen, Norwegian Olympic cross-country skier Hikaru Utada, Japanese singer and songwriter January 21 Svetlana Khodchenkova, Russian actress Maryse Ouellet, French-Canadian professional wrestler and glamour model January 23 Justyna Kowalczyk, Polish cross-country skier Sarah Tait, Australian rower (d. 2016) January 24 Diane Birch, American singer-songwriter Craig Horner, Australian actor Scott Speed, American Formula One driver Teo, Belarusian singer January 25 – Yasuyuki Konno, Japanese footballer February February 1 – Ronnie Kroell, American fashion model, actor, and singer February 2 – Carolina Klüft, Swedish athlete February 3 – Gabriel Sargissian, Armenian chess Grandmaster February 4 – Hannibal Buress, American comedian February 5 – Vanessa Rousso, French-American professional poker player February 6 Sreesanth, Indian cricketer Jamie Whincup, Australian racing driver February 7 Elin Grindemyr, Swedish model Federico Marchetti, Italian footballer February 8 Atiba Hutchinson, Canadian footballer Olga Syahputra, Indonesian actor, comedian, singer, and television presenter (d. 2015) February 10 – Daiane dos Santos, Brazilian artistic gymnast February 11 – Rafael van der Vaart, Dutch footballer February 12 – Iko Uwais Indonesian pencak silat actor February 15 Philipp and David Degen, Swiss footballers Russell Martin, Canadian baseball player February 16 Agyness Deyn, English supermodel John Magaro, American film, television and stage actor February 17 Selita Ebanks, Caymanian model Elin Kling, Swedish fashion journalist Kevin Rudolf, American singer-songwriter and record producer February 18 – Jason Maxiell, American basketball player February 19 Kotoōshū Katsunori (born Kaloyan Stefanov Mahlyanov), Bulgarian sumo wrestler Mika Nakashima, Japanese singer and actress Nozomi Sasaki, Japanese voice actress Reynhard Sinaga, Indonesian rapist February 20 Emad Moteab, Egyptian footballer Justin Verlander, American baseball player February 21 – Mélanie Laurent, French actress and director February 22 – Iliza Shlesinger, American comedian February 23 Aziz Ansari, American comedian and actor Mirco Bergamasco, Italian rugby union player Emily Blunt, English actress Mido, Egyptian footballer February 25 – Eduardo da Silva, Croatian soccer player February 27 Devin Harris, American basketball player Kate Mara, American television and film actress Vítězslav Veselý, Czech javelin thrower February 28 – Linda Király, American-Hungarian singer-songwriter March March 1 – Lupita Nyong'o, Mexican-born Kenyan-American Academy Award-winning actress March 4 Samuel Contesti, Italian figure skater Jessica Heap, American actress March 7 – Raquel Alessi, American actress March 9 Bobby Campo, American actor Clint Dempsey, American footballer Maite Perroni, Mexican singer and actress March 10 Kyle Marshall, Canadian animator, storyboard artist, director and writer Janet Mock, American author and activist Jonas Olsson, Swedish footballer Rafe Spall, English actor Carrie Underwood, American singer, songwriter, fashion designer and actress March 14 Bakhtiyar Artayev, Kazakh boxer Taylor Hanson, American musician March 15 – Florencia Bertotti, Argentine actress, singer and producer March 16 Stephanie Gatschet, American actress Katie Kim, Irish singer-songwriter March 17 Atit Shah, Indian American Hollywood film producer Attila Vajda, Hungarian sprint canoeist March 18 Stéphanie Cohen-Aloro, French tennis player Kyle Downes, Canadian-American actor March 19 – Nicole Muirbrook, American actress and model March 20 Michael Cassidy, American film television and actor Eiji Kawashima, Japanese footballer Jenni Vartiainen, Finnish pop singer March 23 – Mo Farah, Somali-born British athlete March 29 Ezgi Mola, Turkish actress Ed Skrein, English actor and rapper March 30 – Hebe Tien, Taiwanese singer March 31 Hashim Amla, South African cricketer Ashleigh Ball, Canadian voice actress, singer and musician Melissa Ordway, American actress and model April April 1 Matt Lanter, American actor and model Sergey Lazarev, Russian pop-singer Sean Taylor, American football player (d. 2007) April 2 – Yung Joc, American rapper April 4 Eric Andre, American comedian, actor, and television host Doug Lynch, Canadian ice hockey player Amanda Righetti, American actress and film producer April 6 – Diora Baird, American actress April 7 – Franck Ribéry, French footballer April 10 Jamie Chung, American actress Ryan Merriman, American actor April 11 – Joanna Douglas, Canadian actress April 12 Jelena Dokić, Australian tennis player Judy Marte, American actress and producer April 13 – Schalk Burger, South African rugby player April 14 – Armando Torrea, Mexican actor April 15 Alice Braga, Brazilian actress Ilya Kovalchuk, Russian ice hockey player Matt Cardle, British singer April 16 – Alex Antônio de Melo Santos, Brazilian footballer April 18 – Miguel Cabrera, Venezuelan baseball player April 19 – Joe Mauer, American baseball player April 20 Sebastian Ingrosso, Swedish club DJ Miranda Kerr, Australian model April 21 Paweł Brożek, Polish footballer Lily Chan, Chinese singer Gugu Mbatha-Raw, British actress April 23 Daniela Hantuchová, Slovakian tennis player Aaron Hill, American actor April 29 Megan Boone, American actress David Lee, American basketball player Yuriko Shiratori, Japanese actress and gravure idol April 30 – Yelena Leuchanka, Belarusian professional women's basketball player May May 1 – Alain Bernard, French Olympic swimmer May 2 – Tina Maze, Slovenian alpine ski racer May 5 – Henry Cavill, British actor May 6 Gabourey Sidibe, American actress Adrianne Palicki, American actress Doron Perkins, American basketball player Raquel Zimmermann, Brazilian model May 7 Marco Galiazzo, Italian archer Alexander Legkov, Russian cross country skier May 9 – Ryuhei Matsuda, Japanese actor May 11 – Holly Valance, Australian actress and singer May 12 Alicja Bachleda-Curuś, Polish actress and singer Domhnall Gleeson, Irish actor and writer Alina Kabaeva, Russian rhythmic gymnast and politician Charilaos Pappas, Greek footballer May 13 Anita Görbicz, Hungarian handball player Grégory Lemarchal, French singer (d. 2007) Yaya Touré, Ivorian footballer May 14 Anahí, Mexican singer and actress Sarbel, Greek Cypriot pop singer Amber Tamblyn, American actress May 16 Nancy Ajram, Lebanese singer Marcela Temer, First Lady of Brazil May 17 – Channing Frye, American basketball player May 20 Michaela McManus, American actress N. T. Rama Rao Jr., Indian actor and singer May 21 – Leva Bates, American professional wrestler May 22 John Hopkins, American MotoGP racer May 23 – Heidi Range, British singer (Sugababes) May 24 – Woo Seung-yeon, South Korean actress and model (d. 2009) May 27 – Bobby Convey, American soccer player May 28 – Megalyn Echikunwoke, American actress May 30 – Jennifer Ellison, British actress May 31 David Hernandez, American singer Zana Marjanović, Bosnian actress June June 1 – Sylvia Hoeks, Dutch actress June 2 – Brooke White, American singer June 6 Adam Hendershott, American actor Joe Rokocoko, New Zealand rugby union player June 7 – Indiggo, Romanian-born American twin sisters, singer-songwriters, and reality TV personalities June 8 Kim Clijsters, Belgian tennis player Mamoru Miyano, Japanese voice actor June 9 – Marina Lizorkina, Russian singer June 10 Marina Abrosimova, Russian pop singer Leelee Sobieski, American film and television actress June 12 Bryan Habana, South African rugby union player Andy Ologun, Nigerian mixed martial artist Anja Rubik, Polish model June 13 – Jason Spezza, Canadian hockey player June 15 Derek Anderson, American football player Julia Fischer, German violinist and pianist June 16 Verónica Echegui, Spanish actress Olivia Hack, American actress and voice actress Kana Mannami, Japanese Go player June 17 Connie Fisher, British actress and singer Kazunari Ninomiya, Japanese actor, idol, and singer Lee Ryan, English singer June 19 Macklemore, American rapper Tanja Mihhailova, Russian-Estonian pop singer and actress Mark Selby, British snooker player Aidan Turner, Irish actor June 20 – Cherrie Ying, Hong Kong actress June 21 Michael Malarkey, British-American actor and musician Edward Snowden, American computer specialist, CIA employee, and whistleblower Eduardo Hernández-Sonseca, Spanish basketball player June 22 – Giacomo Bevilacqua, Italian cartoonist June 23 José Rojas, Chilean footballer Brandi Rhodes, American wrestler and reality television personality Rade Đokić, Bosnian-Herzegovinian footballer June 24 Albert, 12th Prince of Thurn and Taxis John Lloyd Cruz, Filipino actor and model Shermain Jeremy, Antiguan singer and beauty pageant contestant Kenny Van Hoevelen, Belgian footballer June 25 Cleo, Polish singer Shamau Shareef, Maldivian politician Daniele Gastaldello, Italian footballer Cristian Baroni, Brazilian footballer Marko Đurić, Serbian politician June 26 Toyonoshima Daiki, Japanese sumo wrestler Alsény Këïta, Liberian footballer Fahad Mustafa, Pakistani actor Richard Okia, Ugandan cricketer June 27 Alsou, Russian singer, Eurovision Song Contest 2000 runner-up Ben Bocquelet, French-British animator and producer Nikola Rakočević, Serbian actor June 28 Jaiveer Shergill, Indian politician June 29 – Ilya Yashin, Russian activist and politician June 30 Cheryl, British singer (Girls Aloud) and TV personality Katherine Ryan, Canadian comedian and actress July July 1 Tanya Chisholm, American actress and dancer Marit Larsen, Norwegian singer and songwriter Park Jeong-su, Korean singer (Super Junior) July 2 Michelle Branch, American singer (The Wreckers) Fadhil Hashim, Malaysian footballer Alicia Menendez, American television commentator July 3 – Park Jin-woo, South Korean actor July 4 – Isabeli Fontana, Brazilian fashion model July 5 Zheng Jie, Chinese tennis player Kumiko Ogura, Japanese badminton player July 6 Gregory Smith, Canadian actor David Price, British professional boxer July 7 Kristi Capel, American beauty pageant and news presenter Renee Chappell, Australian cricketer Krzysztof Lijewski, Polish handballer C4 Pedro, Angolan musician Martin Wallström, Swedish actor Vincent Wong, Hong Kong actor Yoo Jae-hoon, South Korean footballer July 9 – Christopher Porco, American convicted murderer July 10 Barış Pehlivan, Turkish journalist and writer Sherif Ekramy, Egyptian footballer Kim Heechul, Korean actor and singer (Super Junior) Boniface Mwangi, Kenyan photojournalist, politician and activist July 11 – Marie Eleonor Serneholt, Swedish singer (A*Teens) July 12 – Megumi Kawamura, Japanese model July 13 Liu Xiang, Chinese athlete Carmen Villalobos, Colombian actress and model July 14 – Graham Ackerman, American gymnast July 15 Maxim Dondyuk, Ukrainian documentary photographer Cristián Muñoz Corrales, Chilean footballer July 16 Katrina Kaif, Bollywood actress and model Duncan Keith, Canadian ice hockey player Eleanor Matsuura, Japanese-English actress July 17 Flávia de Oliveira, Brazilian model Joker Xue, Chinese singer-songwriter July 18 – Mikk Pahapill, Estonian decathlete July 19 Prince Ernst August of Hanover Sindhu Tolani, Indian actress July 21 Amy Mizzi, Australian actress Eivør Pálsdóttir, Faroese singer and composer July 22 Detsl, Russian musician (d. 2019) Ryan Doucette, Canadian actor Juliana Silva, Brazilian beach volleyball player Jonas Sakuwaha, Zambian footballer Sharni Vinson, Australian model, actress and dancer July 23 Bec Hewitt, Australian actress Aaron Peirsol, American swimmer July 24 Daniele De Rossi, Italian footballer Asami Mizukawa, Japanese actress July 26 Kate Bolduan, American television journalist and CNN anchor Elettra Weidemann, American fashion model and socialite July 27 – Blair Redford, American actor July 29 Kaitlyn Black, American actress Inés Gómez Mont, Mexican television host, reporter and actress Tania Gunadi, Indonesian-American actress and producer Elise Testone, American singer-songwriter July 30 – Mariano Andújar, Argentine footballer August August 3 – Mamie Gummer, American actress August 4 Jai Crawford, Australian cyclist Greta Gerwig, American actress and filmmaker Adhir Kalyan, South African actor Mariusz Wlazły, Polish volleyball player August 6 – Robin van Persie, Dutch footballer August 7 Christian Chávez, Mexican singer and actor Brit Marling, American actress, screenwriter and producer Tina O'Brien, British actress August 9 – Ashley Johnson, American actress and voice actress August 11 – Chris Hemsworth, Australian actor August 13 – Aleš Hemský, Czechoslovakian ice hockey player August 14 Elena Baltacha, Ukrainian-Scottish tennis player (d. 2014) Sunidhi Chauhan, Indian playback singer Spencer Pratt, American television personality Mila Kunis, Ukraine-born American actress August 16 – Nikos Zisis, Greek basketball player August 17 – Dustin Pedroia, American baseball player August 18 Kris Boyd, Scottish football player Mika, Lebanese-British singer Cameron White, Australian cricketer August 19 Missy Higgins, Australian pop singer-songwriter, musician and actor Claudia Salinas, Mexican model and actress Reeva Steenkamp, South African model (d. 2013) Tammin Sursok, Australian actress August 20 Andrew Garfield, British/American actor Yuri Zhirkov, Russian footballer August 21 – Brody Jenner, American television personality August 23 James Collins, Welsh footballer Ruta Gedmintas, Lithuanian-English actress Annie Ilonzeh, American actress August 26 Rob Cantor, American singer-songwriter Nicol David, Malaysian squash player August 27 Chen Bolin, Taiwanese actor Jamala, Ukrainian singer and songwriter, Eurovision Song Contest 2016 winner August 28 Alfonso Herrera, Mexican actor and singer Lasith Malinga, Sri Lankan cricketer August 29 – Jennifer Landon, American actress August 30 – Jun Matsumoto, Japanese singer and actor August 31 Larry Fitzgerald, American football player Maria Flor, Brazilian actress September September 1 Camille Mana, American actress José Antonio Reyes, Spanish footballer (d. 2019) September 2 – Tiffany Hines, American television actress and singer September 3 Valdas Vasylius, Lithuanian basketball player Christine Woods, American actress September 4 – Guy Pnini, Israeli basketball player September 5 – Priscilla Meirelles, Brazilian model, Miss Earth 2004 September 8 – Chris Judd, Australian rules footballer September 9 – Zoe Kazan, American actress and screenwriter September 10 Shawn James, Guyanese-American basketball player Joey Votto, Canadian baseball player September 11 – Vivian Jepkemoi Cheruiyot, Kenyan long-distance runner September 12 – Carly Smithson, Irish singer September 13 – Kaoklai Kaennorsing, Thai Muay Thai kickboxer September 14 – Amy Winehouse, British singer (d. 2011) September 15 Ashleigh McIvor, Canadian freestyle skier Holly Montag, American television personality September 16 – Kirsty Coventry, Zimbabwean swimmer September 17 – Jennifer Peña, American singer September 18 Kevin Doyle, Irish footballer Sasha Son, Lithuanian singer September 20 A-Lin, Taiwanese singer Yuna Ito, American-Japanese singer and actress September 21 Sarah Rees Brennan, Irish novelist Scott Evans, American actor Maggie Grace, American actress Joseph Mazzello, American actor Anna Meares, Australian track cyclist September 23 – Märt Israel, Estonian discus thrower September 24 Lyndon Ferns, South African swimmer Randy Foye, American basketball player September 25 Donald Glover, American actor Son Dam-bi, South Korean singer September 26 Ricardo Quaresma, Portuguese footballer Zoe Perry, American actress September 27 Fazura, Malaysian actress Jeon Hye-bin, South Korean actress and singer September 28 Julissa Bermudez, Dominican-American television personality and actress Sarah Wright, American actress September 30 – Andreea Răducan, Romanian gymnast October October 1 Tom Dillon, English rugby union player Anna Drijver, Dutch actress and model October 2 – Gerran Walker, American football player October 3 Meghan Heffern, Canadian actress Tessa Thompson, American actress October 4 Vicky Krieps, Luxembourgish actress Shontelle, Barbadian singer, and songwriter October 5 Jesse Eisenberg, American actor Nicky Hilton Rothschild, American model and socialite Juan Manuel Vargas, Peruvian footballer October 8 – Michael Fraser, Scottish football goalkeeper October 9 – Spencer Grammer, American actress October 10 – Alyson Hau, Hong Kong radio DJ October 11 – Bradley James, English actor October 12 – Annick Obonsawin, Canadian actress and voice actress October 13 – Katia Winter, Swedish actress October 14 Lin Dan, Chinese badminton player David Oakes, English film, television and theatre actor October 15 – Stephy Tang, Hong Kong singer and actress October 16 – Loreen, Swedish pop singer and music producer, Eurovision Song Contest 2012 winner October 17 Daniel Booko, American actor Felicity Jones, English actress Daniel Kajmakoski, Macedonian singer and songwriter Ivan Saenko, Russian footballer October 19 Rebecca Ferguson, Swedish model and actress Cara Santa Maria, American neuroscientist and writer October 20 – Alona Tal, Israeli television actress October 21 Ashley Banjo, Canadian actor Hrvoje Ćustić, Croatian footballer (d. 2008) Marie Marguerite, Duchess of Anjou, Venezuelan heiress and wife of Louis Alphonse of Bourbon, Duke of Anjou Charlotte Sullivan, Canadian actress Amber Rose, American model and actress Aaron Tveit, American actor October 24 Adrienne Bailon, American singer and actress V V Brown, English singer, songwriter, model, and producer Katie McGrath, Irish actress October 25 – Princess Yōko of Mikasa, member of the Japanese Imperial Family October 27 Dmitri Sychev, Russian footballer Kıvanç Tatlıtuğ, Turkish actor and model October 29 – Johnny Lewis, American film and television actor (d. 2012) October 30 – Diana Karazon, Jordanian singer November November 1 Yuko Ogura, Japanese gravure idol Jelena Tomašević, Serbian pop singer November 2 – Andreas Bourani, German singer-songwriter November 3 – Julie Marie Berman, American actress November 5 – Alexa Chung, English television presenter and model November 7 – Adam DeVine, American actor, voice actor, comedian, screenwriter, producer, and singer November 8 Pavel Pogrebnyak, Russian footballer Blanka Vlašić, Croatian high jumper November 9 – Meseret Defar, Ethiopian long-distance runner November 10 – Miranda Lambert, American country singer November 11 Sola Aoi, Japanese model Philipp Lahm, German footballer November 12 – Kate Bell, Australian actress November 14 – Chelsea Wolfe, American singer-songwriter and musician November 15 – Laura Smet, French actress November 16 – K, Korean singer November 17 Viva Bianca, Australian actress Ioannis Bourousis, Greek basketball player Ryan Braun, American baseball player Christopher Paolini, American author November 18 – Jon Johansen, Norwegian computer programmer November 19 Adam Driver, American actor DeAngelo Hall, American football player Daria Werbowy, Ukrainian-Canadian model November 20 – Future, American rapper, singer, and songwriter November 21 – The Bella Twins, (Brie & Nikki), American professional wrestlers November 22 Tyler Hilton, American singer-songwriter and actor Xiao Yu, Taiwanese singer and songwriter November 24 – Dean Ashton, British footballer November 27 Professor Green, British rapper Arjay Smith, American actor Donta Smith, American basketball player December December 2 – Ana Lucía Domínguez, Colombian actress December 9 – Dariusz Dudka, Polish footballer December 10 – Xavier Samuel, Australian actor December 12 – Roni Porokara, Finnish footballer December 13 – Otylia Jędrzejczak, Polish swimmer December 14 – Íñigo Errejón, Spanish political scientist and politician December 15 René Duprée, Canadian professional wrestler Brooke Fraser, New Zealand folk-pop and Christian musician Camilla Luddington, English actress Wang Hao, Chinese table tennis player December 16 – Danielle Lloyd, British model December 17 Erik Christensen, Canadian hockey player Sébastien Ogier, French rally driver December 19 Nektarios Alexandrou, Cypriot footballer Laura Pomeroy, Canadian swimmer Matt Stajan, Canadian ice hockey player December 20 Jonah Hill, American actor Lucy Pinder, English model December 21 – Steven Yeun, Korean-American actor December 22 Joe Dinicol, Canadian actor Jennifer Hawkins, Australian television personality, Miss Universe 2004 Nathalie Péchalat, French ice dancer December 23 – Hanley Ramírez, Dominican baseball player December 25 – Gwei Lun-mei, Taiwanese actress December 27 Cole Hamels, American baseball player Sa Dingding, Chinese singer December 29 – Jessica Andrews, American country music singer Deaths January January 2 Dick Emery, British comedian (b. 1915) Edward Howard, American Roman Catholic prelate and venerable (b. 1877) January 7 – Fred Church, American actor (b. 1889) January 8 – Gerhard Barkhorn, German World War II fighter ace (b. 1919) January 10 – Roy DeMeo, American Mafia hitman (b. 1942) January 11 Ghanshyam Das Birla, Indian industrialist and educator (b. 1894) Tikhon Kiselyov, Belarusian statesman in the Soviet Union, the de facto leader of the Byelorussian SSR from 1980 to 1983 (b. 1917) January 12 – Nikolai Podgorny, Soviet politician, Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR from 1965 to 1977 (b. 1903) January 13 – David M. Shoup, American general (b. 1904) January 15 Masatane Kanda, Japanese general (b. 1890) Meyer Lansky, American gangster (b. 1902) January 17 – Doodles Weaver, American comedian (b. 1911) January 18 – Arturo Umberto Illia, Argentine politician and physician, 34th President of Argentina (b. 1900) January 20 – Garrincha, Brazilian footballer (b. 1933) January 21 – Howard Clark, Canadian Anglican primate (b. 1903) January 22 – Walter Citrine, 1st Baron Citrine, British trade unionist (b. 1887) January 23 Fred Bakewell, English cricketer (b. 1908) Marcolino Gomes Candau, Brazilian medical doctor, 2nd Director-General of World Health Organization (b. 1911) January 24 Carmen Clemente Travieso, Venezuelan journalist and activist (b. 1900) George Cukor, American film director (b. 1899) Juan Carlos Zabala, Argentine Olympic athlete (b. 1911) January 26 – Bear Bryant, American football player and coach (b. 1913) January 27 Georges Bidault, French Resistance leader and politician, 82nd Prime Minister of France (b. 1899) Louis de Funès, French actor (b. 1914) January 28 Frank Forde, Australian politician, 15th Prime Minister of Australia, leader of the World War II (b. 1890) Billy Fury, British musician (b. 1940) January 29 – Stuart H. Ingersoll, American admiral (b. 1898) February February 4 – Karen Carpenter, American singer and drummer (The Carpenters) (b. 1950) February 7 – Raja Babu, Indian actor (b. 1937) February 8 Harry Boot, English physicist (b. 1917) Maria Josefa Alhama y Valera, Spanish Roman Catholic nun and blessed (b. 1893) February 9 – Patriarch Khoren I Paroian (b. 1914) February 12 Italo Acconcia, Italian football player and manager (b. 1925) Eubie Blake, American musician and songwriter (b. 1887) February 13 – Lorenzo Bianchi, Italian Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1899) February 14 – Lina Radke, German athlete (b. 1903) February 19 – Alice White, American actress (b. 1904) February 22 – Sir Adrian Boult, English conductor (b. 1889) February 23 – Herbert Howells, English composer (b. 1892) February 25 – Tennessee Williams, American playwright (b. 1911) February 27 – Nikolai Aleksandrovich Kozyrev, Russian astronomer and astrophysicist (b. 1908) February 28 – Winifred Atwell, British pianist (b. 1914) March March 1 Hideo Kobayashi, Japanese author (b. 1902) Arthur Koestler, Austrian writer (b. 1905) March 3 – Hergé, Belgian comics creator (b. 1907) March 6 – Donald Maclean, British spy (b. 1913) March 7 – Igor Markevitch, Ukrainian conductor (b. 1912) March 8 Sir William Walton, English composer (b. 1902) Chabuca Granda, Peruvian singer and composer (b. 1920) March 9 Faye Emerson, American actress (b. 1917) Ulf von Euler, Swedish physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905) March 11 – Will Glickman, American playwright (b. 1910) March 14 – Maurice Ronet, French film actor and director (b. 1927) March 15 Dame Rebecca West, British writer (b. 1892) Josep Lluís Sert, Spanish architect and urbanist (b. 1902) March 16 – Arthur Godfrey, American radio and television broadcaster and entertainer (b. 1903) March 17 – Haldan Keffer Hartline, American physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1903) March 18 Umberto II of Italy, 4th and last King of Italy (b. 1904) Ivan Vinogradov, Russian mathematician (b. 1891) March 20 – Maria Babanova, Soviet and Russian actress (b. 1900) March 22 – Blanton Collier, American football coach (b. 1906) March 25 – Bob Waterfield, American football player (Los Angeles Rams) and a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame (b. 1920) March 26 – Anthony Blunt, British spy and art historian (b. 1907) March 27 Elsie Eaves, American civil engineer (b. 1898) James Hayter, British actor (b. 1907) March 30 Gunnar Bigum, Danish actor (b. 1914) Lisette Model, Austrian-American photographer (b. 1901) March 31 – Stephen Murray, British actor (b. 1912) April April 3 – Jimmy Bloomfield, English football player and manager (b. 1934) April 4 Jacqueline Logan, American actress (b. 1901) Gloria Swanson, American actress (b. 1899) April 11 – Dolores del Río, Mexican actress (b. 1904) April 12 Desmond Bagley, English novelist (b. 1923) Jørgen Juve, Norwegian football player and journalist (b. 1906) April 13 – Gloria Marín, Mexican actress (b. 1919) April 15 Gyula Illyés, Hungarian poet and novelist (b. 1902) Corrie ten Boom, Dutch resistance fighter (b. 1892) April 19 – Jerzy Andrzejewski, Polish author (b. 1909) April 20 Mária Mezei, Hungarian actress (b. 1909) Walther Nehring, German general (b. 1892) Pedro Quartucci, Argentine boxer and actor (b. 1905) April 21 – Walter Slezak, Austrian-American actor (b. 1902) April 22 – Earl "Fatha" Hines, American musician (b. 1903) April 23 Buster Crabbe, American actor and athlete (b. 1908) Selena Royle, American actress and writer (b. 1904) April 30 George Balanchine, Russian-American dancer and choreographer (b. 1904) Joel Henry Hildebrand, American chemist (b. 1881) Muddy Waters, American musician (b. 1915) May May 1 George Hodgson, Canadian Olympic swimmer (b. 1893) Joseph Ruttenberg, Russian-born American cinematographer (b. 1889) Arthur D. Struble, American admiral (b. 1894) May 2 Pridi Banomyong, Thai politician and professor, 7th Prime Minister of Thailand (b. 1900) Ernesto de la Guardia, 32nd President of Panama (b. 1904) Norm Van Brocklin, American football player (Los Angeles Rams) and coach (Minnesota Vikings) and a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame (b. 1926) May 5 – John Williams, British actor (b. 1903) May 8 – John Fante, American writer (b. 1909) May 13 – Allauddin, Pakistan actor (b. 1923) May 14 Miguel Alemán Valdés, 46th President of Mexico (b. 1900) Roger J. Traynor, American judge (b. 1900) May 15 – James Van Der Zee, American photographer (b. 1886) May 18 – Frank Aiken, Irish politician, former Tánaiste and Foreign Minister of Ireland (b. 1898) May 19 – Jean Rey, 2nd President of the European Commission (b. 1902) May 21 – Kenneth Clark, British art historian (b. 1903) May 22 Albert Claude, Belgian biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1899) King Idris of Libya (b. 1889) John Penrose, British actor (b. 1914) May 23 – John Seward Johnson I, American art collector (b. 1895) May 25 – Sid Daniels, British merchant marine worker, last surviving crewmember of the RMS Titanic (b. 1895) May 29 – Arvīds Pelše, Latvian historian, Soviet politician and functionary (b. 1899) May 31 – Jack Dempsey, American heavyweight champion boxer (b. 1895) June June 1 Prince Charles of Belgium (b. 1903) Ernest Graves, American actor (b. 1919) Anna Seghers, German writer (b. 1900) June 2 Stan Rogers, Canadian musician (b. 1949) Julio Rosales, Filipino Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1906) June 4 – Gordon Kahl, American tax protester and cop-killer (b. 1920) June 6 – Mahmoud el-Meliguy, Egyptian actor and screenwriter (b. 1910) June 8 – Miško Kranjec, Slovenian writer (b. 1908) June 10 – Larry Hooper, American singer (b. 1917) June 11 – George Douglas, American actor (b. 1903) June 12 – Norma Shearer, Canadian-born American actress (b. 1902) June 15 Mario Casariego y Acevedo, Spanish-born Guatemalan Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1909) Srirangam Srinivasarao, Indian Telugu poet (b. 1910) June 17 George Benson, British actor (b. 1911) Peter Mennin, American composer and teacher (b. 1923) June 18 Marianne Brandt, German industrial designer (b. 1893) Robert Riddles, British locomotive engineer (b. 1892) June 23 – Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado, Cuban politician, 21st President of Cuba (suicide) (b. 1919) June 24 – Charles Phelps Taft II, American politician, son of President William Howard Taft (b. 1897) June 25 – Alberto Ginastera, Argentine composer (b. 1916) June 30 Choo Seng Quee, Singaporean football coach (b. 1914) Mary Livingstone, American radio and voice actress (b. 1908) July July 1 – Buckminster Fuller, American architect (b. 1895) July 2 – László Budai, Hungarian footballer (b. 1928) July 4 Dr. John Bodkin Adams, British suspected serial killer (b. 1899) Ted Berrigan, American poet (b. 1934) July 5 – Harry James, American musician and band leader (b. 1916) July 7 – Herman Kahn, American futurist (b. 1922) July 9 – Keith Wickenden, British politician (b. 1932) July 10 Werner Egk, German composer (b. 1901) Estrellita Castro, Spanish singer and actress (b. 1908) July 11 – Ross Macdonald, American-Canadian writer (b. 1915) July 12 – Chris Wood, British rock musician, lead singer and guitarist of the band Traffic (b. 1944) July 14 – Jack MacBryan, English cricketer (b. 1892) July 15 – Eddie Foy, Jr., American actor (b. 1905) July 16 Michel Micombero, Burundian military officer and statesman, 8th Prime Minister and 1st President of Burundi (b. 1940) Samson Raphaelson, American screenwriter (b. 1894) July 17 – Roosevelt Sykes, American blues musician (b. 1906) July 19 – Erik Ode, German actor (b. 1910) July 20 – Frank Reynolds, American journalist (b. 1923) July 23 – Georges Auric, French composer (b. 1899) July 25 – Jerome Moross, American composer (b. 1913) July 26 Larry Gains, Canadian boxer (b. 1901) Charlie Rivel, Spanish Catalan circus clown (b. 1896) July 29 Luis Buñuel, Spanish filmmaker (b. 1900) Rocco Chinnici, Italian judge (b. 1925) Raymond Massey, Canadian actor (b. 1896) David Niven, British soldier and actor (b. 1910) July 30 Howard Dietz, American lyricist (b. 1896) Lynn Fontanne, British actress (b. 1887) August August 1 Peter Arne, British actor (b. 1918) Lilian Mercedes Letona, Salvadoran guerrilla (b. 1954) August 2 – James Jamerson, American musician (b. 1936) August 3 – Carolyn Jones, American actress (b. 1930) August 4 – Jobriath, American rock musician and actor (b. 1946) August 5 Bart Bok, Dutch-born American astronomer (b. 1906) Judy Canova, American actress (b. 1913) August 6 Klaus Nomi, German singer and performance artist (b. 1944) August 7 – David Ford, American actor (b. 1925) August 10 – José Baptista Pinheiro de Azevedo, Portuguese military officer and political figure, 104th Prime Minister of Portugal (b. 1917) August 11 – Mamie Phipps Clark, American psychologist (b. 1917) August 12 – Theodor Burchadi, German admiral (b. 1892) August 13 – Bob Bailey, American actor (b. 1913) August 16 Earl Averill, American baseball player and member of the MLB Hall of Fame (b. 1902) Heinz Warneke, American sculptor (b. 1895) August 17 – Ira Gershwin, American lyricist (b. 1896) August 18 – Sir Nikolaus Pevsner, German-born British art historian (b. 1902) August 21 – Benigno Aquino Jr., Filipino politician (b. 1932) August 26 – Nazir Ahmed Khan, Pakistan-born Indian actor, director and producer (b. 1904) August 27 – Harry A. deButts, American railroad executive August 28 Jan Clayton, American actress and singer (b. 1917) José Bergamín, Spanish writer (b. 1895) August 29 – Simon Oakland, American actor (b. 1915) September September 1 – Henry M. "Scoop" Jackson, American politician (suffered an aortic aneurysm after giving a news conference condemning the shooting down of KAL 007) (b. 1912) September 2 – Feri Cansel, Turkish-Cypriot actress (b. 1944) September 8 – Ibrahim Abboud, 4th Prime Minister and 1st President of Sudan (b. 1900) September 9 – Leo Lemay, American-born Solomonian Roman Catholic bishop (b. 1909) September 10 Felix Bloch, Swiss-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905) Jon Brower Minnoch, heaviest man who ever lived (b. 1941) Dai Rees, British golfer (b. 1913) John Vorster, 8th Prime Minister of South Africa and 5th President of South Africa (b. 1915) September 12 – Sabin Carr, American Olympic athlete (b. 1904) September 14 – Robert Leahy Fair, American lieutenant general (b. 1923) September 16 Gunnar Olsson, Swedish actor (b. 1904) José María Reyes Mata, Honduran revolutionary leader (b. 1943) September 17 – Humberto Sousa Medeiros, Portuguese-born American Roman Catholic clergyman (b. 1915) September 18 – María Esther Podestá, Argentine actress (b. 1896) September 19 – Bruno Pittermann, Austrian Social Democratic politician, 19th Vice-Chancellor of Austria (b. 1905) September 20 Prince Friedrich Christian of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1906) Ángel Labruna, Argentine footballer and manager (b. 1918) September 21 – Xavier Zubiri, Spanish philosopher (b. 1898) September 25 – King Leopold III of Belgium (b. 1901) September 26 – Tino Rossi, French singer (b. 1907) September 29 – Alan Moorehead, Australian-born English war correspondent and historian (b. 1910) September 30 – William Elliott, American actor (b. 1934) October October 4 – Andrés Córdova, acting President of Ecuador, Leader of the World War II (b. 1892) October 5 – Earl Tupper, American businessman (b. 1907) October 6 – Terence Cooke, American Roman Catholic cardinal, archbishop and servant of God (b. 1921) October 7 George O. Abell, American astronomer, professor at UCLA, science popularizer, and skeptic (b. 1927) Christophe Soglo, Beninese military officer and political leader, 3rd President of Dahomey (b. 1909) October 8 Joan Hackett, American actress (b. 1934) Ruben Rausing, Swedish entrepreneur, founder of Tetra Pak (b. 1895) October 10 Georgia Cozzini, American socialist politician (b. 1915) Sir Ralph Richardson, British actor (b. 1902) October 12 – Prince Nayef bin Abdullah (b. 1914) October 13 – Ajitesh Bandopadhyay Indian actor, playwright and director (b. 1933) October 14 Alice Lardé de Venturino, Salvadoran poet and writer (b. 1895) Paul Fix, American actor (b. 1901) October 15 – Pat O'Brien, American actor (b. 1899) October 16 − George Liberace, American musician and television performer (b. 1911) October 17 – Raymond Aron, French philosopher, sociologist and political scientist. (b. 1905) October 18 – Willie Jones, baseball player (b. 1925) October 19 Maurice Bishop, Grenadian politician and revolutionary, 2nd Prime Minister of Grenada (b. 1944) Dorothy Stuart Russell, Australian-British pathologist (b. 1895) Carel Willink, Dutch painter (b. 1900) October 20 – Peter Dudley, British actor (b. 1935) October 21 – Joseph P. Lordi, American government official (b. 1919) October 23 Jessica Savitch, American journalist (b. 1947) Toru Takahashi, Japanese race car driver (b. 1960) Lakshman Wickremasinghe, Sri Lankan Anglican bishop (b. 1927) October 26 Mike Michalske, American football player (Green Bay Packers) and a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame (b. 1903) Alfred Tarski, Polish-born American logician and mathematician (b. 1901) October 28 Roderick Gill, Irish cricketer (b. 1919) Otto Messmer, American cartoonist (b. 1892) October 31 – George S. Halas, American football player and coach; member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame (b. 1895) November November 3 – Alfredo Antonini, American conductor and composer (b. 1901) November 7 – Germaine Tailleferre, French composer (b. 1892) November 8 Robert Agnew, American actor (b. 1899) Betty Nuthall, English tennis champion (b. 1911) November 13 Aliagha Aghayev, Azerbaijani actor (b. 1913) Junior Samples, American comedian (b. 1926) November 14 Barney Bubbles, English graphic artist (b. 1942) Tómas Guðmundsson, Icelandic poet (b. 1901) November 15 – John Le Mesurier, British actor (b. 1912) November 19 Tom Evans, English musician and songwriter (b. 1947) Carolyn Leigh, American lyricist (b. 1926) November 20 Marcel Dalio, French actor (b. 1900) Richard Loo, Chinese-born American actor (b. 1903) November 22 − Michael Conrad, American actor (b. 1925) November 23 – Waheed Murad, Pakistani actor, film producer, writer and director (b. 1938) November 27 Jorge Ibargüengoitia, Mexican novelist and playwright (b. 1928) Ángel Rama, Uruguayan writer and literary critic (b. 1926) Marta Traba, Colombian-Argentine art critic and writer (b. 1930) Rosa Sabater, Spanish pianist (b. 1929) November 28 – Christopher George, American actor (b. 1931) November 30 George Headley, West Indian cricketer (b. 1909) Richard Llewellyn, British writer (b. 1906) December December 2 – Fifi D'Orsay, Canadian-American actress and singer (b. 1904) December 5 Robert Aldrich, American film director (b. 1918) John Robinson, British Anglican bishop (b. 1919) December 6 Lucienne Boyer, French singer (b. 1903) Gul Khan Nasir, Baloch politician and poet from Pakistan (b. 1914) December 8 Keith Holyoake, New Zealand politician, 26th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1904) Slim Pickens, American actor (b. 1919) December 9 Tito Junco, Mexican actor (b. 1915) David Rounds, American actor (b. 1930) December 11 – Sir Neil Ritchie, British general (b. 1897) December 13 Leora Dana, American actress (b. 1923) Mary Renault, English author (b. 1905) December 15 – David Markham, British actor (b. 1913) December 19 – Cameron Hall, British actor (b. 1897) December 20 Prince Moulay Abdallah of Morocco (b. 1935) Bill Brandt, German-British photographer and photojournalist(b. 1904) December 21 Rod Cameron, American actor (b. 1910) Paul de Man, Belgian-born literary critic (b. 1919) December 23 – Colin Middleton, Northern Irish artist (b. 1910) December 25 – Joan Miró, Spanish painter (b. 1893) December 26 – Hans Liska, Austrian-German artist (b. 1907) December 27 William Demarest, American actor (b. 1892) Walter Scott, American performer (b. 1943) December 28 Jimmy Demaret, American golf champion (b. 1910) Dennis Wilson, American singer, songwriter and drummer (b. 1944) Date unknown Mary Cohan, Broadway composer and lyricist, daughter of George M. Cohan (b. 1909) Freda Simmonds, New Zealand artist (b. 1912) Nobel Prizes Physics – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, William Alfred Fowler Chemistry – Henry Taube Medicine – Barbara McClintock Literature – William Golding Peace – Lech Wałęsa Economics – Gérard Debreu References

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986

1986

The year 1986 was designated as the International Year of Peace by the United Nations. Events January January 1 Aruba gains increased autonomy from the Netherlands by separating from the Netherlands Antilles. Spain and Portugal enter the European Community, which becomes the European Union in 2012. January 11 – The Gateway Bridge in Brisbane, Australia, at this time the world's longest prestressed concrete free-cantilever bridge, is opened. January 13 – 24 – South Yemen Civil War. January 20 – The United Kingdom and France announce plans to construct the Channel Tunnel. January 24 – The Voyager 2 space probe makes its first encounter with Uranus. January 25 – Yoweri Museveni's National Resistance Army Rebel group takes over Uganda after leading a five-year guerrilla war in which up to half a million people are believed to have been killed. They will later use January 26 as the official date to avoid a coincidence of dates with Dictator Idi Amin's 1971 coup. January 28 – Space Shuttle Challenger disaster – STS-51-L: Space Shuttle Challenger disintegrates 73 seconds after launch from the United States, killing the crew of seven astronauts, including schoolteacher Christa McAuliffe. January 29 – Yoweri Museveni is sworn in as President of Uganda. February February 3 – Pixar Animation Studios is founded by Edwin Catmull and Alvy Ray Smith. February 7 President Jean-Claude Duvalier ("Baby Doc") flees Haiti, ending 28 years of family rule. The snap presidential election in the Philippines earlier announced by President Ferdinand Marcos is held amidst controversy, that paves the way for a chain of protests, culminating in the People Power Revolution. February 8 Hinton train collision: A Canadian National train heading westbound collides with a Via Rail train in Hinton, Alberta; 23 people are killed and 71 injured in the accident. February 9 – Halley's Comet reaches its perihelion, the closest point to the Sun, during its second visit to the solar system in the 20th century (the first was in 1910). February 10 - The Maxi Trial (Italian: Maxiprocesso) begins in the bunker room of the Ucciardone prison (Palermo). It will be the largest criminal trial ever celebrated in the history of the age, and the most important against the Sicilian Mafia. February 11 – Human rights activist Natan Sharansky is released by Soviet authorities and leaves the country for Israel. February 15 – The Beechcraft Starship makes its maiden flight. February 16 The Soviet liner sinks in the Marlborough Sounds, New Zealand. Ouadi Doum air raid: The French Air Force raids the Libyan Ouadi Doum airbase in northern Chad. Mário Soares wins the second round of the Portuguese presidential election. February 17 – The Single European Act is signed. February 19 The Soviet Union launches the Mir space station. The United States Senate approves a treaty outlawing genocide. February 22 – The People Power Revolution begins in the Philippines to remove President Ferdinand Marcos from office. February 24 – Sherri Rae Rasmussen, a 29 year old nursing administrator was shot to death in her Los Angeles home. The crime remained unsolved for 23 years until LAPD detective Stephanie Lazarus was arrested and charged with her murder on June 5, 2009. Lazarus once dated Rasmussen's husband John Rutten while in college. Lazarus was convicted on March 8, 2012, and was sentenced to 27 years to life in prison. She will not be eligible for parole until 2028. February 25 The 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union opens in Moscow. The General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev introduces the keywords of his mandate to the audience: Glasnost and Perestroika. People Power Revolution: President Ferdinand Marcos of the Philippines is ousted from power and goes into exile in Hawaii after 21 years of dictatorial rule; Corazon Aquino becomes the first Filipino woman president and forms an interim government with Salvador Laurel becoming her Vice-President and Prime Minister. Egyptian military police, protesting against bad salaries, enter four luxury hotels near the pyramids, set fire to them, and loot them. February 27 – The United States Senate allows its debates to be televised on a trial basis. February 28 – Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme is shot to death on his way home from the cinema in Stockholm, Sweden. March March 1 – Olof Palme's deputy Ingvar Carlsson becomes acting Prime Minister of Sweden. He is elected Prime Minister by the Swedish Riksdag on March 15. March 3 – The first paper is published describing the atomic force microscope invented the previous year by Gerd Binnig, Calvin Quate and Christopher Berger. March 8 – The Japanese Suisei probe flies by Halley's Comet, studying its UV hydrogen corona and solar wind. March 9 – United States Navy divers find the largely intact but heavily damaged crew compartment of the Space Shuttle Challenger; the bodies of all seven astronauts are still inside. March 13 – In a Black Sea incident, American cruiser USS Yorktown and the destroyer USS Caron, claiming the right of innocent passage, enter the Soviet territorial waters near the southern Crimean Peninsula. March 14 – Microsoft Corporation holds its initial public offering of stock shares. March 15 – Hotel New World collapses, 33 killed and 17 rescued from rubble. March 25 – The 58th Academy Awards are held in Los Angeles, with Out of Africa winning Best Picture. March 26 – An article in The New York Times charges that Kurt Waldheim, former United Nations Secretary-General and candidate for president of Austria, may have been involved in Nazi war crimes during World War II. March 27 – Russell Street Bombing: A car bomb explodes at Russell Street Police Headquarters in Russell Street, Melbourne, killing a woman constable, the first Australian policewoman to be killed in the line of duty. March 31 - Mexicana Flight 940 crashes near Maravatío, Mexico, killing 167. April April – The government of Ivory Coast requests international diplomatic use of the French form of its name, Côte d'Ivoire. April 1 – Sector Kanda: Communist Party of Nepal (Mashal) cadres attack a number of police stations in Kathmandu, seeking to incite a popular rebellion. April 2 – A bomb explodes on a Trans World Airlines flight from Rome to Athens, killing 4 people. April 5 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing: The West Berlin discothèque La Belle, a known hangout for United States soldiers, is bombed, killing three and injuring 230; Libya is held responsible. April 11 – The infamous FBI shootout in Miami results in the death of two FBI agents and the wounding of five others. April 13 – Pope John Paul II officially visits the Great Synagogue of Rome, the first time a modern Pope has visited a synagogue. April 13 – The first child born to a non-related surrogate mother is born. April 14 – Hailstones weighing fall on Gopalganj District, Bangladesh, killing 92. April 15 – Operation El Dorado Canyon: At least 15 people die after United States planes bomb targets in the Libyan capital, Tripoli, and the Benghazi region. April 16 – The United Kingdom and the Kingdom of the Netherlands sign a peace treaty, thus ending the Three Hundred and Thirty Five Years' War, one of the longest wars in human history. April 17 Lebanon hostage crisis: British journalist John McCarthy is kidnapped in Beirut (he is released in August 1991) and three others are killed in retaliation for the bombing of Libya. The Hindawi affair begins when an Irishwoman is found carrying explosives onto an El Al flight from London to Tel Aviv. April 18 - Titan 34D-9 explodes just after launch while carrying the final KH-9 satellite. April 21 – Lorimar-Telepictures launches as a mass media company. April 26 – Chernobyl disaster: A mishandled safety test at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Pripyat, Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union "killed at least 4,056 people and damaged almost $7 billion of property". Radioactive fallout from the accident is concentrated near Belarus, Ukraine and Russia and at least 350,000 people are forcibly resettled away from these areas. After the accident, "traces of radioactive deposits unique to Chernobyl were in nearly every country in the northern hemisphere". April 27 – "Captain Midnight" interrupts the HBO satellite feed. April 29 – The Diamond Jubilee of Hirohito is held at the Kokugikan in Tokyo. May May 2 – Expo 86, the 1986 World Exposition on Transportation and Communication, a World's fair, opens in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. May 8 – Óscar Arias is inaugurated into his first term as President of Costa Rica. May 12 – NBC unveils its current peacock logo at the finale of its 60th anniversary special. May 16 – The Seville Statement on Violence is adopted by an international meeting of scientists, convened by the Spanish National Commission for UNESCO, in Seville, Spain. Paramount Pictures releases Top Gun. May 23 – Somali President Siad Barre is injured in a car accident in Mogadishu and taken to Saudi Arabia for treatment. Somali opposition groups see this as an opportunity to try to remove Barre, beginning the Somali Civil War. May 25 Hands Across America: At least 5,000,000 people form a human chain from New York City to Long Beach, California, to raise money to fight hunger and homelessness. The Bangladeshi double-decked ferry Shamia capsizes in the Meghna River, southern Barisal, Bangladesh, killing at least 600. June June – Construction of the Oosterscheldekering, the world's largest openable storm surge flood barrier, is completed in the Netherlands. June 4 – Jonathan Pollard pleads guilty to espionage for selling top secret United States military intelligence to Israel. June 8 – Former United Nations Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim is elected president of Austria. June 9 – The Rogers Commission releases its report on the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. June 12 – South Africa declares a nationwide state of emergency. June 14 – Fantasyland's Mindbender derails and kills three people. June 22 – In one of the most famous FIFA World Cup matches, Argentinian football player Diego Maradona scores one handball goal (nicknamed the "Hand of God") and then dribbles past the entire English football team to score a second goal (nicknamed "The Goal of the Century") with Argentina winning 2–1 against England. June 23 – Eric Thomas develops LISTSERV, the first email list management software. June 29 – Argentina defeats West Germany 3–2 to win the 1986 World Cup in Estadio Azteca in Mexico City. July July 2 – Walt Disney Pictures releases the company's 26th animated film, The Great Mouse Detective. July 4 – The Statue of Liberty is reopened to the public after celebrating its centennial and an extensive refurbishment. July 7 – Australian drug smugglers Kevin Barlow and Brian Chambers are executed in Malaysia. July 11 – The New Zealand Homosexual Law Reform Act decriminalizes consensual sex between men from the age of 16. July 23 – In London, Prince Andrew, Duke of York marries Sarah Ferguson at Westminster Abbey. August August 6 A low-pressure system moving from South Australia and redeveloping off the New South Wales coast dumps a record of rain in a day on Sydney. Australian Democrats leader Don Chipp retires from federal parliament and is succeeded by Janine Haines, the first woman to lead a political party in Australia. August 19 – Two weeks after it was stolen, the Picasso painting Weeping Woman is found in a locker at the Spencer Street Station in Melbourne, Australia. August 20 – In Edmond, Oklahoma, United States Postal Service employee Patrick Sherrill guns down 14 of his coworkers before committing suicide. August 21 – The Lake Nyos disaster, a limnic eruption, occurs in Cameroon, killing nearly 2,000 people. August 31 The Soviet passenger liner collides with the bulk carrier Pyotr Vasev in the Black Sea and sinks almost immediately, killing 398. Aeroméxico Flight 498, a Douglas DC-9, collides with a Piper PA-28 over Cerritos, California, killing 82 (67 on both aircraft and 15 on the ground). The cargo ship Khian Sea departs from the docks of Philadelphia, carrying 14,000 tons of toxic waste. It wanders the seas for the next 16 months trying to find a place to dump its cargo. The waste is later dumped in Haiti. September September 1 – Jordan University of Science and Technology is established in Jordan. September 4 – Eusko Alkartasuna, the Basque Social Democratic Party, is created in Vitoria-Gasteiz. September 5 – Pan Am Flight 73, with 358 people on board, is hijacked at Karachi International Airport by four Abu Nidal terrorists. September 6 The Big Mac Index is introduced in The Economist newspaper as a semi-humorous international measure of purchasing power parity. In Istanbul, two Abu Nidal terrorists kill 22 and wound 6 inside the Neve Shalom Synagogue during Shabbat services. September 7 Desmond Tutu becomes the first black Anglican Church bishop in South Africa. Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet survives an assassination attempt by the FPMR; 5 of Pinochet's bodyguards are killed. September 13 – The 6.0 Kalamata earthquake shook southern Greece with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). The shock left at least 20 dead, 300 injured, and caused $5 million in damage. September 28 – The Democratic Progressive Party is founded. It was part of the Tangwai movement in the new generation to challenge Kuomintang in Taiwan's one-party politics, and is currently one of only two parties to win presidential elections in Taiwan. October October 1 – U.S. President Ronald Reagan signs the Goldwater–Nichols Act into law, making official the largest reorganization of the United States Department of Defense since the Air Force was made a separate branch of service in 1947. October 3 – TASCC, a superconducting cyclotron, officially opens at Chalk River Laboratories. A hybrid solar eclipse was visible off the coast of Iceland, and was the 53rd solar eclipse of Solar Saros 124. October 9 United States District Court Judge Harry E. Claiborne becomes the fifth federal official to be removed from office through impeachment. News Corporation completes its acquisition of the Metromedia group of companies, thereby launching the Fox Broadcasting Company. The Phantom of the Opera, the longest running Broadway show in history, opens at Her Majesty's Theatre in London. October 10 – The 5.7 San Salvador earthquake shook San Salvador, El Salvador with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). Up to 1,500 people were killed. October 11 – 12 – Cold War: Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev meet in Reykjavík, Iceland, to continue discussions about scaling back their intermediate missile arsenals in Europe, which end in failure. October 16 – The International Olympic Committee chooses Albertville, France to be the host city of the 1992 Winter Olympics and Barcelona, Spain to be the host city of the 1992 Summer Olympics. The IOC also announces that the summer and winter games will separate with the winter games on every even, common year; and the summer games on every leap year starting from 1992. October 19 – Mozambican President Samora Machel's plane crashes in South Africa. October 21 – The Marshall Islands became an associated state under the Compact of Free Association. October 22 – In New York City, WNBC Radio's traffic helicopter crashes into the Hudson River, killing traffic reporter Jane Dornacker. The last words heard on-the-air are Dornacker's screams of terror, "Hit the water! Hit the water! Hit the water!" October 26 Bus deregulation goes into effect in the United Kingdom, except Greater London and Northern Ireland. The state funeral of President Samora Machel of Mozambique takes place in Maputo. October 27 The New York Mets win 4 games to 3 in the 1986 World Series against the Boston Red Sox. October 29 – British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher officially opens the M25 Motorway, which encircles Greater London, in a ceremony on the carriageway near Potters Bar. It became Europe's second longest orbital road upon completion, and provides the first and only full bypass of London. October 30 - The National Park Passport Stamps program begins in the United States. November November 1 Queensland, Australia: Joh Bjelke-Petersen wins his final election as Premier of Queensland with 38.6% of the vote. He resigns on December 1, 1987, following revelations of his involvement with corruption released in the Fitzgerald Inquiry. Sandoz chemical spill: a major environmental disaster near Basel, Switzerland, pollutes the Rhine. November 3 Iran–Contra affair: The Lebanese magazine Ash-Shiraa reports that the United States has been selling weapons to Iran in secret, in order to secure the release of 7 American hostages held by pro-Iranian groups in Lebanon. The Northern Mariana Islands enter in a political union with the United States. The island's government adopted its own constitution in 1977, and the constitutional government took office in January 1978. The covenant was fully implemented November 3, 1986, pursuant to Presidential Proclamation no. 5564, which conferred United States citizenship on legally qualified island residents. November 6 – 45 people are killed in the 1986 British International Helicopters Chinook crash. November 18 – Greater Manchester Police announce that they will search for the bodies of 2 missing children (who both vanished more than 20 years ago) after the Moors murderers Ian Brady and Myra Hindley confess to 2 more murders. November 21 – Iran-Contra Affair: National Security Council member Oliver North and his secretary, Fawn Hall, start shredding documents implicating them in selling weapons to Iran and channeling the proceeds to help fund the Contra rebels in Nicaragua. December December 4 – The MV Amazon Venture oil tanker begins leaking oil while at the port of Savannah in the United States, resulting in an oil spill of approximately . December 7 – A magnitude 5.7 earthquake destroys most of the Bulgarian town of Strajica, killing 2 people. December 14 – Rutan Voyager, an experimental aircraft designed by Burt Rutan and piloted by Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager, begins its flight around the world from Edwards Air Force Base in the United States. December 16 – Jeltoqsan, mass anti-government protests, break out across the Kazakh SSR, resulting in the massacre of over 165 protesters. December 19 – Soviet dissident Andrei Sakharov is permitted to return to Moscow after six years of internal exile. December 20 – Three African Americans are assaulted by a group of white teens in the Howard Beach neighborhood of Queens, New York. One of the victims, Michael Griffith, is run over and killed by a motorist while attempting to flee the attackers. December 23 – Rutan Voyager completes the first nonstop circumnavigation of the earth by air without refueling in 9 days, 3 minutes and 44 seconds. December 31 Dupont Plaza Hotel arson: A hotel fire in San Juan, Puerto Rico, kills 97 and injures 140. Soviet submarine Krasnoyarsk (K-173) is commissioned. Date unknown Average per capita income in Japan exceeds that in the United States. The first commercially available 3D printer is sold. Informal stock trading is done in Shenyang, China; the first of its kind in Communist China. The band Sweet Children (now known as Green Day) was formed by the lead singer, Billie Joe Armstrong. The Province of Flevoland is established in the Netherlands. Births Those born in the year 1986 are considered millennials (Generation Y or Gen Y). January January 1 Glen Davis, American basketball player Lee Sung-min, South Korean actor and singer Colin Morgan, Northern Irish actor January 2 Yulia, Russian-New Zealander classical crossover singer Nathan Cowen, New Zealand rower Trombone Shorty, American jazz musician January 4 Katrina Halili, Filipina actress and commercial model Hsieh Su-wei, Taiwanese tennis player James Milner, English soccer player January 5 Teppei Koike, Japanese singer and actor Deepika Padukone, Indian actress and producer January 6 Paul McShane, Irish professional footballer Petter Northug, Norwegian Olympic skier Irina Shayk, Russian model Alex Turner, English musician January 8 Jaclyn Linetsky, Canadian actress and voice actress (d. 2003) David Silva, Spanish footballer January 10 Chen Jin, Chinese badminton player Suzanne Harmes, Dutch artistic gymnast Kenneth Vermeer, Dutch footballer January 11 – Daniela Cosío, Mexican model January 12 – Zlata Ognevich, Ukrainian singer Jakob Oftebro, Norwegian actor January 13 – Joannie Rochette, Canadian figure skater January 14 Yohan Cabaye, French footballer January 15 – Jessy Schram, American actress January 16 – Paula Pareto, Argentinian judoka January 17 Max Adler, American actor Chloe Rose Lattanzi, Australian actress and singer January 18 Marya Roxx, Estonian musician Becca Tobin, American actress and singer January 19 – Claudio Marchisio, Italian footballer January 20 – Genie Chuo, Taiwanese singer and actress January 21 – Sushant Singh Rajput, Indian actor (d. 2020) January 23 José Enrique, Spanish footballer Michael Stevens, American scientist and entertainer January 24 Mischa Barton, British-American actress Raviv Ullman, Israeli-American actor, director, and musician January 26 Gerald Green, American basketball player Matt Heafy, American musician Kim Jae-joong, South Korean actor and pop singer Taylor Wilde, Canadian professional wrestler January 28 Dame Jessica Ennis-Hill, British heptathlete Shruti Haasan, Indian actress and musician January 29 Drew Tyler Bell, American actor and dancer Sarah Jaffe, American singer Ashley Lilley, Scottish actress and singer January 30 Ashley Buccille, American film and television actress Georgi Gurtskaya, former Russian professional footballer January 31 – Yves Ma-Kalambay, Belgian footballer February February 1 – Lauren Conrad, American television personality and fashion designer February 2 Gemma Arterton, British actress Miwa Asao, Japanese beach volleyball player Tiffany Vise, American figure skater February 5 Claudia Cruz, Dominican model and beauty queen Kevin Gates, American hip-hop musician and entrepreneur Madison Rayne, American professional wrestler Andrea Masiello, Italian footballer Billy Sharp, English footballer Sebastián Pinto, Chilean footballer February 6 Vedran Ćorluka, Croatian international footballer Dane DeHaan, American actor Alice Greczyn, American actress and model Sofia Nizharadze, Georgian pop musician Yunho, South Korean actor and singer February 8 Anna Hutchison, New Zealand actress Anderson Paak, American musician and record producer February 9 Shaka Bangura, Sierra Leonean footballer Ciprian Tătărușanu, Romanian footballer February 10 Radamel Falcao, Colombian footballer Yui Ichikawa, Japanese actress February 12 – Valorie Curry, American actress February 14 Aschwin Wildeboer, Spanish swimmer Tiffany Thornton, American actress, radio personality and singer February 15 Valeri Bojinov, Bulgarian footballer Ami Koshimizu, Japanese voice actress Amber Riley, American actress, singer and author February 17 – Brett Kern, American football player February 18 Brenan Espartinez, Filipino singer and actor Vika Jigulina, Romanian music producer, dance singer and DJ Alessandra Mastronardi, Italian actress Gregory Vargas, Venezuelan basketball player February 19 Björn Gustafsson, Swedish comedian Ophelia Lovibond, British actress Marta, Brazilian-born footballer Maria Mena, Norwegian pop singer February 21 Prince Amedeo of Belgium, Archduke of Austria-Este, member of the Belgian Royal Family Charlotte Church, Welsh singer, actress, and television presenter February 22 – Miko Hughes, American actor February 23 Emerson da Conceição, Brazilian footballer Skylar Grey, American pop singer Kazuya Kamenashi, Japanese singer-songwriter and actor Boipelo Makhothi, Lesotho swimmer Jerod Mayo, American football player Ola Svensson, Swedish pop singer February 25 Danny Saucedo, Swedish pop and dance singer Justin Berfield, American actor, writer, and producer James and Oliver Phelps, English actors February 26 Leila Lopes, Angolan Miss Universe Crystal Kay, Japanese actress and pop singer Teresa Palmer, Australian actress, writer, model and film producer March March 1 Ayumu Goromaru, Japanese rugby union player Jonathan Spector, American soccer player March 2 – Ethan Peck, American actor March 3 Stacie Orrico, American singer Mehmet Topal, Turkish footballer March 4 – Margo Harshman, American actress March 5 Corey Brewer, American basketball player Julie Henderson, American model Andrew Jenks, American filmmaker Sarah J. Maas, American novelist Shikabala, Egyptian footballer March 6 Eli Marienthal, American actor Francisco Cervelli, Venezuelan baseball player Charlie Mulgrew, Scottish footballer March 8 Tal Slutzker, Israeli painter and poet Princess Tsuguko of Takamado, member of the Japanese Imperial Family March 9 – Brittany Snow, American actress, producer, director and singer March 11 Dario Cologna, Swiss Olympic skier Mariko Shinoda, Japanese singer, actress, fashion model, and idol March 12 Danny Jones, British musician František Rajtoral, Czech footballer (d. 2017) March 13 Chiaki Kyan, Japanese gravure idol Kousuke Yonehara, Japanese singer and actor March 14 – Jamie Bell, English actor and dancer March 15 – Jai Courtney, Australian actor March 16 Alexandra Daddario, American actress Ken Doane, American professional wrestler T. J. Jordan, American basketball player Daisuke Takahashi, Japanese figure skater March 17 Edin Džeko, Bosnian footballer Olesya Rulin, Russian-born actress March 18 – Lykke Li, Swedish singer-songwriter March 19 – Anne Vyalitsyna, Russian model March 20 – Ruby Rose, Australian actress and model March 21 Scott Eastwood, American actor Michu, Spanish footballer March 22 – Matt Bush, American actor March 23 Brett Eldredge, American country music singer Steven Strait, American musician, actor, and fashion model March 24 – Valentin Chmerkovskiy, Ukrainian-American dancer March 25 Marco Belinelli, Italian basketball player Megan Gibson, American softball player Kyle Lowry, American basketball player March 26 Jonny Craig, Canadian-American singer Jessica Hart, Australian model Misty Stone, American pornographic actress Alexander Taraikovsky, Belarusian demonstrator (d. 2020) March 27 SoCal Val, American professional wrestling personality Manuel Neuer, German football goalkeeper March 28 Lady Gaga, American singer, songwriter and actress Bowe Bergdahl, American soldier and deserter captured by the Taliban Amaia Salamanca, Spanish actress and model March 29 Lucas Elliot Eberl, American actor and director Romina Oprandi, Italian tennis player March 30 Tessa Ferrer, American actress Sergio Ramos, Spanish footballer April April 1 Ellen Hollman, American actress Kid Ink, American hip-hop musician Yurika Nakamura, Japanese athlete Hillary Scott, American musician April 2 Lee DeWyze, American rock musician Drew Van Acker, American actor April 3 Amanda Bynes, American actress and fashion designer Coleen Rooney, English media personality April 4 Labinot Harbuzi, Swedish footballer (d. 2018) Eunhyuk, South Korean actor and singer Steven Brown, Australian judoka personnel April 7 – Choi Si-won, South Korean actor and singer April 8 Igor Akinfeev, Russian footballer Cliff Avril, American football player Félix Hernández, Venezuelan baseball player Erika Sawajiri, Japanese actress, singer, and model April 9 Leighton Meester, American actress Jordan Masterson, American actor April 10 Sam Attwater, British actor Fernando Gago, Argentine footballer Vincent Kompany, Belgian footballer April 11 – Esteban Vizcarra, Argentine-Indonesian fotballer April 12 – Matt McGorry, American actor and activist April 14 – Thaila Ayala, Brazilian actress and model April 15 – Tom Heaton, English footballer April 16 Sufe Bradshaw, American actress Shinji Okazaki, Japanese football player Paul Di Resta, British racing driver April 17 Romain Grosjean, French racing driver Zheng Kai, Chinese actor April 18 – Maurice Edu, American footballer April 19 – Candace Parker, American basketball player April 20 Pablo Martín, Spanish golfer Cameron Duncan, New Zealand director and writer (d. 2003) April 22 Amanda Berry, American author and abduction survivor Viktor Fayzulin, Russian footballer Amber Heard, American actress Marshawn Lynch, American football player April 23 – Sven Kramer, Dutch speed skater April 24 – Tahyna Tozzi, Australian model, singer and actress April 25 Daniel Sharman, English actor John DeLuca, American actor and singer April 27 Jenna Coleman, British actress Dinara Safina, Russian tennis player April 28 Jenna Ushkowitz, American stage and television actress and singer Jazmín Beccar Varela, Argentine actress April 30 – Dianna Agron, American actress, singer and dancer May May 1 Christian Benítez, Ecuadorian footballer (d. 2013) Diego Valeri, Argentine footballer Cassie Jaye, American actress and film director May 2 Emily Hart, American actress and voice actress Thomas McDonell, American actor, musician, and artist May 5 – Grace Wong, Hong Kong actress and beauty pageant contestant May 6 Tyler Hynes, Canadian actor and film maker Sasheer Zamata, American actress and comedian May 7 – Rianne ten Haken, Dutch model May 8 – Laura Spencer, American actress May 12 Jonathan Orozco, Mexican footballer Emily VanCamp, Canadian actress May 13 Lena Dunham, American actress and producer Robert Pattinson, English actor and musician Alexander Rybak, Norwegian singer and violinist May 14 Alyosha, Ukrainian singer Mey Chan, Indonesian singer Marco Motta, Italian footballer Camila Sodi, Mexican actress, singer and model May 15 – Matías Fernández, Chilean footballer May 16 Drew Roy, American actor Megan Fox, American actress and model Shamcey Supsup, Filipina beauty queen, host and pageant director May 17 Amy Gumenick, Swedish actress Tahj Mowry, American actor and singer Eric Lloyd, American actor, comedian, musician and producer Erin Richards, Welsh actress, director and writer May 18 - Natalia Osipova, Russian ballerina May 20 – Louisa Krause, American actress May 21 Kevin Kraxner, former Austrian ice hockey player Ricardo Lockette, American football player Mario Mandžukić, Croatian footballer May 22 Thandeka Mdeliswa, South African actress (d. 2020) Julian Edelman, American football player Molly Ephraim, American actress Tatiana Volosozhar, Ukrainian-born Russian figure skater May 23 Nico Colaluca, American footballer Ryan Coogler, American film director, producer, and screenwriter Valentina Marchei, Italian figure skater Jordan Zimmermann, American baseball player May 24 Mark Ballas, American dancer, actor, and musician Carolina Rodriguez, Spanish rhythmic gymnast May 25 – Juri Ueno, Japanese actress May 26 – Àstrid Bergès-Frisbey, Spanish actress and model May 27 – Timo Descamps, Belgian actor and singer May 28 Joseph Cross, American actor Bryant Dunston, American-Armenian basketball player Charles N'Zogbia, French footballer Britt McHenry, American sports reporter Seth Rollins, American professional wrestler May 29 Hornswoggle, American professional wrestler and actor Eleazar Gómez, Mexican actor Jaslene Gonzalez, Puerto Rican fashion model May 30 Will Peltz, American actor Pasha Parfeni, Moldovan singer May 31 Brooke Castile, American figure skater Robert Gesink, Dutch cyclist Sopho Khalvashi, Georgian musician Melissa McIntyre, Canadian actress June June 1 Ricardo Abarca, Mexican actor and singer Moses Ndiema Masai, Kenyan runner Dayana Mendoza, Venezuelan model and beauty queen Chinedu Obasi, Nigerian footballer Skream, British DJ and producer Ben Smith, New Zealand rugby player Alessio Puccio, Italian voice actor June 2 Todd Carney, Australian rugby player Curtis Lofton, American football player June 3 Al Horford, Dominican basketball player Brenden Jefferson, American actor Alexandros Karageorgiou, Greek archer Micah Kogo, Kenyan runner Rafael Nadal, Spanish tennis player Josh Segarra, American actor Adrián Vallés, Spanish race car driver Tomáš Verner, Czech Republic ice skater June 4 Oona Chaplin, Spanish-English actress and dancer Fahriye Evcen, German-Turkish actress Shane Kippel, Canadian actor Shelly Woods, British wheelchair racer Yoochun, South Korean musician and actor June 5 Christian Baracat, German rugby player Dave Bolland, Canadian ice hockey player Amanda Crew, Canadian actress Vernon Gholston, American football player June 6 Justin Allgaier, American race car driver Kim Hyun-joong, South Korean actor, model and singer Junichi Tazawa, Japanese-American baseball player Leslie Carter, American pop singer (d. 2012) June 9 – Adamo Ruggiero, Canadian actor June 10 Hajime Hosogai, Japanese footballer Joey Zimmerman, American actor and musician June 11 – Shia LaBeouf, American actor, performance artist, and filmmaker June 12 Benjamin Schmideg, Australian actor Cintia Dicker, Brazilian model Jessica Keenan Wynn, American actress Luke Youngblood, British actor Mario Casas, Spanish actor Gary Buckland, Welsh former professional boxer of Romani descent June 13 Kat Dennings, American actress DJ Snake, French DJ and producer Keisuke Honda, Japanese football player Ashley Olsen, American actress Mary-Kate Olsen, American actress Måns Zelmerlöw, Swedish pop singer and television presenter June 14 – Haley Hudson, American actress June 15 – Momoko Ueda, Japanese golfer June 16 – Fernando Muslera, Uruguayan footballer June 17 Marie Avgeropoulos, Canadian actress and model Lisa Haydon, Indian actress June 18 Richard Gasquet, French tennis player Richard Madden, Scottish actor Shusaku Nishikawa, Japanese footballer Meaghan Rath, Canadian film and television actress Crystal Renn, American model and author June 19 Nazareno Casero, Argentinian actor Erin Mackey, American actress and singer Marvin Williams, American basketball player June 20 – Dreama Walker, American actress June 21 – Cheick Tioté, Ivorian footballer (d. 2017) June 23 Marti Malloy, American judoka Simon Špilak, Slovenian road bicycle racer Colin Ryan, English actor June 24 Stuart Broad, English cricketer Solange Knowles, American actress and singer Bojana Stamenov, Serbian singer June 25 Lee Ho-suk, South Korean short-track skater Ace Mahbaz, Iranian actor and writer June 26 – Mohd Farizal Marlias, Malaysian footballer June 27 Drake Bell, American actor, voice actor, singer, songwriter, and musician Sam Claflin, British actor LaShawn Merritt, American sprinter Kristal Uzelac, American artistic gymnast June 28 Matteo Lane, American comedian, opera singer, and oil painter Suzuko Mimori, Japanese voice actress and singer Kellie Pickler, American singer Shadia Simmons, Canadian actress Maya Stojan, Swiss actress June 29 Christopher Egan, Australian actor Mohd Farizal Marlias, Malaysian footballer Edward Maya, Romanian musician Iya Villania, Filipina TV personality June 30 Alicia Fox, American professional wrestler and model Azat Nurgaliev, Kazakh footballer July July 1 Saw Yi Khy, Malaysian swimmer Ekaterina Malysheva, Russian designer and filmmaker July 2 Lindsay Lohan, American actress, singer-songwriter, businesswoman, fashion designer, and film producer Bruno Rezende, Brazilian volleyball player July 3 – Felixia Yeap, Malaysian model July 4 Jaclyn Betham, American actress and ballet dancer Takahisa Masuda, Japanese actor and singer July 5 Iurii Cheban, Ukrainian canoe sprinter Ashkan Dejagah, Iranian footballer July 7 Wan Azraie, Malaysian footballer Igor Klitsov, Russian footballer Sevyn Streeter, American singer July 8 Renata Costa, Brazilian footballer Jake McDorman, American film and television actor July 9 – Kiely Williams, American actress and singer July 10 Shintaro Yamada, Japanese fashion model, actor and singer Wyatt Russell, American actor Tom Richards, English squash player July 11 – Raúl García, Spanish footballer July 12 – JP Pietersen, South African rugby player July 13 – Stanley Weber, French actor and theatre director July 14 Sanam Baloch, Pakistani VJ, actress and anchor Peta Murgatroyd, New Zealand-born Australian dancer Dan Smith, British singer July 15 – Mishael Morgan, Canadian actress July 17 Dana, Korean singer, dancer and actress Mojo Rawley, American professional wrestler and former American professional football player July 18 James Sorensen, Australian model and actor Natalia Mikhailova, Russian former competitive ice dancer Mustapha Jarju, Gambian footballer Travis Milne, Canadian actor July 19 – Jinder Mahal, Canadian professional wrestler July 20 – Osric Chau, Canadian actor and martial artist July 21 Livia Brito, Cuban-Mexican actress and model Betty Gilpin, American actress Diane Guerrero, American actress July 22 – Zeus, Motswana hip-hop artist, MC and businessman July 23 Aya Uchida, Japanese voice actress Ayaka Komatsu, Japanese actress, model and gravure idol July 24 Vugar Gashimov, Azerbaijani chess grandmaster (d. 2014) Megan Park, Canadian actress and singer Natalie Tran, Australian comedian Remy Hii, Malaysian-Australian actor July 25 – Hulk, Brazilian footballer July 26 – Monica Raymund, American actress July 27 – Nathan Stephenson, Canadian actor July 28 Alexandra Chando, American actress Nolan Gerard Funk, Canadian actor and singer July 30 Jung Chul-woon, South Korean football player Danielle Keaton, American actress July 31 – Evgeni Malkin, Russian hockey player August August 1 - Josh Harder, American politician August 3 Charlotte Casiraghi, Monegasque heiress, royal and socialite Andrew McFarlane, American actor Prince Louis of Luxembourg, Prince of Luxembourg August 4 – Oleg Ivanov, Russian footballer August 5 Paula Creamer, American golfer Kyoko Oshima, Japanese artistic gymnast August 6 – Bryan Young, Canadian ice hockey player August 7 Altaír Jarabo, Mexican actress and model Paul Biedermann, German swimmer Nancy Sumari, Tanzanian beauty queen and model August 8 Jackie Cruz, Dominican-American actress Peyton List, American actress Paula Forteza, French-Argentine politician August 11 Kaori Fukuhara, Japanese voice actress Colby Rasmus, American baseball player August 14 – Nigel Boogaard, Australian footballer August 15 – Teddy Sinclair, English singer-songwriter August 16 – Yu Darvish, Japanese baseball player August 17 – Tobias Schönenberg, German actor and photo model August 19 – Christina Perri, American pop and rock musician August 20 – Ryo Katsuji, Japanese actor and voice actor August 21 Usain Bolt, Jamaican sprinter Brooks Wheelan, American actor, comedian and writer August 22 Keiko Kitagawa, Japanese actress Benjamin Satterley, English professional wrestler August 23 Ayron Jones, American musician Neil Cicierega, American Internet artist Andra, Romanian singer August 26 Big K.R.I.T., American rapper Cassie Ventura, American singer, songwriter, model, actress and dancer Saint Jhn, Guyanese-American rapper, singer, songwriter, and record producer August 27 – Sebastian Kurz, Austrian politician, 25th Chancellor of Austria August 28 Briggs, Australian rapper Armie Hammer, American actor Gilad Shalit, Israeli soldier/hostage Florence Welch, British singer August 29 Lea Michele, American actress, singer, and author Hajime Isayama, Japanese manga artist, and creator of Attack on Titan August 30 – Ryan Ross, American guitarist August 31 Melanie Schlanger, Australian freestyle swimmer Feng Tianwei, Singaporean table tennis player September September 1 – Jean Sarkozy, French politician September 2 Moses Ndiema Kipsiro, Ugandan middle-distance runner Stevan Faddy, Montenegrin singer September 3 OMI, Jamaican-born singer Shaun White, American professional snowboarder September 4 Jaclyn Hales, American actress Xavier Woods, American professional wrestler September 5 - Francis Ngannou, Cameroonian Professional MMA Fighter September 7 Eric Kofi-Abrefa, British actor Charlie Daniels, English footballer September 8 – Jake Sandvig, American actor September 9 – José Aldo, Brazilian mixed martial artist September 10 Greg Garbowsky, American musician Ryuji Kamiyama, Japanese vocalist and actor Sarah Levy, Canadian actress Carlos Paparoni, Venezuelan politician September 12 Alfie Allen, English actor Yuto Nagatomo, Japanese footballer Emmy Rossum, American actress and singer Yang Mi, Chinese actress and singer September 13 – Kamui Kobayashi, Japanese professional racing driver September 14 A. J. Trauth, American actor and musician Ai Takahashi, Japanese singer Tinchy Stryder, Ghanaian musician September 15 Jenna McCorkell, British figure skater Heidi Montag, American television personality September 16 – Kyla Pratt, American actress and singer September 18 – Renaud Lavillenie, French pole vaulter September 19 Mandy Musgrave, American actress Sally Pearson, Australian athlete Ilya Salmanzadeh, Swedish music producer Peter Vack, American actor, writer, director and producer September 20 Aldis Hodge, American actor Diego Sinagra, Italian footballer September 21 – Lindsey Stirling, American violinist, dancer, performance artist, and composer September 24 Leah Dizon, American singer and model Eloise Mumford, American actress September 26 Ashley Leggat, Canadian actress September 27 – Natasha Thomas, Danish singer and songwriter September 28 – Andrés Guardado, Mexican footballer September 30 Cristián Zapata, Colombian footballer Olivier Giroud, French footballer Ki Hong Lee, Korean-American actor October October 1 Sayaka Kanda, Japanese actress and singer (d. 2021) Jurnee Smollett, American actress October 2 Kiko Casilla, Spanish footballer Camilla Belle, Brazilian-American actress, director, writer and producer October 3 – Joonas Suotamo, Finnish basketball player and actor October 5 – Novica Veličković, Serbian basketball player October 6 Luisa D'Oliveira, Canadian actress Tereza Kerndlová, Czech singer Olivia Thirlby, American actress October 7 Holland Roden, American actress Amber Stevens West, American actress and model October 9 – Laure Manaudou, French swimmer October 10 Lucy Griffiths, English actress Nathan Jawai, Australian basketball player October 12 Li Wenliang, Chinese ophthalmologist (d. 2020) Tyler Blackburn, American actor, singer and model October 13 – Gabby Agbonlahor, English footballer October 14 Wesley Matthews, American basketball player Iveta Mukuchyan, Armenian singer, model and actress Skyler Shaye, American actress October 15 Ali Fazal, Indian actor Paul Walter Hauser, American actor Lee Donghae, Korean singer October 16 Franco Armani, Argentine footballer Craig Pickering, English sprinter Inna, Romanian singer October 17 - Mohombi, Congolese urban singer-songwriter and dancer October 18 – Loukas Giorkas, Greek-Cypriot singer and model October 20 – Elyse Taylor, Australian model October 21 Tamerlan Tsarnaev, Russian-American terrorist (d. 2013) Christopher von Uckermann, Mexican-Swedish singer, songwriter and actor October 22 Chancellor, American musician Kyle Gallner, American actor Kara Lang, Canadian footballer October 23 Emilia Clarke, English actress Jessica Stroup, American actress and fashion model LoLa Monroe, American rapper, model and actress October 24 Drake, Canadian actor and hip-hop rapper Nobuhiko Okamoto, Japanese voice actor and singer John Ruddy, English footballer October 25 – Chiquito Felipe do Carmo, East Timorese football player October 27 Erica Dasher, American actress Inbar Lavi, Israeli actress October 28 – Tamar Kaprelian, Armenian-American musician and singer October 29 Italia Ricci, Canadian actress Derek Theler, American actor October 30 Thomas Morgenstern, Austrian Olympic ski jumper Hiba Abouk, Spanish-Tunisian actress November November 1 – Penn Badgley, American actor and musician November 3 Davon Jefferson, American basketball player Jasmine Trias, Filipino singer Heo Young-Saeng, South Korean singer Joseline Hernandez, Puerto Rican reality television personality, rapper, and actress November 4 Alexz Johnson, Canadian actress and singer Angelica Panganiban, Filipino-American actress and comedian November 5 Kasper Schmeichel, Danish footballer Nodiko Tatishvili, Georgian singer November 6 – Katie Leclerc, American actress November 7 – James Ferraro, American musician and contemporary artist November 8 – Aaron Swartz, American programmer (d. 2013) November 10 Andy Mientus, American actor, singer, composer and writer Josh Peck, American actor and director Samuel Wanjiru, Kenyan athlete (d. 2011) November 11 François Trinh-Duc, French rugby player Greta Salóme Stefánsdóttir, Icelandic singer and violinist Radhika Kumaraswamy, Indian actress Rafael de la Fuente, Venezuelan actor and singer November 12 – Evan Yo, Taiwanese singer-songwriter November 13 - Kevin Bridges, Scottish stand-up comedian November 14 Cory Michael Smith, American actor Yuna, Malaysian singer, songwriter, and businesswoman November 15 Winston Duke, Tobagonian actor Sania Mirza, Indian tennis player November 17 Karmichael Hunt, New Zealand-Australian sportsperson Nani, Cape Verde-born Portuguese footballer Greg Rutherford, British athlete Alexis Vastine, French boxer (d. 2015) November 20 Ashley Fink, American actress and singer Lee Gye-deok, South Korean singer and activist Oliver Sykes, English musician and vocalist of Bring Me the Horizon November 21 – Sam Palladio, British actor and musician November 22 Oscar Pistorius, South African Paralympic runner Sebastián Zurita, Mexican actor November 23 – Alejandro Alfaro, Spanish footballer November 24 Jimmy Graham, American football player Pedro León, Spanish soccer player Mohamed Massaquoi, American football player Guðmundur Pétursson, Icelandic soccer player Micaela Vázquez, Argentine actress November 25 – Katie Cassidy, American singer and model November 26 – Kanae Ito, Japanese voice actress November 27 – Suresh Raina, Indian cricket player November 28 Pamela Bianca Manalo, Filipina beauty queen and actress Johnny Simmons, American actor December December 1 – DeSean Jackson, American football player December 4 – Martell Webster, American basketball player December 8 Amir Khan, British boxer Kate Voegele, American singer-songwriter and actress December 11 Alex House, Canadian actor Lee Peltier, English footballer Condola Rashād, American actress December 15 Radosław Majewski, Polish footballer Xiah, Korean singer December 17 – Emma Bell, American actress December 18 – Jery Sandoval, Colombian actress, model and singer December 19 Calvin Andrew, English footballer Ryan Babel, Dutch footballer December 22 – Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, Nigerian terrorist December 24 Ana Brenda Contreras, Mexican actress and singer Satomi Ishihara, Japanese actress December 26 Joe Alexander, American-Israeli basketball player Mew Azama, Japanese actress Kit Harington, British actor December 27 Jamaal Charles, American football player Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce, Jamaican sprinter December 29 – Kim Ok-bin, South Korean actress and model December 30 Ellie Goulding, British singer Max Walker, Canadian actor Deaths January January 4 Christopher Isherwood, English writer (b. 1904) Phil Lynott, Irish musician, lead singer and bassist (Thin Lizzy) (b. 1949) January 5 – Ilmari Salminen, Finnish Olympic athlete (b. 1902) January 6 – Una Merkel, American actress (b. 1903) January 7 – Juan Rulfo, Mexican writer (b. 1917) January 10 – Jaroslav Seifert, Czech writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1901) January 12 – Juan Carlos Corazzo, Uruguayan football player (b. 1907) January 13 – Abdul Fattah Ismail, Leader of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen) (b. 1939) January 14 – Donna Reed, American actress (b. 1921) January 16 – Herbert W. Armstrong, founded the Worldwide Church of God (b. 1892) January 17 – Abdul Majid Kubar, 4th Prime Minister of Libya (b. 1909) January 23 – Willard Van Dyke, American filmmaker and photographer (b. 1906) January 24 Victor Crutchley, British admiral (b. 1893) L. Ron Hubbard, American writer and founder of Scientology (b. 1911) Gordon MacRae, American actor and singer (b. 1921) January 27 Nikhil Banerjee, Indian classical sitarist (b. 1931) Lilli Palmer, German actress (b. 1914) January 28 – In the Challenger disaster: Gregory Jarvis, American astronaut (b. 1944) Christa McAuliffe, American astronaut and teacher (b. 1948) Ronald McNair, American astronaut (b. 1950) Ellison Onizuka, American astronaut (b. 1946) Judith Resnik, American astronaut (b. 1949) Dick Scobee, American astronaut (b. 1939) Michael J. Smith, American astronaut (b. 1945) January 29 – Leif Erickson, American actor (b. 1911) February February 1 Alva Myrdal, Swedish politician, diplomat, and writer, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1902) Ida Rhodes, American mathematician, pioneer in computer programming (b. 1900) February 7 Minoru Yamasaki, Japanese architect, designed the twin towers of the World Trade Center (b. 1912) Cheikh Anta Diop, Senegalese historian, anthropologist, physicist, and politician (b. 1923) February 10 – Brian Aherne, British actor (b. 1902) February 11 – Frank Herbert, American author (b. 1920) February 14 – Edmund Rubbra, British composer (b. 1901) February 16 – Howard Da Silva, American actor (b. 1909) February 17 Jiddu Krishnamurti, Indian philosopher (b. 1895) Paul Stewart, American actor (b. 1908) February 19 Francisco Mignone, Brazilian classical music (b. 1897) Barry Seal, American smuggler of drugs and arms, aircraft pilot, and money launderer and former Trans Worlds Airlines pilot (b. 1939) Adolfo Celi, Italian actor and director (b. 1922) February 20 – Bert Schneider, Canadian boxer (b. 1897) February 21 – Mart Stam, Dutch architect (b. 1899) February 24 – Tommy Douglas, Canadian politician and "Father of medicare" in Canada (b. 1904) February 25 – Pasquale Festa Campanile, Italian screenwriter, film director and novelist (b. 1927) February 27 – Jacques Plante, Canadian hockey player (b. 1929) February 28 – Olof Palme, Swedish politician, 26th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1927) March March 4 Richard Manuel, Canadian musician (The Band) (b. 1943) Howard Greenfield, American songwriter (b. 1936) March 6 Adolph Caesar, American actor (b. 1933) Georgia O'Keeffe, American artist (b. 1887) Zhu Guangqian, Chinese esthetician, modern literary theorist, and famous scholar (b.1897) March 10 – Ray Milland, Welsh-American actor and director (b. 1907) March 13 – Eugen Gerstenmaier, German politician, 20 July Plotter (b. 1906) March 15 – Miguel Darío Miranda y Gómez, Mexican Roman Catholic archbishop and cardinal (b. 1895) March 17 – John Bagot Glubb, British soldier (b. 1897) March 18 – Bernard Malamud, American writer (b. 1914) March 19 – Jon Lormer, American actor (b. 1906) March 22 Charles Starrett, American actor (b. 1903) Martin Harlinghausen, German air force general (b. 1902) March 23 Moshe Feinstein, Orthodox rabbi (b. 1895) Anastasia Zuyeva, Soviet actress (b. 1896) March 24 – Michael, Prince of Montenegro (b. 1908) March 28 – Virginia Gilmore, American actress (b. 1919) March 29 – Harry Ritz, American actor (b. 1907) March 30 – James Cagney, American actor and dancer (b. 1899) March 31 – Jerry Paris, American actor and director (b. 1925) April April 1 – Erik Bruhn, Danish danseur and choreographer (b. 1928) April 3 – Sir Peter Pears, English tenor (b. 1910) April 7 – Leonid Kantorovich, Russian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1912) April 8 – Yukiko Okada, Japanese idol singer (b. 1967) April 14 – Simone de Beauvoir, French feminist writer (b. 1908) April 15 Jean Genet, French writer (b. 1910) Tim McIntire, American actor (b. 1944) Robert Marjolin, French economist and politician, 1st Secretary-General of the OECD (b. 1911) April 17 Paul Costello, American Olympic rower – double sculls (b. 1894) Marcel Dassault, French aircraft industrialist (b. 1892) Bessie Head, South African writer (b. 1937) April 19 – Alvin Childress, American actor (b. 1907) April 20 – Aleksei Arbuzov, Soviet playwright (b. 1908) April 22 – Mircea Eliade, Romanian historian of religions and writer (b. 1907) April 23 Harold Arlen, American music composer (b. 1905) Jim Laker, English cricketer (b. 1922) Otto Preminger, Austrian-American film director (b. 1905) April 24 – The Duchess of Windsor (b. 1896) April 26 Broderick Crawford, American actor (b. 1911) Bessie Love, American actress (b. 1898) Hermann Gmeiner, Austrian educator (b. 1919) Valery Khodemchuk, Soviet engineer, working at Chernobyl reactor 4 (b. 1951) April 27 – J. Allen Hynek, American ufologist (b. 1910) April 30 – Robert Stevenson, English film director (b. 1905) May May 2 – Henri Toivonen, Finnish rally car driver (b. 1956) May 3 – Robert Alda, American actor (b. 1914) May 7 – Herma Szabo, Austrian figure skater (b. 1902) May 9 Herschel Bernardi, American actor (b. 1923) Tenzing Norgay, Nepalese sherpa (b. 1914) May 11 Vladimir Pravik, Soviet firefighter (b. 1962) Aleksandr Akimov, Soviet engineer who was the shift supervisor during the events of the Chernobyl disaster (b. 1953) May 12 Elisabeth Bergner, Austrian actress (b. 1897) Alicia Moreau de Justo, Argentine physician, politician, pacifist and human rights activist (b. 1885) May 13 – Vasily Ignatenko, Soviet firefighter who responded to the Chernobyl disaster (b. 1961) May 15 Elio de Angelis, Italian race car driver (b. 1958) Theodore White, American writer (b. 1915) May 20 – Helen B. Taussig, American cardiologist (b. 1898) May 23 Sterling Hayden, American actor (b. 1916) Altiero Spinelli, Italian political theorist and European federalist (b. 1907) May 24 – Yakima Canutt, American actor and stuntman (b. 1895) May 25 – Chester Bowles, American politician (b. 1901) May 26 – Gian-Carlo Coppola, American film producer (b. 1963) May 28 – Lurene Tuttle, American actress (b. 1907) May 30 – Perry Ellis, American fashion designer (b. 1940) May 31 – James Rainwater, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1917) June June 3 – Dame Anna Neagle, English actress (b. 1904) June 5 – Bryan Grant, American tennis champion (b. 1909) June 11 – Chesley Bonestell, American painter (b. 1888) June 13 – Benny Goodman, American jazz musician (b. 1909) June 14 Alan Jay Lerner, American lyricist (b. 1918) Jorge Luis Borges, Argentine writer (b. 1899) June 16 – Maurice Duruflé, French composer (b. 1902) June 17 – Kate Smith, American singer (b. 1907) June 19 Len Bias, American basketball player (b. 1963) Coluche, stage name of Michel Colucci, French comedian and humorist (b. 1944) June 23 – Sir Moses Finley, British classicist (b. 1912) June 26 – Kunio Maekawa, Japanese architect (b. 1905) June 27 – Don Rogers, American football player (b. 1962) June 28 – Mary Anderson, American actress (b. 1897) July July 3 – Rudy Vallée, American singer, actor, and bandleader (b. 1901) July 4 – Oscar Zariski, Russian mathematician (b. 1899) July 6 – Jagjivan Ram, Indian politician (b. 1908) July 8 – Hyman G. Rickover, American admiral (b. 1900) July 14 – Raymond Loewy, French-born industrial designer (b. 1893) July 18 Buddy Baer, American boxer and actor (b. 1915) Stanley Rous, English administrator, 6th President of FIFA (b. 1895) July 19 – Alfredo Binda, Italian cyclist (b. 1902) July 22 – Floyd Gottfredson, American cartoonist (b. 1905) July 24 Fritz Albert Lipmann, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1899) Yoshiyuki Tsuruta, Japanese Olympic swimmer (b. 1903) July 25 Ted Lyons, American baseball player (Chicago White Sox) and member of the MLB Hall of Fame (b. 1900) Vincente Minnelli, American film director (b. 1903) July 26 – W. Averell Harriman, American diplomat and politician (b. 1891) July 31 Patriarch Iustin of Romania (b. 1910) Teddy Wilson, American jazz pianist (b. 1912) Chiune Sugihara, Japanese diplomat and humanitarian who saved Jewish WWII refugees (b. 1900) August August 2 – Roy Cohn, American lawyer (b. 1927) August 6 – Emilio Fernández, Mexican film director, actor and screenwriter (b. 1904) August 11 – Chuck McKinley, American tennis champion (b. 1941) August 18 – Harun Babunagari, Bangladeshi Islamic scholar and educationist (b. 1902) August 19 – Hermione Baddeley, British actress (b. 1906) August 21 – Thad Jones, American jazz musician (b. 1923) August 22 – Celâl Bayar, Turkish politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Turkey and President of Turkey (b. 1883) August 23 – Mikhail Kuznetsov, Soviet actor (b. 1918) August 26 – Ted Knight, American actor (b. 1923) August 27 – George Nēpia, New Zealand Maori rugby player (b. 1905) August 31 Henry Moore, British sculptor (b. 1898) Urho Kekkonen, Finnish politician, 21st Prime Minister of Finland and 8th President of Finland (b. 1900) Jorge Alessandri, Chilean engineer, entrepreneur and politician, 27th President of Chile (b. 1896) September September 1 – Murray Hamilton, American actor (b. 1923) September 3 – Vittorino Veronese, Italian lawyer and international servant, 4th Director-General of UNESCO (b. 1910) September 4 – Hank Greenberg, American baseball player and member of the MLB Hall of Fame (b. 1911) September 6 – Blanche Sweet, American actress (b. 1896) September 7 – Omar Ali Saifuddien III, Sultan of Brunei (b. 1914) September 11 Jacques Henri Lartigue, French painter (b. 1894) Panagiotis Kanellopoulos, Greek author and politician, 164th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1902) Henry DeWolf Smyth, American physicist (b. 1898) September 18 – Pat Phoenix, English actress (b. 1923) September 22 – József Asbóth, Hungarian tennis champion (b. 1917) September 23 – Gottfried Freiherr von Banfield, Austro-Hungarian naval aeroplane pilot in the First World War (b. 1890) September 25 – Nikolay Semyonov, Russian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1896) September 26 – Noboru Terada, Japanese Olympic swimmer (b. 1917) September 27 – Cliff Burton, American musician and songwriter (b. 1962) September 28 – Robert Helpmann, Australian actor, dancer and choreographer (b. 1909) September 29 – Prince George Valdemar of Denmark (b. 1920) October October 4 – Arno von Lenski, German military officer and general (b. 1893) October 5 Hal B. Wallis, American film producer (b. 1898) James H. Wilkinson, British mathematician (b. 1919) October 10 – Michele Pellegrino, Italian Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1903) October 11 – Georges Dumézil, French philologist and historian (b. 1898) October 14 – Keenan Wynn, American actor (b. 1916) October 16 – Arthur Grumiaux, Belgian violinist (b. 1921) October 19 – Samora Machel, Mozambican military commander, politician and revolutionary, 1st President of Mozambique (b. 1933) October 21 – Fritz Hochwälder, Austrian author (b. 1911) October 22 – Albert Szent-Györgyi, Hungarian physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1893) October 23 – Edward Adelbert Doisy, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1893) October 25 – Forrest Tucker, American actor (b. 1919) October 26 – Jackson Scholz, American Olympic athlete (b. 1897) October 31 – Robert S. Mulliken, American physicist and chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (b. 1896) November November 2 – Paul Frees, American actor, comedian (b. 1920) November 4 – Abdallah El-Yafi, Lebanese politician, 9th Prime Minister of Lebanon (b. 1901) November 5 – Claude Jutra, Canadian film director (b. 1930) November 6 – Elisabeth Grümmer, Alsatian soprano (b. 1911) November 7 - Tracy Pew Australian musician (b. 1957) November 8 Artur London, Czech statesman (b. 1915) Vyacheslav Molotov, Soviet politician (b. 1890) November 11 – Roger C. Carmel, American actor (b. 1932) November 15 – Alexandre Tansman, French composer and virtuoso pianist (b. 1897) November 16 – Siobhán McKenna, Irish actress (b. 1923) November 18 – Gia Carangi, American supermodel (b. 1960) November 21 Jerry Colonna, American comedian (b. 1904) Dar Robinson, American stunt performer and actor (b. 1947) November 22 Scatman Crothers, American actor, musician (b. 1910) Dinny Pails, Australian tennis player (b. 1921) November 29 – Cary Grant, English actor (b. 1904) December December 2 – Desi Arnaz, Cuban-born American actor, bandleader, musician and television producer (b. 1917) December 8 – Anatoly Marchenko, Soviet dissident and author (b. 1938) December 10 – Susan Cabot, American actress (b. 1927) December 12 – Paul Verner, German politician (b. 1911) December 13 Heather Angel, British-born American actress (b. 1909) Ella Baker, American civil rights activist (b. 1903) December 14 – Antal Páger, Hungarian actor (b. 1899) December 15 – Serge Lifar, Soviet dancer and choreographer (b. 1905) December 17 Guillermo Cano Isaza, Colombian journalist (b. 1925) Wanis al-Qaddafi, Libyan politician, 10th Prime Minister of Libya (b. 1924) December 21 – Willy Coppens, Belgian pilot (b. 1892) December 24 Gardner Fox, American writer (b. 1911) Richard van der Riet Woolley, English astronomer (b. 1906) December 26 – Elsa Lanchester, British-American actress (b. 1902) December 29 Harold Macmillan, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1894) Pietro Parente, Italian Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1891) Andrei Tarkovsky, Russian filmmaker, writer, and film theorist (b. 1932) December 31 – Lloyd Haynes, American actor (b. 1934) Date unknown D.R. Kaprekar, Indian recreational mathematician (b. 1905) Nobel Prizes Physics – Ernst Ruska, Gerd Binnig, Heinrich Rohrer Chemistry – Dudley R. Herschbach, Yuan T. Lee, John Polanyi Physiology or Medicine – Stanley Cohen, Rita Levi-Montalcini Literature – Wole Soyinka Peace – Elie Wiesel Economics – James M. Buchanan References

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1871

1871

Events January–March January 3 – Franco-Prussian War – Battle of Bapaume: Prussians win a strategic victory. January 18 – Proclamation of the German Empire: The member states of the North German Confederation and the south German states, aside from Austria, unite into a single nation state, known as the German Empire. The King of Prussia is declared the first German Emperor as Wilhelm I of Germany, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. Constitution of the German Confederation comes into effect. It abolishes all restrictions on Jewish marriage, choice of occupation, place of residence, and property ownership, but exclusion from government employment and discrimination in social relations remain in effect. January 21 – Giuseppe Garibaldi's group of French and Italian volunteer troops, in support of the French Third Republic, win a battle against the Prussians in Dijon. February 8 – 1871 French legislative election elects the first legislature of the French Third Republic; monarchists (Legitimists and Orleanists) favourable to peace with the German Empire gain a large majority. The National Assembly meets in Bordeaux. February 9 – The United States Commission on Fish and Fisheries is founded. February 21 – The District of Columbia Organic Act of 1871 is signed into law by U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant. February 24 – The Danish Women's Society is founded to promote women's rights in Denmark; on December 15 it adopts the style Dansk Kvindesamfund. March 3 – The first American civil service reform legislation is signed into law by U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant, creating the United States Civil Service Commission. March 7 – José Paranhos, Viscount of Rio Branco, becomes Prime Minister of the Empire of Brazil, serving for four years. March 18 – Origin of the Paris Commune: Troops of the regular French Army, sent by Adolphe Thiers, Chef du pouvoir executive de la République française, to seize cannons stored on the hill of Montmartre, fraternise with civilians and the National Guard, and two army generals are killed. Regular troops are evacuated to Versailles. March 21 Otto von Bismarck becomes the first Chancellor of the German Empire. John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne (whose father, the 8th Duke of Argyll, is the serving Secretary of State for India), marries Princess Louise. March 22 In North Carolina, William Holden becomes the first governor of a U.S. state to be removed from office by impeachment. The United States Army issues an order for the abandonment of Fort Kearny, Nebraska. March 26 – The Paris Commune is formally established in France. March 27 – The first Rugby Union International results in a 1–0 win, by Scotland over England. March 29 The first Surgeon General of the United States (John Maynard Woodworth) is appointed. The Royal Albert Hall in London is opened by Queen Victoria; it incorporates a grand organ by Henry Willis & Sons, the world's largest at this time. April–June April – The Stockholms Handelsbank is founded. April 4 – The New Jersey Detective Agency is chartered, and the New Jersey State Detectives are initiated. April 10 – In Brooklyn, New York, P.T. Barnum opens his three-ring circus, hailing it as "The Greatest Show on Earth". April 20 – U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant signs the Civil Rights Act of 1871. April 24 – Servant girl Jane Clouson is murdered in Eltham, England. May 4 – The first supposedly Major League Baseball game is played in America. May 8 – The first Major League Baseball home run is hit by Ezra Sutton, of the Cleveland Forest Citys. May 10 – The Treaty of Frankfurt is signed, confirming the frontiers between Germany and France. The provinces of Alsace and Lorraine are transferred from France to Germany. May 11 – The first trial in the Tichborne case begins, in the London Court of Common Pleas. May 21 French government troops enter Paris to overthrow the Commune, beginning "Bloody Week" (Semaine sanglante). The first rack railway in Europe, the Vitznau–Rigi Railway on Mount Rigi in Switzerland, is opened. May 27 – French government troops massacre 147 Communards from Belleville, at Père-Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. May 28 – Paris Commune falls to French government forces. June 1 – Bombardment of the Selee River Forts: Koreans attack two United States Navy warships. June 10 – United States expedition to Korea: Captain McLane Tilton leads 109 members of the United States Marine Corps in a punitive naval attack on the Han River forts on Ganghwa Island in Korea, resulting in 250 Koreans dying and diplomatic failure to "open up" Korea. June 18 – The Universities Tests Act 1871 removes restrictions limiting access to Oxford, Cambridge and Durham universities to members of the Church of England. June 29 – Trade unions are legalized in the United Kingdom by the Trade Union Act 1871. July–September July 13 – The first cat exhibition is held at the Crystal Palace of London. July 20 British Columbia joins the confederation of Canada. C. W. Alcock proposes that "a Challenge Cup should be established in connection with the Association", giving birth to the FA Cup for Association football in England. July 21–August 26 – The first ever photographs of Yellowstone National Park region are taken by photographer William Henry Jackson, during the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871. July 22 – The foundation stone of the first Tay Rail Bridge is laid; the bridge collapses in a storm eight years later. July 28 – The Annie becomes the first boat ever launched on Yellowstone Lake, in the Yellowstone National Park region. August 7 – Banco de Concepcion, as predecessor of Itau Unibanco, major financial services in South America, founded in Chile. August 9 – One of the few known major hurricanes to strike what becomes the US state of Hawaii causes significant damage on Hawai'i and Maui. August 29 – The abolition of the han system is carried out in Japan. August 31 – Adolphe Thiers becomes President of the French Republic. September 2 – Whaling Disaster of 1871: The Comet, a brig used by whalers, becomes the first of 33 ships to be crushed in the Arctic ice by an early freeze. Remarkably, all 1,219 people on the abandoned ships are rescued without a single loss of life. September 3 – New York City residents, tired of the corruption of the "Tammany Hall" political machine and "Boss" William M. Tweed, its "Grand Sachem", meet to form the 'Committee of Seventy' to reform local politics. October–December October 5 – The Società degli Spettroscopisti Italiani (now Società Astronomica Italiana) was established in Rome, the first scientific organisation in the world dedicated to astrophysics. October 8 – Four major fires break out on the shores of Lake Michigan in Chicago; Peshtigo, Wisconsin; Holland, Michigan; and Manistee, Michigan. The Great Chicago Fire is the most famous of these, leaving nearly 100,000 people homeless, although the Peshtigo Fire kills as many as 2,500 people, making it the deadliest in United States history. October 11 – Heinrich Schliemann begins the excavation of Troy. October 12 – The Criminal Tribes Act is enacted by the British Raj in India, naming over 160 communities as "Denotified Tribes", allegedly habitually criminal (it will be repealed in 1949, after Indian independence). October 20 – The Royal Regiment of Artillery forms the first regular Canadian army units, when they create two batteries of garrison artillery, which later become the Royal Canadian Artillery. October 24 – Chinese massacre of 1871. In Los Angeles' Chinatown, 18 Chinese immigrants are killed by a mob of 500 men. October 26 – Liberian President Edward James Roye is deposed in a coup d'état. October 27 British forces march into the Klipdrift Republic and annex the territory as Griqualand West Colony. Henri, Count of Chambord, refuses to be crowned "King Henry V of France" until France abandons its tricolor, and returns to the old Bourbon flag. Boss Tweed of Tammany Hall is arrested for bribery, ending his grip on New York City. c. November – The South Improvement Company is formed in Pennsylvania by John D. Rockefeller and a group of major United States railroad interests, in an early effort to organize and control the American petroleum industry. November 5 – Wickenburg Massacre: Six men travelling by stagecoach, in the Arizona Territory, are reportedly murdered by Yavapai people. November 7 – The London–Australia telegraph cable is brought ashore at Darwin. November 10 – Henry Morton Stanley, Welsh-born correspondent for the New York Herald, locates missing Scottish explorer and missionary Dr. David Livingstone in Ujiji, near Lake Tanganyika, and greets him by saying, "Dr. Livingstone, I presume?" November 17 The National Rifle Association is granted a charter by the state of New York. George Biddell Airy presents his discovery that astronomical aberration is independent of the local medium. December 10 – German chancellor Otto von Bismarck tries to ban Catholics from the political stage, by introducing harsh laws concerning the separation of church and state. December 19 – The city of Birmingham, Alabama, is incorporated with the merger of three existing towns. December 24 – The opera Aida opens in Cairo, Egypt. December 25 – Reading F.C. is formed as an Association football club in England. December 26 – Thespis, the first of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, premières. It does modestly well, but the two composers will not collaborate again for four years. Date unknown In South Africa Gold is discovered at Pilgrim's Creek in the Pilgrim's Rest area. A diamond is discovered, resulting in a diamond rush, and the town of New Rush springs up; Colonial Commissioners arrive there on November 17. The Harvard Summer School is founded. Continental AG is founded as Continental-Caoutchouc und Gutta-Percha Compagnie in Hanover, Germany on 8th October. The Shinto shrine of Izumo-taisha in Japan is designated as an Imperial shrine. Modern "neoclassical economics" is initiated by publication of William Stanley Jevons's Theory of Political Economy and Carl Menger's Principles of Economics (Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre). Births January–February January 1 – Manuel Gondra, Paraguayan author and journalist, 21st President of Paraguay (d. 1927) January 7 – Émile Borel, French mathematician, politician (d. 1956) January 17 – David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty, British admiral (d. 1936) January 30 – Wilfred Lucas, Canadian-born actor (d. 1940) February 4 – Friedrich Ebert, President of Germany (d. 1925) February 9 – Howard Taylor Ricketts, American pathologist (d. 1910) February 18 – Harry Brearley, English inventor (d. 1948) February 27 – Otto Praeger, American postal official, implemented U.S. Airmail (d. 1948) February 28 – Manuel Díaz Rodríguez, Venezuelan writer and politician (d. 1927) March–April March 1 – Ben Harney, American composer and pianist (d. 1938) March 4 – Boris Galerkin, Russian mathematician (d. 1945) March 5 – Rosa Luxemburg, German politician (d. 1919) March 6 – Afonso Costa, Portuguese lawyer, professor, politician and 3-time Prime Minister of Portugal (d. 1937) March 12 – Kitty Marion, German-born actress and women's rights activist in England and the United States (d. 1944) March 15 – Constantin Argetoianu, 41st Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1955) March 17 – Konstantinos Pallis, Greek general (d. 1941) March 19 – Schofield Haigh, English cricketer (d. 1921) March 24 – Birdie Blye, American pianist (d. 1935) March 27 – Heinrich Mann, German writer (d. 1950) March 31 – Arthur Griffith, President of Ireland (d. 1922) April 4 – Luke McNamee, American admiral (d. 1952) April 8 – Clarence Hudson White, American photographer (d. 1925) April 12 – Ioannis Metaxas, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1941) April 13 – Jurgis Matulaitis-Matulevičius, Lithuanian author, Roman Catholic archbishop and blessed (d. 1927) April 15 – Jonathan Zenneck, German physicist, electrical engineer (d. 1959) May–June May 2 – Francis P. Duffy, Canadian-born American Catholic priest (d. 1932) May 6 Victor Grignard, French chemist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry laureate (d. 1935) Christian Morgenstern, German author (d. 1914) May 7 – Gyula Károlyi, 29th Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1947) May 27 – Georges Rouault, French painter, graphic artist (d. 1958) June 5 – Nicolae Iorga, 34th Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1940) June 11 – Walter Cowan, British admiral (d. 1956) June 12 – Ernst Stromer, German paleontologist (d. 1952) June 14 – Jacob Ellehammer, Danish inventor (d. 1946) June 17 – James Weldon Johnson, American author, politician, diplomat, critic, journalist, poet, anthologist, educator, lawyer, songwriter and early civil rights activist (d. 1938) June 18 – Edmund Breese, American actor (d. 1936) June 23 – Jantina Tammes, Dutch plant biologist (d. 1947) June 26 – Reginald R. Belknap, United States Navy rear admiral (d. 1959) July–August July 5 – Claus Schilling, German medical researcher and war criminal (d. 1946) July 10 – Marcel Proust, French writer (d. 1922) July 17 – Lyonel Feininger, German painter (d. 1956) July 18 – Sada Yacco, Japanese stage actress (d. 1946) July 25 – Richard Ernest William Turner, Canadian soldier (d. 1961) August 1 – John Lester, American cricketer (d. 1969) August 3 – Augusta Holtz, Polish-American supercentenarian, last surviving person born in 1871 (d. 1986) August 12 – Gustavs Zemgals, 2nd President of Latvia (d. 1939) August 13 – Karl Liebknecht, German politician (d. 1919) August 14 – Guangxu Emperor of China (d. 1908) August 19 Orville Wright, American aviation pioneer, co-inventor of the airplane with brother Wilbur (d. 1948) Joseph E. Widener, American art collector (d. 1943) August 23 – Sofia Panina, Russian politician (d. 1956) August 25 – Nils Edén, 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (d. 1945) August 27 – Theodore Dreiser, American writer (d. 1945) August 29 – Albert François Lebrun, French politician (d. 1950) August 30 – Ernest Rutherford, New Zealand physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (d. 1937) September–October September 1 – J. Reuben Clark, Under Secretary of State for U.S. President Calvin Coolidge (d. 1961) September 10 Thomas Adams, British urban planner (d. 1940) Charles Collett, English Great Western Railway chief mechanical engineer (d. 1952) September 17 – Eivind Astrup, Norwegian Arctic explorer (d. 1895) September 19 – Frederick Ruple, Swiss-born American portrait painter (d. 1938) September 24 – Lottie Dod, English athlete (d. 1960) September 26 – Winsor McCay, American cartoonist, animator (d. 1934) September 27 – Grazia Deledda, Italian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1936) September 28 – Pietro Badoglio, Italian field marshal, prime minister (d. 1956) October 2 – Cordell Hull, United States Secretary of State, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1955) October 19 – Walter Bradford Cannon, American physiologist (d. 1945) October 11 – Harriet Boyd Hawes, American archaeologist (d. 1945) October 17 – Dénes Berinkey, 21st Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1944) October 25 – John Gough, British general, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1915) October 30 Buck Freeman, American baseball player (d. 1949) Paul Valéry, French poet (d. 1945) November–December November 1 – Stephen Crane, American writer (d. 1900) November 23 – William Watt, Australian politician, Premier of Victoria (d. 1946) December 9 – Joe Kelley, American Baseball Hall of Famer (d. 1943) December 13 – Emily Carr, Canadian artist (d. 1945) December 17 – Virginia Fábregas, Mexican actress (d. 1950) Date unknown Zhang Jinghui, Chinese general and politician, second and final Prime Minister of Manchukuo (d. 1959) Sevasti Qiriazi, Albanian educator, women's rights activist (d. 1949) Deaths January–June January 8 – José Trinidad Cabañas, Honduran general, president and national hero (b. 1805) January 13 – Kawakami Gensai, Japanese swordsman of the Bakumatsu period (b. 1834) January 15 – Edward C. Delavan, American temperance movement leader (b. 1793) January 19 – Sir William Denison, Governor of New South Wales (b. 1804) January 25 – Jeanne Villepreux-Power, French marine biologist (b. 1794) January 29 – Samuel Harvey Taylor, 6th Principal of Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts (b. 1807) February 10 – Étienne Constantin de Gerlache, 1st Prime Minister of Belgium (b. 1785) February 12 – Alice Cary, American poet, sister of Phoebe Cary (b. 1820) February 20 – Paul Kane, Irish-born painter (b. 1810) February 22 – Sir Charles Shaw, British army officer and police commissioner (b. 1795) February 23 – Amanda Cajander, Finnish medical reformer (d. 1827) March – Emma Fürstenhoff, Swedish florist (b. 1802) March 18 – Augustus De Morgan, English professor of mathematics, mathematician (b. 1806) April 7 Prince Alexander John of Wales (b. April 6, prematurely) April 7 – Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, Austrian admiral (b. 1827) April 30 – Jane Clouson, teenaged British murder victim (b. 1854) May 11 – John Herschel, English astronomer (b. 1792) May 12 – Elzéar-Henri Juchereau Duchesnay, Canadian politician (b. 1809) May 18 – Constance Trotti, Belgian salonnière, culture patron (b. 1800) May 23 – Jarosław Dąbrowski, Polish general (b. 1836) June 9 – Anna Atkins, British botanist (b. 1799) July–December July 5 – Cristina Trivulzio Belgiojoso, Italian noble, patriot, writer and journalist (b. 1808) July 6 – Castro Alves, Brazilian poet and playwright (b. 1847) July 15 – Tad Lincoln, youngest son of American President Abraham Lincoln (b. 1853) July 31 – Phoebe Cary, American poet, sister to Alice Cary (b. 1824) August 9 – John Paterson, politician in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly (b. 1831) September 16 – Jan Erazim Vocel, Czech poet, archaeologist, historian and cultural revivalist (b. 1803) September 20 – John Patteson, Anglican bishop, missionary (martyred) (b. 1827) September 21 – Charlotte Elliott, English hymnwriter (b. 1789) September 23 – Louis-Joseph Papineau, Canadian politician (b. 1786) October 4 – Sarel Cilliers, Voortrekker leader, preacher (b. 1801) October 7 – Sir John Burgoyne, British field marshal (b. 1782) October 16 – Martha Hooper Blackler Kalopothakes, American missionary, journalist, translator (b. 1830) October 18 – Charles Babbage, English mathematician, inventor (b. 1791) October 29 – Andrea Debono, Maltese trader and explorer (b. 1821) November 2 – Athalia Schwartz, Danish writer, journalist and educator (b. 1821) November 22 – Oscar James Dunn, Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana (b. 1825) December 21 – Luise Aston, German author, feminist (b. 1814) December 28 – John Henry Pratt, English clergyman, mathematician (b. 1809) References Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia...for 1871 (1873), comprehensive collection of facts online edition

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989

1989

1989 was a turning point in political history because a wave of revolutions swept the Eastern Bloc in Europe, starting in Poland and Hungary, with experiments in power sharing coming to a head with the opening of the Berlin Wall in November, and the Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia, embracing the overthrow of the communist dictatorship in Romania in December, and ending in December 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union. These are collectively known as the Revolutions of 1989. While revolutions against communist governments in Eastern Europe mainly succeeded, the year also saw the suppression by the Chinese government of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests in Beijing. It was the year of the first Brazilian presidential election in 29 years, since the end of the military government in 1985 that ruled the country for more than twenty years, and marked the redemocratization process's final point. F. W. de Klerk was elected as State President of South Africa, and his regime gradually dismantled the apartheid system over the next five years, culminating with the 1994 election that brought jailed African National Congress leader Nelson Mandela to power. The first commercial Internet service providers surfaced in this year, as well as the first written proposal for the World Wide Web and New Zealand, Japan and Australia's first Internet connections. The first babies born after preimplantation genetic diagnosis were conceived in late 1989. Events January January 1 – The New York Times discloses involvement of German company Imhausen and Salzgitter AG in building a chemical weapon plant in Rabta, Libya. January 2 – Prime Minister Ranasinghe Premadasa takes office as the third President of Sri Lanka. January 4 – Gulf of Sidra incident (1989): Two Libyan MiG-23 "Floggers" are engaged and shot down by two US Navy F-14 Tomcats. January 7 – Emperor Shōwa dies; his son Akihito is enthroned as the 125th Emperor of Japan immediately, followed by the change in the era name from Shōwa to Heisei on the following day. January 10 – In accordance with United Nations Security Council Resolution 626 and the New York Accords, Cuban troops begin withdrawing from Angola. January 11 – The Lexus and Infiniti luxury car brands are launched at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit with the unveiling of the 1990 Lexus LS and Infiniti Q45 sedans. January 15 - Thirty-five European nations, meeting in Vienna, agree to strengthen human rights and improve East–West trade. January 17 – Stockton schoolyard shooting: Patrick Edward Purdy kills five children, wounds thirty and then shoots himself in Stockton, California. January 18 The Polish United Workers' Party votes to legalise Solidarity. Ante Marković succeeds Branko Mikulić as Prime Minister of Yugoslavia. January 20 – George H. W. Bush is sworn in as the 41st President of the United States. January 23–24 – Armed civilian leftists briefly attack and occupy an Argentinian army base near Buenos Aires. January 24 – Florida executes Ted Bundy by electric chair for the murders of young women. January 30 Prime Minister of Canada Brian Mulroney shuffles his cabinet, appointing six new ministers and reassigning the responsibilities of nineteen others. The Embassy of the United States, Kabul, Afghanistan, is closed; it does not reopen until late 2001. February February 1 – In Australia, Joan Kirner becomes Victoria's first female Deputy Premier, after the resignation of Robert Fordham over the VEDC (Victorian Economic Development Co-operation) Crisis. February 2 Soviet–Afghan War: The last Soviet Union armoured column leaves Kabul, ending nine years of military occupation since 1979. Carlos Andrés Pérez takes office as President of Venezuela. Satellite television service Sky Television plc is launched in Europe. February 3 1989 Paraguayan coup d'état ("La Noche de la Candelaria"): A military coup overthrows Alfredo Stroessner, dictator of Paraguay since 1954. After a stroke, State President of South Africa P. W. Botha resigns as Leader of the National Party. February 5 – Eurosport, a multiple-language sports broadcasting station in Europe, begins broadcasting, from Issy-les-Moulineaux, Île-de-France, France. February 6 – The Government of the People's Republic of Poland holds formal talks with representatives of Solidarity movement for the first time since 1981. February 7 – The People's National Party, led by Michael Manley, wins the 1989 Jamaican general election. February 10 Ron Brown is elected as Chairman of the Democratic National Committee, becoming the first African American to lead a major United States political party. U.S. President Bush meets Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in Ottawa, laying the groundwork for the Acid Rain Treaty of 1991. February 11 – Barbara Harris is the first woman consecrated as a bishop of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America (and also the first woman to become a bishop in the worldwide Anglican Communion). February 14 Union Carbide agrees to pay $470,000,000 to the Indian government for damages in the 1984 Bhopal disaster, a gas leak that killed 3.7 thousand. The Satanic Verses controversy: Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, Supreme Leader of Iran (d. June 3), issues a fatwa calling for the death of Indian-born British author Salman Rushdie and his publishers for issuing the novel The Satanic Verses (1988). The first of 24 Global Positioning System satellites is placed into orbit. February 15 Soviet–Afghan War: The Soviet Union announces that all of its troops have left Afghanistan. Following a campaign that saw over 1,000 people killed in massive campaign-related violence, the United National Party wins the Sri Lankan parliamentary election. February 16 – Pan Am Flight 103: Investigators announce that the cause of the 1988 crash was a bomb hidden inside a radio-cassette player. February 17 The Arab Maghreb Union (AMU) is formed. South African police raid the home of Winnie Mandela and arrest four of her bodyguards. February 20 – In Canada's Yukon Territory, the ruling New Democrats narrowly maintain control of the Yukon Legislative Assembly, winning 9 seats vs. the Progressive Conservative Party's 7. February 23 – After protracted testimony, the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee rejects, 11–9, President Bush's nomination of John Tower for Secretary of Defense. February 23–27 – U.S. President Bush visits Japan, China and South Korea, attending the funeral of Hirohito and then meeting with China's Deng Xiaoping and South Korea's Roh Tae-woo. February 24 The funeral of Hirohito is attended by representatives of 160 nations. The Satanic Verses controversy: Iran places a $3,000,000 bounty on the head of The Satanic Verses author Salman Rushdie. Singing Revolution: After 44 years, the Estonian flag is raised at the Pikk Hermann tower in Tallinn. United Airlines Flight 811, a Boeing 747, suffers uncontrolled decompression after leaving Honolulu International Airport; nine passengers are blown out of the cabin to their deaths. February 27 – Venezuela is rocked by the Caracazo, a wave of protests and looting. March March – Poland begins to liberalise its currency exchange in a move towards capitalism. March 1 The Berne Convention, an international treaty on copyrights, is ratified by the United States. A curfew is imposed in Kosovo, where protests continue over the alleged intimidation of the Serb minority. The Politieke Partij Radicalen, Pacifistisch Socialistische Partij, Communistische Partij Nederland and the Evangelical People's Party amalgamate to form the Dutch political party GroenLinks (GL, GreenLeft). After 74 years, Iceland ends its prohibition on beer; celebrated since as bjórdagur or beer day. March 2 – Twelve European Community nations agree to ban the production of all chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) by the end of the century. March 3 – Jammu Siltavuori abducts and murders two eight-year-old girls in the Myllypuro suburb of Helsinki, Finland. March 4 Time Inc. and Warner Communications announce plans for a merger, forming Time Warner. (Now WarnerMedia) The Purley station rail crash in London leaves five people dead and 94 injured. The first Australian Capital Territory elections are held. March 7 – Iran breaks off diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom over Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses. March 9 – Revolutions of 1989: The Soviet Union submits to the jurisdiction of the World Court. March 13 A geomagnetic storm causes the collapse of the Hydro-Québec power grid. 6,000,000 people are left without power for nine hours. Some areas in the northeastern U.S. and in Sweden also lose power, and aurorae are seen as far as Texas. Tim Berners-Lee produces the proposal document that will become the blueprint for the World Wide Web. March 14 Gun control: U.S. President George H. W. Bush bans the importation of certain guns deemed assault weapons into the United States. General Michel Aoun declares a "War of Liberation" to rid Lebanon of Syrian forces and their allies. March 15 Israel hands over Taba to Egypt, ending a seven-year territorial dispute. Mass demonstrations in Hungary, demanding democracy. March 16 – The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union approves agricultural reforms allowing farmers the right to lease state-owned farms for life. March 17 The Civic Tower of Pavia, built in the eleventh century, collapses. Alfredo Cristiani is elected as President of El Salvador. March 20 – Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke weeps on national television as he admits marital infidelity. March 22 Clint Malarchuk of the NHL Buffalo Sabres suffers an almost fatal injury when another player accidentally slits his throat. Asteroid 4581 Asclepius approaches the Earth at a distance of . March 23 – Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann announce that they have achieved cold fusion at the University of Utah. March 23–28 – The Socialist Republic of Serbia passes constitutional changes revoking the autonomy of the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo, triggering six days of rioting by the Albanian majority, during which at least 29 people are killed. March 24 – Exxon Valdez oil spill: In Alaska's Prince William Sound, the Exxon Valdez spills of oil after running aground. March 26 – 1989 Soviet Union legislative election: The first (and last) contested elections for the Soviet parliament, Congress of People's Deputies, result in losses for the Communist Party; the first session of the new Congress opens in late May. March 29 – The 61st Academy Awards are held at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles, with Rain Man winning Best Picture, and Jodie Foster wins her first award for Best Actress. April April 1 – Margaret Thatcher's new local government tax (the poll tax) is introduced in Scotland. It will be introduced in England and Wales the following year. April 2 In South-West Africa, fighting erupts between SWAPO insurgents and the South West African Police on the day that a ceasefire was supposed to end the South African Border War according to United Nations Security Council Resolution 435. By April 6, nearly 300 people are killed. April 4 – A failed coup attempt against Prosper Avril, President of Haiti, leads to a standoff between mutinous troops and the government which ends on April 10, with the government regaining control of the country. April 5 – The Polish Government and the Solidarity trade union sign an agreement restoring Solidarity to legal status, and agreeing to hold democratic elections on June 4 (Polish Round Table Agreement), which initiates the 1989 revolution and the overthrow of communism in Central Europe. April 6 – National Safety Council of Australia chief executive John Friedrich is arrested after defrauding investors to the tune of $235,000,000. April 7 – The Soviet submarine K-278 Komsomolets sinks in the Barents Sea, killing 41. April 9 Tbilisi massacre: Georgian demonstrators are massacred by Soviet Army soldiers in Tbilisi's central square during a peaceful rally; 20 citizens are killed, many injured. This causes further protests. A dispute over grazing rights leads to the beginning of the Mauritania–Senegal Border War. April 14 – The U.S. government seizes the Irvine, California, Lincoln Savings and Loan Association; Charles Keating (for whom the Keating Five are named) eventually goes to jail, as part of the massive 1980s savings and loan crisis which costs U.S. taxpayers nearly $200,000,000 in bailouts, and many people their life savings. April 15 The Hillsborough disaster, one of the biggest tragedies in European football, claims the life of 94 Liverpool F.C. supporters in Sheffield, England, a further three dying later. Hu Yaobang, the former General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, dies. The public reaction to his death spawned a chain of events which led to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. April 17 – Solidarity (Polish trade union) is once again legalised and allowed to participate in semi-free elections on June 4. April 19 Central Park jogger case: Trisha Meili is seriously assaulted and raped whilst jogging in New York City's Central Park; the convictions of five teenagers for the crime are vacated in 2002 (the jogger's identity remains secret for years, hence she is referred to as the "Central Park Jogger"). The USS Iowa turret explodes on the U.S. battleship Iowa, killing 47 crew members. April 20 – NATO debates modernising short range missiles; although the US and UK are in favour, West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl obtains a concession deferring a decision. April 21 – Students from Beijing, Shanghai, Xi'an and Nanjing begin protesting in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. April 23 – Zaid al-Rifai resigns as Prime Minister of Jordan in the wake of riots over government-imposed price hikes that began on April 18. April 25 Noboru Takeshita resigns as Prime Minister of Japan in the wake of a stock-trading scandal. Motorola introduces the Motorola MicroTAC personal cellular telephone, the world's smallest mobile phone at this time. April 26 Sultan Azlan Muhibbudin Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Yusuff Izzudin Shah Ghafarullahu-lahu, Sultan of Perak, becomes the 9th Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia, succeeding Baginda Almutawakkil Alallah Sultan Iskandar Al-Haj ibni Almarhum Sultan Ismail. Zaid ibn Shaker succeeds Zaid al-Rifai as Prime Minister of Jordan. The Daulatpur–Saturia tornado, the deadliest tornado ever recorded, kills an estimated 1,300 people in the Dhaka Division of Bangladesh. April 27 – A major demonstration occurs in Beijing as part of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. May May Transhumanism: Genetic modification of adult human beings is tried for the first time, a gene tagging trial. The Soviet Union issues its first Visa card in a step to digitalise its banking system. May 1 – Andrés Rodríguez, who seized power and declared himself President of Paraguay during a military coup in February, wins a landslide victory at a general election marked by charges of fraud. May 2 The first crack in the Iron Curtain: Hungary dismantles of barbed wire fencing along the border with Austria. The coalition government of Prime Minister of the Netherlands Ruud Lubbers collapses in a dispute about a pollution cleanup plan. May 3 – Cold War: Perestroika – The first McDonald's restaurant in the USSR begins construction in Moscow. It will open on January 31, 1990. May 4 – Oliver North is convicted in the United States on charges related to the Iran–Contra affair. His conviction is thrown out on appeal in 1991 because of his immunised testimony. May 9 – Andrew Peacock deposes John Howard as Federal Opposition Leader of Australia. May 10 – The government of President of Panama Manuel Noriega declares void the result of the May 7 presidential election, which Noriega had lost to Guillermo Endara. May 11 President Bush orders 1,900 U.S. troops to Panama to protect Americans there. The ACT (Australian Capital Territory) Legislative Assembly meets for the first time. May 12–25 – San Bernardino train disaster: Southern Pacific freight locomotive SP 7551 East derails in a residential area of San Bernardino, California, killing four and destroying seven houses. On May 25, as a direct result of the derailment, the Calnev Pipeline explodes, killing an additional two people and destroying eleven more houses and 21 cars. May 14 Mikhail Gorbachev visits China, the first Soviet leader to do so since Nikita Khrushchev in the 1960s, ending the Sino-Soviet split. Carlos Menem wins the Argentine presidential election. May 15 Australia's first private tertiary institution, Bond University, opens on the Gold Coast. The last golden toad is seen in Costa Rica; the species is subsequently classified as extinct. May 17 1989 Tiananmen Square protests: More than 1,000,000 Chinese protesters march through Beijing demanding greater democracy, leading to a crackdown. In Stuttgart Napoli of Diego Maradona wins the Uefa Cup. May 19 1989 Ürümqi unrest: Uyghur and Hui Muslim protesters riot in front of the government building in Ürümqi, China. 1989 Tiananmen Square protests: Zhao Ziyang meets the demonstrators in Tiananmen Square. Ciriaco De Mita resigns as Prime Minister of Italy. May 20 – 1989 Tiananmen Square protests: The Chinese government declares martial law in Beijing. May 24 Milan of Italy wins the European Cup beating Steaua București of Romania 4–0 in Barcelona. Assassinations of Jeffrey Brent Ball and Todd Ray Wilson: A terrorist organization, Zarate Willka Armed Forces of Liberation, kills two American missionaries of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints as they return to their apartment, in La Paz, Bolivia. May 25 – The Calgary Flames defeat the Montreal Canadiens four games to two to win the franchise's first Stanley Cup in ice hockey. May 29 Amid food riots and looting set off by inflation, the Government of Argentina declares a nationwide state of siege. 1989 Tiananmen Square protests: The high Goddess of Democracy statue is unveiled in Tiananmen Square by student demonstrators. NATO agrees to talks with the Soviet Union on reducing the number of short-range nuclear weapons in Europe. An attempted assassination of Miguel Maza Marquez, director of the Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad (DAS) in Bogotá, Colombia is committed by members of the Medellín Cartel, who kill four and injure 37. May 31 – Six members of the guerrilla group Revolutionary Movement Tupac Amaru (MRTA) of Peru, shoot dead eight gay and transgender people in the city of Tarapoto. June June 1–10 – Pope John Paul II visits Norway, Iceland, Finland, Denmark and Sweden. June 2 – Sōsuke Uno succeeds Noboru Takeshita as Prime Minister of Japan. June 3 – The world's first high-definition television (test) broadcasts commence in Japan, in analogue. June 4 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre: A violent military crackdown takes place on pro-democracy protesters in Tiananmen Square, Beijing. 1989 Polish legislative election: Solidarity's victory in the first round is the first of many anti-communist revolutions of 1989 in Central and Eastern Europe. Ufa train disaster: A natural gas explosion near Ufa, Russia kills 575 as two trains passing each other throw sparks near a leaky pipeline. June 5 1989 Tiananmen Square protests: An unknown Chinese protester, "Tank Man", stands in front of a column of military tanks on Chang'an Avenue in Beijing, temporarily halting them, an incident which achieves iconic status internationally through images taken by Western photographers. State funeral of Ruhollah Khomeini: Eight people are killed and hundreds injured in a human crush during the viewing of the body of Iranian leader Ayatollah Khomeini at the Musalla in Tehran, two days after his death at the age of 89 in Tehran. June 6 – State funeral of Ruhollah Khomeini: The Ayatollah Khomeini's first funeral in Tehran is aborted by officials after a large crowd storms the funeral procession, nearly destroying Khomeini's wooden casket in order to get a last glimpse of his body. At one point, his body almost falls to the ground, as the crowd attempt to grab pieces of the death shroud. The Ayatollah's body has to be returned for the burial preparations to be repeated, before being brought back to the cemetery a few hours later. June 7 – Surinam Airways Flight 764 crashes in Paramaribo, Suriname, killing 176. June 8 – The wreck of German battleship Bismarck, which was sunk in 1941, is located about west of Brest, France. June 12 – The Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. cancels Robert Mapplethorpe's photography exhibition, "Robert Mapplethorpe: The Perfect Moment", due to its sexually explicit content. June 15 – At the 1989 Irish general election, Fianna Fáil, led by Taoiseach Charles Haughey, fails to win a majority. June 16 – A crowd of 250,000 gathers at Heroes Square in Budapest for the historic reburial of Imre Nagy, the former Hungarian Prime Minister who had been executed in 1958. June 18 – In the first Greek legislative election of the year, the Panhellenic Socialist Movement, led by Prime Minister of Greece Andreas Papandreou, loses control of the Hellenic Parliament. June 22 British police arrest 260 people celebrating the summer solstice at Stonehenge. The University of Limerick and Dublin City University are raised to the status of universities, the first established in Ireland since independence in 1922. June 24 – Jiang Zemin becomes General Secretary of the Communist Party of China. June 30 – 1989 Sudanese coup d'état A military coup led by Omar al-Bashir ousts the civilian government of Prime Minister of Sudan Sadiq al-Mahdi. July July 2 – Andreas Papandreou, Prime Minister of Greece, resigns; a new government is formed under Tzannis Tzannetakis. July 5 State President of South Africa P. W. Botha meets the imprisoned 70-year-old Nelson Mandela face-to-face for the first time. The television sitcom Seinfeld premieres in the United States. July 6 – The Tel Aviv–Jerusalem bus 405 suicide attack, the first Palestinian suicide attack on Israel, takes place. July 9–12 – U.S. President George H. W. Bush travels to Poland and Hungary, pushing for U.S. economic aid and investment. July 10 – Approximately 300,000 Siberian coal miners go on strike, demanding better living conditions and less bureaucracy; it is the largest Soviet labour strike since the 1920s. July 12 In the Republic of Ireland, the Taoiseach Charles Haughey returns to power after Fianna Fáil forms a coalition with the Progressive Democrats. Lotte World, a major recreation complex in Seoul, South Korea, is opened to the public, containing the world's largest indoor amusement park. July 14 – France celebrated the 200th anniversary of the French Revolution, notably with a monumental show on the Champs-Élysées in Paris, directed by French designer Jean-Paul Goude. President François Mitterrand acted as host for invited world leaders. July 14–16 – At the 15th G7 summit, leaders call for restrictions on gas emissions. July 17 The Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit stealth bomber makes its first flight, in the United States. Holy See–Poland relations: Poland and the Vatican re-establish diplomatic relations after approximately fifty years. July 18 – Actress Rebecca Schaeffer is murdered by an obsessed fan, leading to stricter stalking laws in California. July 19 1989 Polish presidential election: The National Assembly of the Republic of Poland elects General Wojciech Jaruzelski to the restored and powerful post of President of Poland. United Airlines Flight 232 (Douglas DC-10) crashes in Sioux City, Iowa, killing 112; 184 on board survive. The first national park in the Netherlands is established on Schiermonnikoog. July 20 – Burmese opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi is placed under house arrest. She is released in 2010. July 23 1989 Japanese House of Councillors election: Japan's ruling Liberal Democratic Party loses control of the House of Councillors, the LDP's worst electoral showing in 34 years, leading to Prime Minister Uno announcing he will resign to take responsibility for the result. Giulio Andreotti takes office as Prime Minister of Italy. July 26 – A federal grand jury indicts Cornell University student Robert Tappan Morris for releasing a computer virus, making him the first person to be prosecuted under the United States' 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. July 27 – In the largest prison sentence to date, Thai financial scammer Mae Chamoy Thipyaso and her accomplices are each sentenced to 141,078 years in prison. July 28 – At the Iranian presidential election, electors overwhelmingly elect Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani as President of Iran and endorse changes to the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, increasing the powers of the president. July 31 In Lebanon, Hezbollah announces that it has hanged U.S. Marine Lt. Col. William R. Higgins in retaliation for Israel's July 28 kidnapping of Hezbollah leader Abdel Karim Obeid. The same day, the United Nations Security Council passes United Nations Security Council Resolution 638, condemning the taking of hostages by both sides in the conflict. Nintendo releases the Game Boy portable video game system in North America. August August – Gazprom, an energy production and sales organization in Russia, becomes state-run enterprise, changing from the Soviet Ministry of Gas Industry. August 2 – Pakistan is readmitted to the Commonwealth of Nations after leaving it in 1972. August 5 – Jaime Paz Zamora is elected President of Bolivia, taking office the next day. August 7 U.S. Congressman Mickey Leland (D-TX) and fifteen others die in a plane crash in Ethiopia. The presidents of five Central American countries agree that the U.S.-backed contras fighting the government of Nicaragua should be disbanded and evicted from their bases in Honduras by December 5. August 8 Prime Minister of New Zealand David Lange resigns for health reasons and is replaced by Geoffrey Palmer. STS-28: Space Shuttle Columbia takes off on a secret five-day military mission. August 9 Toshiki Kaifu becomes Prime Minister of Japan. The asteroid 4769 Castalia is the first directly imaged by radar from Arecibo Observatory. The Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery, and Enforcement Act of 1989, a measure to rescue the United States savings and loan industry is signed into law by President Bush, launching the largest federal rescue to date. August 10 – United States Army General Colin Powell became the first Black Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff after being nominated by President Bush. August 13 – 1989 Alice Springs hot air balloon crash: An accident near Alice Springs, Australia kills thirteen people. August 15 – P. W. Botha resigns as State President of South Africa and F. W. de Klerk becomes the seventh and final holder of this office under this style. August 18 – Leading Colombian presidential hopeful Luis Carlos Galán is assassinated near Bogotá. August 19 Polish president Wojciech Jaruzelski nominates Solidarity activist Tadeusz Mazowiecki to be Prime Minister, the first non-Communist in power in 42 years. The Pan-European Picnic, a peace demonstration, is held at the Austro-Hungarian border. August 19–21 – In response to the murder of a judge, a provincial police chief, and presidential candidate Galán, the authorities of Colombia arrest 11,000 suspected Colombian drug traffickers. August 20 In Beverly Hills, California, Lyle and Erik Menendez shoot their wealthy parents to death in the family's den. Marchioness disaster: Fifty-one people die when a pleasure boat collides with a dredger on the River Thames adjacent to Southwark Bridge in London. August 21 – The 21st anniversary of the crushing of the Prague Spring is commemorated by a demonstration in the city. August 23 Singing Revolution: Two million indigenous people of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania join hands to demand freedom and independence from Soviet occupation, forming an uninterrupted 600 km human chain called the Baltic Way. Hungary removes border restrictions with Austria. 1989 Australian pilots' dispute: All of Australia's 1,645 domestic airline pilots resign over an airline's move to dismiss and sue them over a wage dispute. Murder of Yusef Hawkins in a shooting in the Bensonhurst section of Brooklyn, New York, sparking racial tensions between African Americans and Italian Americans. August 24 Colombia's cocaine traffickers declare "total and absolute war" against the government and begin a series of bombings and arson attacks. Tadeusz Mazowiecki of Solidarity is elected Prime Minister of Poland. August 25 – Voyager 2 makes its closest approach to Neptune and its largest moon Triton. August 31 – In the aftermath of the Chadian–Libyan conflict of 1978–87, representatives of Libya and Chad agree to let the International Court of Justice determine ownership of the Aouzou Strip, which has been occupied by Libya since 1973. September September 6 1989 South African general election, the last held under the apartheid system, returns the National Party to power with a much-reduced majority. In the 1989 Dutch general election, the Christian Democratic Appeal, led by Ruud Lubbers wins 54 seats, and is ultimately able to form a government on November 7 after entering into coalition with the Labour Party. September 7 – Representatives of the government of Ethiopia and Eritrean separatists meet in Atlanta, with former U.S. President Jimmy Carter attempting to broker a peace settlement. September 8 – Partnair Flight 394 flies past an F-16 Fighting Falcon on its way home, then the Convair 580 rolls upside down and falls in the North Sea. September 10 – The Hungarian government opens the country's western border (with Austria) to refugees from East Germany. September 10–11 – Norway's ruling Labour Party loses eight seats in the parliamentary elections, its worst showing since 1945. September 14 An agreement of co-operation between Leningrad Oblast (Russia) and Nordland County (Norway) is signed in Leningrad, by Chairmen Lev Kojkolainen and Sigbjørn Eriksen. Standard Gravure shooting: Joseph T. Wesbecker, a pressman on disability for mental illness, enters his former workplace in Louisville, Kentucky, kills eight people and injures twelve before committing suicide after a history of suicidal ideation. September 17–22 – Hurricane Hugo devastates the Caribbean and the southeastern United States, causing at least 71 deaths and $8,000,000,000 in damages. September 18 – Alleged coup attempt in Burkina Faso by military officials foiled. September 19 The Catholic Church calls for removal of the Carmelite convent located near the former Auschwitz concentration camp, whose presence has offended some Jewish leaders. UTA Flight 772 explodes over Niger, killing all 171 people on board (the Islamic Jihad Organization claims responsibility). Burkinabé ministers Jean-Baptiste Boukary Lingani and Henri Zongo executed following their arrest the previous day. September 20 – F. W. de Klerk is sworn in as the seventh and last State President of South Africa. Soon afterwards he determines to suspend the South African nuclear weapons program. September 22 1989 Deal barracks bombing: An IRA bomb explodes at the Royal Marine School of Music in Deal, Kent, United Kingdom, leaving 11 people dead and 22 injured. Doe v. University of Michigan: A Michigan court rules against the hate speech law at the University of Michigan, claiming it unconstitutional. September 23 A cease-fire in the Lebanese Civil War stops the violence that had killed 900 people since March. Nintendo Company Ltd. celebrates its 100th anniversary. September 26 – Vietnam announces that it has withdrawn the last of its troops from the State of Cambodia, ending an eleven-year occupation. September 30 Nearly 7,000 East Germans who had come to Prague on special refugee trains are allowed to leave for the West. The Senegambia Confederation is dissolved over border disagreements. October October – Cold War: Perestroika – Nathan's Famous opens a hot dog stand in Moscow. October 1 – Civil union between partners in a same-sex relationship becomes legal in Denmark under a law enacted on June 7, the world's first such legislation. October 3 A coup attempt is foiled by Manuel Noriega, military leader of Panama. The government of East Germany closes the country's border with Czechoslovakia to prevent further emigration to the West. October 5 – The Dalai Lama wins the Nobel Peace Prize. October 7 The communist Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party votes to reorganise itself as a socialist party, to be named the Hungarian Socialist Party. The first mass demonstration against the Communist regime in the GDR begins in Plauen, East Germany, the beginning of a series of mass demonstrations in the whole GDR which ultimately leads to the reunification of Germany in 1990. October 9 An official news agency in the Soviet Union reports the landing of a UFO in Voronezh. In Leipzig, East Germany, protesters demand the legalisation of opposition groups and democratic reforms. October 13 Friday the 13th mini-crash: The Dow Jones Industrial Average plunges 190.58 points, or 6.91 percent, to close at 2,569.26, most likely after the junk bond market collapses. Gro Harlem Brundtland, leader of the Labour Party, resigns as Prime Minister of Norway. She is succeeded by Jan P. Syse, Leader of the Conservative Party, on October 16. October 15 – Walter Sisulu is released from prison in South Africa. October 17 – The 6.9 Loma Prieta earthquake shakes the San Francisco Bay Area and the Central Coast with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). Sixty-three people are killed and the 1989 World Series in baseball is postponed for ten days as a result of the earthquake. October 18 The Communist leader of East Germany, Erich Honecker, is forced to step down as leader of the country after a series of health problems, and is succeeded by Egon Krenz. The National Assembly of Hungary votes to restore multi-party democracy. NASA launches the unmanned Galileo orbiter on a mission to study the planet Jupiter, via Atlantis mission STS-34. October 19 – The Guildford Four are freed after fourteen years' imprisonment in Britain. October 21 – The Commonwealth Heads of Government issue the Langkawi Declaration on the Environment, making environmental sustainability one of the Commonwealth of Nations's main priorities. October 23 The Hungarian Republic is officially declared by President Mátyás Szűrös (replacing the Hungarian People's Republic), exactly 33 years after the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. The Phillips disaster, a chemical plant explosion, in Pasadena, Texas, kills 23 and injures 314 others. October 24 – The 1989 Bhagalpur violence, a major incident of religious violence, breaks out in Bhagalpur, Bihar, India; it will kill nearly 1,000 people. October 28 – The United States Flag Protection Act takes effect. There are mass protests in Seattle and New York City. October 30 – Shawn Eichman, Dave Blalock, Dread Scott and Joey Johnson burn American flags on the steps of U.S. Capitol Building to protest against the Flag Protection Act. October 31 The Grand National Assembly of Turkey elects Prime Minister Turgut Özal as the eighth President of Turkey. Half a million people demonstrate in the East German city of Leipzig. November November – The first commercial dial-up Internet connection in North America is made, by The World STD. November 1 The President of Nicaragua ends a ceasefire with U.S.-backed contras that has been in effect since April 1988. The border between East Germany and Czechoslovakia is reopened. November 3 – East German refugees arrive at the West German town of Hof after being allowed through Czechoslovakia. November 4 Alexanderplatz demonstration in East Berlin. Half a million people protest against communist rule in East Germany. Typhoon Gay devastates Thailand's Chumphon Province. November 6 – The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is established. November 7 Cold War: The Communist government of East Germany resigns, although SED leader Egon Krenz remains as head of state. Lieutenant Governor Douglas Wilder wins the Virginia gubernatorial race, becoming the first African-American elected Governor in the United States. David Dinkins becomes the first African-American mayor of New York City. November 9 Cold War and Fall of the Berlin Wall: Günter Schabowski accidentally states in a live broadcast press conference that new rules for traveling from East Germany to West Germany will be put in effect "immediately". Late this evening, East Germany opens checkpoints in the Berlin Wall, allowing its citizens to travel freely to West Germany for the first time in decades. In the first week, travel visas will be issued to around 25% of the East German population. (November 17 celebrates Germans tearing the wall down). Yıldırım Akbulut of Motherland Party (Turkey) (ANAP) forms the new government of Turkey (47th government). November 10 After 45 years of Communist rule in Bulgaria, Bulgarian Communist Party leader Todor Zhivkov is replaced by Foreign Minister Petar Mladenov, who changes the party's name to the Bulgarian Socialist Party. Gaby Kennard becomes the first Australian woman to fly solo around the world. November 12 – Brazil holds its first free presidential election since 1960. November 13 – Hans-Adam II becomes Prince of Liechtenstein on the death of his father, Prince Franz Joseph II. November 14 – Elections are held in Namibia, leading to a victory for the South West Africa People's Organisation. November 15 Lech Wałęsa, leader of Poland's Solidarity movement, addresses a Joint session of the United States Congress. Brazil holds the first round of its first free election in 29 years; Fernando Collor de Mello and Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva advance to the second round, to be held the following month. November 16 Six Jesuit priests are murdered by U.S. trained Salvadoran soldiers. The first American cosmetics shop in the Soviet Union, an Estée Lauder outlet, opens in Moscow. UNESCO adopts the Seville Statement on Violence at the 25th session of its General Conference. November 17 – Cold War: Velvet Revolution – A peaceful student demonstration in Prague, Czechoslovakia, is severely beaten back by riot police. This sparks a revolution aimed at overthrowing the Communist government (it succeeds on December 29). November 20 – Cold War: Velvet Revolution – The number of peaceful protesters assembled in Prague, Czechoslovakia, swells from 200,000 the day before to an estimated half-million. November 21 – The Members of the Constituent Assembly of Namibia begin to draft the Constitution of Namibia, which will be the constitution of the newly independent Namibia. November 22 – In West Beirut, a bomb explodes near the motorcade of Lebanese President René Moawad, killing him. November 24 – Following a week of demonstrations demanding free elections and other reforms, General Secretary Miloš Jakeš and other leaders of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia resign. Jakeš is replaced by Karel Urbánek. November 26 – 1989 Uruguayan general election: Luis Alberto Lacalle is elected President of Uruguay. November 27 – Colombian domestic passenger flight Avianca Flight 203 is bombed by the Medellín drug cartel in an (unsuccessful) attempt to kill presidential candidate for the 1990 elections César Gaviria Trujillo. November 28 – Cold War: Velvet Revolution – The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia announces they will give up their monopoly on political power (elections held in December bring the first non-Communist government to Czechoslovakia in more than forty years). November 29 – Rajiv Gandhi resigns as Prime Minister of India after his party, the Indian National Congress, loses about half of its seats at the 1989 Indian general election. November 30 – Deutsche Bank board member Alfred Herrhausen is killed by a bomb in Bad Homburg (the Red Army Faction claims responsibility for the murder). December December 1 In a meeting with Pope John Paul II, General Secretary of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev pledges greater religious freedom for citizens of the Soviet Union. Cold War: East Germany's parliament abolishes the constitutional provision granting the Communist-dominated Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) its monopoly on power. Egon Krenz, the Politburo and the Central Committee resign two days later. A military coup attempt begins in the Philippines against the government of Philippine President Corazon C. Aquino. It is crushed by United States intervention ending by December 9. December 2 The Solar Maximum Mission scientific research satellite, launched in 1980, crashes back to earth. V. P. Singh takes office as Prime Minister of India. In the Republic of China legislative election, the Kuomintang suffers its worst election setback in forty years, winning only 53% of the popular vote. The Second Malayan Emergency concludes with a peace agreement. The Malayan Communist Party disbands and Chin Peng remains in exile in Thailand until his death in 2013. December 3 The entire leadership of the ruling Socialist Unity Party in East Germany, including Egon Krenz, resigns. Hans Modrow becomes de facto the country's last leader. Cold War: Malta Summit – Concluding a 2-day meeting off the coast of Malta, U.S. President George H. W. Bush and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev release statements indicating that the Cold War between their nations may be coming to an end. Gorbachev implies criticism of the 1968 Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. December 4 – Prime Minister of Jordan Zaid ibn Shaker resigns and is replaced by Mudar Badran. December 6 The DAS Building bombing occurs in Bogotá, killing 52 people and injuring about 1,000. Egon Krenz resigns as Chairman of the State Council of the German Democratic Republic, and is replaced by Manfred Gerlach, the first non-Communist to hold that post. École Polytechnique massacre (or Montreal Massacre): Marc Lépine, an anti-feminist gunman, murders fourteen young women at the École Polytechnique de Montréal. December 7 Ladislav Adamec resigns as Prime Minister of Czechoslovakia. He is succeeded by Marián Čalfa on December 10. Singing Revolution: The Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic becomes the first of the republics of the Soviet Union to abolish the Communist Party's monopoly on power. December 9 – The Socialist Unity Party of Germany elects the reformist Gregor Gysi as party leader. December 10 President of Czechoslovakia Gustáv Husák swears in a new cabinet with a non-Communist and then immediately resigns as president. Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj announces the establishment of Mongolia's democratic movement, that peacefully changes the second-oldest Communist country into a democracy. December 11 – The International Trans-Antarctica Expedition, a group of six explorers from six nations, reaches the South Pole. December 12 – Hong Kong begins the forcible repatriation of Vietnamese boat people, starting with a group of 59 who were flown to Hanoi. December 14 – Chile holds its first free election in sixteen years, electing Patricio Aylwin as president. This marks the first time that all Ibero-American nations, except Cuba, have elected constitutional governments simultaneously. December 15 – Drug baron José Gonzalo Rodríguez Gacha is killed by Colombian police. December 16 – The Romanian Revolution begins in Timișoara, initiated by the Hungarian minority. December 17 The Romanian Revolution continues in Timișoara when rioters break into the building housing the District Committee of the Romanian Communist Party and cause extensive damage. The military is called in but fails fully to control the situation. Brazil holds the second round of its first free election in 29 years; Fernando Collor de Mello is elected to serve as president from 1990. December 19 – Romanian Revolution: Workers in the cities go on strike in protest against the Communist regime. On December 20 about 100,000 occupy Timișoara. December 20 – The United States invasion of Panama ("Operation Just Cause") is launched in an attempt to overthrow Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega. December 21 – Nicolae Ceaușescu addresses an assembly of some 110,000 people outside the Romanian Communist Party headquarters in Bucharest. Unprecedentedly, most of the crowd turns against him. December 22 After a week of bloody demonstrations, Ion Iliescu takes over as President of Romania, ending the communist dictatorship of Nicolae Ceaușescu, who flees his palace in a helicopter after the palace is invaded by rioters. Most of the army has joined with the rioters in Bucharest. The Brandenburg Gate in Berlin is reopened. Two tourist coaches collide on the Pacific highway north of Kempsey, New South Wales, Australia, killing 35 people. December 23 – Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu are captured in Târgoviște. December 25 Trial and execution of Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu: Deposed Romanian leader Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife are summarily tried and executed outside Bucharest. Bank of Japan governors announce a major interest rate hike, eventually leading to the peak and fall of the economic bubble. December 28 A magnitude earthquake hits Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia, killing 13 people. Alexander Dubček is elected Chairman of Czechoslovakia's Federal Assembly (Parliament). December 29 Czech playwright, philosopher and dissident Václav Havel is elected the first post-Communist President of Czechoslovakia. Riots break out after Hong Kong decides to forcibly repatriate Vietnamese refugees. Nikkei 225 for Tokyo Stock Exchange hits its all-time intra-day high of 38,957.44 and closing high at 38,915.87. December 31 – Poland's president signs the Balcerowicz Plan, ending the Communist system in Poland in favor of a capitalist system, leading to abandonment of the Warsaw Pact. Date unknown The first Al-Qaeda-related cell in the United States begins operation in New York City. Kamchatka opens to Russian civilian visitors. Richard C. Duncan introduces the Olduvai theory, about the collapse of industrial civilization. The global concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere reaches 350 parts per million by volume. Walmart posts revenues and profits triple its 1986 figures and rivals Kmart and Sears in importance in the American market. The Breguet Alizé propeller-driven anti-submarine planes are retired from active carrier service in the French Navy. N.W.A are the first gangsta rap group to sell 1,000,000 copies of an album with their controversial 1988 debut album Straight Outta Compton. Births January January 1 Adèle Haenel, French actress Edita Vilkevičiūtė, Lithuanian model January 3 – Kōhei Uchimura, Japanese gymnast January 4 Kariem Hussein, Swiss 400 metres hurdler Labrinth, British urban and hip-hop musician Julius Yego, Kenyan javelin thrower January 6 – Nicky Romero, Dutch DJ January 7 Emiliano Insúa, Argentine footballer Khairul Fahmi Che Mat, Malaysian footballer January 8 – Steven Christopher Parker, American actor January 9 Michael Beasley, American basketball player Nina Dobrev, Bulgarian-born Canadian actress Yana Maksimava, Lithuanian-Belarusian heptathlete January 10 Emily Meade, American actress Heo Sol-ji, South Korean singer Zuria Vega, Mexican actress and singer January 11 – Naif Hazazi, Saudi footballer January 12 – Arci Muñoz, Filipina actress and model January 14 – Frankie Bridge, English singer January 15 Alexei Cherepanov, Russian ice hockey player (d. 2008) Ryan Corr, Australian actor Nicole Ross, American Olympic foil fencer Keiffer Hubbell, American ice dancer January 16 Paul Sweeney, Scottish politician Yvonne Zima, American actress January 19 Yani Tseng, Taiwanese golfer Kelly Marie Tran, American actress January 20 Kim Bui, German artistic gymnast Nadia Di Cello, Argentine actress January 21 Murilo de Almeida, Brazilian-East Timorese footballer Doğuş Balbay, Turkish basketball player Sergey Fesikov, Russian swimmer Henrikh Mkhitaryan, Armenian footballer January 24 – Gong Lijiao, Chinese shot putter January 27 – Ricky van Wolfswinkel, Dutch footballer January 28 – Bruno Massot, French-born German pair skater January 30 – Lee Gun-woo, South Korean singer February February 4 Nkosi Johnson, South African AIDS awareness campaigner (d. 2001) Larissa Ramos, Brazilian beauty pageant winner February 5 – Jeremy Sumpter, American actor February 7 Neil Taylor, Welsh footballer Isaiah Thomas, American basketball player February 9 Maxime Dufour-Lapointe, Canadian freestyle skier Wu Chia-ching, Taiwanese pool player February 11 – Lovi Poe, Filipina actress and singer February 15 Sinethemba Jantjie, South African footballer (d. 2019) Ayaka Nishiwaki, Japanese singer and dancer February 16 Elizabeth Olsen, American actress Zivanna Letisha Siregar, Indonesian model February 17 Rebecca Adlington, British swimmer Chord Overstreet, American actor, singer and musician February 20 Jack Falahee, American actor Mayu Kuroda, Japanese artistic gymnast February 21 Corbin Bleu, American actor, model, dancer, film producer and singer-songwriter Jung Joon-young, Korean actor and singer February 24 Trace Cyrus, American musician Daniel Kaluuya, English actor Kosta Koufos, Greek-born American basketball player February 25 Kana Hanazawa, Japanese voice actress and singer Lee Sang-hwa, South Korean speed skater February 27 – Stephen Kiprotich, Ugandan marathon runner February 28 – Zhang Liyin, Chinese singer March March 1 Emma, Australian professional wrestler Daniella Monet, American actress and singer Carlos Vela, Mexican footballer March 2 Jean-Frédéric Chapuis, French Olympic freestyle skier Nathalie Emmanuel, English actress Toby Alderweireld, Belgian football player March 5 – Sterling Knight, American actor March 6 – Agnieszka Radwańska, Polish tennis player March 7 – Gerald Anderson, Filipino actor March 9 – Taeyeon, South Korean singer March 10 – Đỗ Thị Ngân Thương, Vietnamese artistic gymnast March 11 Daniella Kertesz, Israeli actress Anton Yelchin, Russian-born American actor (d. 2016) March 12 – Tyler Clary, American Olympic swimmer March 13 Peaches Geldof, British columnist and model (d. 2014) Pierre Niney, French actor March 14 – Colby O'Donis, American singer March 15 Gil Roberts, American sprinter Caitlin Wachs, American actress Jordan Feliz, Christian singer/songwriter March 16 Blake Griffin, American basketball player Theo Walcott, English footballer March 17 Shinji Kagawa, Japanese football player Mason Musso, American musician, singer and songwriter March 18 Francesco Checcucci, Italian footballer Lily Collins, British-born American actress Kana Nishino, Japanese singer-songwriter March 19 – Craig Lamar Traylor, American actor and artist March 20 – Fei Fei Sun, Chinese model March 21 Jordi Alba, Spanish professional footballer Takeru Satoh, Japanese actor March 22 Eva Pereira, Cape Verdean middle-distance runner Karen Rodriguez, American singer J. J. Watt, American football player Aline Weber, Brazilian model March 25 – Aly Michalka, American actress and singer March 27 – Vivian Wong Shir Yee, Malaysian politician March 29 – Arnold Peralta, Honduran footballer (d. 2015) March 31 – Liu Zige, Chinese swimmer April April 2 – Liis Lass, Estonian actress April 3 – Ankit Narang, Indian actor April 4 – Chris Herd, Australian footballer April 5 – Lily James, British actress April 8 Nicholas Megalis, American singer-songwriter Hitomi Takahashi, Japanese singer Gabriella Wilde, English actress and model April 9 – Danielle Kahle, American figure skater April 12 – Lim Heem Wei, Singaporean artistic gymnast April 13 – Vladislav Yegin, Russian ice hockey player April 17 – Beau Knapp, American actor April 18 Jessica Jung, American-born Korean singer Alia Shawkat, American actress April 19 Kim Nam-chun, South Korean footballer (d. 2020) Ashley Everett, American dancer and actress Simu Liu, Canadian actor, writer and stuntman April 20 Alex Black, American actor Nina Davuluri, American public speaker and advocate Carlos Valdes, Colombian actor and singer April 21 – Tatyana McFadden, Russian-born American paralympian athlete April 22 – Louis Smith, British gymnast April 23 Anastasia Baranova, Russian-born American actress Nicole Vaidišová, Czech tennis player April 24 – Ian Matos, Brazilian diver April 25 Syed Hussain Abbas, Pakistani footballer Emanuela de Paula, Brazilian model Michael van Gerwen, Dutch darts player Aysel Teymurzadeh, Azerbaijani pop singer April 26 Luke Bracey, Australian actor Daesung, South Korean singer April 28 – Kim Sung-kyu, South Korean singer and dancer April 29 – Foxes, British singer-songwriter May May 3 – Katinka Hosszú, Hungarian swimmer May 4 Dániel Gyurta, Hungarian swimmer Rory McIlroy, Northern Irish golfer James van Riemsdyk, American ice hockey player May 5 – Chris Brown, American singer and actor May 6 Dominika Cibulková, Slovak tennis player Otto Knows, Swedish DJ and producer May 7 Arlenis Sosa, Dominican model Earl Thomas, American football player May 8 Katy B, British singer Nyle DiMarco, American model and activist Reckful, American Twitch Streamer (d. 2020) May 9 Shane van Gisbergen, New Zealander race car driver Daniel Rosenfeld, German musician, producer and sound engineer, best known as the composer and sound designer for the sandbox video game Minecraft May 10 – Lindsey Shaw, American actress May 11 Cam Newton, American football player Prince Royce, American singer and songwriter Giovani dos Santos, Mexican footballer May 12 – Eleftheria Eleftheriou, Greek-Cypriot singer and actress May 14 Melinda Bam, South African beauty pageant contestant and model Rob Gronkowski, American football player Alina Talay, Belarusian 100 metres hurdler May 15 – Sunny Lee, American-born Korean singer May 16 – Pääru Oja, Estonian actor May 17 Olivia Luccardi, American actress and producer Tessa Virtue, Canadian ice dancer May 18 Fatima Ali, Pakistani-born American chef (d. 2019) Shreevats Goswami, Indian cricketer May 19 – Gaelan Connell, American actor and musician May 21 Emily Robins, New Zealand actress and singer Hal Robson-Kanu, Welsh footballer May 23 Patrick Hougaard, Danish motorcycle speedway rider Ezequiel Schelotto, Italian football player Jeffery Taylor, Swedish basketball player May 24 Kalin Lucas, American basketball player G-Eazy, American hip-hop rapper and producer May 25 Guillaume Boivin, Canadian racing cyclist Aliona Moon, Moldovan pop singer May 26 – Park Yeeun, Korean Singer May 27 Peakboy, South Korean rapper, record producer, and singer-songwriter Afgan Syahreza, Indonesian pop singer and actor May 28 – Alexey Negodaylo, Russian Olympic bobsledder May 29 Eyþór Ingi Gunnlaugsson, Icelandic singer Riley Keough, American model Brandon Mychal Smith, American actor May 30 Ailee, Korean-American singer and songwriter Park Hyomin, South Korean singer May 31 Pablo Alborán, Spanish singer Bas Dost, Dutch football player Sean Johnson, American soccer player Daul Kim, South Korean model (d. 2009) Marco Reus, German football player June June 2 Steve Smith, Australian cricketer Shane Yarran, Australian rules footballer (d. 2018) June 3 – Imogen Poots, British actress June 4 Pawel Fajdek, Polish hammer thrower Eldar Gasimov, Azerbaijani singer June 5 – Monica Castaño, Colombian beauty queen and model June 6 – Bryn McAuley, Canadian actress June 8 Timea Bacsinszky, Swiss tennis player Minami Tsuda, Japanese voice actress Amaury Vassili, French operatic tenor June 9 – Chloë Agnew, Irish singer June 14 Lucy Hale, American actress and singer Jubin Nautiyal, Indian playback singer June 18 Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang, French-born Gabonese footballer Anna Fenninger, Austrian alpine ski racer Renee Olstead, American actress and singer June 19 – Giacomo Gianniotti, Italian-Canadian actor June 22 Jeffrey Earnhardt, American race car driver Jung Yong Hwa, South Korean musician, singer-songwriter, record producer and actor June 27 Matthew Lewis, British actor Bruna Tenório, Brazilian supermodel June 28 Andrew Fifita, Tongan rugby league footballer David Fifita, Tongan rugby league footballer Mark Fischbach, American YouTube personality Joe Kovacs, American shot putter June 29 – Maciej Cieśla, Polish graphics designer June 30 Asbel Kiprop, Kenyan middle-distance runner Ginta Lapiņa, Latvian model July July 1 Daniel Ricciardo, Australian Formula 1 driver Farouk Ben Mustapha, Tunisian footballer July 2 Dev, American singer Alex Morgan, American soccer player July 4 – Yoon Doo-joon, Korean singer July 7 Jamie Johnston, Canadian actor and singer-songwriter Kim Bum, South Korean actor July 8 Dmitry Abakumov, Russian football player Yarden Gerbi, Israeli world champion judoka Ahmad Fakri Saarani, Malaysian footballer July 10 Fazrul Hazli, Malaysian footballer Carlos Zambrano, Peruvian footballer July 11 Shareeka Epps, American actress David Henrie, American actor and director Martin Klizan, Slovak tennis player July 12 Phoebe Tonkin, Australian actress and model Rakep Patel, Kenyan cricketer July 13 – Sayumi Michishige, Japanese singer July 14 – Cyril Rioli, Australian rules footballer July 15 – Tristan Wilds, American actor and singer July 16 Gareth Bale, Welsh footballer Kim Woo-bin, South Korean model and actor July 18 – Jamie Benn, Canadian ice hockey player July 21 Chris Gunter, Welsh footballer Marco Fabián, Mexican footballer Rory Culkin, American actor July 22 Trent Boult, New Zealand cricketer Kamal G, Indian film director, film editor and film producer July 23 Daniel Radcliffe, English actor Zhong An Qi, Taiwanese singer July 25 – Noel Callahan, Canadian actor July 27 – Charlotte Arnold, Canadian actress July 28 Adrien Broner, African-American professional boxer Felipe Kitadai, Brazilian Olympic medalist judoka Amy Yang, South Korean golfer July 30 – Aleix Espargaró, Spanish Grand prix motorcycle racer July 31 Victoria Azarenka, Belarusian tennis player Alexis Knapp, American actress and singer Marshall Williams, Canadian actor and musician Zelda Williams, American actress August August 1 Tiffany Young, American-born Korean singer Tomoka Kurokawa, Japanese actress August 2 Nacer Chadli, Belgian footballer Vanes-Mari Du Toit, South African netball player August 3 – Sam Hutchinson, English footballer August 4 Jessica Mauboy, Australian actress and singer-songwriter (Young Divas) Wang Hao, Chinese chess player August 5 Shanshan Feng, Chinese golfer Mathieu Manset, French footballer Nina Radojičić, Serbian singer August 7 – DeMar DeRozan, American basketball player August 10 Sam Gagner, Canadian ice hockey player Ben Sahar, Israeli footballer Brenton Thwaites, Australian actor August 11 Junior Heffernan, Irish cyclist and triathlete (d. 2013) Sebastian Huke, German footballer Emma Wu, Taiwanese singer and actress August 14 Ander Herrera, Spanish professional footballer Kyle Turris, Canadian ice hockey player August 15 Belinda, Mexican singer and actress Joe Jonas, American musician, actor and singer Carlos PenaVega, American actor, dancer and singer August 19 – Romeo Miller, American rapper, actor, entrepreneur and model August 20 – Judd Trump, English snooker player August 21 – Hayden Panettiere, American actress and singer August 24 – Andrés Mercado, Colombian actor and singer August 26 – James Harden, American basketball player August 27 Juliana Cannarozzo, American figure skater Daniel Tovar, Mexican actor August 28 – Valtteri Bottas, Finnish Formula One driver August 29 – Su Bingtian, Chinese sprinter August 30 – Bebe Rexha, American singer-songwriter September September 1 Bill Kaulitz, German singer Jefferson Montero, Ecuadorian footballer Daniel Sturridge, English footballer September 2 Alexandre Pato, Brazilian footballer Zedd, record producer, DJ, musician, multi-instrumentalist and songwriter September 5 – Kat Graham, Swiss-born American actress, model, singer and dancer September 8 Avicii, Swedish DJ, remixer and record producer (d. 2018) Sebastián Francini, Argentine actor September 9 – Sean Malto, American professional skateboarder September 12 Freddie Freeman, American baseball player Elyse Hopfner-Hibbs, Canadian artistic gymnast Andrew Luck, American football player September 13 Jon Mannah, Australian rugby league player (d. 2013) Thomas Müller, German football player September 14 Kazumi Evans, Canadian voice actress and singer Tony Finau, American golfer Logan Henderson, American actor, dancer and singer Jonathon Simmons, American basketball player September 15 – Steliana Nistor, Romanian artistic gymnast September 19 – Tyreke Evans, American basketball player, 2010 NBA Rookie of the Year September 20 – Andrej Martin, Slovak tennis player September 21 – Jason Derulo, American urban singer and actor September 22 Hyoyeon Kim, Korean singer Sabine Lisicki, German tennis player September 23 Sui He, Chinese model Mara Scherzinger, German actress September 24 – Pia Wurtzbach, German-Filipina actress and model September 25 – Jordan Gavaris, Canadian actor September 27 Rumi Okubo, Japanese voice actress Park Tae-hwan, South Korean swimmer September 29 – Theo Adams, British performance artist October October 1 – Brie Larson, American actress October 4 Dakota Johnson, American actress Kimmie Meissner, American figure skater Viktoria Rebensburg, German alpine skier October 10 – Aimee Teegarden, American actress October 11 Tomoyuki Sugano, Japanese baseball pitcher Michelle Wie, American golfer October 12 – Paulo Henrique Ganso, Brazilian football player October 13 Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, American politician and activist Skyler Page, American animator and voice actor October 15 – Anthony Joshua, British professional boxer October 16 – Dan Biggar, Welsh rugby union player October 17 – Sophie Luck, Australian actress October 18 – Matthew Centrowitz Jr., American middle-distance runner October 19 – Nikolija Jovanović, Serbian singer and dancer October 20 – Jess Glynne, British singer October 23 – Jonita Gandhi, Indo-Canadian singer October 24 Armin Bačinović, Slovenian football midfielder T'erea Brown, American track and field athlete Cristian Gamboa, Costa Rican footballer Shenae Grimes, Canadian actress Eric Hosmer, American professional baseball player PewDiePie, Swedish and former most subscribed YouTuber, comedian, commentator, and philanthropist Eliza Taylor, Australian actress October 25 – Mia Wasikowska, Australian actress October 28 – Camille Muffat, French swimmer (d. 2015) October 29 – Primož Roglič, Slovenian cyclist October 30 – Nastia Liukin, American artistic gymnast and Olympic gold medalist November November 2 – Katelyn Tarver, American singer, songwriter and actress November 3 Paula DeAnda, Mexican-born American singer Joyce Jonathan, French singer Kim Taek-yong, South Korean professional gamer November 6 – Jozy Altidore, American soccer player November 9 – Gianluca Bezzina, Maltese doctor and singer November 10 Taron Egerton, British actor Adeele Sepp, Estonian actress November 11 Nick Blackman, English-Israeli footballer Thiago de Los Reyes, Brazilian actor Adam Rippon, American figure skater Reina Tanaka, Japanese pop-rock singer November 14 Emis Killa, Italian rapper Jake Livermore, English footballer November 19 Caitlynne Medrek, Canadian actress and voice actress Tyga, American rapper November 20 Cody Linley, American actor Sergei Polunin, Ukrainian ballet dancer November 21 – Fabian Delph, English footballer November 22 – Alden Ehrenreich, American actor November 25 – Tom Dice, Belgian singer-songwriter November 27 – Loveli, Japanese model December December 2 Cassie Steele, Canadian actress and singer Robert Turbin, American football player December 3 – Bette Franke, Dutch model December 4 Garron DuPree, American musician Nafessa Williams, American actress December 5 Gregory Tyree Boyce, American actor Katy Kung, Hong Kong actress Kwon Yu-ri, Korean singer December 7 – Nicholas Hoult, British actor December 9 – Eric Bledsoe, American basketball player December 10 – Marion Maréchal, French politician December 12 – Janelle Arthur, American singer December 13 Chen Xiang, Chinese pop singer and actor Katherine Schwarzenegger, American author Taylor Swift, American pop and country singer-songwriter and record producer December 14 – Onew, Korean singer December 15 – Nichole Bloom, American actress and model December 17 Andre Ayew, Ghanaian footballer December 18 – Ashley Benson, American actress December 19 Valdimar Bergstað, Icelandic horse rider David Gbemie, Liberian international footballer Yong Jun-hyung, Korean singer December 21 – Tamannaah, Indian model and actress December 22 Logan Huffman, American actor Jordin Sparks, American singer December 26 Yohan Blake, Jamaican athlete Sora Tokui, Japanese voice actress, singer and manga artist Keenan MacWilliam, Canadian actress, singer, dancer, writer and director December 27 – Kateryna Lagno, Ukrainian chess player December 28 Jessie Buckley, Irish actress and singer Mackenzie Rosman, American actress Salvador Sobral, Portuguese singer December 29 Jane Levy, American actress Kei Nishikori, Japanese tennis player December 30 – Ryan Sheckler, American skateboarder Deaths January January 6 Jim Hurtubise, American race car driver (b. 1932) Sir Edmund Leach, British anthropologist (b. 1910) January 7 Frank Adams, British mathematician (b. 1930) Hirohito, Emperor of Japan (b. 1901) January 8 – Kenneth McMillan, American actor (b. 1932) January 10 – Herbert Morrison, American radio reporter (b. 1905) January 11 – José Bustamante y Rivero, Peruvian politician, diplomat and jurist, 33rd President of Peru (b. 1894) January 13 – Joe Spinell, American actor (b. 1936) January 14 – Robert B. Anderson, American administrator and businessman (b. 1910) January 16 Prem Nazir, Indian actor (b. 1926) Trey Wilson, American actor (b. 1948) January 17 – Óscar Vargas Prieto, Peruvian soldier and politician, 111th Prime Minister of Peru (b. 1917) January 18 – Bruce Chatwin, British author (b. 1940) January 19 – Norma Varden, English actress (b. 1898) January 20 Józef Cyrankiewicz, Polish communist politician, 2-time Prime Minister of Poland and 15th President of Poland (b. 1911) Beatrice Lillie, Canadian actress (b. 1894) January 21 – Billy Tipton, American musician (b. 1914) January 23 – Salvador Dalí, Spanish artist (b. 1904) January 24 – Ted Bundy, American serial killer (b. 1946) January 27 – Sir Thomas Sopwith, British aviation pioneer and yachtsman (b. 1888) January 28 – Halina Konopacka, Polish Olympic athlete (b. 1900) January 30 – Alfonso, Duke of Anjou and Cádiz (b. 1936) January 31 – Fernando Gonçalves Namora, Portuguese writer and doctor (b. 1919) February February 1 – Elaine de Kooning, American artist (b. 1919) February 2 Yuri Bogatyryov, Soviet actor (b. 1947) Ondrej Nepela, Slovakian figure skater (b. 1951) February 3 – John Cassavetes, American actor (b. 1929) February 4 – Trevor Lucas, Australian folk singer (b. 1943) February 6 – Barbara W. Tuchman, American historian (b. 1912) February 9 – Osamu Tezuka, Japanese artist (b. 1928) February 11 – T. E. B. Clarke, British screenwriter (b. 1907) February 13 – Princess Eugénie of Greece and Denmark (b. 1910) February 14 James Bond, American ornithologist (b. 1900) Vincent Crane, British musician (b. 1943) February 17 – Lefty Gomez, American baseball player (b. 1908) February 21 – Sándor Márai, Hungarian writer and journalist (b. 1900) February 26 – Roy Eldridge, American musician (b. 1911) February 27 Paul Oswald Ahnert, German astronomer (b. 1897) Konrad Lorenz, Austrian zoologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1903) March March 6 – Harry Andrews, British actor (b. 1911) March 9 – Robert Mapplethorpe, American activist, artist and photographer (b. 1946) March 10 – Maurizio Merli, Italian actor (b. 1940) March 12 – Maurice Evans, British actor (b. 1901) March 14 Edward Abbey, American author and environmentalist (b. 1927) Zita of Bourbon-Parma, Queen consort of Hungary and Empress consort of Austria (b. 1892) March 16 – Jesús María de Leizaola, Spanish politician (b. 1896) March 17 – Merritt Butrick, American actor (b. 1959) March 20 – Dina Sfat, Brazilian actress (b. 1938) March 25 – Sa`id Al-Mufti, Jordanian political figure, 9th Prime Minister of Jordan (b. 1898) March 27 May Allison, American actress (b. 1890) Jack Starrett, American actor and director (b. 1936) March 29 Bernard Blier, French actor (b. 1916) Aleksandr Prokopenko, Soviet footballer (b. 1953) April April 1 – George Robledo, Chilean soccer player (b. 1926) April 3 – Mustafa Çağatay, Turkish-Cypriot politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Northern Cyprus (b. 1937) April 6 – Tufton Beamish, Baron Chelwood, British army officer and politician (b. 1917) April 12 Abbie Hoffman, American political activist (b. 1936) Sugar Ray Robinson, American professional boxer (b. 1921) April 15 Hu Yaobang, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (b. 1915) Bernard-Marie Koltès, French playwright (b. 1948) April 19 – Dame Daphne du Maurier, British writer (b. 1907) April 20 — Edward DeSaulnier, American politician (b. 1921) April 21 Princess Deokhye of Korea (b. 1912) James Kirkwood Jr., American playwright (b. 1924) April 22 – Emilio Segrè, Italian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905) April 23 Hamani Diori, Nigerien politician, 1st President of Niger (b. 1916) Hu Die, Chinese actress (b. 1907) April 24 – Edgar Sanabria, Venezuelan lawyer, diplomat and politician, Interim President of Venezuela (b. 1911) April 25 – George Coulouris, British actor (b. 1903) April 26 – Lucille Ball, American actress, comedian and entertainer (b. 1911) April 27 – Konosuke Matsushita, Japanese industrialist (b. 1894) April 30 Sergio Leone, Italian film director (b. 1929) Guy Williams, Italian-born American actor (b. 1924) May May 1 – Edward Ochab, Polish activist and politician, 13th President of Poland (b. 1906) May 2 – Giuseppe Siri, Italian cardinal (b. 1906) May 3 – Christine Jorgensen, Norwegian actress, singer and writer (b. 1926) May 9 – Keith Whitley, American country music singer (b. 1955) May 10 – Woody Shaw, American jazz trumpeter (b. 1944) May 15 – Johnny Green, American songwriter (b. 1908) May 19 Anton Diffring, German actor (b. 1916) Robert Webber, American actor (b. 1924) May 20 John Hicks, British economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1904) Gilda Radner, American comedian and actress (b. 1946) May 26 – Don Revie, English footballer and manager (b. 1927) May 29 John Cipollina, American guitarist (b. 1943) Giuseppe Patanè, Italian conductor (b. 1932) May 31 – C. L. R. James, Trinidadian journalist and writer (b. 1901) June June 3 – Ruhollah Khomeini, Iranian philosopher, politician, revolutionary and Shia Muslim religious leader, 1st Supreme Leader of Iran (b. 1902) June 4 – Dik Browne, American cartoonist (b. 1917) June 7 – Nara Leão, Brazilian singer (b. 1942) June 8 – Albert Spaggiari, French criminal (b. 1932) June 9 George Beadle, American geneticist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1903) Rashid Behbudov, Azerbaijani singer and actor (b. 1915) José López Rega, Argentine politician (b. 1916) June 10 – Richard Quine, American actor (b. 1920) June 13 – Fran Allison, American actress and television personality (b. 1907) June 14 – Joseph Malula, Congolese archbishop and cardinal (b. 1917) June 15 Victor French, American actor and director (b. 1934) Ray McAnally, Irish actor (b. 1926) June 17 – John Matuszak, American football player and actor (b. 1950) June 21 – Lee Calhoun, American Olympic athlete (b. 1933) June 23 – Werner Best, German Nazi official, jurist, police chief and SS-Obergruppenführer leader (b. 1903) June 24 Hibari Misora, Japanese singer (b. 1937) Prince Vasili Alexandrovich of Russia (b. 1907) June 27 Sir Alfred Ayer, British philosopher (b. 1910) Jack Buetel, American actor (b. 1915) Michele Lupo, Italian film director (b. 1932) June 28 – Joris Ivens, Dutch filmmaker (b. 1898) June 30 – Hilmar Baunsgaard, Danish politician and 34th Prime Minister of Denmark (b. 1920) July July 2 Andrei Gromyko, Soviet politician and diplomat (b. 1909) Franklin Schaffner, American film director (b. 1920) Ben Wright, British actor in radio, film and television (b. 1915) July 3 – Jim Backus, American actor (b. 1913) July 4 Win Maung, 3rd President of Myanmar (b. 1916) Leyla Mammadbeyova, Azerbaijani aviator (b. 1909) July 6 – János Kádár, Hungarian politician and communist leader, 46th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1912) July 10 – Mel Blanc, American voice actor and radio personality (b. 1908) July 11 – Laurence Olivier, English actor and director (b. 1907) July 12 – Prince Wolfgang of Hesse (b. 1896) July 15 – Laurie Cunningham, English footballer (b. 1956) July 16 – Herbert von Karajan, Austrian conductor (b. 1908) July 18 – Rebecca Schaeffer, American actress (b. 1967) July 19 – Kazimierz Sabbat, 2-time Prime Minister of Poland and 15th President of Poland (b. 1913) July 20 Forrest H. Anderson, American politician (b. 1913) Mary Treen, American actress (b. 1907) July 22 – Martti Talvela, Finnish bass (b. 1935) July 23 Donald Barthelme, American writer (b. 1931) Archduchess Charlotte of Austria (b. 1921) July 24 – Ernie Morrison, American actor (b. 1912) August August 1 – John Ogdon, British pianist (b. 1937) August 12 – William Shockley, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1910) August 13 Hugo del Carril, Argentine film actor, film director and tango singer (b. 1912) Tim Richmond, American race car driver (b. 1955) August 14 – Robert Bernard Anderson, American political figure (b. 1910) August 15 – Minoru Genda, Japanese aviator, naval officer and politician (b. 1904) August 16 Jean-Hilaire Aubame, French-born Gabonese politician (b. 1912) Amanda Blake, American actress (b. 1929) August 18 – Luis Carlos Galan, Colombian politician (b. 1943) August 20 George Adamson, Indian-born American conservationist (b. 1906) Joseph LaShelle, American cinematographer (b. 1900) August 21 – Raul Seixas, Brazilian rock singer (b. 1945) August 22 Huey P. Newton, African-American political activist (b. 1942) Diana Vreeland, American fashion editor (b. 1929) August 23 – R. D. Laing, British psychiatrist (b. 1927) August 26 – Irving Stone, American writer (b. 1903) August 27 – Luiz Luz, Brazilian footballer (b. 1909) August 29 Pua Kealoha, American Olympic swimmer (b. 1902) Sir Peter Scott, British naturalist, artist and explorer (b. 1909) September September 4 Georges Simenon, Belgian writer (b. 1903) Ronald Syme, New Zealand-born classicist and historian (b. 1903) September 13 – Charles H. Russell, American politician, 20th Governor of Nevada (b. 1903) September 14 – Dámaso Pérez Prado, Cuban musician (b. 1916) September 15 – Robert Penn Warren, American writer (b. 1905) September 22 – Irving Berlin, American composer (b. 1888) September 28 – Ferdinand Marcos, Filipino dictator, politician and statesman, 10th President of the Philippines (b. 1917) September 30 Virgil Thomson, American composer (b. 1896) Huỳnh Tấn Phát, Vietnamese politician, 16th Prime Minister of the Republic of Vietnam (b. 1913) October October 2 Paola Barbara, Italian actress (b. 1912) Vittorio Caprioli, Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1921) October 4 Graham Chapman, British comedian (b. 1941) Secretariat, American Thoroughbred racehorse (b. 1970) October 6 – Bette Davis, American actress (b. 1908) October 11 M. King Hubbert, American geophysicist (b. 1903) Paul Shenar, American actor (b. 1936) October 12 – Jay Ward, American animation producer (b. 1920) October 16 Scott O'Dell, American children's writer (b. 1898) Cornel Wilde, American actor (b. 1915) October 18 – Countess Georgina, Princess consort of Liechtenstein (b. 1921) October 20 – Sir Anthony Quayle, British actor (b. 1913) October 22 Ewan MacColl, British folk singer, political activist and actor (b. 1915) Roland Winters, American actor (b. 1904) Jacob Wetterling, American Murder Victim (b. 1978) October 25 – Mary McCarthy, American writer (b. 1912) October 26 – Charles J. Pedersen, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1904) October 28 – Yuliya Solntseva, Soviet actress (b. 1901) October 30 – Pedro Vargas, Mexican singer and actor (b. 1906) November November 3 – Timoci Bavadra, Fijian physician and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Fiji (b. 1934) November 5 Vladimir Horowitz, Russian pianist (b. 1903) Barry Sadler, American soldier and singer-songwriter (b. 1940) November 12 – Édouard Candeveau, Swiss Olympic rower (b. 1898) November 13 Victor Davis, Canadian Olympic swimmer (b. 1964) Franz Joseph II, Prince of Liechtenstein (b. 1906) November 16 – Ignacio Ellacuría, Jesuit priest and theologian (b. 1930) November 20 Lynn Bari, American actress (b. 1913) Leonardo Sciascia, Italian writer (b. 1921) November 22 – René Moawad, Lebanese lawyer and politician, 13th President of Lebanon (b. 1925) November 24 – Abdullah Yusuf Azzam, Palestinian Sunni Islamic scholar and theologian (b. 1941) November 26 – Ahmed Abdallah, Comorian politician, 1st President of Comoros (b. 1919) November 27 – Carlos Arias Navarro, Spanish politician, 71st Prime Minister of Spain (b. 1908) November 28 – Ernesto Civardi, Italian cardinal (b. 1906) November 29 – Gubby Allen, English cricketer (b. 1902) November 30 Ahmadou Ahidjo, Cameroonian politician, 1st Prime Minister of Cameroon and President of Cameroon (b. 1924) Hassan Fathy, Egyptian architect (b. 1900) December December 1 – Alvin Ailey, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1931) December 3 Sourou-Migan Apithy, Beninese political figure, 2nd President of Dahomey (b. 1913) Fernando Martín Espina, Spanish basketball player (b. 1962) December 5 – John Pritchard, British conductor (b. 1921) December 6 Frances Bavier, American actress (b. 1902) Sammy Fain, American composer (b. 1902) John Payne, American actor (b. 1912) December 8 – Hans Hartung, German-born French painter (b. 1904) December 14 Jock Mahoney, American actor (b. 1919) Andrei Sakharov, Soviet physicist and activist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1921) December 15 José Gonzalo Rodríguez Gacha, Colombian drug lord and criminal (b. 1947) Edward Underdown, British stage and film veteran (b. 1908) December 16 Silvana Mangano, Italian actress (b. 1930) Aileen Pringle, American actress (b. 1895) Lee Van Cleef, American actor (b. 1925) December 17 – Albert C. Wedemeyer, American general (b. 1897) December 19 Herbert Blaize, Grenadian politician, 6th Prime Minister of Grenada (b. 1918) Kirill Mazurov, Soviet politician (b. 1914) December 20 – Kurt Böhme, German bass (b. 1908) December 21 – Ján Cikker, Slovak composer (b. 1911) December 22 Samuel Beckett, Irish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906) Vasile Milea, Romanian military officer and politician, minister of Defense (b. 1927) December 23 – Richard Rado, German-born British mathematician (b. 1906) December 25 Elena Ceaușescu, Romanian politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Romania (b. 1916) Nicolae Ceaușescu, Romanian politician, dictator and Communist Party head, 1st President of Romania (b. 1918) Billy Martin, American baseball player and manager (b. 1928) December 26 – Lennox Berkeley, English composer (b. 1903) December 28 – Hermann Oberth, Austro-Hungarian-born German engineer, physicist and scientist (b. 1894) December 30 – Yasuji Miyazaki, Japanese Olympic swimmer (b. 1916) December 31 Sir Ignatius Kilage, 4th Governor-General of Papua New Guinea (b. 1941) Mihály Lantos, Hungarian footballer and manager (b. 1928) Gerhard Schröder, German politician (b. 1910) December – Yem Sambaur, 8th Prime Minister of Cambodia (b. 1913) Nobel Prizes Physics – Norman Foster Ramsey Jr., Hans Georg Dehmelt, Wolfgang Paul Chemistry – Sidney Altman, Thomas Cech Medicine – J. Michael Bishop, Harold E. Varmus Literature – Camilo José Cela Peace – Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama Cage of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel – Trygve Haavelmo References Further reading Ash, Timothy Garton. The Magic Lantern: The Revolution of '89 Witnessed in Warsaw, Budapest, Berlin, and Prague (1999) excerpt Kenney, Padraic, ed. 1989: Democratic Revolutions at the Cold War's End: A Brief History with Documents (2009) Sebestyen, Victor. Revolution 1989: The Fall of the Soviet Empire (2010) excerpt External links After the fall – Europe after 1989 Mikhail Gorbachev on 1989 – 2009 interview by The Nation Freedom Without Walls: German Missions in the United States Looking Back at the Fall of the Berlin Wall – official homepage in English

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1923

1923

Events January January 9 – Lithuania begins the Klaipėda Revolt to annex the Klaipėda Region (Memel Territory). January 11 – Despite strong British protests, troops from France and Belgium occupy the Ruhr area, to force Germany to make reparations payments. January 17 (or 9) – First flight of the first rotorcraft, Juan de la Cierva's Cierva C.4 autogyro, in Spain. (It is first demonstrated to the military on January 31.) January 18 – Elon College's campus in North Carolina is destroyed by a fire. February February 5 – Australian cricketer Bill Ponsford makes 429 runs to break the world record for the highest first-class cricket score for the first time in his third match at this level, at Melbourne Cricket Ground, giving the Victoria cricket team an innings total of 1,059. February 8 – Norman Albert calls the first live broadcast of an ice hockey game, the third period of an Ontario Hockey League Intermediate playoff game, on Toronto radio station CFCA. February 9 – Billy Hughes, having resigned as Prime Minister of Australia, after the Country Party refuses to govern in coalition with him as the leader of the Nationalist Party, is succeeded by Stanley Bruce. A Liberal–National Coalition will persist in the politics of Australia for at least 95 years. February 23 The American Law Institute is incorporated in the United States. Albert Einstein visits Barcelona, Spain, at the invitation of scientist Esteban Terradas i Illa. March March 1 Battleship is decommissioned. Eskom, the largest electricity producer in Africa, is established in South Africa. Greece adopts the Gregorian calendar. March 3 – Cover date of the first issue of Time magazine. Retired U.S. Speaker of the House Joseph G. Cannon appears on the first cover. March 6 – The Egyptian Feminist Union (Arabic: الاتحاد النسائي المصري), the first nationwide feminist movement in Egypt, is founded at the home of activist Huda Sha'arawi. March 9 – Vladimir Lenin suffers his third stroke, which renders him bedridden and unable to speak; consequently he retires from his position as Chairman of the Soviet government. March 14 – Pete Parker calls the play-by-play of the first ice hockey game ever broadcast on the radio in its entirety, between the Regina Capitals and the Edmonton Eskimos of the Western Canada Hockey League. March 17 – Dobrolyot is formed as the first Soviet civil aviation service; it will become part of flag carrier Aeroflot. March 28 – Regia Aeronautica, the air force of Fascist Italy, is founded. April April 1 – Safety Last!, a silent romantic comedy film starring Harold Lloyd, is released. April 4 – Warner Bros. Film Studio is formally incorporated in the United States, as Warner Brothers Pictures, Inc. April 6 Louis Armstrong makes his first recording, "Chimes Blues", with King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band. The first Prefects Board in Southeast Asia is formed, in Victoria Institution, Federated Malay States. April 12 – The Kandersteg International Scout Centre comes into existence in Switzerland. April 18 Yankee Stadium opens its doors, as the home park of the New York Yankees baseball team, in The Bronx. Russian professional sports club, Dynamo Moscow, is founded. April 19 Hjalmar Branting leaves office as Prime Minister of Sweden, after the Swedish Riksdag has rejected a government proposal regarding unemployment benefits. Right-wing academic and jurist Ernst Trygger succeeds him. The Egyptian Constitution of 1923 is adopted, introducing a parliamentary system of democracy in the country. April 23 – The Gdynia seaport is inaugurated, on the Polish Corridor. April 26 – Prince Albert, Duke of York (later George VI, King of the United Kingdom) marries Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon (later Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother) in Westminster Abbey. April 28 – The original Wembley Stadium opens its doors for the first time to the English public, staging the FA Cup Final between Bolton Wanderers and West Ham United. May May 1 – Rahula College is established in Ceylon, with the name of "Parakramabhahu Vidyalaya". May 8 – The Liseberg amusement park opens in Gothenburg, Sweden. May 9 Southeastern Michigan receives a record of snow, after temperatures plummeted from 17 to 1 degrees between 1 and 6 pm on the previous day. The premiere of Bertolt Brecht's play In the Jungle (Im Dickicht), at the Residenztheater in Munich, is interrupted by Nazi demonstrators. May 20 – British Prime Minister Bonar Law resigns, due to ill health. May 23 Stanley Baldwin is appointed British Prime Minister. Belgium's Sabena Airlines is created. May 24 – The Irish Civil War ends. May 26 – The first 24 Hours of Le Mans motor race is held, and is won by André Lagache and René Léonard. May 27 – The Ku Klux Klan in the United States defies a law requiring publication of its membership. June June 9 – A military coup in Bulgaria ousts prime minister Aleksandar Stamboliyski (he is killed June 14). June 12 – William Walton's Façade is performed for the first time, in London. June 13 – President Li Yuanhong of China abandons his residence because a warlord has commanded forces to surround the mansion and cut off its water and electric supplies in order to force him to abandon his post. June 16 – The storming of Ayan, Siberia concludes the Yakut Revolt and the Russian Civil War. June 18 – Mount Etna erupts in Italy, making 60,000 homeless. June 25 – Association football club FC Rapid București is formed, on the initiative of the Grivița railroad workers (first named CFR București). July July 10 – Large hailstones kill 23 in Rostov, Soviet Union. July 13 The Hollywood Sign is inaugurated in California (originally reading Hollywoodland). American explorer Roy Chapman Andrews discovers the first dinosaur eggs near Flaming Cliffs, Mongolia. July 20 – Pancho Villa is assassinated at Hidalgo del Parral, Chihuahua. July 24 – The Treaty of Lausanne (1923), settling the boundaries of the modern Republic of Turkey, is signed in Switzerland by Greece, Bulgaria and other countries that fought in the First World War, bringing an end to the Ottoman Empire after 624 years. July – Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic (Germany) has seen the number of marks needed to purchase a single American dollar reach 353,000 – more than 200 times the amount needed at the start of the year. August August 2 – President Warren G. Harding dies of a heart attack in San Francisco and is succeeded by Vice President Calvin Coolidge, who becomes the 30th President of the United States. August 3 – President Calvin Coolidge is sworn in. August 13 The first major seagoing ship arrives at Gdynia, the newly constructed Polish seaport. Gustav Stresemann is named Chancellor of Germany, and founds a coalition government for the Weimar Republic, where hyperinflation means that more than 4,600,000 marks are now needed to buy a single American dollar. August 18 – The first British Track & Field championships for women are held in London. August 21 – Mexican Association football Club Necaxa is founded by engineer William H. Frasser. August 30 – Hurricane season begins, with a tropical storm northeast of the Turks and Caicos Islands. August 31 – The Italian navy occupies Corfu, in retaliation for the murder of an Italian officer. The League of Nations protests, and the occupation ends on September 30. September September 1 – The Great Kantō earthquake devastates Tokyo and Yokohama, killing more than 100,000 people. September 4 – The United States Navy's first home-built rigid airship makes her first flight at Naval Air Station Lakehurst (New Jersey); she contains most of the world's extracted reserves of helium at this time. September 7 – At the International Police Conference in Vienna, the International Criminal Police Commission (ICPC), better known as Interpol, is set up. September 8 – Honda Point disaster: Nine United States Navy destroyers run aground off the California coast. September 9 – Turkish head of state Mustafa Kemal Atatürk founds the Republican People's Party (CHP). September 10 – The Irish Free State joins the League of Nations. September 13 – Military coup in Spain: Miguel Primo de Rivera takes over, setting up a dictatorship. Trade unions are prohibited for 10 years. September 17 – 1923 Berkeley Fire: A major fire in Berkeley, California, erupts, consuming some 640 structures, including 584 homes in the densely built neighborhoods north of the campus of the University of California. September 18–26 – Newspaper printers strike in New York City. September 24 – Atlantic hurricane season: The second major hurricane strikes north of Hispaniola. September 26 – In Bavaria, Gustav Ritter von Kahr takes dictatorial powers. September 29 – The first American Track & Field championships for women are held in New Jersey. September 29 – The British Mandate for Palestine (1922) comes into effect, officially creating the protectorates of Palestine, as a homeland for the Jewish people under British administration, and Transjordan as a separate emirate, under Abdullah I. The French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon also takes effect. September 30 – Küstrin Putsch: Outside Berlin, Major Ernst von Buchrucker, the leader of the Black Reichswehr, attempts a putsch by seizing several forts. October October 1 – The Johor–Singapore Causeway opens to public traffic. October 2 – Küstrin Putsch: After two days of siege, Major Buchrucker and his men surrender. October 6 – The Occupation of Constantinople ends when the great powers of World War I withdraw. October 13 Ankara replaces Istanbul (Constantinople), as the capital of Turkey. The first recorded example, of a storm crossing from the Eastern Pacific into the Atlantic, occurs in Oaxaca. October 14 – The fourth tropical storm of the year forms just north of Panama. October 15 – The fifth tropical storm of the year forms north of the Leeward Islands. October 16 A sixth tropical storm develops in the Gulf of Mexico; a rare occurrence, it consists of four active tropical storms simultaneously. Roy and Walt Disney found The Walt Disney Company. October 23 – Hamburg Uprising: In Germany, the Communists attempt a "putsch" in Hamburg, which results in street battles in that city for the next two days, when it ends unsuccessfully. October 27 – In Germany, General Hans von Seeckt orders the Reichswehr to dissolve the Social Democratic-Communist government of Saxony, which is refusing to accept the authority of the Reich government. October 28 – In Qajar dynasty Persia, Reza Khan becomes Ahmad Shah Qajar's prime minister. October 29 – Turkey becomes a republic, following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire; Kemal Atatürk is elected as first president. October 30 – İsmet İnönü is appointed as the first prime minister of Turkey. November November 1 The Finnish flag carrier airline Finnair is started, as Aero oy. The 1923 Victorian Police strike begins in Australia, with half of the Victoria Police force standing down over the use of labor spies. Rioting and looting take place in Melbourne city centre. November 8 – Beer Hall Putsch: In Munich, Adolf Hitler leads the Nazis in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the Bavarian government; police and troops crush the attempt the next day. 20 people die as a result of associated violence. November 11 – Adolf Hitler is arrested for his leading role in the Beer Hall Putsch. November 12 – Her Highness Princess Maud of Fife marries Captain Charles Alexander Carnegie, in Wellington Barracks, London. November 15 – Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic: Hyperinflation in Germany reaches its height. One United States dollar is worth 4,200,000,000,000 Papiermark (4.2 trillion on the short scale). Gustav Stresemann abolishes the old currency and replaces it with the Rentenmark, at an exchange rate of one Rentenmark to 1,000,000,000,000 (one trillion on the short scale) Papiermark (effective November 20). November 23 Gustav Stresemann's coalition government collapses in Germany. Association football club Persis Solo is founded as Vorstenlandsche Voetbal Bond in the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia). December December 1 – In Italy, the Gleno Dam on the Gleno River, in the Valle di Scalve in the northern province of Bergamo bursts, killing at least 356 people. December 6 – 1923 United Kingdom general election: The governing Conservatives under Stanley Baldwin are reduced to a minority status, with the Labour party gaining second party status. Calvin Coolidge addresses Congress in the first radio broadcast from a U.S. President. December 10 – Sigma Alpha Kappa (the first social fraternity at a Jesuit college in the United States) is founded as a fraternal organization, until the ban on social fraternities is lifted. December 20 – BEGGARS Fraternity (the second social fraternity at a Jesuit college in the United States) is founded by nine men, who have secured permission to do so from the Pope. December 21 – The Nepal–Britain Treaty is the first to define the international status of Nepal as an independent sovereign country. December 27 – The crown prince of Japan survives an assassination attempt in Tokyo. December 29 – Vladimir K. Zworykin files his first patent (in the United States) for "television systems". Date unknown Struggling for a foothold in southern China, Sun Yat-sen decides to ally his Nationalist Kuomintang party with the Comintern, and the Communist Party of China. The Moderation League of New York becomes part of the movement for the repeal of Prohibition in the United States. Pharmaceutical company Novo Nordisk is founded in Denmark. Marcel Duchamp's artwork The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even (La mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, même or The Large Glass) is completed in the United States. Rainbow trout is introduced into the upper Firehole River, in Yellowstone National Park, United States. The Iraqi women's movement starts with the foundation of the Women's Awakening Club. Births January January 1 Wahiduddin Ahmed, Bangladeshi academic (d. 2018) Valentina Cortese, Italian actress (d. 2019) Vulo Radev, Bulgarian film director (d. 2001) Roméo Sabourin, Canadian World War II spy (d. 1944) January 2 Abdel Aziz Mohamed Hegazy, 38th Prime Minister of Egypt (d. 2014) Rachel Waterhouse, English historian and author (d. 2020) January 3 Renato Guatelli, Italian partisan (d. 1944) Hank Stram, American football coach, broadcaster (d. 2005) January 4 Ricardo C. Puno, Filipino lawyer and politician (d. 2018) Wilfred Waters, English Olympic cyclist (d. 2006) January 5 Nat Neujean, Belgian sculptor (d. 2018) Sam Phillips, American record producer (d. 2003) January 6 Leah Chase, African-American chef, author and television personality (d. 2019) Robert A. Chase, American surgeon and educator Norman Kirk, 29th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1974) Jacobo Timerman, Argentine writer (d. 1999) January 7 Hugh Kenner, Canadian literary critic (d. 2003) Jean Lucienbonnet, French racing driver (d. 1962) January 8 Larry Storch, American actor Johnny Wardle, English cricketer (d. 1985) January 11 Wright King, American actor (d. 2018) Paavo Lonkila, Finnish Olympic cross-country skier (d. 2017) Ernst Nolte, German historian (d. 2016) January 12 Ira Hayes, U.S. Marine flag raiser on Iwo Jima (d. 1955) Sune Wehlin, Swedish pentathlete (d. 2020) January 15 – Lee Teng-hui, Taiwanese politician, 4th President of the Republic of China (d. 2020) January 16 Anthony Hecht, American poet (d. 2004) Antonio Riboldi, Italian Roman Catholic prelate (d. 2017) Walther Wever, German fighter ace (d. 1945) January 18 – Jan Ruff O'Herne, Dutch-Australian human rights activist (d. 2019) January 19 – Jean Stapleton, American actress (All In the Family) (d. 2013) January 20 Nora Brockstedt, Norwegian singer (d. 2015) Slim Whitman, American country western musician (d. 2013) January 21 – Prince Andrew Romanov, Russian-American artist and author (d. 2021) January 22 – Diana Douglas, British-born American actress, mother of actor/producer Michael Douglas (d. 2015) January 23 Horace Ashenfelter, American athlete (d. 2018) Silvano Campeggi, Italian film poster designer (d. 2018) Cot Deal, American major league baseball player, coach (d. 2013) January 24 – Geneviève Asse, French painter (d. 2021) January 25 Arvid Carlsson, Swedish scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2018) Rusty Draper, American singer (d. 2003) Dirk Bernard Joseph Schouten, Dutch economist (d. 2018) January 26 – Anne Jeffreys, American actress, singer (d. 2017) January 27 – Enrico Braggiotti, Monegasque banker (d. 2019) January 28 Erling Lorentzen, Norwegian shipowner and industrialist (d. 2021) Sante Spessotto, Italian Roman Catholic priest and saint (d. 1980) January 29 Jack Burke Jr., American golfer Paddy Chayefsky, American writer (d. 1981) Khir Johari, Malaysian politician (d. 2006) January 31 – Norman Mailer, American writer, journalist (d. 2007) February February 1 Stig Mårtensson, Swedish racing cyclist (d. 2010) Gena Turgel, Polish author, Holocaust survivor and educator (d. 2018) Edwin Wilson, American professor February 2 James Dickey, American poet, author (Deliverance) (d. 1997) Virgil Orr, American politician and academic (d. 2021) Red Schoendienst, American baseball player (d. 2018) Liz Smith, American gossip columnist (d. 2017) Clem Windsor, Australian rugby union player, surgeon (d. 2007) February 3 Edith Barney, American female professional baseball player (d. 2010) Barbara Hall, English crossword puzzle editor February 4 Bonar Bain, Canadian actor (d. 2005) Conrad Bain, Canadian-American actor (d. 2013) Belisario Betancur, Colombian politician, 26th President of Colombia (d. 2018) February 5 Dora Bryan, English actress (d. 2014) Fatmawati, 1st First Lady of Indonesia (d. 1980) Claude King, American country music singer and songwriter (d. 2013) February 6 Gyula Lóránt, Hungarian footballer and manager (d. 1981) Georges Pouliot, Canadian fencer (d. 2019) February 7 – George Lascelles, 7th Earl of Harewood, first grandchild of King George V (d. 2011) February 8 – Urpo Korhonen, Finnish Olympic cross-country skier (d. 2009) February 9 – Brendan Behan, Irish author (d. 1964) February 10 Allie Sherman, American professional football coach (d. 2015) Cesare Siepi, Italian opera singer (d. 2010) February 11 Rosita Fornés, Cuban-American actress (d. 2020) Pamela Sharples, Baroness Sharples, English politician February 12 Knox Martin, American artist Franco Zeffirelli, Italian film, opera director (d. 2019) February 13 Yfrah Neaman, Lebanese-born violinist (d. 2003) Chuck Yeager, American test pilot, NASA official (d. 2020) February 15 Marcel Denis, Belgian comics artist (d. 2002) Ken Hofmann, American businessman (d. 2018) February 16 – Samuel Willenberg, Polish-born Israeli sculptor, painter and last surviving member of the Treblinka extermination camp revolt (d. 2016) February 17 – Jun Fukuda, Japanese film director (d. 2000) February 18 – Allan Melvin, American actor (d. 2008) February 20 Victor Atiyeh, American politician (d. 2014) Forbes Burnham, Guyanese politician, 1st Prime Minister of Guyana and 2nd President of Guyana (d. 1985) Robert Lucy, Swiss gymnast (d. 2009) February 21 Wilbur R. Ingalls, Jr., American architect (d. 1997) William Winter, American politician (d. 2020) February 22 – Norman Smith, English singer, record producer (d. 2008) February 23 Ioannis Grivas, Greek judge, politician and 176th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2016) John van Hengel, American "Father of Food Banking" (d. 2005) Mary Francis Shura, American writer (d. 1991) February 24 – David Soyer, American cellist (d. 2010) February 25 – Harry Leslie Smith, English writer and political commentator (d. 2018) February 27 – Dexter Gordon, American jazz saxophone player, actor (d. 1990) February 28 Jean Carson, American actress (d. 2005) Charles Durning, American actor (d. 2012) March March 2 Bob Chinn, American restaurateur Harriet Frank Jr., American film writer and producer (d. 2020) Orrin Keepnews, American record producer (d. 2015) Robert H. Michel, American Republican Party politician (d. 2017) Graham Winteringham, English architect March 3 – Doc Watson, American folk guitarist, songwriter (d. 2012) March 4 Russell Freeburg, American journalist and author Piero D'Inzeo, Italian Olympic show jumping rider (d. 2014) Sir Patrick Moore, British astronomer, broadcaster (d. 2012) March 6 Ed McMahon, American television personality (d. 2009) Wes Montgomery, African-American jazz musician (d. 1968) March 7 Mahlon Clark, American musician (d. 2007) Thomas Keating, American monk (d. 2018) March 8 – Louk Hulsman, Dutch criminologist (d. 2009) March 9 James L. Buckley, American politician, United States Senator (1971–77) Walter Kohn, Austrian-born physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (d. 2016) William Lyon, American major general (d. 2020) Frank D. Padgett, American judge (d. 2021) March 10 – Val Logsdon Fitch, American nuclear physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015) March 11 Agatha Barbara, Maltese politician (d. 2002) Paul Muller, Swiss actor March 12 Hjalmar Andersen, Norwegian speed-skater (d. 2013) Wally Schirra, American astronaut (d. 2007) Mae Young, American wrestler (d. 2014) March 14 Diane Arbus, American photographer (d. 1971) Ernest L. Daman, American mechanical engineer, inventor and businessman Joe M. Jackson, American Medal of Honour recipient (d. 2019) Celeste Rodrigues, Portuguese singer (d. 2018) March 15 Lou Richards, Australian footballer (d. 2017) Willy Semmelrogge, German actor (d. 1984) March 19 Oskar Fischer, East German politician (d. 2020) Giuseppe Rotunno, Italian cinematographer (d. 2021) March 21 Louis-Edmond Hamelin, Canadian geographer, author and academic (d. 2020) Merle Keagle, American female professional baseball player (d. 1960) Olive Nicol, Baroness Nicol, British politician, life peer (d. 2018) Rezső Nyers, Hungarian politician (d. 2018) Jan Reehorst, Dutch politician Shri Mataji Nirmala Srivastava, Indian founder of Sahaja Yoga (d. 2011) March 22 – Marcel Marceau, world-renowned French mime (d. 2007) March 24 Murray Hamilton, American actor (d. 1986) Michael Legat, English writer (d. 2011) March 25 Lewis Elton, German-English physicist and researcher (d. 2018) Wim van Est, Dutch cyclist (d. 2003) Stefano Vetrano, Italian politician (d. 2018) March 26 Romolo Catasta, Italian Olympic rower (d. 1985) Baba Hari Dass, Indian yoga master, silent monk, and commentator (d. 2018) Bob Elliott, American comedian (d. 2016) March 27 Ulla Sallert, Swedish actress, singer (d. 2018) Louis Simpson, Jamaican-born poet (d. 2012) March 28 Thad Jones, American jazz musician (d. 1986) Ine Schäffer, Austrian athlete (d. 2009) March 29 – Geoff Duke, British motorcycle racer (d. 2015) March 30 Milton Acorn, Canadian writer (d. 1986) Frank Field, American meteorologist March 31 Don Barksdale, American basketball player (d. 1993) Shoshana Damari, Yemenite-Israeli singer (d. 2006) April April 2 Alice Haylett, American professional baseball player (d. 2004) Gloria Henry, American actress (d. 2021) Johnny Paton, Scottish football player, coach and manager (d. 2015) G. Spencer-Brown, British mathematician (d. 2016) April 3 – Jozef Lenárt, Slovak politician (d. 2004) April 4 Maximiano Tuazon Cruz, Filipino Roman Catholic prelate (d. 2013) Gene Reynolds, American actor (d. 2020) Peter Vaughan, English actor (d. 2016) April 5 Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, President of South Vietnam (d. 2001) Stan Waterman, American cinematographer April 8 George Fisher, American political cartoonist (d. 2003) Edward Mulhare, Irish-born American actor (d. 1997) April 10 – John Watkins, South African cricketer (d. 2021) April 11 – David H. Murdock, American billionaire, businessman and philanthropist April 12 Ann Miller, American actress and dancer (d. 2004) Krastyu Trichkov, Bulgarian politician April 13 – Don Adams, American actor, comedian (Get Smart) (d. 2005) April 14 Lydia Clarke, American actress, photographer (d. 2018) Roberto De Vicenzo, Argentine professional golfer, winner of the 1967 Open Championship (d. 2017) April 15 – Douglas Wass, British civil servant (d. 2017) April 17 – Étienne Bally, French sprinter (d. 2018) April 18 – Gershon Edelstein, Israeli rabbi and spiritual leader April 19 Sen Sōshitsu XV, Japanese hereditary master Stuart H. Walker, American Olympic yachtsman and writer (d. 2018) April 20 Mother Angelica, American nun, founder of the Eternal Word Television Network (EWTN) (d. 2016) Irene Lieblich, Polish-born painter (d. 2008) Bill Spence, English writer April 22 Paula Fox, American writer (d. 2017) Geoffrey Hattersley-Smith, English/Canadian geologist and glaciologist (d. 2012) Bettie Page, American model (d. 2008) Aaron Spelling, American television producer, writer (d. 2006) April 23 – Dolph Briscoe, Governor of Texas (d. 2010) April 24 – Bülent Ulusu, 18th Prime Minister of Turkey (d. 2015) April 25 Francis Graham-Smith, English astronomer, academic Albert King, American musician (d. 1992) Grant Munro, Canadian animator, filmmaker and actor (d. 2017) April 27 – Lloyd F. Wheat, American lawyer and politician April 30 Al Lewis, American actor (The Munsters) (d. 2006) Francis Tucker, South African rally driver (d. 2008) May May 1 Frank Brian, American basketball player (d. 2017) Fernando Cabrita, Portuguese football forward, manager (d. 2014) Joseph Heller, American novelist (Catch-22) (d. 1999) Ralph Senensky, American television director and writer Billy Steel, Scottish footballer (d. 1982) May 2 – Patrick Hillery, President of Ireland (d. 2008) May 3 Francesco Paolo Bonifacio, Italian politician and jurist (d. 1989) Alexander Harvey II, American judge (d. 2017) May 4 Carlo Giustini, Italian actor Gillis William Long, American politician (d. 1985) Assi Rahbani, Lebanese composer, musician, conductor, poet and author (d. 1986) Eric Sykes, English actor (d. 2012) May 5 Sergey Akhromeyev, Soviet marshall, former Chief of the General Staff of the Soviet Armed Forces (d. 1991) Edit Perényi-Weckinger, Hungarian gymnast (d. 2019) Konrad Repgen, German historian (d. 2017) Richard Wollheim, English philosopher (d. 2003) May 6 – Josep Seguer, Spanish football defender, manager (d. 2014) May 7 Anne Baxter, American actress (d. 1985) Jim Lowe, American singer-songwriter (d. 2016) J. Mack Robinson, American businessman (d. 2014) May 8 – Yusof Rawa, Malaysian politician (d. 2000) May 10 – Heydar Aliyev, 3rd President of Azerbaijan (1993–2003) (d. 2003) May 11 Louise Arnold, American baseball player (d. 2010) Fred McLafferty, American chemist May 12 – Mila del Sol, Filipino actress, entrepreneur and philanthropist (d. 2020) May 13 – Ruth Adler Schnee, German-American textile, interior designer May 14 Willis Blair, Canadian politician (d. 2014) Alberto Ortiz, Uruguayan pentathlete Adnan Pachachi, Iraqi Foreign Minister (d. 2019) Mrinal Sen, Indian filmmaker (d. 2018) May 15 Doris Dowling, American actress (d. 2004) John Lanchbery, English composer (d. 2003) Gholamreza Pahlavi, Persian prince (d. 2017) May 16 – Merton Miller, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2000) May 17 Anthony Eyton, English painter and educator Peter Mennin, American composer, teacher and administrator (d. 1983) David Wasawo, Kenyan zoologist, conservationist, and university administrator (d. 2014) May 18 – Hugh Shearer, Prime Minister of Jamaica (d. 2004) May 19 – Peter Lo Sui Yin, Malaysian politician (d. 2020) May 20 – Israel Gutman, Israeli historian (d. 2013) May 21 Armand Borel, Swiss mathematician (d. 2003) Dorothy Hewett, Australian writer (d. 2002) Ara Parseghian, American football coach (d. 2017) Evelyn Ward, American actress (d. 2012) May 22 – Aline Griffith, Dowager Countess of Romanones, Spanish-American cipher clerk, aristocrat, socialite and writer (d. 2017) May 23 – Kalidas Shrestha, Nepalese artist (d. 2016) May 24 Knut Ahnlund, Swedish literary historian, writer (d. 2012) Seijun Suzuki, Japanese filmmaker, actor and screenwriter (d. 2017) May 25 – Bernard Koura, French painter (d. 2018) May 26 James Arness, American actor (Gunsmoke) (d. 2011) Roy Dotrice, English actor (d. 2017) Horst Tappert, German television actor (d. 2008) May 27 Henry Kissinger, German-born United States Secretary of State, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize Sumner Redstone, American businessman (d. 2020) Alfonso Wong, Hong Kong cartoonist (d. 2017) May 28 György Ligeti, Hungarian composer (d. 2006) N. T. Rama Rao, Indian (Telugu) film actor, politician (d. 1996) T. M. Thiagarajan, Carnatic musicologist from Tamil Nadu in Southern India (d. 2007) May 29 Edward H. Sims, American author Eugene Wright, American jazz bassist (d. 2020) May 30 Jimmy Lydon, American actor, producer Dennis V. Razis, Greek oncologist May 31 Robert O. Becker, American orthopedic surgeon (d. 2008) Ellsworth Kelly, American artist (d. 2015) Rainier III, Prince of Monaco (d. 2005) June June 2 Ted Leehane, Australian rules footballer (d. 2014) Lloyd Shapley, American mathematician, economist and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2016) June 3 – Peter Thorne, British Royal Air Force pilot (d. 2014) June 4 Elizabeth Jolley, Australian writer (d. 2007) Yuriko, Princess Mikasa, Japanese princess June 5 – Peggy Stewart, American actress (d. 2019) June 6 V. C. Andrews, American novelist (d. 1996) Jeff Dwire, American small businessman (d. 1974) June 7 Jean Baratte, French international footballer, striker and manager (d. 1986) Giorgio Belladonna, Italian bridge player, one of the greatest of all time (d. 1995) Harold Garde, American artist June 8 – Tang Hsiang Chien, Hong Kong industrialist (d. 2018) June 9 Stanley Michael Gartler, American molecular biologist and geneticist Gerald Götting, German politician (d. 2015) René Henry Gracida, American bishop I. H. Latif, Indian military officer (d. 2018) June 10 Madeleine Lebeau, French actress (d. 2016) Robert Maxwell, Slovakian-born media entrepreneur (d. 1991) Françoise Sullivan, Canadian painter, sculptor, dancer and choreographer. June 11 – Bernard F. Grabowski, American politician (d. 2019) June 12 Juan Arza, Spanish football forward, manager (d. 2011) Herta Elviste, Estonian actress (d. 2015) June 13 – Lloyd Conover, American scientist (d. 2017) June 14 Jack Hayward, English businessman (d. 2014) Judith Kerr, English writer, illustrator (d. 2019) Donald Smith, English cricketer (d. 2021) June 15 Herbert Chitepo, Zimbabwe African National Union leader (d. 1975) Johnny Most, American basketball radio announcer (d. 1993) Ninian Stephen, 20th Governor-General of Australia (d. 2017) June 17 William G. Adams, 9th mayor of St. John's, member of the Newfoundland and Labrador House of Assembly (d. 2005) Enrique Angelelli, Argentine bishop (d. 1976) Anthony Bevilacqua, American Roman Catholic cardinal (d. 2012) W. M. Gorman, Irish economist, academic (d. 2003) Arnold S. Relman, American internist (d. 2014) Jan Veselý, Czech cyclist (d. 2003) June 18 Clinton Ballou, American biochemist and professor (d. 2021) Szymon Szurmiej, Polish-Jewish actor, director, and general manager (d. 2014) June 19 – Andrés Rodríguez, 47th President of Paraguay (d. 1997) June 20 Bjørn Watt-Boolsen, Danish actor (d. 1998) Franklin B. Zimmerman, American musicologist and conductor June 21 – Johann Eyfells, Icelandic artist (d. 2019) June 22 John Oldham, American college player, athletic director and basketball coach (d. 2020) Felo Ramírez, Cuban-American Spanish-language radio voice of the Miami Marlins (d. 2017) June 23 André Antunes, Portuguese sports shooter (d. 2002) Makhmut Gareev, Russian general (d. 2019) Doris Johnson, American politician Mario Milita, Italian actor and voice actor (d. 2017) Silkirtis Nichols, Native American Indian actor Ranasinghe Premadasa, Sri Lanka statesman, 3rd President of Sri Lanka (d. 1993) Jerry Rullo, American professional basketball player (d. 2016) John E. Sarno, American medical writer (d. 2017) Giuseppina Tuissi, Italian Resistance fighter (d. 1945) June 24 Yves Bonnefoy, French poet, art historian (d. 2016) Cesare Romiti, Italian economist (d. 2020) T-Model Ford, African-American blues musician (d. 2013) June 25 Jamshid Amouzegar, 43rd Prime Minister of Iran (d. 2016) Stan Clements, English footballer (d. 2018) Doug Everingham, Australian politician, minister (d. 2017) Sam Francis, American painter (d. 1994) Vatroslav Mimica, Croatian film director, screenwriter (d. 2020) June 26 Ed Bearss, American military historian and author (d. 2020) Barbara Graham, American criminal (d. 1955) Musa'id bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, Saudi prince (d. 2013) June 27 Beth Chatto, British plantswoman, garden designer and author (d. 2018) Mitchell Flint, American lawyer, veteran aviator (d. 2017) Gus Zernial, American baseball player, sports commentator (d. 2011) June 28 Daniil Khrabrovitsky, Soviet film director (d. 1980) Giff Roux, American basketball player (d. 2011) Gaye Stewart, Canadian ice hockey forward (d. 2010) June 29 Sérgio Britto, Brazilian actor (d. 2011) Alfred Goodwin, senior judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit Olav Thon, Norwegian real estate magnate Chou Wen-chung, Chinese-American composer, educator (d. 2019) June 30 Gad Beck, Israeli-German educator, author, activist and Holocaust survivor (d. 2012) Andy Jack, English footballer Ivo Orlandi, Venezuelan sports shooter July July 1 Scotty Bowers, American marine, author (d. 2019) Herman Chernoff, American applied mathematician, statistician and physicist July 2 Constantin Dăscălescu, 52nd Prime Minister of Romania (d. 2003) Wisława Szymborska, Polish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2012) July 3 Hugo Machado, Uruguayan cyclist Felipe Zetter, Mexican football defender (d. 2013) July 4 Rudolf Friedrich, Swiss Federal Councilor (d. 2013) George Mostow, American mathematician, renowned for his contributions to Lie theory (d. 2017) July 5 Hermann Gummel, German semiconductor industry pioneer Naomi Long Madgett, American poet (d. 2020) Mitsuye Yamada, Japanese-American activist, feminist, essayist, poet, story writer, editor, and former English professor July 6 – Wojciech Jaruzelski, Polish Communist politician, 8th Prime Minister of Poland and President of Poland (d. 2014) July 7 Leonardo Ferrel, Bolivian football player (d. 2013) Whitney North Seymour Jr., American administrator (d. 2019) Kitty White, American jazz singer (d. 2009) July 8 Val Bettin, American actor (d. 2021) Harrison Dillard, African-American track and field athlete (d. 2019) Ivor Germain, Barbadian professional light/welterweight boxer Eric Hill, English cricketer (d. 2010) July 9 – Jill Knight, British politician July 10 John Bradley, U.S. Navy flag raiser on Iwo Jima (d. 1994) Stanton Forbes, American writer (d. 2013) Rudolf Kehrer, Soviet and Russian classical pianist (d. 2013) Mátyás Tímár, Hungarian politician and economist (d. 2020) July 11 Olavo Rodrigues Barbosa, Brazilian football player (d. 2010) Gilbert Morand, French non-commissioned officer, skier (d. 2008) Roy Neighbors, American politician (d. 2017) Richard Pipes, Polish-American academic who specialized in Russian history (d. 2018) Bernard Punsly, American actor (d. 2004) July 12 Francisco Castro, Puerto Rican long jumper, triple jumper (d. 2008) Freddie Fields, American theatrical agent, film producer (d. 2007) James E. Gunn, American science fiction writer, editor, scholar, and anthologist (d. 2020) July 13 Alexandre Astruc, French film critic, director (d. 2016) Ashley Bryan, American writer and illustrator (d. 2022) Shmuel Laviv-Lubin, Israeli sports shooter Erich Lessing, Austrian photographer (d. 2018) Norma Zimmer, American singer (d. 2011) July 14 María Martín, Spanish actress Dale Robertson, American actor (d. 2013) July 15 – Francisco de Andrade, Portuguese competitive sailor, Olympic medalist July 16 Chris Argyris, American business theorist (d. 2013) Mari Evans, African-American poet (d. 2017) Giuseppe Madini, Italian professional football player (d. 1998) Len Okrie, American catcher (d. 2018) July 18 Jerome H. Lemelson, American inventor (d. 1997) Michael Medwin, English actor (d. 2020) July 19 Alex Hannum, American basketball player (d. 2002) Soini Nikkinen, Finnish javelin thrower (d. 2012) July 20 Stanisław Albinowski, Polish economist, journalist (d. 2005) Elisabeth Becker, German Nazi war criminal (d. 1946) James Bree, British actor (d. 2008) July 21 Walter Brenner, American professor (d. 2017) Rudolph A. Marcus, Canadian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate July 22 Anthony Enahoro, Nigerian politician (d. 2010) Mukesh, Indian singer (d. 1976) The Fabulous Moolah, American professional wrestler (d. 2007) July 23 Witto Aloma, Cuban Major League Baseball player (d. 1997) Morris Halle, Latvian-American linguist (d. 2018) July 24 – Albert Vanhoye, French cardinal (d. 2021) July 25 Estelle Getty, American actress (d. 2008) Leonardo Villar, Brazilian actor (d. 2020) July 28 – Ian McDonald, Australian cricketer (d. 2019) July 29 Edgar Cortright, American scientist, engineer (d. 2014) Jim Marshall, British founder of Marshall Amplification (d. 2012) July 31 Stephanie Kwolek, American chemist noted for inventing Kevlar (d. 2014) Jean-Jacques Moreau, French mathematician, mechanician (d. 2014) William Joseph Nealon Jr., American judge (d. 2018) Kent Rogers, American actor (d. 1944) August August 2 Shimon Peres, 8th Prime Minister of Israel, 9th President of Israel, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 2016) Charlie Wells, American crime novelist (d. 2004) Ike Williams, American boxer (d. 1994) August 3 Jean Hagen, American actress (d. 1977) Anne Klein, American fashion designer (d. 1974) Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria, Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria (d. 2012) August 4 Cornelia Groefsema Kennedy, American judge (d. 2014) Santiago Riveros, Argentine general August 5 Sir Michael Kerry, QC, British civil servant, Procurator General and Treasury Solicitor (d. 2012) Devan Nair, third President of Singapore (d. 2005) August 6 Paul Hellyer, Canadian engineer, politician (d. 2021) Moira Lister, Anglo-South African film, stage and television actress (d. 2007) Jack Parnell, English producer, bandleader and musician (d. 2010) August 8 Eve Miller, American actress (d. 1973) Latifa al-Zayyat, Egyptian activist, writer (d. 1996) August 9 – John Stephenson, American actor and voice actor (d. 2015) August 10 Iosif Fabian, Romanian football striker, coach (d. 2008) Rhonda Fleming, American actress (d. 2020) Fred Ridgway, English cricketer (d. 2015) David H. Rodgers, American politician (d. 2017) August 11 – Roy Roper, New Zealand rugby player August 12 – Carlo Smuraglia, Italian politician and partisan August 14 – Kuldip Nayar, Indian journalist, human rights activist and politician (d. 2018) August 15 – Rose Marie, American actress, comedian, and singer (d. 2017) August 16 – Millôr Fernandes, Brazilian cartoonist, playwright (d. 2012) August 17 – Carlos Cruz-Diez, Venezuelan artist (d. 2019) August 19 Esmeralda Agoglia, Argentinian ballerina (d. 2014) August 20 – Jim Reeves, American country singer (d. 1964) August 21 – Larry Grayson, English comedian, game show host (d. 1995) August 22 Guenter Lewy, German-born American author and political scientist Carolina Slim, American Piedmont blues singer, guitarist (d. 1953) August 23 Siti Hartinah, 2nd First Lady of Indonesia, wife of Suharto (d. 1996) Artturi Niemelä, Finnish homesteader and politician (d. 2021) Henry F. Warner, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1944) August 24 Eddie Deerfield, American government official Arthur Jensen, American educational psychologist (d. 2012) August 25 – Luis Abanto Morales, Peruvian singer, composer (d. 2017) August 26 – Wolfgang Sawallisch, German conductor, pianist (d. 2013) August 27 Inge Egger, Austrian actress (d. 1976) Hun Neang, father of Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen (d. 2013) August 28 – Andrea Veggio, Italian Roman Catholic bishop (d. 2020) August 29 Sir Richard Attenborough, English actor, film director (d. 2014) Marmaduke Hussey, Baron Hussey of North Bradley, chairman of the BBC (d. 2006) August 30 Joseph Lawson Howze, American Roman Catholic bishop (d. 2019) Giacomo Rondinella, Italian singer, actor (d. 2015) Vic Seixas, American tennis player September September 1 Rocky Marciano, American boxer (d. 1969) Kenneth Thomson, Canadian businessman, art collector (d. 2006) September 2 – Ramón Valdés, Mexican actor, comedian, songwriter and entrepreneur (d. 1988) September 3 Glen Bell, American entrepreneur, founder of Taco Bell (d. 2010) Mort Walker, American cartoonist, creator of Beetle Bailey (d. 2018) September 4 Mirko Ellis, Swiss-Italian actor (d. 2014) Ram Kishore Shukla, Indian politician (d. 2003) Mushtaq Ahmad Yusufi, Pakistani banker, writer and humorist (d. 2018) September 6 Eloy Tato Losada, Spanish Roman Catholic bishop (d. 2022) King Peter II of Yugoslavia (d. 1970) September 7 Madeleine Dring, British composer, actress (d. 1977) Peter Lawford, English actor (d. 1984) Bill Nankivell, Australian politician September 8 – Joy Laville, English-Mexican sculptor, potter and painter (d. 2018) September 9 Daniel Carleton Gajdusek, American virologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2008) Cliff Robertson, American actor (d. 2011) Charles Grier Sellers, American historian (d. 2021) September 10 Uri Avnery, Israeli writer (d. 2018) Joe Wallach, American businessman September 11 – Vasilije Mokranjac, Serbian composer (d. 1984) September 12 – Joe Shulman, American jazz bassist (d. 1957) September 13 Natália Correia, Portuguese writer, poet and social activist (d. 1993) U. L. Gooch, American politician (d. 2021) Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya, Soviet partisan (d. 1941) September 14 – Carl-Erik Asplund, Swedish speed skater September 16 – Lee Kuan Yew, Prime Minister of Singapore (d. 2015) September 17 David Oreck, American entrepreneur Hank Williams, American country musician (d. 1953) September 18 Queen Anne of Romania, born Princess Anne of Bourbon-Parma, French-born queen consort (d. 2016) Al Quie, American politician September 20 – Geraldine Clinton Little, Northern Ireland-born poet (d. 1997) September 21 Linwood Holton, American politician (d. 2021) Luba Skořepová, Czech actress (d. 2016) September 22 – Dannie Abse, Welsh poet (d. 2014) September 23 Basil Feldman, Baron Feldman, English politician (d. 2019) Jimmy Weldon, American voice actor and ventriloquist Samuel V. Wilson, American army general (d. 2017) September 24 Mervyn Brown, English diplomat and historian Fats Navarro, American jazz trumpet player (d. 1950) Li Yuan-tsu, Taiwanese politician (d. 2017) September 26 Aleksandr Alov, Soviet film director, screenwriter (d. 1983) Dev Anand, Indian actor, film producer, writer and director (d. 2011) James Hennessy, English businessman and diplomat September 27 James Condon, Australian actor (d. 2014) George Dickson, American football player (d. 2020) September 28 – Giuseppe Casale, Italian Roman Catholic bishop September 29 – Nicholas Amer, English actor (d. 2019) September 30 – Donald Swann, Welsh musician and composer (d. 1994) October October 1 – Babe McCarthy, American professional and collegiate basketball coach (d. 1975) October 2 Abdullah CD, Malaysian politician Shih Chun-jen, Taiwanese neurosurgeon (d. 2017) Absalón Castellanos Domínguez, Mexican politician (d. 2017) Eugenio Cruz Vargas, Chilean poet, painter (d. 2014) Hershel W. Williams, American Medal of Honour recipient October 3 Edward Oliver LeBlanc, Dominican politician (d. 2004) Stanisław Skrowaczewski, Polish-born orchestral conductor (d. 2017) October 4 – Charlton Heston, American actor (The Ten Commandments) (d. 2008) October 5 Albert Guðmundsson, Icelandic football player, politician (d. 1994) Glynis Johns, South African-born Welsh actress Ricardo Lavié, Argentine actor (d. 2010) October 6 Yasar Kemal, Turkish writer (d. 2015) Robert Kuok, Malaysian-Chinese business magnate, investor Yakov Neishtadt, Russian-born Israeli chess player Emmett Hulcy Tidd, American military officer (d. 2018) October 7 – Irma Grese, German Nazi concentration camp guard, war criminal (executed 1945) October 9 – Haim Gouri, Israeli poet (d. 2018) October 10 James "Jabby" Jabara, American aviator, first American jet fighter ace (d. 1966) Asri Muda, Malaysian politician (d. 1992) Nicholas Parsons, English television and radio presenter (d. 2020) Murray Walker, British motor racing commentator (d. 2021) October 13 Harry Pregerson, American federal judge (d. 2017) Faas Wilkes, Dutch football (soccer) player (d. 2006) October 15 – Italo Calvino, Italian writer (d. 1985) October 16 – Linda Darnell, American actress (d. 1965) October 17 Henryk Gulbinowicz, Polish cardinal (d. 2020) Charles McClendon, American Hall of Fame college football coach (d. 2001) October 19 – Beatrix Hamburg, American psychiatrist (d. 2018) October 20 Marc Clark, English-born Australian sculptor (d. 2021) Otfried Preußler, German children's books author (d. 2013) October 23 Ned Rorem, American composer and author Frank Sutton, American actor (d. 1974) October 24 Sir Robin Day, British political broadcaster (d. 2000) Denise Levertov, British-born American poet (d. 1997) October 25 J. Esmonde Barry, Canadian healthcare activist, political commentator (d. 2007) Achille Silvestrini, Italian cardinal (d. 2019) October 27 – Roy Lichtenstein, American pop artist (d. 1997) October 29 Vincent Cyril Richard Arthur Charles Crabbe, Ghanaian judge (d. 2018) Carl Djerassi, American chemist (d. 2015) Gerda van der Kade-Koudijs, Dutch athlete (d. 2015) November November 1 Victoria de los Ángeles, Catalan soprano (d. 2005) Gordon R. Dickson, Canadian author (d. 2001) James Ramsden, English politician (d. 2020) Imre Varga, Hungarian sculptor (d. 2019) November 2 Henry Moore, English bishop Cesare Rubini, Italian basketball player, coach (d. 2011) November 3 Garnett Thomas Eisele, American district court judge (d. 2017) Violetta Elvin, née Prokhorova, Russian-born ballerina (d. 2021) Charles Nolte, American actor, director, playwright and educator (d. 2010) Tomás Cardinal Ó Fiaich, Irish Roman Catholic prelate (d. 1990) Giovanni Battista Urbani, Italian politician (d. 2018) November 4 John Herbers, American journalist, author, editor, World War II veteran and Pulitzer Prize finalist (d. 2017) Howie Meeker, Canadian ice hockey player and politician (d. 2020) November 5 Rudolf Augstein, German journalist, founder and part-owner of magazine Der Spiegel (d. 2002) Kay Lionikas, Greek-American female baseball player (d. 1978) November 8 Yisrael Friedman, Romanian-born Israeli rabbi (d. 2017) Józef Hen, Polish writer Jack Kilby, American electrical engineer, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics (d. 2005) Jaroslav Šír, Czechoslovak soldier and skier November 9 – Elizabeth Hawley, American journalist (d. 2018) November 11 Victor Brombert, American professor P. K. van der Byl, Rhodesian politician (d. 1999) William P. Murphy Jr., American medical doctor and inventor November 12 – Loriot, German actor (d. 2011) November 13 – Linda Christian, Mexican film actress (d. 2011) November 14 Misael Pastrana Borrero, 23rd President of Colombia (d. 1997) Cleyde Yáconis, Brazilian actress (d. 2013) November 15 Michael Lapage, English rower (d. 2018) Fred Richmond, American politician (d. 2019) November 17 Louis Danziger, American graphic designer and educator Aristides Pereira, President of Cape Verde (d. 2011) November 18 Alan Shepard, first American astronaut, fifth person to walk on the moon (d. 1998) Ted Stevens, American politician (d. 2010) November 19 – Robert Harlow, Canadian writer and academic November 20 – Nadine Gordimer, South African fiction writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2014) November 22 Tu An, Chinese poet, translator (d. 2017) Arthur Hiller, Canadian film director (d. 2016) November 23 Betty Brewer, American actress (d. 2006) Billy Haughton, American harness driver, trainer (d. 1986) Eric Heath, New Zealand artist and illustrator Keiju Kobayashi, Japanese actor (d. 2010) Julien J. LeBourgeois, American vice admiral (d. 2012) Gloria Whelan, American poet, short story writer and novelist November 24 – Octavio Lepage, Venezuelan politician, Acting President of Venezuela (d. 2017) November 25 – Mauno Koivisto, 2-Time Prime Minister of Finland and 9th President of Finland (d. 2017) November 26 Tom Hughes, Australian politician and barrister Pat Phoenix, English actress (d. 1986) November 28 Gloria Grahame, American actress (d. 1981) James Karen, American actor (d. 2018) December December 1 Maurice De Bevere, beter known as Morris, Belgian cartoonist, comics artist and illustrator (d. 2001) William F. House, American otologist, inventor of the Cochlear implant (d. 2012) Dick Shawn, American actor (d. 1987) Stansfield Turner, American admiral, Director of Central Intelligence (d. 2018) December 2 – Maria Callas, Greek soprano (d. 1977) December 3 Dede Allen, American film editor (Bonnie and Clyde) (d. 2010) Stjepan Bobek, Yugoslav football player (d. 2010) Moyra Fraser, British actress (d. 2009) Abe Pollin, American sports owner (d. 2009) December 4 Vincent Ball, Australian actor Simon Bland, English soldier and courtier December 5 Eleanor Dapkus, American female professional baseball player (d. 2011) Johnny Pate, American jazz musician Philip Slier, Dutch Jewish typesetter (d. 1943) December 6 Emile Hemmen, Luxembourg poet and writer (d. 2021) Maury Laws, American composer (d. 2019) Bryan Thwaites, English mathematician, educationalist and administrator December 7 – Ted Knight, American actor (d. 1986) December 8 Dewey Martin, American actor (d. 2018) Rudolph Pariser, American physicist and polymer chemist December 10 – Harold Gould, American character actor (d. 2010) December 11 Betsy Blair, American film actress (d. 2009) Denis Brian, Welsh journalist and author Farhang Mehr, Iranian-born American Zoroastrian scholar, writer (d. 2018) December 12 Bob Barker, American game show host (The Price Is Right) Bob Dorough, American pianist and composer (d. 2018) Ken Kavanagh, Australian motorcycle racer (d. 2019) December 13 Philip Warren Anderson, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2020) Larry Doby, African-American baseball player (d. 2003) Alfonso Osorio, Spanish politician (d. 2018) Antoni Tàpies, Catalan painter (d. 2012) December 14 Sully Boyar, American actor (d. 2001) Gerard Reve, Dutch writer (d. 2006) December 15 Freeman Dyson, English-born physicist (d. 2020) Aishah Ghani, Malaysian politician (d. 2013) Viktor Shuvalov, Soviet ice hockey player (d. 2021) December 16 Jo-Carroll Dennison, American actress, Miss America (d. 2021) Menahem Pressler, German-American pianist December 17 Robert William Bradford, Canadian artist Jaroslav Pelikan, American historian (d. 2006) December 18 Edwin Bramall, senior British Army officer (d. 2019) Émile Knecht, Swiss Olympic rower (d. 2019) December 19 – Gordon Jackson, Scottish actor (d. 1990) December 20 – Ambalavaner Sivanandan, Sri Lankan novelist (d. 2018) December 21 – Wataru Misaka, American baseball player (d. 2019) December 22 – Peregrine Worsthorne, English journalist, writer and broadcaster (d. 2020) December 23 Dave Bolen, American athlete and ambassador José Serra Gil, Spanish racing cyclist (d. 2002) Ivan Martynushkin, Soviet liberator of Auschwitz concentration camp TL Osborn, American televangelist, singer and author (d. 2013) James Stockdale, U.S. Navy admiral, vice presidential candidate (d. 2005) Earl P. Yates, American admiral (d. 2021) December 24 George Patton IV, American general (d. 2004) Simon Perchik, American poet December 25 Luis Álamos, Chilean football manager (d. 1983) René Girard, French-American historian (d. 2015) Sonya Olschanezky, World War II heroine (d. 1944) Satyananda Saraswati, Indian founder of Satyananda Yoga and Bihar Yoga (d. 2009) Billy Watson, American child actor Jack Zunz, South African-English engineer (d. 2018) December 26 Richard Artschwager, American painter, illustrator and sculptor (d. 2013) Dick Teague, American industrial designer (d. 1991) December 27 – Lucas Mangope, President of Bophuthatswana Bantustan (d. 2018) December 28 – Louis Lansana Beavogui, Guinean politician (d. 1984) December 29 Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat, French mathematician and physicist Cheikh Anta Diop, Senegalese historian, anthropologist, physicist and politician (d. 1986) Lily Ebert, Hungarian-born English Holocaust survivor Dina Merrill, American actress, heiress, socialite and philanthropist (d. 2017) Mike Nussbaum, American actor and director December 31 – Balbir Singh Sr., Indian hockey player (d. 2020) Deaths January January 1 – Willie Keeler, American baseball player, MLB Hall of Famer (b. 1872) January 2 Thomas Bavister, British-born Australian (b. 1850) Girolamo Caruso, Italian agronomist, teacher (b. 1842) January 3 – Jaroslav Hašek, Czech writer (b. 1883) January 8 – Shimamura Hayao, Japanese admiral (b. 1858) January 9 Katherine Mansfield, British novelist (b. 1888) Edith Thompson and Frederick Bywaters, British couple hanged for murder (Thompson b. 1893, Bywaters b. 1902) January 11 – Constantine I, former king of Greece (b. 1868) January 12 – Herbert Silberer, Austrian psychoanalyst (b. 1882) January 13 – Alexandre Ribot, French statesman, 46th Prime Minister of France (b. 1842) January 16 – Abdul Kerim Pasha, Ottoman general (b. 1872) January 18 – Wallace Reid, American actor (b. 1891) January 19 – Amalia Eriksson, Swedish businesswoman (b. 1824) January 23 – Max Nordau, Hungarian author, philosopher and Zionist leader (b. 1849) January 27 – Carolina Santocanale, Italian Roman Catholic nun and blessed (b. 1852) January 30 – Columba Marmion, Irish Benedictine and Roman Catholic monk and blessed (b. 1858) January 31 – Eligiusz Niewiadomski, Polish artist, political activist and assassin (executed) (b. 1869) February February 1 Ernst Troeltsch, German theologian (b. 1865) Luigi Variara, Italian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1875) February 3 – Count Kuroki Tamemoto, Japanese general (b. 1844) February 4 Giuseppe Antonio Ermenegildo Prisco, Italian Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1833) Prince Fushimi Sadanaru of Japan (b. 1858) February 5 – Count Erich Kielmansegg, former Prime Minister of Austria (b. 1847) February 6 Edward Emerson Barnard, American astronomer (b. 1857) Gerdt von Bassewitz, Prussian general, playwright and actor (b. 1878) February 8 – Bernard Bosanquet, English philosopher and political theorist (b. 1848) February 10 – Wilhelm Röntgen, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1845) February 14 – Bartolomeo Bacilieri, Italian Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1842) February 19 – Gerónimo Giménez, Spanish conductor, composer (b. 1854) February 21 – Prince Miguel, Duke of Viseu (b. 1878) February 22 Théophile Delcassé, French statesman (b. 1852) Princess Marie Elisabeth of Saxe-Meiningen (b. 1853) February 24 – Edward W. Morley, American physicist, chemist (b. 1838) February 26 – Walter B. Barrows, American naturalist (b. 1855) March March 1 – Rui Barbosa, Brazilian polymath, diplomat, writer, jurist and politician (b. 1849) William Bourke Cockran, Irish-American congressman and politician (b. 1854) March 3 – Melancthon J. Briggs, American lawyer, politician (b. 1846) March 6 – Joseph McDermott, American actor (b. 1878) March 8 Pascual Álvarez, Filipino general (b. 1861) Johannes Diderik van der Waals, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1837) March 11 – Júlia da Silva Bruhns, Brazilian merchant (b. 1851) March 15 – Goat Anderson, American baseball player (b. 1880) March 16 – George Bean, English cricketer (b. 1864) March 20 – Józef Bilczewski, Polish Roman Catholic prelate, saint (b. 1860) March 25 – Inokuchi Ariya, Japanese technologist, professor (b. 1856) March 26 – Sarah Bernhardt, French actress (b. 1844) March 27 – Sir James Dewar, British chemist (b. 1842) March 28 – Michel-Joseph Maunoury, French general (b. 1847) March 31 – Konstantin Budkevich, Soviet Roman Catholic priest and servant of God (executed) (b. 1867) April April 1 – Prince Naruhisa Kitashirakawa of Japan (b. 1887) April 4 Julius Martov, Russian Menshevik leader (b. 1873) John Venn, British mathematician (b. 1834) April 5 – George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, British financier of Egyptian excavations (b. 1866) April 6 – Alice Cunningham Fletcher, American ethnologist and anthropologist (b. 1838) April 15 – Ascensión Esquivel Ibarra, 17th President of Costa Rica (b. 1844) April 16 – Isidore Jacques Eggermont, Belgian diplomat (b. 1844) April 17 – Madre Teresa Nuzzo, Maltese Roman Catholic nun and blessed (b. 1851) April 18 – Savina Petrilli, Italian Roman Catholic religious professed and blessed (b. 1851) April 22 – Frank Baldwin, American general (b. 1842) April 23 Mary Cynthia Dickerson, American herpetologist (b. 1866) Princess Louise of Prussia (b. 1838) April 24 – William Ernest, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (b. 1876) May May 2 – Alfred Harding, American Episcopal bishop (b. 1852) May 5 – Rosario de Acuña, Spanish author (b. 1850) May 9 – Constantin Cristescu, Romanian general (b. 1866) May 10 – Charles de Freycinet, French statesman, Prime Minister of France (b. 1828) May 17 Manuel Allendesalazar y Muñoz de Salazar, Spanish nobleman, politician, and Prime Minister of Spain (b. 1856) Thomas Scott Baldwin, American balloonist, general (b. 1854) Duke Paul Frederick of Mecklenburg (b. 1852) May 21 Hans Goldschmidt, German chemist (b. 1861) Charles Kent, British actor (b. 1852) May 23 – Nicola Barbato, Italian doctor, socialist and politician (b. 1856) May 29 – Albert Deullin, French flying ace of World War I (b. 1890) June June 4 Alexander Milne Calder, Scottish-born American sculptor (b. 1846) Filippo Smaldone, Italian Roman Catholic priest, saint (b. 1848) June 5 – Carl von Horn, German general (b. 1847) June 9 Takeo Arishima, Japanese novelist, writer and essayist (b. 1878) Princess Helena of the United Kingdom, third daughter of Queen Victoria (b. 1846) June 10 – Pierre Loti, French writer, naval officer (b. 1850) June 12 – Kate Bishop, English actress (b. 1848) June 14 Isabelle Bogelot, French philanthropist (b. 1838) Aleksandar Stamboliyski, 20th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (assassinated) (b. 1879) June 17 – Alexis-Xyste Bernard, Canadian Catholic bishop (b. 1847) June 18 – Hristo Smirnenski, Bulgarian poet (b. 1898) June 20 – Princess Marie of Battenberg (b. 1852) June 23 – Keiichi Aichi, Japanese physicist (b. 1880) June 24 – Edith Södergran, Finnish author (b. 1892) July July 9 – William R. Day, American lawyer and diplomat, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (b. 1849) July 10 – Albert Chevalier, British music hall comedian (b. 1861) July 12 – Ernst Otto Beckmann, German pharmacist, chemist (b. 1853) July 15 – Janey Sevilla Callander, British producer (b. 1846) July 17 – Theodor Rosetti, 16th Prime Minister of Romania (b. 1837) July 19 – Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, French historian (b. 1842) July 20 – Pancho Villa, Mexican revolutionary (assassinated) (b. 1878) July 23 – Charles Dupuy, French statesman, Prime Minister of France (b. 1851) July 30 – Sir Charles Hawtrey, British actor (b. 1858) August August 1 – Pierre Brizon, French teacher, deputy and pacifist (b. 1878) August 2 – Warren G. Harding, American politician, 29th President of the United States (b. 1865) August 5 – Vatroslav Jagić, Croatian scholar (b. 1838) August 9 – Victor II, Duke of Ratibor (b. 1847) August 10 – Joaquín Sorolla, Spanish painter (b. 1863) August 19 – Vilfredo Pareto, Italian economist (b. 1848) August 21 – Sir William Meredith, Canadian politician and judge (b. 1840) August 23 Ernest Francis Bashford, British oncologist (b. 1873) Henry C. Mustin, American naval aviation pioneer (b. 1874) August 24 Katō Tomosaburō, Imperial Japanese Navy officer, 12th Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1861) Kate Douglas Wiggin, American author (b. 1856) August 26 – Hertha Ayrton, English engineer, mathematician and inventor (b. 1854) August 27 – Edward Hill, American painter (b. 1843) August 29 – Princess Anastasia of Greece and Denmark (b. 1878) September September 6 – Pedro José Escalón, Salvadorian military officer, 21st President of El Salvador (b. 1847) September 9 – Hermes Rodrigues da Fonseca, Brazilian soldier and politician, 8th President of Brazil (b. 1855) September 14 – Nemesio Canales, Puerto Rican essayist, novelist, playwright, journalist, activist and politician (b. 1878) September 17 – Stefanos Dragoumis, Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1842) September 19 – Sophus Andersen, Danish composer (b. 1859) September 23 Antonio Francisco Xavier Alvares, Indian Orthodox priest and saint (b. 1836) Carl L. Boeckmann, Norwegian-born American artist (b. 1867) John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn, British politician, editor (b. 1838) September 25 – Elbazduko Britayev, Russian playwright, author (b. 1881) September 26 – Luigi Tezza, Italian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1841) October October 3 - Kadambini Ganguly, doctor (b. 1861) October 6 – Damat Ferid Pasha, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire October 10 Herman Gottfried Breijer, Dutch-born South African naturalist, museologist (b. 1864) Andrés Avelino Cáceres, Peruvian general, 3-time President of Peru (b. 1836) October 12 – Diego Manuel Chamorro, 14th President of Nicaragua (b. 1861) October 23 Hannah Johnston Bailey, American temperance advocate, suffragist (b. 1839) Félix Fourdrain, French organist, composer (b. 1880) October 26 – Charles Proteus Steinmetz, German-American engineer and electrician (b. 1865) October 28 Stojan Protić, Yugoslav statesman and writer, 1st Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (b. 1857) Theodor Reuss, German occultist (b. 1855) October 30 – Bonar Law, British politician, 52nd Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1858) November November 9 (among those killed in Munich Beer Hall Putsch): Oskar Körner, German businessman (b. 1875) Karl Laforce, German student (b. 1904) Ludwig Maximilian Erwin von Scheubner-Richter, German diplomat, revolutionary (b. 1884) November 10 – Ricciotto Canudo, Italian theoretician (b. 1877) November 14 – Ernest Augustus, Crown Prince of Hanover (b. 1845) November 15 – Mohammad Yaqub Khan, Emir of Afghanistan (b. 1849) November 21 – Lars Emil Bruun, Danish grocer, numismatist (b. 1852) November 26 – Otani Kikuzo, Japanese general (b. 1856) November 30 – Martha Mansfield, American actress (b. 1899) December December 2 – Tomás Bretón, Spanish composer (b. 1850) December 4 – Maurice Barres, French novelist, journalist and politician (b. 1862) December 9 – Meggie Albanesi, British actress (b. 1899) December 10 – Thomas George Bonney, English geologist (b. 1833) December 11 – Kata Dalström, Swedish politician (b. 1858) December 13 – Théophile Steinlen, Swiss painter (b. 1859) December 14 – Giuseppe Gallignani, Italian composer, conductor and teacher (b. 1851) December 22 – Georg Luger, German firearms designer (b. 1849) December 25 – William Ludwig, Irish opera singer (b. 1847) December 26 – Rafael Valentín Errázuriz, Chilean politician, diplomat (b. 1861) December 27 Gustave Eiffel, French engineer, architect (Eiffel Tower) (b. 1832) Lluís Domènech i Montaner, Spanish architect (b. 1850) December 28 – Frank Hayes, American actor (b. 1871) Nobel Prizes Physics – Robert Andrews Millikan Chemistry – Fritz Pregl Physiology or Medicine – Frederick Grant Banting, John James Rickard Macleod Literature – William Butler Yeats References

35015

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1853

1853

Events January–March January 6 – Florida Governor Thomas Brown signs legislation that provides public support for the new East Florida Seminary, leading to the establishment of the University of Florida. January 8 – Taiping Rebellion: Zeng Guofan is ordered to assist the governor of Hunan, in organising a militia force to search for local bandits. January 12 – Taiping Rebellion: The Taiping army occupies Wuchang. January 19 – Giuseppe Verdi's opera Il Trovatore premieres, in performance at Teatro Apollo in Rome. February 10 – Taiping Rebellion: Taiping forces assemble at Hanyang, Hankou and Wuchang, for the march on Nanjing. February 12 – The city of Puerto Montt is founded in the Reloncaví Sound, Chile. February 22 – Washington University in St. Louis is founded as Eliot Seminary. March – The clothing company Levi Strauss & Co. is founded in the United States. March 4 – Inauguration of Franklin Pierce as 14th President of the United States (his only child was killed in a train accident on January 6). March 5 – Saint Paul Fire and Marine, as predecessor of The Travelers Companies, a worldwide insurance service, founded in Minnesota, United States. March 20 – Taiping Rebellion: A rebel army of around 750,000 seizes Nanjing, killing 30,000 Imperial troops. March 29 – Manchester is granted city status in the United Kingdom. April–June April 16 – Indian Railways: The first passenger railway in India opens from Bombay to Thana, Maharashtra, . May The world's first public aquarium opens, at the London Zoo. An outbreak of yellow fever kills 7,790 in New Orleans. Isambard Kingdom Brunel accepts John Scott Russell's tender for construction of the passenger steamer. May 12–October 31 – The Great Industrial Exhibition is held in Dublin, Ireland. May 23 – The first plat for Seattle, Washington is laid out. June 27 – Taiping Rebellion: The Northern Expeditionary Force crosses the Yellow River. June 30 – Georges-Eugène Haussmann is selected as préfect of the Seine (department), to begin the re-planning of Paris. July–September July 1 - The Swiss watch company Tissot is founded. July 8 – U.S. Commodore Matthew C. Perry arrives in Edo Bay, Japan, with a request for a trade treaty. July 25 – Outlaw and bandit Joaquin Murrieta is killed in California. July 27 – Iesada succeeds his father Ieyoshi, as Japanese shōgun. The Late Tokugawa shogunate (the last part of the Edo period in Japan) begins. August 12 – New Zealand acquires self-government. August 23 – The first true International Meteorological Organization is established in Brussels, Belgium. August 24 The Royal Norwegian Navy Museum is founded at Karljohansvern in Horten, perhaps the world's first naval museum. Potato chips are first prepared, by George Crum at Saratoga Springs, New York, according to popular accounts. September 19 – Hudson Taylor first leaves for China. September 20 – Otis Elevator, as predecessor of Otis Worldwide was founded in United States. October–December October 1 – C. Bechstein's piano factory is founded, one of three established in a "Golden year" in the history of the piano (Julius Blüthner and Steinway & Sons being the others). October 4–5 – Crimean War: The Ottoman Empire begins war with Russia. October 4 – On the east coast of the United States, Donald McKay launches the Great Republic, the world's biggest sailing ship, which at 4,500 tons is too large to be successful. October 28 – Crimean War: The Ottoman army crosses the Danube into Vidin/Calafat, Wallachia. October 30 – Taiping Rebellion: The Taiping Northern Expeditionary Force comes within of Tianjin. November 3 – Troops of William Walker capture La Paz in Baja California Territory, and declare the (short-lived) Republic of Lower California. November 4 – Crimean War: Battle of Oltenitza – Turkish forces defeat the Russians. November 15 – Maria II of Portugal is succeeded by her son Pedro V. November 30 (November 18 O.S.) – Crimean War: Battle of Sinop – The Russian fleet destroys the Turkish fleet. December 6 – Taiping Rebellion: French minister de Bourboulon arrives at the Heavenly Capital, aboard the Cassini. December 14 – Compagnie Générale des Eaux, predecessor of Vivendi and Veolia, a global media conglomerate, is founded in Paris, France. December 30 – Gadsden Purchase: The United States buys approximately of land from Mexico, to facilitate railroad building in the Southwest. Date unknown The Independent Santa Cruz Maya of Eastern Yucatán is recognized as an independent nation, by the British Empire. Arthur de Gobineau begins publication of his An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines). Charles Pravaz and Alexander Wood independently invent a practical hypodermic syringe. Wheaton Academy is founded in West Chicago, Illinois. The Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China is incorporated in London by Scotsman James Wilson, under a Royal Charter from Queen Victoria. Ishikawajima Shipyard, as predecessor of IHI Corporation, a shipyard and transport-related machinery manufacturer in Japan, is founded. Melbourne Cricket Ground, now the largest sports stadium in the Southern Hemisphere, officially opens. 1853–1873 – More than 130,000 Chinese laborers come to Cuba. Births January–June January 1 – Karl von Einem, German general (d. 1934) January 16 Johnston Forbes-Robertson, English actor (d. 1937) Sir Ian Hamilton, British general (d. 1947) January 28 José Martí, Cuban revolutionary (d. 1895) Vladimir Solovyov, Russian philosopher (d. 1900) January 29 – Kitasato Shibasaburō, Japanese physician, bacteriologist (d. 1931) February 4 – Kaneko Kentarō, Japanese politician, diplomat (d. 1942) February 18 – Ernest Fenollosa, Catalan-American philosopher (d. 1908) February 22 – Annie Le Porte Diggs, Canadian-born state librarian of Kansas (d. 1916) March 2 – Ella Loraine Dorsey, American author, journalist, and translator (d. 1935) March 5 – Howard Pyle, American artist, fiction writer (d. 1911) March 10 – Thomas Mackenzie, 18th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1930) March 13 – Robert William Felkin, British writer (d. 1926) March 14 – Ferdinand Hodler, Swiss painter (d. 1918) March 25 – Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, 5th Qajarid Shah of Persia (d. 1907) March 27 – Yakov Zhilinsky, Russian general (d. 1918) March 29 – Elihu Thomson, English-American engineer, inventor, co-founder of General Electric (d. 1937) March 30 – Vincent van Gogh, Dutch painter (d. 1890) April 6 – Emil Jellinek, German automobile entrepreneur (d. 1918) April 7 Ella Eaton Kellogg, American pioneer in dietetics (d. 1920) Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (d. 1884) April 22 – Alphonse Bertillon, French police officer, forensic scientist (d. 1914) April 30 – Alexey Abaza, Russian admiral and politician (d. 1917) May 4 – Marie Robinson Wright, American travel writer (d. 1914) May 20 Ella Hoag Brockway Avann, American educator (d. 1899) Vladimir Viktorovich Sakharov, Russian general (d. 1920) May 28 – Carl Larsson, Swedish painter (d. 1919) June 3 – William Flinders Petrie, English Egyptologist (d. 1942) June 12 – Chester Adgate Congdon, American mining magnate (d. 1916) July–December July 4 – Ernst Otto Beckmann, German chemist (d. 1923) July 5 – Cecil Rhodes, English businessman (d. 1902) July 10 – Percy Scott, British admiral (d. 1924) July 18 – Hendrik Lorentz, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1928) July 24 – William Gillette, American actor, playwright and stage-manager (d. 1937) July 26 – Philip Cowen, American Jewish publisher and author (d. 1943) July 29 – Ioan Culcer, Romanian general and politician (d. 1928) August 23 – João Marques de Oliveira, Portuguese painter (d. 1927) August 28 Vladimir Shukhov, Russian engineer, polymath, scientist and architect (d. 1939) Franz I, Prince of Liechtenstein (d. 1938) September 1 – Aleksei Brusilov, Russian general (d. 1926) September 2 – Wilhelm Ostwald, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1932) September 6 – Katherine Eleanor Conway, American journalist, editor, poet, and Laetare Medalist (d. 1927) September 16 – Albrecht Kossel, German physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1927) September 20 – Chulalongkorn, Rama V, King of Siam (d. 1910) September 21 – Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1926) September 23 – Fritz von Below, German general (d. 1918) October 4 – Jane Maria Read, American poet and teacher (unknown year of death) October 13 – Lillie Langtry, English stage actress (d. 1929) October 14 – John William Kendrick, American railroad executive (d. 1924) October 17 – Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, wife of Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh (d. 1920) October 26 – Tokugawa Akitake, Japanese daimyō, the last lord of Mito Domain, younger brother of the last shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu (d. 1910) October 30 – Louise Abbéma, French painter, sculptor, and designer of the Belle Époque (d. 1927) November 9 – Stanford White, American architect (d. 1906) November 13 – John Drew, Jr., American stage actor (d. 1927) November 20 – Oskar Potiorek, Austro-Hungarian general (d. 1933) November 29 – Panagiotis Danglis, Greek general, politician (d. 1924) December 6 – Hara Prasad Shastri, Indian academic, Sanskrit scholar, archivist and historian of Bengali literature (d. 1931) December 14 – Errico Malatesta, Italian anarchist (d. 1932) December 17 – Émile Roux, French physician, bacteriologist and immunologist (d. 1933) December 21 – Noda Utarō, Japanese entrepreneur and politician (d. 1927) December 22 Sarada Devi, Indian mystic and saint (d. 1920) Teresa Carreño, Venezuelan pianist, singer, composer, and conductor (d. 1917) December 23 – William Henry Moody, 35th United States Secretary of the Navy, 45th United States Attorney General, and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (d. 1917) December 31 – Tasker H. Bliss, American general (d. 1930) Date unknown William O'Malley, Irish politician (d. 1939) Deaths January–June January 8 – Mihály Bertalanits, Slovene (Prekmurje Slovene) poet in the Kingdom of Hungary (b. 1788) January 16 Matteo Carcassi, Italian composer (b. 1792) Archduke Rainer Joseph of Austria, Archduke of Austria, Prince Royal of Hungary and Bohemia (b. 1783) Robert Lucas, governor of Ohio, United States (b. 1781) January 19 – Karl Faber, German historian (b. 1773) January 22 – Méry von Bruiningk, Estonian democrat (b. 1818) February 4 – Princess Maria Amélia of Brazil, daughter of Emperor Pedro I of Brazil (b. 1831) February 6 – Anastasio Bustamante, 4th President of Mexico (b. 1780) February 15 – August, Prince of Hohenlohe-Öhringen (b. 1784) March 17 – Christian Doppler, Austrian mathematician (b. 1803) March 30 – Abigail Fillmore, First Lady of the United States (b. 1798) April 18 – William R. King, 13th Vice President of the United States (b. 1786) April 28 – Ludwig Tieck, German writer (b. 1773) May 18 – Lionel Kieseritzky, Baltic-German chess player (b. 1806) June 2 Lucas Alamán, Mexican statesman, historian (b. 1792) Henry Trevor, 21st Baron Dacre, British peer, soldier (b. 1777) June 7 – Giuseppina Ronzi de Begnis, Italian opera singer (b. 1800) June 8 – Howard Vyse, English soldier and Egyptologist (b. 1784) July–December July 27 – Tokugawa Ieyoshi, 12th shōgun of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan (b. 1793) August 9 – Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński, Polish philosopher (b. 1776) August 19 – George Cockburn, British naval commander (b. 1772) August 21 - Maria Quitéria, Brazilian national heroine (b. 1792) August 23 – Alexander Calder, first mayor of Beaumont, Texas (b. 1806) August 29 – Charles James Napier, British army general and colonial administrator (b. 1782) September 3 – Augustin Saint-Hilaire, French botanist, traveller (b. 1799) September 6 – George Bradshaw, English timetable publisher (b. 1800) October 2 – François Arago, French Catalan mathematician, physicist, astronomer and politician (b. 1786) October 3 – George Onslow, French composer (b. 1784) October 5 – Mahlon Dickerson, American judge, politician (b. 1770) October 13 – Jan Cock Blomhoff, Dutch director of Dejima, Japan (b. 1779) October 22 – Juan Antonio Lavalleja, Uruguayan military, political figure (b. 1784) October 27 – Maria White Lowell, American abolitionist (b. 1821) November 15 – Queen Maria II of Portugal (b. 1819) December 15 – Georg Friedrich Grotefend, German epigraphist, philologist (b. 1775) December 23 – Juliette Bussière Laforest-Courtois, Haitian journalist (b. 1789) Date unknown Meta Forkel-Liebeskind, German writer and scholar (b. 1765) Qiu Ersao, Chinese rebel and military commander (b. 1822) References

35809

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1750

1750

Various sources, including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, use the year 1750 as a baseline year for the end of the pre-industrial era. Events January–March January 13 – The Treaty of Madrid between Spain and Portugal authorizes a larger Brazil than had the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, which originally established the boundaries of the Portuguese and Spanish territories in South America. January 24 – A fire in Istanbul destroys 10,000 homes. February 15 – After Spain and Portugal agree that the Uruguay River will be the boundary line between the two kingdoms' territory in South America, the Spanish Governor orders the Jesuits to vacate seven Indian missions along the river (San Angel, San Nicolas, San Luis, San Lorenzo, San Miguel, San Juan and San Borja). March 5 – The Murray-Kean Company, a troupe of actors from Philadelphia, gives the first performance of a play announced in advance in a newspaper, presenting Richard III at New York City's Nassau Street Theatre. March 20 – The first number of Samuel Johnson's The Rambler appears. April–June April 13 – Dr. Thomas Walker and five other men (Ambrose Powell, Colby Chew, William Tomlinson, Henry Lawless and John Hughes) cross through the Cumberland Gap, a mountain pass through the Appalachian Mountains, to become the first white people to venture into territories that had been inhabited exclusively by various Indian tribes. On April 17, Walker's party continues through what is now Kentucky and locates the Cumberland River, which Walker names in honor of Prince William, Duke of Cumberland. April 14 A group of West African slaves, bound for America, successfully overpowers the British crew of the slave ship Snow Ann, imprisons the survivors, and then navigates the ship back to Cape Lopez in Gabon. Upon regaining their freedom, the rebels leave the survivors on the Gabonese coast. The Viceroy of New Spain, Juan Francisco de Güemes, issues a notice to the missionaries in Nuevo Santander (which includes parts of what are now the U.S. state of Texas, including San Antonio, and the Mexican state of Tamaulipas) to work peacefully to convert the indigenous Karankawa people to Roman Catholicism. April 25 – The Acadian settlement in Beaubassin, Nova Scotia, is burnt by the French army, and the population is forcibly relocated, after France and Great Britain agree that the Missaguash River should be the new boundary between peninsular British Nova Scotia and the mainland remnant of French Acadia (now New Brunswick) May 16 – Two weeks after police in Paris arrest six teenagers for gambling in the suburb of Saint-Laurent, rioting breaks out when a rumor spreads that plainclothes policemen are hauling off small children between the ages of five to ten years old, in order to provide blood to an ailing aristocrat. Over the next two weeks, rioting breaks out in other sections of Paris. Police are attacked, including one who is beaten to death by the mob, until order is restored and police reforms are announced. June 19 – At a time when mountain climbing is still relatively uncommon, Eggert Ólafsson and Bjarni Pálsson scale their first peak, the high Icelandic volcano, Hekla. June 24 – Parliament passes Britain's Iron Act, designed to restrict American manufactured goods by prohibiting additional ironworking businesses from producing finished goods. At the same time, import taxes on raw iron from America are lifted in order to give British manufacturers additional material for production. By 1775, the North American colonies have surpassed England and Wales in iron production and have become the world's third largest producer of iron. June 29 – An attempt in Lima to begin a native uprising against Spanish colonial authorities in the Viceroyalty of Peru is discovered and thwarted. One of the conspirators, Francisco Garcia Jimenez, escapes to Huarochirí and kills dozens of Spaniards on July 25. July–September July 9 – Traveller Jonas Hanway leaves St. Petersburg to return home, via Germany and the Netherlands. Later the same year, Hanway reputedly becomes the first Englishman to use an umbrella (a French fashion). July 11 – Halifax, Nova Scotia is almost completely destroyed by fire. July 31 – José I takes over the throne of Portugal from his deceased father, João V. King José Manuel appoints the Marquis of Pombal as his Chief Minister, who then strips the Inquisition of its power. August 8 – In advance of the Province of Georgia changing in status from a corporate-owned American settlement to a British colony, Royal Assent is given to an act that lifts the province's ban on slavery; effective January 1, "it shall and may be lawful to import or bring Black Slaves or Negroes in to the Province of Georgia of America and to keep and to use the same therein". August 20 – French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille, by way of the Foreign Minister, the Marquis de Puisieulx and Netherlands ambassador to Paris Mattheus Lestevenon, sends a letter that ultimately persuades the States-General of the Dutch Republic to allow and partially finance Lacaille's stellar trigonometry mission to the Cape of Good Hope. The expedition departs Lorient on October 21 Thomas Maclear, Verification and Extension of La Caille's Arc of Meridian at the Cape of Good Hope (Mowry and Barclay, 1838) p58 September 30 – Crispus Attucks, an African-American slave who will later become the first person killed in the Boston Massacre of 1770, escapes from the Framingham, Massachusetts estate of slaveowner William Brown.KaaVonia Hinton, The Story of the Underground Railroad (Mitchell Lane Publishers, 2010) p24 In an unsuccessful attempt to recapture the fugitive, Brown runs an advertisement on October 2 in the Boston Gazette, but Attucks eludes recapture. October–December October 5 – Treaty of Madrid: Spain and Great Britain sign a treaty temporarily eliminating their hostility over their colonies in North and South America. In addition to both sides dropping their claims for damages against each other, Spain agrees to pay the South Sea Company £100,000 for damage claims. October 14 – The Louvre Museum is created in Paris four years after art critic Lafond de Saint-Yenne calls on the King to allow the display of the royal art collection to the general public. Abel-François Poisson, the Marquis de Marigny, arranges for the display of 110 of the Crown's paintings at the Palais du Luxembourg. November 11 – A riot breaks out in Lhasa after the murder of the regent of Tibet. November 18 – Westminster Bridge is officially opened in London. December 3 – What is described later as "The first documented presentation of a musical in New York" takes place one block east of Broadway, at the Nassau Street Theatre, when a resident company of actors stages The Beggar's Opera. December 25 – Prussia and Russia break off diplomatic relations after the Russians refuse to stop assisting the Electorate of Saxony. Five years later, the two Empires fight the Seven Years' War. December 29 – Two physicians in Jamaica, Dr. John Williams and Dr. Parker Bennet, fight a duel "with swords and pistols" after having had an argument the day before about the treatment of bilious fever. Both are mortally wounded during the fight. Date unknown Hannah Snell reveals her sex to her Royal Marines compatriots. The King of Dahomey has income of 250,000 pounds from the overseas export of slaves. Maruyama Okyo paints The Ghost of Oyuki. Britain produces c. 2% of the entire world's output of industrial goods, before the Industrial Revolution begins. Galley slavery is abolished in Europe. World population: 791,000,000 Africa: 106,000,000 Asia: 502,000,000 Europe: 163,000,000 Latin-America: 16,000,000 Northern America: 2,000,000 Oceania: 2,000,000 Births January 1 – Frederick Muhlenberg, first speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1801) January 24 – Nicolas Bergasse, French lawyer (d. 1832) January 24 – Helen Gloag, Scottish-born slave Empress of Morocco (d. 1790) March 16 – Caroline Herschel, German astronomer (d. 1848) April – Joanna Southcott, British religious fanatic (d. 1814) April 17 – François de Neufchâteau, French statesman, intellectual figure (d. 1828) May 2 – John André, British Army officer of the American Revolutionary War (d. 1780) May 20 – Stephen Girard, French-American banker, fourth richest American of all time (d. 1831) May 28 – Diogo de Carvalho e Sampayo, Portuguese diplomat, scientist (d. 1807) May 31 – Karl August von Hardenberg, Prussian politician (d. 1822) June 6 – William Morgan, British statistician, actuary (d. 1833) July 5 – Aimé Argand, Swiss physicist, inventor (d. 1803) July 9 – Louise Marie Thérèse Bathilde d'Orléans, last princess of Condé (d.1822) July 25 – Henry Knox, military officer of the Continental Army and later the United States Army, 1st United States Secretary of War (b. 1806) August 18 – Antonio Salieri, Italian composer (d. 1825) August 26 – Princess Marie Zéphyrine of France, infant sister of Louis XVI (d. 1755) September 26 – Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood, British admiral (d. 1810) October 7 – Abraham Woodhull, Patriot spy during the American Revolutionary War (d. 1826) October 25 – Marie Le Masson Le Golft, French naturalist (b. 1826) October 31 – Leonor de Almeida Portugal, 4th Marquise of Alorna, Portuguese painter and poet (d. 1839) November 7 – Friedrich Leopold zu Stolberg-Stolberg, German poet (d. 1819) November 10 – Tipu Sultan, Sultan of Mysore (d. 1799) December 23 – Frederick Augustus I of Saxony (d. 1827) date unknown Toypurina, Medicine woman of the Tongva nation and rebel leader (d. 1799) Adwaita, Oldest tortoise (d. 2006) (alleged birth year; awaiting C-14 verification) Urszula Zamoyska, Polish noblewoman and socialite (d. 1808) Elizabeth Ryves, Irish writer and translator (d. 1797) Moulvi Syed Qudratullah, Bengali judge (d. 1839) Deaths January 16 – Ivan Trubetskoy, Russian field marshal (b. 1667) January 22 – Franz Xaver Josef von Unertl, Bavarian politician (b. 1675) January 23 – Ludovico Antonio Muratori, Italian historian and scholar (b. 1672) January 26 – Albert Schultens, Dutch philologist (b. 1686) January 29 – Sophia Schröder, Swedish soprano (b. 1712) February 7 – Algernon Seymour, 7th Duke of Somerset (b. 1684) February 8 – Aaron Hill, English writer (b. 1685) February 19 – Jan Frans van Bredael, Flemish painter (b. 1686) March 6 – Domenico Montagnana, Italian luthier (b. 1686) March 29 – James Jurin, British mathematician, doctor (b. 1684) April 7 – George Byng, 3rd Viscount Torrington, British Army general (b. 1701) May 3 – John Willison, Scottish minister, writer (b. 1680) May 17 – Georg Engelhard Schröder, Swedish artist (b. 1684) May 28 – Emperor Sakuramachi of Japan (b. 1720) June 15 – Marguerite de Launay, baronne de Staal, French author (b. 1684) July 15 – Vasily Tatishchev, Russian statesman, ethnographer (b. 1686) July 28 Johann Sebastian Bach, German composer (b. 1685) Conyers Middleton, English minister (b. 1683) July 31 – King John V of Portugal (b. 1689) August 8 – Charles Lennox, 2nd Duke of Richmond, English aristocrat, philanthropist and cricket patron (b. 1701) August 12 – Rachel Ruysch, Dutch painter (b. 1664) September 15 – Charles Theodore Pachelbel, German composer (b. 1690) October 3 Georg Matthias Monn, Austrian composer (b. 1717) James MacLaine, Irish highwayman (b. 1724) October 16 – Sylvius Leopold Weiss, German composer, lutenist (b. 1687) November 1 – Gustaaf Willem van Imhoff, Dutch Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (b. 1705) December 1 – Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr, German mathematician, astronomer, and cartographer (b. 1671) December 13 – Philemon Ewer, English shipbuilder (b. 1702) December 16 Nasir Jang Mir Ahmad, son of Turkic noble Nizam-ul-Mulk (b. 1712) Nasir Jung, Head of Hyderabad State (b. 1712) References Further reading

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe%20Mazzini

Giuseppe Mazzini

Giuseppe Mazzini (, , ; 22 June 1805 – 10 March 1872) was an Italian politician, journalist, and activist for the unification of Italy and spearhead of the Italian revolutionary movement. His efforts helped bring about the independent and unified Italy in place of the several separate states, many dominated by foreign powers, that existed until the 19th century. An Italian nationalist in the historical radical tradition and a proponent of social-democratic republicanism, Mazzini helped define the modern European movement for popular democracy in a republican state. Mazzini's thoughts had a very considerable influence on the Italian and European republican movements, in the Constitution of Italy, about Europeanism and more nuanced on many politicians of a later period, among them American president Woodrow Wilson and British prime minister David Lloyd George as well as post-colonial leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi, Veer Savarkar, Golda Meir, David Ben-Gurion, Kwame Nkrumah, Jawaharlal Nehru and Sun Yat-sen. Biography Early years Mazzini was born in Genoa, then part of the Ligurian Republic under the rule of the First French Empire. His father Giacomo Mazzini, originally from Chiavari, was a university professor who had adhered to Jacobin ideology while his mother Maria Drago was renowned for her beauty and religious Jansenist fervour. From a very early age, Mazzini showed good learning qualities as well as a precocious interest in politics and literature. He was admitted to university at 14, graduating in law in 1826 and initially practised as a "poor man's lawyer". Mazzini also hoped to become a historical novelist or a dramatist and in the same year wrote his first essay, Dell'amor patrio di Dante ("On Dante's Patriotic Love"), published in 1827. In 1828–1829, he collaborated with the Genoese newspaper L'Indicatore Genovese which was soon closed by the Piedmontese authorities. He then became one of the leading authors of L'Indicatore Livornese, published at Livorno by Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi, until this paper was closed down by the authorities. In 1827, Mazzini travelled to Tuscany, where he became a member of the Carbonari, a secret association with political purposes. On 31 October of that year, he was arrested at Genoa and interned at Savona. In early 1831, he was released from prison, but confined to a small hamlet. He chose exile instead, moving to Geneva in Switzerland. Failed insurrections In 1831, Mazzini went to Marseille, where he became a popular figure among the Italian exiles. He was a frequent visitor to the apartment of Giuditta Bellerio Sidoli, a beautiful Modenese widow who became his lover. In August 1832 Giuditta Sidoli gave birth to a boy, almost certainly Mazzini's son, whom she named Joseph Démosthène Adolpe Aristide after members of the family of Démosthène Ollivier, with whom Mazzini was staying. The Olliviers took care of the child in June 1833 when Giuditta and Mazzini left for Switzerland. The child died in February 1835. Mazzini organized a new political society called Young Italy. Young Italy was a secret society formed to promote Italian unification: "One, free, independent, republican nation." Mazzini believed that a popular uprising would create a unified Italy, and would touch off a European-wide revolutionary movement. The group's motto was God and the People, and its basic principle was the unification of the several states and kingdoms of the peninsula into a single republic as the only true foundation of Italian liberty. The new nation had to be: "One, Independent, Free Republic". Mazzini's political activism met some success in Tuscany, Abruzzi, Sicily, Piedmont, and his native Liguria, especially among several military officers. Young Italy counted about 60,000 adherents in 1833, with branches in Genoa and other cities. In that year Mazzini first attempted insurrection, which would spread from Chambéry (then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia), Alessandria, Turin, and Genoa. However, the Savoy government discovered the plot before it could begin and many revolutionaries (including Vincenzo Gioberti) were arrested. The repression was ruthless: 12 participants were executed, while Mazzini's best friend and director of the Genoese section of the Giovine Italia, Jacopo Ruffini, killed himself. Mazzini was tried in absentia and sentenced to death. Despite this setback, whose victims later created numerous doubts and psychological strife in Mazzini, he organized another uprising for the following year. A group of Italian exiles were to enter Piedmont from Switzerland and spread the revolution there, while Giuseppe Garibaldi, who had recently joined Young Italy, was to do the same from Genoa. However, the Piedmontese troops easily crushed the new attempt. Denis Mack Smith writes: In the spring of 1834, while at Bern, Mazzini and a dozen refugees from Italy, Poland, and Germany founded a new association with the grandiose name of Young Europe. Its basic, and equally grandiose idea, was that, as the French Revolution of 1789 had enlarged the concept of individual liberty, another revolution would now be needed for national liberty, and his vision went further because he hoped that in the no doubt distant future free nations might combine to form a loosely federal Europe with some kind of federal assembly to regulate their common interests. [...] His intention was nothing less than to overturn the European settlement agreed in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, which had reestablished an oppressive hegemony of a few great powers and blocked the emergence of smaller nations. [...] Mazzini hoped, but without much confidence, that his vision of a league or society of independent nations would be realized in his own lifetime. In practice, Young Europe lacked the money and popular support for more than a short-term existence. Nevertheless, he always remained faithful to the ideal of a united continent for which the creation of individual nations would be an indispensable preliminary. On 28 May 1834, Mazzini was arrested at Solothurn, and exiled from Switzerland. He moved to Paris, where he was again imprisoned on 5 July. He was released only after promising he would move to England. Mazzini, together with a few Italian friends, moved in January 1837 to live in London in very poor economic conditions. Exile in London On 30 April 1840, Mazzini reformed the Giovine Italia in London, and on 10 November of the same year he began issuing the Apostolato popolare ("Apostleship of the People"). A succession of failed attempts at promoting further uprisings in Sicily, Abruzzi, Tuscany, and Lombardy-Venetia discouraged Mazzini for a long period, which dragged on until 1840. He was also abandoned by Sidoli, who had returned to Italy to rejoin her children. The help of his mother pushed Mazzini to create several organizations aimed at the unification or liberation of other nations, in the wake of Giovine Italia: "Young Germany", "Young Poland", and "Young Switzerland", which were under the aegis of "Young Europe" (Giovine Europa). He also created an Italian school for poor people active from 10 November 1841 at 5 Greville Street, London. From London he also wrote an endless series of letters to his agents in Europe and South America and made friends with Thomas Carlyle and his wife Jane. The "Young Europe" movement also inspired a group of young Turkish army cadets and students who, later in history, named themselves the "Young Turks". In 1843, he organized another riot in Bologna, which attracted the attention of two young officers of the Austrian Navy, Attilio and Emilio Bandiera. With Mazzini's support, they landed near Cosenza (Kingdom of Naples) but were arrested and executed. Mazzini accused the British government of having passed information about the expeditions to the Neapolitans, and the question was raised in the British Parliament. When it was admitted that his private letters had indeed been opened, and its contents revealed by the Foreign Office to the Austrian and Neapolitan governments, Mazzini gained popularity and support among the British liberals, who were outraged by such a blatant intrusion of the government into his private correspondence. In 1847, he moved again to London, where he wrote a long "open letter" to Pope Pius IX, whose apparently liberal reforms had gained him a momentary status as a possible paladin of the unification of Italy, but The Pope did not reply. He also founded the People's International League. By 8 March 1848, Mazzini was in Paris, where he launched a new political association, the Associazione Nazionale Italiana. In apologising for not being able to attend the first annual celebration of the Leeds Redemption Society (a communitarian experiment) on 7 January 1847 he offered to become a subscriber 1848–1849 revolts On 7 April 1848, Mazzini reached Milan, whose population had rebelled against the Austrian garrison and established a provisional government. The First Italian War of Independence, started by the Piedmontese king Charles Albert to exploit the favourable circumstances in Milan, turned into a total failure. Mazzini, who had never been popular in the city because he wanted Lombardy to become a republic instead of joining Piedmont, abandoned Milan. He joined Garibaldi's irregular force at Bergamo, moving to Switzerland with him. Mazzini was one of the founders and leaders of the Action Party, the first organized party in the history of Italy. On 9 February 1849, a republic was declared in Rome, with Pius IX already having been forced to flee to Gaeta the preceding November. On the same day the Republic was declared, Mazzini reached the city. He was appointed, together with Carlo Armellini and Aurelio Saffi, as a member of the triumvirate of the new republic on 29 March, becoming soon the true leader of the government and showing good administrative capabilities in social reforms. However, the French troops called by the Pope made clear that the resistance of the Republican troops, led by Garibaldi, was in vain. On 12 July 1849, Mazzini set out for Marseille, from where he moved again to Switzerland. Late activities Mazzini spent all of 1850 hiding from the Swiss police. In July he founded the association Amici di Italia (Friends of Italy) in London, to attract consensus towards the Italian liberation cause. Two failed riots in Mantua (1852) and Milan (1853) were a crippling blow for the Mazzinian organization, whose prestige never recovered. He later opposed the alliance signed by Savoy with Austria for the Crimean War. Also in vain was the expedition of Felice Orsini in Carrara of 1853–1854. In 1856, he returned to Genoa to organize a series of uprisings: the only serious attempt was that of Carlo Pisacane in Calabria, which again met a dismaying end. Mazzini managed to escape the police but was condemned to death by default. From this moment on, Mazzini was more of a spectator than a protagonist of the Italian Risorgimento, whose reins were now strongly in the hands of the Savoyard monarch Victor Emmanuel II and his skilled prime minister, Camillo Benso, Conte di Cavour. The latter defined him as "Chief of the assassins". In 1858, he founded another journal in London called Pensiero e azione (Thought and Action). On 21 February 1859, together with 151 republicans, he signed a manifesto against the alliance between Piedmont and the Emperor of France which resulted in the Second War of Italian Independence and the conquest of Lombardy. On 2 May 1860, he tried to reach Garibaldi, who was going to launch his famous Expedition of the Thousand in southern Italy. In the same year, he released Doveri dell'uomo ("Duties of Man"), a synthesis of his moral, political and social thoughts. In mid-September, he was in Naples, then under Garibaldi's dictatorship, but was invited by the local vice-dictator Giorgio Pallavicino to move away. The new Kingdom of Italy was created in 1861 under the Savoy monarchy. In 1862, Mazzini joined Garibaldi in his failed attempt to free Rome. In 1866, Italy joined the Austro-Prussian War and gained Venetia. At this time, Mazzini frequently spoke out against how the unification of his country was being achieved. In 1867, he refused a seat in the Italian Chamber of Deputies. In 1870, he tried to start a rebellion in Sicily and was arrested and imprisoned in Gaeta. In October, he was freed in the amnesty declared after the Kingdom finally took Rome and returned to London in mid-December. Mazzini died of pleurisy at the house known now as Domus Mazziniana in Pisa in 1872, aged 66. His body was embalmed by Paolo Gorini. His funeral was held in Genoa, with 100,000 people taking part in it. Ideology An Italian nationalist, Mazzini was a fervent advocate of republicanism and envisioned a united, free and independent Italy. Unlike his contemporary Giuseppe Garibaldi, who was also a republican, Mazzini refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the House of Savoy until after the Capture of Rome. While he and his followers were sensitive to the question of social justice, starting a dialogue with socialism and Mazzini, in particular, finding many affinities with the Saint-Simonians, Mazzini was vigorously opposed to Marxism which for him was "a dreadful perversion of utilitarianism because of its insistence on class interests, especially class struggle, a conflictual vision that could not harmonize with Mazzini's unitarianism". Mazzini also rejected the classical liberal principles of the Age of Enlightenment based on the doctrine of individualism which he criticized as "presupposing either metaphysical materialism or political atheism". In the first volume of Carl Landauer's European Socialism, Mazzini is mentioned alongside Garibaldi as outstanding "Italian revolutionaries". Mazzini is also discussed in G. D. H. Cole's A History of Socialist Thought: Social Thought, the Forerunners, 1789–1850 and Albert Charles Brouse argued that "socialism is found in its entirety in the doctrine of Mazzini", his republicanism being both "democratic and social". In 1871, Mazzini condemned the radical, anti-religious and revolutionary socialist revolt in France that led to the creation of the short-lived Paris Commune. This caused Karl Marx to refer to Mazzini as a "reactionary" and an "old ass" as well as prompting anarchist Mikhail Bakunin to write The Political Theology of Mazzini and the International, whose "defence of the International and the Paris Commune caused a stir in Italy and provoked many renunciations of Mazzini and declarations of support for the International in the press", even leading to "the first nationwide increase in membership in the organisation". In an interview by R. Landor from 1871, Marx stated that Mazzini's ideas represented "nothing better than the old idea of a middle-class republic". Marx believed that Mazzini's point of view, especially after the Revolutions of 1848 and the Paris Commune, had become reactionary and the proletariat had nothing to do with it. In another interview, Marx described Mazzini as "that everlasting old ass". In turn, Mazzini described Marx as "a destructive spirit whose heart was filled with hatred rather than love of mankind" and declared that "[d]espite the communist egalitarianism which [Marx] preaches he is the absolute ruler of his party, admittedly he does everything himself but he is also the only one to give orders and he tolerates no opposition". While Mazzini saw the Paris Commune as "a socially divisive mistake", many other radicals "followed the socialist lead and mythologised the Commune as a social revolution ('the glorius harbinger of a new society' in Karl Marx's words)". This event "allowed a significant section of the radical left, especially a younger generation of radicals led by the poet and satirist Felice Cavallotti and grouped around the newspaper Il Gazzettino Rosa, to break openly and decisively with both Mazzini and the principles and methods of Mazzinian politics". While Il Gazzettino Rosa praised Mazzini as "the 'saviour' and teacher of Italy", it insisted: We have no more idols, we don't accept abstruse, incomprehensible formulas. [...] What we object to in Mazzini is not his opinion in itself, as much as his opinion erected into a system and a political dogma. We are materialists, but we don't make a political school out of our materialism. To us it does not matter if one believes or does not believe in God. [...] [I]nstead Mazzini wants to impose a new religion on us. According to Lucy Riall, "[t]he emphasis by younger radicals on the 'social question' was paralleled by an increase in what was called 'internationalist' or socialist activity (mostly Bakuninist anarchism) throughout northern and southern Italy, which was given a big boost by the Paris Commune". The rise of this socialism "represented a genuine challenge to Mazzini and the Mazzinian emphasis on politics and culture, and Mazzinis' death early in 1872 only served to underline the prevailing sense that his political era was over. Garibaldi now broke definitively with Mazzini, and this time he moved to the left of him. He came out entirely in favour of the Paris Commune and internationalism, and his stance brought him much closer to the younger radicals, [...] and gave him a new lease on political life. From his support was born an initiative to relaunch a broad party of the radical left". For Seamus Flahert, Henry Hyndman, who was an admirer of Mazzini, thought that "Mazzini's greatness [...] was obscured for younger socialists by his 'opposition to Marx in the early days of the 'International,' and his vigorous condemnation a little later of the Paris Commune", insisting that "'Mazzini's conception of the conduct of human life' had been 'a high and noble one'", praising the "No duties without rights" mention in the "General Rules" that Marx composed and passed as "a concession Marx made to Mazzini's followers within the organisation". In his two-volume autobiography, Hyndman spoke at length about Mazzini, even comparing him to Marx. Christopher Bayly wrote that Mazzini "had arrived at similar conclusions", referring to "the Saint-Simonian ideas of association and Charles Fourier's 'law of attraction'", but "through an emotive process that owed little to rationalisation". As with the Christian socialist George D. Herron, Mazzini's socialism was "essentially a religious and moral revival". Mazzini rejected the Marxist doctrines of class struggle and materialism, stressing the need for class collaboration. Nonetheless, there was a more radical, socialist interpretation of Mazzini's doctrine within the Italian Republican Party, a Mazzinian party, where "there were many who believed the teachings of the Genoese patriot could be compatible with the Marxist doctrine and [...] considered an alliance with the left-wing to be legitimate and desirable". Mazzini's Italian nationalism has been described as "cosmopolitan patriotism". In Socialism: National or International, first published in 1942, Franz Borkenau described Mazzini as "that impressive Genoese" and "leader of the Italian underground democratic and unitarian movement". About Mazzini and the underground movement, Borkenau further wrote: Mazzini did a great deal to organize and united this underground movement, known under the name of "Young Italy". He conceived the idea of parallel organizations in other European countries, which should all of them join in a "Young Europe" movement. The plan had only incipient success and Italy remained the sole stronghold of this underground movement. But the idea, though not its practical execution, caught on in other European countries. One reason of Mazzini's partial failure was the emergence of socialism in France and England. France, at any rate, had a strong underground movement, much stronger under Louis-Philippe than previously under the Bourbon restoration. But this movement gradually evolved towards the left. Ordinary democrats of the Mazzini type were no longer persecuted in France after 1830. But to the left of them arose more advanced movements. When he was a socialist, Benito Mussolini harshly criticized Mazzini, "the religious Mazzini in particular", being "particularly opposed to Mazzini's 'sanctification'". However, after advocating interventionism in World War I and enlisting, Mussolini "found himself immersed in a patriotic atmosphere permeated by Mazzinian references". Religion Influenced by his Jansenist upbringing, Mazzini's thought is characterized by a strong religious fervour and a deep sense of spirituality. A deist who believed in divine providence, Mazzini described himself as a Christian and emphasized the necessity of faith and a relationship with God while vehemently denouncing atheism and rationalism. His motto was Dio e Popolo ("God and People"). Mazzini regarded patriotism as a duty and love for the fatherland as a divine mission, stating that the fatherland was "the home wherein God has placed us, among brothers and sisters linked to us by the family ties of a common religion, history, and language". According to A. James Gregor, "Mazzini's creed for the New Age thus radically distinguished itself from the orthodox Marxism of the nineteenth century. His Socialism was alive with moral purpose, rather than class identity, infused with exalted intent and specifically inspired by a sense of national, rather than class, mission. It saw itself, unabashedly, as a new religion, a 'climb through philosophy to faith.' It was a religion predicated on a 'living faith in one God, one Law, general and immutable ... and one End". In his 1835 publication Fede e avvenire ("Faith and the Future"), Mazzini wrote: "We must rise again as a religious party. The religious element is universal and immortal. [...] The initiators of a new world, we are bound to lay the foundations of a moral unity, a Humanitarian Catholicism". However, Mazzini's relationship with the Catholic Church and the Papacy was not always a kind one. While he initially supported Pope Pius IX upon his election, writing an open letter to him in 1847, Mazzini later published a scathing attack against the pope in his Sull'Enciclica di Papa Pio IX ("On the Encyclical of Pope Pius IX") in 1849. Although some of his religious views were at odds with the Catholic Church and the Papacy, with his writings often tinged with anti-clericalism, Mazzini also criticized Protestantism, stating that it is "divided and subdivided into a thousand sects, all founded on the rights of individual conscience, all eager to make war on one another, and perpetuating that anarchy of beliefs which is the sole true cause of the social and political disturbances that torment the peoples of Europe". Thought and action Mazzini rejected the concept of the "rights of man" which had developed during the Age of Enlightenment, arguing instead that individual rights were a duty to be won through hard work, sacrifice and virtue rather than "rights" which were intrinsically owed to man. Mazzini outlined his thought in his Doveri dell'uomo ("Duties of Man"), published in 1860. Similarly, Mazzini formulated a concept known as "thought and action" in which thought and action must be joined together and every thought must be followed by action, therefore rejecting intellectualism and the notion of divorcing theory from practice. Women's rights In "Duties of Man", Mazzini called for recognition of women's rights. After his many encounters with political philosophers in England, France and across Europe, Mazzini had decided that the principle of equality between men and women was fundamental to building a truly democratic Italian nation. He called for the end of women's social and judicial subordination to men. Mazzini's vigorous position heightened attention to gender among European thinkers who were already considering democracy and nationalism. He helped intellectuals see women's rights not merely as a peripheral topic, but rather as a fundamental goal necessary for the regeneration of old nations and the rebirth of new ones. Mazzini admired Jessie White Mario, who was described by Giuseppe Garibaldi as the "Bravest Woman of Modern Time". Mario joined Garibaldi's Redshirts for the 1859–1860 campaign during the Second Italian War of Independence. As a correspondent for the Daily News, she witnessed almost every fight that had brought on the unification of Italy. Legacy Mazzini's socio-political thought has been referred to as Mazzinianism and his worldview as the Mazzinian conception, terms that were later used by Benito Mussolini and Fascists such as Giovanni Gentile to describe their political ideology and spiritual conception of life. Klemens von Metternich described Mazzini as "the most influential revolutionary in Europe." In the first volume of his Reminiscences, Carl Schurz gives a biographical sketch of Mazzini and recalls two meetings he had with him when they were both in London in 1851. While the book 10,000 Famous Freemasons by William R. Denslow lists Mazzini as a Mason and even a Past Grand Master of the Grand Orient of Italy, articles on the Grand Orient of Italy's own website question whether he was ever a regular Mason and do not list him as a Past Grand Master. Often viewed in Italy of the time as a god-like figure, Mazzini was nonetheless denounced by many of his compatriots as a traitor. Contemporary historians tended to believe that he ceased to contribute anything productive or useful after 1849, but modern ones take a more favourable view of him. The antifascist Mazzini Society, founded in the United States in 1939 by Italian political refugees, took his name and served Italy from exile, as he had. In London, Mazzini resided at 155 North Gower Street, near Euston Square, which is now marked with a commemorative blue plaque. A plaque on Laystall Street in Clerkenwell, London's Little Italy during the 1850s, also pays tribute to Mazzini, calling him "The Apostle of Modern Democracy." A bust of Mazzini is in New York's Central Park between 67th and 68th streets just west of the West Drive. The 1973–1974 academic year at the College of Europe was named in his honor. See also History of Italy Italian nationalism Italian unification Jessie White Mario Giuseppe Garibaldi Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states Roman Republic (19th century) San Remo conference Abhinav Bharat Society Works Warfare against (1825) On Nationality (1852) The Duties of Man and Other Essays (1860). J.M. Dent & Sons, London, 1907 A Cosmopolitanism of Nations: Giuseppe Mazzini's Writings on Democracy, Nation Building, and International Relations Recchia, Stefano, and Urbinati, Nadia, editors. Princeton University Press, 2009. Articles "Is it Revolt or a Revolution?" in Tait's Edinburgh Magazine, June 1840, pp. 385–390 Footnotes Further reading Bayly, C. A., and Eugenio F. Biagini, eds. "Giuseppe Mazzini and the Globalisation of Democratic Nationalism 1830–1920 (2009) Claeys, Gregory. "Mazzini, Kossuth, and British Radicalism, 1848–1854," Journal of British Studies, vol. 28, no. 3 (July 1989), pp. 225–261. In JSTOR. Dal Lago, Enrico. ""We Cherished the Same Hostility to Every Form of Tyranny": Transatlantic Parallels and Contacts between William Lloyd Garrison and Giuseppe Mazzini, 1846–1872." American Nineteenth Century History 13.3 (2012): 293–319. Dal Lago, Enrico. William Lloyd Garrison and Giuseppe Mazzini: Abolition, Democracy, and Radical Reform. (Louisiana State University Press, 2013). Falchi, Federica. "Democracy and the rights of women in the thinking of Giuseppe Mazzini." Modern Italy 17#1 (2012): 15–30. Finelli, Michele. "Mazzini in Italian historical memory." Journal of Modern Italian Studies (2008) 13#4 pp. 486–491. , a standard scholarly biography. Ridolfi, Maurizio. "Visions of republicanism in the writings of Giuseppe Mazzini," Journal of Modern Italian Studies (2008) 13#4 pp. 468–479. Sarti, Roland. "Giuseppe Mazzini and his opponents" in John A. Davis, ed. Italy in the Nineteenth Century: 1796–1900 (2000) pp. 74–107. Sarti, Roland. Mazzini: A Life for the Religion of Politics (1997) 249 pp. Urbinati, Nadia. "Mazzini and the making of the republican ideology." Journal of Modern Italian Studies 17.2 (2012): 183–204. Wight, Martin; Wight, Gabriele, and Porter, Brian (Eds.) Four Seminal Thinkers in International Theory: Machiavelli, Grotius, Kant, and Mazzini Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 Influence of Mazzini on Damodar Savarkar and the Free India Society Primary sources Mazzini, Giuseppe. A cosmopolitanism of nations: Giuseppe Mazzini's writings on democracy, nation building, and international relations (Princeton University Press, 2009). The Living Thoughts of Mazzini Presented by Ignazio Silone, London: Cassell and Company, Limited, 1939; second edition, 1946. Essays: Selected from the Writings, Literary, Political, and Religious, of Joseph Mazzini, London: Walter Scott, 1887. Other languages Giuseppe Leone e Roberto Zambonini, "Mozart e Mazzini – Paesaggi poetico-musicali tra flauti magici e voci "segrete", Malgrate, Palazzo Agudio, 25 agosto 2007, ore 21. Partial text of this article External links Mazzini's influence on Savarkar Biography at cronologia.it 1805 births 1872 deaths Burials in Italy Carbonari Critics of atheism Critics of the Catholic Church Critics of Marxism Deaths from lung disease Freemasonry-related controversies Italian classical liberals Italian exiles Italian Freemasons Italian independence activists Italian male writers Italian nationalists Italian people of the Italian unification Italian radicals Italian republicans Italian social democrats Italian social liberals Jansenists Liberalism in Italy People of the Revolutions of 1848 Politicians from Genoa University of Genoa alumni Italian deists 19th-century Italian philosophers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Graves

Robert Graves

Robert von Ranke Graves (24 July 1895 – 7 December 1985) was a British poet, historical novelist and critic. His father was Alfred Perceval Graves, a celebrated Irish poet and figure in the Gaelic revival; they were both Celticists and students of Irish mythology. Graves produced more than 140 works in his lifetime. His poems, his translations and innovative analysis of the Greek myths, his memoir of his early life—including his role in World War I—Good-Bye to All That, and his speculative study of poetic inspiration The White Goddess have never been out of print. He is also a renowned short story writer, with stories such as ‘The Tenement’ still being popular today He earned his living from writing, particularly popular historical novels such as I, Claudius; King Jesus; The Golden Fleece; and Count Belisarius. He also was a prominent translator of Classical Latin and Ancient Greek texts; his versions of The Twelve Caesars and The Golden Ass remain popular for their clarity and entertaining style. Graves was awarded the 1934 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for both I, Claudius and Claudius the God. Early life Graves was born into a middle-class family in Wimbledon, then part of Surrey, now part of south London. He was the third of five children born to Alfred Perceval Graves (1846–1931), who was the sixth child and second son of Charles Graves, Bishop of Limerick, Ardfert and Aghadoe. His father was an Irish school inspector, Gaelic scholar and the author of the popular song "Father O'Flynn", and his mother was his father's second wife, Amalie Elisabeth Sophie von Ranke (1857–1951), the niece of the historian Leopold von Ranke. At the age of seven, double pneumonia following measles almost took Graves's life, the first of three occasions when he was despaired of by his doctors as a result of afflictions of the lungs, the second being the result of a war wound and the third when he contracted Spanish influenza in late 1918, immediately before demobilisation. At school, Graves was enrolled as Robert von Ranke Graves, and in Germany his books are published under that name, but before and during the First World War the name caused him difficulties. In August 1916 an officer who disliked him spread the rumour that he was the brother of a captured German spy who had assumed the name "Karl Graves". The problem resurfaced in a minor way in the Second World War, when a suspicious rural policeman blocked his appointment to the Special Constabulary. Graves's eldest half-brother, Philip Perceval Graves, achieved success as a journalist and his younger brother, Charles Patrick Graves, was a writer and journalist. Education Graves received his early education at a series of six preparatory schools, including King's College School in Wimbledon, Penrallt in Wales, Hillbrow School in Rugby, Rokeby School in Kingston upon Thames and Copthorne in Sussex, from which last in 1909 he won a scholarship to Charterhouse. There he began to write poetry, and took up boxing, in due course becoming school champion at both welter- and middleweight. He claimed that this was in response to persecution because of the German element in his name, his outspokenness, his scholarly and moral seriousness, and his poverty relative to the other boys. He also sang in the choir, meeting there an aristocratic boy three years younger, G. H. "Peter" Johnstone, with whom he began an intense romantic friendship, the scandal of which led ultimately to an interview with the headmaster. However, Graves himself called it "chaste and sentimental" and "proto-homosexual," and though he was clearly in love with "Peter" (disguised by the name "Dick" in Good-Bye to All That), he denied that their relationship was ever sexual. He was warned about Peter's morals by other contemporaries. Among the masters his chief influence was George Mallory, who introduced him to contemporary literature and took him mountaineering in the holidays. In his final year at Charterhouse, he won a classical exhibition to St John's College, Oxford, but did not take his place there until after the war. First World War At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, Graves enlisted almost immediately, taking a commission in the 3rd Battalion of the Royal Welch Fusiliers as a second lieutenant (on probation) on 12 August. He was confirmed in his rank on 10 March 1915, and received rapid promotion, being promoted to lieutenant on 5 May 1915 and to captain on 26 October. He published his first volume of poems, Over the Brazier, in 1916. He developed an early reputation as a war poet and was one of the first to write realistic poems about the experience of frontline conflict. In later years, he omitted his war poems from his collections, on the grounds that they were too obviously "part of the war poetry boom." At the Battle of the Somme, he was so badly wounded by a shell-fragment through the lung that he was expected to die and was officially reported as having died of wounds. He gradually recovered and, apart from a brief spell back in France, spent the remainder of the war in England. One of Graves's friends at this time was the poet Siegfried Sassoon, a fellow officer in his regiment. They both convalesced at Somerville College, Oxford, which was used as a hospital for officers. "How unlike you to crib my idea of going to the Ladies' College at Oxford," Sassoon wrote to him in 1917. At Somerville College, Graves met and fell in love with Marjorie, a nurse and professional pianist, but stopped writing to her once he learned she was engaged. About his time at Somerville, he wrote: "I enjoyed my stay at Somerville. The sun shone, and the discipline was easy." In 1917, Sassoon rebelled against the conduct of the war by making a public anti-war statement. Graves feared Sassoon could face a court martial and intervened with the military authorities, persuading them that Sassoon was suffering from shell shock and that they should treat him accordingly. As a result, Sassoon was sent to Craiglockhart, a military hospital in Edinburgh, where he was treated by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers and met fellow patient Wilfred Owen. Graves was treated here as well. Graves also suffered from shell shock, or neurasthenia as it was then called, but he was never hospitalised for it: I thought of going back to France, but realized the absurdity of the notion. Since 1916, the fear of gas obsessed me: any unusual smell, even a sudden strong scent of flowers in a garden, was enough to send me trembling. And I couldn't face the sound of heavy shelling now; the noise of a car back-firing would send me flat on my face, or running for cover. The friendship between Graves and Sassoon is documented in Graves's letters and biographies; the story is fictionalised in Pat Barker's novel Regeneration. Barker also addresses Graves's experiences with homosexuality in his youth; at the end of the novel Graves asserts that his "affections have been running in more normal channels" after a friend was accused of "soliciting" with another man. The intensity of their early relationship is demonstrated in Graves's collection Fairies and Fusiliers (1917), which contains many poems celebrating their friendship. Sassoon remarked upon a "heavy sexual element" within it, an observation supported by the sentimental nature of much of the surviving correspondence between the two men. Through Sassoon, Graves became a friend of Wilfred Owen, "who often used to send me poems from France." In September 1917, Graves was seconded for duty with a garrison battalion. Graves's army career ended dramatically with an incident which could have led to a charge of desertion. Having been posted to Limerick in late 1918, he "woke up with a sudden chill, which I recognized as the first symptoms of Spanish influenza." "I decided to make a run for it," he wrote, "I should at least have my influenza in an English, and not an Irish, hospital." Arriving at Waterloo with a high fever but without the official papers that would secure his release from the army, he chanced to share a taxi with a demobilisation officer also returning from Ireland, who completed his papers for him with the necessary secret codes. Postwar Immediately after the war, Graves had a wife, Nancy Nicholson, and a growing family but was financially insecure and weakened physically and mentally: Very thin, very nervous and with about four years' loss of sleep to make up, I was waiting until I got well enough to go to Oxford on the Government educational grant. I knew that it would be years before I could face anything but a quiet country life. My disabilities were many: I could not use a telephone, I felt sick every time I travelled by train, and to see more than two new people in a single day prevented me from sleeping. I felt ashamed of myself as a drag on Nancy, but had sworn on the very day of my demobilization never to be under anyone's orders for the rest of my life. Somehow I must live by writing. In October 1919, he took up his place at the University of Oxford, soon changing course to English Language and Literature, though managing to retain his Classics exhibition. In consideration of his health, he was permitted to live a little outside Oxford, on Boars Hill, where the residents included Robert Bridges, John Masefield (his landlord), Edmund Blunden, Gilbert Murray and Robert Nichols. Later, the family moved to Worlds End Cottage on Collice Street, Islip, Oxfordshire. His most notable Oxford companion was T. E. Lawrence, then a Fellow of All Souls', with whom he discussed contemporary poetry and shared in the planning of elaborate pranks. By this time, he had become an atheist. His work was part of the literature event in the art competition at the 1924 Summer Olympics. While still an undergraduate he established a grocers shop on the outskirts of Oxford but the business soon failed. He also failed his BA degree but was exceptionally permitted to take a B.Litt. by dissertation instead, allowing him to pursue a teaching career. In 1926, he took up a post as a Professor of English Literature at Cairo University, accompanied by his wife, their children and the poet Laura Riding. Graves later claimed that one of his pupils was a young Gamal Abdel Nasser. He returned to London briefly, where he separated from his wife under highly emotional circumstances (at one point Riding attempted suicide) before leaving to live with Riding in Deià, Majorca. There they continued to publish letterpress books under the rubric of the Seizin Press, founded and edited the literary journal, Epilogue and wrote two successful academic books together: A Survey of Modernist Poetry (1927) and A Pamphlet Against Anthologies (1928); both had great influence on modern literary criticism, particularly New Criticism. Literary career In 1927, he published Lawrence and the Arabs, a commercially successful biography of T. E. Lawrence. The autobiographical Good-Bye to All That (1929, revised by him and republished in 1957) proved a success but cost him many of his friends, notably Siegfried Sassoon. In 1934 he published his most commercially successful work, I, Claudius. Using classical sources (under the advice of classics scholar Eirlys Roberts) he constructed a complex and compelling tale of the life of the Roman emperor Claudius, a tale extended in the sequel Claudius the God (1935). The Claudius books were turned into the very popular television series I, Claudius shown in both Britain and United States in the 1970s. Another historical novel by Graves, Count Belisarius (1938), recounts the career of the Byzantine general Belisarius. Graves and Riding left Majorca in 1936 at the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War and in 1939, they moved to the United States, taking lodging in New Hope, Pennsylvania. Their volatile relationship and eventual breakup was described by Robert's nephew Richard Perceval Graves in Robert Graves: 1927–1940: the Years with Laura, and T. S. Matthews's Jacks or Better (1977). It was also the basis for Miranda Seymour's novel The Summer of '39 (1998). After returning to Britain, Graves began a relationship with Beryl Hodge, the wife of Alan Hodge, his collaborator on The Long Week-End (1940) and The Reader Over Your Shoulder (1943; republished in 1947 as The Use and Abuse of the English Language but subsequently republished several times under its original title). In 1946, he and Beryl (they were not to marry until 1950) re-established a home with their three children, in Deià, Majorca. The house is now a museum. The year 1946 also saw the publication of his historical novel King Jesus. He published The White Goddess: A Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth in 1948; it is a study of the nature of poetic inspiration, interpreted in terms of the classical and Celtic mythology he knew so well. He turned to science fiction with Seven Days in New Crete (1949) and in 1953 he published The Nazarene Gospel Restored with Joshua Podro. He also wrote Hercules, My Shipmate, published under that name in 1945 (but first published as The Golden Fleece in 1944). In 1955, he published The Greek Myths, which retells a large body of Greek myths, each tale followed by extensive commentary drawn from the system of The White Goddess. His retellings are well respected; many of his unconventional interpretations and etymologies are dismissed by classicists. Graves in turn dismissed the reactions of classical scholars, arguing that they are too specialised and "prose-minded" to interpret "ancient poetic meaning," and that "the few independent thinkers ... [are] the poets, who try to keep civilisation alive." He published a volume of short stories, Catacrok! Mostly Stories, Mostly Funny, in 1956. In 1961 he became Professor of Poetry at Oxford, a post he held until 1966. In 1967, Robert Graves published, together with Omar Ali-Shah, a new translation of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. The translation quickly became controversial; Graves was attacked for trying to break the spell of famed passages in Edward FitzGerald's Victorian translation, and L. P. Elwell-Sutton, an orientalist at Edinburgh University, maintained that the manuscript used by Ali-Shah and Graves, which Ali-Shah and his brother Idries Shah claimed had been in their family for 800 years, was a forgery. The translation was a critical disaster and Graves's reputation suffered severely due to what the public perceived as his gullibility in falling for the Shah brothers' deception. From the 1960s until his death, Robert Graves frequently exchanged letters with Spike Milligan. Many of their letters to each other are collected in the book, Dear Robert, Dear Spike. On 11 November 1985, Graves was among sixteen Great War poets commemorated on a slate stone unveiled in Westminster Abbey's Poets' Corner. The inscription on the stone was written by friend and fellow Great War poet Wilfred Owen. It reads: "My subject is War, and the pity of War. The Poetry is in the pity." Of the 16 poets, Graves was the only one still living at the time of the commemoration ceremony. UK government documents released in 2012 indicate that Graves turned down a CBE in 1957. In 2012 the Nobel Records were opened after 50 years, and it was revealed that Graves was among a shortlist of authors considered for the 1962 Nobel Prize in Literature, along with John Steinbeck (who was that year's recipient of the prize), Lawrence Durrell, Jean Anouilh and Karen Blixen. Graves was rejected because, even though he had written several historical novels, he was still primarily seen as a poet, and committee member Henry Olsson was reluctant to award any Anglo-Saxon poet the prize before the death of Ezra Pound, believing that other writers did not match his talent. In 2017 Seven Stories Press began its Robert Graves Project. Fourteen of Graves's out-of-print books will be republished over the next three years. The Reader Over Your Shoulder was the first adult title in Graves's oeuvre, published 9 January 2018. Ann at Highwood Hall, a children's book, was published in July 2017. Sexuality Robert Graves was bisexual, having intense romantic relationships with both men and women, though the word he coined for it was "pseudo-homosexual." Graves was raised to be "prudishly innocent, as my mother had planned I should be." His mother, Amy, forbade speaking about sex, save in a "gruesome" context, and all skin "must be covered." At his days in Penrallt, he had "innocent crushes" on boys; one in particular was a boy named Ronny, who "climbed trees, killed pigeons with a catapult and broke all the school rules while never seeming to get caught." At Charterhouse, an all-boys school, it was common for boys to develop "amorous but seldom erotic" relationships, which the headmaster mostly ignored. Graves described boxing with a friend, Raymond Rodakowski, as having a "a lot of sex feeling". And although Graves admitted to loving Raymond, he would dismiss it as "more comradely than amorous." In his fourth year at Charterhouse, Graves would meet "Dick" (George "Peter" Harcourt Johnstone) with whom he would develop "an even stronger relationship". Johnstone was an object of adoration in Graves's early poems. Graves's feelings for Johnstone were exploited by bullies, who led Graves to believe that Johnstone was seen kissing the choir-master. Graves, jealous, demanded the choir-master's resignation. During the First World War, Johnstone remained a "solace" to Graves. Despite Graves's own "pure and innocent" view of Johnstone, Graves's cousin Gerald wrote in a letter that Johnstone was: "not at all the innocent fellow I took him for, but as bad as anyone could be". Johnstone remained a subject for Graves's poems despite this. Communication between them ended when Johnstone's mother found their letters and forbade further contact with Graves. Johnstone would later be arrested for attempting to seduce a Canadian soldier, which removed Graves's denial about Johnstone's infidelity, causing Graves to collapse. In 1917, Graves met Marjorie Machin, an auxiliary nurse from Kent. He admired her "direct manner and practical approach to life". Graves did not pursue the relationship when he realised Machin had a fiancé on the Front. This began a period where Graves would begin to take interest in women with more masculine traits. Nancy Nicholson, his future wife, was an ardent feminist: she kept her hair short, wore trousers, and had "boyish directness and youth." Her feminism never conflicted with Graves's own ideas of female superiority. Siegfried Sassoon, who felt as if Graves and he had a relationship of a fashion, felt betrayed by Graves's new relationship and declined to go to the wedding. Graves apparently never loved Sassoon in the same fashion that Sassoon loved Graves. Graves's and Nicholson's marriage was strained, with Graves living with "shell shock", and having an insatiable need for sex, which Nicholson did not reciprocate. Nancy forbade any mention of the war, which added to the conflict. In 1926, he would meet Laura Riding, with whom he would run away in 1929 while still married to Nicholson. Prior to this, Graves, Riding and Nicholson would attempt a triadic relationship called "The Trinity." Despite the implications, Riding and Nicholson were most likely heterosexual. This triangle became the "Holy Circle" with the addition of Irish poet Geoffrey Phibbs, who himself was still married to Irish artist Norah McGuinness. This relationship revolved around the worship and reverence of Riding. Graves and Phibbs were both to sleep with Riding. When Phibbs attempted to leave the relationship, Graves was sent to track him down, even threatening to kill Phibbs if he did not return to the circle. When Phibbs resisted, Laura threw herself out of a window, with Graves following suit to reach her. Graves's commitment to Riding was so strong that he entered, on her word, a period of enforced celibacy, "which he had not enjoyed". By 1938, no longer entranced by Riding, Graves fell in love with the then-married Beryl Hodge. In 1950, after much dispute with Nicholson (whom he had not divorced yet), he married Beryl. Despite having a loving marriage with Beryl, Graves would take on a 17-year-old muse, Judith Bledsoe, in 1950. Although the relationship would be described as "not overtly sexual", Graves would later in 1952 attack Judith's new fiancé, getting the police called on him in the process. He would later have three successive female muses, who came to dominate his poetry. Death and legacy Death During the early 1970s Graves began to suffer from increasingly severe memory loss. By his 80th birthday in 1975, he had come to the end of his working life. He lived for another decade, in an increasingly dependent condition, until he died from heart failure on 7 December 1985 at the age of 90 years. His body was buried the next morning in the small churchyard on a hill at Deià, at the site of a shrine that had once been sacred to the White Goddess of Pelion. His second wife, Beryl Graves, died on 27 October 2003 and her body was interred in the same grave. Memorials Three of his former houses have a blue plaque on them: in Wimbledon, Brixham, and Islip. Children Robert Graves had eight children. With his first wife, Nancy Nicholson, he had Jennie (who married journalist Alexander Clifford), David (who was killed in the Second World War), Catherine (who married nuclear scientist Clifford Dalton at Aldershot), and Sam. With his second wife, Beryl Pritchard (1915–2003), he had William, Lucia (a translator), Juan, and Tomás (a writer and musician). Bibliography Poetry collections Country Sentiment, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1920 Over the Brazier. London: William Heinemann, 1923; New York: Alfred. A. Knopf, 1923. The Feather Bed. Richmond, Surrey: Hogarth Press, 1923. Mock Beggar Hall. London: Hogarth Press, 1924. Welchmans Hose. London: The Fleuron, 1925. Poems. London: Ernest Benn, 1925. The Marmosites Miscellany (as John Doyle). London: Hogarth Press, 1925. Poems (1914–1926). London: William Heinemann, 1927; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1929. Poems (1914–1927). London: William Heinemann To Whom Else? Deyá, Majorca: Seizin Press, 1931. Poems 1930–1933. London: Arthur Barker, 1933. Collected Poems. London: Cassell, 1938; New York: Random House, 1938. No More Ghosts: Selected Poems. London: Faber & Faber, 1940. Work in Hand, with Norman Cameron and Alan Hodge. London: Hogarth Press, 1942. Poems. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1943. Poems 1938–1945. London: Cassell, 1945; New York: Creative Age Press, 1946. Collected Poems (1914–1947). London: Cassell, 1948. Poems and Satires. London: Cassell, 1951. Poems 1953. London: Cassell, 1953. Collected Poems 1955. New York: Doubleday, 1955. Poems Selected by Himself. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1957; rev. 1961, 1966, 1972, 1978. The Poems of Robert Graves. New York: Doubleday, 1958. Collected Poems 1959. London: Cassell, 1959. The Penny Fiddle: Poems for Children. London: Cassell, 1960; New York: Doubleday, 1961. More Poems 1961. London: Cassell, 1961. Collected Poems. New York: Doubleday, 1961. New Poems 1962. London: Cassell, 1962; as New Poems. New York: Doubleday, 1963. The More Deserving Cases: Eighteen Old Poems for Reconsideration. Marlborough College Press, 1962. Man Does, Woman Is. London: Cassell, 1964/New York:Doubleday, 1964. Ann at Highwood Hall: Poems for Children. London: Cassell, 1964; New York: Triangle Square, 2017. Love Respelt. London: Cassell, 1965/New York: Doubleday, 1966. One Hard Look, 1965 Collected Poems, 1965. London: Cassell, 1965. Seventeen Poems Missing from "Love Respelt". privately printed, 1966. Colophon to "Love Respelt". Privately printed, 1967. Poems 1965–1968. London: Cassell, 1968; New York: Doubleday, 1969. Poems About Love. London: Cassell, 1969; New York: Doubleday, 1969. Love Respelt Again. New York: Doubleday, 1969. Beyond Giving. privately printed, 1969. Poems 1968–1970. London: Cassell, 1970; New York: Doubleday, 1971. The Green-Sailed Vessel. privately printed, 1971. Poems: Abridged for Dolls and Princes. London: Cassell, 1971. Poems 1970–1972. London: Cassell, 1972; New York: Doubleday, 1973. Deyá, A Portfolio. London: Motif Editions, 1972. Timeless Meeting: Poems. privately printed, 1973. At the Gate. privately printed, London, 1974. Collected Poems 1975. London: Cassell, 1975. New Collected Poems. New York: Doubleday, 1977. Selected Poems, ed. Paul O'Prey. London: Penguin, 1986 The Centenary Selected Poems, ed. Patrick Quinn. Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1995. Complete Poems Volume 1, ed. Beryl Graves and Dunstan Ward. Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1995. Complete Poems Volume 2, ed. Beryl Graves and Dunstan Ward. Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1996. Complete Poems Volume 3, ed. Beryl Graves and Dunstan Ward. Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1999. The Complete Poems in One Volume, ed. Beryl Graves and Dunstan Ward. Manchester: Penguin Books, 2004. Selected Poems, ed. Michael Longley. Faber & Faber, 2012. Fiction My Head! My Head!. London: Secker, 1925; Alfred. A. Knopf, New York, 1925. The Shout. London: Mathews & Marrot, 1929. No Decency Left. (with Laura Riding) (as Barbara Rich). London: Jonathan Cape, 1932. The Real David Copperfield. London: Arthur Barker, 1933; as David Copperfield, by Charles Dickens, Condensed by Robert Graves, ed. M. P. Paine. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1934. I, Claudius. London: Arthur Barker, 1934; New York: Smith & Haas, 1934. Sequel: Claudius the God and his Wife Messalina. London: Arthur Barker, 1934; New York: Smith & Haas, 1935. Antigua, Penny, Puce. Deyá, Majorca/London: Seizin Press/Constable, 1936; New York: Random House, 1937. Count Belisarius. London: Cassell, 1938: Random House, New York, 1938. Sergeant Lamb of the Ninth. London: Methuen, 1940; as Sergeant Lamb's America. New York: Random House, 1940. Sequel: Proceed, Sergeant Lamb. London: Methuen, 1941; New York: Random House, 1941. The Story of Marie Powell: Wife to Mr. Milton. London: Cassell, 1943; as Wife to Mr Milton: The Story of Marie Powell. New York: Creative Age Press, 1944. The Golden Fleece. London: Cassell, 1944; as Hercules, My Shipmate, New York: Creative Age Press, 1945; New York: Seven Stories Press, 2017. King Jesus. New York: Creative Age Press, 1946; London: Cassell, 1946. Watch the North Wind Rise. New York: Creative Age Press, 1949; as Seven Days in New Crete. London: Cassell, 1949. The Islands of Unwisdom. New York: Doubleday, 1949; as The Isles of Unwisdom. London: Cassell, 1950. Homer's Daughter. London: Cassell, 1955; New York: Doubleday, 1955; New York: Seven Stories Press, 2017. Catacrok! Mostly Stories, Mostly Funny. London: Cassell, 1956. They Hanged My Saintly Billy. London: Cassell, 1957; New York: Doubleday, 1957; New York, Seven Stories Press, 2017. Collected Short Stories. Doubleday: New York, 1964; Cassell, London, 1965. An Ancient Castle. London: Peter Owen, 1980. Other works On English Poetry. New York: Alfred. A. Knopf, 1922; London: Heinemann, 1922. The Meaning of Dreams. London: Cecil Palmer, 1924; New York: Greenberg, 1925. Poetic Unreason and Other Studies. London: Cecil Palmer, 1925. Contemporary Techniques of Poetry: A Political Analogy. London: Hogarth Press, 1925. John Kemp's Wager: A Ballad Opera. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1925. Another Future of Poetry. London: Hogarth Press, 1926. Impenetrability or the Proper Habit of English. London: Hogarth Press, 1927. The English Ballad: A Short Critical Survey. London: Ernest Benn, 1927; revised as English and Scottish Ballads. London: William Heinemann, 1957; New York: Macmillan, 1957. Lars Porsena or the Future of Swearing and Improper Language. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1927; E. P. Dutton, New York, 1927; revised as The Future of Swearing and Improper Language. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1936. A Survey of Modernist Poetry (with Laura Riding). London: William Heinemann, 1927; New York: Doubleday, 1928. Lawrence and the Arabs. London: Jonathan Cape, 1927; as Lawrence and the Arabian Adventure. New York: Doubleday, 1928. A Pamphlet Against Anthologies (with Laura Riding). London: Jonathan Cape, 1928; as Against Anthologies. New York: Doubleday, 1928. Mrs. Fisher or the Future of Humour. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1928. Good-bye to All That: An Autobiography. London: Jonathan Cape, 1929; New York: Jonathan Cape and Smith, 1930; rev., New York: Doubleday, 1957; London: Cassell, 1957; Penguin: Harmondsworth, 1960. But It Still Goes On: An Accumulation. London: Jonathan Cape, 1930; New York: Jonathan Cape and Smith, 1931. T. E. Lawrence to His Biographer Robert Graves. New York: Doubleday, 1938; London: Faber & Faber, 1939. The Long Weekend (with Alan Hodge). London: Faber & Faber, 1940; New York: Macmillan, 1941. The Reader Over Your Shoulder (with Alan Hodge). London: Jonathan Cape, 1943; New York: Macmillan, 1943; New York, Seven Stories Press, 2017. The White Goddess. London: Faber & Faber, 1948; New York: Creative Age Press, 1948; rev., London: Faber & Faber, 1952, 1961; New York: Alfred. A. Knopf, 1958. The Common Asphodel: Collected Essays on Poetry 1922–1949. London: Hamish Hamilton, 1949. Occupation: Writer. New York: Creative Age Press, 1950; London: Cassell, 1951. The Golden Ass of Apuleius, New York: Farrar, Straus, 1951. The Nazarene Gospel Restored (with Joshua Podro). London: Cassell, 1953; New York: Doubleday, 1954. The Greek Myths. London: Penguin, 1955; Baltimore: Penguin, 1955. The Crowning Privilege: The Clark Lectures, 1954–1955. London: Cassell, 1955; New York: Doubleday, 1956. Adam's Rib. London: Trianon Press, 1955; New York: Yoseloff, 1958. Jesus in Rome (with Joshua Podro). London: Cassell, 1957. Steps. London: Cassell, 1958. 5 Pens in Hand. New York: Doubleday, 1958. The Anger of Achilles. New York: Doubleday, 1959. Food for Centaurs. New York: Doubleday, 1960. Greek Gods and Heroes. New York: Doubleday, 1960; as Myths of Ancient Greece. London: Cassell, 1961. 5 November address, X magazine, Volume One, Number Three, June 1960; An Anthology from X (Oxford University Press 1988). Selected Poetry and Prose (ed. James Reeves). London: Hutchinson, 1961. Oxford Addresses on Poetry. London: Cassell, 1962; New York: Doubleday, 1962. The Siege and Fall of Troy. London: Cassell, 1962; New York: Doubleday, 1963; New York, Seven Stories Press, 2017. The Big Green Book. New York: Crowell Collier, 1962; Penguin: Harmondsworth, 1978. Illustrated by Maurice Sendak Hebrew Myths: The Book of Genesis (with Raphael Patai). New York: Doubleday, 1964; London: Cassell, 1964. Majorca Observed. London: Cassell, 1965; New York: Doubleday, 1965. Mammon and the Black Goddess. London: Cassell, 1965; New York: Doubleday, 1965. Two Wise Children. New York: Harlin Quist, 1966; London: Harlin Quist, 1967. The Rubaiyyat of Omar Khayyam (with Omar Ali-Shah). London: Cassell, 1967. Poetic Craft and Principle. London: Cassell, 1967. The Poor Boy Who Followed His Star. London: Cassell, 1968; New York: Doubleday, 1969. Greek Myths and Legends. London: Cassell, 1968. The Crane Bag. London: Cassell, 1969. On Poetry: Collected Talks and Essays. New York: Doubleday, 1969. Difficult Questions, Easy Answers. London: Cassell, 1972; New York: Doubleday, 1973. In Broken Images: Selected Letters 1914–1946, ed. Paul O'Prey. London: Hutchinson, 1982 Between Moon and Moon: Selected Letters 1946–1972, ed. Paul O'Prey. London: Hutchinson, 1984 Life of the Poet Gnaeus Robertulus Gravesa, ed. Beryl & Lucia Graves. Deià: The New Seizin Press, 1990 Collected Writings on Poetry, ed. Paul O'Prey, Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1995. Complete Short Stories, ed. Lucia Graves, Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1995. Some Speculations on Literature, History, and Religion, ed. Patrick Quinn, Manchester: Carcanet Press, 2000. See also Joseph Campbell Mircea Eliade James Frazer Margaret Murray Citations General sources Graves, Robert (1960). Good-Bye to All That, London: Penguin. Seymour, Miranda (1995). Robert Graves: Life on the Edge, London: Doubleday. . External links Robert Graves Trust and Society Information Portal Robert Graves Foundation Profile at Poetry Foundation Profile, poems written and audio at poets.org Profile, poems written and audio at Poetry Archive Gallery of Graves's portraits, National Portrait Gallery, London Papers of Robert Graves: Correspondence, 1915–1996 Robert Graves's blue plaque at Islip, Oxfordshire; Blue Plaques Scheme Translated Penguin Books – at Penguin First Editions reference site of early first edition Penguin Books. Works and archives The Robert Graves Digital Archive by the University of Oxford Robert Graves collection at University of Victoria, Special Collections Robert Graves Papers at Southern Illinois University Carbondale Special Collections Research Center William S. Reese Collection of Robert Graves. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. Articles and interviews 1965 BBC television interview (29 mins) Article by Robert H. Canary, "Utopian and Fantastic Dualities in Robert Graves's Watch the North Wind Rise" "The Cool Web: A Robert Graves Oratorio" – First World War commemoration piece based on texts from Robert Graves's poems 1895 births 1985 deaths 20th-century atheists 20th-century British non-fiction writers 20th-century British poets 20th-century British short story writers 20th-century English male writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English poets 20th-century translators Alumni of St John's College, Oxford Bisexual men Bisexual writers British Army personnel of World War I Cultural critics English atheists English expatriates in Spain English historical novelists English LGBT novelists English LGBT poets English literary critics English male non-fiction writers English male novelists English male poets English male short story writers English memoirists English people of German descent English people of Irish descent English short story writers English World War I poets Graves family James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients Matriarchy Olympic competitors in art competitions Oxford Professors of Poetry People educated at Charterhouse School People educated at Copthorne Preparatory School People educated at King's College School, London People from Wimbledon, London People with post-traumatic stress disorder Prix Italia winners Royal Welch Fusiliers officers Translators of Omar Khayyám Writers of historical fiction set in antiquity Writers of style guides Military personnel from Surrey

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Australia

History of Australia

The history of Australia is the story of the land and peoples of the continent of Australia. People first arrived on the Australian mainland by sea from Maritime Southeast Asia between 50,000 and 65,000 years ago, and penetrated to all parts of the continent, from the rainforests in the north, the deserts of the centre, and the sub-Antarctic islands of Tasmania and Bass Strait. The artistic, musical and spiritual traditions they established are among the longest surviving such traditions in human history. The first Torres Strait Islanders - ethnically and culturally distinct from the Aboriginal people - arrived from what is now Papua New Guinea around 2,500 years ago, and settled in the islands of the Torres Strait and the Cape York Peninsula forming the northern tip of the Australian landmass. The first known landing in Australia by Europeans was in 1606 by Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon. Later that year, Spanish explorer Luís Vaz de Torres sailed through, and navigated, what is now called Torres Strait and associated islands. Twenty-nine other Dutch navigators explored the western and southern coasts in the 17th century and named the continent New Holland. Macassan trepangers visited Australia's northern coasts after 1720, possibly earlier. Other European explorers followed until, in 1770, Lieutenant James Cook charted the east coast of Australia for Great Britain. He returned to London with accounts favouring colonisation at Botany Bay (now in Sydney). The First Fleet of British ships arrived at Botany Bay in January 1788 to establish a penal colony, the first colony on the Australian mainland. In the century that followed, the British established other colonies on the continent, and European explorers ventured into its interior. Aboriginal people were greatly weakened and their numbers diminished by introduced diseases and conflict with the colonists during this period. Gold rushes and agricultural industries brought prosperity. Autonomous parliamentary democracies began to be established throughout the six British colonies from the mid-19th century. The colonies voted by referendum to unite in a federation in 1901, and modern Australia came into being. Australia fought on the side of Britain in the two world wars and became a long-standing ally of the United States when threatened by Imperial Japan during World War II. Trade with Asia increased and a post-war immigration program received more than 6.5 million migrants from every continent. Supported by immigration of people from almost every country in the world since the end of World War II, the population increased to more than 25.5 million by 2020, with 30 per cent of the population born overseas. Indigenous prehistory Humans are believed to have arrived in Australia 50,000 to 65,000 years ago. As hunter-gatherers, they established enduring spiritual and artistic traditions and used a range of implements adapted to their environments. Recent estimates of the population at the time of British settlement range from 500,000 to one million. There is considerable archaeological discussion as to the route taken by the first population. People appear to have arrived by sea during a period of glaciation, when New Guinea and Tasmania were joined to the continent; however, the journey still required sea travel, making them among the world's earliest mariners. Scott Cane wrote in 2013 that the first wave may have been prompted by the eruption of Lake Toba. If they arrived about 70,000 years ago, they could have crossed the water from Timor, when the sea level was low, but if they came later, around 50,000 years ago, a more likely route would have been through the Moluccas to New Guinea. Given that the likely landfall regions have been under approximately 50 metres of water for the past 15,000 years, it is unlikely that the timing will ever be established with certainty. The oldest known sites of human occupation in Australia are in Arnhem Land in the north of the continent and have been dated to between 50,000 and 65,000 BP. The population spread into a range of very different environments. Devil's Lair in the extreme south-west of the continent was occupied around 47,000 BP and Tasmania by 39,000 BP. The earliest known human remains in Australia, found at Lake Mungo, a dry lake in the southwest of New South Wales, are about 40,000 years old. Remains found at Mungo suggest one of the world's oldest known cremations, thus indicating early evidence for religious ritual among humans. The spread of the population also altered the environment. There is evidence of the deliberate use of fire to shape the Australian environment 46,000 years ago. In many parts of Australia, firestick farming was used to clear vegetation to make travel easier, drive animals into ambushes, and create open grasslands rich in animal and vegetable food sources. More than 60 species of animals, including Australian megafauna, became extinct by 10,000 ago. Researchers have variously attributed these extinctions to human hunting and firing practices, climate change or a combination of these factors. The inhabitants developed other technologies to better exploit diverse environments. Fibre and nets for use in watercraft and fishing developed before 40,000 BP. More complex tools, such as edge-ground axes hafted to wooden handles, appeared by 35,000 BP. Elaborate trade networks also developed. Ochre was transported 250 kilometres from the Barrier Range to Lake Mungo 40,000 years ago. Shells (for decorative beads) were transported 500 kilometres by 30,000 BP. More extensive trade networks developed in later times. The earliest Aboriginal rock art consists of hand-prints, hand-stencils, and engravings of circles, tracks, lines and cupules, and has been dated to 35,000 years ago. Around 20,000 year ago Aboriginal artists were depicting humans and animals. However, the dating is contentious and some researchers believe that known examples of Aboriginal rock art are possibly more recent. The Aboriginal population was confronted with significant changes to climate and environment. About 30,000 years ago, sea levels began to fall, temperatures in the south-east of the continent dropped by as much as 9 degrees Celsius, and the interior of Australia became more arid. About 20,000 years ago, New Guinea and Tasmania were connected to the Australian continent, which was more than a quarter larger than today. About 19,000 years ago temperatures and sea levels began to rise. Tasmania became separated from the mainland some 14,000 years ago, and between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago thousands of islands in the Torres Strait and around the coast of Australia were formed. Josephine Flood writes that the flooding and loss of land as coastlines receded might have led to greater emphasis on territorial boundaries separating groups, stronger clan identity, and the development of the Rainbow Serpent and other mythologies. The warmer climate was associated with new technologies. Small back-bladed stone tools appeared 15-19 thousand years ago. Wooden javelins and boomerangs have been found dating from 10,000 years ago. Stone points for spears have been found dating from 5-7 thousand years ago. Spear throwers were probably developed more recently than 6,500 years ago. Sea levels stabilised at around their current level about 6,500 years ago. Warmer weather, wetter conditions and the new coastlines led to significant changes in Aboriginal social and economic organisation. New coastal societies emerged around tidal reefs, estuaries and flooded river valleys, and coastal islands were incorporated into local economies. There was a proliferation of stone tool, plant processing and landscape modification technologies. Elaborate fish and eel traps involving channels up to three kilometres long were in use in western Victoria from about 6,500 years ago. Semi-permanent collections of wooden huts on mounds also appeared in western Victoria, associated with a more systematic exploitation of new food sources in the wetlands. Aboriginal Tasmanians were isolated from the mainland from about 14,000 years ago. As a result, they only possessed one quarter of the tools and equipment of the adjacent mainland and were without hafted axes, grinding technology, stone tipped weapons, spear throwers and the boomerang. By 3,700 BP they had ceased to eat fish and use bone tools. Coastal Tasmanians switched from fish to abalone and crayfish and more Tasmanians moved to the interior. The Tasmanians built watercraft from reeds and bark and journeyed up to 10 kilometres offshore to visit islands and hunt for seals and muttonbirds. Around 4,000 years ago the first phase of occupation of the Torres Strait Islands began. By 2,500 years ago more of the islands were occupied and a distinctive Torres Strait Island maritime culture emerged. Agriculture also developed on some islands and by 700 years ago villages appeared. One genetic study in 2012 has suggested that about 4,000 years ago, some Indian explorers settled in Australia and assimilated into the local population. However, more recent studies do not support this view. Nevertheless, some innovations were imported to the mainland from neighbouring cultures. The dingo was introduced about 4,000 years ago. Shell fish hooks appeared in Australia about 1,200 years ago and were probably introduced from the Torres Strait or by Polynesian seafarers. From the mid-1660s fishing vessels from Indonesia regularly visited the north coast of Australia in search of trepang (sea cucumber). Trade and social relationships developed which were reflected in Aboriginal art, ceremonies and oral traditions. Aboriginal people adopted dugout canoes and metal harpoon heads from the Indonesians which allowed them to better hunt dugong and turtle off the coast and nearby islands. Despite these interactions with neighbouring cultures, the basic structure of Aboriginal society was unchanged. Family groups were joined in bands and clans averaging about 25 people, each with a defined territory for foraging. Clans were attached to tribes or nations, associated with particular languages and country. At the time of European contact there were about 600 tribes or nations and 250 distinct languages with various dialects. Aboriginal society was egalitarian with no formal government or chiefs. Authority rested with elders who held extensive ritual knowledge gained over many years. Group decisions were generally made through the consensus of elders. The traditional economy was cooperative, with males generally hunting large game while females gathered local staples such as small animals, shellfish, vegetables, fruits, seeds and nuts. Food was shared within groups and exchanged across groups. Aboriginal groups were semi-nomadic, generally ranging over a specific territory defined by natural features. Members of a group would enter the territory of another group through rights established by marriage and kinship or by invitation for specific purposes such as ceremonies and sharing abundant seasonal foods. As all natural features of the land were created by ancestral beings, a group's particular country provided physical and spiritual nourishment. According to Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, the Dreaming is a sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land. The extent to which some Aboriginal societies were agricultural is controversial. In the Lake Condah region of western Victoria the inhabitants built elaborate eel and fish traps and hundreds gathered in semi-permanent stone and bark huts during the eel season. However, these groups still moved across their territory several times a year to exploit other seasonal food sources. In semi-arid areas, millet was harvested, stacked and threshed and the seeds stored for later use. In tropical areas the tops of yams were replanted. Flood argues that such practices are better classified as resource management than agriculture and that Aboriginal societies did not develop the systematic cultivation of crops or permanent villages such as existed in the Torres Strait Islands. Elizabeth Williams has called the inhabitants of the more settled regions of the Murray valley "complex hunter gatherers". Early European exploration Dutch discovery and exploration Although a theory of Portuguese discovery in the 1520s exists, it lacks definitive evidence. The Dutch East India Company ship, Duyfken, captained by Willem Janszoon, made the first documented European landing in Australia in 1606. That same year, a Spanish expedition sailing in nearby waters and led by Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós had landed in the New Hebrides and, believing them to be the fabled southern continent, named the land "Austrialia del Espiritu Santo" (Southern Land of the Holy Spirit), in honour of his queen Margaret of Austria, the wife of Philip III of Spain. Later that year, Queirós' deputy Luís Vaz de Torres sailed to the north of Australia through Torres Strait, along New Guinea's southern coast. The Dutch contributed a great deal to Europe's knowledge of Australia's coast. In 1616, Dirk Hartog, sailing off course, en route from the Cape of Good Hope to Batavia, landed on an island off Shark Bay, Western Australia. In 1622–23 the Leeuwin made the first recorded rounding of the south west corner of the continent, and gave her name to Cape Leeuwin. In 1627, the south coast of Australia was accidentally discovered by François Thijssen and named t Land van Pieter Nuyts, in honour of the highest ranking passenger, Pieter Nuyts, extraordinary Councillor of India. In 1628, a squadron of Dutch ships was sent by the Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies Pieter de Carpentier to explore the northern coast. These ships made extensive examinations, particularly in the Gulf of Carpentaria, named in honour of de Carpentier. Abel Tasman's voyage of 1642 was the first known European expedition to reach Van Diemen's Land (later Tasmania) and New Zealand, and to sight Fiji. On his second voyage of 1644, he also contributed significantly to the mapping of the Australian mainland (which he called New Holland), making observations on the land and people of the north coast below New Guinea. Following Tasman's voyages, the Dutch were able to make almost complete maps of Australia's northern and western coasts and much of its southern and south-eastern Tasmanian coasts, as reflected in the 1648 map by Joan Blaeu, Nova et Accuratissima Terrarum Orbis Tabula. British and French exploration William Dampier, an English buccaneer and explorer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688 and again in 1699, and published influential descriptions of the Aboriginal people. In 1769, Lieutenant James Cook in command of , travelled to Tahiti to observe and record the transit of Venus. Cook also carried secret Admiralty instructions to locate the supposed Southern Continent. This continent was not found, a disappointment to Alexander Dalrymple and his fellow members of the Royal Society who had urged the Admiralty to undertake this mission. Cook decided to survey the east coast of New Holland, the only major part of that continent that had not been charted by Dutch navigators. On 19 April 1770 the Endeavour reached the east coast of New Holland and ten days later anchored at Botany Bay. Cook charted the coast to its northern extent and formally took possession of the east coast of New Holland on 21/22 August 1770 when on Possession Island off the west coast of Cape York Peninsula. He noted in his journal that he could "land no more upon this Eastern coast of New Holland, and on the Western side I can make no new discovery the honour of which belongs to the Dutch Navigators and as such they may lay Claim to it as their property [italicised words crossed out in the original] but the Eastern Coast from the Latitude of 38 South down to this place I am confident was never seen or viseted by any European before us and therefore by the same Rule belongs to great Brittan" [italicised words crossed out in the original]. In March 1772 Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne, in command of two French ships, reached Van Diemen's land on his way to Tahiti and the South Seas. His party became the first recorded Europeans to encounter the Indigenous Tasmanians and to kill one of them. In the same year, a French expedition led by Louis Aleno de St Aloüarn, became the first Europeans to formally claim sovereignty over the west coast of Australia, but no attempt was made to follow this with colonisation. Colonisation Plans for colonisation before 1788 Although various proposals for the colonisation of Australia were made prior to 1788, none were attempted. In 1717, Jean-Pierre Purry sent a plan to the Dutch East India Company for the colonisation of an area in modern South Australia. The company rejected the plan with the comment that, "There is no prospect of use or benefit to the Company in it, but rather very certain and heavy costs". In contrast, Emanuel Bowen, in 1747, promoted the benefits of exploring and colonising the country, writing: John Harris' Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca, or Voyages and Travels (1744–1748, 1764) recommended exploration of the east coast of New Holland, with a view to a British colonisation, by way of Abel Tasman's route to Van Diemen's Land. John Callander put forward a proposal in 1766 for Britain to found a colony of banished convicts in the South Sea or in Terra Australis to enable the mother country to exploit the riches of those regions. He said: "this world must present us with many things entirely new, as hitherto we have had little more knowledge of it, than if it had lain in another planet". Sweden's King Gustav III had ambitions to establish a colony for his country at the Swan River in 1786 but the plan was stillborn. Sixteen years after Cook's landfall on the east coast of Australia, the British government decided to establish a colony at Botany Bay. The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) saw Britain lose most of its North American colonies and consider establishing replacement territories. Britain had transported about 50,000 convicts to the New World from 1718 to 1775 and was now searching for an alternative. The temporary solution of floating prison hulks had reached capacity and was a public health hazard, while the option of building more jails and workhouses was deemed too expensive. In 1779, Sir Joseph Banks, the eminent scientist who had accompanied James Cook on his 1770 voyage, recommended Botany Bay as a suitable site for a penal settlement. Banks's plan was to send 200 to 300 convicts to Botany Bay where they could be left to their own devices and not be a burden on the British taxpayer. Under Banks's guidance, the American Loyalist James Matra, who had also travelled with Cook, produced a new plan for colonising New South Wales in 1783. Matra argued that the country was suitable for plantations of sugar, cotton and tobacco; New Zealand timber and hemp or flax could prove valuable commodities; it could form a base for Pacific trade; and it could be a suitable compensation for displaced American Loyalists. Following an interview with Secretary of State Lord Sydney in 1784, Matra amended his proposal to include convicts as settlers, considering that this would benefit both "Economy to the Publick, & Humanity to the Individual". The London newspapers announced in November 1784 that: "A plan has been presented to the [Prime] Minister, and is now before the Cabinet, for instituting a new colony in New Holland. In this vast tract of land....every sort of produce and improvement of which the various soils of the earth are capable, may be expected". The major alternative to Botany Bay was sending convicts to Africa. From 1775 convicts had been sent to garrison British forts in west Africa, but the experiment had proved unsuccessful. In 1783, the Pitt government considered exiling convicts to a small river island in Gambia where they could form a self-governing community, a "colony of thieves", at no expense to the government. In 1785, a parliamentary select committee chaired by Lord Beauchamp recommended against the Gambia plan, but failed to endorse the alternative of Botany Bay. In a second report, Beauchamp recommended a penal settlement at Das Voltas Bay in modern Namibia. The plan was dropped, however, when an investigation of the site in 1786 found it to be unsuitable. Two weeks later, In August 1786, the Pitt government announced its intention to send convicts to Botany Bay. The Government incorporated the settlement of Norfolk Island into their plan, with its attractions of timber and flax, proposed by Banks's Royal Society colleagues, Sir John Call and Sir George Young. There has been a longstanding debate over whether the key consideration in the decision to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay was the pressing need to find a solution to the penal management problem, or whether broader imperial goals — such as trade, securing new supplies of timber and flax for the navy, and the desirability of strategic ports in the region — were paramount. Leading historians in the debate have included Sir Ernest Scott, Geoffrey Blainey, and Alan Frost. The decision to settle was taken when it seemed the outbreak of civil war in the Netherlands might precipitate a war in which Britain would be again confronted with the alliance of the three naval Powers, France, Holland and Spain, which had brought her to defeat in 1783. Under these circumstances a naval base in New South Wales which could facilitate attacks on Dutch and Spanish interests in the region would be attractive. Specific plans for using the colony as a strategic base against Spanish interests were occasionally made after 1788, but never implemented. Macintyre argues that the evidence for a military-strategic motive in establishing the colony is largely circumstantial and hard to reconcile with the strict ban on establishing a shipyard in the colony. Karskens points out that the instructions provided to the first five governors of New South Wales show that the initial plans for the colony were limited. The settlement was to be a self-sufficient penal colony based on subsistence agriculture. Trade, shipping and ship building were banned in order to keep the convicts isolated and so as not to interfere with the trade monopoly of the British East India Company. There was no plan for economic development apart from investigating the possibility of producing raw materials for Britain. Christopher and Maxwell-Stewart argue that whatever the government's original motives were in establishing the colony, by the 1790s it had at least achieved the imperial objective of providing a harbour where vessels could be careened and resupplied. The colony of New South Wales Establishment of the colony: 1788 to 1792 The territory of New South Wales claimed by Britain included all of Australia eastward of the meridian of 135° East. This included more than half of mainland Australia and reflected the line of division between the claims of Spain and Portugal established in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. Watkin Tench subsequently commented in A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay, "By this partition, it may be fairly presumed, that every source of future litigation between the Dutch and us, will be for ever cut off, as the discoveries of English navigators only are comprized in this territory". The claim also included "all the Islands adjacent in the Pacific" between the latitudes of Cape York and the southern tip of Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania). King argues that an unofficial British map published in 1786 (A General Chart of New Holland) showed the possible extend of this claim. In 1817, the British government withdrew the extensive territorial claim over the South Pacific, passing an act specifying that Tahiti, New Zealand and other islands of the South Pacific were not within His Majesty's dominions. However, it is unclear whether the claim ever extended to the current islands of New Zealand. The colony of New South Wales was established with the arrival of the First Fleet of 11 vessels under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip in January 1788. It consisted of more than a thousand settlers, including 778 convicts (192 women and 586 men). A few days after arrival at Botany Bay the fleet moved to the more suitable Port Jackson where a settlement was established at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788. This date later became Australia's national day, Australia Day. The colony was formally proclaimed by Governor Phillip on 7 February 1788 at Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Philip described as being, 'with out exception the finest Harbour in the World [...] Here a Thousand Sail of the Line may ride in the most perfect Security'. Governor Phillip was vested with complete authority over the inhabitants of the colony. His personal intent was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony. Phillip and several of his officers—most notably Watkin Tench—left behind journals and accounts of which tell of immense hardships during the first years of settlement. Often Phillip's officers despaired for the future of New South Wales. Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from overseas were scarce. Between 1788 and 1792 about 3546 male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney. Many new arrivals were sick or unfit for work and the conditions of healthy convicts only deteriorated with hard labour and poor sustenance in the settlement. The food situation reached crisis point in 1790 and the Second Fleet which finally arrived in June 1790 had lost a quarter of its 'passengers' through sickness, while the condition of the convicts of the Third Fleet appalled Phillip; however, from 1791 the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and improved supplies. In 1788, Phillip established a subsidiary settlement on Norfolk Island in the South Pacific where he hoped to obtain timber and flax for the navy. The island, however, had no safe harbour, which led the settlement to be abandoned and the settlers evacuated to Tasmania in 1807. The island was subsequently re-established as a site for secondary transportation in 1825. Phillip sent exploratory missions in search of better soils, fixed on the Parramatta region as a promising area for expansion, and moved many of the convicts from late 1788 to establish a small township, which became the main centre of the colony's economic life. This left Sydney Cove only as an important port and focus of social life. Poor equipment and unfamiliar soils and climate continued to hamper the expansion of farming from Farm Cove to Parramatta and Toongabbie, but a building program, assisted by convict labour, advanced steadily. Between 1788 and 1792, convicts and their gaolers made up the majority of the population; however, a free population soon began to grow, consisting of emancipated convicts, locally born children, soldiers whose military service had expired and, finally, free settlers from Britain. Governor Phillip departed the colony for England on 11 December 1792, with the new settlement having survived near starvation and immense isolation for four years. A number of foreign commentators pointed to the strategic importance of the new colony. Spanish naval commander Alessandro Malaspina, who visited Sydney in March–April 1793 reported to his government that: "The transportation of the convicts constituted the means and not the object of the enterprise. The extension of dominion, mercantile speculations and the discovery of mines were the real object." Frenchman François Péron, of the Baudin expedition visited Sydney in 1802 and reported to the French Government: "How can it be conceived that such a monstrous invasion was accomplished, with no complaint in Europe to protest against it? How can it be conceived that Spain, who had previously raised so many objections opposing the occupation of the Malouines (Falkland Islands), meekly allowed a formidable empire to arise to facing her richest possessions, an empire which must either invade or liberate them?" King points out that supporters of the penal colony frequently compared the venture to the foundation of Rome, and that the first Great Seal of New South Wales alluded to this. Phillip, however, wrote, "I would not wish Convicts to lay the foundations of an Empire...[.]" Consolidation: 1793 to 1821 After the departure of Phillip, the colony's military officers began acquiring land and importing consumer goods obtained from visiting ships. Former convicts also farmed land granted to them and engaged in trade. Farms spread to the more fertile lands surrounding Paramatta, Windsor and Camden, and by 1803 the colony was self-sufficient in grain. Boat building developed in order to make travel easier and exploit the marine resources of the coastal settlements. Sealing and whaling became important industries. The New South Wales Corps was formed in England in 1789 as a permanent regiment of the British Army to relieve the marines who had accompanied the First Fleet. Officers of the Corps soon became involved in the corrupt and lucrative rum trade in the colony. Governor William Bligh (1806 - 1808) tried to suppress the rum trade and the illegal use of Crown Land, resulting in the Rum Rebellion of 1808. The Corps, working closely with the newly established wool trader John Macarthur, staged the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history, deposing Bligh and instigating a brief period of military rule prior to the arrival from Britain of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810. Macquarie served as the last autocratic Governor of New South Wales, from 1810 to 1821, and had a leading role in the social and economic development of New South Wales which saw it transition from a penal colony to a budding civil society. He established a bank, a currency and a hospital. He employed a planner to design the street layout of Sydney and commissioned the construction of roads, wharves, churches, and public buildings. He sent explorers out from Sydney and, in 1815, a road across the Blue Mountains was completed, opening the way for large scale farming and grazing in the lightly-wooded pastures west of the Great Dividing Range. Central to Macquarie's policy was his treatment of the emancipists, whom he considered should be treated as social equals to free-settlers in the colony. He appointed emancipists to key government positions including Francis Greenway as colonial architect and William Redfern as a magistrate. His policy on emancipists was opposed by many influential free settlers, officers and officials, and London became concerned at the cost of his public works. In 1819, London appointed J. T. Bigge to conduct an inquiry into the colony, and Macquarie resigned shortly before the report of the inquiry was published. Expansion: 1821 to 1850 In 1820, British settlement was largely confined to a 100 kilometre radius around Sydney and to the central plain of Van Diemen's land. The settler population was 26,000 on the mainland and 6,000 in Van Diemen's Land. Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 the transportation of convicts increased rapidly and the number of free settlers grew steadily. From 1821 to 1840, 55,000 convicts arrived in New South Wales and 60,000 in Van Diemen's Land. However, by 1830, free settlers and the locally born exceeded the convict population of New South Wales. From the 1820s squatters increasingly established unauthorised cattle and sheep runs beyond the official limits of the settled colony. In 1836, a system of annual licences authorising grazing on Crown Land was introduced in an attempt to control the pastoral industry, but booming wool prices and the high cost of land in the settled areas encouraged further squatting. By 1844 wool accounted for half of the colony's exports and by 1850 most of the eastern third of New South Wales was controlled by fewer than 2,000 pastoralists. In 1825, the western boundary of New South Wales was extended to longitude 129° East, which is the current boundary of Western Australia. As a result, the territory of New South Wales reached its greatest extent, covering the area of the modern state as well as modern Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and the Northern Territory. By 1850 the settler population of New South Wales had grown to 180,000, not including the 70-75 thousand living in the area which became the separate colony of Victoria in 1851. Establishment of further colonies Van Diemen's Land After hosting Nicholas Baudin's French naval expedition in Sydney in 1802, Governor Phillip Gidley King decided to establish a settlement in Van Diemen's Land (modern Tasmania) in 1803, partly to forestall a possible French settlement. The British settlement of the island soon centred on Launceston in the north and Hobart in the south. For the first two decades the settlement relied heavily on convict labour, small-scale farming and sheep grazing, sealing, whaling and the "dog and kangaroo" economy where emancipists and escaped convicts hunted native game with guns and dogs. From the 1820s free settlers were encouraged by the offer of land grants in proportion to the capital the settlers would bring. Almost 2 million acres of land was granted to free settlers in the decade, and the number of sheep in the island increased from 170,000 to a million. The land grants created a social division between large landowners and a majority of landless convicts and emancipists. Van Diemen's Land became a separate colony from New South Wales in December 1825 and continued to expand through the 1830s, supported by farming, sheep grazing and whaling. Following the suspension of convict transportation to New South Wales in 1840, Van Diemen's land became the main destination for convicts. Transportation to Van Diemen's Land ended in 1853 and in 1856 the colony officially changed its name to Tasmania. Victoria Pastoralists from Van Diemen's land began squatting in the Port Phillip hinterland on the mainland in 1834, attracted by its rich grasslands. In 1835, John Batman and others negotiated the transfer of 100,000 acres of land from the Kulin people. However, the treaty was annulled the same year when the British Colonial Office issued the Proclamation of Governor Bourke stating that all unalienated land in the colony was vacant Crown Land, irrespective of whether it was occupied by traditional landowners. Its publication meant that from then, all people found occupying land without the authority of the government would be considered illegal trespassers. In 1836, Port Phillip was officially recognised as a district of New South Wales and opened for settlement. The main settlement of Melbourne was established in 1837 as a planned town on the instructions of Governor Bourke. Squatters and settlers from Van Diemen's Land and New South Wales soon arrived in large numbers, and by 1850 the district had a population of 75,000 Europeans, 2,000 Indigenous inhabitants and 5 million sheep. In 1851, the Port Phillip District separated from New South Wales as the colony of Victoria. Western Australia In 1826, the governor of New South Wales, Ralph Darling, sent a military garrison to King George Sound (the basis of the later town of Albany), to deter the French from establishing a settlement in Western Australia. In 1827, the head of the expedition, Major Edmund Lockyer, formally annexed the western third of the continent as a British colony. In 1829, the Swan River colony was established at the sites of modern Fremantle and Perth, becoming the first convict-free and privatised colony in Australia. However, much of the arable land was allocated to absentee owners and the development of the colony was hampered by poor soil, the dry climate, and a lack of capital and labour. By 1850 there were a little more than 5,000 settlers, half of them children. The colony accepted convicts from that year because of the acute shortage of labour. South Australia The Province of South Australia was established in 1836 as a privately financed settlement based on the theory of "systematic colonisation" developed by Edward Gibbon Wakefield. The intention was to found a free colony based on private investment at little cost to the British government. Power was divided between the Crown and a Board of Commissioners of Colonisation, responsible to about 300 shareholders. Settlement was to be controlled to promote a balance between land, capital and labour. Convict labour was banned in the hope of making the colony more attractive to "respectable" families and promote an even balance between male and female settlers. The city of Adelaide was to be planned with a generous provision of churches, parks and schools. Land was to be sold at a uniform price and the proceeds used to secure an adequate supply of labour through selective assisted migration. Various religious, personal and commercial freedoms were guaranteed, and the Letters Patent enabling the South Australia Act 1834 included a guarantee of the rights of 'any Aboriginal Natives' and their descendants to lands they 'now actually occupied or enjoyed'. The colony was badly hit by the depression of 1841-44, and overproduction of wheat and overinvestment in infrastructure almost bankrupted it. Conflict with Indigenous traditional landowners also reduced the protections they had been promised. In 1842, the settlement became a Crown colony administered by the governor and an appointed Legislative Council. The economy recovered from 1845, supported by wheat farming, sheep grazing and a boom in copper mining. By 1850 the settler population had grown to 60,000 and the following year the colony achieved limited self-government with a partially elected Legislative Council. Queensland In 1824, the Moreton Bay penal settlement was established on the site of present day Brisbane as a place of secondary punishment. In 1842, the penal colony was closed and the area was opened for free settlement. By 1850 the population of Brisbane had reached 8,000 and increasing numbers of pastoralists were grazing cattle and sheep in the Darling Downs west of the town. However, several attempts to establish settlements north of the Tropic of Capricorn had failed, and the settler population in the north remained small. Frontier violence between settlers and the Indigenous population became severe as pastoralism expanded north of the Tweed River. A series of disputes between northern pastoralists and the government in Sydney led to increasing demands from the northern settlers for separation from New South Wales. In 1857, the British government agreed to the separation and in 1859 the colony of Queensland was proclaimed. The settler population of the new colony was 25,000 and the vast majority of its territory was still occupied by its traditional owners. Convicts and colonial society Convicts and emancipists Between 1788 and 1868, approximately 161,700 convicts (of whom 25,000 were women) were transported to the Australian colonies of New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land and Western Australia. Historian Lloyd Robson has estimated that perhaps two-thirds were thieves from working class towns, particularly from the Midlands and north of England. The majority were repeat offenders. The literacy rate of convicts was above average and they brought a range of useful skills to the new colony including building, farming, sailing, fishing and hunting. The small number of free settlers meant that early governors also had to rely on convicts and emancipists for professions such as lawyers, architects, surveyors and teachers. The first governors saw New South Wales as a place of punishment and reform of convicts. Convicts worked on government farms and public works such as land clearing and building. After 1792 the majority were assigned to work for private employers including emancipists (as transported convicts who had completed their sentence or had been pardoned called themselves). Emancipists were granted small plots of land for farming and a year of government rations. Later they were assigned convict labour to help them work their farms. Some convicts were assigned to military officers to run their businesses because the officers did not want to be directly associated with trade. These convicts learnt commercial skills which could help them work for themselves when their sentence ended or they were granted a "ticket of leave" (a form of parole). Convicts soon established a system of piece work which allowed them to work for wages once their allocated tasks were completed. Due to the shortage of labour, wage rates before 1815 were high for male workers although much lower for females engaged in domestic work. In 1814, Governor Macquarie ordered that convicts had to work until 3 p.m. after which private employers had to pay them wages for any additional work. By 1821 convicts, emancipists and their children owned two-thirds of the land under cultivation, half the cattle and one-third of the sheep. They also worked in trades and small business. Emancipists employed about half of the convicts assigned to private masters. After 1815 wages and employment opportunities for convicts and emancipists deteriorated as a sharp increase in the number of convicts transported led to an oversupply of labour. A series of reforms recommended by J. T. Bigge in 1822 and 1823 also sought to change the nature of the colony and make transportation "an object of real terror". The food ration for convicts was cut and their opportunities to work for wages restricted. More convicts were assigned to rural work gangs, bureaucratic control and surveillance of convicts was made more systematic, isolated penal settlements were established as places of secondary punishment, the rules for tickets of leave were tightened, and land grants were skewed to favour free settlers with large capital. As a result, convicts who arrived after 1820 were far less likely to become property owners, to marry, and to establish families. Free settlers The Bigge reforms also aimed to encourage affluent free settlers by offering them land grants for farming and grazing in proportion to their capital. From 1831 the colonies replaced land grants with land sales by auction at a fixed minimum price per acre, the proceeds being used to fund the assisted migration of workers. From 1821 to 1850 Australia attracted 200,000 immigrants from the United Kingdom. Although most immigrants settled in towns, many were attracted to the high wages and business opportunities available in rural areas. However, the system of land grants, and later land sales, led to the concentration of land in the hands of a small number of affluent settlers. Two-thirds of the migrants to Australia during this period received assistance from the British or colonial governments. Healthy young workers without dependants were favoured for assisted migration, especially those with experience as agricultural labourers or domestic workers. Families of convicts were also offered free passage and about 3,500 migrants were selected under the English Poor Laws. Various special-purpose and charitable schemes, such as those of Caroline Chisholm and John Dunmore Lang, also provided migration assistance. Women Colonial Australia was characterised by an imbalance of the sexes as women comprised only about 15 per cent of convicts transported. The first female convicts brought a range of skills including experience as domestic workers, dairy women and farm workers. Due to the shortage of women in the colony they were more likely to marry than men and tended to choose older, skilled men with property as husbands. The early colonial courts enforced the property rights of women independently of their husbands, and the ration system also gave women and their children some protection from abandonment. Women were active in business and agriculture from the early years of the colony, among the most successful being the former convict turned entrepreneur Mary Reibey and the agriculturalist Elizabeth Macarthur. One-third of the shareholders of the first colonial bank (founded in 1817) were women. One of the goals of the assisted migration programs from the 1830s was to promote migration of women and families to provide a more even gender balance in the colonies. The philanthropist Caroline Chisholm established a shelter and labour exchange for migrant women in New South Wales in the 1840s and promoted the settlement of single and married women in rural areas where she hoped they would have a civilising influence on rough colonial manners and act as "God's police". Between 1830 and 1850 the female proportion of the Australian settler population increased from 24 per cent to 41 per cent. Religion The early chaplains of the colony were also civil magistrates with the power to discipline convicts and grant tickets of leave. The Church of England was the only recognised church before 1820 and its clergy worked closely with the governors. Richard Johnson, (chief chaplain 17881802) was charged by Governor Arthur Phillip, with improving "public morality" in the colony and was also heavily involved in health and education. Samuel Marsden (various ministries 17951838) became known for his missionary work, the severity of his punishments as a magistrate, and the vehemence of his public denunciations of Catholicism and Irish convicts.About a quarter of convicts were Catholics and they frequently requested a Catholic priest to perform their rites. The lack of official recognition of Catholicism was combined with suspicion of Irish convicts which only increased after the Irish-led Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804. Only two Catholic priests operated temporarily in the colony before Governor Macquarie appointed official Catholic chaplains in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land in 1820. The Bigge reports recommended that the status of the Anglican Church be enhanced as source of stability and moral authority in the colony. An Anglican archdeacon was appointed in 1824 and allocated a seat in the first advisory Legislative Council. The Anglican clergy and schools also received state support. This policy was changed under Governor Burke by the Church Acts of 1836 and 1837. The government now provided state support for the clergy and church buildings of the four largest denominations: Anglican, Catholic, Presbyterian and, later, Methodist. The Church Acts did not alleviate sectarianism as many Anglicans saw state support of the Catholic Church as a threat. The prominent Presbyterian minister John Dunmore Lang also promoted sectarian divisions in the 1840s. State support, however, led to a growth in church activities. Charitable associations such as the Catholic Sisters of Charity, founded in 1838, provided hospitals, orphanages and asylums for the old and disabled. Religious organisations were also the main providers of school education in the first half of the nineteenth century, a notable example being Lang's Australian College which opened in 1831. Many religious associations, such as the Sisters of St Joseph, co-founded by Mary MacKillop in 1866, continued their educational activities after the provision of secular state schools grew from the 1850s. Exploration of the continent In 1798–99 George Bass and Matthew Flinders set out from Sydney in a sloop and circumnavigated Tasmania, thus proving it to be an island. In 1801–02 Matthew Flinders in led the first circumnavigation of Australia. Aboard ship was the Aboriginal explorer Bungaree, of the Sydney district, who became the first person born on the Australian continent to circumnavigate the Australian continent. In 1798, the former convict John Wilson and two companions crossed the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney, in an expedition ordered by Governor Hunter. Hunter suppressed news of the feat for fear that it would encourage convicts to abscond from the settlement. In 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Wentworth crossed the mountains by a different route and a road was soon built to the Central Tablelands. In 1824, the Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane, commissioned Hamilton Hume and former Royal Navy Captain William Hovell to lead an expedition to find new grazing land in the south of the colony, and also to find an answer to the mystery of where New South Wales' western rivers flowed. Over 16 weeks in 1824–25, Hume and Hovell journeyed to Port Phillip and back. They made many important discoveries including the Murray River (which they named the Hume), many of its tributaries, and good agricultural and grazing lands between Gunning, New South Wales and Corio Bay, Port Phillip. Charles Sturt led an expedition along the Macquarie River in 1828 and discovered the Darling River. A theory had developed that the inland rivers of New South Wales were draining into an inland sea. Leading a second expedition in 1829, Sturt followed the Murrumbidgee River into a 'broad and noble river', which he named the Murray River. His party then followed this river to its junction with the Darling River. Sturt continued down river on to Lake Alexandrina, where the Murray meets the sea in South Australia. Surveyor General Sir Thomas Mitchell conducted a series of expeditions from the 1830s to 'fill in the gaps' left by these previous expeditions. Mitchell employed three Aboriginal guides and was meticulous in recording the Aboriginal place names around the colony. He also recorded a violent encounter with traditional owners on the Murray in 1836 in which his men pursued them, "shooting as many as they could." The Polish scientist and explorer Count Paul Edmund Strzelecki conducted surveying work in the Australian Alps in 1839 and, led by his two Aboriginal guides Charlie Tarra and Jackie, became the first European to ascend Australia's highest peak, which he named Mount Kosciuszko in honour of the Polish patriot Tadeusz Kościuszko.European explorers penetrated deeper into the interior in the 1840s in a quest to discover new lands for agriculture or answer scientific enquiries. The German scientist Ludwig Leichhardt led three expeditions in northern Australia in this decade, sometimes with the help of Aboriginal guides, identifying the grazing potential of the region and making important discoveries in the fields of botany and geology. He and his party disappeared in 1848 while attempting to cross the continent from east to west. Edmund Kennedy led an expedition into what is now far-western Queensland in 1847 before being speared by Aborigines in the Cape York Peninsula in 1848. In 1860, Burke and Wills led the first south–north crossing of the continent from Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Lacking bushcraft and unwilling to learn from the local Aboriginal people, Burke and Wills died in 1861, having returned from the Gulf to their rendezvous point at Coopers Creek only to discover the rest of their party had departed the location only a matter of hours previously. They became tragic heroes to the European settlers, their funeral attracting a crowd of more than 50,000 and their story inspiring numerous books, artworks, films and representations in popular culture. In 1862, John McDouall Stuart succeeded in traversing Central Australia from south to north. His expedition mapped out the route which was later followed by the Australian Overland Telegraph Line. The completion of the Overland Telegraph Line in 1872 was associated with further exploration of the Gibson Desert and the Nullarbor Plain. While exploring central Australia in 1872, Ernest Giles sighted Kata Tjuta from a location near Kings Canyon and called it Mount Olga. The following year Willian Gosse observed Uluru and named it Ayers Rock, in honour of the Chief Secretary of South Australia, Sir Henry Ayers. In 1879, Alexander Forrest trekked from the north coast of Western Australia to the Overland Telegraph, discovering land suitable for grazing in the Kimberley region. Impact of British settlement on Indigenous population When the First Fleet arrived in Sydney Cove with some 1,300 colonists in January 1788 the Aboriginal population of the Sydney region is estimated to have been about 3,000 people. The first governor of New South Wales, Arthur Phillip, arrived with instructions to: "endeavour by every possible means to open an Intercourse with the Natives and to conciliate their affections, enjoining all Our Subjects to live in amity and kindness with them." Disease The relative isolation of the Indigenous population for some 60,000 years meant that they had little resistance to many introduced diseases. An outbreak of smallpox in April 1789 killed about half the Aboriginal population of the Sydney region while only one death was recorded among the settlers. The source of the outbreak is controversial; some researchers contend that it originated from contact with Indonesian fisherman in the far north and spread along Aboriginal trade routes while others argue that it is more likely to have been deliberately spread by settlers. There were further smallpox outbreaks devastating Aboriginal populations from the late 1820s (affecting south-eastern Australia), in the early 1860s (travelling inland from the Coburg Peninsula in the north to the Great Australian Bight in the south), and in the late 1860s (from the Kimberley to Geraldton). According to Josphine Flood, the estimated Aboriginal mortality rate from smallpox was 60 per cent on first exposure, 50 per cent in the tropics, and 25 per cent in the arid interior. Other introduced diseases such as measles, influenza, typhoid and tuberculosis also resulted in high death rates in Aboriginal communities. Butlin estimates that the Aboriginal population in the area of modern Victoria was around 50,000 in 1788 before two smallpox outbreaks reduced it to about 12,500 in 1830. Between 1835 (the settlement of Port Phillip) and 1853, the Aboriginal population of Victoria fell from 10,000 to around 2,000. It is estimated that about 60 per cent of these deaths were from introduced diseases, 18 per cent from natural causes and 15 per cent from settler violence. Venereal diseases were also a factor in Indigenous depopulation, reducing Aboriginal fertility rates in south-eastern Australia by an estimated 40 per cent by 1855. By 1890 up to 50 per cent of the Aboriginal population in some regions of Queensland were affected. Conflict and dispossession The British settlement was initially planned to be a self-sufficient penal colony based on agriculture. Karskens argues that conflict broke out between the settlers and the traditional owners of the land because of the settlers' assumptions about the superiority of British civilisation and their entitlement to land which they had "improved" through building and cultivation. Broome argues that the British claims of exclusive possession to land and other property was irreconcilable with Aboriginal concepts of communal ownership of land and its food resources. Flood points out that conflict between British law and Aboriginal customary law was also a source of conflict; for example, Aboriginal groups considered they had a right to hunt all animals on their traditional land whereas British settlers considered the killing of their livestock as poaching. Conflict also arose from cross-cultural misunderstandings and from reprisals for previous actions such as the kidnapping of Aboriginal men, women and children. Reprisal attacks and collective punishments were perpetrated by colonists and Aboriginal groups alike. Sustained Aboriginal attacks on settlers, the burning of crops and the mass killing of livestock were more obviously acts of resistance to the loss of traditional land and food resources. As the colony spread to the more fertile lands around the Hawkesbury river, north-west of Sydney, conflict between the settlers and the Darug people intensified, reaching a peak from 1794 to 1810. Bands of Darug people, led by Pemulwuy and later by his son Tedbury, burned crops, killed livestock and raided settler huts and stores in a pattern of resistance that was to be repeated as the colonial frontier expanded. A military garrison was established on the Hawkesbury in 1795. The death toll from 1794 to 1800 was 26 settlers and up to 200 Darug. Conflict again erupted from 1814 to 1816 with the expansion of the colony into Dharawal country in the Nepean region south-west of Sydney. Following the deaths of several settlers, Governor Macquarie despatched three military detachments into Dharawal lands, culminating in the Appin massacre (April 1816) in which at least 14 Aboriginal people were killed. In the 1820s the colony spread to the lightly-wooded pastures west of the Great Dividing Range, opening the way for large scale farming and grazing in Wiradjuri country. From 1822 to 1824 Windradyne led a group of 50-100 Aboriginal men in raids on livestock and stockmen's huts resulting in the death of 15-20 colonists. Martial law was declared in August 1824 and ended five months later when Windradyne and 260 of his followers ended their armed resistance. Estimates of Aboriginal deaths in the conflict range from 15 to 100. After two decades of sporadic violence between settlers and Aboriginal Tasmanians in Van Diemen's land, the Black War broke out in 1824, following a rapid expansion of settler numbers and sheep grazing in the island's interior. When Eumarrah, leader of the North Midlands people, was captured in 1828 he said his patriotic duty was to kill as many white people as possible because they had driven his people off their kangaroo hunting grounds. Martial law was declared in the settled districts of Van Diemen's Land in November 1828 and was extended to the entire island in October 1830. A "Black Line" of around 2,200 troops and settlers then swept the island with the intention of driving the Aboriginal population from the settled districts. From 1830 to 1834 George Augustus Robinson and Aboriginal ambassadors including Truganini led a series of "Friendly Missions" to the Aboriginal tribes which effectively ended the Black War. Flood states that around 200 settler and 330 Aboriginal Tasmanian deaths in frontier violence were recorded during the period 1803 to 1834, but adds that it will never be known how many Aboriginal deaths went unreported. Clements estimates that colonists killed 600 Aboriginal people in eastern Van Diemen's Land during the Black War. Around 220 Aboriginal Tasmanians were eventually relocated to Flinders Island.As settlers and pastoralists spread into the region of modern Victoria in the 1830s, competition for land and natural resources again sparked conflict with traditional landowners. Aboriginal resistance was so intense that it was not unusual for sheep runs to be abandoned after repeated attacks. Broome estimates that 80 settlers and 1,000-1,500 Aboriginal people died in frontier conflict in Victoria from 1835 to 1853. The growth of the Swan River Colony (centred on Fremantle and Perth) in the 1830s led to conflict with a number of clans of the Noongar people. Governor Sterling established a mounted police force in 1834 and in October that year he led a mixed force of soldiers, mounted police and civilians in a punitive expedition against the Pindjarup. The expedition culminated in the Pinjarra massacre in which some 15 to 30 Aboriginal people were killed. According to Neville Green, 30 settlers and 121 Aboriginal people died in violent conflict in Western Australia between 1826 and 1852. The spread of sheep and cattle grazing in grasslands and semi-arid regions of Australia after 1850 brought further conflict with Aboriginal tribes more distant from the closely settled areas. Aboriginal casualty rates in conflicts increased as the colonists made greater use of mounted police, Native Police units, and newly developed revolvers and breech-loaded guns. Civilian colonists often launched punitive raids against Aboriginal groups without the knowledge of colonial authorities. Conflict was particularly intense in NSW in the 1840s and in Queensland from 1860 to 1880. In central Australia, it is estimated that 650 to 850 Aboriginal people, out of a population of 4,500, were killed by colonists from 1860 to 1895. In the Gulf Country of northern Australia five settlers and 300 Aboriginal people were killed before 1886. The last recorded massacre of Aboriginal people by settlers was at Coniston in the Northern Territory in 1928 where at least 31 Aboriginal people were killed. The spread of British settlement also led to an increase in inter-tribal Aboriginal conflict as more people were forced off their traditional lands into the territory of other, often hostile, tribes. Butlin estimated that of the 8,000 Aboriginal deaths in Victoria from 1835 to 1855, 200 were from inter-tribal violence. Broome estimates the total death toll from settler-Aboriginal conflict between 1788 and 1928 as 1,700 settlers and 17-20,000 Aboriginal people. Reynolds has suggested a higher "guesstimate" of 3,000 settlers and up to 30,000 Aboriginals killed. A project team at the University of Newcastle, Australia, has reached a preliminary estimate of 8,270 Aboriginal deaths in frontier massacres from 1788 to 1930. Cooperation and protection In the first two years of settlement the Aboriginal people of Sydney, after initial curiosity, mostly avoided the newcomers. Governor Phillip had a number of Aboriginal people kidnapped in an attempt to learn their language and customs. One of these, Bennelong, led the survivors of several clans into Sydney in November 1790, 18 months after the smallpox epidemic that had devastated the Aboriginal population. Bungaree, a Kuringgai man, joined Matthew Flinders in his circumnavigation of Australia from 1801 to 1803, playing an important role as emissary to the various Indigenous peoples they encountered. Governor Macquarie hoped to "effect the civilization of the Aborigines" and reclaim them "from their barbarous practices". In 1815, he established a Native Institution to provide elementary education to Aboriginal children, settled 15 Aboriginal families on farms in Sydney and made the first freehold land grant to Aboriginal people at Black Town, west of Sydney. In 1816, he initiated an annual Native Feast at Parramatta which attracted Aboriginal people from as far as the Bathurst plains. However, by the 1820s the Native Institution and Aboriginal farms had failed. Aboriginal people continued to live on vacant waterfront land and on the fringes of the Sydney settlement, adapting traditional practices to the new semi-urban environment. Escalating frontier conflict in the 1820s and 1830s saw colonial governments develop a number of policies aimed at protecting Aboriginal people. Protectors of Aborigines were appointed in South Australia and the Port Phillip District in 1839, and in Western Australia in 1840. While the aim was to extend the protection of British law to Aboriginal people, more often the result was an increase in their criminalisation. Protectors were also responsible for the distribution of rations, delivering elementary education to Aboriginal children, instruction in Christianity and training in occupations useful to the colonists.Colonial governments established a small number of reserves and encouraged Christian missions which afforded some protection from frontier violence. In 1825, the NSW governor granted 10,000 acres for an Aboriginal mission at Lake Macquarie. In the 1830s and early 1840s there were also missions in the Wellington Valley, Port Phillip and Moreton Bay. The settlement for Aboriginal Tasmanians on Flinders Island operated effectively as a mission under George Robinson from 1835 to 1838. The Protectors of Aborigines also set up government stations providing housing, rations, schools and small farms. However, by 1857 the protection offices had been closed due to their cost and failure to meets their goals. In New South Wales, 116 Aboriginal reserves were established between 1860 and 1894. Most reserves allowed Aboriginal people a degree of autonomy and freedom to enter and leave. In contrast, the Victorian Board for the Protection of Aborigines (created in 1869) had extensive power to regulate the employment, education and place of residence of Aboriginal Victorians, and closely managed the five reserves and missions established since self government in 1858. In 1886, the protection board gained the power to exclude "half caste" Aboriginal people from missions and stations. The Victorian legislation was the forerunner of the racial segregation policies of other Australian governments from the 1890s. In more densely settled areas, most Aboriginal people who had lost control of their land lived on reserves and missions, or on the fringes of cities and towns. In pastoral districts the British Waste Land Act of 1848 gave traditional landowners limited rights to live, hunt and gather food on Crown land under pastoral leases. Many Aboriginal groups camped on pastoral stations where Aboriginal men were often employed as shepherds and stockmen. These groups were able to retain a connection with their lands and maintain aspects of their traditional culture. From autonomy to federation Colonial self-government and the gold rushes Towards representative government Imperial legislation in 1823 had provided for a Legislative Council nominated by the governor of New South Wales, and a new Supreme Court, providing additional limits to the power of governors. A number of prominent colonial figures, including William Wentworth. campaigned for a greater degree of self-government, although there were divisions about the extent to which a future legislative body should be popularly elected. Other major issues in the public debate about colonial self-government were traditional British political rights, land policy, transportation and whether colonies with a large population of convicts and former convicts could be trusted with self-government. The Australian Patriotic Association was formed in 1835 to promote representative government for New South Wales.The British government abolished transportation to New South Wales in 1840, and in 1842 granted limited representative government to the colony by establishing a reformed Legislative Council with one-third of its members appointed by the governor and two-thirds elected by male voters who met a property qualification. The property qualification meant that only 20 per cent of males were eligible to vote in the first Legislative Council elections in 1843. The increasing immigration of free settlers, the declining number of convicts, and the growing middle class and working class population led to further agitation for liberal and democratic reforms. Public meetings in Adelaide in 1844 called for more representative government for South Australia. The Constitutional Association, formed in Sydney in 1848, called for manhood suffrage. The Anti-Transportation League, founded in Van Diemen's Land in 1849, also demanded more representative government. In the Port Phillip District, agitation for representative government was closely linked to demands for independence from New South Wales. In 1850, the imperial parliament passed the Australian Colonies Government Act, granting Van Diemen's Land, South Australia and the newly-created colony of Victoria semi-elected Legislative Councils on the New South Wales model. The Act also reduced the property requirement for voting. Government officials were to be responsible to the governor rather than the Legislative Council, so the imperial legislation provided for limited representative government rather than responsible government. The gold rushes of the 1850s Although gold had been found in Australia as early as 1823 by surveyor James McBrien, a gold rush began when Edward Hargraves widely publicised his discovery of gold near Bathurst, New South Wales, in February 1851. Further discoveries were made later that year in Victoria, where the richest gold fields were found. By British law all minerals belonged to the Crown, and the governors of New South Wales and Victoria quickly introduced laws aimed at avoiding the disorder associated with the California gold rush of 1848. Both colonies introduced a gold mining licence with a monthly fee, the revenue being used to offset the cost of providing infrastructure, administration and policing of the gold fields. As the size of allowable claims was small (6.1 metres square), and much of the gold was near the surface, the licensing system favoured small prospectors over large enterprises. The gold rush initially caused some economic disruption including wage and price inflation and labour shortages as male workers moved to the goldfields. In 1852, the male population of South Australia fell by three per cent and that of Tasmania by 17 per cent. Immigrants from the United Kingdom, continental Europe, the United States and China also poured into Victoria and New South Wales. The Australian population increased from 430,000 in 1851 to 1,170,000 in 1861. Victoria became the most populous colony and Melbourne the largest city. Chinese migration was a particular concern for colonial officials. There were 20,000 Chinese miners on the Victorian goldfields by 1855 and 13,000 on the New South Wales diggings. There was a widespread belief that they represented a danger to white Australian living standards and morality, and colonial governments responded by imposing a range of taxes, charges and restrictions on Chinese migrants and residents. Anti-Chinese riots erupted on the Victorian goldfields in 1856 and in New South Wales in 1860. According to Stuart Macintyre, "The goldfields were the migrant reception centres of the nineteenth century, the crucibles of nationalism and xenophobia[.]” The Eureka stockade As more men moved to the gold fields and the quantity of easily-accessible gold diminished, the average income of miners fell. Victorian miners increasingly saw the flat monthly licence fee as a regressive tax and complained of official corruption, heavy-handed administration and the lack of voting rights for itinerant miners. Protests intensified in October 1854 when three miners were arrested following a riot at Ballarat. Protesters formed the Ballarat Reform League to support the arrested men and demanded manhood suffrage, reform of the mining licence and administration, and land reform to promote small farms. Further protests followed and protesters built a stockade on the Eureka Field at Ballarat. On 3 December troops overran the stockade, killing about 20 protesters. Five troops were killed and 12 seriously wounded. Following a Royal Commission, the monthly licence was replaced with an annual miner's right at a lower cost which also gave holders the right to vote and build a dwelling on the gold fields. The administration of the Victorian goldfields was also reformed. Stuart Macintyre states, "The Eureka rebellion was a formative event in the national mythology, the Southern Cross [on the Eureka flag] a symbol of freedom and independence.” However, according to A. G. L. Shaw, the Eureka affair "is often painted as a great fight for Australian liberty and the rights of the working man, but it was not that. Its leaders were themselves small capitalists...and even after universal suffrage was introduced...only about a fifth of the miners bothered to vote." Self-government and democracy Elections for the semi-representative Legislative Councils, held in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Van Diemen's Land in 1851, produced a greater number of liberal members. That year, the New South Wales Legislative Council petitioned the British Government requesting self-government for the colony. The Anti-Transportation League also saw the convict system as a barrier to the achievement of self-government. In 1852, the British Government announced that convict transportation to Van Diemen's Land would cease and invited the eastern colonies to draft constitutions enabling responsible self-government. The Secretary of State cited the social and economic transformation of the colonies following the discoveries of gold as one of the factors making self-government feasible. The constitutions for New South Wales, Victoria and Van Diemen's Land (renamed Tasmania in 1856) gained Royal Assent in 1855, that for South Australia in 1856. The constitutions varied, but each created a lower house elected on a broad male franchise and an upper house which was either appointed for life (New South Wales) or elected on a more restricted property franchise. Britain retained its right of veto over legislation regarding matters of imperial interest. When Queensland became a separate colony in 1859 it immediately became self-governing, adopting the constitution of New South Wales. Western Australia was granted self-government in 1890. The secret ballot, adopted in Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia in 1856, followed by New South Wales (1858), Queensland (1859) and Western Australia (1877). South Australia introduced universal male suffrage for its lower house in 1856, followed by Victoria in 1857, New South Wales (1858), Queensland (1872), Western Australia (1893) and Tasmania (1900). Queensland excluded Aboriginal males from voting in 1885 (all women were also excluded). In Western Australia, where all women were disenfranchised, a property qualification for voting existed for male Aboriginals, Asians, Africans and people of mixed descent. Societies to promote women's suffrage were formed in Victoria in 1884, South Australia in 1888 and New South Wales in 1891. The Women's Christian Temperance Union also established branches in most Australian colonies in the 1880s, promoting votes for women and a range of social causes. Female suffrage, and the right to stand for office, was first won in South Australia in 1895. Women won the vote in Western Australia in 1900, with some restrictions based on race. Women in the remainder of Australia only won full rights to vote and to stand for elected office in the decade after Federation, although there were some racial restrictions. The long boom (1860 to 1890) Land reform In the 1860s New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and South Australia introduced Selection Acts intended to promote family farms and mixed farming and grazing. Legislation typically allowed individual "selectors" to select small parcels of unused crown land or leased pastoral land for purchase on credit. The reforms initially had little impact on the concentration of land ownership as large landowners used loopholes in the laws to buy more land. However, refinements to the legislation, improvements in farming technology and the introduction of crops adapted to Australian conditions eventually led to the diversification of rural land use. The expansion of the railways from the 1860s allowed wheat to be cheaply transported in bulk, stimulating the development of a wheat belt from South Australia to Queensland. Land under cultivation increased from 200,000 hectares to 2 million hectares from 1850 to 1890. Bushrangers The period 1850 to 1880 saw a revival in bushranging. The first bushrangers had been escaped convicts or former convicts in the early years of British settlement who lived independently in the bush, often supporting themselves by criminal activity. The early association of the bush with freedom was the beginning of an enduring myth. The resurgence of bushranging from the 1850s drew on the grievances of the rural poor (several members of the Kelly gang, the most famous bushrangers, were the sons of impoverished small farmers). The exploits of Ned Kelly and his gang garnered considerable local community support and extensive national press coverage at the time. After Kelly's capture and execution for murder in 1880 his story inspired numerous works of art, literature and popular culture and continuing debate about the extent to which he was a rebel fighting social injustice and oppressive police, or a murderous criminal. Economic growth and race From the 1850s to 1871 gold was Australia's largest export and allowed the colony to import a range of consumer and capital goods. More importantly, the increase in population in the decades following the gold rush stimulated demand for housing, consumer goods, services and urban infrastructure. By the 1880s half the Australian population lived in towns, making Australia more urbanised that the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada. Between 1870 and 1890 average income per person in Australia was more than 50 per cent higher than that of the United States, giving Australia one of the highest living standards in the world. The size of the government sector almost doubled from 10 per cent of national expenditure in 1850 to 19 per cent in 1890. Colonial governments spent heavily on infrastructure such as railways, ports, telegraph, schools and urban services. Much of the money for this infrastructure was borrowed on the London financial markets, but land-rich governments also sold land to finance expenditure and keep taxes low. In 1856, building workers in Sydney and Melbourne were the first in the world to win the eight hour working day. The 1880s saw trade unions grow and spread to lower skilled workers and also across colonial boundaries. By 1890 about 20 per cent of male workers belonged to a union, one of the highest rates in the world. Economic growth was accompanied by expansion into northern Australia. Gold was discovered in northern Queensland in the 1860s and 1870s, and in the Kimberley and Pilbara regions of Western Australia in the 1880s. Sheep and cattle runs spread to northern Queensland and on to the Gulf Country of the Northern Territory and the Kimberley region of Western Australia in the 1870s and 1880s. Sugar plantations also expanded in northern Queensland during the same period. The gold discoveries in northern Australia attracted a new wave of Chinese immigrants. The Queensland sugar cane industry also relied heavily on indentured South Sea Island workers, whose low wages and poor working conditions became a national controversy and led to government regulation of the industry. Additionally, a significant population of Japanese, Filipinos and Malays were working in pearling and fishing. In 1890, the population of northern Australia is estimated at about 70,000 Europeans and 20,000 Asians and Pacific Islanders. Indigenous people probably outnumbered these groups, leaving white people a minority north of the Tropic of Capricorn. From the late 1870s trade unions, Anti-Chinese Leagues and other community groups campaigned against Chinese immigration and low-wage Chinese labour. Following intercolonial conferences on the issue in 1880-81 and 1888, colonial governments responded with a series of laws which progressively restricted Chinese immigration and citizenship rights. 1890s depression Falling wool prices and the collapse of a speculative property bubble in Melbourne heralded the end of the long boom. When British banks cut back lending to Australia, the heavily indebted Australian economy fell into economic depression. A number of major banks suspended business and the economy contracted by 20 per cent from 1891 to 1895. Unemployment rose to almost a third of the workforce. The depression was followed by the "Federation Drought" from 1895 to 1903. In 1890, a strike in the shipping industry spread to wharves, railways, mines and shearing sheds. Employers responded by locking out workers and employing non-union labour, and colonial governments intervened with police and troops. The strike failed, as did subsequent strikes of shearers in 1891 and 1894, and miners in 1892 and 1896. By 1896, the depression and employer resistance to trade unions saw union membership fall to only about five per cent of the workforce. The defeat of the 1890 Maritime Strike led trade unions to form political parties. In New South Wales, the Labor Electoral League won a quarter of seats in the elections of 1891 and held the balance of power between the Free Trade Party and the Protectionist Party. Labor parties also won seats in the South Australian and Queensland elections of 1893. The world's first Labor government was formed in Queensland in 1899, but it lasted only a week. From the mid-1890s colonial governments, often with Labor support, passed acts regulating wages, working conditions and "coloured" labour in a number of industries. At an Intercolonial Conference in 1896, the colonies agreed to extend restrictions on Chinese immigration to "all coloured races". Labor supported the Reid government of New South Wales in passing the Coloured Races Restriction and Regulation Act, a forerunner of the White Australia Policy. However, after Britain and Japan voiced objections to the legislation, New South Wales, Tasmania and Western Australia instead introduced European language tests to restrict "undesirable" immigrants. Growth of nationalism By the late 1880s, a majority of people living in the Australian colonies were native born, although more than 90 per cent were of British and Irish heritage. The Australian Natives Association, a friendly society open to Australian-born males, flourished in the 1880s. It campaigned for an Australian federation within the British Empire, promoted Australian literature and history, and successfully lobbied for the 26 January to be Australia’s national day. Australian nationalists often claimed that unification of the colonies was Australia's destiny. Australians lived on a single continent, and the vast majority shared a British heritage and spoke English. Many nationalists spoke of Australians sharing common blood as members of the British "race". Henry Parkes stated in 1890, "The crimson thread of kinship runs through us all...we must unite as one great Australian people." A minority of nationalists saw a distinctive Australian identity rather than shared "Britishness" as the basis for a unified Australia. Some, such as the radical magazine The Bulletin and the Tasmanian Attorney-General Andrew Inglis Clark, were republicans, while others were prepared to accept a fully independent country of Australia with only a ceremonial role for the British monarch. In 1887, poet Henry Lawson wrote of a choice between "The Old Dead Tree and the Young Tree Green/ The Land that belongs to the lord and the Queen,/And the land that belongs to you." A unified Australia was usually associated with a white Australia. In 1887, The Bulletin declared that all white men who left the religious and class divisions of the old world behind were Australians. The 1880s and 1890s saw a proliferation of books and articles depicting Australia as a sparsely populated white nation threatened by populous Asian neighbours. A white Australia also meant the exclusion of cheap Asian labour, an idea strongly promoted by the labour movement. According to historian John Hirst, "Federation was not needed to make the White Australia policy, but that policy was the most popular expression of the national ideal that inspired federation.” The growing nationalist sentiment in the 1880s and 1890s was associated with the development of a distinctively Australian art and literature. Artists of the Heidelberg School such as Arthur Streeton, Frederick McCubbin and Tom Roberts followed the example of the European Impressionists by painting in the open air. They applied themselves to capturing the light and colour of the Australian landscape and exploring the distinctive and the universal in the "mixed life of the city and the characteristic life of the station and the bush". In the 1890s Henry Lawson, Banjo Paterson and other writers associated with The Bulletin produced poetry and prose exploring the nature of bush life and themes of independence, stoicism, masculine labour, egalitarianism, anti-authoritarianism and mateship. Protagonists were often shearers, boundary riders and itinerant bush workers. In the following decade Lawson, Paterson and other writers such as Steele Rudd, Miles Franklin, and Joseph Furphy helped forge a distinctive national literature. Paterson's ballad "The Man from Snowy River" (1890) achieved popularity, and his lyrics to the song "Waltzing Matilda" (c. 1895) helped make it the unofficial national anthem for many Australians. According to Macintyre, however, even in the 1890s the "bush legend was just that, a myth that enshrined lost possibilities[.]" Federation movement Growing nationalist sentiment coincided with business concerns about the economic inefficiency of customs barriers between the colonies, the duplication of services by colonial governments and the lack of a single national market for goods and services. Colonial concerns about German and French ambitions in the region also led to British pressure for a federated Australian defence force and a unified, single-gauge railway network for defence purposes. A Federal Council of Australasia was formed in 1885 but it had few powers and New South Wales and South Australia declined to join. An obstacle to federation was the fear of the smaller colonies that they would be dominated by New South Wales and Victoria. Queensland, in particular, although generally favouring a white Australia policy, wished to maintain an exception for South Sea Islander workers in the sugar cane industry. Another major barrier was the free trade policies of New South Wales which conflicted with the protectionist policies dominant in Victoria and most of the other colonies. Nevertheless, the NSW premier Henry Parkes was a strong advocate of federation and his Tenterfield Oration in 1889 was pivotal in gathering support for the cause. Parkes also struck a deal with Edmund Barton, leader of the NSW Protectionist Party, whereby they would work together for federation and leave the question of a protective tariff for a future Australian government to decide. In 1890, representatives of the six colonies and New Zealand met in Melbourne and agreed in principle to a federation of the colonies and for the colonial legislatures to nominate representatives to attend a constitutional convention. The following year, the National Australasian Convention was held in Sydney, with all the future states and New Zealand represented. A draft constitutional Bill was adopted and transmitted to the colonial parliaments for approval by the people. The worsening economic depression and parliamentary opposition, however, delayed progress. In early 1893 the first citizens' Federation League was established in the Riverina region of New South Wales and many other leagues were soon formed in the colonies. The leagues organised a conference in Corowa in July 1893 which developed a new plan for federation involving a constitutional convention with directly elected delegates and a referendum in each colony to endorse the proposed constitution. The new NSW premier, George Reid, endorsed the "Corowa plan" and in 1895 convinced the majority of other premiers to adopt it. Most of the colonies sent directly elected representatives to the constitutional convention, although those of Western Australia were chosen by its parliament. Queensland did not send delegates. The convention held sessions in 1897 and 1898 which resulted in a proposed constitution for a Commonwealth of federated states under the British Crown. Referendums held in 1898 resulted in solid majorities for the constitution in Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. However, the referendum failed to gain the required majority in New South Wales after that colony's Labor Party campaigned against it and premier Reid gave it such qualified support that he earned the nickname "yes-no Reid". The premiers of the other colonies agreed to a number of concessions to New South Wales (particularly that the future Commonwealth capital would be located in that state), and in 1899 further referendums were held in all the colonies except Western Australia. All resulted in yes votes. In March 1900, delegates were dispatched to London, including Barton and the Victorian parliamentarian Alfred Deakin, who had been a leading advocate for federation. Following intense negotiations with the British government, the federation Bill was passed by the imperial government on 5 July 1900 and gained Royal Assent on 9 July. Western Australia subsequently voted to join the new federation. Federation White Australia, protectionism and rise of Labor The Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed by the Governor-General, Lord Hopetoun on 1 January 1901, and Barton was sworn in as Australia's first prime minister. The first Federal elections were held in March 1901 and resulted in a narrow plurality for the Protectionist Party over the Free Trade Party with the Australian Labor Party (ALP) polling third. Labor declared it would support the party which offered concessions to its program, and Barton's Protectionists formed a government, with Deakin as Attorney-General. The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 was one of the first laws passed by the new Australian parliament. This centrepiece of the White Australia policy aimed to extend the restrictions on the immigration of Asians that had previously been enacted by the colonies. Like the colonial legislation, the Immigration Restriction Act used a dictation test in a European language to exclude Asian migrants, who were considered a threat to Australia's living standards and majority British culture. The government also ended the use of indentured South Sea Islander labour in the Queensland sugar cane industry and announced that the workers would be repatriated to their islands by 1906. Deakin stated that White Australia, "is not a surface, but a reasoned policy which goes to the roots of national life, and by which the whole of our social, industrial and political organisation is governed." In 1902, the government introduced female suffrage in the Commonwealth jurisdiction, but at the same time excluded Aboriginal people from the franchise unless they already had the vote in a state jurisdiction. The Barton government also introduced a tariff on imports designed to raise revenue and protect Australian industry. However, the tariff was lower and less extensive than many protectionists wanted due to the need to attract sufficient support from Labor parliamentarians, who had a free vote on the issue and many of whom favoured free trade. The three major parties all supported a system of Commonwealth conciliation and arbitration to settle industrial disputes extending across state borders, but Labor insisted that railway workers should be included in the system and preference be given to unionised labour. Disagreements about the legislation were instrumental in the fall of Deakin's Protectionist government in April 1904 and the appointment of the first national Labor government under prime minister Chris Watson. The Watson government itself fell in April and a Free Trade government under prime minister Reid successfully introduced legislation for a Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Court. In July 1905 Deakin withdrew his support for the Reid government and again formed a Protectionist government with the support of Labor. The new government embarked on a series of social reforms and a program dubbed "new protection" under which tariff protection for Australian industries would be linked to their provision of "fair and reasonable" wages. In the Harvester case of 1907, H. B. Higgins of the Conciliation and Arbitration Court set a fair and reasonable wage based on the needs of a male breadwinner supporting a wife and three children. In 1908, the High Court of Australia struck down the New Protection legislation as unconstitutional. However, the Harvester case set a standard for a basic wage which was subsequently used by the Conciliation and Arbitration Court when settling industrial disputes. By 1914 the Commonwealth, New South Wales, Queensland and Western Australia used arbitration courts to settle industrial disputes and fix wages and conditions, while Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania used wage boards to achieve the same goals. Labor and anti-Labor The base of the Labor Party was the Australian Trade Union movement which grew from under 100,000 members in 1901 to more than half a million in 1914. The party also drew considerable support from clerical workers, Catholics and small farmers. In 1905, the Labor party adopted objectives at the federal level which included the "cultivation of an Australian sentiment based upon the maintenance of racial purity" and "the collective ownership of monopolies". In the same year, the Queensland branch of the party adopted an overtly socialist objective.In 1906, the federal Free Trade Party changed its name to the Anti-Socialist party and in the December 1906 elections became the largest party with 38 per cent of the vote (compared with 37 per cent for Labor and 21 per cent for the Protectionists). Deakin's Protectionist government remained in power, but following the passage of legislation for old age pensions and a new protective tariff in 1908, Labor withdrew its support for the government and in November Andrew Fisher became the second Labor prime minister. In response, the Liberal-Protectionists, Anti-Socialists and conservative "Corner" group entered into a coalition known as the Fusion which formed a government under prime minister Deakin in June 1909. Reid stated that the question was whether Australia should follow a course of free enterprise or state control. In the elections of May 1910, Labor won a majority in both houses of parliament and Fisher again became prime minister. The Labor government introduced a series of reforms including a progressive land tax (1910), invalid pensions (1910) and a maternity allowance (1912). The government established the Commonwealth Bank (1911) but referendums to nationalise monopolies and extend Commonwealth trade and commerce powers were defeated in 1911 and 1913. The Commonwealth took over responsibility for the Northern Territory from South Australia in 1911. The anti-Labor parliamentary fusion was formalised as the Commonwealth Liberal Party under the former New South Wales Labor Party leader Joseph Cook. The Liberal Party narrowly won the May 1913 elections but Labor still controlled the Senate. The Cook government's attempt to pass legislation abolishing preferential treatment for union members in the Commonwealth Public Service triggered a double dissolution of parliament. Labor comfortably won the September 1914 elections and Fisher resumed office. External affairs and defence With Federation, the Commonwealth inherited the small defence forces of the six former Australian colonies. By 1901, units of soldiers from all six Australian colonies had been active as part of British forces in the Boer War. When the British government asked for more troops from Australia in early 1902, the Australian government obliged with a national contingent. Some 16,500 men had volunteered for service by the war's end in June 1902. In 1884, Britain and Germany had agreed to partition the eastern half of New Guinea. In 1902, British New Guinea was placed under the authority of Australia which saw the territory as vital for the protection of shipping lanes. With the passage of the Papua Act of 1905, British New Guinea became the Australian Territory of Papua. Formal Australian administration of the territory began in 1906. Under a 1902 agreement, Australia contributed to the cost of a Royal Navy Pacific fleet to provide for the nation's defence, but Britain reserved the right to deploy the fleet outside Australian waters. Following Japan's defeat of Russia in the 1904-05 war, concern about Japanese naval power led to calls for an Australian fleet. Deakin proposed the purchase of destroyers in 1906 and his government's Surplus Revenue Act of 1908 provided £250,000 for naval expenditure. The Fisher Labor government increased the naval budget and in 1911 established the Royal Australian Navy. In October 1913, the navy's first battle cruiser, Australia, arrived in Sydney harbour, accompanied by the new light cruisers Sydney and Melbourne. In 1907, Deakin proposed compulsory military training for home defence, a measure that was supported by Watson and Hughes of the Labor party. The Labor party adopted the measure at its 1908 annual conference and in 1911 the Fisher government expanded the system of compulsory military training which had been introduced by the Deakin government the previous year. Defence expenditure increased from £1 million in 1908-09 to £4.3 million in 1913-14, when it accounted for a third of the Commonwealth budget. Economy and population The breaking of the Federation Drought in 1903 heralded a period of strong economic growth. The economy grew by 75 per cent in the fourteen years to the outbreak of the First World War, with pastoralism, construction, manufacturing and government services leading the way. Rural industries were still the major employer (accounting for a quarter of all jobs) but manufacturing was fast catching up. While employment grew by 30 per cent during the period, employment in manufacturing increased by almost 70 per cent. The Australian population also grew strongly, driven by a fall in infant mortality, increasing adult life expectancy, and a revival in state-subsidised immigration. The population increased from four million in 1901 to five million in 1914. From 1910 to 1914 just under 300,000 migrants arrived, all white, and almost all from Britain. First World War Australia at war 191418 When the United Kingdom declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914, the declaration automatically involved all of Britain's colonies and dominions. The outbreak of war came in the middle of the 1914 federal election campaign during which Labor leader Andrew Fisher promised to defend Britain "to the last man and the last shilling." Both major parties offered Britain 20,000 Australian troops. As the Defence Act 1903 precluded sending conscripts overseas, a new volunteer force, the Australian Imperial Force (AIF), was raised to meet this commitment.Public enthusiasm for the war was high, and the initial quota for the AIF was quickly filled. The troops left for Egypt on 1 November 1914, one of the escort ships, HMAS Sydney, sinking the German cruiser Emden along the way. Meanwhile, in September, a separate Australian expeditionary force had captured German New Guinea. After arriving in Egypt, the AIF was incorporated into an Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) under the British general William Birdwood. The Anzacs formed part of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force with the task of opening the Dardanelles to allied battleships, threatening Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire which had entered the war on the side of the Central Powers.The Anzacs, along with French, British and Indian troops, landed on the Gallipoli peninsula on 25 April 1915. The Australian and New Zealand position at Anzac Cove was vulnerable to attack and the troops suffered heavy losses in establishing a narrow beachhead. After it had become clear that the expeditionary force would be unable to achieve its objectives in the face of determined Turkish resistance, the Anzacs were evacuated in December, followed by the British and French in early January. The Australians suffered about 8,000 deaths in the campaign. Australian war correspondents variously emphasised the bravery and fighting qualities of the Australians and the errors of their British commanders. By 1916, Australian servicemen were commemorating 25 April, and the date soon became an Australian national holiday known as Anzac Day, centring on themes of "nationhood, brotherhood and sacrifice". In 1916, five infantry divisions of the AIF were sent to the Western Front. In July 1916, at Fromelles, in a diversionary attack during the Battle of the Somme, the AIF suffered 5,533 casualties in 24 hours, the most costly single encounter in Australian military history. Elsewhere on the Somme, 23,000 Australians were killed or wounded in seven weeks of attacks on German positions. In Spring 1917, as the Germans retreated to the Hindenburg Line, pursuing Australian troops engaged them at the First Battle of Bullecourt and the Second Battle of Bullecourt, suffering 10,000 casualties. In the summer and autumn of 1917, Australian troops also sustained heavy losses during the British offensive around Ypres. Overall, almost 22,000 Australian troops were killed in 1917. In November 1917 the five Australian divisions were united in the Australian Corps, and in May 1918 the Australian general John Monash took over command. The Australian Corps was heavily involved in halting the German Spring Offensive of 1918 and in the allied counter-offensive of August that year. Constituting about one tenth of the British and dominion soldiers on the Western Front, the Australian Corps was responsible for more than 20 per cent of the territory reconquered, prisoners captured and field guns taken in the counter offensive. In the Middle East, the Australian Light Horse brigades were prominent in halting the Ottoman and German threat to the Suez Canal at Romani in August 1916. In 1917, they participated in the allied advance through the Sinai into Palestine. This included a light horse mounted charge at Beersheba in October which helped win the Third Battle of Gaza. In 1918, they pressed on through Palestine and into Syria in an advance that led to the Ottoman surrender on 31 October. By the time the war ended on 11 November 1918, 324,000 Australians had served overseas. Casualties included 60,000 dead and 150,000 woundedthe highest casualty rate of any allied force. Australian troops also had higher rates of unauthorised absence, crime and imprisonment than other allied forces. The home front Few Australians publicly opposed the war in 1914, and volunteers for the AIF outstripped the capacity to enlist and train them. There was also a surge in female participation in voluntary organisations such as the Red Cross and patriotic groups such as the One Woman, One Recruit League. Anti-German leagues were formed and 7,000 Germans and other "enemy aliens" were sent to internment camps during the war. In October 1914, the Fisher Labor government introduced the War Precautions Act which gave it the power to make regulations "for securing the public safety and defence of the Commonwealth". After Billy Hughes replaced Fisher as prime minister in October 1915, regulations under the act were increasingly used to censor publications, penalise public speech and suppress organisations that the government considered detrimental to the war effort. Business uncertainty, the enlistment of young male workers, and the disruption of shipping and export markets led to a decline in economic output. The economy contracted by 10 per cent during the course of hostilities. Inflation rose in the first two years of war and real wages fell. Soon after becoming prime minister, Hughes abandoned a promised referendum to give the Commonwealth the power to control prices, although the government later used its wartime powers to regulate the prices of some basic goods. Lower wages and perceptions of profiteering by some businesses led, in 1916, to a wave of strikes by miners, waterside workers and shearers. Enlistments also declined, falling from 35,000 a month at its peak in 1915 to 6,000 a month in 1916. Hughes returned from a trip to England and the Western Front in July 1916 and narrowly won a Cabinet vote to hold a referendum on conscription for overseas service. In September the New South Wales Labor Party expelled Hughes on account of the issue. Following the narrow defeat of the October 1916 conscription referendum, the state branches of the Labor party began expelling other prominent pro-conscriptionists. In November, Hughes and 23 of his supporters left the parliamentary party, and in January 1917 they formed a new Nationalist government with the former opposition. The Nationalists comfortably won the May 1917 elections and Hughes continued as prime minister. Political and industrial unrest intensified in 1917. From August to October there was a major strike of New South Wales railway, transport, waterside and coal workers which was defeated after the Commonwealth and New South Wales governments arrested strike leaders and organised special constables and non-union labour. The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) was declared an unlawful organisation and more than 100 of its members were arrested. In September, protests by the Women's Peace Army in Melbourne resulted in extensive damage to shops and offices. Following further falls in enlistments in 1917, Hughes announced a second referendum on conscription to be held in December. The referendum campaign proved divisive, with Hughes denouncing opponents of the measure as "the Germans of Australia, the Sinn Féin and the IWW." The Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne, Daniel Mannix, and the Labor premier of Queensland T. J. Ryan were prominent campaigners against conscription. The referendum was defeated by a wider margin than in 1916. An April 1918 recruiting conference including representatives of the Commonwealth government, State governments, employers and labour leaders also failed to reach agreement on measures to increase troop numbers. Enlistments in 1918 were the lowest for the war, leading to the disbandment of 12 battalions and mutinies in the AIF. Paris peace conference Hughes attended the Imperial War Conference and Imperial War Cabinet in London from June 1918 where Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa won British support for their separate representation at the eventual peace conference. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Hughes argued that Germany should pay the full cost of the war, but ultimately gained only £5 million in war reparations for Australia. Australia and the other self-governing British dominions won the right to become full members of the new League of Nations, and Australia obtained a special League of Nations mandate over German New Guinea allowing Australia to control trade and immigration. Australia also gained a 42 per cent share of the formerly German-ruled island of Nauru, giving access to its rich superphosphate reserves. Australia argued successfully against a Japanese proposal for a racial equality clause in the League of Nations covenant, as Hughes feared that it would jeopardise the White Australia policy. As a signatory to the Treaty of Versailles and a full member of the League of Nations, Australia took an important step towards international recognition as a sovereign nation. Inter-war years 1920s: men, money and markets After the war, Prime Minister Billy Hughes led a new conservative force, the Nationalist Party, formed from the old Liberal party and breakaway elements of Labor (of which he was the most prominent), after the deep and bitter split over Conscription. An estimated 12,000 Australians died as a result of the Spanish flu pandemic of 1919, almost certainly brought home by returning soldiers. The success of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia posed a threat in the eyes of many Australians, although to a small group of socialists it was an inspiration. The Communist Party of Australia was formed in 1920 and, though remaining electorally insignificant, it obtained some influence in the trade union movement and was banned during World War II for its support for the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and the Menzies Government unsuccessfully tried to ban it again during the Korean War. Despite splits, the party remained active until its dissolution at the end of the Cold War. The Country Party (today's National Party) formed in 1920 to promulgate its version of agrarianism, which it called "Countrymindedness". The goal was to enhance the status of the graziers (operators of big sheep ranches) and small farmers, and secure subsidies for them. Enduring longer than any other major party save the Labor party, it has generally operated in Coalition with the Liberal Party (since the 1940s), becoming a major party of government in Australia—particularly in Queensland. Other significant after-effects of the war included ongoing industrial unrest, which included the 1923 Victorian Police strike. Industrial disputes characterised the 1920s in Australia. Other major strikes occurred on the waterfront, in the coalmining and timber industries in the late 1920s. The union movement had established the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) in 1927 in response to the Nationalist government's efforts to change working conditions and reduce the power of the unions. The consumerism, entertainment culture, and new technologies that characterised the 1920s in the United States were also found in Australia. Prohibition was not implemented in Australia, though anti-alcohol forces were successful in having hotels closed after 6 pm, and closed altogether in a few city suburbs. The fledgling film industry declined through the decade, despite more than 2 million Australians attending cinemas weekly at 1250 venues. A Royal Commission in 1927 failed to assist and the industry that had begun so brightly with the release of the world's first feature film, The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), atrophied until its revival in the 1970s. Stanley Bruce became Prime Minister in 1923, when members of the Nationalist Party Government voted to remove W.M. Hughes. Speaking in early 1925, Bruce summed up the priorities and optimism of many Australians, saying that "men, money and markets accurately defined the essential requirements of Australia" and that he was seeking such from Britain. The migration campaign of the 1920s, operated by the Development and Migration Commission, brought almost 300,000 Britons to Australia, although schemes to settle migrants and returned soldiers "on the land" were generally not a success. "The new irrigation areas in Western Australia and the Dawson Valley of Queensland proved disastrous" In Australia, the costs of major investment had traditionally been met by state and Federal governments and heavy borrowing from overseas was made by the governments in the 1920s. A Loan Council was set up in 1928 to co-ordinate loans, three-quarters of which came from overseas. Despite Imperial Preference, a balance of trade was not successfully achieved with Britain. "In the five years from 1924..to..1928, Australia bought 43.4% of its imports from Britain and sold 38.7% of its exports. Wheat and wool made up more than two-thirds of all Australian exports", a dangerous reliance on just two export commodities. Australia embraced the new technologies of transport and communication. Coastal sailing ships were finally abandoned in favour of steam, and improvements in rail and motor transport heralded dramatic changes in work and leisure. In 1918, there were 50,000 cars and lorries in the whole of Australia. By 1929 there were 500,000. The stage coach company Cobb and Co, established in 1853, finally closed in 1924. In 1920, the Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Service (to become the Australian airline Qantas) was established. The Reverend John Flynn, founded the Royal Flying Doctor Service, the world's first air ambulance in 1928. Daredevil pilot, Sir Charles Kingsford Smith pushed the new flying machines to the limit, completing a round Australia circuit in 1927 and in 1928 traversed the Pacific Ocean, via Hawaii and Fiji from the US to Australia in the aircraft Southern Cross. He went on to global fame and a series of aviation records before vanishing on a night flight to Singapore in 1935. Dominion status Australia achieved independent Sovereign Nation status after World War I, under the Statute of Westminster. This formalised the Balfour Declaration of 1926, a report resulting from the 1926 Imperial Conference of British Empire leaders in London, which defined Dominions of the British empire in the following way: "They are autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations."; however, Australia did not ratify the Statute of Westminster until 1942. According to historian Frank Crowley, this was because Australians had little interest in redefining their relationship with Britain until the crisis of World War II. The Australia Act 1986 removed any remaining links between the British Parliament and the Australian states. From 1 February 1927 until 12 June 1931, the Northern Territory was divided up as North Australia and Central Australia at latitude 20°S. New South Wales has had one further territory surrendered, namely Jervis Bay Territory comprising 6,677 hectares, in 1915. The external territories were added: Norfolk Island (1914); Ashmore Island, Cartier Islands (1931); the Australian Antarctic Territory transferred from Britain (1933); Heard Island, McDonald Islands, and Macquarie Island transferred to Australia from Britain (1947). The Federal Capital Territory (FCT) was formed from New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of Canberra (Melbourne was the seat of government from 1901 to 1927). The FCT was renamed the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) in 1938. The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911. Great Depression Australia was deeply affected by the Great Depression of the 1930s, particularly due to its heavy dependence on exports, especially primary products such as wool and wheat. Exposed by continuous borrowing to fund capital works in the 1920s, the Australian and state governments were "already far from secure in 1927, when most economic indicators took a turn for the worse. Australia's dependence of exports left her extraordinarily vulnerable to world market fluctuations", according to economic historian Geoff Spenceley. Debt by the state of New South Wales accounted for almost half of Australia's accumulated debt by December 1927. The situation caused alarm amongst a few politicians and economists, notably Edward Shann of the University of Western Australia, but most political, union and business leaders were reluctant to admit to serious problems. In 1926, Australian Finance magazine described loans as occurring with a "disconcerting frequency" unrivalled in the British Empire: "It may be a loan to pay off maturing loans or a loan to pay the interest on existing loans, or a loan to repay temporary loans from the bankers..." Thus, well before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the Australian economy was already facing significant difficulties. As the economy slowed in 1927, so did manufacturing and the country slipped into recession as profits slumped and unemployment rose. At elections held in October 1929, the Labor Party was swept into power in a landslide victory; Stanley Bruce, the former Prime Minister, lost his own seat. The new Prime Minister, James Scullin, and his largely inexperienced government were almost immediately faced with a series of crises. Hamstrung by their lack of control of the Senate, a lack of control of the banking system and divisions within their party about how best to deal with the situation, the government was forced to accept solutions that eventually split the party, as it had in 1917. Some gravitated to New South Wales Premier Lang, others to Prime Minister Scullin. Various "plans" to resolve the crisis were suggested; Sir Otto Niemeyer, a representative of the English banks who visited in mid-1930, proposed a deflationary plan, involving cuts to government spending and wages. Treasurer Ted Theodore proposed a mildly inflationary plan, while the Labor Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, proposed a radical plan which repudiated overseas debt. The "Premier's Plan" finally accepted by federal and state governments in June 1931, followed the deflationary model advocated by Niemeyer and included a reduction of 20 per cent in government spending, a reduction in bank interest rates and an increase in taxation. In March 1931, Lang announced that interest due in London would not be paid and the Federal government stepped in to meet the debt. In May, the Government Savings Bank of New South Wales was forced to close. The Melbourne Premiers' Conference agreed to cut wages and pensions as part of a severe deflationary policy but Lang renounced the plan. The grand opening of the Sydney Harbour Bridge in 1932 provided little respite to the growing crisis straining the young federation. With multimillion-pound debts mounting, public demonstrations and move and counter-move by Lang and then Scullin, then Lyons federal governments, the Governor of New South Wales, Philip Game, had been examining Lang's instruction not to pay money into the Federal Treasury. Game judged it was illegal. Lang refused to withdraw his order and, on 13 May, he was dismissed by Governor Game. At June elections, Lang Labor's seats collapsed. May 1931 had seen the creation of a new conservative political force, the United Australia Party formed by breakaway members of the Labor Party combining with the Nationalist Party. At Federal elections in December 1931, the United Australia Party, led by former Labor member Joseph Lyons, easily won office. They remained in power until September 1940. The Lyons government has often been credited with steering recovery from the depression, although just how much of this was owed to their policies remains contentious. Stuart Macintyre also points out that although Australian GDP grew from £386.9 million to £485.9 million between 1931 and 1932 and 1938–39, real domestic product per head of population was still "but a few shillings greater in 1938–39 (£70.12), than it had been in 1920–21 (£70.04)." Australia recovered relatively quickly from the financial downturn of 1929–1930, with recovery beginning around 1932. The Prime Minister, Joseph Lyons, favoured the tough economic measures of the Premiers' Plan, pursued an orthodox fiscal policy and refused to accept the proposals of the Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, to default on overseas debt repayments. According to author Anne Henderson of the Sydney Institute, Lyons held a steadfast belief in "the need to balance budgets, lower costs to business and restore confidence" and the Lyons period gave Australia "stability and eventual growth" between the drama of the Depression and the outbreak of the Second World War. A lowering of wages was enforced and industry tariff protections maintained, which together with cheaper raw materials during the 1930s saw a shift from agriculture to manufacturing as the chief employer of the Australian economy—a shift which was consolidated by increased investment by the commonwealth government into defence and armaments manufacture. Lyons saw restoration of Australia's exports as the key to economic recovery. The extent of unemployment in Australia, often cited as peaking at 29 per cent in 1932 is debated. "Trade union figures are the most often quoted, but the people who were there...regard the figures as wildly understating the extent of unemployment" wrote historian Wendy Lowenstein in her collection of oral histories of the depression; however, David Potts argued that "over the last thirty years ...historians of the period have either uncritically accepted that figure (29% in the peak year 1932) including rounding it up to 'a third', or they have passionately argued that a third is far too low." Potts himself though suggested a peak national figure of 25 per cent unemployed. Measurement is difficult in part because there was great variation, geographically, by age and by gender, in the level of unemployment. Statistics collected by historian Peter Spearritt show 17.8 per cent of men and 7.9 per cent of women unemployed in 1933 in the comfortable Sydney suburb of Woollahra. (This is not to say that 81.9 per cent of women were working but that 7.9 per cent of the women interested/looking for work were unable to find it, a much lower figure than maybe first thought, as many women stayed home and were not in the job force in those years, especially if they were unable to find work.) In the working class suburb of Paddington, 41.3 per cent of men and 20.7 per cent of women were listed as unemployed. Geoffrey Spenceley stated that apart from variation between men and women, unemployment was also much higher in some industries, such as the building and construction industry, and comparatively low in the public administrative and professional sectors. In country areas, worst hit were small farmers in the wheat belts as far afield as north-east Victoria and Western Australia, who saw more and more of their income absorbed by interest payments. Extraordinary sporting successes did something to alleviate the spirits of Australians during the economic downturn. In a Sheffield Shield cricket match at the Sydney Cricket Ground in 1930, Don Bradman, a young New South Welshman of just 21 years of age wrote his name into the record books by smashing the previous highest batting score in first-class cricket with 452 runs not out in just 415 minutes. The rising star's world beating cricketing exploits were to provide Australians with much needed joy through the emerging Great Depression in Australia and post-World War II recovery. Between 1929 and 1931 the racehorse Phar Lap dominated Australia's racing industry, at one stage winning fourteen races in a row. Famous victories included the 1930 Melbourne Cup, following an assassination attempt and carrying 9 stone 12 pounds weight. Phar Lap sailed for the United States in 1931, going on to win North America's richest race, the Agua Caliente Handicap in 1932. Soon after, on the cusp of US success, Phar Lap developed suspicious symptoms and died. Theories swirled that the champion race horse had been poisoned and a devoted Australian public went into shock. The 1938 British Empire Games were held in Sydney from 5–12 February, timed to coincide with Sydney's sesqui-centenary (150 years since the foundation of British settlement in Australia). Indigenous policy Following federation Aboriginal affairs was a state responsibility, although the Commonwealth became responsible for the Aboriginal population of the Northern Territory from 1911. By that date the Commonwealth and all states except Tasmania had passed legislation establishing Protectors of Aborigines and Protection Boards with extensive powers to regulate the lives of Aboriginal Australians including their ownership of property, place of residence, employment, sexual relationships and custody of their children. Reserves were established, ostensibly for the protection of the Aboriginal population who had been dispossessed of their land. Church groups also ran missions throughout Australia providing shelter, food, religious instruction and elementary schooling for Indigenous people. Some officials were concerned by the growing number of Aboriginal children of mixed heritage, particularly in northern Australia where large Indigenous, South Sea Islander and Asian populations were seen as inconsistent with the white Australia policy. Laws concerning Aboriginal Australians were progressively tightened to make it easier for officials to remove Aboriginal children of mixed descent from their parents and place them in reserves, missions, institutions and employment with white employers. The segregation of Aboriginal people on reserves and in institutions was never systematically accomplished due to funding constraints, differing policy priorities in the states and territories, and resistance from Aboriginal people. In the more densely settled areas of Australia, about 20 per cent of Aboriginal people lived on reserves in the 1920s. The majority lived in camps on the fringes of country towns and a small percentage lived in cities. During the Great Depression more Aboriginal people moved to reserves and missions for food and shelter. By 1941 almost half of the Aboriginal population of New South Wales lived on reserves. In northern Australia, the majority of employed Aboriginal people worked in the pastoral industry where they lived in camps, often with their extended families. Many also camped on the margins of towns and reserves where they could avoid most of the controls imposed by the administrators of reserves, compounds and missions. The 1937 Native Welfare conference of state and Commonwealth officials endorsed a policy of biological absorption of mixed-descent Aboriginal Australians into the white community.[T]he destiny of the natives of aboriginal origin, but not of the full blood, lies in their ultimate absorption by the people of the Commonwealth and it therefore recommends that all efforts be directed to that end.The officials saw the policy of Aboriginal assimilation by absorption into the white community as progressive, aimed at eventually achieving civil and economic equality for mixed-descent Aboriginal people."... efforts of all State authorities should be directed towards the education of children of mixed aboriginal blood at white standards, and their subsequent employment under the same conditions as whites with a view to their taking their place in the white community on an equal footing with the whites."The following decades saw an increase in the number of Aboriginal Australians of mixed descent removed from their families, although the states and territories progressively adopted a policy of cultural, rather than biological, assimilation, and justified removals on the grounds of child welfare. In 1940, New South Wales became the first state to introduce a child welfare model whereby Aboriginal children of mixed descent were removed from their families under general welfare provisions by court order. Other jurisdictions introduced a welfare model after the war. Second World War Defence policy in the 1930s Until the late 1930s, defence was not a significant issue for Australians. At the 1937 elections, both political parties advocated increased defence spending, in the context of increased Japanese aggression in China and Germany's aggression in Europe; however, there was a difference in opinion about how the defence spending should be allocated. The United Australia Party government emphasised co-operation with Britain in "a policy of imperial defence". The lynchpin of this was the British naval base at Singapore and the Royal Navy battle fleet "which, it was hoped, would use it in time of need". Defence spending in the inter-war years reflected this priority. In the period 1921–1936 totalled £40 million on the Royal Australian Navy, £20 million on the Australian Army and £6 million on the Royal Australian Air Force (established in 1921, the "youngest" of the three services). In 1939, the Navy, which included two heavy cruisers and four light cruisers, was the service best equipped for war. Fearing Japanese intentions in the Pacific, Menzies established independent embassies in Tokyo and Washington to receive independent advice about developments. Gavin Long argues that the Labor opposition urged greater national self-reliance through a buildup of manufacturing and more emphasis on the Army and RAAF, as Chief of the General Staff, John Lavarack also advocated. In November 1936, Labor leader John Curtin said "The dependence of Australia upon the competence, let alone the readiness, of British statesmen to send forces to our aid is too dangerous a hazard upon which to found Australia's defence policy." According to John Robertson, "some British leaders had also realised that their country could not fight Japan and Germany at the same time." But "this was never discussed candidly at...meeting(s) of Australian and British defence planners", such as the 1937 Imperial Conference. By September 1939 the Australian Army numbered 3,000 regulars. A recruiting campaign in late 1938, led by Major-General Thomas Blamey increased the reserve militia to almost 80,000. The first division raised for war was designated the 6th Division, of the 2nd AIF, there being 5 Militia Divisions on paper and a 1st AIF in the First World War. War On 3 September 1939, the Prime Minister, Robert Menzies, made a national radio broadcast: "My fellow Australians. It is my melancholy duty to inform you, officially, that, in consequence of the persistence by Germany in her invasion of Poland, Great Britain has declared war upon her, and that, as a result, Australia is also at war." Thus began Australia's involvement in the six-year global conflict. Australians were to fight in an extraordinary variety of locations, including withstanding the advance of German Panzers in the Siege of Tobruk, turning back the advance of the Imperial Japanese Army in the New Guinea Campaign, undertaking bomber missions over Europe, engaging in naval battles in the Mediterranean. At home, Japanese attacks included mini-submarine raids on Sydney Harbour and very heavy air raids on and near the Northern Territory's capital, Darwin. The recruitment of a volunteer military force for service at home and abroad was announced, the 2nd Australian Imperial Force and a citizen militia organised for local defence. Troubled by Britain's failure to increase defences at Singapore, Menzies was cautious in committing troops to Europe. By the end of June 1940, France, Norway, Denmark and the Low Countries had fallen to Nazi Germany. Britain stood alone with its dominions. Menzies called for "all-out war", increasing federal powers and introducing conscription. Menzies' minority government came to rely on just two independents after the 1940 election. In January 1941, Menzies flew to Britain to discuss the weakness of Singapore's defences. Arriving in London during The Blitz, Menzies was invited into Winston Churchill's British War Cabinet for the duration of his visit. Returning to Australia, with the threat of Japan imminent and with the Australian army suffering badly in the Greek and Crete campaigns, Menzies re-approached the Labor Party to form a War Cabinet. Unable to secure their support, and with an unworkable parliamentary majority, Menzies resigned as prime minister. The Coalition held office for another month, before the independents switched allegiance and John Curtin was sworn in as prime minister. Eight weeks later, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. From 1940 to 1941, Australian forces played prominent roles in the fighting in the Mediterranean theatre, including Operation Compass, the Siege of Tobruk, the Greek campaign, the Battle of Crete, the Syria–Lebanon Campaign and the Second Battle of El Alamein. A garrison of around 14,000 Australian soldiers, commanded by Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead was besieged in Tobruk, Libya, by the German-Italian army of General Erwin Rommel between April and August 1941. The Nazi propagandist Lord Haw Haw derided the defenders as 'rats', a term the soldiers adopted as an ironic compliment: "The Rats of Tobruk". Vital in the defence of Egypt and the Suez Canal, the siege saw the advance of the German army halted for the first time and provided a morale boost for the British Commonwealth, which was then standing alone against Hitler. The war came closer to home when was lost with all hands in battle with the German raider Kormoran in November 1941. With most of Australia's best forces committed to fight against Hitler in the Middle East, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, the US naval base in Hawaii, on 8 December 1941 (eastern Australia time). The British battleship and battlecruiser sent to defend Singapore were sunk soon afterwards. Australia was ill-prepared for an attack, lacking armaments, modern fighter aircraft, heavy bombers, and aircraft carriers. While demanding reinforcements from Churchill, on 27 December 1941 Curtin published an historic announcement: "The Australian Government... regards the Pacific struggle as primarily one in which the United States and Australia must have the fullest say in the direction of the democracies' fighting plan. Without inhibitions of any kind, I make it clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom." British Malaya quickly collapsed, shocking the Australian nation. British, Indian and Australian troops made a disorganised last stand at Singapore, before surrendering on 15 February 1942. Around 15,000 Australian soldiers became prisoners of war. Curtin predicted that the "battle for Australia" would now follow. On 19 February, Darwin suffered a devastating air raid, the first time the Australian mainland had ever been attacked by enemy forces. For the following 19 months, Australia was attacked from the air almost 100 times. Two battle-hardened Australian divisions were already steaming from the Middle East for Singapore. Churchill wanted them diverted to Burma, but Curtin refused, and anxiously awaited their return to Australia. US President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered his commander in the Philippines, General Douglas MacArthur, to formulate a Pacific defence plan with Australia in March 1942. Curtin agreed to place Australian forces under the command of General MacArthur, who became "Supreme Commander of the South West Pacific". Curtin had thus presided over a fundamental shift in Australia's foreign policy. MacArthur moved his headquarters to Melbourne in March 1942 and American troops began massing in Australia. In late May 1942, Japanese midget submarines sank an accommodation vessel in a daring raid on Sydney Harbour. On 8 June 1942, two Japanese submarines briefly shelled Sydney's eastern suburbs and the city of Newcastle. In an effort to isolate Australia, the Japanese planned a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby, in the Australian Territory of New Guinea. In May 1942, the US Navy engaged the Japanese in the Battle of the Coral Sea and halted the attack. The Battle of Midway in June effectively defeated the Japanese navy and the Japanese army launched a land assault on Moresby from the north. Between July and November 1942, Australian forces repulsed Japanese attempts on the city by way of the Kokoda Track, in the highlands of New Guinea. The Battle of Milne Bay in August 1942 was the first Allied defeat of Japanese land forces. Meanwhile, in North Africa, the Axis Powers had driven Allies back into Egypt. A turning point came between July and November 1942, when Australia's 9th Division played a crucial role in some of the heaviest fighting of the First and Second Battle of El Alamein, which turned the North Africa Campaign in favour of the Allies. The Battle of Buna–Gona, between November 1942 and January 1943, set the tone for the bitter final stages of the New Guinea campaign, which persisted into 1945. The offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943–44 were the single largest series of connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces. On 14 May 1943, the Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, though clearly marked as a medical vessel, was sunk by Japanese raiders off the Queensland coast, killing 268, including all but one of the nursing staff, further enraging popular opinion against Japan. Australian prisoners of war were at this time suffering severe ill-treatment in the Pacific Theatre. In 1943, 2,815 Australian Pows died constructing Japan's Burma-Thailand Railway In 1944, the Japanese inflicted the Sandakan Death March on 2,000 Australian and British prisoners of war—only 6 survived. This was the single worst war crime perpetrated against Australians in war. MacArthur largely excluded Australian forces from the main push north into the Philippines and Japan. It was left to Australia to lead amphibious assaults against Japanese bases in Borneo. Curtin suffered from ill health from the strains of office and died weeks before the war ended, replaced by Ben Chifley. Of Australia's wartime population of seven million, almost one million men and women served in a branch of the services during the six years of warfare. By war's end, gross enlistments totalled 727,200 men and women in the Australian Army (of whom 557,800 served overseas), 216,900 in the RAAF and 48,900 in the RAN. More than 39,700 were killed or died as prisoners of war, about 8,000 of whom died as prisoners of the Japanese. Australian home front While the Australian civilian population suffered less at the hands of the Axis powers than did other Allied nations in Asia and Europe, Australia nevertheless came under direct attack by Japanese naval forces and aerial bombardments, particularly through 1942 and 1943, resulting in hundreds of fatalities and fuelling fear of Japanese invasion. Axis naval activity in Australian waters also brought the war close to home for Australians. Austerity measures, rationing and labour controls measures were all implemented to assist the war effort. Australian civilians dug air raid shelters, trained in civil defence and first aid, and Australian ports and cities were equipped with anti aircraft and sea defences. The Australian economy was markedly affected by World War II. Expenditure on war reached 37 per cent of GDP by 1943–44, compared to 4 per cent expenditure in 1939–1940. Total war expenditure was £2,949 million between 1939 and 1945. Although the peak of army enlistments occurred in June–July 1940, when more than 70,000 enlisted, it was the Curtin Labor Government, formed in October 1941, that was largely responsible for "a complete revision of the whole Australian economic, domestic and industrial life". Rationing of fuel, clothing and some food was introduced, (although less severely than in Britain) Christmas holidays curtailed, "brown outs" introduced and some public transport reduced. From December 1941, the Government evacuated all women and children from Darwin and northern Australia, and more than 10,000 refugees arrived from South East Asia as Japan advanced. In January 1942, the Manpower Directorate was set up "to ensure the organisation of Australians in the best possible way to meet all defence requirements." Minister for War Organisation of Industry, John Dedman introduced a degree of austerity and government control previously unknown, to such an extent that he was nicknamed "the man who killed Father Christmas". In May 1942 uniform tax laws were introduced in Australia, ending state governments' control of income taxation. "The significance of this decision was greater than any other... made throughout the war, as it added extensive powers to the Federal Government and greatly reduced the financial autonomy of the states." Manufacturing grew significantly because of the war. "In 1939, there were only three Australian firms producing machine tools, but by 1943 there were more than one hundred doing so." From having few front line aircraft in 1939, the RAAF had become the fourth largest allied Air force by 1945. A number of aircraft were built under licence in Australia before the war's end, notably the Beaufort and Beaufighter, although the majority of aircraft were from Britain and later, the US. The Boomerang fighter, designed and built in four months of 1942, emphasised the desperate state Australia found itself in as the Japanese advanced. Australia also created, virtually from nothing, a significant female workforce engaged in direct war production. Between 1939 and 1944 the number of women working in factories rose from 171,000 to 286,000. Dame Enid Lyons, widow of former Prime Minister Joseph Lyons, became the first woman elected to the House of Representatives in 1943, joining the Robert Menzies' new centre-right Liberal Party of Australia, formed in 1945. At the same election, Dorothy Tangney became the first woman elected to the Senate. Post-war boom Menzies and Liberal dominance: 1949–72 Politically, Robert Menzies and the Liberal Party of Australia dominated much of the immediate post war era, defeating the Labor government of Ben Chifley in 1949, in part because of a Labor proposal to nationalise banks and following a crippling coal strike led by the Australian Communist Party. Menzies became the country's longest-serving Prime Minister and the Liberal party, in coalition with the rural based Country Party, won every federal election until 1972. As in the United States in the early 1950s, allegations of communist influence in society saw tensions emerge in politics. Refugees from Soviet dominated Eastern Europe immigrated to Australia, while to Australia's north, Mao Zedong's Communist Party of China won the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and in June 1950, Communist North Korea invaded South Korea. The Menzies government responded to a United States led United Nations Security Council request for military aid for South Korea and diverted forces from occupied Japan to begin Australia's involvement in the Korean War. After fighting to a bitter standstill, the UN and North Korea signed a ceasefire agreement in July 1953. Australian forces had participated in such major battles as Kapyong and Maryang San. 17,000 Australians had served and casualties amounted to more than 1,500, of whom 339 were killed. During the course of the Korean War, the Liberal Government attempted to ban the Communist Party of Australia, first by legislation in 1950 and later by referendum, in 1951. While both attempts were unsuccessful, further international events such as the defection of minor Soviet Embassy official Vladimir Petrov, added to a sense of impending threat that politically favoured Menzies' Liberal-CP government, as the Labor Party split over concerns about the influence of the Communist Party on the trade union movement. The tensions led to another bitter split and the emergence of the breakaway Democratic Labor Party (DLP). The DLP remained an influential political force, often holding the balance of power in the Senate, until 1974. Its preferences supported the Liberal and Country Party. The Labor party was led by H.V. Evatt after Chifley's death in 1951. Evatt had served as President of the United Nations General Assembly during 1948–49 and helped draft the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Evatt retired in 1960 amid signs of mental ill-health, and Arthur Calwell succeeded him as leader, with a young Gough Whitlam as his deputy. Menzies presided during a period of sustained economic boom and the beginnings of sweeping social change, which included youth culture and its rock and roll music and, in the late 1950s, the arrival of television broadcasting. In 1958, Australian country music singer Slim Dusty, who would become the musical embodiment of rural Australia, had Australia's first international music chart hit with his bush ballad "Pub With No Beer", while rock and roller Johnny O'Keefe's "Wild One" became the first local recording to reach the national charts, peaking at No. 20. Australian cinema produced little of its own content in the 1950s, but British and Hollywood studios produced a string of successful epics from Australian literature, featuring home grown stars Chips Rafferty and Peter Finch. Menzies remained a staunch supporter of links to the monarchy and Commonwealth of Nations and formalised an alliance with the United States, but also launched post-war trade with Japan, beginning a growth of Australian exports of coal, iron ore and mineral resources that would steadily climb until Japan became Australia's largest trading partner. When Menzies retired in 1965, he was replaced as Liberal leader and Prime Minister by Harold Holt. Holt drowned while swimming at a surf beach in December 1967 and was replaced by John Gorton (1968–1971) and then by William McMahon (1971–1972). Post-war immigration Following World War II, the Chifley Labor government instigated a massive programme of European immigration. In 1945, Minister for Immigration, Arthur Calwell wrote "If the experience of the Pacific War has taught us one thing, it surely is that seven million Australians cannot hold three million square miles of this earth's surface indefinitely." All political parties shared the view that the country must "populate or perish". Calwell stated a preference for ten British immigrants for each one from other countries; however, the numbers of British migrants fell short of what was expected, despite government assistance. Migration brought large numbers of southern and central Europeans to Australia for the first time. A 1958 government leaflet assured readers that unskilled non-British migrants were needed for "labour on rugged projects ... work which is not generally acceptable to Australians or British workers". The Australian economy stood in sharp contrast to war-ravaged Europe, and newly arrived migrants found employment in a booming manufacturing industry and government assisted programmes such as the Snowy Mountains Scheme. This hydroelectricity and irrigation complex in south-east Australia consisted of sixteen major dams and seven power stations constructed between 1949 and 1974. It remains the largest engineering project undertaken in Australia. Necessitating the employment of 100,000 people from more than 30 countries, to many it denoted the birth of multicultural Australia. Some 4.2 million immigrants arrived between 1945 and 1985, about 40 per cent of whom came from Britain and Ireland. The 1957 novel They're a Weird Mob was a popular account of an Italian migrating to Australia, although written by Australian-born author John O'Grady. The Australian population reached 10 million in 1959–with Sydney its most populous city. In May 1958, the Menzies Government passed the Migration Act 1958 which replaced the Immigration Restriction Act's arbitrarily applied dictation test with an entry permit system, that reflected economic and skills criteria. Further changes in the 1960s effectively ended the White Australia Policy. It legally ended in 1973. Economic growth and suburban living Australia enjoyed significant growth in prosperity in the 1950s and 1960s, with increases in both living standards and in leisure time. The manufacturing industry, previously playing a minor part in an economy dominated by primary production, greatly expanded. The first Holden motor car came out of General Motors-Holden's Fisherman's Bend factory in November 1948. Car ownership rapidly increased—from 130 owners in every 1,000 in 1949 to 271 owners in every 1,000 by 1961. By the early 1960s, four competitors to Holden had set up Australian factories, employing between 80,000 and 100,000 workers, "at least four-fifths of them migrants". In the 1960s, about 60 per cent of Australian manufacturing was protected by tariffs. Pressure from business interests and the union movement ensured these remained high. Historian Geoffrey Bolton suggests that this high tariff protection of the 1960s caused some industries to "lapse into lethargy", neglecting research and development and the search for new markets. The CSIRO was expected to fulfil research and development. Prices for wool and wheat remained high, with wool the mainstay of Australia's exports. Sheep numbers grew from 113 million in 1950 to 171 million in 1965. Wool production increased from 518,000 to 819,000 tonnes in the same period. Wheat, wool and minerals ensured a healthy balance of trade between 1950 and 1966. The great housing boom of the post war period saw rapid growth in the suburbs of the major Australian cities. By the 1966 census, only 14 per cent lived in rural Australia, down from 31 per cent in 1933, and only 8 per cent lived on farms. Virtual full employment meant high standards of living and dramatic increases in home ownership, and by the sixties, Australia had the most equitable spread of income in the world. By the beginning of the sixties, an Australia-wide McNair survey estimated that 94% of homes had a fridge, 50% a telephone, 55% a television, 60% a washing machine, and 73% a vacuum cleaner. In addition, most households had now acquired a car. According to one study, "In 1946, there was one car for every 14 Australians; by 1960, it was one to 3.5. The vast majority of families had access to a car." Car ownership flourished during the postwar period, with 1970/1971 census data estimating that 96.4 per cent of Australian households in the early Seventies owned at least one car; however, not all felt the rapid suburban growth was desirable. Distinguished Architect and designer Robin Boyd, a critic of Australia's built surroundings, described Australia as "'the constant sponge lying in the Pacific', following the fashions of overseas and lacking confidence in home-produced, original ideas". In 1956, dadaist comedian Barry Humphries performed the character of Edna Everage as a parody of a house-proud housewife of staid 1950s Melbourne suburbia (the character only later morphed into a critique of self-obsessed celebrity culture). It was the first of many of his satirical stage and screen creations based around quirky Australian characters: Sandy Stone, a morose elderly suburbanite, Barry McKenzie a naive Australian expat in London and Sir Les Patterson, a vulgar parody of a Whitlam-era politician. Some writers defended suburban life. Journalist Craig Macgregor saw suburban life as a "...solution to the needs of migrants..." Hugh Stretton argued that "plenty of dreary lives are indeed lived in the suburbs... but most of them might well be worse in other surroundings". Historian Peter Cuffley has recalled life for a child in a new outer suburb of Melbourne as having a kind of joyous excitement. "Our imaginations saved us from finding life too humdrum, as did the wild freedom of being able to roam far and wide in different kinds of (neighbouring) bushland...Children in the suburbs found space in backyards, streets and lanes, playgrounds and reserves..." In 1954, the Menzies Government formally announced the introduction of the new two-tiered TV system—a government-funded service run by the ABC, and two commercial services in Sydney and Melbourne, with the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne being a major driving force behind the introduction of television to Australia. Colour TV began broadcasting in 1975. Indigenous assimilation and child removal The 1951 Native Welfare Conference of state and Commonwealth officials agreed on a policy of cultural assimilation for all Aboriginal Australians. Paul Hasluck, the Commonwealth Minister for Territories, stated: "Assimilation means, in practical terms, that, in the course of time, it is expected that all persons of aboriginal blood or mixed blood in Australia will live like other white Australians do." Controls over the daily lives of Aboriginal people and the removal of Aboriginal children of mixed descent continued under the policy of assimilation, although the control was now largely exercised by Welfare Boards and removals were justified on welfare grounds. The number of Aboriginal people deemed to be wards of the state under Northern Territory welfare laws doubled to 11,000 from 1950 to 1965. The policy of assimilation attracted increasing criticism from Aboriginal people and their supporters on the grounds of its negative effects on Aboriginal families and its denial of Aboriginal cultural autonomy. Removals of Aboriginal children of mixed descent from their families slowed by the late 1960s and by 1973 the Commonwealth had adopted a policy of self-determination for Indigenous Australians. In 1997, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission estimated that between 10 per cent and one-third of Aboriginal children had been removed from their families from 1910 to 1970. Regional studies indicate that 15 per cent of Aboriginal children were removed in New South Wales from 1899 to 1968, while the figure for Victoria was about 10 per cent. Robert Manne estimates that the figure for Australia as a whole was closer to 10 per cent. Summarising the policy of assimilation and forced removals of Aboriginal children of mixed descent, Richard Broome concludes: "Even though the children's material conditions and Western education may have been improved by removal, even though some removals were necessary, and even though some people were thankful for it in retrospect, overall it was a disaster....It was a rupturing of tens of thousands of Aboriginal families, aimed at eradicating Aboriginality from the nation in the cause of homogeneity and in fear of difference." Alliances 1950–1972 In the early 1950s, the Menzies government saw Australia as part of a "triple alliance" in concert with both the US and traditional ally Britain. At first, "the Australian leadership opted for a consistently pro-British line in diplomacy", while at the same time looking for opportunities to involve the US in South East Asia. Thus, the government committed military forces to the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency and hosted British nuclear tests after 1952. Australia was also the only Commonwealth country to offer support to the British during the Suez Crisis. Menzies oversaw an effusive welcome to Queen Elizabeth II on the first visit to Australia by a reigning monarch, in 1954. He made the following remarks during a light-hearted speech to an American audience in New York, while on his way to attend her coronation in 1953: "We in Australia, of course, are British, if I may say so, to the boot heels...but we stand together – our people stand together – till the crack of doom." As British influence declined in South East Asia, the US alliance came to have greater significance for Australian leaders and the Australian economy. British investment in Australia remained significant until the late 1970s, but trade with Britain declined through the 1950s and 1960s. In the late 1950s the Australian Army began to re-equip using US military equipment. In 1962, the US established a naval communications station at North West Cape, the first of several built during the next decade. Most significantly, in 1962, Australian Army advisors were sent to help train South Vietnamese forces, in a developing conflict in which the British had no part. According to diplomat Alan Renouf, the dominant theme in Australia's foreign policy under Australia's Liberal–Country Party governments of the 1950s and 1960s was anti-communism. Another former diplomat, Gregory Clark, suggested that it was specifically a fear of China that drove Australian foreign policy decisions for twenty years. The ANZUS security treaty, which had been signed in 1951, had its origins in Australia's and New Zealand's fears of a rearmed Japan. Its obligations on the US, Australia and New Zealand are vague, but its influence on Australian foreign policy thinking, at times has been significant. The SEATO treaty, signed only three years later, clearly demonstrated Australia's position as a US ally in the emerging Cold War. As Britain struggled to enter the Common Market in the 1960s, Australia saw that its historic ties with the mother country were rapidly fraying. Canberra was alarmed but kept a low profile, not wanting to alienate London. Russel Ward states that the implications of British entry into Europe in 1973: "seemed shattering to most Australians, particularly to older people and conservatives." Carl Bridge, however, points out that Australia had been "hedging its British bets" for some time. The ANZUS treaty and Australia's decision to enter the Vietnam War did not involve Britain and by 1967 Japan was Australia's leading export partner and the US her largest source of imports. According to Bridge, Australia's decision not to follow Britain's devaluation of her currency in 1967 "marked the demise of British Australia." Vietnam War By 1965, Australia had increased the size of the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV), and in April the Government made a sudden announcement that "after close consultation with the United States", a battalion of troops was to be sent to South Vietnam. In parliament, Menzies emphasised the argument that "our alliances made demands on us". The alliance involved was presumably, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), and Australia was providing military assistance because South Vietnam, a signatory to SEATO, had apparently requested it. Documents released in 1971 indicated that the decision to commit troops was made by Australia and the US, not at the request of South Vietnam. By 1968, there were three Australian Army battalions at any one time at the 1st Australian Task Force (1ATF) base at Nui Dat in addition to the advisers of the AATTV placed throughout Vietnam, and personnel reached a peak total of almost 8,000, comprising about one third of the Army's combat capacity. Between 1962 and 1972 almost 60,000 personnel served in Vietnam, including ground troops, naval forces and air assets. In July 1966, new Prime Minister Harold Holt expressed his government's support for the US and its role in Vietnam in particular. "I don't know where people would choose to look for the security of this country were it not for the friendship and strength of the United States." While on a visit in the same year to the US, Holt assured President Lyndon B. Johnson "...I hope there is corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend, a staunch friend, [Australia] that will be all the way with LBJ." The Liberal-CP Government was returned with a massive majority in elections held in December 1966, fought over national security issues including Vietnam. The opposition Labor Party had advocated the withdrawal of all conscripts from Vietnam, but its deputy leader Gough Whitlam had stated that a Labor government might maintain regular army troops there. Arthur Calwell, who had been leader of the Labor Party since 1960, retired in favour of Whitlam a few months later. Despite Holt's sentiments and his government's electoral success in 1966, the war became unpopular in Australia, as it did in the United States. The movements to end Australia's involvement gathered strength after the Tet Offensive of early 1968 and compulsory national service (selected by ballot) became increasingly unpopular. In the 1969 elections, the government hung on despite a significant decline in popularity. Moratorium marches held across Australia in mid-1970 attracted large crowds- the Melbourne march of 100,000 being led by Labor MP Jim Cairns. As the Nixon administration proceeded with Vietnamization of the war and began the withdrawal of troops, so did the Australian Government. In November 1970 1st Australian Task Force was reduced to two battalions and in November 1971, 1ATF was withdrawn from Vietnam. The last military advisors of the AATTV were withdrawn by the Whitlam Labor Government in mid-December 1972. The Australian military presence in Vietnam had lasted 10 years, and in purely human cost, more than 500 had been killed and more than 2,000 wounded. The war cost Australia $218 million between 1962 and 1972. Reform and reaction: 1972-1996 The Whitlam Government: 1972-75 Elected in December 1972 after 23 years in opposition, Labor won office under Gough Whitlam, introducing significant reforms and exanding the Federal budget. Welfare benefits were extended and payment rates increased, a national health insurance scheme was introduced, and divorce laws liberalised. Commonwealth expenditure on schools trebled in the two years to mid-1975 and the Commonwealth assumed responsibility for funding higher education, abolishing tuition fees. In foreign affairs the new government prioritised the Asia Pacific region, formally abolishing the White Australia Policy, recognising Communist China and enhancing ties with Indonesia. Conscription was abolished and the remaining Australian troops in Vietnam withdrawn. The Australian national anthem was changed from God Save the Queen to Advance Australia Fair, the imperial honours system was replaced at the Commonwealth level by the Order of Australia, and Queen Elizabeth II was officially styled Queen of Australia. Relations with the US, however, became strained after government members criticised the resumption of the US bombing campaign in North Vietnam. In Indigenous affairs, the government introduced a policy of self-determination for Aboriginal people in economic, social and political affairs. Federal expenditure on Aboriginal services increased from $23 million to $141 million during the three years of the government. One of the first acts of the Whitlam Government was to establish a Royal Commission into land rights in the Northern Territory under Justice Woodward. Legislation based on its findings was passed into law by the Fraser Government in 1976, as the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976. As the Whitlam government did not control the Senate, much of its legislation was rejected or amended. After Labor was re-elected with a reduced majority at elections in May 1974, the Senate remained an obstacle to its political agenda. The government's popularity was also harmed by deteriorating economic conditions and a series of political scandals. Increased government spending, rapid wage growth, booming commodity prices and the first OPEC oil shock led to economic instability. The unemployment rate reached post-war high of 3.6 per cent in late 1974 and the annual inflation rate hit 17 per cent. In 1974–75 the government began negotiations for US$4 billion in foreign loans to fund state development of Australia's mineral and energy resources. Minister Rex Connor conducted secret discussions with a loan broker from Pakistan, and the Treasurer, Jim Cairns, misled parliament about the issue. Arguing the government was incompetent following the Loans Affair, the opposition Liberal-Country Party Coalition delayed passage of the government's money bills in the Senate, until the government would promise a new election. Whitlam refused and the deadlock ended when his government was controversially dismissed by the Governor-General, John Kerr on 11 November 1975. Opposition leader Malcolm Fraser was installed as caretaker Prime Minister, pending an election. Fraser Government: 1975-83 The Federal elections of December 1975 resulted in a landslide victory for the Liberal-Country Party Coalition and Malcolm Fraser continued as Prime Minister. The coalition government won subsequent elections in 1977 and 1980, making Fraser the second longest serving Australian Prime Minister up to that time. The Fraser government espoused a policy of administrative competence and economic austerity leavened by progressive humanitarian, social and environmental interventions. The government enacted the Whitlam government's land rights bill with few changes, increased immigration, and resettled Indochinese refugees. It promoted multiculturalism and in 1978 established the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) as a multicultural broadcaster. In foreign policy, the government continued Labor's friendly relations with China and Indonesia, repaired the frayed relationship with the US and opposed white minority rule in South Africa and Rhodesia. The government also attempted to use its influence with the US and China to limit Soviet expansionism. Environmental policies included banning resource development on Fraser Island and the Great Barrier Reef, creating Kakadu National Park and banning whaling. However, the government refused to use Commonwealth powers to stop the construction of the Franklin Dam in Tasmania in 1982 and the resulting grassroots campaign against the dam contributed to the emergence of an influential Environmental movement in Australia, On the economic front, the Fraser government followed a "fight inflation first" strategy centred on budget cuts and wage restraint. Welfare benefits were restricted, the universal healthcare system was partially dismantled, and university funding per student cut. However, by the early 1980s economic conditions were deteriorating. The second oil shock in 1979 increased inflation which was exacerbated by a boom in commodity prices and a sharp increase in real wages. An international recession, the collapse of the resources boom and a severe drought in eastern Australia saw unemployment rise. The government responded with Keynesian deficit spending in its 1982 Budget, but by 1983 both unemployment and annual inflation exceeded 10 per cent. At the Federal elections in March 1983 the coalition government was comfortably defeated by Labor under its popular new leader Bob Hawke. Labor Government: 1983–1996 The Hawke government pursued a mixture of free market reforms and consensus politics featuring "summits" of government representatives, business leaders, trade unions and non-government organisations in order to reach consensus on key issues such as economic policy and tax reform. The centrepiece of this policy mix was an Accord with trade unions under which wage demands would be curtailed in return for increased social benefits. Welfare payments were increased and better targeted to those on low incomes, and a retirement benefits scheme (superannuation) was extended to most employees. A new universal health insurance scheme, Medicare, was introduced. The Treasurer Paul Keating oversaw a program of deregulation and micro-economic reforms which broke with the Keynesian economics that had traditionally been favoured by the Labor party. These reforms included floating the Australian dollar, deregulating capital markets and allowing competition from foreign banks. Business regulation and competition policy was streamlined, tariffs and quotas on Australian manufactured goods and rural commodities were gradually reduced, and a number of government enterprises and services were progressively privatised. The higher education system was restructured and significantly expanded, partly funded by the reintroduction of fees in the form of student loans and "contributions" (HECS). Paul Kelly concludes that, "In the 1980s both Labor and non-Labor underwent internal philosophical revolutions to support a new set of ideas—faith in markets, deregulation, a reduced role for government, low protection and the creation of a new cooperative enterprise culture." The Hawke Government courted the growing environmental movement with a series of actions including using Federal powers to stop the Franklin Dam development in Tasmania, banning new uranium mines at Jabiluka, and proposing Kakadu National park for world heritage listing. In foreign policy, the Hawke Government maintained strong relations with the US and was instrumental in the formation of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) group. Australia contributed naval ships and troops to UN forces in the Gulf War after Iraq had invaded Kuwait in 1990.The government complemented its consensus politics with other initiatives aimed at fostering national unity. The Australia Act 1986 eliminated the last vestiges of British legal authority at the Federal level. The Australian Bicentenary in 1988 was the focus of year-long celebrations with multicultural themes. The World Expo 88 was held in Brisbane and a new Parliament House in Canberra was opened. Strong economic growth, falling unemployment, an unstable opposition, and Bob Hawke's popularity with the public contributed to the re-election of the Hawke Government in 1984, 1987 and 1990. However, the economy went into recession in 1990 and by late 1991 the unemployment rate had risen above 10 per cent. With the government's popularity falling, Paul Keating successfully challenged for the leadership and became Prime Minister in December 1991. The Keating government's first priority was economic recovery. In February 1992 it released the "One Nation" job creation package and later legislated tax cuts to corporations and individuals to boost economic growth. Unemployment reached 11.4 per cent in 1992—the highest since the Great Depression in Australia. The Liberal-National Opposition had proposed an ambitious plan of economic reform to take to the 1993 Election, including the introduction of a Goods and Services Tax. Keating campaigned strongly against the tax and was returned to office in March 1993.In May 1994 a more ambitious "Working Nation" jobs program was introduced. The Keating government also pursued a number of "big picture" issues throughout its two terms including increased political and economic engagement in the Asia Pacific region, Indigenous reconciliation, an Australian republic and "efficiency with equity". The government engaged closely with the Indonesian President, Suharto and other regional partners, and successfully campaigned to increase the role of APEC as a major forum for strategic and economic co-operation. A Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation was established and, following the High Court of Australia's historic Mabo decision in 1992, the first national Native Title legislation was introduced to regulate claims and provide compensation for loss of native title. In 1993, Keating established a Republic Advisory Committee to examine options for Australia becoming a republic. The government also introduced family payments and a superannuation guarantee with compulsory employer contributions. Under the Hawke Government the annual migration intake had more than doubled from 54,500 in 1984–85 to more than 120,000 in 1989–90. The Keating Government responded to community concerns about the pace of immigration by cutting the immigration intake and introducing mandatory detention for illegal immigrants arriving without a valid visa. Immigration fell to 67,900 in 1992–93. With foreign debt, inflation and unemployment still stubbornly high, and after a series of ministerial resignations, Keating lost the March 1996 Election to the Liberals' John Howard. Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present Howard government: 1996–2007 John Howard with a Liberal–National Party coalition served as Prime Minister from 1996 until 2007, winning re-election in 1998, 2001 and 2004 to become the second-longest serving prime minister after Menzies. One of the first programs instigated by the Howard government was a nationwide gun control scheme following a mass shooting at Port Arthur. The new government saw industrial relations and taxation as two key areas of economic reform which had been left undone by the Hawke-Keating governments. The coalition introduced industrial relations reforms in 1996 which promoted individual contracts and enterprise bargaining. In 2006, it controversially introduced the WorkChoices legislation, which made it easier for small businesses to terminate employment. After the 1996 election, Howard and treasurer Peter Costello proposed a Goods and Services Tax (GST) which they successfully took to the electorate in 1998 and implemented in July 2000. A political concern for the new government was the significant public support for Pauline Hanson and, later, her One Nation party, which espoused populist policies including winding back free market reforms, Asian immigration and programs for Indigenous Australians. The government responded with public messaging criticising elites and political correctness and emphasising Australian values. The coalition initially cut immigration intakes, abolished the Office of Multicultural Affairs and other multicultural agencies, and introduced citizenship tests for migrants. Following a sharp increase in unauthorised arrivals by boat from 1999, the government opened new mandatory detention centres in remote areas of Australia and issued temporary visas for those found to be refugees. Following the Children Overboard affair and the Tampa Affair in 2001, the government introduced the Pacific Solution, which involved detaining unauthorised immigrants in detention centres in Nauru and Papua New Guinea while their refugee status was determined, as well as a policy of turning back vessels intercepted at sea. In Indigenous affairs the Prime Minister rejected calls for a treaty with Indigenous Australians and an apology for past actions which had harmed them. Instead, the government pursued a policy of "practical reconciliation" involving specific measures to improve Indigenous education, health, employment and housing. In response to the High Court's decision in Wik Peoples v Queensland, in 1996, the Howard Government amended native title legislation to limit native title claims. In 2007, following the release of the "Little Children are Sacred" report detailing widespread abuse in Aboriginal communities, the Howard Government launched the Northern Territory Intervention in order to create a safe environment for Indigenous children. The government's response was criticised by the co-chairs of the report, received a divided response from the Indigenous community, but was supported by the Labor opposition. Honouring a commitment made during the 1996 election campaign, the Howard Government set up a people's convention on an Australian republic. The resulting 1999 referendum on a republic failed. Howard, an avowed monarchist, became the only Australian Prime Minister to publicly oppose a constitutional amendment he had put to the people. In 1999, Australia led a United Nations force into East Timor to help establish democracy and independence for that nation, following political violence. During this period Australia committed to a number of other peacekeeping and stabilisation operations: notably in Bougainville, including Operation Bel Isi (1998–2003); as well as Operation Helpem Fren and the Australian-led Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI) in the early 2000s; and the 2006 East Timorese crisis. Following the September 2001 terrorist attacks on the US and the subsequent War on Terror, Australia committed troops to the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War. These events, along with the 2002 Bali Bombings and other terrorist incidents, led to the creation of a National Security Committee and further anti-terrorist legislation. In foreign affairs, the government advocated a policy of "Asia first, but not Asia only", emphasising traditional links to the Commonwealth and the US. Relations with Indonesia became strained over East Timor but generally improved after the Bali bombings. Australia's support of US policy during the War on Terror was followed by an Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement in 2004. Trade agreements with Singapore and Thailand were also secured and relations with China improved. Australia joined the US in refusing to ratify the Kyoto Protocol on greenhouse gas emissions, arguing that it would harm Australia's economy and would be ineffective without the participation of China and India. After initial cuts, the immigration intake increased from 92,270 in 1999–2000 to 157,000 in 2005–06, with a bias towards skilled workers to meet the needs of a rapidly growing economy. The immigration intake also became increasingly diverse, with the proportion of immigrants from South Asia increasing from 8 per cent in 1996–97 to 20 per cent in 2007–08. Inbound tourism also grew, helped by the Sydney Olympic games in 2000. The economy continued its uninterrupted expansion since the early 1990s recession, with record jobs growth and the lowest unemployment rates since the 1970s. Exports and imports grew from a value of about a third of Australia's economic output in the early 1990s to 40 per cent in 2005. China became Australia's second largest trading partner after Japan, and foreign investment in Australia more than doubled. The coalition delivered Budget surpluses in most years which, along with the proceeds of government asset sales - most notably of Telstra - were partly invested in a Future Fund to reduce the national debt. Income inequality and private debt increased as the economy expanded, with the biggest increase in incomes accruing to the top 10 per cent of income earners. By 2007 the Howard Government was consistently trailing the Labor opposition in opinion polls, with key issues being rising interest rates, the unpopular Work Choices industrial relations reforms, and climate change policy. The government was also hampered by leadership tensions between Howard and Costello and opinion polls indicating a desire for a generational change in leadership (opposition leader Kevin Rudd was eighteen years younger than Howard and widely seen as more vibrant). Labor won the November 2007 election with a swing of more than 5 per cent and Howard became only the second sitting Prime Minister to lose his seat in an election. Labor Government: 2007–2013 Kevin Rudd became Prime Minister in December 2007 and held office until June 2010, when he was replaced as leader by Julia Gillard, Australia's first female Prime Minister. Following the August 2010 federal election, Gillard formed a minority Labor government with the support of the Australian Greens and three independents. Gillard was replaced as Prime Minister by Rudd in June 2013, and Labor lost the subsequent September 2013 election. The first Rudd Government moved quickly to ratify the Kyoto protocols, dismantle the previous government's Work Choices industrial relations reforms, and issue an apology to Aboriginal Australians for past policies, particularly the removal of Aboriginal children from their families. The government was soon confronted by the Global Financial Crisis and subsequent global recession, responding with a series of economic stimulus measures worth A$75 billion. Although economic growth slowed in 2008, Australia was one of the few advanced economies in the world to avoid recession. Rudd declared climate change "the great moral challenge of our generation" and his government proposed an emissions trading scheme (ETS) to address the issue. The necessary legislation, however, was twice rejected in the Senate when the Opposition and Greens refused to support it. After the December 2009 UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen failed to produce an agreed international response to global warming the government decided to postpone its ETS until 2013, a decision which saw Labor lose some electoral support to the Greens. The government also lost some public support when it proposed a Resources Super Profits Tax following the release of the Henry Tax Review in May 2010. The resulting media campaign against the tax by the mining industry particularly affected Labor's support in the resource-rich states of Queensland and Western Australia. Illegal immigration policy proved another difficult issue for the government, which initially closed the Nauru processing centre, abolished temporary protection visas and took measures to improve the legal rights and processing time for applicants for asylum. However, unauthorised arrivals by boat increased sharply from 2009 and the number in mandatory detention stretched capacity. The new leader of the Opposition, Tony Abbot, promised that a Coalition government would "stop the boats." In June 2010, with the government behind the Opposition in polls and Rudd's popularity rating falling, the Labor caucus replaced Rudd with Gillard as leader. The new leader was able to negotiate concessions on a new mining tax with large mining companies but failed to reach agreement with East Timor on a proposed migration processing centre there. Following the September 2010 election, the Gillard Government passed a series of legislation with the support of the Greens who now held the balance of power in the Senate. This included enabling legislation for a National Broadband Network, a carbon pricing scheme, a mining tax, a National Disability Insurance Scheme, and school funding reforms. Illegal immigration policy, however, remained a politically sensitive issue. The government negotiated an agreement with Malaysia to process some people there but the plan did not gain the support of the Opposition or the Greens and was struck down by the High Court. As the number of unauthorised immigrants arriving by boat continued to climb, the government reopened offshore processing centres on Manus Island and Nauru. In Indigenous affairs, the government introduced, in 2012, a modified policy in the Northern Territory ('Stronger Futures in the Northern Territory') under a 10-year funding agreement. The new policy retained many features of the Northern Territory Intervention but was broader in scope and involved more collaboration with Indigenous stakeholders. Following mounting leadership speculation and poor polling for the government, Rudd defeated Gillard in a leadership ballot in June 2013 and returned as Prime Minister, promising to replace the carbon tax with an emissions trading scheme and to ensure that people arriving without authority by boat would not be settled in Australia. The Opposition, promising to "stop the boats," abolish the carbon tax and mining tax, and reduce the Budget deficit and government debt, won the September 2013 election. Liberal-National Coalition Government: 2013–present The return of the Liberal-National Coalition to power after six years in opposition initially failed to restore stability to the office of prime minister. Prime Minister Tony Abbott's rival Malcolm Turnbull challenged for and won the leadership of the Liberals within Abbott's first term. After Turnbull narrowly returned the Coalition to office in 2016, Party dissatisfaction with his leadership saw him replaced by Scott Morrison in 2018. Abbott Government (2013-2015) Prime Minister Tony Abbott's Liberal-National Coalition Government began implementing its policies on unauthorised maritime arrivals, including Operation Sovereign Borders, boat turnbacks, the reintroduction of temporary protection visas, and the resettlement in third countries of those found to be refugees. The new policy strained relations with Indonesia, but the number of people arriving by boat fell from 20,587 in 2013 to none in 2015. The government continued Australia's economic engagement with Asia, signing trade agreements with China, South Korea and Japan. The government also embraced the intervention against Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, joining the air campaign, sending special forces and providing training for the Iraqi army. The government made cuts to Indigenous programs, brought the Indigenous Affairs portfolio into the Cabinet, and established the Indigenous Advisory Council. The government's May 2014 Budget, which included measures such as the deregulation of university fees, welfare cuts and projected cuts to funding to the states for health and education, proved unpopular, with the perception that it had involved breaking a number of election promises. The government secured the passage of legislation abolishing the carbon tax (July 2014) and the mining tax (September 2014). The Prime Minister announced a number of decisions - most notably the reintroduction of knighthoods and a knighthood for Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh - which had not been approved by cabinet and which were widely criticised in the media. By September 2015 the government had lost 30 Newspolls in a row and Malcolm Turnbull successfully challenged for the leadership. Turnbull Government (2015-2018) The new Turnbull government promised to promote a "smart, agile and innovative Australia" and "jobs and growth". The government announced a National Innovation and Science Agenda and delivered a Budget featuring cuts to company tax. However, the elections of July 2016 saw the government returned with a majority on only one and a minority in the Senate, making it more difficult to secure the passage of government legislation. Following a national postal plebiscite, the government legalised same-sex marriage in December 2017. In foreign affairs, Australia signed a refugee exchange deal with the US in September 2016, allowing those in detention on Manus Island and Nauru to be settled in the US. There was increased tension with China because of Australia's criticism of China's policies in the South China Sea, Australia's new laws targeting foreign influence in domestic politics, and a ban, on national security grounds, on Chinese companies supplying Australia's 5G communications network. Trade with China, however, continued to grow. In 2017, the United States, Japan, India and Australia agreed to revive the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue in order to counter Chinese ambitions in the South China Sea. Australia signed a modified Trans-Pacific Partnership trade agreement with 10 other nations in March 2018 after the US withdrew from the original agreement. The government lost five by-elections in July 2018. When, in August, the government sought to introduce legislation for a National Energy Guarantee, including a commitment to meet Australia's emissions target under the Paris Agreement, a number of Coalition members vowed to vote against the bill. The resulting controversy further harmed the government, which had already lost more than 30 consecutive Newspolls. The parliamentary Liberal Party elected Scott Morrison as its new leader and he was sworn in as Prime Minister. Morrison Government (2018-present) The Morrison government committed to remaining in the Paris Agreement, but promised a greater focus on reduction of energy prices. In foreign affairs the government signed the Indonesia–Australia Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (IA-CEPA) in March 2019. In April, the treasurer delivered a Budget focusing on tax cuts, increased spending on roads and other infrastructure, and a forecast return to a surplus. The government was returned at the elections of May 2019 with a three-seat majority. In 2017, a constitutional convention of 250 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander delegates had issued the Uluru Statement from the Heart, calling for the recognition of Indigenous sovereignty, a Makarrata (truth telling and agreement-making) Commission, constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians and a "voice to parliament". In 2019, the government announced a process to "develop options for a model that will ensure that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are heard at all levels of government". Within a year the government was confronted with the international COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent recession, Australia's first in 29 years. From 1 February 2020, Australia progressively closed its borders to foreign nationals who had recently visited high-risk countries, culminating, on 20 March, in a general ban on the entry of foreign nationals. On 13 March 2020, a National Cabinet, including Australian government, state government and territory government leaders, was created to address the crisis. The national cabinet announced a series of increasingly tighter restrictions on non-essential business, travel and gatherings of people with the aim of suppressing COVID. These restrictions were progressively eased from early May, although individual states and territories intermittently reimposed restrictions in response to particular outbreaks of COVID-19. The Australian government made provision for $267 billion in economic stimulus measures, and $16.6 billion in health measures in response to COVID-19. As a result of the COVID-19 recession, the unemployment rate rose from about 5 per cent in February 2020 to 7.5 per cent in July 2020. As the economy began to recover from the second half of 2020, the unemployment rate fell to 5.6 per cent in March 2021 and hours worked returned to pre-recession levels. As at 17 April 2021, Australia was ranked 134 out of 177 countries in the number of COVID-19 deaths per capita. In June 2021 Australia and the United Kingdom announced that they had struck a preliminary deal on a free-trade agreement. On 16 September 2021, the government announced that Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States had agreed to the creation of an enhanced trilateral security partnership, dubbed AUKUS. The first initiative under AUKUS would be for Australia to acquire nuclear-powered submarine technology. As a result of the agreement, Australia cancelled its 2016 contract for the diesel-electric Attack-class submarine with the French company Naval Group. China condemned the AUKUS agreement, stating it "seriously undermines regional peace and stability and intensifies the arms race". France announced it would withdraw its ambassador from Australia in protest against the lack of consultation on the security agreement and the cancellation of the $90 billion dollar contract for French submarines. Society and culture: 1960s to present Social developments Indigenous Australians In 1960, Aboriginal affairs were still regulated by state governments and, in the Northern Territory, by the Australian government. In most states Aboriginal Australians were banned from drinking alcohol and their freedom of association, movement and control of property was restricted. Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory banned Aboriginal people from voting and Queensland and Western Australia controlled their right to marry. Aboriginals were often subjected to unofficial "colour bars" restricting their access to many goods, services and public facilities, especially in country towns. The official policy of the Australian government and most state governments, however, was the assimilation of Aboriginal people into mainstream culture: "all aborigines and part-aborigines are expected to eventually attain the same manner of living as other Australians and to live as members of a single Australian community enjoying the same rights and privileges, accepting the same responsibilities, observing the same customs and influenced by the same beliefs, hopes and loyalties as other Australians." The 1960s was a key decade for Indigenous rights, with the demand for change led by Indigenous activists and organisations such as the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. In 1962, the Menzies Government's Commonwealth Electoral Act gave Indigenous people the right to vote at federal elections. In 1965, Queensland became the last state to confer state voting rights on Aboriginal people. In 1963, the Yolngu people of Arnhem Land sent a bark petition to the Australian parliament asking for recognition of their traditional land rights. They subsequently took their case to the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory which ruled against them in September 1971. In 1965, Charles Perkins, helped organise freedom rides into parts of Australia to expose discrimination and inequality. In 1966, the Gurindji people of Wave Hill station commenced the Gurindji strike in a quest for equal pay and recognition of land rights. In 1966, the Australian government gave Aboriginal people the same rights to social security benefits as other Australians. A 1967 referendum called by the Holt Government saw Australians vote by a 91 per cent majority to change the Australian constitution to include all Aboriginal Australians in the national census and allow the Federal parliament to legislate on their behalf. A Council for Aboriginal Affairs was established. Demands for Indigenous self-determination and the preservation of cultural identity were increasingly promoted. In January 1972 Aboriginal activists erected an Aboriginal "tent embassy" on the lawns of parliament house, Canberra and issued a number demands including land rights, compensation for past loss of land and self-determination. The leader of the opposition Gough Whitlam was among those who visited the tent embassy to discuss their demands. The Whitlam government came to power in December 1972 with a policy of self-determination for Aboriginal people. The government also passed legislation against racial discrimination and established a Royal Commission into land rights in the Northern Territory, which formed the basis for the Fraser government's Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976. The Land Rights Act only applied to the Northern Territory, but Aboriginal communities could also acquire land through various state land rights acts or other legislation. By the early 1980s Aboriginal communities had gained title to about 30 per cent of Northern Territory land and 20 per cent of South Australian land. In 1982, the Queensland government granted Aboriginal reserve land to its occupiers but the grants gave limited rights and was revocable at any time. Only a small proportion of land in other states had been transferred to traditional owners. In 1985, the Hawke government handed over Uluru (Ayers Rock) to traditional owners with a lease back to the Commonwealth. In 1987, the West Australian government granted Aboriginal reserve land (amounting to 7 per cent of the state's land) to traditional owners on 50 year and 99 year leases. Key issues for Indigenous communities with recognised land rights included security of title, the protection of culturally significant sites, and the right to veto, or to be adequately compensated for, mining and development on their land. Compensation for previous dispossession of land was an unresolved issue. In 1992, the High Court of Australia handed down its decision in the Mabo Case, holding that Indigenous native title survived reception of English law and continued to exist unless extinguished by conflicting law or interests in land. The Keating government passed a Native Title Act in 1993 to regulate native title claims and established a Native Title Tribunal to hear those claims. In the subsequent Wik decision of 1996, the High Court found that a pastoral lease did not necessarily extinguish native title. In response, the Howard government amended the Native Title Act to provide better protection for pastoralists and others with an interest in land. By March 2019 the Native Titles Tribunal had determined that 375 Indigenous communities had established native title over 39 per cent of the Australian continent, with one third under exclusive title. From 1960 the Indigenous population grew faster than the Australian population as a whole and increasingly lived in urban areas. The Aboriginal population was 106,000 in 1961 (1 per cent of the total population), with 20 per cent living in capital cities compared with 40 per cent for the population as a whole. In 2016, the Indigenous population was 786,900 (3 per cent of the population), with a third living in major cities compared with more than two-thirds of people who were not indigenous. While most of this growth was due to a higher Indigenous birth rate, people of Indigenous descent were also more willing to identify as Indigenous. According to Richard Broome: "identification as Indigenous is almost universal among those with a claim due to the growing pride in Indigenous identity in the face of stronger community acceptance." Despite the drift to large cities, the period from 1965 to 1980 also saw a movement of Indigenous Australians away from towns and settlements to small outstations (or homelands), particularly in Arnhem Land and Central Australia. The movement to outstations was associated with a wider trend for the revival of traditional culture. However, the expense of providing infrastructure to small remote communities has seen pressure from federal, state and territory governments to redirect funding towards larger Indigenous communities. From 1971 to 2006, indicators for Indigenous employment, median incomes, home ownership, education and life expectancy all improved, although they remained well below the level for those who were not indigenous. In 2008, the Council of Australian Governments created targets for "closing the gap" in inequality in a number of key areas of education, employment, literacy and child mortality. By 2020, the outcomes for Indigenous Australians improved in most of these areas. However, the gap widened for child mortality and school attendance, and targets for closing the inequality gap were not met for employment and child literacy and numeracy. Targets for closing the gap in early childhood education and Year 12 school attainment were on track. High rates of Indigenous incarceration and deaths in custody were highlighted by the report of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody in April 1991. The Keating government responded with $400 million in new spending to address some of the recommendations of the report. However, by 2001 Indigenous incarceration rates and deaths in custody had increased. Deaths in custody continued at an average of 15 per year during the decade to 2018. Richard Broome has concluded: "To close the gap [between Indigenous and other Australians] on inequality and well being will take many years; some despairingly say generations. Compensation for lost wages, for missing out on native title settlements and for being removed from one's family and kin remain unresolved." Women Holmes and Pinto point out that in 1960 domesticity and motherhood were still the dominant conceptions of femininity. In 1961, women made up only 25 per cent of employed adults and twice as many women described their occupation as "home duties" compared with those in paid employment. The fertility rate fell from a post-war high of 3.5 to less than 2 in the 1970s and 1980s. The reforming drive of the 1960s and the increasing influence of the women's movement led to a series of legislative and institutional changes. These included the abolition of the "marriage bar" in the Australian public service in 1966, the Arbitration Commission's equal pay decisions of 1969 and 1972, the introduction of paid maternity leave in the Australian public service in 1973, and the enactment of the federal Sex Discrimination Act in 1984 and the Affirmative Action Act of 1986. Single mothers' benefits were introduced in 1973 and the Family Law Act 1975 bought in no-fault divorce. From the 1980s there was an increase in government funding of women's refuges, health centres, rape crisis centres and information services. The Australian government began funding child care with the Child Care Act of 1972, although state, territory and local government were still the main providers of funding. In 1984, the Australian government introduced standardised fee relief for child care, and funding was greatly expanded in 1990 by the decision to extend fee relief to commercial child care centres. According to Holmes and Pinto, reliable birth control, increased employment opportunities, and improved family welfare and childcare provision increased opportunities for women outside motherhood and domesticity. In 2019–20, women were more likely than men to hold a bachelor's degree or higher qualification. Sixty-eight per cent of women aged 20–74 years old participated in the labour force, compared with 78 per cent of men. However, 43 per cent of employed women were working part-time, compared with 16 per cent of men, and the average earnings of women working full-time was 14 per cent below that of men. In the five-to-ten years to 2020, the number of women in private sector leadership roles, female federal Justices and Judges, and federal parliamentarians have all increased gradually. However, between 1999 and 2021, Australia has fallen from ninth to 50th in the Inter-Parliamentary Union's ranking of countries by women's representation in national parliaments. Migrants and cultural diversity In 1961, just over 90 per cent of the Australian population had been born in Australia, New Zealand, the UK or Ireland. Another eight per cent had been born in continental Europe. The White Australia policy was in force and migrants were expected to assimilate into the Australian way of life. As the White Australia policy was gradually dismantled in the 1960s and formally abolished in 1973, governments developed a policy of multiculturalism to manage Australia's increasing cultural diversity. In August 1973 Labor's immigration minister Al Grassby announced his vision of A Multi‐Cultural Society for the Future and a policy of cultural pluralism based on principles of social cohesion, equality of opportunity and cultural identity soon gained bipartisan support. The Galbally Report on migrant services in 1978 recommended that: "every person should be able to maintain his or her culture without prejudice or disadvantage and should be encouraged to understand and embrace other cultures." In response to the report, the Fraser government expanded funding for settlement services, established the Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs (AIMA), funded multicultural and community language education programs in schools and established the multi-lingual Special Broadcasting Service (SBS). State and territory government programs to support multiculturalism followed. By the late 1980s Australia had a high migrant intake which included significant numbers of new arrivals from Asian and Middle‐Eastern countries, leading to public debate on immigration policy. In 1984, the historian Geoffrey Blainey called for a reduction in Asian immigration in the interests of social cohesion. In 1988, the opposition Leader, John Howard called for the abandonment of multiculturalism, a reduction in Asian immigration, and a focus on 'One Australia'. In the same year, the government's FitzGerald review of immigration recommended a sharper economic focus in the selection of immigrants. In 1989, the Hawke government released its National Agenda for a Multicultural Australia which endorsed respect for cultural diversity and the need for settlement services, but indicated that pluralism was limited by the need for "an overriding and unifying commitment to Australia". Multicultural programs continued to expand between 1986 and 1996 with an emphasis on addressing disadvantage in migrant communities as well as settlement services for recent migrants. James Walter argues that the Hawke and Keating governments (1983–96) also promoted high migration as a means of improving Australia's competitive advantage in a globalised market. In 1996, Pauline Hanson, a newly elected independent member of parliament, called for a cut in Asian immigration and an end to multiculturalism. In 1998, her One Nation Party gained 23 per cent of the vote in the Queensland elections. The Howard Government (1996 to 2007) initially abolished a number of multicultural agencies and reduced funding to some migrant services as part of a general program of budget cuts. In 1999, the government adopted a policy of "Australian multiculturalism" with an emphasis on citizenship and adherence to "Australian values". Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the US, the Bali bombings and other terrorist incidents, some media and political commentary sought to link terrorism with Islam. In 2004, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) reported an increase in vilification and violence against Australian Muslims and some other minority ethnic groups. The government increased funding for multicultural, citizenship and settlement programs, with an emphasis on the promotion of social cohesion and security. The annual immigration intake also increased substantially as the economy boomed, from 67,900 in 1998–99 to 148,200 in 2006–07. The proportion of migrants selected for their skills increased from 30 per cent in 1995–96 to 68 per cent in 2006–07. Immigration continued to grow under the Labor government (2007–13) with prime minister Kevin Rudd proclaiming a "big Australia" policy. The immigration intake averaged around 190,000 a year from 2011–12 to 2015–16, a level based on research indicating the optimum level to increase economic output per head of population. India and China became the largest source countries of new migrants. The immigration intake was reduced to 160,000 in 2018-19 as some State governments complained that high immigration was adding to urban congestion. The opposition also linked high immigration with low wages growth while the One Nation party continued to oppose high immigration while proclaiming: "It's okay to be white.". By 2020, 30 per cent of the Australian population were born overseas. The top five countries of birth for those born overseas were England, China, India, New Zealand and the Philippines. Australia's population encompassed migrants born in almost every country in the world, Arts and culture The 1960s and 1970s saw increased government support for the arts and the flourishing of distinctively Australian artistic works. The Gorton government (1968–71) established the Australian Council for the Arts, the Australian Film Development Corporation (AFDC) and the National Film and Television Training School. The Whitlam government (1972–75) established the Australia Council with funding to promote crafts, Aboriginal arts, literature, music, visual arts, theatre, film and television. In 1966, a television drama quota was introduced requiring broadcasters to show 30 minutes of locally produced drama each week. The police series Homicide (1964–67) became the highest rating program and the family drama Skippy the Bush Kangaroo became a local and international success. By 1969 eight of the twelve most popular television programs were Australian. With these successes, locally produced dramas became a staple of Australian television in the 1970s and 1980s. Notable examples include Rush (1973–76), The Sullivans (1976-83) and Neighbours (1985–present). From the late 1960s a "new wave" of Australian theatre emerged, initially centred on small theatre groups such as the Pram Factory, La Mama and the Australian Performing Group in Melbourne and the Jane Street Theatre and Nimrod Theatre Company in Sydney. Playwrights associated with the new wave included David Williamson, Alex Buzo, Jack Hibberd and John Romeril. Features of the new wave were the extensive use of Australian colloquial speech (including obscenities), the exploration of the Australian identity, and the critique of cultural myths. By the end of the 1970s new Australian plays were a feature of small and large theatre companies in most states. Support through the AFDC (from 1975 the Australian Film Commission) and state funding bodies, and generous tax concessions for investors introduced in 1981, led to a large increase in Australian produced films. Almost 400 were produced between 1970 and 1985. Notable films include The Adventures of Barry McKenzie (1972), Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975), My Brilliant Career (1979), Breaker Morant (1980), Gallipoli (1981), the Mad Max trilogy (1979–85) and Crocodile Dundee (1986). In 1973, Patrick White became the first Australian to win a Nobel Prize for Literature. While there were only around twenty Australian novels published in 1973, this had grown to around 300 in 1988. By 1985 more than 1,000 writers had received grants and more than 1,000 books had been subsidised by the Literature Board. Writers who published their first book between 1975 and 1985 include Peter Carey, David Malouf, Murray Bail, Elizabeth Jolley, Helen Garner and Tim Winton. There was also a growing recognition of Indigenous cultural movements. In the early 1970s Aboriginal elders at Papunya began using acrylic paints to make "dot" paintings based on the traditional Honey Ant Dreaming. Indigenous artists from other regions also developed distinctive styles based on a fusion of modern art materials and traditional stories and iconography. Indigenous writers such as Oodgeroo Noonuccal (Kath Walker), Jack Davis and Kevin Gilbert produced significant work in the 1970s and 1980s. A National Black Theatre was established in Sydney in the early 1970s. The Aboriginal Islander Dance Theatre was established in 1976 and the Bangarra Dance Theatre in 1989. In 1991, the rock band Yothu Yindi, which drew on traditional Aboriginal music and dance, achieved commercial and critical success. In music, ABC television's popular music show Countdown (1974–87) helped promote Australian music while radio station 2JJ (later JJJ) in Sydney promoted live performances and recordings by Australian independent artists and record labels. Carter and Griffen-Foley state that by the end of the 1970s: "There was a widely shared sense of Australian culture as independent, no longer troubled by its relationship with Britain." However, by 1990 commentators as diverse as P. P. McGuiness and Geoffrey Serle were complaining that the large increase in artistic works had led to the celebration of mediocrity. Poet Chris Wallace-Crabbe questioned whether Australia had overcome its former "cultural cringe" only to fall into cultural overconfidence. In the new millennium, the globalisation of the Australian economy and society, and developments in jet travel and the internet have largely overcome the "tyranny of distance" which had influenced Australian arts and culture. Overseas cultural works could be more readily accessed in person or virtually. Australian performers such as the Australian Ballet and Australian Chamber Orchestra frequently toured abroad. The growing number of international art exhibitions, such as Art Basel Hong Kong and the Queensland Art Gallery's Asia-Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art, have increased the exposure of Australian art in the region and the wider global market. In film, the number of Australian productions averaged 14 per year in the 1970s but grew to 31 per year in the 2000s and 37 per year in the 2010s. A number of Australian directors and actors, including Baz Luhrmann, George Miller, Peter Weir, Kate Blanchett, Nicole Kidman, Geoffrey Rush and others, have been able to establish careers both in Australia and abroad. The technical expertise developed in the Australian industry, and the increasing number of internationally successful Australian directors and actors, encouraged foreign producers to make more films in Australia. Major international productions made in Australia in the past decade include Mad Max: Fury Road and The Great Gatsby. Carter and Griffen-Follet conclude: "Australia is no longer a Dominion or client state within a closed imperial market, but a medium-sized player, exporter as well as importer, within globalised cultural industries and markets." Historiography According to Stuart MacIntyre, the first Australian histories, such as those by William Wentworth and James Macarthur, were polemical works written to influence public opinion and British government policy in the colony. After the Australian colonies became self-governing in the 1850s, colonial governments commissioned histories aimed at promoting migration and investment from Britain. The beginning of professional academic history in Australian universities from 1891 saw the dominance of an Imperial framework for interpreting Australian history, in which Australia emerged from the successful transfer of people, institutions, and culture from Britain. The apogee of the imperial school of Australian history was the Australian volume of the Cambridge History of the British Empire published in 1933. Military history received government support after the First World War, most prominently with Charles Bean's 12 volume History of Australia in the War of 1914-1918 (1921–42). Bean's earlier work as Australia's official war correspondent had helped establish the Anzac legend which, according to McKenna: "immediately supplanted all other narratives of nationhood - the march of the explorers, the advance of settlement, Eureka, Federation and Australia's record of progressive democratic legislation." Radical nationalist interpretations of Australian history became more prominent from the 1930s. Brian Fitzpatrick published a series of histories from 1939 to 1941 which sought to demonstrate the exploitative nature of Britain's economic relationship with Australia and the role of the labour movement in a struggle for social justice and economic independence. One of the most influential works of the radical nationalist trend was Russel Ward's The Australian Legend (1958) which sought to trace the origins of a distinctive democratic national ethos from the experiences of the convicts, bushrangers, gold-diggers, drovers and shearers. In the 1960s Marxist historians such as Bob Gollan and Ian Turner explored the relationship of the labour movement to radical nationalist politics. The rapid expansion of university history departments in the 1950s and 1960s saw an increasing diversity of interpretations and specialisations in Australian history. A number of academic historians still worked within the imperial history tradition, while others explored the contribution of liberal, conservative and other traditions to Australia's distinctive political, cultural and economic development. In the first two volumes of his History of Australia (1962, 1968) Manning Clark developed an idiosyncratic interpretation of Australian history telling the story of "epic tragedy" in which "the explorers, Governors, improvers, and perturbators vainly endeavoured to impose their received schemes of redemption on an alien, intractable setting". According to MacIntyre, Clark "had few imitators and the successive volumes had a much greater impact on the public than the profession." Another notable "big picture" interpretation of Australian history from this period is Geoffrey Blainey's The Tyranny of Distance (1966). The 1970s saw a number of challenges to traditional imperial and nationalist interpretations of Australian history. Humphrey McQueen in A New Britannia (1970) attacked radical nationalist historical narratives from a Marxist New Left perspective. Anne Summers in Damned Whores and God's Police (1975) and Miriam Dixson in The Real Matilda (1976) analysed the role of women in Australian history. Others explored the history of those marginalised because of their sexuality or ethnicity. Oral history became an increasingly prominent addition to traditional archival sources in a number of topic areas. Wendy Lowenstein's Weevils in the Flour (1978), a social history of the Great Depression, is a notable early example. There was also a revival in Aboriginal history. Notable works include Charles Rowley's The Destruction of Aboriginal Society (1970), Henry Reynolds' The Other Side of the Frontier (1981) and Peter Reid's work on Aboriginal children who had been removed from their parents. While Indigenous-settler relations remains an important field, Reid states that in the past few decades historians of Indigenous Australia have increasingly explored local histories and "the changing internal relations between individuals and family, clan and community." Academic history continued to be influenced by British, American and European trends in historical method and modes of interpretation. Post-structuralist ideas on the relationship between language and meaning were influential in the 1980s and 1990s, for example, in Greg Dening's Mr Bligh's Bad Language (1992). Memory studies and Pierre Nora's ideas on the relationship between memory and history influenced work in a number of fields including military history, ethnographic history, oral history and historical work in Australian museums. Interdisciplinary histories drawing on the insights of fields such as sociology, anthropology, cultural studies and environmental studies have become more common since the 1980s. Transnational approaches which analyse Australian history in a global and regional context have also flourished in recent decades. Historians such as McKenna, MacIntyre and others point out that in the 21st century most historical works are not created by academic historians, and public conceptions of Australia's history are more likely to be shaped by popular histories, historical fiction and drama, the media, the internet, museums and public institutions. Popular histories by amateur historians regularly outsell work by academic historians. The internet and developments in digital technology mean that individuals and community groups can readily research, produce and distribute their own historical works. Local histories and family histories have proliferated in recent decades. A 2003 survey by the University of Technology, Sydney found that 32 per cent of respondents had engaged in family history or a history-related hobby. These developments, along with the prevalence of interdisciplinary histories, have led some Australian historians to question the boundaries of history as an academic discipline. MacIntyre has questioned the claim that specialised procedures and forms of communication can protect the discipline from "the natural impulses of humanity" and "popular history". Clark and Ashton have stated that: "The accessibility of history has fundamentally changed how we perceive the discipline and raises an important question: Can anyone be an historian today?" Historians have also questioned the boundaries between historical writing and other activities, particularly when they argue that groups have been marginalised by academic histories. Peter Reid states that "Aboriginal history today takes form in dance, art, novel, biography, autobiography, oral history, archival research, family papers, drama, poetry and film." History wars The history wars were a series of public disputes about interpretations of Australian history involving historians, politicians and media commentators which occurred between approximately 1993 and 2007 but which had their roots in the revisionist histories from the 1970s and political debates about multiculturalism, Indigenous land rights, the stolen generations and national identity. In a 1993 lecture, Geoffrey Blainey made a distinction between a "three cheers" view of history which saw Australian history as largely a success, and a "black armband" view which claimed that "much of Australian history was a disgrace". He opined that the "black armband view of history might well represent the swing of the pendulum from a position that had been too favourable, too self-congratulatory, to an opposite extreme that is even more unreal and decidedly jaundiced". Three years later, the Prime Minister John Howard referred to Blainey's speech stating, "I profoundly reject the black armband view of Australian history. I believe the balance sheet of Australian history is a very generous and benign one. I believe that, like any other nation, we have black marks upon our history but amongst the nations of the world we have a remarkably positive history." He later defined black armband history as the view "that most Australian history since 1788 has been little more than a disgraceful story of imperialism, exploitation, racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination" and stated his intention to "ensure that our history as a nation is not written definitively by those who take the view that we should apologise for most of it." In 1997, Howard repeated his criticism of black armband history in the context of the political controversies about Indigenous native title and the Stolen Generations, stating that contemporary Australians should not be held accountable for wrongs committed by past generations. A number of historians, including Henry Reynolds, Elaine Thompson and Don Watson, responded publicly, variously accusing the prime minister of seeking to rewrite history to exclude the critical analysis of Australia's past and of misrepresenting recent Australian historiography for political purposes. However, historian Patrick O'Farrell, agreed with John Howard that the "guilt school of Australian history has gone too far". In August 1996, the Brisbane newspaper The Courier-Mail published a series of articles alleging that Manning Clark (who had died in 1991 and had been closely associated with the opposition Labor party since 1972) had been "an agent of influence" for the Soviet Union. The newspaper explicitly linked its allegations to current political debates about Australia's history. John Howard commented that he considered Clark an unduly pessimistic black armband historian. The Press Council later found that the newspaper had had insufficient evidence for its allegation that Clark had been a Soviet agent. The Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission (HREOC), in 1997, released its Bringing Them Home report on the forced removal of Indigenous children from their families. The report found that between 10 per cent and 33 per cent of Aboriginal children had been forcibly separated from their parents between 1910 and 1970. The authors of the report stated that the policy of forced removals amounted to genocide and called for an apology to, and compensation for, the victims. Prime minister Howard offered his personal regret for the forced removals but he refused to offer a parliamentary apology, arguing that it might prejudice future legal actions and no government should be expected to apologise for the actions of previous governments. The release of the report and the government's response sparked a heated political, media and public debate about the facts of forced removals and the appropriate political response. The anthropologist Ron Brunton published a paper in 1998 criticising the HREOC inquiry on various grounds including that the inquiry has not tested the claims of witnesses against the historical record. In 2000, the government claimed that a maximum of 10 per cent of Aboriginal children had been separated from their parents and that the policy was lawful and well-intentioned. A number of historians, including Janet McCalman and Anna Haebich, contributed to the political and academic debate. Keith Windschuttle published a series of articles in 2000 in which he argued that claims of frontier massacres and the Aboriginal death toll in frontier violence had been exaggerated by historians. In a subsequent book The Fabrication of Aboriginal History (2002) Windschuttle argued that there had been no genocide of Aboriginal Tasmanians and that historians had systematically misrepresented evidence about the nature and extent of violence against Aboriginal Tasmanians for political reasons. Geoffrey Blainey praised the book and it sparked a widespread and often acrimonious academic, media and public debate about settler violence against Aboriginal people and about Windschuttle's criticisms of particular historians. A new battlefront in the history wars opened in 2000 when the council of the National Museum of Australia commissioned the historian Graeme Davison to review the explanatory labels for the museum's inaugural exhibition to determine whether they amounted to "the reworking of Australian history into political correctness." Davison found no political bias in the labels and the exhibition went ahead with the opening of the museum in March 2001. Following a number of media allegations of left-wing political bias in the museum's exhibitions, the museum council initiated another review which, in 2003, found that there was no systemic political or cultural bias in the museum. A number of historians publicly criticised the inquiry as political interference in the independence of the museum. In 2006, a Sydney newspaper reported that the director of the museum, Peter Morton was systematically reworking the collection, stating: "I want people to come out feeling good about Australia." See also Australian archaeology Australian telegraphic history Economic history of Australia Europeans in Oceania History of Oceania History of broadcasting#Australia History of monarchy in Australia Immigration history of Australia List of conflicts in Australia List of towns and cities in Australia by year of foundation Military history of Australia Territorial evolution of Australia Timeline of Australian history Whaling in Australia Women in Australia References Reference books Barker, Anthony. What Happened When: A Chronology of Australia from 1788. Allen & Unwin. 2000. online edition Bambrick, Susan ed. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Australia (1994) Basset, Jan The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary of Australian History (1998) Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. The Oxford Companion to Australian History (2001) online at many academic libraries; Galligan, Brian, and Winsome Roberts, eds. 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(Australian National Centre of Excellence for Maritime Archaeology, Department of Maritime Archaeology, Western Australian Museum, 2012) Bonke, H.: De zeven reizen van de Jonge Lieve: Biografie van een VOC-schip, 1760–1781 [The seven voyages of the Jonge Lieve: A biography of a VOC ship]. (Nijmegen: SUN, 1999) [in Dutch] Bontekoe, Willem Ysbrandsz: Memorable Description of the East Indian Voyage, 1618–25. Translated from the Dutch by C.B. Bodde-Hodgkinson, with an introduction and notes by Pieter Geyl. (London: G. Routledge & Sons, 1929) Dash, Mike: Batavia's Graveyard: The True Story of the Mad Heretic Who Led History's Bloodiest Mutiny. (New York: Crown, 2002, ) Day, Alan: The A to Z of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia. (Scarecrow Press, 2009, ) De Vlamingh, Willem: De ontdekkingsreis van Willem Hesselsz. de Vlamingh in de jaren 1696–1697. Edited by Günter Schilder. 2 vols. "WLV," Vols. LXXVIII, LXXIX. (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976) [in Dutch] Drake-Brockman, Henrietta: Voyage to Disaster: The Life of Francisco Pelsaert Covering His Indian Report to the Dutch East India Company and the Wreck of the Ship 'Batavia' in 1629 Off the Coast of Western Australia Together With the Full Text of His Journals, Concerning the Rescue Voyages, the Mutiny On the Abrolhos Islands and the Subsequent Trials of the Mutineers. [Translated from the Dutch by E. D. Drok]. (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1963) Duyker, Edward: The Dutch in Australia [Australian Ethnic Heritage series]. (Melbourne: AE Press, 1987) Duyker, Edward (ed.): The Discovery of Tasmania: Journal Extracts from the Expeditions of Abel Janszoon Tasman and Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne 1642 & 1772. (Hobart: St David's Park Publishing/Tasmanian Government Printing Office, 1992, pp. 106) Duyker, Edward: Mirror of the Australian Navigation by Jacob Le Maire: A Facsimile of the 'Spieghel der Australische Navigatie.' Being an Account of the Voyage of Jacob Le Maire and Willem Schouten (1615–1616), published in Amsterdam in 1622. Hordern House for the Australian National Maritime Museum, Sydney, 1999, 202 pp Edwards, Hugh: Islands of Angry Ghosts: Murder, Mayhem and Mutiny: The Story of the Batavia. Originally published in 1966. (New York: William Morrow & Co., 1966; HarperCollins, 2000) Edwards, Hugh: The Wreck on the Half-Moon Reef. (Adelaide: Rigby Limited, 1970) Fitzsimons, Peter: Batavia: Betrayal, Shipwreck, Murder, Sexual Slavery, Courage: A Spine-Chilling Chapter in Australian History. (Sydney: Random House Australia, 2011) Gerritsen, Rupert; Cramer, Max; Slee, Colin: The Batavia Legacy: The Location of the First European Settlement in Australia, Hutt River, 1629. (Geraldton: Sun City Print, 2007) Godard, Philippe: The First and Last Voyage of the Batavia. (Perth: Abrolhos, 1994) Green, Jeremy N.: Treasures from the 'Vergulde Draeck' (Gilt Dragon). (Perth: Western Australian Museum, 1974) Green, Jeremy N.: The Loss of the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie Jacht 'Vergulde Draeck', Western Australia 1656. An Historical Background and Excavation Report With an Appendix On Similar Loss of the Fluit 'Lastdrager' [2 volumes]. (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1977) Green, Jeremy N.: The Loss of the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie Retourschip 'Batavia', Western Australia, 1629. An Excavation Report and Catalogue of Artefacts. (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1989) Heeres, J. E.: Het aandeel der Nederlanders in de ontdekking van Australië, 1606–1765. (Leiden: Brill, 1899) [in Dutch] Heeres, J. E.: The Part Borne by the Dutch in the Discovery of Australia, 1606–1765. (Published by the Royal Dutch Geographical Society in Commemoration of the XXVth Anniversary of Its Foundation, 1899) Heeres J. E. (ed.): Abel Janszoon Tasman's Journal of His Discovery of Van Diemens Land and New Zealand in 1642: With Documents Relating to His Exploration of Australia in 1644. (Amsterdam: Frederick Muller, 1898) Henderson, Graeme: Unfinished Voyages: Western Australian Shipwrecks, 1622–1850. (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 1980) Henderson, J.: Sent Forth a Dove: The Discovery of Duyfken. (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 1999, 232pp) Hiatt, Alfred; Wortham, Christopher; et al. (eds.): European Perceptions of Terra Australis. (Farnham: Ashgate, 2011) Hoving, Ab; Emke, Cor: De schepen van Abel Tasman [The Ships of Abel Tasman]. (Hilversum: Uitgeverij Verloren, 2000) [in Dutch] Kenny, John: Before the First Fleet: European Discovery of Australia, 1606–1777. Kangaroo Press, 1995, 192 pp Leys, Simon: The Wreck of the Batavia. A True Story. (New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 2005) McHugh, Evan: 1606: An Epic Adventure. (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2006) Mundle, Rob: Great South Land: How Dutch Sailors found Australia and an English Pirate almost beat Captain Cook. (ABC Books, 2016, ) Murdoch, Priscilla: Duyfken and the First Discoveries of Australia. Artarmon, N.S.W.: Antipodean Publishers, 1974 Mutch, T. D.: The First Discovery of Australia – With an Account of the Voyage of the "Duyfken" and the Career of Captain Willem Jansz. (Sydney, 1942) Reprinted from the Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society, Vol. XXVIII., Part V Nichols, Robert; Woods, Martin (eds.): Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia. (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 2013, ) Pelsaert, Francisco: The Batavia Journal of Francisco Pelsaert (1629). Edited and translated by Marit van Huystee. (Fremantle, W.A.: Western Australian Maritime Museum, 1998) Peters, Nonja: The Dutch Down Under, 1606–2006. (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 2006) Playford, Phillip: The Wreck of the Zuytdorp on the Western Australian Coast in 1712. (Nedlands: Royal Western Australian Historical Society, 1960) Playford, Phillip: Carpet of Silver: The Wreck of the Zuytdorp. (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 1996) Playford, Phillip: Voyage of Discovery to Terra Australis by Willem de Vlamingh in 1696–97. [Includes journal of Willem Vlamingh translated from an early 18th-century manuscript held in the Archives Nationales de France]. (Perth: Western Australian Museum, 1998) Pearson, Michael: Great Southern Land: The Maritime Exploration of Terra Australis. (Canberra: Department of Environment and Heritage, 2005) Quanchi, Max; Robson, John: Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands. (Lanham, MD and Oxford: Scarecrow Press, 2005) Richards, Michael; O'Connor, Maura (eds.): Changing Coastlines: Putting Australia on the World Map, 1493–1993. (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1993) Robert, Willem C. H.: The Explorations, 1696–1697, of Australia by Willem de Vlamingh. Extracts from Two Log-Books Concerning the Voyage to and Explorations on the Coast of Western Australia and from Other Documents Relating to this Voyage. [Original Dutch texts]. (Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1972) Robert, Willem C. H.: The Dutch Explorations, 1605–1756, of the North and Northwest Coast of Australia. Extracts from Journals, Log-books and Other Documents Relating to These Voyages. [Original Dutch texts]. (Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1973) Ryan, Simon: The Cartographic Eye: How Explorers Saw Australia. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996) Schilder, Günter: Australia Unveiled: The Share of the Dutch Navigators in the Discovery of Australia. Translated from the German by Olaf Richter. (Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1976) Schilder, Günter: Voyage to the Great South Land, Willem de Vlamingh, 1696–1697. Translated by C. de Heer. (Sydney: Royal Australian Historical Society, 1985) Schilder, Günter: In the Steps of Tasman and De Vlamingh. An Important Cartographic Document for the Discovery of Australia. (Amsterdam: Nico Israel, 1988) Schilder, Günter; Kok, Hans: Sailing for the East: History and Catalogue of Manuscript Charts on Vellum of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), 1602–1799. (BRILL, 2010, ) Sharp, Andrew: The Discovery of Australia. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963) Sharp, Andrew: The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968) Shaw, Lindsey; Wilkins, Wendy (eds.): Dutch Connections: 400 Years of Australian-Dutch Maritime Links, 1606–2006. (Sydney: Australian National Maritime Museum, 2006) Sigmond, J. P.; Zuiderbaan, L. H.: Dutch Discoveries of Australia: Shipwrecks, Treasures and Early Voyages off the West Coast. (Adelaide: Rigby, 1979) Sigmond, J. P.; Zuiderbaan, L. H.: Nederlanders ontdekken Australië: Scheepsarcheologische vondsten op het Zuidland. (Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw, 1988) [in Dutch] Stapel, F.W.: De Oostindische Compagnie en Australië. (Amsterdam: Van Kampen, 1937) [in Dutch] Stein, Stephen K.: The Sea in World History: Exploration, Travel, and Trade. (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2017) Suárez, Thomas: Early Mapping of the Pacific: The Epic Story of Seafarers, Adventurers, and Cartographers Who Mapped the Earth's Greatest Ocean. (Singapore: Periplus Editions, 2004) Tasman, Abel: The Journal of Abel Jansz Tasman, 1642; with Documents Relating to His Exploration of Australia in 1644. Edited by G.H. Kenihan. (Adelaide: Australian Heritage Press, 1960) Tasman, Abel: Het Journaal van Abel Tasman, 1642–1643. [eds.: Vibeke Roeper & Diederick Wilderman]. (The Hague: Nationaal Archief, 2006) [in Dutch] Van Duivenvoorde, Wendy: The Batavia Shipwreck: An Archaeological Study of an Early Seventeenth-Century Dutch East Indiaman. (PhD diss., Texas A&M University, Dept of Anthropology, 2008) Van Zanden, Henry: 1606: Discovery of Australia. (Perth: Rio Bay Enterprises, 1997) Veth, Peter; Sutton, Peter; Neale, Margo: Strangers on the Shore: Early Coastal Contacts in Australia. (Canberra: National Museum of Australia Press, 2008, ) Walker, James Backhouse: Abel Janszoon Tasman: His Life and Voyages, and The Discovery of Van Diemen's Land in 1642. (Hobart: Government Printer, 1896) Journal articles, scholarly papers, essays Broomhall, Susan (2014), 'Emotional Encounters: Indigenous Peoples in the Dutch East India Company's Interactions with the South Lands,'. Australian Historical Studies 45(3): pp. 350–367 Broomhall, Susan (2015), '"Quite indifferent to these things": The Role of Emotions and Conversion in the Dutch East India Company's Interactions with the South Lands,'. Journal of Religious History 39(4): 524–44. Broomhall, Susan (2016), 'Dishes, Coins and Pipes: The Epistemological and Emotional Power of VOC Material Culture in Australia,'. In The Global Lives of Things: The Material Culture of Connections in the Early Modern World, edited by Anne Gerritsen & Giorgio Riello. (London: Routledge, 2016), pp. 145–61 Broomhall, Susan (2017), 'Fire, Smoke and Ashes: Communications of Power and Emotions by Dutch East India Company Crews on the Australian Continent,'. In Fire Stories, edited by G. Moore. (New York: Punctum Books, 2017) Broomhall, Susan (2017), 'Shipwrecks, Sorrow, Shame and the Great Southland: The Use of Emotions in Seventeenth-Century Dutch East India Company Communicative Ritual,'. In Emotion, Ritual and Power in Europe, 1200–1920: Family, State and Church, edited by M. Bailey and K. Barclay. (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), pp. 83–103 Broomhall, Susan (2018), 'Dirk Hartog's Sea Chest: An Affective Archaeology of VOC Objects in Australia,'; in Feeling Things: Objects and Emotions through History, edited by Stephanie Downes, Sally Holloway and Sarah Randles. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), pp. 175–91 Donaldson, Bruce (2006), 'The Dutch Contribution to the European Discovery of Australia,'. In Nonja Peters (ed.), The Dutch Down Under, 1606–2006. (Crawley: University of Western Australia Press, 2006) Gaastra, Femme (1997), 'The Dutch East India Company: A Reluctant Discoverer,'. Great Circle – Journal of the Australian Association for Maritime History 19(2): 109–123 Gentelli, Liesel (2016), 'Provenance Determination of Silver Artefacts from the 1629 VOC Wreck Batavia using LA-ICP-MS,'. Journal of Archaeological Science [Reports] 9: 536–542. Gerritsen, Rupert (2006), 'The evidence for cohabitation between Indigenous Australians, marooned Dutch mariners and VOC passengers,'; in Nonja Peters (ed.), The Dutch Down Under: 1606–2006. (University of WA Press, Sydney, 2006), pp. 38–55 Gerritsen, Rupert (2008), 'The landing site debate: Where were Australia's first European residents marooned in 1629?', pp. 105–129; in P. Hornsby & J. Maschke (eds.) Hydro 2007 Conference Proceedings: Focus on Asia. (International Federation of Hydrographic Societies, Belrose) Gerritsen, Rupert (2009), 'The Batavia Mutiny: Australia's first military conflict in 1629,'. Sabretache: Journal and Proceedings of the Military Historical Society of Australia 50(4): 5–10 Gerritsen, Rupert (2011), 'Australia's First Criminal Prosecutions in 1629'. (Canberra: Batavia Online Publishing) Gibbs, Martin (2002), 'Maritime Archaeology and Behavior during Crisis: The Wreck of the VOC Ship Batavia (1629),'; in John Grattan & Robin Torrence (eds.), Natural Disasters and Cultural Change. (New York: Routledge, 2002), pp. 66–86 Green, Jeremy N. (1975), 'The VOC ship Batavia wrecked in 1629 on the Houtman Abrolhos, Western Australia,'. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 4(1): 43–63. Green, Jeremy N. (2006), 'The Dutch Down Under: Sailing Blunders,'. In Nonja Peters (ed.), The Dutch Down Under, 1606–2006. (Crawley: University of Western Australia Press, 2006) Guy, Richard (2015), 'Calamitous Voyages: the social space of shipwreck and mutiny narratives in the Dutch East India Company,'. Itinerario 39(1): 117–140. Ketelaar, Eric (2008), 'Exploration of the Archived World: From De Vlamingh's Plate to Digital Realities,'. Archives and Manuscripts 36(2): 13–33 McCarthy, M. (2006), 'Dutch place names in Australia,'. In Nonja Peters (ed.), The Dutch Down Under, 1606–2006. (Crawley: University of Western Australia Press, 2006) McCarthy, M. (2006), 'The Dutch on Australian shores: The Zuytdorp tragedy – unfinished business,'. In L. Shaw & W. Wilkins (eds.), Dutch Connections: 400 Years of Australian–Dutch Maritime Links, 1606–2006 (Sydney: Australian National Maritime Museum, 2006), pp. 94–109 Mutch, T. D. (1942), 'The First Discovery of Australia with an Account of the Voyages of the Duyfken and the Career of William Jansz.,'. JRAHS 28(5): 303–352 Schilder, Günter (1976), 'Organisation and Evolution of the Dutch East India Company's Hydrographic Office in the Seventeenth Century,'. Imago Mundi 28: 61–78 Schilder, Günter (1988), 'New Holland: The Dutch Discoveries,'; in Glyndwr Williams and Alan Frost (eds.), Terra Australis to Australia. (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 83–115 Schilder, Günter (1984), 'The Dutch Conception of New Holland in the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries,'. The Globe: Journal of the Australian Map Circle 22: 38–46 Schilder, Günter (1989), 'From Secret to Common Knowledge – The Dutch Discoveries,'; in John Hardy and Alan Frost (eds.), Studies from Terra Australis to Australia. (Canberra, 1989) Schilder, Günter (1993), 'A Continent Takes Shape: The Dutch mapping of Australia,'; in Changing Coastlines, edited by Michael Richards & Maura O'Connor. (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1993), pp. 10–16 Sheehan, Colin (2008), 'Strangers and Servants of the Company: The United East India Company and the Dutch Voyages to Australia,'; in Peter Veth, Margo Neale, et al. (eds.), Strangers on the Shore: Early Coastal Contacts in Australia. (Canberra: National Museum of Australia Press, ) Sigmond, Peter (2006), 'Cultural Heritage and a Piece of Pewter,'; in L. Shaw & W. Wilkins (eds.), Dutch Connections: 400 Years of Australian–Dutch Maritime Links, 1606–2006. (Sydney: Australian National Maritime Museum, 2006) Van Duivenvoorde, Wendy; Kaiser, Bruce; Megens, Luc; van Bronswijk, Wilhelm (2015), 'Pigments from the Zuiddorp (Zuytdorp) ship sculpture: red, white and blue?,'. Post-Medieval Archaeology 49(2): 268–290 Yahya, Padillah; Gaudieri, Silvana; Franklin, Daniel (2010), 'DNA Analysis of Human Skeletal Remains Associated with the Batavia Mutiny of 1629,'. Records of the Western Australian Museum 26: 98–108 Primary sources Clark, C.M.H. ed. Select Documents in Australian History (2 vol. 1950) Kemp, Rod, and Marion Stanton, eds. Speaking for Australia: Parliamentary Speeches That Shaped Our Nation Allen & Unwin, 2004 online edition Crowley, Frank, ed. A Documentary History of Australia (5 vol. Melbourne: Wren, 1973); v.1. Colonial Australia, 1788–1840 – v.2. Colonial Australia, 1841–1874 -v.3. Colonial Australia, 1875–1900 -v.4. Modern Australia, 1901–1939 -v.5. Modern Australia, 1939–1970 Daniels, Kay, ed. Australia's Women, a Documentary History: From a Selection of Personal Letters, Diary Entries, Pamphlets, Official Records, Government and Police Reports, Speeches, and Radio Talks (2nd ed. U of Queensland Press, 1989) 335pp. The first edition was entitled Uphill All the Way: A Documentary History of Women in Australia (1980). Teale, Ruth, ed. Colonial Eve: Sources On Women in Australia, 1788–1914 (Melbourne : Oxford University Press, 1978) Further reading External links Australia: The Official History, by John Hirst, February 2008, The Monthly History of the Australian nation – State Library of NSW The Australian History page at Project Gutenberg of Australia Bush Poetry a source of Australian History Australian Historical Studies, a scholarly journal Historical Primary Sources "State Library of New South Wales Online Collections" "Australian War Memorial Collections" "Some Inspirational (Australian) People" Profiled by Laurence MacDonald Muir. "The Australian Empire" by Rob Robinson, 2009 From Terra Australis to Australia, State Library of New South Wales European discovery and the colonisation of Australia – Australian Government Looking For Blackfellas Point History of European settlement and relations with Aboriginal people of South Eastern Australia, Australian Broadcasting Corporation Royal Australian Historical Society

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Dillinger

John Dillinger

John Herbert Dillinger (June 22, 1903 – July 22, 1934) was an American gangster of the Great Depression. He led a group known as the "Dillinger Gang", which was accused of robbing 24 banks and four police stations. Dillinger was imprisoned several times but escaped twice. He was charged, but not convicted, of the murder of an East Chicago, Indiana, police officer who shot Dillinger in his bullet-proof vest during a shootout; it was the only time Dillinger was charged with homicide. Dillinger courted publicity. The media ran exaggerated accounts of his bravado and colorful personality and cast him as a Robin Hood. In response, J. Edgar Hoover, then director of the Bureau of Investigation (BOI), used Dillinger and his gang as his campaign platform to evolve the BOI into the Federal Bureau of Investigation, developing more sophisticated investigative techniques as weapons against organized crime. After evading police in four states for almost a year, Dillinger was wounded and went to his father's home to mend. He returned to Chicago in July 1934 and sought refuge in a brothel owned by Ana Cumpănaș. She informed authorities of his whereabouts. On July 22, 1934, local and federal law enforcement closed in on the Biograph Theater. As BOI agents moved to arrest Dillinger as he exited the theater, he never drew a gun but attempted to flee. He was shot a number of times in the back and was killed; this was later ruled as justifiable homicide. Early life Family and background John Dillinger was born on June 22, 1903, at 2053 Cooper Street (now Caroline Avenue), Indianapolis, Indiana, the younger of two children born to John Wilson Dillinger (1864–1943) and Mary Ellen "Mollie" Lancaster (1870–1907). According to some biographers, his German grandfather, Matthias Dillinger, immigrated to the United States in 1851 from Metz, in the region of Lorraine, then still under French sovereignty. Matthias Dillinger was born in Gisingen, near Dillingen in the present-day German state of Saarland. John Dillinger's parents had married on August 23, 1887. Dillinger's father was a grocer by trade and, reportedly, a harsh man. In an interview with reporters, Dillinger said that he was firm in his discipline and believed in the adage "spare the rod and spoil the child". Dillinger's older sister, Audrey, was born March 6, 1889. Their mother died in 1907 just before his fourth birthday. Audrey married Emmett "Fred" Hancock that year and they had seven children together. She cared for her brother John for several years until their father remarried in 1912 to Elizabeth "Lizzie" Fields (1878–1933). They had three children, Hubert M. Dillinger (1913–1974) Doris M. Dillinger Hockman (1918–2001) and Frances Dillinger Thompson (1922–2015). Formative years and marriage As a teenager, Dillinger was frequently in trouble with the law for fighting and petty theft; he was also noted for his "bewildering personality" and bullying of smaller children. He quit school to work in an Indianapolis machine shop. His father feared that the city was corrupting his son, prompting him to move the family to Mooresville, Indiana, in 1921. Dillinger's wild and rebellious behavior was unchanged, despite his new rural life. In 1922, he was arrested for auto theft, and his relationship with his father deteriorated. In 1923, Dillinger's troubles led to him enlisting in the United States Navy, where he was a Petty officer third class Machinery Repairman assigned aboard the battleship , but he deserted a few months later when his ship was docked in Boston. He was eventually dishonorably discharged some months later. Dillinger then returned to Mooresville where he met Beryl Ethel Hovious. The two married on April 12, 1924. He attempted to settle down, but he had difficulty holding a job and preserving his marriage. Unable to find a job, he began planning a robbery with his friend Ed Singleton, who was an ex-convict and umpire for a semi-professional baseball team, the AC Athletics, for which Dillinger played shortstop. The two robbed a local grocery store, stealing $50. While leaving the scene, the criminals were spotted by a minister who recognized the men and reported them to the police. During the robbery, Dillinger had struck a victim on the head with a machine bolt wrapped in a cloth and had also carried a gun which, although it discharged, hit no one. The two men were arrested the next day. Singleton pleaded not guilty, but after Dillinger's father (the local Mooresville Church deacon) discussed the matter with Morgan County prosecutor Omar O'Harrow, his father convinced Dillinger to confess to the crime and plead guilty without retaining a defense attorney. Dillinger was convicted of assault and battery with intent to rob, and conspiracy to commit a felony. He expected a lenient probation sentence as a result of his father's discussion with O'Harrow but instead was sentenced to 10 to 20 years in prison for his crimes. His father told reporters he regretted his advice and was appalled by the sentence. He pleaded with the judge to shorten the sentence, but with no success. En route to Mooresville to testify against Singleton, Dillinger briefly escaped his captors but was apprehended within a few minutes. Singleton had a change of venue and was sentenced to a jail term of 2 to 14 years. He died September 2, 1937, from fatal gunshot wounds. Prison time Incarcerated at Indiana Reformatory and Indiana State Prison from 1924 to 1933, Dillinger began to become embroiled in a criminal lifestyle. Upon being admitted to prison, he was quoted as saying, "I will be the meanest bastard you ever saw when I get out of here." His physical examination at the prison showed that he had gonorrhea, and the treatment for the condition was, apparently, extremely painful. He became embittered against society because of his long prison sentence and befriended other criminals, including seasoned bank robbers Harry "Pete" Pierpont, Charles Makley, Russell Clark, and Homer Van Meter, who taught Dillinger how to be a successful criminal. The men planned heists that they would commit soon after they were released. Dillinger also studied Herman Lamm's meticulous bank-robbing system and used it extensively throughout his criminal career. Dillinger's father launched a campaign to have him released and was able to obtain 188 signatures on a petition. On May 10, 1933, after serving nine and a half years, Dillinger was paroled. Just before he was released from prison his stepmother became sick and died before he arrived at her home. Released at the height of the Great Depression, Dillinger with little prospect of finding employment.immediately returned to crime. On June 21, 1933, he robbed his first bank stealing $10,000 from the New Carlisle National Bank, which occupied the building on the corner of Main Street and Jefferson (State Routes 235 and 571) in New Carlisle, Ohio. On August 14, Dillinger robbed a bank in Bluffton, Ohio. Tracked by police from Dayton, Ohio, he was captured and later transferred to the Allen County Jail in Lima to be indicted in connection to the Bluffton robbery. After searching him before putting him into the prison, the police discovered a document which appeared to be a prison escape plan. They demanded Dillinger tell them what the document meant, but he refused. Earlier, while in prison, Dillinger had helped conceive a plan to enable the escape of Pete Pierpont, Russell Clark, and six others he had met while in prison, most of whom worked in the prison laundry. Dillinger had friends smuggle guns into their cells which they used to escape four days after Dillinger's capture. The group that formed up, known as "the First Dillinger Gang,” consisted of Pierpont, Clark, Charles Makley, Ed Shouse, Harry Copeland, and John "Red" Hamilton, a member of the Herman Lamm Gang. Pierpont, Clark, and Makley arrived in Lima on October 12, 1933, where they impersonated Indiana State Police officers, claiming they had come to extradite Dillinger to Indiana. When the sheriff, Jess Sarber, asked for their credentials, Pierpont shot Sarber dead, then released Dillinger from his cell. The four men escaped back to Indiana, where they joined the rest of the gang. Bank robberies Dillinger is known to have participated with the Dillinger Gang in 12 separate bank robberies, between June 21, 1933, and June 30, 1934. Evelyn Frechette Evelyn "Billie" Frechette met John Dillinger in October 1933, and they began a relationship in November, 1933. After Dillinger's death, Billie was offered money for her story and wrote a memoir for the Chicago Herald and Examiner in August 1934. Escape from Crown Point, Indiana On January 25, 1934, Dillinger and his gang were captured in Tucson, Arizona. He was extradited to Indiana and escorted back by Matt Leach, the chief of the Indiana State Police. Dillinger was taken to the Lake County Jail in Crown Point, Indiana and imprisoned to face charges for the murder of a policeman who was killed during a Dillinger gang bank robbery in East Chicago, Indiana, on January 15, 1934. The local police boasted to area newspapers that the jail was escape-proof and had even posted extra guards as a precaution. However, at 9:30 a.m. on Saturday, March 3, 1934, Dillinger was able to escape. During morning exercises at the jail with 15 other immates, Dillinger produced a pistol, catching deputies and guards by surprise, and he was able to leave the premises without firing a shot. Almost immediately afterwards conjecture began whether the gun Dillinger displayed was real or not. According to Deputy Ernest Blunk, Dillinger had escaped using a real pistol. FBI files, on the other hand, indicate that Dillinger used a carved fake pistol. Sam Cahoon, a trustee who Dillinger took hostage in the jail, also believed Dillinger had carved the gun, using a razor and some shelving in his cell. In another version, according to an unpublished interview with Dillinger's attorney, Louis Piquett, investigator Art O'Leary claimed to have sneaked the gun in himself. On March 16, Herbert Youngblood, who escaped from Crown Point alongside Dillinger, was shot dead by three police officers in Port Huron, Michigan. Deputy Sheriff Charles Cavanaugh was mortally wounded in the battle and died a few hours later. Before he died, Youngblood told the officers that Dillinger was in the neighborhood of Port Huron, and immediately officers began a search for the escaped man, but no trace of him was found. An Indiana newspaper reported that Youngblood later retracted the story and said he did not know where Dillinger was at that time, as he had parted with him soon after their escape. Dillinger was indicted by a local grand jury, and the Bureau of Investigation (a precursor of the Federal Bureau of Investigation) organized a nationwide manhunt for him. Just hours after his escape from the Crown Point jail, Dillinger reunited with his girlfriend, Evelyn "Billie" Frechette, at her half-sister Patsy's Chicago apartment at 3512 North Halsted, where she was also staying. According to Frechette's trial testimony, Dillinger stayed with her there for "almost two weeks." However, the two had actually traveled to the Twin Cities and taken lodgings at the Santa Monica Apartments (Unit 106) at 3252 Girard Avenue South, in Minneapolis, Minnesota, where they stayed for 15 days, from March 4 to March 19, 1934. Dillinger then met up with John "Red" Hamilton (who had been recovering for the past month from his gunshot wounds in the East Chicago robbery), and the two mustered up a new gang consisting of themselves and Baby Face Nelson's gang, including Nelson, Homer Van Meter, Tommy Carroll and Eddie Green. Three days after Dillinger's escape from Crown Point, the second Gang robbed a bank in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. A week later they robbed First National Bank in Mason City, Iowa. Lincoln Court Apartments shootout The Setting On Tuesday, March 20, 1934, Dillinger and Frechette moved into apartment 303 of the Lincoln Court Apartments, 93–95 South Lexington Avenue (now Lexington Parkway South) in St. Paul, Minnesota, using the aliases "Mr. & Mrs. Carl T. Hellman." The three-story apartment complex Daisy Coffey, the landlord/owner, later testified at Frechette's trial that she spent most evenings during Dillinger's stay furnishing apartment 310, which enabled her to observe what was happening in apartment 303 directly across the courtyard. On March 30, Coffey went to the FBI's St. Paul field office to file a report, including information about the couple's new Hudson sedan parked in the garage behind the apartments. Surveillance As a result of Coffey's tip, the building was placed under surveillance by two agents, Rufus Coulter and Rusty Nalls, that night, but they saw nothing unusual, mainly because the blinds were drawn. The next morning at approximately 10:15 a.m., Nalls circled around the block looking for the Hudson, but observed nothing. He parked, first on Lincoln Avenue (the north side of the apartments), then on the west side of Lexington Avenue, at the northwest corner of Lexington and Lincoln, and remained in his car while watching Coulter and St. Paul Police detective Henry Cummings, pull up, park, and enter the building. Ten minutes later, by Nalls's estimate, Van Meter parked a green Ford coupe on the north side of the apartment building. The Shootout Meanwhile, Coulter and Cummings knocked on the door of apartment 303. Frechette answered, opening the door two to three inches. She said she was not dressed and to come back. Coulter told her they would wait. After waiting two to three minutes, Coulter went to the basement apartment of the caretakers, Louis and Margaret Meidlinger, and asked to use the phone to call the bureau. He quickly returned to Cummings, and the two of them waited for Frechette to open the door. Van Meter then appeared in the hall and asked Coulter if his name was Johnson. Coulter said it was not, and as Van Meter passed on to the landing of the third floor, Coulter asked him for a name. Van Meter replied, "I am a soap salesman." Asked where his samples were, Van Meter said they were in his car. Coulter asked if he had any credentials. Van Meter said "no", and continued down the stairs. Coulter waited 10 to 20 seconds, then followed Van Meter. As Coulter got to the lobby on the ground floor, Van Meter opened fire on him. Coulter hastily fled outside, chased by Van Meter. Van Meter ran back into the front entrance. Recognizing Van Meter, Nalls pointed out the Ford to Coulter and told him to disable it. Coulter shot out the rear left tire. While Coulter stayed with Van Meter's Ford, Nalls went to the corner drugstore and called the local police, then the bureau's St. Paul office, but could not get through because both lines were busy. Van Meter, meanwhile, escaped by hopping on a passing coal truck. Frechette, in her harboring trial testimony, said that she told Dillinger that the police had shown up after speaking to Cummings. Upon hearing Van Meter firing at Coulter, Dillinger opened fire through the door with a Thompson submachine gun, sending Cummings scrambling for cover. Dillinger then stepped out and fired another burst at Cummings. Cummings shot back with a revolver, but quickly ran out of ammunition. He hit Dillinger in the left calf with one of his five shots. He then hastily retreated down the stairs to the front entrance. Once Cummings retreated, Dillinger and Frechette hurried down the stairs, exited through the back door and drove away in the Hudson. Aftermath After the shootout, Dillinger and Frechette drove to Eddie Green's apartment in Minneapolis. Green called his associate Dr. Clayton E. May at his office at 712 Masonic Temple in downtown Minneapolis (still extant). With Green, his wife Beth, and Frechette following in Green's car, the doctor drove Dillinger to an apartment belonging to Augusta Salt, who had been providing nursing services and a bed for May's illicit patients for several years, patients he could not risk seeing at his regular office. May treated Dillinger's wound with antiseptics. Green visited Dillinger on Monday, April 2, just hours before Green was mortally wounded by the FBI in St. Paul. Dillinger convalesced at Dr. May's for five days, until Wednesday, April 4. Dr. May was promised $500 for his services, but received nothing. Return to Mooresville After the events in Minneapolis, Dillinger and Frechette traveled to Mooresville to visit Dillinger's father. Friday, April 6, 1934, was spent contacting family members, particularly his half-brother Hubert Dillinger. On April 6, Hubert and Dillinger left Mooresville at about 8:00 p.m. and proceeded to Leipsic, Ohio (approximately 210 miles away), to see Joseph and Lena Pierpont, parents of Prohibition Era gangster, Harry Pierpont. The Pierponts were not home, so the two headed back to Mooresville around midnight. On April 7 at approximately 3:30 a.m., they rammed a car driven by Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Manning near Noblesville, Indiana, after Hubert fell asleep behind the wheel. They crashed through a farm fence and about 200 feet into the woods. Both men made it back to the Mooresville farm. Swarms of police showed up at the accident scene within hours. Found in the car were maps, a machine gun magazine, a length of rope, and a bullwhip. According to Hubert, his brother planned to pay a visit with the bullwhip to his former one-armed "shyster" lawyer at Crown Point, Joseph Ryan, who had run off with his retainer after being replaced by Louis Piquett. At about 10:30 a.m. on April 7, Billie, Hubert and Hubert's wife purchased a black four-door Ford V8, registering it in the name of Mrs. Fred Penfield (Billie Frechette). At 2:30 p.m., Billie and Hubert picked up the V8 and returned to Mooresville. On Sunday, April 8, the Dillingers enjoyed a family picnic while the FBI had the farm under surveillance nearby. Later in the afternoon, suspecting they were being watched (agents J. L. Geraghty and T. J. Donegan were cruising in the vicinity in their car), the group left in separate cars. Billie drove the new Ford V8, with two of Dillinger's nieces, Mary Hancock in the front seat and Alberta Hancock in the back. Dillinger was on the floor of the car. He was later seen, but not recognized, by Donegan and Geraghty. Eventually, Norman, driving the V8, proceeded with Dillinger and Billie to Chicago, where they separated from Norman. The following afternoon, Monday, April 9, Dillinger had an appointment at a tavern at 416 North State Street. Sensing trouble, Billie went in first. She was promptly arrested by agents, but refused to reveal Dillinger's whereabouts. Dillinger was waiting in his car outside the tavern and then drove off unnoticed. The two never saw each other again. Dillinger reportedly became despondent after Billie was arrested. The other gang members tried to talk him out of rescuing her, but Van Meter encouraged him by saying that he knew where they could find bulletproof vests. That Friday morning, late at night, Dillinger and Van Meter took a hostage, Warsaw, Indiana police officer Judd Pittenger. They marched Pittenger at gunpoint into the police station, where they stole several more guns and bulletproof vests. After separating, Dillinger picked up Hamilton, who was recovering from the Mason City robbery. The two then traveled to the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, where they visited Hamilton's sister Anna Steve. Escape at Little Bohemia The Bureau received a call Sunday morning, April 22 that John Dillinger and several of his confederates were hiding out at a small vacation lodge called Little Bohemia near present-day Manitowish Waters, Wisconsin. Special Agent in Charge Purvis and several BOI agents approached the lodge when three men exited the building and began to drive off. Agents yelled for the car to stop and did not hear the agents. Agents opened up fire and the driver was killed. Dillinger and some of the gang were upstairs in the lodge and began shooting out the windows. While the BOI agents ducked for cover, Dillinger and his men got out the back and fled. Hiding in Chicago By July 1934, Dillinger had dropped completely out of sight, and the federal agents had no solid leads to follow. He had, in fact, drifted into Chicago where he went under the alias of Jimmy Lawrence, a petty criminal from Wisconsin who bore a close resemblance to Dillinger. Working as a clerk, Dillinger found that, in a large metropolis like Chicago, he was able to lead an anonymous existence for a while. What he did not realize was that the center of the federal agents' dragnet happened to be Chicago. When the authorities found Dillinger's blood-spattered getaway car on a Chicago side street, they were positive that he was in the city. Plastic surgery According to Art O'Leary, as early as March 1934, Dillinger expressed an interest in plastic surgery and had asked O'Leary to check with Piquett on such matters. At the end of April, Piquett paid a visit to his old friend Dr. Wilhelm Loeser. Loeser had practiced in Chicago for 27 years before being convicted under the Harrison Narcotic Act in 1931. He was sentenced to three years at Leavenworth, but was paroled early on December 7, 1932, with Piquett's help. He later testified that he performed facial surgery on himself and obliterated the fingerprint impressions on the tips of his fingers by the application of a caustic soda preparation. Piquett said Dillinger would have to pay $5,000 for the plastic surgery: $4,400 split between Piquett, Loeser and O'Leary, and $600 to Dr. Harold Cassidy, who would administer the anaesthetic. The procedure would take place at the home of Piquett's longtime friend, 67-year-old James Probasco, at the end of May. On May 28, Loeser was picked up at his home at 7:30 p.m. by O'Leary and Cassidy. The three of them then drove to Probasco's place. Dillinger chose to have a general anaesthetic. Loeser later testified: I asked him what work he wanted done. He wanted two warts (moles) removed on the right lower forehead between the eyes and one at the left angle, outer angle of the left eye; wanted a depression of the nose filled in; a scar; a large one to the left of the median line of the upper lip excised, wanted his dimples removed and wanted the angle of the mouth drawn up. He didn't say anything about the fingers that day to me. Cassidy administered an overdose of ether, which caused Dillinger to suffocate. He began to turn blue and stopped breathing. Loeser pulled Dillinger's tongue out of his mouth with a pair of forceps, and at the same time forcing both elbows into his ribs. Dillinger gasped and resumed breathing. The procedure continued with only a local anaesthetic. Loeser removed several moles on Dillinger's forehead, made an incision in his nose and an incision in his chin and tied back both cheeks. Loeser met with Piquett again on Saturday, June 2, with Piquett saying that more work was needed on Dillinger and that Van Meter now wanted the same work done to him. Also, both now wanted work done on their fingertips. The price for the fingerprint procedure would be $500 per hand or $100 a finger. Loeser used a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acid—commonly known as aqua regia. Loeser met O'Leary the following night at Clark and Wright at 8:30, and they once again drove to Probasco's. Present this evening were Dillinger, Van Meter, Probasco, Piquett, Cassidy, and Peggy Doyle, Probasco's girlfriend. Loeser testified that he worked for only about 30 minutes before O'Leary and Piquett had left. Loeser testified: Cassidy and I worked on Dillinger and Van Meter simultaneously on June 3. While the work was being done, Dillinger and Van Meter changed off. The work that could be done while the patient was sitting up, that patient was in the sitting-room. The work that had to be done while the man was lying down, that patient was on the couch in the bedroom. They were changed back and forth according to the work to be done. The hands were sterilized, made aseptic with antiseptics, thoroughly washed with soap and water and used sterile gauze afterwards to keep them clean. Next, cutting instrument, knife was used to expose the lower skin ... in other words, take off the epidermis and expose the derma, then alternately the acid and the alkaloid was applied as was necessary to produce the desired results. Minor work was done two nights later, Tuesday, June 5. Loeser made some small corrections first on Van Meter, then Dillinger. Loeser stated: A man came in before I left, who I found out later was Baby Face Nelson. He came in with a drum of machine gun bullets under his arm, threw them on the bed or the couch in the bedroom, and started to talk to Van Meter. The two then motioned for Dillinger to come over and the three went back into the kitchen. Peggy Doyle later told agents: Dillinger and Van Meter resided at Probasco's home until the last week of June 1934; that on some occasions they would be away for a day or two, sometimes leaving separately, and on other occasions together; that at this time Van Meter usually parked his car in the rear of Probasco's residence outside the back fence; that she gathered that Dillinger was keeping company with a young woman who lived on the north side of Chicago, inasmuch as he would state upon leaving Probasco's home that he was going in the direction of Diversey Boulevard; that Van Meter apparently was not acquainted with Dillinger's friend, and she heard him warning Dillinger to be careful about striking up acquaintances with girls he knew nothing about; that Dillinger and Van Meter usually kept a machine gun in an open case under the piano in the parlor; that they also kept a shotgun under the parlor table. O'Leary stated that Dillinger expressed dissatisfaction with the facial work that Loeser had performed on him. O'Leary said that, on another occasion, "that Probasco told him, 'the son of a bitch has gone out for one of his walks'; that he did not know when he would return; that Probasco raved about the craziness of Dillinger, stating that he was always going for walks and was likely to cause the authorities to locate the place where he was staying; that Probasco stated frankly on this occasion that he was afraid to have the man around." Agents arrested Loeser at 1127 South Harvey, Oak Park, Illinois, on Tuesday, July 24. O'Leary returned from a family fishing trip on July 24, the day of Loeser's arrest, and had read in the newspapers that the Department of Justice was looking for two doctors and another man in connection with some plastic work that was done on Dillinger. O'Leary left Chicago immediately, but returned two weeks later, learned that Loeser and others had been arrested, phoned Piquett, who assured him everything was all right, then left again. He returned from St. Louis on August 25 and was promptly taken into custody. On Friday, July 27, Probasco fell to his death from the 19th floor of the Bankers' Building in Chicago while in custody. On Thursday, August 23, Homer Van Meter was shot and killed in a dead-end alley in St. Paul by Tom Brown, former St. Paul Chief of Police, and then-current chief Frank Cullen. Polly Hamilton Rita "Polly" Hamilton was a teenage runaway from Fargo, North Dakota. She met Ana Ivanova Akalieva (Ana Cumpănaș; a.k.a. Ana Sage) in Gary, Indiana, and worked periodically as a prostitute in Ana's brothel until marrying Gary police officer Roy O. Keele in 1929. They divorced in March 1933. In the summer of 1934, the now 26-year-old Hamilton was a waitress in Chicago at the S&S Sandwich Shop located at 1209½ Wilson Avenue. She had remained friends with Sage and was sharing living space with Sage and Sage's 24-year-old son, Steve, at 2858 Clark Street. Dillinger and Hamilton, a Billie Frechette look-a-like, met in June 1934 at the Barrel of Fun night club located at 4541 Wilson Avenue. Dillinger introduced himself as Jimmy Lawrence and said he was a clerk at the Board of Trade. They dated until Dillinger's death at the Biograph Theater in July 1934. Betrayal Division of Investigations chief J. Edgar Hoover created a special task force headquartered in Chicago to locate Dillinger. On July 21, Ana Cumpănaș, a madam from a brothel in Gary, Indiana, also known as "The Woman in Red" contacted the FBI. She was a Romanian immigrant threatened with deportation for "low moral character" and offered agents information on Dillinger in exchange for their help in preventing her deportation. The FBI agreed to her terms, but she was later deported nonetheless. Cumpănaș revealed that Dillinger was spending his time with another prostitute, Polly Hamilton, and that she and the couple were going to see a movie together on the following day. She agreed to wear an orange dress, so police could easily identify her. She was unsure which of two theaters they would attend, the Biograph or the Marbro. On December 15, 1934, pardons were issued by Indiana Governor Harry G. Leslie for the offenses of which Ana Cumpănaș was convicted. Cumpănaș stated that on Sunday afternoon, July 22, Dillinger asked her whether she wanted to go to the show with them (Polly and him). She asked him what show was he going to see, and he said he would 'like to see the theater around the corner,' meaning the Biograph Theater. She stated she was unable to leave the house to inform Purvis or Martin about Dillinger's plans to attend the Biograph, but as they were going to have fried chicken for the evening meal, she told Polly she had nothing in which to fry the chicken and was going to the store to get some butter; that while at the store she called Mr. Purvis and informed him of Dillinger's plans to attend the Biograph that evening, at the same time obtaining the butter. She then returned to the house so Polly would not be suspicious that she went out to call anyone. A team of federal agents and officers from police forces from outside of Chicago was formed, along with a very small number of Chicago police officers. Among them was Sergeant Martin Zarkovich, the officer to whom Cumpănaș had acted as an informant. At the time, federal officials felt that the Chicago police had been compromised and therefore could not be trusted; Hoover and Purvis also wanted more of the credit. Not wanting to take the risk of another embarrassing escape of Dillinger, the police were split into two groups. On Sunday, one team was sent to the Marbro Theater on the city's west side, while another team surrounded the Biograph Theater at 2433 N. Lincoln Avenue on the north side. Shooting at the Biograph Theater and death At approximately 8:30 p.m., Sage, Hamilton, and Dillinger were observed entering the Biograph Theater, which was showing the crime drama Manhattan Melodrama, starring Clark Gable, Myrna Loy, and William Powell. During the stakeout, the Biograph's manager thought the agents were criminals setting up a robbery. He called the Chicago police, who dutifully responded and had to be waved off by the federal agents, who told them that they were on a stakeout for an important target. When the film ended, Purvis stood by the front door and signaled Dillinger's exit by lighting a cigar. Both he and the other agents reported that Dillinger turned his head and looked directly at the agent as he walked by, glanced across the street, then moved ahead of his female companions, reached into his pocket but failed to extract his gun, and ran into a nearby alley. Other accounts stated Dillinger ignored a command to surrender, whipped out his gun, then headed for the alley. Agents already had the alley closed off. Three men pursued Dillinger into the alley and fired. Clarence Hurt shot twice, Charles Winstead three times, and Herman Hollis once. Dillinger was hit from behind and fell face first to the ground. Dillinger was struck four times, with two bullets grazing him and one causing a superficial wound to the right side. The fatal bullet entered through the back of his neck, severed the spinal cord, passed into his brain and exited just under the right eye, severing two sets of veins and arteries. An ambulance was summoned, although it was soon apparent Dillinger had died from the gunshot wounds; he was officially pronounced dead at Alexian Brothers Hospital. According to investigators, Dillinger died without saying a word. Winstead was later thought to have fired the fatal shot, and as a consequence received a personal letter of commendation from J. Edgar Hoover. Two female bystanders, Theresa Paulas and Etta Natalsky, were wounded. Dillinger bumped into Natalsky just as the shooting started. Natalsky was shot and was subsequently taken to Columbus Hospital. Dillinger was shot and killed by the special agents on July 22, 1934, at approximately 10:40 p.m, according to a New York Times report the next day. Dillinger's death came only two months after the deaths of fellow notorious criminals Bonnie and Clyde. There were reports of people dipping their handkerchiefs and skirts into the pool of blood that had formed, as Dillinger lay in the alley, as keepsakes: "Souvenir hunters madly dipped newspapers in the blood that stained the pavement. Handkerchiefs were whipped out and used to mop up the blood." Funeral Dillinger's body was available for public display at the Cook County morgue. An estimated 15,000 people viewed the corpse over a day and a half. As many as four death masks were also made. Dillinger is buried at Crown Hill Cemetery in Indianapolis. Dillinger's gravestone has been replaced several times because of vandalism by people chipping off pieces as souvenirs. Hilton Crouch (1903–1976), an associate of Dillinger's on some early heists, is buried only a few yards to the west. Popular culture Literature The Shooting of John Dillinger Outside the Biograph Theater, July 22, 1934 a narrative poem by David Wagoner published in his collection Staying Alive (1966). The poet postulates some underlying reasons for the unfolding chain of events, significantly from Dillinger's perspective. John Dillinger is frequently referred to in the work of William S. Burroughs. John Dillinger is featured as a character in The Illuminatus Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson. John Dillinger is frequently alluded to in the works of Thomas Pynchon. John Dillinger is the main character in Jack Higgins Thunder at noon Film depictions 1935: The MGM crime film Public Hero No. 1 incorporates fictionalized details from Dillinger's narrative, including a gun battle at a Wisconsin roadhouse and the killing of the fugitive gangster (Joseph Calleia) as he leaves a theater. 1941: Humphrey Bogart played a Dillinger-like role in High Sierra, a film based loosely on research into Dillinger's life by W.R. Burnett. 1945: Lawrence Tierney played the title role in the first film dramatization of Dillinger's career; Dillinger. 1957: Director Don Siegel's film Baby Face Nelson, starred Mickey Rooney as Nelson and Leo Gordon as Dillinger. 1965: "Young Dillinger", starring Nick Adams as John Dillinger, and Robert Conrad as "Pretty Boy" Floyd. 1969: Director Marco Ferreri's film Dillinger Is Dead includes documentary footage of real John Dillinger as well as newspaper clips. 1971: "Appointment with Destiny; The Last Days of John Dillinger," narrated by Rod Serling, 52 minutes. Shot in newsreel style, very accurate for its time. The late Joseph Pinkston served as technical advisor. Pinkston himself makes an uncredited cameo in the Biograph sequence, playing an agent. 1973: Dillinger, directed and written by John Milius with Warren Oates in the title role, presents the gang in a much more sympathetic light, in keeping with the anti-hero theme popular in films after Bonnie and Clyde (1967). 1979: Lewis Teague directed the film The Lady in Red, starring Pamela Sue Martin as the eponymous lady in the red dress. However, in this film, it is Dillinger's girlfriend Polly in red, not the Romanian informant Ana Sage (Louise Fletcher). Sage tricks Polly into wearing red so that FBI agents can identify Dillinger (Robert Conrad) as he emerges from the cinema. 1991: A TV film Dillinger, starring Mark Harmon 1995: Roger Corman produced the fictional film Dillinger and Capone, featuring Martin Sheen as Dillinger and F. Murray Abraham as Al Capone. Dillinger survives the theater stakeout when the FBI mistakenly guns down his brother and is then blackmailed by Capone into retrieving $15 million from his secret vault. 2004: "Teargas and Tommyguns; Dillinger Robs the First National Bank", DVD, Mason City Public Library, 38 minutes. Documentary regarding the bank robbery, including contemporary interviews with still-living witnesses; also contains the H.C. Kunkleman film in its entirety. 2009: Director Michael Mann's film Public Enemies is an adaptation of Bryan Burrough's book Public Enemies: America's Greatest Crime Wave and the Birth of the FBI, 1933–34. The film features Johnny Depp as John Dillinger, Marion Cotillard as Billie Frechette, and Christian Bale as FBI agent Melvin Purvis. Although the film has accurate portrayals of several key moments in Dillinger's life—such as his death and dialogue at his arraignment hearing—it is inaccurate in some major historical details, such as the timeline (and location) of deaths of key criminal figures including Pretty Boy Floyd, Baby Face Nelson, and Homer Van Meter. 2012: British actor Alexander Ellis portrayed Dillinger in the first Dollar Baby screen adaptation of Stephen King's short story, The Death of Jack Hamilton. Other references The experimental metalcore band "The Dillinger Escape Plan" is named for Dillinger. In The Simpsons episode Treehouse of Horror IV, Dillinger appears as a member of the Jury of the Damned. Woody Allen's character's failed prison escape in the movie "Take The Money and Run" is a parody of Dillinger's 1934 escape. In the movie High Fidelity (film) the main character Rob references the shooting at the Biograph movie theater, but gets several details wrong, including who tipped off the federal agents. The song, "Reverie", by Protest The Hero (Palimpsest, 2020) depicts Dillinger's hardening into "the meanest bastard you've ever seen" during incarceration. Headie One references Dillinger in his 2021 single “Siberia”. The lyric reads: “Jakes (police) wanna deal with me like Johnny Dillinger Dillinger” Referenced in Seinfeld Season 4 “The Handicap Spot”. Referenced in The Newsroom (American TV series) Season 2, Episode 2 "The Genoa Tip". Referenced in The Americans (A Cold War Spy series) Season 2, Episode 11, Stealth (38:23) Gallery of Dillinger Gang members See also Hotel Congress List of Depression-era outlaws The Dillinger Escape Plan, an American mathcore band who took their name from Dillinger and his multiple escapes from jail. The Dillinger Dossier The Terror Gang References Further reading Beverly, William. On the Lam: Narratives of Flight in J. Edgar Hoover's America. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi. 2003. . Burrough, Bryan. Public Enemies: America's Greatest Crime Wave and the Birth of the FBI, 1933–34. New York: Penguin Press. 2004. . Cromie, Robert and Pinkston, Joseph. Dillinger: A Short and Violent Life (1962) DeBartolo, Anthony. Dillinger's Dupes: Town Seeks To Preserve A Jail Yet Escape A Dastardly Deed. Chicago Tribune. Erickson, Matt and Bill Thornbro. John Dillinger: A Year in the Life. The Times of Northwest Indiana. Girardin, G. Russell, Helmer, William J., Mattix, Rick. Dillinger: The Untold Story. Gorn, Elliott J. Dillinger's Wild Ride: The Year That Made America's Public Enemy Number One (New York, OUP USA, 2009). Helmer, William J.; Mattix, Rick (1998). Public Enemies: America's Criminal Past, 1919–1940. New York City, New York: Facts on File. p. 17. . Peters, Robert. What Dillinger Meant to Me Seahorse Press 1983 (with link to complete text online) Toland, John. The Dillinger Days. Random House 1963 External links 1903 births 1934 deaths American bank robbers American outlaws American people of German descent Burials at Crown Hill Cemetery Criminals from Indiana Criminals from Chicago Deaths by firearm in Illinois Depression-era gangsters Deserters Escapees from Indiana detention Escapees from Ohio detention Fugitives People from Indianapolis People from Mooresville, Indiana People shot dead by law enforcement officers in the United States United States Navy sailors

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossfire%20%28film%29

Crossfire (film)

Crossfire is a 1947 American film noir drama film starring Robert Young, Robert Mitchum and Robert Ryan which deals with the theme of anti-Semitism, as did that year's Academy Award for Best Picture winner, Gentleman's Agreement. The film was directed by Edward Dmytryk and the screenplay was written by John Paxton, based on the 1945 novel The Brick Foxhole by screenwriter and director Richard Brooks. The film's supporting cast features Gloria Grahame and Sam Levene. The picture received five Oscar nominations, including Ryan for Best Supporting Actor and Gloria Grahame for Best Supporting Actress. It was the first B movie to receive a best picture nomination. Plot Two men are seen beating a Jewish man named Joseph Samuels to death in the opening. After the police are called in to investigate his murder, investigator Capt. Finlay suspects that the murderer may be among a group of demobilized soldiers who had been with Samuels and his female companion at a hotel bar the night of his murder. A soldier named Monty tells his version of the story to Finlay. According to him, he and his friend Floyd met Samuels at the hotel bar and went up to his apartment to find Samuels talking to another soldier named Mitch. Mitch left Samuel's apartment and Monty and Floyd left a minute later. That was the last time they saw Samuels. Sergeant Keeley, concerned that Mitch may be the prime suspect, decides to investigate the murder himself, hoping to clear his friend's name. After helping Mitch escape from being questioned, Keeley confronts him in a movie theater and Mitch tells his version of the story. Though he was drunk, Mitch remembered Monty arguing with Samuels in his apartment. After Mitch left, he spent the rest of the night with a girl he met in the city named Ginny Tremaine. When he woke up the next morning, he talked to Ginny's husband before leaving. Meanwhile, Monty and Floyd, who are revealed to be the killers, meet in an apartment. Monty tells Floyd to stay out of sight and to keep their stories straight, that being how they didn't argue with Samuels and left his apartment shortly after Mitch left. Keeley knocks on their door and briefly talks with Floyd about the killing, while Monty hides. After Keeley leaves, Monty berates Floyd for refusing to stay out of sight and kills him. Mitch's wife Mary meets with Ginny to attempt to form an alibi. If Ginny can remember spending the night with Mitch, it will prove he didn't kill Samuels. Finlay joins her. Ginny claims to have no knowledge of meeting Mitch, but Ginny's husband appears and says that he remembers Mitch, thus providing an alibi. Back at the police station, Finlay and Keeley suspect that antisemitism was the likely motive for Samuels' murder. They also suspect that Monty was responsible for killing both Samuels and Floyd since he's anti-Semitic. With the help of a soldier named Leroy, they set up a trap to catch him. Leroy tells Monty that Floyd wants to meet him and hands him an address where he can find Floyd. Monty shows up to the apartment where he killed Floyd, presumably to check if he's still alive, and encounters Finlay and another cop. Finlay tells Monty he gave himself away as the address on the piece of paper was actually to a different building. Monty tries to escape, but is shot dead by Finlay. Later, Finlay and Keeley say their goodbyes as Keeley leaves with Leroy to get coffee. Cast Production The film's screenplay, written by John Paxton, was based on director and screenwriter Richard Brooks's 1945 novel The Brick Foxhole. Brooks wrote his novel while he was a sergeant in the U.S. Marine Corps making training films at Quantico, Virginia, and Camp Pendleton, California. In the novel, the victim was a homosexual. As told in the film The Celluloid Closet, and in the documentary included on the DVD edition of the Crossfire film, the Hollywood Hays Code prohibited any mention of homosexuality because it was seen as a sexual perversion. Hence, the book's theme of homophobia was changed to one about racism and anti-Semitism. The book was published while Brooks was serving in the Marine Corps. A fellow Marine by the name of Robert Ryan met Brooks and told him he was determined to play in a version of the book on screen. Premiere and U.S. military distribution notes The film premiered at the Rivoli Theatre in New York City on July 22, 1947. The US Army showed the film only at its US bases. The US Navy would not exhibit the film at all. Reception Critical response When first released, Variety magazine gave the film a positive review, writing, "Crossfire is a frank spotlight on anti-Semitism. Producer Dore Schary, in association with Adrian Scott, has pulled no punches. There is no skirting such relative fol-de-rol as intermarriage or clubs that exclude Jews. Here is a hard-hitting film [based on Richard Brooks' novel, The Brick Foxhole] whose whodunit aspects are fundamentally incidental to the overall thesis of bigotry and race prejudice... Director Edward Dmytryk has drawn gripping portraitures. The flashback technique is effective as it shades and colors the sundry attitudes of the heavy, as seen or recalled by the rest of the cast." The New York Times film critic, Bosley Crowther, lauded the acting in the drama, and wrote, "Mr. Dmytryk has handled most excellently a superlative cast which plays the drama. Robert Ryan is frighteningly real as the hard, sinewy, loud-mouthed, intolerant and vicious murderer, and Robert Mitchum, Steve Brodie, and George Cooper are variously revealing as his pals. Robert Young gives a fine taut performance as the patiently questioning police lieutenant, whose mind and sensibilities are revolted—and eloquently expressed—by what he finds. Sam Levene is affectingly gentle in his brief bit as the Jewish victim, and Gloria Grahame is believably brazen and pathetic as a girl of the streets." Critic Dennis Schwartz questioned the noir aspects of the film in 2000, and discussed the cinematography in his review. He wrote, "This is more of a message film than a noir thriller, but has been classified by most cinephiles in the noir category... J. Roy Hunt, the 70-year-old cinematographer, who goes back to the earliest days of Hollywood, shot the film using the style of low-key lighting, providing dark shots of Monty, contrasted with ghost-like shots of Mary Mitchell (Jacqueline White) as she angelically goes to help her troubled husband Arthur." The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 85% of critics gave the film a positive review, based on 20 reviews. Box office The film made a profit of $1,270,000. Awards Wins Cannes Film Festival: Award, Best Social Film (Prix du meilleur film social), 1947 Edgar Allan Poe Awards: Best Motion Picture, 1948 Nominations, 20th Academy Awards Best Picture - Adrian Scott, producer Best Director - Edward Dmytryk Best Supporting Actor - Robert Ryan Best Supporting Actress - Gloria Grahame Best Writing, Adapted Screenplay - John Paxton Other nominations British Academy of Film and Television Arts: BAFTA Film Award, Best Film from Any Source, 1949 References External links Crossfire review at DVD Savant by Glenn Erickson 1947 films 1947 crime drama films American films American black-and-white films American crime drama films Antisemitism in the United States American detective films Edgar Award-winning works English-language films Film noir Films about antisemitism Films about veterans Films based on American novels Films directed by Edward Dmytryk Films scored by Roy Webb Films set in Washington, D.C. American police detective films RKO Pictures films Palme d'Or winners

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Everest

Mount Everest

Mount Everest (; Tibetan: Chomolungma ; ) is Earth's highest mountain above sea level, located in the Mahalangur Himal sub-range of the Himalayas. The China–Nepal border runs across its summit point. Its elevation (snow height) of was most recently established in 2020 by the Chinese and Nepali authorities. Mount Everest attracts many climbers, including highly experienced mountaineers. There are two main climbing routes, one approaching the summit from the southeast in Nepal (known as the "standard route") and the other from the north in Tibet. While not posing substantial technical climbing challenges on the standard route, Everest presents dangers such as altitude sickness, weather, and wind, as well as significant hazards from avalanches and the Khumbu Icefall. , over 300 people have died on Everest, many of whose bodies remain on the mountain. The first recorded efforts to reach Everest's summit were made by British mountaineers. As Nepal did not allow foreigners to enter the country at the time, the British made several attempts on the north ridge route from the Tibetan side. After the first reconnaissance expedition by the British in 1921 reached on the North Col, the 1922 expedition pushed the north ridge route up to , marking the first time a human had climbed above . The 1924 expedition resulted in one of the greatest mysteries on Everest to this day: George Mallory and Andrew Irvine made a final summit attempt on 8 June but never returned, sparking debate as to whether or not they were the first to reach the top. Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary made the first official ascent of Everest in 1953, using the southeast ridge route. Norgay had reached the previous year as a member of the 1952 Swiss expedition. The Chinese mountaineering team of Wang Fuzhou, Gonpo, and Qu Yinhua made the first reported ascent of the peak from the north ridge on 25 May 1960. Name The Tibetan name for Everest is Qomolangma (, lit. "Holy Mother"). The name was first recorded with a Chinese transcription on the 1721 Kangxi Atlas during the reign of Emperor Kangxi of Qing China, and then appeared as Tchoumour Lancma on a 1733 map published in Paris by the French geographer D'Anville based on the former map. It is also popularly romanised as Chomolungma and (in Wylie) as Jo-mo-glang-ma. The official Chinese transcription is whose pinyin form is Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng. While other Chinese names exist, including Shèngmǔ Fēng lit. "Holy Mother Peak"), these names largely phased out from May 1952 as the Ministry of Internal Affairs of China issued a decree to adopt as the sole name. Documented local names include "Deodungha" ("Holy Mountain"), but it is unclear whether it is commonly used. In 1849, the British survey wanted to preserve local names if possible (e.g., Kangchenjunga and Dhaulagiri), and Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India argued that he could not find any commonly used local name, as his search for a local name was hampered by Nepal and Tibet's exclusion of foreigners. Waugh argued that because there were many local names, it would be difficult to favour one name over all others; he decided that Peak XV should be named after British surveyor Sir George Everest, his predecessor as Surveyor General of India. Everest himself opposed the name suggested by Waugh and told the Royal Geographical Society in 1857 that "Everest" could not be written in Hindi nor pronounced by "the native of India". Waugh's proposed name prevailed despite the objections, and in 1865, the Royal Geographical Society officially adopted Mount Everest as the name for the highest mountain in the world. The modern pronunciation of Everest () is different from Sir George's pronunciation of his surname ( ). In the late 19th century, many European cartographers incorrectly believed that a native name for the mountain was Gaurishankar, a mountain between Kathmandu and Everest. In the early 1960s, the Nepali government coined the Nepali name Sagarmāthā (IAST transcription) or Sagar-Matha (सगर-माथा, , lit. "goddess of the sky"). The Nepali name for Everest is Sagarmāthā () which means "the Head in the Great Blue Sky" derived from सगर (sagar) meaning "sky" and माथा (māthā) meaning "head" in the Nepali Language. Surveys 19th-century surveys In 1802, the British began the Great Trigonometric Survey of India to fix the locations, heights, and names of the world's highest mountains. Starting in southern India, the survey teams moved northward using giant theodolites, each weighing and requiring 12 men to carry, to measure heights as accurately as possible. They reached the Himalayan foothills by the 1830s, but Nepal was unwilling to allow the British to enter the country due to suspicions of their intentions. Several requests by the surveyors to enter Nepal were denied. The British were forced to continue their observations from Terai, a region south of Nepal which is parallel to the Himalayas. Conditions in Terai were difficult because of torrential rains and malaria. Three survey officers died from malaria while two others had to retire because of failing health. Nonetheless, in 1847, the British continued the survey and began detailed observations of the Himalayan peaks from observation stations up to distant. Weather restricted work to the last three months of the year. In November 1847, Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India, made several observations from the Sawajpore station at the east end of the Himalayas. Kangchenjunga was then considered the highest peak in the world, and with interest, he noted a peak beyond it, about away. John Armstrong, one of Waugh's subordinates, also saw the peak from a site farther west and called it peak "b". Waugh would later write that the observations indicated that peak "b" was higher than Kangchenjunga, but given the great distance of the observations, closer observations were required for verification. The following year, Waugh sent a survey official back to Terai to make closer observations of peak "b", but clouds thwarted his attempts. In 1849, Waugh dispatched James Nicolson to the area, who made two observations from Jirol, away. Nicolson then took the largest theodolite and headed east, obtaining over 30 observations from five different locations, with the closest being from the peak. Nicolson retreated to Patna on the Ganges to perform the necessary calculations based on his observations. His raw data gave an average height of for peak "b", but this did not consider light refraction, which distorts heights. However, the number clearly indicated that peak "b" was higher than Kangchenjunga. Nicolson contracted malaria and was forced to return home without finishing his calculations. Michael Hennessy, one of Waugh's assistants, had begun designating peaks based on Roman numerals, with Kangchenjunga named Peak IX. Peak "b" now became known as Peak XV. In 1852, stationed at the survey headquarters in Dehradun, Radhanath Sikdar, an Indian mathematician and surveyor from Bengal was the first to identify Everest as the world's highest peak, using trigonometric calculations based on Nicolson's measurements. An official announcement that Peak XV was the highest was delayed for several years as the calculations were repeatedly verified. Waugh began work on Nicolson's data in 1854, and along with his staff spent almost two years working on the numbers, having to deal with the problems of light refraction, barometric pressure, and temperature over the vast distances of the observations. Finally, in March 1856 he announced his findings in a letter to his deputy in Calcutta. Kangchenjunga was declared to be , while Peak XV was given the height of . Waugh concluded that Peak XV was "most probably the highest in the world". Peak XV (measured in feet) was calculated to be exactly high, but was publicly declared to be in order to avoid the impression that an exact height of was nothing more than a rounded estimate. Waugh is sometimes playfully credited with being "the first person to put two feet on top of Mount Everest". 20th-century surveys In 1856, Andrew Waugh announced Everest (then known as Peak XV) as high, after several years of calculations based on observations made by the Great Trigonometric Survey. In 1955, the elevation of was first determined by an Indian survey, made closer to the mountain, also using theodolites. In 1975 it was subsequently reaffirmed by a Chinese measurement of . In both cases the snow cap, not the rock head, was measured. The height given was officially recognised by Nepal and China. Nepal planned a new survey in 2019 to determine if the April 2015 Nepal earthquake affected the height of the mountain. In May 1999, an American Everest Expedition, directed by Bradford Washburn, anchored a GPS unit into the highest bedrock. A rock head elevation of , and a snow/ice elevation higher, were obtained via this device. Although as of 2001, it has not been officially recognised by Nepal, this figure is widely quoted. Geoid uncertainty casts doubt upon the accuracy claimed by both the 1999 and 2005 [See below] surveys. In 1955, a detailed photogrammetric map (at a scale of 1:50,000) of the Khumbu region, including the south side of Mount Everest, was made by Erwin Schneider as part of the 1955 International Himalayan Expedition, which also attempted Lhotse. In the late 1980s, an even more detailed topographic map of the Everest area was made under the direction of Bradford Washburn, using extensive aerial photography. 21st-century surveys On 9 October 2005, after several months of measurement and calculation, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping announced the height of Everest as with accuracy of ±, claiming it was the most accurate and precise measurement to date. This height is based on the highest point of rock and not the snow and ice covering it. The Chinese team measured a snow-ice depth of , which is in agreement with a net elevation of . An argument arose between China and Nepal as to whether the official height should be the rock height (8,844 m, China) or the snow height (8,848 m, Nepal). In 2010, both sides agreed that the height of Everest is 8,848 m, and Nepal recognises China's claim that the rock height of Everest is 8,844 m. It is thought that the plate tectonics of the area are adding to the height and moving the summit northeastwards. Two accounts suggest the rates of change are per year (upwards) and per year (northeastwards), but another account mentions more lateral movement (), and even shrinkage has been suggested. China—Nepal compromise The actual height of the mountain had been disputed by Nepal and China, the two countries that share the mountain. On 8 December 2020, it was jointly announced by the two countries that the new official height is 8,848.86 metres (29,032 feet). This was higher than had been previously officially calculated. Chinese authorities had argued previously Everest should be measured to its rock height, while Nepali authorities asserted the snow on top of the summit should be included. Comparisons The summit of Everest is the point at which Earth's surface reaches the greatest distance above sea level. Several other mountains are sometimes claimed to be the "tallest mountains on Earth". Mauna Kea in Hawaii is tallest when measured from its base; it rises over when measured from its base on the mid-ocean floor, but only attains above sea level. By the same measure of base to summit, Denali, in Alaska, also known as Mount McKinley, is taller than Everest as well. Despite its height above sea level of only , Denali sits atop a sloping plain with elevations from , yielding a height above base in the range of ; a commonly quoted figure is . By comparison, reasonable base elevations for Everest range from on the south side to on the Tibetan Plateau, yielding a height above base in the range of . The summit of Chimborazo in Ecuador is farther from Earth's centre () than that of Everest (), because the Earth bulges at the equator. This is despite Chimborazo having a peak above sea level versus Mount Everest's . Geology Geologists have subdivided the rocks comprising Mount Everest into three units called formations. Each formation is separated from the other by low-angle faults, called detachments, along which they have been thrust southward over each other. From the summit of Mount Everest to its base these rock units are the Qomolangma Formation, the North Col Formation, and the Rongbuk Formation. The Qomolangma Formation, also known as the Jolmo Lungama Formation, runs from the summit to the top of the Yellow Band, about above sea level. It consists of greyish to dark grey or white, parallel laminated and bedded, Ordovician limestone interlayered with subordinate beds of recrystallised dolomite with argillaceous laminae and siltstone. Gansser first reported finding microscopic fragments of crinoids in this limestone. Later petrographic analysis of samples of the limestone from near the summit revealed them to be composed of carbonate pellets and finely fragmented remains of trilobites, crinoids, and ostracods. Other samples were so badly sheared and recrystallised that their original constituents could not be determined. A thick, white-weathering thrombolite bed that is thick comprises the foot of the "Third Step", and base of the summit pyramid of Everest. This bed, which crops out starting about below the summit of Mount Everest, consists of sediments trapped, bound, and cemented by the biofilms of micro-organisms, especially cyanobacteria, in shallow marine waters. The Qomolangma Formation is broken up by several high-angle faults that terminate at the low angle normal fault, the Qomolangma Detachment. This detachment separates it from the underlying Yellow Band. The lower five metres of the Qomolangma Formation overlying this detachment are very highly deformed. The bulk of Mount Everest, between , consists of the North Col Formation, of which the Yellow Band forms its upper part between . The Yellow Band consists of intercalated beds of Middle Cambrian diopside-epidote-bearing marble, which weathers a distinctive yellowish brown, and muscovite-biotite phyllite and semischist. Petrographic analysis of marble collected from about found it to consist as much as five percent of the ghosts of recrystallised crinoid ossicles. The upper five metres of the Yellow Band lying adjacent to the Qomolangma Detachment is badly deformed. A thick fault breccia separates it from the overlying Qomolangma Formation. The remainder of the North Col Formation, exposed between on Mount Everest, consists of interlayered and deformed schist, phyllite, and minor marble. Between , the North Col Formation consists chiefly of biotite-quartz phyllite and chlorite-biotite phyllite intercalated with minor amounts of biotite-sericite-quartz schist. Between , the lower part of the North Col Formation consists of biotite-quartz schist intercalated with epidote-quartz schist, biotite-calcite-quartz schist, and thin layers of quartzose marble. These metamorphic rocks appear to be the result of the metamorphism of Middle to Early Cambrian deep sea flysch composed of interbedded, mudstone, shale, clayey sandstone, calcareous sandstone, graywacke, and sandy limestone. The base of the North Col Formation is a regional low-angle normal fault called the "Lhotse detachment". Below 7,000 m (23,000 ft), the Rongbuk Formation underlies the North Col Formation and forms the base of Mount Everest. It consists of sillimanite-K-feldspar grade schist and gneiss intruded by numerous sills and dikes of leucogranite ranging in thickness from 1 cm to 1,500 m (0.4 in to 4,900 ft). These leucogranites are part of a belt of Late Oligocene–Miocene intrusive rocks known as the Higher Himalayan leucogranite. They formed as the result of partial melting of Paleoproterozoic to Ordovician high-grade metasedimentary rocks of the Higher Himalayan Sequence about 20 to 24 million years ago during the subduction of the Indian Plate. Mount Everest consists of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks that have been faulted southward over continental crust composed of Archean granulites of the Indian Plate during the Cenozoic collision of India with Asia. Current interpretations argue that the Qomolangma and North Col formations consist of marine sediments that accumulated within the continental shelf of the northern passive continental margin of India before it collided with Asia. The Cenozoic collision of India with Asia subsequently deformed and metamorphosed these strata as it thrust them southward and upward. The Rongbuk Formation consists of a sequence of high-grade metamorphic and granitic rocks that were derived from the alteration of high-grade metasedimentary rocks. During the collision of India with Asia, these rocks were thrust downward and to the north as they were overridden by other strata; heated, metamorphosed, and partially melted at depths of over below sea level; and then forced upward to surface by thrusting towards the south between two major detachments. The Himalayas are rising by about 5 mm per year. Flora and fauna There is very little native flora or fauna on Everest. A moss grows at on Mount Everest. It may be the highest altitude plant species. An alpine cushion plant called Arenaria is known to grow below in the region. According to the study based on satellite data from 1993 to 2018, vegetation is expanding in the Everest region. Researchers have found plants in areas that were previously deemed bare. Euophrys omnisuperstes, a minute black jumping spider, has been found at elevations as high as , possibly making it the highest confirmed non-microscopic permanent resident on Earth. In the base camp of Everest the jumping spider Euophrys everestensis occurs. It lurks in crevices and may feed on frozen insects that have been blown there by the wind. There is a high likelihood of microscopic life at even higher altitudes. Birds, such as the bar-headed goose, have been seen flying at the higher altitudes of the mountain, while others, such as the chough, have been spotted as high as the South Col at . Yellow-billed choughs have been seen as high as and bar-headed geese migrate over the Himalayas. In 1953, George Lowe (part of the expedition of Tenzing and Hillary) said that he saw bar-headed geese flying over Everest's summit. Yaks are often used to haul gear for Mount Everest climbs. They can haul 100 kg (220 pounds), have thick fur and large lungs. Other animals in the region include the Himalayan tahr which is sometimes eaten by the snow leopard. The Himalayan black bear can be found up to about and the red panda is also present in the region. One expedition found a surprising range of species in the region including a pika and ten new species of ants. Meteorology In 2008, a new weather station at about elevation went online. The station's first data in May 2008 were air temperature , relative humidity 41.3 percent, atmospheric pressure 382.1 hPa (38.21 kPa), wind direction 262.8°, wind speed 12.8 m/s (28.6 mph, 46.1 km/h), global solar radiation 711.9 watts/m2, solar UVA radiation 30.4 W/m2. The project was orchestrated by Stations at High Altitude for Research on the Environment (SHARE), which also placed the Mount Everest webcam in 2011. The solar-powered weather station is on the South Col. One of the issues facing climbers is the frequent presence of high-speed winds. The peak of Mount Everest extends into the upper troposphere and penetrates the stratosphere, which can expose it to the fast and freezing winds of the jet stream. In February 2004, a wind speed of was recorded at the summit and winds over are common. These winds can blow climbers off Everest. Climbers typically aim for a 7- to 10-day window in the spring and fall when the Asian monsoon season is either starting up or ending and the winds are lighter. The air pressure at the summit is about one-third what it is at sea level, and by Bernoulli's principle, the winds can lower the pressure further, causing an additional 14 percent reduction in oxygen to climbers. The reduction in oxygen availability comes from the reduced overall pressure, not a reduction in the ratio of oxygen to other gases. Expeditions Because Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world, it has attracted considerable attention and climbing attempts. Whether the mountain was climbed in ancient times is unknown. It may have been climbed in 1924, although this has never been confirmed, as neither of the men making the attempt returned. Several climbing routes have been established over several decades of climbing expeditions to the mountain. Overview Everest's first known summiting occurred by 1953, and interest by climbers increased. Despite the effort and attention poured into expeditions, only about 200 people had summitted by 1987. Everest remained a difficult climb for decades, even for serious attempts by professional climbers and large national expeditions, which were the norm until the commercial era began in the 1990s. By March 2012, Everest had been climbed 5,656 times with 223 deaths. Although lower mountains have longer or steeper climbs, Everest is so high the jet stream can hit it. Climbers can be faced with winds beyond when the weather shifts. At certain times of the year the jet stream shifts north, providing periods of relative calm at the mountain. Other dangers include blizzards and avalanches. By 2013, The Himalayan Database recorded 6,871 summits by 4,042 different people. Early attempts In 1885, Clinton Thomas Dent, president of the Alpine Club, suggested that climbing Mount Everest was possible in his book Above the Snow Line. The northern approach to the mountain was discovered by George Mallory and Guy Bullock on the initial 1921 British Reconnaissance Expedition. It was an exploratory expedition not equipped for a serious attempt to climb the mountain. With Mallory leading (and thus becoming the first European to set foot on Everest's flanks) they climbed the North Col to an altitude of . From there, Mallory espied a route to the top, but the party was unprepared for the great task of climbing any further and descended. The British returned for a 1922 expedition. George Finch climbed using oxygen for the first time. He ascended at a remarkable speed— per hour, and reached an altitude of , the first time a human reported to climb higher than 8,000 m. Mallory and Col. Felix Norton made a second unsuccessful attempt. The next expedition was in 1924. The initial attempt by Mallory and Geoffrey Bruce was aborted when weather conditions prevented the establishment of Camp VI. The next attempt was that of Norton and Somervell, who climbed without oxygen and in perfect weather, traversing the North Face into the Great Couloir. Norton managed to reach , though he ascended only or so in the last hour. Mallory rustled up oxygen equipment for a last-ditch effort. He chose young Andrew Irvine as his partner. On 8 June 1924, George Mallory and Andrew Irvine made an attempt on the summit via the North Col-North Ridge-Northeast Ridge route from which they never returned. On 1 May 1999, the Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition found Mallory's body on the North Face in a snow basin below and to the west of the traditional site of Camp VI. Controversy has raged in the mountaineering community whether one or both of them reached the summit 29 years before the confirmed ascent and safe descent of Everest by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay in 1953. In 1933, Lady Houston, a British millionairess, funded the Houston Everest Flight of 1933, which saw a formation of two aeroplanes led by the Marquess of Clydesdale fly over the Everest summit. Early expeditions—such as Charles Bruce's in the 1920s and Hugh Ruttledge's two unsuccessful attempts in 1933 and 1936—tried to ascend the mountain from Tibet, via the North Face. Access was closed from the north to Western expeditions in 1950 after China took control of Tibet. In 1950, Bill Tilman and a small party which included Charles Houston, Oscar Houston, and Betsy Cowles undertook an exploratory expedition to Everest through Nepal along the route which has now become the standard approach to Everest from the south. The 1952 Swiss Mount Everest Expedition, led by Edouard Wyss-Dunant, was granted permission to attempt a climb from Nepal. It established a route through the Khumbu icefall and ascended to the South Col at an elevation of . Raymond Lambert and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay were able to reach an elevation of about on the southeast ridge, setting a new climbing altitude record. Tenzing's experience was useful when he was hired to be part of the British expedition in 1953. One reference says that no attempt at an ascent of Everest was ever under consideration in this case, although John Hunt (who met the team in Zurich on their return) wrote that when the Swiss Expedition "just failed" in the spring they decided to make another post-monsoon (summit ascent) attempt in the autumn; although as it was only decided in June the second party arrived too late, when winter winds were buffeting the mountain. First successful ascent by Tenzing and Hillary, 1953 In 1953, a ninth British expedition, led by John Hunt, returned to Nepal. Hunt selected two climbing pairs to attempt to reach the summit. The first pair, Tom Bourdillon and Charles Evans, came within of the summit on 26 May 1953, but turned back after running into oxygen problems. As planned, their work in route finding and breaking trail and their oxygen caches were of great aid to the following pair. Two days later, the expedition made its second assault on the summit with the second climbing pair: the New Zealander Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay, a Nepali Sherpa climber. They reached the summit at 11:30 local time on 29 May 1953 via the South Col route. At the time, both acknowledged it as a team effort by the whole expedition, but Tenzing revealed a few years later that Hillary had put his foot on the summit first. They paused at the summit to take photographs and buried a few sweets and a small cross in the snow before descending. News of the expedition's success reached London on the morning of Queen Elizabeth II's coronation, 2 June. A few days later, the Queen gave orders that Hunt (a Briton) and Hillary (a New Zealander) were to be knighted in the Order of the British Empire for the ascent. Tenzing, a Nepali Sherpa who was a citizen of India, was granted the George Medal by the UK. Hunt was ultimately made a life peer in Britain, while Hillary became a founding member of the Order of New Zealand. Hillary and Tenzing have also been recognised in Nepal. In 2009, statues were raised in their honour, and in 2014, Hillary Peak and Tenzing Peak were named for them. 1950s–1960s On 23 May 1956, Ernst Schmied and Juerg Marmet ascended. This was followed by Dölf Reist and Hans-Rudolf von Gunten on 24 May 1957. Wang Fuzhou, Gonpo and Qu Yinhua of China made the first reported ascent of the peak from the North Ridge on 25 May 1960. The first American to climb Everest, Jim Whittaker, joined by Nawang Gombu, reached the summit on 1 May 1963. 1970s In 1970, Japanese mountaineers conducted a major expedition. The centrepiece was a large "siege"-style expedition led by Saburo Matsukata, working on finding a new route up the southwest face. Another element of the expedition was an attempt to ski Mount Everest. Despite a staff of over one hundred people and a decade of planning work, the expedition suffered eight deaths and failed to summit via the planned routes. However, Japanese expeditions did enjoy some successes. For example, Yuichiro Miura became the first man to ski down Everest from the South Col – he descended nearly from the South Col before falling with extreme injuries. Another success was an expedition that put four on the summit via the South Col route. Miura's exploits became the subject of film, and he went on to become the oldest person to summit Mount Everest in 2003 at age 70 and again in 2013 at the age of 80. In 1975, Junko Tabei, a Japanese woman, became the first woman to summit Mount Everest. In 1978, Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler made the first ascent of Everest without supplemental oxygen. 1979/1980: Winter Himalaism The Polish climber Andrzej Zawada headed the first winter ascent of Mount Everest, the first winter ascent of an eight-thousander. The team of 20 Polish climbers and 4 Sherpas established a base camp on Khumbu Glacier in early January 1980. On 15 January, the team managed to set up Camp III at 7150 metres above sea level, but further action was stopped by hurricane-force winds. The weather improved after 11 February, when Leszek Cichy, Walenty Fiut and Krzysztof Wielicki set up camp IV on South Col (7906 m). Cichy and Wielicki started the final ascent at 6:50 am on 17 February. At 2:40 pm Andrzej Zawada at base camp heard the climbers' voices over the radio – "We are on the summit! The strong wind blows all the time. It is unimaginably cold." The successful winter ascent of Mount Everest started a new decade of Winter Himalaism, which became a Polish specialisation. After 1980 Poles did ten first winter ascents on 8000 metre peaks, which earned Polish climbers a reputation of "Ice Warriors". Lho La tragedy, 1989 In May 1989, Polish climbers under the leadership of Eugeniusz Chrobak organised an international expedition to Mount Everest on a difficult western ridge. Ten Poles and nine foreigners participated, but ultimately only the Poles remained in the attempt for the summit. On 24 May, Chrobak and Andrzej Marciniak, starting from camp V at 8,200 m, overcame the ridge and reached the summit. But on 27 May in the avalanche from the wall Khumbutse on the Lho La Pass, four Polish climbers were killed: Mirosław Dąsal, Mirosław Gardzielewski, Zygmunt Andrzej Heinrich and Wacław Otręba. The following day, due to his injuries, Chrobak also died. Marciniak, who was also injured, was saved by a rescue expedition in which Artur Hajzer and New Zealanders Gary Ball and Rob Hall took part. In the organisation of the rescue expedition they took part, inter alia Reinhold Messner, Elizabeth Hawley, Carlos Carsolio and the US consul. 1996 disaster On 10 and 11 May 1996, eight climbers died after several guided expeditions were caught in a blizzard high up on the mountain during a summit attempt on 10 May. During the 1996 season, 15 people died while climbing on Mount Everest. These were the highest death tolls for a single weather event, and for a single season, until the sixteen deaths in the 2014 Mount Everest avalanche. The guiding disaster gained wide publicity and raised questions about the commercialisation of climbing and the safety of guiding clients on Mount Everest. Journalist Jon Krakauer, on assignment from Outside magazine, was in one of the affected guided parties, and afterward published the bestseller Into Thin Air, which related his experience. Krakauer was critical of guide Anatoli Boukreev in his recollection of the expedition. A year later, Boukreev co-authored The Climb, in part as a rebuttal of Krakauer's portrayal. The dispute sparked a debate within the climbing community. Boukreev was later awarded The American Alpine Club's David Sowles Award for his rescue efforts on the expedition. In May 2004, Kent Moore, a physicist, and John L. Semple, a surgeon, both researchers from the University of Toronto, told New Scientist magazine that an analysis of weather conditions on 11 May suggested that weather caused oxygen levels to plunge approximately 14 percent. One of the survivors was Beck Weathers, an American client of New Zealand–based guide service Adventure Consultants. Weathers was left for dead about 275 metres (900 feet) from Camp 4 at 7,950 metres (26,085 feet). After spending a night on the mountain, Weathers managed to make it back to Camp 4 with massive frostbite and vision impaired due to snow blindness. When he arrived at Camp 4, fellow climbers considered his condition terminal and left him in a tent to die overnight. Weathers' condition had not improved and an immediate descent to a lower elevation was deemed essential. A helicopter rescue was out of the question: Camp 4 was higher than the rated ceiling of any available helicopter. Weathers was lowered to Camp 2. Eventually, a helicopter rescue was organised thanks to the Nepali Army. The storm's impact on climbers on the North Ridge of Everest, where several climbers also died, was detailed in a first-hand account by British filmmaker and writer Matt Dickinson in his book The Other Side of Everest. Sixteen-year-old Mark Pfetzer was on the climb and wrote about it in his account, Within Reach: My Everest Story. The 2015 feature film Everest, directed by Baltasar Kormákur, is based on the events of this guiding disaster. 2006 mountaineering season In 2006, 12 people died. One death in particular (see below) triggered an international debate and years of discussion about climbing ethics. The season was also remembered for the rescue of Lincoln Hall who had been left by his climbing team and declared dead, but was later discovered alive and survived being helped off the mountain. David Sharp ethics controversy, 2006 There was an international controversy about the death of a solo British climber David Sharp, who attempted to climb Mount Everest in 2006 but died in his attempt. The story broke out of the mountaineering community into popular media, with a series of interviews, allegations, and critiques. The question was whether climbers that season had left a man to die and whether he could have been saved. He was said to have attempted to summit Mount Everest by himself with no Sherpa or guide and fewer oxygen bottles than considered normal. He went with a low-budget Nepali guide firm that only provides support up to Base Camp, after which climbers go as a "loose group", offering a high degree of independence. The manager at Sharp's guide support said Sharp did not take enough oxygen for his summit attempt and did not have a Sherpa guide. It is less clear who knew Sharp was in trouble, and if they did know, whether they were qualified or capable of helping him. Double-amputee climber Mark Inglis said in an interview with the press on 23 May 2006, that his climbing party, and many others, had passed Sharp, on 15 May, sheltering under a rock overhang below the summit, without attempting a rescue. Inglis said 40 people had passed by Sharp, but he might have been overlooked as climbers assumed Sharp was the corpse nicknamed "Green Boots", but Inglis was not aware that Turkish climbers had tried to help Sharp despite being in the process of helping an injured woman down (a Turkish woman, Burçak Poçan). There has also been some discussion about Himex in the commentary on Inglis and Sharp. In regards to Inglis's initial comments, he later revised certain details because he had been interviewed while he was "...physically and mentally exhausted, and in a lot of pain. He had suffered severe frostbite – he later had five fingertips amputated." When they went through Sharp's possessions they found a receipt for US$7,490, believed to be the whole financial cost. Comparatively, most expeditions are between $35,000 to US$100,000 plus an additional $20,000 in other expenses that range from gear to bonuses. It was estimated on 14 May that Sharp summitted Mount Everest and began his descent down, but 15 May he was in trouble but being passed by climbers on their way up and down. On 15 May 2006 it is believed he was suffering from hypoxia and was about from the summit on the North Side route. Beck Weathers of the 1996 Mount Everest disaster said that those who are dying are often left behind and that he himself had been left for dead twice but was able to keep walking. The Tribune of Chandigarh, India quoted someone who described what happened to Sharp as "the most shameful act in the history of mountaineering". In addition to Sharp's death, at least nine other climbers perished that year, including multiple Sherpas working for various guiding companies. Much of this controversy was captured by the Discovery Channel while filming the television program Everest: Beyond the Limit. A crucial decision affecting the fate of Sharp is shown in the program, where an early returning climber Lebanese adventurer Maxim Chaya is descending from the summit and radios to his base camp manager (Russell Brice) that he has found a frostbitten and unconscious climber in distress. Chaya is unable to identify Sharp, who had chosen to climb solo without any support and so did not identify himself to other climbers. The base camp manager assumes that Sharp is part of a group that has already calculated that they must abandon him, and informs his lone climber that there is no chance of him being able to help Sharp by himself. As Sharp's condition deteriorates through the day and other descending climbers pass him, his opportunities for rescue diminish: his legs and feet curl from frostbite, preventing him from walking; the later descending climbers are lower on oxygen and lack the strength to offer aid; time runs out for any Sherpas to return and rescue him. David Sharp's body remained just below the summit on the Chinese side next to "Green Boots"; they shared a space in a small rock cave that was an ad hoc tomb for them. Sharp's body was removed from the cave in 2007, according to the BBC, and since 2014, Green Boots has been missing, presumably removed or buried. Lincoln Hall rescue, 2006 As the Sharp debate kicked off on 26 May 2006, Australian climber Lincoln Hall was found alive after being left for dead the day before. He was found by a party of four climbers (Dan Mazur, Andrew Brash, Myles Osborne and Jangbu Sherpa) who, giving up their own summit attempt, stayed with Hall and descended with him and a party of 11 Sherpas sent up to carry him down. Hall later fully recovered. His team assumed he had died from cerebral edema, and they were instructed to cover him with rocks. There were no rocks around to do this and he was abandoned. The erroneous information of his death was passed on to his family. The next day he was discovered alive by another party. Lincoln greeted his fellow mountaineers with this: Lincoln Hall went on to live for several more years, often giving talks about his near-death experience and rescue, before dying from unrelated medical issues in 2012 at the age of 56 (born in 1955). 2007 On 21 May 2007, Canadian climber Meagan McGrath initiated the successful high-altitude rescue of Nepali Usha Bista. Recognising this rescue, Major McGrath was selected as a 2011 recipient of the Sir Edmund Hillary Foundation of Canada Humanitarian Award, which recognises a Canadian who has personally or administratively contributed a significant service or act in the Himalayan Region of Nepal. Ascent statistics up to 2010 season By the end of the 2010 climbing season, there had been 5,104 ascents to the summit by about 3,142 individuals, with 77% of these ascents being accomplished since 2000. The summit was achieved in 7 of the 22 years from 1953 to 1974 and was not missed between 1975 and 2014. In 2007, the record number of 633 ascents was recorded, by 350 climbers and 253 sherpas. An illustration of the explosion of popularity of Everest is provided by the numbers of daily ascents. Analysis of the 1996 Mount Everest disaster shows that part of the blame was on the bottleneck caused by a large number of climbers (33 to 36) attempting to summit on the same day; this was considered unusually high at the time. By comparison, on 23 May 2010, the summit of Mount Everest was reached by 169 climbers – more summits in a single day than in the cumulative 31 years from the first successful summit in 1953 through 1983. There have been 219 fatalities recorded on Mount Everest from the 1922 British Mount Everest Expedition through the end of 2010, a rate of 4.3 fatalities for every 100 summits (this is a general rate, and includes fatalities amongst support climbers, those who turned back before the peak, those who died en route to the peak and those who died while descending from the peak). Of the 219 fatalities, 58 (26.5%) were climbers who had summited but did not complete their descent. Though the rate of fatalities has decreased since the year 2000 (1.4 fatalities for every 100 summits, with 3938 summits since 2000), the significant increase in the total number of climbers still means 54 fatalities since 2000: 33 on the northeast ridge, 17 on the southeast ridge, 2 on the southwest face, and 2 on the north face. Nearly all attempts at the summit are done using one of the two main routes. The traffic seen by each route varies from year to year. In 2005–07, more than half of all climbers elected to use the more challenging, but cheaper northeast route. In 2008, the northeast route was closed by the Chinese government for the entire climbing season, and the only people able to reach the summit from the north that year were athletes responsible for carrying the Olympic torch for the 2008 Summer Olympics. The route was closed to foreigners once again in 2009 in the run-up to the 50th anniversary of the Dalai Lama's exile. These closures led to declining interest in the north route, and, in 2010, two-thirds of the climbers reached the summit from the south. 2010s The 2010s were a time of new highs and lows for the mountain, with back-to-back disasters in 2013 and 2014 causing record deaths. In 2015 there were no summits for the first time in decades. However, other years set records for numbers of summits – 2013's record number of summiters, around 667, was surpassed in 2018 with around 800 summiting the peak, and a subsequent record was set in 2019 with over 890 summiters. 2014 avalanche and season On 18 April 2014, an avalanche hit the area just below the Base Camp 2 at around 01:00 UTC (06:30 local time) and at an elevation of about . Sixteen people were killed in the avalanche (all Nepali guides) and nine more were injured. During the season, a 13-year-old girl, Malavath Purna, reached the summit, becoming the youngest female climber to do so. Additionally, one team used a helicopter to fly from South base camp to Camp 2 to avoid the Khumbu Icefall, then reached the Everest summit. This team had to use the south side because the Chinese had denied them a permit to climb. A team member (Jing Wang) donated US$30,000 to a local hospital. She was named the Nepali "International Mountaineer of the Year". Over 100 people summited Everest from China (Tibet region), and six from Nepal in the 2014 season. This included 72-year-old Bill Burke, the Indian teenage girl, and a Chinese woman Jing Wang. Another teen girl summiter was Ming Kipa Sherpa who summited with her elder sister Lhakpa Sherpa in 2003, and who had achieved the most times for woman to the summit of Mount Everest at that time. (see also Santosh Yadav) 2015 avalanche, earthquake, season 2015 was set to be a record-breaking season of climbs, with hundreds of permits issued in Nepal and many additional permits in Tibet (China). However, on 25 April 2015, an earthquake measuring 7.8 Mw triggered an avalanche that hit Everest Base Camp, effectively shutting down the Everest climbing season. 18 bodies were recovered from Mount Everest by the Indian Army mountaineering team. The avalanche began on Pumori, moved through the Khumbu Icefall on the southwest side of Mount Everest, and slammed into the South Base Camp. 2015 was the first time since 1974 with no spring summits, as all climbing teams pulled out after the quakes and avalanche. One of the reasons for this was the high probability of aftershocks (over 50 percent according to the USGS). Just weeks after the first quake, the region was rattled again by a 7.3 magnitude quake and there were also many considerable aftershocks. The quakes trapped hundreds of climbers above the Khumbu icefall, and they had to be evacuated by helicopter as they ran low on supplies. The quake shifted the route through the ice fall, making it essentially impassable to climbers. Bad weather also made helicopter evacuation difficult. The Everest tragedy was small compared to the impact overall on Nepal, with almost nine thousand dead and about 22,000 injured. In Tibet, by 28 April at least 25 had died, and 117 were injured. By 29 April 2015, the Tibet Mountaineering Association (North/Chinese side) closed Everest and other peaks to climbing, stranding 25 teams and about 300 people on the north side of Everest. On the south side, helicopters evacuated 180 people trapped at Camps 1 and 2. Mountain re-opens in August 2015 On 24 August 2015, Nepal re-opened Everest to tourism including mountain climbers. The only climber permit for the autumn season was awarded to Japanese climber Nobukazu Kuriki, who had tried four times previously to summit Everest without success. He made his fifth attempt in October, but had to give up just from the summit due to "strong winds and deep snow". Kuriki noted the dangers of climbing Everest, having himself survived being stuck in a freezing snow hole for two days near the top, which came at the cost of all his fingertips and his thumb, lost to frostbite, which added further difficulty to his climb. Some sections of the trail from Lukla to Everest Base Camp (Nepal) were damaged in the earthquakes earlier in the year and needed repairs to handle trekkers. 2016 season Hawley's database records 641 made it to the summit in early 2016. 2017 season 2017 was the biggest season yet, permit-wise, yielding hundreds of summiters and a handful of deaths. On 27 May 2017, Kami Rita Sherpa made his 21st climb to the summit with the Alpine Ascents Everest Expedition, one of three people in the World along with Apa Sherpa and Phurba Tashi Sherpa to make it to the summit of Mount Everest 21 times. The season had a tragic start with the death of Ueli Steck of Switzerland, who died from a fall during a warm-up climb. There was a continued discussion about the nature of possible changes to the Hillary Step. Total summiters for 2017 was tallied up to be 648. 449 summited via Nepal (from the South) and 120 from Chinese Tibet (North side). 2018 807 climbers summited Mount Everest in 2018, including 563 on the Nepal side and 240 from the Chinese Tibet side. This broke the previous record for total summits in year from which was 667 in 2013, and one factor that aided in this was an especially long and clear weather window of 11 days during the critical spring climbing season. Various records were broken, including a summit by double-amputee Hari Budha Magar, who undertook his climb after winning a court case in the Nepali Supreme Court. There were no major disasters, but seven climbers died in various situations including several sherpas as well as international climbers. Although record numbers of climbers reached the summit, old-time summiters that made expeditions in the 1980s lamented the crowding, feces, and cost. Himalayan record keeper Elizabeth Hawley died in late January 2018. Figures for the number of permits issued by Nepal range from 347 to 375. 2019 The spring or pre-monsoon window for 2019 witnessed the deaths of a number of climbers and worldwide publication of images of hundreds of mountaineers queuing to reach the summit and sensational media reports of climbers stepping over dead bodies dismayed people around the world. There were reports of various winter expeditions in the Himalayas, including K2, Nanga Parbat, and Meru with the buzz for the Everest 2019 beginning just 14 weeks to the weather window. Noted climber Cory Richards announced on Twitter that he was hoping to establish a new climbing route to the summit in 2019. Also announced was an expedition to re-measure the height of Everest, particularly in light of the 2015 earthquakes. China closed the base-camp to those without climbing permits in February 2019 on the northern side of Mount Everest. By early April, climbing teams from around the world were arriving for the 2019 spring climbing season. Among the teams was a scientific expedition with a planned study of pollution, and how things like snow and vegetation influence the availability of food and water in the region. In the 2019 spring mountaineering season, there were roughly 40 teams with almost 400 climbers and several hundred guides attempting to summit on the Nepali side. Nepal issued 381 climbing permits for 2019. For the northern routes in Chinese Tibet, several hundred more permits were issued for climbing by authorities there. In May 2019, Nepali mountaineering guide Kami Rita summited Mount Everest twice within a week, his 23rd and 24th ascents, making international news headlines. He first summited Everest in 1994, and has summited several other extremely high mountains, such as K2 and Lhotse. By 23 May 2019, about seven people had died, possibly due to crowding leading to delays high on the mountain, and shorter weather windows. One 19-year-old who summited previously noted that when the weather window opens (the high winds calm down), long lines form as everyone rushes to get the top and back down. In Chinese Tibet, one Austrian climber died from a fall, and by 26 May 2019 the overall number of deaths for the spring climbing season rose to 10. By 28 May, the death toll increased to 11 when a climber died at about during the descent, and a 12th climber missing and presumed dead. Despite the number of deaths, reports indicated that a record 891 climbers summited in the spring 2019 climbing season. Although China has had various permit restrictions, and Nepal requires a doctor to sign off on climbing permits, the natural dangers of climbing such as falls and avalanches combined with medical issues aggravated by Everest's extreme altitude led to 2019 being a year with a comparatively high death toll. 2020s Both Nepal and China prohibited foreign climbing groups during the 2020 season, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2020 was the third year in this decade after 2014 and 2015 which saw no summits from the Nepal (South) Side. A team of Chinese surveyors climbed Mt. Everest from the North side during April–May 2020, becoming the only climbers to summit the world's highest peak during the pandemic, at least through May. The team was there to re-measure the height of Mount Everest. Climbing Permits 334 climbing permits were issued in 2014 in Nepal. These were extended until 2019 due to the closure. In 2015 there were 357 permits to climb Everest, but the mountain was closed again because of the avalanche and earthquake, and these permits were given a two-year extension to 2017 (not to 2019 as with the 2014 issue). In 2017, a permit evader who tried to climb Everest without the $11,000 permit faced, among other penalties, a $22,000 fine, bans, and a possible four years in jail after he was caught (he had made it up past the Khumbu icefall) In the end he was given a 10-year mountaineering ban in Nepal and allowed to return home. The number of permits issued each year by Nepal is listed below. 2008 – 160 2009 – 220 2010 – 209 2011 – 225 2012 – 208 2013 – 316 2014 – 326 (extended for use in any year up to 2019) 2015 – 356 (extended for use in any year up to 2017) 2016 – 289 2017 – 366–373 (last year for 2015 extended permits) 2018 – 346 2019 – 381 (last year for 2014 extended permits) 2020 - 0 (No permits issued during the pandemic) 2021 - 408 (Record permits issued) The Chinese side in Tibet is also managed with permits for summiting Everest. They did not issue permits in 2008, due to the Olympic torch relay being taken to the summit of Mount Everest. In March 2020, the governments of China and Nepal announced a cancellation of all climbing permits for Mount Everest due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In April 2020, a group of Chinese mountaineers began an expedition from the Chinese side. The mountain remained closed on the Chinese side to all foreign climbers. On 10 May 2021, a separation line was announced by Chinese authorities to prevent the spread of coronavirus from climbers ascending Nepal's side of the mountain. Routes Mount Everest has two main climbing routes, the southeast ridge from Nepal and the north ridge from Tibet, as well as many other less frequently climbed routes. Of the two main routes, the southeast ridge is technically easier and more frequently used. It was the route used by Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay in 1953 and the first recognised of 15 routes to the top by 1996. This was, however, a route decision dictated more by politics than by design, as the Chinese border was closed to the western world in the 1950s, after the People's Republic of China invaded Tibet. Most attempts are made during May, before the summer monsoon season. As the monsoon season approaches, the jet stream shifts northward, thereby reducing the average wind speeds high on the mountain. While attempts are sometimes made in September and October, after the monsoons, when the jet stream is again temporarily pushed northward, the additional snow deposited by the monsoons and the less stable weather patterns at the monsoons' tail end makes climbing extremely difficult. Southeast ridge The ascent via the southeast ridge begins with a trek to Base Camp at on the south side of Everest, in Nepal. Expeditions usually fly into Lukla (2,860 m) from Kathmandu and pass through Namche Bazaar. Climbers then hike to Base Camp, which usually takes six to eight days, allowing for proper altitude acclimatisation in order to prevent altitude sickness. Climbing equipment and supplies are carried by yaks, dzopkyos (yak-cow hybrids), and human porters to Base Camp on the Khumbu Glacier. When Hillary and Tenzing climbed Everest in 1953, the British expedition they were part of (comprising over 400 climbers, porters, and Sherpas at that point) started from the Kathmandu Valley, as there were no roads further east at that time. Climbers spend a couple of weeks in Base Camp, acclimatising to the altitude. During that time, Sherpas and some expedition climbers set up ropes and ladders in the treacherous Khumbu Icefall. Seracs, crevasses, and shifting blocks of ice make the icefall one of the most dangerous sections of the route. Many climbers and Sherpas have been killed in this section. To reduce the hazard, climbers usually begin their ascent well before dawn, when the freezing temperatures glue ice blocks in place. Above the icefall is Camp I at . From Camp I, climbers make their way up the Western Cwm to the base of the Lhotse face, where Camp II or Advanced Base Camp (ABC) is established at . The Western Cwm is a flat, gently rising glacial valley, marked by huge lateral crevasses in the centre, which prevent direct access to the upper reaches of the Cwm. Climbers are forced to cross on the far right, near the base of Nuptse, to a small passageway known as the "Nuptse corner". The Western Cwm is also called the "Valley of Silence" as the topography of the area generally cuts off wind from the climbing route. The high altitude and a clear, windless day can make the Western Cwm unbearably hot for climbers. From Advanced Base Camp, climbers ascend the Lhotse face on fixed ropes, up to Camp III, located on a small ledge at . From there, it is another 500 metres to Camp IV on the South Col at . From Camp III to Camp IV, climbers are faced with two additional challenges: the Geneva Spur and the Yellow Band. The Geneva Spur is an anvil-shaped rib of black rock named by the 1952 Swiss expedition. Fixed ropes assist climbers in scrambling over this snow-covered rock band. The Yellow Band is a section of interlayered marble, phyllite, and semischist, which also requires about 100 metres of rope for traversing it. On the South Col, climbers enter the death zone. Climbers making summit bids typically can endure no more than two or three days at this altitude. That's one reason why clear weather and low winds are critical factors in deciding whether to make a summit attempt. If the weather does not cooperate within these short few days, climbers are forced to descend, many all the way back down to Base Camp. From Camp IV, climbers begin their summit push around midnight, with hopes of reaching the summit (still another 1,000 metres above) within 10 to 12 hours. Climbers first reach "The Balcony" at , a small platform where they can rest and gaze at peaks to the south and east in the early light of dawn. Continuing up the ridge, climbers are then faced with a series of imposing rock steps which usually forces them to the east into the waist-deep snow, a serious avalanche hazard. At , a small table-sized dome of ice and snow marks the South Summit. From the South Summit, climbers follow the knife-edge southeast ridge along what is known as the "Cornice traverse", where snow clings to intermittent rock. This is the most exposed section of the climb, and a misstep to the left would send one down the southwest face, while to the immediate right is the Kangshung Face. At the end of this traverse is an imposing rock wall, the Hillary Step, at . Hillary and Tenzing were the first climbers to ascend this step, and they did so using primitive ice climbing equipment and ropes. Nowadays, climbers ascend this step using fixed ropes previously set up by Sherpas. Once above the step, it is a comparatively easy climb to the top on moderately angled snow slopes—though the exposure on the ridge is extreme, especially while traversing large cornices of snow. With increasing numbers of people climbing the mountain in recent years, the Step has frequently become a bottleneck, with climbers forced to wait significant amounts of time for their turn on the ropes, leading to problems in getting climbers efficiently up and down the mountain. After the Hillary Step, climbers also must traverse a loose and rocky section that has a large entanglement of fixed ropes that can be troublesome in bad weather. Climbers typically spend less than half an hour at the summit to allow time to descend to Camp IV before darkness sets in, to avoid serious problems with afternoon weather, or because supplemental oxygen tanks run out. North ridge route The north ridge route begins from the north side of Everest, in Tibet. Expeditions trek to the Rongbuk Glacier, setting up base camp at on a gravel plain just below the glacier. To reach Camp II, climbers ascend the medial moraine of the east Rongbuk Glacier up to the base of Changtse, at around . Camp III (ABC—Advanced Base Camp) is situated below the North Col at . To reach Camp IV on the North Col, climbers ascend the glacier to the foot of the col where fixed ropes are used to reach the North Col at . From the North Col, climbers ascend the rocky north ridge to set up Camp V at around . The route crosses the North Face in a diagonal climb to the base of the Yellow Band, reaching the site of Camp VI at . From Camp VI, climbers make their final summit push. Climbers face a treacherous traverse from the base of the First Step: ascending from , to the crux of the climb, the Second Step, ascending from . (The Second Step includes a climbing aid called the "Chinese ladder", a metal ladder placed semi-permanently in 1975 by a party of Chinese climbers. It has been almost continuously in place since, and ladders have been used by virtually all climbers on the route.) Once above the Second Step the inconsequential Third Step is clambered over, ascending from . Once above these steps, the summit pyramid is climbed by a snow slope of 50 degrees, to the final summit ridge along which the top is reached. Summit The summit of Everest has been described as "the size of a dining room table". The summit is capped with snow over ice over rock, and the layer of snow varies from year to year. The rock summit is made of Ordovician limestone and is a low-grade metamorphic rock. (see the 'Surveys' section for more on its height and about the Everest rock summit) Below the summit, there is an area known as "rainbow valley", filled with dead bodies still wearing brightly coloured winter gear. Down to about is an area commonly called the "death zone", due to the high danger and low oxygen because of the low pressure. Below the summit the mountain slopes downward to the three main sides, or faces, of Mount Everest: the North Face, the South-West Face, and the East/Kangshung Face. Death zone At the higher regions of Mount Everest, climbers seeking the summit typically spend substantial time within the death zone (altitudes higher than ), and face significant challenges to survival. Temperatures can dip to very low levels, resulting in frostbite of any body part exposed to the air. Since temperatures are so low, snow is well-frozen in certain areas and death or injury by slipping and falling can occur. High winds at these altitudes on Everest are also a potential threat to climbers. Another significant threat to climbers is low atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure at the top of Everest is about a third of sea level pressure or , resulting in the availability of only about a third as much oxygen to breathe. Debilitating effects of the death zone are so great that it takes most climbers up to 12 hours to walk the distance of from South Col to the summit. Achieving even this level of performance requires prolonged altitude acclimatisation, which takes 40–60 days for a typical expedition. A sea-level dweller exposed to the atmospheric conditions at the altitude above without acclimatisation would likely lose consciousness within 2 to 3 minutes. In May 2007, the Caudwell Xtreme Everest undertook a medical study of oxygen levels in human blood at extreme altitude. Over 200 volunteers climbed to Everest Base Camp where various medical tests were performed to examine blood oxygen levels. A small team also performed tests on the way to the summit. Even at base camp, the low partial pressure of oxygen had direct effect on blood oxygen saturation levels. At sea level, blood oxygen saturation is generally 98–99%. At base camp, blood saturation fell to between 85 and 87%. Blood samples taken at the summit indicated very low oxygen levels in the blood. A side effect of low blood oxygen is a greatly increased breathing rate, often 80–90 breaths per minute as opposed to a more typical 20–30. Exhaustion can occur merely by attempting to breathe. Lack of oxygen, exhaustion, extreme cold, and climbing hazards all contribute to the death toll. An injured person who cannot walk is in serious trouble, since rescue by helicopter is generally impractical and carrying the person off the mountain is very risky. People who die during the climb are typically left behind. As of 2006, about 150 bodies had never been recovered. It is not uncommon to find corpses near the standard climbing routes. A 2008 study noted that the "death zone" is indeed where most Everest deaths occur, but also noted that most deaths occur during descent from the summit. A 2014 article in The Atlantic about deaths on Everest noted that while falling is one of the greatest dangers the death zone presents for all 8000ers, avalanches are a more common cause of death at lower altitudes. However, Everest climbing is more deadly than BASE jumping, although some have combined extreme sports and Everest including a Russian who base-jumped off Everest in a wingsuit (he did survive, though). Despite this, Everest is safer for climbers than a number of peaks by some measurements, but it depends on the period. Some examples are Kangchenjunga, K2, Annapurna, Nanga Parbat, and the Eiger (especially the nordwand). Mont Blanc has more deaths each year than Everest, with over one hundred dying in a typical year and over eight thousand killed since records were kept. Some factors that affect total mountain lethality include the level of popularity of the mountain, the skill of those climbing, and the difficulty of the climb. Another health hazard is retinal haemorrhages, which can damage eyesight and cause blindness. Up to a quarter of Everest climbers can experience retinal haemorrhages, and although they usually heal within weeks of returning to lower altitudes, in 2010 a climber went blind and ended up dying in the death zone. The team made a huge effort for the next 12 hours to try to get him down the mountain, but to no avail, as they were unsuccessful in getting him through the difficult sections. Even for the able, the Everest North-East ridge is recognised as a challenge. It is hard to rescue someone who has become incapacitated and it can be beyond the ability of rescuers to save anyone in such a difficult spot. One way around this situation was pioneered by two Nepali men in 2011, who had intended to paraglide off the summit. They had no choice and were forced to go through with their plan anyway, because they had run out of bottled oxygen and supplies. They successfully launched off the summit and para-glided down to Namche Bazaar in just 42 minutes, without having to climb down the mountain. Supplemental oxygen Most expeditions use oxygen masks and tanks above . Everest can be climbed without supplementary oxygen, but only by the most accomplished mountaineers and at increased risk. Humans' ability to think clearly is hindered with low oxygen, and the combination of extreme weather, low temperatures, and steep slopes often requires quick, accurate decisions. While about 95 percent of climbers who reach the summit use bottled oxygen in order to reach the top, about five percent of climbers have summited Everest without supplemental oxygen. The death rate is double for those who attempt to reach the summit without supplemental oxygen. Travelling above altitude is a factor in cerebral hypoxia. This decrease of oxygen to the brain can cause dementia and brain damage, as well as other symptoms. One study found that Mount Everest may be the highest an acclimatised human could go, but also found that climbers may suffer permanent neurological damage despite returning to lower altitudes. The use of bottled oxygen to ascend Mount Everest has been controversial. It was first used on the 1922 British Mount Everest Expedition by George Finch and Geoffrey Bruce who climbed up to at a spectacular speed of per hour. Pinned down by a fierce storm, they escaped death by breathing oxygen from a jury-rigged set-up during the night. The next day they climbed to at – nearly three times as fast as non-oxygen users. Yet the use of oxygen was considered so unsportsmanlike that none of the rest of the Alpine world recognised this high ascent rate. George Mallory described the use of such oxygen as unsportsmanlike, but he later concluded that it would be impossible for him to summit without it and consequently used it on his final attempt in 1924. When Tenzing and Hillary made the first successful summit in 1953, they also used open-circuit bottled oxygen sets, with the expedition's physiologist Griffith Pugh referring to the oxygen debate as a "futile controversy", noting that oxygen "greatly increases subjective appreciation of the surroundings, which after all is one of the chief reasons for climbing." For the next twenty-five years, bottled oxygen was considered standard for any successful summit. Reinhold Messner was the first climber to break the bottled oxygen tradition and in 1978, with Peter Habeler, made the first successful climb without it. In 1980, Messner summited the mountain solo, without supplemental oxygen or any porters or climbing partners, on the more difficult northwest route. Once the climbing community was satisfied that the mountain could be climbed without supplemental oxygen, many purists then took the next logical step of insisting that is how it should be climbed. The aftermath of the 1996 disaster further intensified the debate. Jon Krakauer's Into Thin Air (1997) expressed the author's personal criticisms of the use of bottled oxygen. Krakauer wrote that the use of bottled oxygen allowed otherwise unqualified climbers to attempt to summit, leading to dangerous situations and more deaths. The disaster was partially caused by the sheer number of climbers (34 on that day) attempting to ascend, causing bottlenecks at the Hillary Step and delaying many climbers, most of whom summitted after the usual 14:00 turnaround time. He proposed banning bottled oxygen except for emergency cases, arguing that this would both decrease the growing pollution on Everest—many bottles have accumulated on its slopes—and keep marginally qualified climbers off the mountain. The 1996 disaster also introduced the issue of the guide's role in using bottled oxygen. Guide Anatoli Boukreev's decision not to use bottled oxygen was sharply criticised by Jon Krakauer. Boukreev's supporters (who include G. Weston DeWalt, who co-wrote The Climb) state that using bottled oxygen gives a false sense of security. Krakauer and his supporters point out that, without bottled oxygen, Boukreev could not directly help his clients descend. They state that Boukreev said that he was going down with client Martin Adams, but just below the south summit, Boukreev determined that Adams was doing fine on the descent and so descended at a faster pace, leaving Adams behind. Adams states in The Climb, "For me, it was business as usual, Anatoli's going by, and I had no problems with that." The low oxygen can cause a mental fog-like impairment of cognitive abilities described as "delayed and lethargic thought process, clinically defined as bradypsychia" even after returning to lower altitudes. In severe cases, climbers can experience hallucinations. Some studies have found that high-altitude climbers, including Everest climbers, experience altered brain structure. The effects of high altitude on the brain, particularly if it can cause permanent brain damage, continue to be studied. Autumn climbing Although generally less popular than spring, Mount Everest has also been climbed in the autumn (also called the "post-monsoon season"). For example, in 2010 Eric Larsen and five Nepali guides summited Everest in the autumn for the first time in ten years. The autumn season, when the monsoon ends, is regarded as more dangerous because there is typically a lot of new snow which can be unstable. However, this increased snow can make it more popular with certain winter sports like skiing and snowboarding. Two Japanese climbers also summited in October 1973. Chris Chandler and Bob Cormack summited Everest in October 1976 as part of the American Bicentennial Everest Expedition that year, the first Americans to make an autumn ascent of Mount Everest according to the Los Angeles Times. By the 21st century, summer and autumn can be more popular with skiing and snowboard attempts on Mount Everest. During the 1980s, climbing in autumn was actually more popular than in spring. U.S. astronaut Karl Gordon Henize died in October 1993 on an autumn expedition, conducting an experiment on radiation. The amount of background radiation increases with higher altitudes. The mountain has also been climbed in the winter, but that is not popular because of the combination of cold high winds and shorter days. By January the peak is typically battered by winds and the average temperature of the summit is around −33 °F (−36 °C). Selected climbing records By the end of the 2010 climbing season, there had been 5,104 ascents to the summit by about 3,142 individuals. Some notable "firsts" by climbers include: 1922: First climb to , by George Finch and Captain Geoffrey Bruce 1952: First climb to South Col by 1952 Swiss Mount Everest expedition 1953: First ascent, by Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary on 1953 British Mount Everest expedition 1960: First reported ascent from the North Ridge by Wang Fuzhou, Gonpo and Qu Yinhua of China. 1975: First female ascent, by Junko Tabei (16 May). 1975: First female ascent from the North Ridge, by Phanthog, deputy head of the second Chinese Everest expedition that sent nine climbers to the summit (27 May). 1978: First ascent without supplemental oxygen by Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler 1978: First solo ascent, by Franz Oppurg 1980: First winter ascent, by Polish National Expedition Winter 1979/1980 (Leszek Cichy and Krzysztof Wielicki) 1980: Second solo ascent, and the first without supplemental oxygen, by Reinhold Messner 1981: Third solo ascent, by Peter Hackett 1988: First "cross-over" climb by Chinese, Japanese and Nepali teams which ascended the peak simultaneously from both the North and South sides of the mountain and descended down the other side. The cross-over climb was also the first to be recorded on live broadcast television. 1988: First descent by paraglider, by Jean-Marc Boivin 1988: First female ascent without supplemental oxygen by Lydia Bradey 1998: Fastest to reach the summit via the southeast ridge (South Col), without supplemental oxygen, by Kazi Sherpa, in 20 hours and 24 minutes. 2000: First descent by ski by Davo Karničar 2001: First ascent by a blind climber, Erik Weihenmayer 2001: Lhakpa Sherpa becomes first Nepali woman to summit Everest and survive. 2004: Fastest to reach the summit via the southeast ridge (South Col), with supplemental oxygen, by Pemba Dorje, in 8 hours and 10 minutes. 2006: Lhakpa Sherpa summits for the 6th time, breaking her own record for most successful female Everest climber. 2007: Fastest to reach the summit via the northeast ridge, without supplemental oxygen, by Christian Stangl, in 16 hours, 42 minutes. 2010: Youngest male to reach the summit, by Jordan Romero (13 years and 10 months old) 2011: Most times to reach the summit, Apa Sherpa (21 times; 10 May 1990 – 11 May 2011) 2013: Apa Sherpa tied for most times to reach the summit by Phurba Tashi (21 times; 1999–2013) 2013: Melissa Arnot, American, summits for the fifth time, breaking her own record for most successful summits by any non-Sherpa woman. 2014: Youngest female to reach the summit, by Malavath Purna (13 years and 11 months old) 2017: Kami Rita Sherpa of Alpine Ascents reaches 21 ascents to the summit. 2019: Kami Rita Sherpa reaches 24 ascents to the summit. 2021: Kami Rita Sherpa reaches 25 ascents to the summit. Summiting with disabilities Summiting Everest with disabilities such as amputations and diseases has become popular in the 21st century, with stories like that of Sudarshan Gautam, a man with no arms who made it to the top in 2013. A teenager with Down's syndrome made it to Base camp, which has become a substitute for more extreme record-breaking because it carries many of the same thrills including the trip to the Himalayas and rustic scenery. Danger lurks even at base camp though, which was the site where dozens were killed in the 2015 Mount Everest avalanches. Others that have climbed Everest with amputations include Mark Inglis (no legs), Paul Hockey (one arm only), and Arunima Sinha (one leg only). In 2001, Erik Weihenmayer became the first person to reach the summit of Mount Everest while blind. Fake ascents In 2021, Nepal banned three Indians for faking an ascent of Mount Everest in 2016. In 2017, two Indian police officers, supposedly the first couple to ascend Mount Everest, were sacked once it was found they had faked their ascent. Aviation 1933: Flight over Everest Lucy, Lady Houston, a British millionaire former showgirl, funded the Houston Everest Flight of 1933. A formation of airplanes led by the Marquess of Clydesdale flew over the summit in an effort to photograph the unknown terrain. 1988: First climb and glide On 26 September 1988, having climbed the mountain via the south-east ridge, Jean-Marc Boivin made the first paraglider descent of Everest, in the process creating the record for the fastest descent of the mountain and the highest paraglider flight. Boivin said: "I was tired when I reached the top because I had broken much of the trail, and to run at this altitude was quite hard." Boivin ran from below the summit on 40-degree slopes to launch his paraglider, reaching Camp II at in 12 minutes (some sources say 11 minutes). Boivin would not repeat this feat, as he was killed two years later in 1990, BASE-jumping off Venezuela's Angel Falls. 1991: Hot air balloon flyover In 1991 four men in two balloons achieved the first hot-air balloon flight over Mount Everest. In one balloon was Andy Elson and Eric Jones (cameraman), and in the other balloon Chris Dewhirst and Leo Dickinson (cameraman). Dickinson went on to write a book about the adventure called Ballooning Over Everest. The hot-air balloons were modified to function at up to altitude. Reinhold Messner called one of Dickinson's panoramic views of Everest, captured on the now discontinued Kodak Kodachrome film, the "best snap on Earth", according to UK newspaper The Telegraph. Dewhirst has offered to take passengers on a repeat of this feat for US$2.6 million per passenger. 2005: Pilot summits with helicopter In May 2005, pilot Didier Delsalle of France landed a Eurocopter AS350 B3 helicopter on the summit of Mount Everest. He needed to land for two minutes to set the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) official record, but he stayed for about four minutes, twice. In this type of landing the rotors stay engaged, which avoids relying on the snow to fully support the aircraft. The flight set rotorcraft world records, for highest of both landing and take-off. Some press reports suggested that the report of the summit landing was a misunderstanding of a South Col landing, but he had also landed on South Col two days earlier, with this landing and the Everest records confirmed by the FAI. Delsalle also rescued two Japanese climbers at while he was there. One climber noted that the new record meant a better chance of rescue. 2011: Paraglide off summit On 21 May 2011, Nepalis Lakpa Tsheri Sherpa and Sano Bapu Sunuwar paraglided from Everest's summit to Namche Bazaar in 42 minutes. After the flight they hiked, biked, and kayaked to the Indian Ocean, reaching the Bay of Bengal by 27 June 2011, thereby becoming the first persons to complete a continuous summit-to-sea descent from Everest. They accomplished the ground-breaking feat despite Bapu having never previously climbed, and Lakpa having never kayaked and not even knowing how to swim. The duo subsequently won National Geographic Adventurers of the Year for 2012 for their exploits. In 2013 footage of the flight was shown on the television news program Nightline. 2014: Helicopter-assisted ascent In 2014, a team financed and led by mountaineer Wang Jing used a helicopter to fly from South base camp to Camp 2 to avoid the Khumbu Icefall, and thence climbed to the Everest summit. This climb immediately sparked outrage and controversy in much of the mountaineering world over the legitimacy and propriety of her climb. Nepal ended up investigating Wang, who initially denied the claim that she had flown to Camp 2, admitting only that some support crew were flown to that higher camp, over the Khumbu Icefall. In August 2014, however, she stated that she had flown to Camp 2 because the icefall was impassable. "If you don't fly to Camp II, you just go home," she said in an interview. In that same interview, she also insisted that she had never tried to hide this fact. Her team had had to use the south side because the Chinese had denied them a permit to climb. Ultimately, the Chinese refusal may have been beneficial to Nepal's interests, allowing the government to showcase improved local hospitals and provided the opportunity for a new hybrid aviation/mountaineering style, triggering discussions about helicopter use in the mountaineering world. National Geographic noted that a village festooned Wang with honours after she donated US$30,000 to the town's hospital. Wang won the International Mountaineer of the Year Award from the Nepal government in June 2014. 2016: Helicopter business increases In 2016 the increased use of helicopters was noted for increased efficiency and for hauling material over the deadly Khumbu icefall. In particular it was noted that flights saved icefall porters 80 trips but still increased commercial activity at Everest. After many Nepalis died in the icefall in 2014, the government had wanted helicopters to handle more transportation to Camp 1 but this was not possible because of the 2015 deaths and earthquake closing the mountain, so this was then implemented in 2016 (helicopters did prove instrumental in rescuing many people in 2015 though). That summer Bell tested the 412EPI, which conducted a series of tests including hovering at and flying as high as altitude near Mount Everest. Commercial climbing According to Jon Krakauer, the era of commercialisation of Everest started in 1985, when the summit was reached by a guided expedition led by David Breashears that included Richard Bass, a wealthy 55-year-old businessman and an amateur mountain climber with only four years of climbing experience. By the early-1990s, several companies were offering guided tours to the mountain. Rob Hall, one of the mountaineers who died in the 1996 disaster, had successfully guided 39 clients to the summit before that incident. By 2016, most guiding services cost between US$35,000 and US$200,000. Going with a "celebrity guide", usually a well-known mountaineer typically with decades of climbing experience and perhaps several Everest summits, can cost over £100,000 as of 2015. However, the services offered vary widely and it is "buyer beware" when doing deals in Nepal, one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. Tourism contributed 7.9% of the GDP in 2019 in a country with high unemployment, but Everest is special in that an Everest porter can make nearly double the nation's average wage in a region in which other sources of income are lacking. Costs beyond the guiding service can vary widely. It is technically possible to reach the summit with minimal additional expenses, and there are "budget" travel agencies that offer logistical support for such trips. A limited support service, offering only some meals at base camp and bureaucratic overhead like a permit, can cost as little as US$7,000 as of 2007. However, this is considered difficult and dangerous (as illustrated by the case of David Sharp). Climbing gear required to reach the summit may cost in excess of US$8,000, and most climbers also use bottled oxygen, which adds around US$3,000. The permit to enter the Everest area from the south via Nepal costs US$10,000 to US$30,000 per person, depending on the size of the team. The ascent typically starts at one of the two base camps near the mountain, both of which are approximately from Kathmandu and from Lhasa (the two nearest cities with major airports). Transferring one's equipment from the airport to the base camp may add as much as US$2,000. Many climbers hire "full service" guide companies, which provide a wide spectrum of services, including the acquisition of permits, transportation to/from base camp, food, tents, fixed ropes, medical assistance while on the mountain, an experienced mountaineer guide, and even personal porters to carry one's backpack and cook one's meals. The cost of such a guide service may range from US$40,000 to $80,000 per person. Since most equipment is moved by Sherpas, clients of full-service guide companies can often keep their backpack weights under , or hire a Sherpa to carry their backpack for them. By contrast, climbers attempting less commercialised peaks, like Denali, are often expected to carry backpacks over and, occasionally, to tow a sled with of gear and food. The degree of commercialisation of Mount Everest is a frequent subject of criticism. Jamling Tenzing Norgay, the son of Tenzing Norgay, said in a 2003 interview that his late father would have been shocked to discover that rich thrill-seekers with no climbing experience were now routinely reaching the summit, "You still have to climb this mountain yourself with your feet. But the spirit of adventure is not there any more. It is lost. There are people going up there who have no idea how to put on crampons. They are climbing because they have paid someone $65,000. It is very selfish. It endangers the lives of others." One example of this is Shriya Shah-Klorfine, who had to be taught how to put on crampons during her summit attempt in 2012. She paid at least US$40,000 to a new guiding company for the trip, and lost her life when she ran out of oxygen during the descent after climbing for 27 hours straight. Reinhold Messner concurred in 2004, "You could die in each climb and that meant you were responsible for yourself. We were real mountaineers: careful, aware and even afraid. By climbing mountains we were not learning how big we were. We were finding out how breakable, how weak and how full of fear we are. You can only get this if you expose yourself to high danger. I have always said that a mountain without danger is not a mountain....High altitude alpinism has become tourism and show. These commercial trips to Everest, they are still dangerous. But the guides and organisers tell clients, 'Don't worry, it's all organised.' The route is prepared by hundreds of Sherpas. Extra oxygen is available in all camps, right up to the summit. People will cook for you and lay out your beds. Clients feel safe and don't care about the risks." By 2015, Nepal was considering to require that climbers have some experience and wanted to make the mountain safer, and especially increase revenue. One barrier to this is that low-budget firms make money not taking inexperienced climbers to the summit. Those turned away by Western firms can often find another firm willing to take them for a price — that they return home soon after arriving after base camp, or part way up the mountain. Whereas a Western firm will convince those they deem incapable to turn back, other firms simply give people the freedom to choose. However, not all opinions on the subject among prominent mountaineers have been strictly negative. For example, Edmund Hillary stated in 2003 that while "Having people pay $65,000 and then be led up the mountain by a couple of experienced guides...isn't really mountaineering at all", he was pleased by the changes brought to Everest area by Westerners, "I don't have any regrets because I worked very hard indeed to improve the condition for the local people. When we first went in there they didn't have any schools, they didn't have any medical facilities, all over the years we have established 27 schools, we have two hospitals and a dozen medical clinics and then we've built bridges over wild mountain rivers and put in fresh water pipelines so in cooperation with the Sherpas we've done a lot to benefit them." One of the early guided summiters, Richard Bass (of Seven Summits fame) stated in 2003 that "Climbers should have high altitude experience before they attempt the really big mountains. People don't realise the difference between a mountain and . It's not just arithmetic. The reduction of oxygen in the air is proportionate to the altitude alright, but the effect on the human body is disproportionate—an exponential curve. People climb Denali [] or Aconcagua [] and think, 'Heck, I feel great up here, I'm going to try Everest.' But it's not like that." Law and order The Tibetan/Chinese side has been described as "out of control" due to reports of thefts and threats. Some climbers have reported life-threatening thefts from supply caches. Vitor Negrete, the first Brazilian to climb Everest without oxygen and part of David Sharp's party, died during his descent, and theft of gear and food from his high-altitude camp may have contributed. "Several members were bullied, gear was stolen, and threats were made against me and my climbing partner, Michael Kodas, making an already stressful situation even more dire", said one climber. In addition to theft, Michael Kodas describes in his book, High Crimes: The Fate of Everest in an Age of Greed (2008): unethical guides and Sherpas, prostitution and gambling at the Tibet Base Camp, fraud related to the sale of oxygen bottles, and climbers collecting donations under the pretense of removing trash from the mountain. The Chinese side of Everest in Tibet was described as "out of control" after one Canadian had all his gear stolen and was abandoned by his Sherpa. Another Sherpa helped the victim get off the mountain safely and gave him some spare gear. Other climbers have also reported missing oxygen bottles, which can be worth hundreds of dollars each. Hundreds of climbers pass by people's tents, making it hard to safeguard against theft. In the late 2010s, the reports of theft of oxygen bottles from camps became more common. 2014 Sherpa strike On 18 April 2014, in one of the worst disasters to ever hit the Everest climbing community up to that time, 16 Sherpas died in Nepal due to the avalanche that swept them off Mount Everest. In response to the tragedy, numerous Sherpa climbing guides walked off the job and most climbing companies pulled out in respect for the Sherpa people mourning the loss. Some still wanted to climb but there was too much controversy to continue that year. One of the issues that triggered the work action by Sherpas was unreasonable client demands during climbs. Extreme sports at Mount Everest Mount Everest has been host to other winter sports and adventuring besides mountaineering, including snowboarding, skiing, paragliding, and BASE jumping. Yuichiro Miura became the first man to ski down Everest in the 1970s. He descended nearly from the South Col before falling with extreme injuries. Stefan Gatt and Marco Siffredi snowboarded Mount Everest in 2001. Other Everest skiers include Davo Karničar of Slovenia, who completed a top to south base camp descent in 2000, Hans Kammerlander of Italy in 1996 on the north side, and Kit DesLauriers of the United States in 2006. In 2006 Swede Tomas Olsson and Norwegian Tormod Granheim skied together down the north face. Olsson's anchor broke while they were rappelling down a cliff in the Norton couloir at about 8,500 metres, resulting in his death from a two and a half-kilometre fall. Granheim skied down to camp III. Also, Marco Siffredi died in 2002 on his second snow-boarding expedition. Various types of gliding descents have slowly become more popular, and are noted for their rapid descents to lower camps. In 1986 Steve McKinney led an expedition to Mount Everest, during which he became the first person to fly a hang-glider off the mountain. Frenchman Jean-Marc Boivin made the first paraglider descent of Everest in September 1988, descending in minutes from the south-east ridge to a lower camp. In 2011, two Nepalis made a gliding descent from the Everest summit down in 45 minutes. On 5 May 2013, the beverage company Red Bull sponsored Valery Rozov, who successfully BASE jumped off of the mountain while wearing a wingsuit, setting a record for world's highest BASE jump in the process. Everest and religion The southern part of Mount Everest is regarded as one of several "hidden valleys" of refuge designated by Padmasambhava, a ninth-century "lotus-born" Buddhist saint. Near the base of the north side of Everest lies Rongbuk Monastery, which has been called the "sacred threshold to Mount Everest, with the most dramatic views of the world." For Sherpas living on the slopes of Everest in the Khumbu region of Nepal, Rongbuk Monastery is an important pilgrimage site, accessed in a few days of travel across the Himalayas through Nangpa La. Miyolangsangma, a Tibetan Buddhist "Goddess of Inexhaustible Giving", is believed to have lived at the top of Mount Everest. According to Sherpa Buddhist monks, Mount Everest is Miyolangsangma's palace and playground, and all climbers are only partially welcome guests, having arrived without invitation. The Sherpa people also believe that Mount Everest and its flanks are blessed with spiritual energy, and one should show reverence when passing through this sacred landscape. Here, the karmic effects of one's actions are magnified, and impure thoughts are best avoided. Waste management In 2015, the president of the Nepal Mountaineering Association warned that pollution, especially human waste, has reached critical levels. As much as of human excrement each season is left behind on the mountain. Human waste is strewn across the verges of the route to the summit, making the four sleeping areas on the route up Everest's south side minefields of human excrement. Climbers above Base Camp—for the 62-year history of climbing on the mountain—have most commonly either buried their excrement in holes they dug by hand in the snow, or slung it into crevasses, or simply defecated wherever convenient, often within metres of their tents. The only place where climbers can defecate without worrying about contaminating the mountain is Base Camp. At approximately , Base Camp sees the most activity of all camps on Everest because climbers acclimate and rest there. In the late-1990s, expeditions began using toilets that they fashioned from blue plastic barrels fitted with a toilet seat and enclosed. The problem of human waste is compounded by the presence of more anodyne waste: spent oxygen tanks, abandoned tents, empty cans and bottles. The Nepali government now requires each climber to pack out eight kilograms of waste when descending the mountain. In February 2019, due to the mounting waste problem, China closed the base camp on its side of Everest to visitors without climbing permits. Tourists are allowed to go as far as the Rongbuk Monastery. In April 2019, the Solukhumbu district's Khumbu Pasanglhamu Rural Municipality launched a campaign to collect nearly 10,000 kg of garbage from Everest. Climate Mount Everest has a polar climate (Köppen EF) with all months averaging well below freezing. Names Peak XV (British Empire's Survey) Romanised Tibetan name: "Chomolongma" Romanised Chinese name: "Mount Qomolangma" Romanised Nepali name: "Sagar-Matha" (usually Sagarmatha) Old Darjeeling name: "Deodungha" Mount Everest "Gauri Shankar" or "Gaurisankar"; in modern times the name is used for a different peak about 30 miles away, but was used occasionally until about 1900 Context and maps Nearby peaks include Lhotse, ; Nuptse, , and Changtse, among others. Another nearby peak is Khumbutse, and many of the highest mountains in the world are near Mount Everest. On the southwest side, a major feature in the lower areas is the Khumbu icefall and glacier, an obstacle to climbers on those routes but also to the base camps. See also Chinese plan for a rail tunnel under Mount Everest Everesting List of elevation extremes by country List of Mount Everest summiters by number of times to the summit List of ski descents of Eight-Thousanders List of tallest mountains in the Solar System Mount Everest in popular culture Mukhiyapatti Musharniya, the lowest point of Nepal Qomolangma National Park Sagarmatha National Park Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions Notes References Further reading External links Mount Everest on Himalaya-Info.org (German) 360 panorama view from top of Mount Everest – large dimension drawing National Geographic site on Mount Everest NOVA site on Mount Everest Imaging Everest, a collection of photographs Panoramas: North South Interactive climb of Everest from Discovery Channel Mount Everest on Summitpost Full list of all ascents of Everest up to and including 2008 (in pdf format) Summits and deaths per year Mount Everest panorama, Mount Everest interactive panorama (QuickTime format), Virtual panoramas National Geographic, 2015 article with info-graphic on climbing routes Articles containing video clips China–Nepal border Eight-thousanders of the Himalayas Extreme points of Earth Highest points of Chinese provinces Highest points of countries International mountains of Asia Mountains of the Province No. 1 Mountains of Tibet Seven Summits Shigatse Tourist attractions in Nepal Tourist attractions in Tibet

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convoy

Convoy

A convoy is a group of vehicles, typically motor vehicles or ships, traveling together for mutual support and protection. Often, a convoy is organized with armed defensive support and can help maintain cohesion within a unit. It may also be used in a non-military sense, for example when driving through remote areas. Naval convoys Age of Sail Naval convoys have been in use for centuries, with examples of merchant ships traveling under naval protection dating to the 12th century. The use of organized naval convoys dates from when ships began to be separated into specialist classes and national navies were established. By the French Revolutionary Wars of the late 18th century, effective naval convoy tactics had been developed to ward off pirates and privateers. Some convoys contained several hundred merchant ships. The most enduring system of convoys were the Spanish treasure fleets, that sailed from the 1520s until 1790. When merchant ships sailed independently, a privateer could cruise a shipping lane and capture ships as they passed. Ships sailing in convoy presented a much smaller target: a convoy was as hard to find as a single ship. Even if the privateer found a convoy and the wind was favourable for an attack, it could still hope to capture only a handful of ships before the rest managed to escape, and a small escort of warships could easily thwart it. As a result of the convoy system's effectiveness, wartime insurance premiums were consistently lower for ships that sailed in convoys. Many naval battles in the Age of Sail were fought around convoys, including: The Battle of Portland (1653) The Battle of Ushant (1781) The Battle of Dogger Bank (1781) The Glorious First of June (1794) The Battle of Pulo Aura (1804) By the end of the Napoleonic Wars the Royal Navy had in place a sophisticated convoy system to protect merchant ships. Losses of ships travelling out of convoy however were so high that no merchant ship was allowed to sail unescorted. World War I In the early 20th century, the dreadnought changed the balance of power in convoy battles. Steaming faster than merchant ships and firing at long ranges, a single battleship could destroy many ships in a convoy before the others could scatter over the horizon. To protect a convoy against a capital ship required providing it with an escort of another capital ship, at very high opportunity cost (i.e. potentially tying down multiple capital ships to defend different convoys against one opponent ship). Battleships were the main reason that the British Admiralty did not adopt convoy tactics at the start of the first Battle of the Atlantic in World War I. But the German capital ships had been bottled up in the North Sea, and the main threat to shipping came from U-boats. From a tactical point of view, World War I–era submarines were similar to privateers in the age of sail. These submarines were only a little faster than the merchant ships they were attacking, and capable of sinking only a small number of vessels in a convoy because of their limited supply of torpedoes and shells. The Admiralty took a long time to respond to this change in the tactical position, and in April 1917 convoys were trialled, before being officially introduced in the Atlantic in September 1917. Other arguments against convoys were raised. The primary issue was the loss of productivity, as merchant shipping in convoy has to travel at the speed of the slowest vessel in the convoy and spent a considerable amount of time in ports waiting for the next convoy to depart. Further, large convoys were thought to overload port resources. Actual analysis of shipping losses in World War I disproved all these arguments, at least so far as they applied to transatlantic and other long-distance traffic. Ships sailing in convoys were far less likely to be sunk, even when not provided with an escort. The loss of productivity due to convoy delays was small compared with the loss of productivity due to ships being sunk. Ports could deal more easily with convoys because they tended to arrive on schedule and so loading and unloading could be planned. In his book On the Psychology of Military Incompetence, Norman Dixon suggested that the hostility towards convoys in the naval establishment were in part caused by a (sub-conscious) perception of convoys as effeminating, due to warships having to care for civilian merchant ships. Convoy duty also exposes the escorting warships to the sometimes hazardous conditions of the North Atlantic, with only rare occurrences of visible achievement (i.e. fending off a submarine assault). World War II Atlantic The British adopted a convoy system, initially voluntary and later compulsory for almost all merchant ships, the moment that World War II was declared. Each convoy consisted of between 30 and 70 mostly unarmed merchant ships. Canadian, and later American, supplies were vital for Britain to continue its war effort. The course of the Battle of the Atlantic was a long struggle as the Germans developed anti-convoy tactics and the British developed counter-tactics to thwart the Germans. The capability of a heavily armed warship against a convoy was dramatically illustrated by the fate of Convoy HX 84. On November 5, 1940, the German heavy cruiser encountered the convoy. Maiden, Trewellard, and Kenbame Head were quickly destroyed, and Beaverford and Fresno City falling afterwards. Only the sacrifices of the armed merchant cruiser and the freighter Beaverford to stall the Scheer, in addition to failing light, allowed the rest of the convoy to escape. The deterrence value of a battleship in protecting a convoy was also dramatically illustrated when the German light battleships (referred by some as battlecruisers) and , mounting guns, came upon an eastbound British convoy (HX 106, with 41 ships) in the North Atlantic on February 8, 1941. When the Germans detected the slow but well-protected battleship escorting the convoy, they fled the scene rather than risk damage from her guns. The enormous number of vessels involved and the frequency of engagements meant that statistical techniques could be applied to evaluate tactics: an early use of operational research in war. Prior to overt participation in World War II, the US was actively engaged in convoys with the British in the North Atlantic Ocean, primarily supporting British activities in Iceland. After Germany declared war on the US, the US Navy decided not to organize convoys on the American eastern seaboard. US Fleet Admiral Ernest King ignored advice on this subject from the British, as he had formed a poor opinion of the Royal Navy early in his career. The result was what the U-boat crews called their Second Happy Time, which did not end until convoys were introduced. Pacific In the Pacific Theater of World War II, Japanese merchant ships rarely traveled in convoys. Japanese destroyers were generally deficient in antisubmarine weaponry compared to their Allied counterparts, and the Japanese navy did not develop an inexpensive convoy escort like the Allies' destroyer escort/frigate until it was too late. In the early part of the conflict, American submarines in the Pacific were ineffective as they suffered from timid tactics, faulty torpedoes, and poor deployment, while there were only small numbers of British and Dutch boats. U.S. Admiral Charles A. Lockwood's efforts, coupled with strenuous complaints from his captains, rectified these problems and U.S. submarines became much more successful by war's end. As a result, the Japanese merchant fleet was largely destroyed by the end of the war. Japanese submarines, unlike their U.S. and German equivalents, focused on U.S. battle fleets rather than merchant convoys, and while they did manage some early successes, sinking two U.S. carriers, they failed to significantly inhibit the invasion convoys carrying troops and equipment in support of the U.S. island-hopping campaign. Several notable battles in the South Pacific involved Allied bombers interdicting Japanese troopship convoys which were often defended by Japanese fighters, notable Guadalcanal (13 November 1942), Rabaul (5 January 1943), and the Battle of the Bismarck Sea (2–4 March 1943). At the Battle off Samar, the effectiveness of the U.S. Navy's escorts was demonstrated when they managed to defend their troop convoy from a much larger and more powerful Japanese battle-fleet. The Japanese force comprised four battleships and numerous heavy cruisers, while the U.S. force consisted of escort carriers, destroyers, and destroyer escorts. Large numbers of American aircraft (albeit without much anti-ship ordnance other than torpedoes) and aggressive tactics of the destroyers (with their radar-directed gunfire) allowed the U.S. to sink three Japanese heavy cruisers at the cost of one escort carrier and three destroyers. Tactics The German anti-convoy tactics included: long-range surveillance aircraft to find convoys; strings of U-boats (wolfpacks) that could be directed onto a convoy by radio; breaking the British naval codes; improved anti-ship weapons, including magnetic detonators and sonic homing torpedoes. The Allied responses included: air raids on the U-boat bases at Brest and La Rochelle; converted merchant ships, e.g., Merchant aircraft carriers, Catapult Aircraft Merchantman and armed merchant cruisers Q-ships, submarine-hunters disguised as unarmed merchant ships to lure submarines into an attack more convoy escorts, including cheaply produced yet effective destroyer escorts/frigates (as corvettes were meant as a stopgap), and escort carriers; fighter aircraft (carried by escort carriers and merchant aircraft carriers) that would drive off German bombers and attack U-boats long-range aircraft patrols to find and attack U-boats; improved anti-submarine weapons such as the hedgehog; larger convoys, allowing more escorts per convoy as well as the extraction of enough escorts to form hunter-killer support groups that were not attached to a particular convoy allocating vessels to convoys according to speed, so that faster ships were less exposed. They were also aided by improved sonar (ASDIC) allowing escort vessels to better track U-boats; breaking the German naval cipher; improved radar and radio direction finding allowing planes to find and destroy U-boats; Convoy battles Many naval battles of World War II were fought around convoys, including: Convoy PQ 16, May 1942 Convoy PQ 17, June–July 1942 Convoy PQ 18, September 1942 Operation Pedestal, August 1942 The Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, November 1942 The Battle of the Barents Sea, December 1942 The Battle of the Bismarck Sea, March 1943 The convoy prefix indicates the route of the convoy. For example, 'PQ' would be Iceland to Northern Russia and 'QP' the return route. Analysis The success of convoys as an anti-submarine tactic during the world wars can be ascribed to several reasons related to U-boat capabilities, the size of the ocean and convoy escorts. In practice, Type VII and Type IX U-boats were limited in their capabilities. Submerged speed and endurance was limited and not suited for overhauling many ships. Even a surfaced U-boat could take several hours to gain an attack position. Torpedo capacity was also restricted to around fourteen (Type VII) or 24 (Type IX), thus limiting the number of attacks that could be made, particularly when multiple firings were necessary for a single target. There was a real problem for the U-boats and their adversaries in finding each other; with a tiny proportion of the ocean in sight, without intelligence or radar, warships and even aircraft would be fortunate in coming across a submarine. The Royal Navy and later the United States Navy each took time to learn this lesson. Conversely, a U-boat's radius of vision was even smaller and had to be supplemented by regular long-range reconnaissance flights. For both major allied navies, it had been difficult to grasp that, however large a convoy, its "footprint" (the area within which it could be spotted) was far smaller than if the individual ships had traveled independently. In other words, a submarine had less chance of finding a single convoy than if it were scattered as single ships. Moreover, once an attack had been made, the submarine would need to regain an attack position on the convoy. If, however, an attack were thwarted by escorts, even if the submarine had escaped damage, it would have to remain submerged for its own safety and might only recover its position after many hours' hard work. U-boats patrolling areas with constant and predictable flows of sea traffic, such as the United States Atlantic coast in early 1942, could dismiss a missed opportunity in the certain knowledge that another would soon present itself. The destruction of submarines required their discovery, an improbable occurrence on aggressive patrols, by chance alone. Convoys, however, presented irresistible targets and could not be ignored. For this reason, the U-boats presented themselves as targets to the escorts with increasing possibility of destruction. In this way, the Ubootwaffe suffered severe losses, for little gain, when pressing pack attacks on well-defended convoys. Post-World War II The largest convoy effort since World War II was Operation Earnest Will, the U.S. Navy's 1987–88 escort of reflagged Kuwaiti tankers in the Persian Gulf during the Iran–Iraq War. In the present day, convoys are used as a tactic by navies to deter pirates off the coast of Somalia from capturing unarmed civilian freighters who would otherwise pose easy targets if they sailed alone. Road convoys Humanitarian aid convoys The word "convoy" is also associated with groups of road vehicles being driven, mostly by volunteers, to deliver humanitarian aid, supplies, and—a stated objective in some cases—"solidarity". In the 1990s these convoys became common traveling from Western Europe to countries of the former Yugoslavia, in particular Bosnia and Kosovo, to deal with the aftermath of the wars there. They also travel to countries where standards of care in institutions such as orphanages are considered low by Western European standards, such as Romania; and where other disasters have led to problems, such as around the Chernobyl disaster in Belarus and Ukraine. The convoys are made possible partly by the relatively small geographic distances between the stable and affluent countries of Western Europe, and the areas of need in Eastern Europe and, in a few cases, North Africa and even Iraq. They are often justified because although less directly cost-effective than mass freight transport, they emphasise the support of large numbers of small groups, and are quite distinct from multinational organisations such as United Nations humanitarian efforts. Truckers' convoys Truckers' convoys consisting of semi-trailer trucks and/or petrol tankers are more similar to a caravan than a military convoy. Truckers' convoys were created as a byproduct of the USA's national 55 mph speed limit and 18-wheelers becoming the prime targets of speed traps. Most truckers had difficult schedules to keep and as a result had to maintain a speed above the posted speed limit to reach their destinations on time. Convoys were started so that multiple trucks could run together at a high speed with the rationale being that if they passed a speed trap the police would only be able to pull over one of the trucks in the convoy. When driving on a highway, convoys are also useful to conserve fuel by drafting. The film Convoy, inspired by a 1975 song of the same name, explores the camaraderie between truck drivers, where the culture of the CB radio encourages truck drivers to travel in convoys. Special convoy rights The Highway Code of several European countries (Norway, Italy, Greece, Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, possibly more) includes special rights for marked convoys. They have to be treated like a single vehicle. If the first vehicle has passed an intersection, all others may do so without interruption. If other road users overtake the convoy, they aren't allowed to split into the queue. Clear and uniform marking has been required in court decisions for these rights to apply. Operating such convoy usually needs special permission, but there are exemptions for emergency and catastrophe intervention. Common practice is, to operate with the same style of marking as NATO convoys: STANAG 2154 marking plus country-specific augmentation listed in Annex B to the STANAG. During the Cold War with its high number of military exercises, the military was the main user of convoy rights. Today, catastrophes like large-scale flooding might bring a high number of flagged convoys to the roads. Large-scale evacuations for the disarming of World War II bombs are another common reason for non-governmental organization (NGO) unit movements under convoy rights. Storm convoys In Norway, "convoy driving" () is used during winter in case weather is too bad for vehicles to pass on their own. Convoy driving is initiated when the strong wind quickly fills the road with snow behind snowplows, particularly on mountain passes. Only a limited number of vehicles are allowed for each convoy and convoy leader is obliged to decline vehicles not fit for the drive. Storm convoys are prone to multiple-vehicle collision. Convoy driving is used through Hardangervidda pass on road 7 during blizzards. Convoy is sometimes used on road E134 at the highest and most exposed sections during bad weather. On European route E6 through Saltfjellet pass convoy driving is often used when wind speed is over 15–20 m/s (fresh or strong gale) in winter conditions. During the winter of 1990 there was convoy driving for almost 500 hours at Saltfjellet See also Camel train Motorcade Road train Shoaling and schooling Wagon train References Further reading Allard, Dean C. "Anglo-American Naval Differences During World War I." Military Affairs: The Journal of Military History, Including Theory and Technology (1980): 75–81. in JSTOR Crowhurst, R. Patrick. "The Admiralty and the Convoy System in the Seven Years War." The Mariner's Mirror (1971) 57#2 pp: 163–173. Gasslander, Olle. "The convoy affair of 1798." Scandinavian Economic History Review 2.1 (1954): 22–30. abstract Herwig, Holger H., and David F. David. "The Failure of Imperial Germany's Undersea Offensive Against World Shipping, February 1917–October 1918." Historian (1971) 33#4 pp: 611–636. online Lewis, James Allen. The Spanish convoy of 1750: heaven's hammer and international diplomacy (Univ Press of Florida, 2009) Syrett, David. "The Organization Of British Trade Convoys during the American War, 1775–1783." The Mariner's Mirror (1976) 62#2 pp: 169–181. abstract Thompson, F. J. "The Merchant Ship in Convoy." The RUSI Journal 79.513 (1934): 69–86. Primary sources Connor, Guy, and Jeffrey L. Patrick. "On Convoy Duty in World War I: The Diary of Hoosier Guy Connor." Indiana Magazine of History (1993). online World War II Edwards, Bernard. The road to Russia: Arctic convoys 1942 (Leo Cooper Books, 2002) Forczyk, Robert. Fw 200 Condor Vs Atlantic Convoy, 1941-1943 (Osprey Publishing, 2010) Hague, Arnold. The allied convoy system, 1939-1945: its Organization, Defence and Operation (Naval Institute Press, 2000) Kaplan, Philip, and Jack Currie. Convoy: merchant sailors at war, 1939-1945 (Aurum Press, 1998) Middlebrook, Martin. Convoy: the Battle for Convoys SC. 122 and HX. 229 (Allen Lane, 1976) Milner, Marc. "Convoy Escorts: Tactics, Technology and Innovation in the Royal Canadian Navy, 1939-1943." Military Affairs: The Journal of Military History, Including Theory and Technology (1984): 19–25. O'Hara, Vincent P. In Passage Perilous: Malta and the Convoy Battles of June 1942 (Indiana University Press, 2012) Smith, Peter Charles. Arctic Victory: The Story of Convoy PQ 18 (Kimber, 1975) Winton, John. Convoy, The Defense of Sea Trade 1890–1990, 1983. Official history Commander in Chief, United States Fleet, "Convoy and Routing." Washington, 1945. 147 pp., online External links Lists of convoy prefixes for both World Wars Convoy web – a comprehensive analysis of certain naval convoy routes Aid Convoy – a humanitarian aid charity running convoys Naval warfare Water transport Road transport Vehicle operation

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massage

Massage

Massage is the manipulation of the body's soft tissues. Massage techniques are commonly applied with hands, fingers, elbows, knees, forearms, feet, or a device. The purpose of massage is generally for the treatment of body stress or pain. A person professionally trained to give massages is traditionally known as a masseur (male) or a masseuse (female) in European countries. In the United States, these individuals are often referred to as massage therapists because they must be certified and licensed as "Licensed Massage Therapists". In professional settings, clients are treated while lying on a massage table, sitting in a massage chair, or lying on a mat on the floor. There are many different modalities in the massage industry including but not limited to: Swedish, deep tissue, structural integration, trigger point, manual lymphatic drainage, sports massage, Thai massage, and medical-massage. Etymology The word comes from the French massage "friction of kneading," which, in turn, comes from the Arabic word مَسَّ massa meaning "to touch, feel". Others claim an origin from the Portuguese amassar "knead," from the Latin massa meaning "mass, dough," from the Greek verb μάσσω (massō) "to handle, touch, to work with the hands, to knead dough". In distinction the ancient Greek word for massage was anatripsis, and the Latin was frictio. History Ancient times Archaeological evidence of massage has been found in many ancient civilizations including China, India, Japan, Korea, Egypt, Rome, Greece, and Mesopotamia. BC 2330: The Tomb of Akmanthor (also known as "The Tomb of the Physician") in Saqqara, Egypt, depicts two men having work done on their feet and hands, possibly massage. BC 2000: The word muššu'u ("massage") is written for the first time, and its use is described, in some Sumerian and Akkadian texts found at the beginning of the 21st century in ancient Mesopotamia. BC 722–481: Huangdi Neijing is composed during the Chinese Spring and Autumn period. The Nei-jing is a compilation of medical knowledge known up to that date, and is the foundation of traditional Chinese medicine. Massage is referred to in 30 different chapters of the Nei Jing. It specifies the use of different massage techniques and how they should be used in the treatment of specific ailments, and injuries. Also known as "The Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon," the text refers to previous medical knowledge from the time of the Yellow Emperor (approx 2700 BC), misleading some into believing the text itself was written during the time of the Yellow Emperor (which would predate written history). BC 762: "In the Iliad and the Odyssey the massage with oils and aromatic substances is mentioned as a means to relax the tired limbs of warriors and a way to help the treatment of wounds." BC 700: Bian Que, the earliest known Chinese physician uses massage in medical practice. BC 500: Jīvaka Komarabhācca was an Indian physician who according to the Pāli Buddhist Canon was Shakyamuni Buddha's physician. Jivaka is sometimes credited with founding and developing a style of massage that led to the type of massage practiced in current-day Thailand. Though this claim is disputed. BC 493: A possible biblical reference documents daily "treatments" with oil of myrrh as a part of the beauty regimen of the wives of Xerxes (Esther, 2:12). BC 460: Hippocrates wrote "The physician must be experienced in many things, but assuredly in rubbing." BC 300: Charaka Samhita, sometimes dated to 800 BCE, is one of the oldest of the three ancient treatises of Ayurvedic medicine, including massage. Sanskrit records indicate that massage had been practiced in India long before the beginning of recorded history. AD 581: Sun Si Miao introduces ten new massage techniques and systematizes the treatment of childhood diseases using massage therapy. AD 581: China establishes a department of massage therapy within the Office of Imperial Physicians. Middle Ages Medical knowledge, including that of massage, made its way from Rome to Persia in the Middle Ages. Many of Galen's manuscripts, for instance, were collected and translated by Hunayn ibn Ishaq in the 9th century. Later in the 11th-century copies were translated back into Latin , and again in the 15th and 16th centuries, when they helped enlighten European scholars as to the achievements of the Ancient Greeks. This renewal of the Galenic tradition during the Renaissance played a very important part in the rise of modern science. One of the greatest Persian medics was Avicenna, also known as Ibn Sina, who lived from 980 AD to 1037 AD. His works included a comprehensive collection and systematization of the fragmentary and unorganized Greco-Roman medical literature that had been translated Arabic by that time, augmented by notes from his own experiences. One of his books, Al-Qānūn fī aṭ-Ṭibb (The Canon of Medicine) has been called the most famous single book in the history of medicine in both East and West. Avicenna excelled in the logical assessment of conditions and comparison of symptoms and took special note of analgesics and their proper use as well as other methods of relieving pain, including massage. AD 1150: Evidence of massage abortion, involving the application of pressure to the pregnant abdomen, can be found in one of the bas reliefs decorating the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia. It depicts a demon performing such an abortion upon a woman who has been sent to the underworld. This is the oldest known visual representation of abortion. 18th and 19th centuries AD 1776: Jean Joseph Marie Amiot and Pierre-Martial Cibot, French missionaries in China translate summaries of Huangdi Neijing, including a list of medical plants, exercises, and elaborate massage techniques, into the French language, thereby introducing Europe to the highly developed Chinese system of medicine, medical-gymnastics, and medical-massage. AD 1776 Pehr Henrik Ling, a Swedish physical therapist, and teacher of medical-gymnastics is born. Ling has often been erroneously credited for having invented "Classic Massage", also known as "Swedish Massage", and has been called the "Father of Massage". AD 1779: Frenchman Pierre-Martial Cibot publishes "Notice du Cong-fou des Bonzes Tao-see", also known as "The Cong-Fou of the Tao-Tse", a French language summary of medical techniques used by Taoist priests. According to Joseph Needhan, Cibot's work "was intended to present the physicists and physicians of Europe with a sketch of a system of medical gymnastics which they might like to adopt—or if they found it at fault they might be stimulated to invent something better. This work has long been regarded as of cardinal importance in the history of physiotherapy because it almost certainly influenced the Swedish founder of the modern phase of the art, Per Hendrik Ling. Cibot had studied at least one Chinese book, but also got much from a Christian neophyte who had become expert in the subject before his conversion." AD 1813 The Royal Gymnastic Central Institute for the training of gymnastic instructors was opened in Stockholm, Sweden, with Pehr Henrik Ling appointed as principal. Ling developed what he called the "Swedish Movement Cure". Ling died in 1839, having previously named his pupils as the repositories of his teaching. Ling and his assistants left a little proper written account of their methods. AD 1878: Dutch massage practitioner Johan Georg Mezger applies French terms to name five basic massage techniques, and coins the phrase "Swedish massage system". These techniques are still known by their French names (effleurage (long, gliding strokes), petrissage (lifting and kneading the muscles), friction (firm, deep, circular rubbing movements), tapotement (brisk tapping or percussive movements), and vibration (rapidly shaking or vibrating specific muscles)). Modern times China Massage in China is an extremely popular therapy, the city of Shanghai alone playing host to over 1500 foot massage centers while there are more than 3000 in Shenzhen. It is one of the biggest service industries in China with workers in Shanghai numbering in the tens of thousands. The average rate of pay for a worker in the massage industry in China is over 10,000 yuan per month, making them a well-paid jobs in China's service sector. United States Massage started to become popular in the United States in the middle part of the 19th century and was introduced by two New York physicians, George and Charles Taylor, based on Per Henrik Ling's techniques developed in Sweden. During the 1930s and 1940s massage's influence decreased as a result of medical advancements of the time, while in the 1970s massage's influence grew once again with a notable rise among athletes. Until the 1970s, nurses used massage to reduce pain and aid sleep. The massage therapy industry is continuously increasing. In 2009, U.S. consumers spent between $4 and $6 billion on visits to massage therapists. In 2015, research estimates that massage therapy was a $12.1 billion industry. All but six States require massage therapists to be licensed, and licensure requires the applicant to receive training at an accredited school, and to pass a comprehensive exam. Those states that require licensure also typically require continuing education in massage techniques and in ethics. United Kingdom The service of massage or "physiological shampooing" was advertised in The Times from as early as 1880. Adverts claimed it as a cure for obesity amongst other chronic ailments. Sports, business and organizations Massage developed alongside athletics in both Ancient China and Ancient Greece. Taoist priests developed massage in concert with their Kung Fu gymnastic movements, while Ancient Greek Olympians used a specific type of trainer ("aleiptes") who would rub their muscles with oil. Pehr Ling's introduction to massage also came about directly as a result of his study of gymnastic movements. The 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles was the first time that massage therapy was televised as it was being performed on the athletes. And then, during the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta massage therapy was finally offered as a core medical service to the US Olympic Team. Massage has been employed by businesses and organizations such as the U.S. Department of Justice, Boeing and Reebok. Notable athletes such as Michael Jordan and LeBron James have personal massage therapists that at times even travel with them. Types and methods Acupressure Acupressure [from Latin acus "needle" (see acuity) + pressure (n.)] is a technique similar in principle to acupuncture. It is based on the concept of life energy which flows through "meridians" in the body. In treatment, physical pressure is applied to acupuncture points with the aim of clearing blockages in those meridians. Pressure may be applied by fingers, palm, elbow, toes or with various devices. Some medical studies have suggested that acupressure may be effective at helping manage nausea and vomiting, for helping lower back pain, tension headaches, stomach ache, among other things, although such studies have been found to have a high likelihood of bias. Aquatic bodywork Aquatic bodywork comprises a diverse set of massage and bodywork forms performed in water. This includes land-based forms performed in water (e.g., Aquatic Craniosacral Therapy, Aquatic Myofascial Release Therapy, etc.), as well as forms specific to warm water pools (e.g., Aquatic Integration, Dolphin Dance, Healing Dance, Jahara technique, WaterDance, Watsu). Ashiatsu In ashiatsu, the practitioner uses their feet to deliver treatment. The name comes from the Japanese, ashi for foot and atsu for pressure. This technique typically uses the heel, sesamoid, arch, and/or whole plantar surface of foot, and offers large compression, tension and shear forces with less pressure than an elbow, and is ideal for large muscles, such as in thigh, or for long-duration upper trapezius compressions. Other manual therapy techniques using the feet to provide treatment include Keralite, Barefoot Lomilomi, and Chavutti Thirumal. Ayurvedic massage Ayurvedic massage is known as Abhyangam in Sanskrit. According to the Ayurvedic Classics Abhayngam is an important dincharya (Daily Regimen) that is needed for maintaining a healthy lifestyle. The massage technique used during Ayurvedic Massage aims to stimulate the lymphatic system. Practitioners claim that the benefits of regular Ayurvedic massage include pain relief, reduction of fatigue, improved immune system, and improved longevity. Burmese massage Known in Myanmar as Yoe Yar Nhake Nal Chin, meaning "traditional massage", Burmese massage has its ancient origins from Thai, Chinese and Indian medicine. Currently, Burmese massage also includes the use of local natural ingredients such as Thanaka, which helps to promote smooth skin and prevents sunburn. Burmese massage is a full body massage technique that starts from head to toes, drawing on acupuncture, reflexology, and kneading. Signature massage strokes include acupressure using the elbows, quick gentle knocking of acupressure points, and slow kneading of tight muscles. The massage aims to improve blood circulation and quality of sleep, while at the same time help to promote better skin quality. Bio-mechanical stimulation (BMS) massage Bio-mechanical stimulation (BMS) is a term generally used for localised biomechanical oscillation methods, whereby local muscle groups are stimulated directly or via the associated tendons by means of special hand held mechanical vibration devices. Biomechanical oscillation therapy and training is offered in a variety of areas such as competitive sports, fitness, rehabilitation, medicine, prevention, beauty, and used to improve performance of the muscles and to improve coordination and balance. It is often used in myofascial trigger point therapy to invoke reciprocal inhibition within the musculoskeletal system. Beneficial effects from this type of stimulation have been found to exist; the efficacy of the BMS Matrix therapy was proven in an independent study carried out by TÜV-Süd which was commissioned by German health insurer BKK Gesundheit. Biodynamic massage Biodynamic massage was created by Gerda Boyesen as part of Biodynamic Psychotherapy. It uses a combination of hands-on work and "energy work" and also uses a stethoscope to hear the peristalsis. Craniosacral therapy Craniosacral therapy (CST) is a pseudoscience that aims to improve fluid movement and cranial bone motion by applying light touch to the skull, face, spine, and pelvis. Erotic massage A type of massage that is done in an erotic way via the use of massage techniques by a person on another person's erogenous zones to achieve or enhance their sexual excitation or arousal and to achieve orgasm. It was also once used for medical purposes as well as for the treatment of "female hysteria" and "womb disease". Nuru massage is a Japanese form of erotic massage. Lomilomi and indigenous massage of Oceania Lomilomi is the traditional massage of Hawaii. As an indigenous practice, it varies by island and by family. The word lomilomi also is used for massage in Samoa and East Futuna. In Samoa, it is also known as lolomi and milimili. In East Futuna, it is also called milimili, fakasolosolo, amoamo, lusilusi, kinikini, fai’ua. The Māori call it romiromi and mirimiri. In Tonga massage is fotofota, tolotolo, and amoamo. In Tahiti it is rumirumi. On Nanumea in Tuvalu, massage is known as popo, pressure application is kukumi, and heat application is tutu. Massage has also been documented in Tikopia in the Solomon Islands, in Rarotonga and in Pukapuka in Western Samoa. Lymphatic drainage Manual lymphatic drainage is a technique used to gently work and stimulate the lymphatic system, to assist in reduction of localized swelling. The lymphatic system is a network of slow moving vessels in the body that carries cellular waste toward the liver, to be filtered and removed. Lymph also carries lymphocytes, and other immune system agents. Manual lymphatic drainage claims to improve waste removal and immune function. Medical massage Medical massage is a controversial term in the massage profession. Many use it to describe a specific technique. Others use it to describe a general category of massage and many methods such as deep tissue massage, myofascial release and trigger-point therapy, as well as osteopathic techniques, cranial-sacral techniques and many more can be used to work with various medical conditions. Massage used in the medical field includes decongestive therapy used for lymphedema which can be used in conjunction with the treatment of breast cancer. Light massage is also used in pain management and palliative care. Carotid sinus massage is used to diagnose carotid sinus syncope and is sometimes useful for differentiating supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) from ventricular tachycardia. It, like the valsalva maneuver, is a therapy for SVT. However, it is less effective than management of SVT with medications. A 2004 systematic review found single applications of massage therapy "reduced state anxiety, blood pressure, and heart rate but not negative mood, immediate assessment of pain, and cortisol level," while "multiple applications reduced delayed assessment of pain," and found improvements in anxiety and depression similar to effects of psychotherapy. A subsequent systematic review published in 2008 found that there is little evidence supporting the use of massage therapy for depression in high quality studies from randomized controlled trials. Myofascial release Myofascial release refers to the manual massage technique that claims to release adhered fascia and muscles with the goal of eliminating pain, increasing range of motion and equilibrioception. Myofascial release usually involves applying shear compression or tension in various directions, cross fiber friction or by skin rolling. Reflexology Reflexology, also known as "zone therapy", is an alternative medicine involving application of pressure to the feet and hands with specific thumb, finger, and hand techniques without the use of oil or lotion. It is based on a pseudoscientific system of zones and reflex areas that purportedly reflect an image of the body on the feet and hands, with the premise that such work effects a physical change to the body. Shiatsu Shiatsu (指圧) (shi meaning finger and atsu meaning pressure) is a type of alternative medicine consisting of the fingers and palm pressure, stretches, and other massage techniques. There is no convincing data available to suggest that shiatsu is an effective treatment for any medical condition. Sports massage Sports massage is the use of specific massage therapy techniques in an athletic context to improve recovery time, enhance performance and reduce the risk of injury. This is accomplished using techniques that stimulate the flow of blood and lymph to and from muscles. Sports massage is often delivered before or after physical activity depending on the subject's needs, preferences and goals. Structural Integration Structural Integration's aim is to unwind the strain patterns in the body's myofascial system, restoring it to its natural balance, alignment, length, and ease. This is accomplished by hands-on manipulation, coupled with movement re-education. There are about 15 schools of Structural Integration as recognized by the International Association of Structural Integration, including the Dr. Ida Rolf Institute (with the brand Rolfing), Hellerwork, Guild for Structural Integration, Aston Patterning, Soma, and Kinesis Myofascial Integration. Swedish massage The most widely recognized and commonly used category of massage is the Swedish massage. The Swedish massage techniques vary from light to vigorous. Swedish massage uses five styles of strokes. The five basic strokes are effleurage (sliding or gliding), petrissage (kneading), tapotement (rhythmic tapping), friction (cross fiber or with the fibers) and vibration/shaking. The development of Swedish massage is often inaccurately credited to Per Henrik Ling, though the Dutch practitioner Johann Georg Mezger applied the French terms to name the basic strokes. The term "Swedish massage" is actually only recognized in English- and Dutch-speaking countries, and in Hungary. Elsewhere the style is referred to as "classic massage". Clinical studies have found that Swedish massage can reduce chronic pain, fatigue, joint stiffness, and improve function in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee. Thai massage Known in Thailand as Nuat phaen boran, meaning "ancient/traditional massage", traditional Thai massage is generally based on a combination of Indian and Chinese traditions of medicine. Thai massage combines both physical and energetic aspects. It is a deep, full-body massage progressing from the feet up, and focusing on sen or energy lines throughout the body, with the aim of clearing blockages in these lines, and thus stimulating the flow of blood and lymph throughout the body. It draws on yoga, acupressure and reflexology. Thai massage is a popular massage therapy that is used for the management of conditions such as musculoskeletal pain and fatigue. Thai Massage involves a number of stretching movements that improve body flexibility, joint movement and also improve blood circulation throughout the body. In one study scientists found that Thai Massage showed comparable efficacy as the painkiller ibuprofen in the reduction of joint pain caused by osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee. Traditional Chinese massage Massage of Chinese Medicine is known as An Mo (按摩, pressing and rubbing) or Qigong Massage, and is the foundation of Japan's Anma. Categories include Pu Tong An Mo (general massage), Tui Na An Mo (pushing and grasping massage), Dian Xue An Mo (cavity pressing massage), and Qi An Mo (energy massage). Tui na (推拿) focuses on pushing, stretching, and kneading muscles, and Zhi Ya (指壓) focuses on pinching and pressing at acupressure points. Technique such as friction and vibration are used as well. Trigger point therapy Sometimes confused with pressure point massage, this involves deactivating trigger points that may cause local pain or refer pain and other sensations, such as headaches, in other parts of the body. Manual pressure, vibration, injection, or other treatment is applied to these points to relieve myofascial pain. Trigger points were first discovered and mapped by Janet G. Travell (President Kennedy's physician) and David Simons. Trigger points have been photomicrographed and measured electrically and in 2007 a paper was presented showing images of Trigger Points using MRI. These points relate to dysfunction in the myoneural junction, also called neuromuscular junction (NMJ), in muscle, and therefore this technique is different from reflexology, acupressure and pressure point massage. Tui na Tui na is a Chinese manual therapy technique that includes many different types of strokes, aimed to improve the flow of chi through the meridians. Turkish bath massage In traditional Turkish baths, massage involves not just vigorous muscle kneading, but also joint cracking, "not so much a tender working of the flesh as a pummelling, a cracking of joints, a twisting of limbs..." An 18th-century traveler reported: Watsu Watsu, developed by Harold Dull at Harbin Hot Springs, California, is a type of aquatic bodywork performed in near-body-temperature water, and characterized by continuous support by the practitioner and gentle movement, including rocking, stretching of limbs, and massage. The technique combines hydrotherapy floating and immersion with shiatsu and other massage techniques. Watsu is used as a form of aquatic therapy for deep relaxation and other therapeutic intent. Related forms include Waterdance, Healing Dance, and Jahara technique. Facilities, equipment, and supplies Massage tables and chairs Specialized massage tables and chairs are used to position recipients during massages. A typical commercial massage table has an easily cleaned, heavily padded surface, and horseshoe-shaped head support that allows the client to breathe easily while lying face down and can be stationary or portable, while home versions are often lighter weight or designed to fold away easily. An orthopedic pillow or bolster can be used to correct body positioning. Ergonomic chairs serve a similar function as a massage table. Chairs may be either stationary or portable models. Massage chairs are easier to transport than massage tables, and recipients do not need to disrobe to receive a chair massage. Due to these two factors, chair massage is often performed in settings such as corporate offices, outdoor festivals, shopping malls, and other public locations. Warm-water therapy pools Temperature-controlled warm-water therapy pools are used to perform aquatic bodywork. For example, Watsu requires a warm-water therapy pool that is approximately chest-deep (depending on the height of the therapist) and temperature-controlled to about 35 °C (95 °F). Dry-water massage tables A dry-water massage table uses jets of water to perform the massage of the client's muscles. These tables differ from a Vichy shower in that the client usually stays dry. Two common types are one in which the client lies on a waterbed-like mattress which contains warm water and jets of water and air bubbles and one in which the client lies on a foam pad and is covered by a plastic sheet and is then sprayed by jets of warm water, similar to a Vichy shower. The first type is sometimes seen available for use in malls and shopping centers for a small fee. Vichy showers A Vichy shower is a form of hydrotherapy that uses a series of shower nozzles that spray large quantities of water over the client while they lie in a shallow wet bed, similar to a massage table, but with drainage for the water. The nozzles may usually be adjusted for height, direction, and temperature to suit the client's needs. Cremes, lotions, gels, and oils Many different types of massage cremes, lotions, gels, and oils are used to lubricate and moisturize the skin and reduce the friction between skin (hands of technician and client). Massage tools These instruments or devices are sometimes used during massages. Some tools are for use by individuals, others by the therapist. Tools used by massage therapists Instrument-assisted soft-tissue massage can deploy stainless-steel devices to manipulate tissue in a way that augments hands-on work. A body rock is a serpentine-shaped tool, usually carved out of stone. It is used to amplify the therapist's strength and focus pressure on certain areas. It can be used directly on the skin with a lubricant such as oil or corn starch or directly over clothing. Bamboo and rosewood tools are also commonly used. They originate from practices in southeast Asia, Thailand, Cambodia, and Burma. Some of them may be heated, oiled, or wrapped in cloth. Cupping massage is often carried out using plastic cups and a manual hand-pump to create the vacuum. The vacuum draws the soft tissue perpendicular to the skin, providing a tensile force, which can be left in one site or moved along the tissue during the massage. Tools used by both individuals and massagers Hand-held battery-operated massaging and vibrating instruments are available, including devices for massaging the scalp following a haircut. Vibrating massage pads come in a range of sizes, some with the option of heating. Vibrating massage chairs can provide an alternative for therapy at home. There is a widespread market in erotic massage instruments, including electric dildos and vibrators such as the massage wand. Medical and therapeutic use The main professionals that provide therapeutic massage are massage therapists, athletic trainers, physical therapists and practitioners of many traditional Chinese and other eastern medicines. Massage practitioners work in a variety of medical settings and may travel to private residences or businesses. Contraindications to massage include deep vein thrombosis, bleeding disorders or taking blood thinners such as warfarin, damaged blood vessels, weakened bones from cancer, osteoporosis, or fractures, and fever. Beneficial effects Peer-reviewed medical research has shown that the benefits of massage include pain relief, reduced trait anxiety and depression, and temporarily reduced blood pressure, heart rate, and state of anxiety. Additional testing has shown an immediate increase and expedited recovery periods for muscle performance. Theories behind what massage might do include enhanced skeletal muscle regrowth and remodeling, blocking nociception (gate control theory), activating the parasympathetic nervous system, which may stimulate the release of endorphins and serotonin, preventing fibrosis or scar tissue, increasing the flow of lymph, and improving sleep. Massage is hindered from reaching the gold standard of scientific research, which includes placebo-controlled and double blind clinical trials. Developing a "sham" manual therapy for massage would be difficult since even light touch massage could not be assumed to be completely devoid of effects on the subject. It would also be difficult to find a subject that would not notice that they were getting less of a massage, and it would be impossible to blind the therapist. Massage can employ randomized controlled trials, which are published in peer reviewed medical journals. This type of study could increase the credibility of the profession because it displays that purported therapeutic effects are reproducible. Single-dose effects Pain relief: Relief from pain due to musculoskeletal injuries and other causes is cited as a major benefit of massage. A 2015 Cochrane Review concluded that there is very little evidence that massage is an effective treatment for lower back pain. A meta-analysis conducted by scientists at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign failed to find a statistically significant reduction in pain immediately following treatment. Weak evidence suggests that massage may improve pain in the short term for people with acute, sub-acute, and chronic lower back pain. State anxiety: Massage has been shown to reduce state anxiety, a transient measure of anxiety in a given situation. Blood pressure and heart rate: Massage has been shown to temporarily reduce blood pressure and heart rate. Multiple-dose effects Pain relief: Massage may reduce pain experienced in the days or weeks after treatment. Trait anxiety: Massage has been shown to reduce trait anxiety; a person's general susceptibility to anxiety. Depression: Massage has been shown to reduce subclinical depression. Neuromuscular effects Massage has been shown to reduce neuromuscular excitability by measuring changes in the Hoffman's reflex (H-reflex) amplitude. A decrease in peak-to-peak H-reflex amplitude suggests a decrease in motoneuron excitability. Others explain, "H-reflex is considered to be the electrical analogue of the stretch reflex... and the reduction" is due to a decrease in spinal reflex excitability. Field (2007) confirms that the inhibitory effects are due to deep tissue receptors and not superficial cutaneous receptors, as there was no decrease in H-reflex when looking at light fingertip pressure massage. It has been noted that "the receptors activated during massage are specific to the muscle being massaged," as other muscles did not produce a decrease in H-reflex amplitude. Regulations Because the art and science of massage is a globally diverse phenomenon, different legal jurisdictions sometimes recognize and license individuals with titles, while other areas do not. Examples are: Registered Massage Therapist (RMT) Canada Remedial Massage Therapist (RMT) New Zealand Certified Massage Therapist (CMT) New Zealand Licensed Massage Practitioner (LMP) Licensed Massage Therapist (LMT) Licensed Massage and Bodywork Therapist (LMBT) North Carolina Therapeutic Massage Therapist (TMT) South Africa In some jurisdictions, practicing without a license is a crime. One such jurisdiction is Washington state, where any health professionals practicing without a license can be issued a fine and charged with a misdemeanor offense. Canada In regulated provinces massage therapists are known as Registered Massage Therapists, in Canada six provinces regulate massage therapy: British Columbia, Ontario, Newfoundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, Saskatchewan, and New Brunswick. Registered Massage Therapy in British Columbia is regulated by the College of Massage Therapists of British Columbia (CMTBC). Regulated provinces have, since 2012, established inter-jurisdiction competency standards. Quebec is not provincially regulated. Massage therapists may obtain a certification with one of the various associations operating. There is the Professional Association of Specialized Massage Therapists of Quebec, also named Mon Réseau Plus, which represents 6,300 massage therapists (including ortho therapist, natural therapists, and others), the Quebec Federation of massage therapists (FMQ), and the Association québécoise des thérapeutes naturals; however, none of these are regulated by provincial law. Canadian educational institutions undergo a formal accreditation process through the Canadian Massage Therapy Council for Accreditation (CMTCA). China Most types of massage, with the exception of some traditional Chinese medicine, are not regulated in China. Although illegal in China, some of the smaller massage parlors are sometimes linked to the sex industry and the government has taken a number of measures in recent times to curb this. In a nationwide crackdown known as the yellow sweep ("Yellow" in Mandarin Chinese refers to sexual activities or pornographic content), limitations on the design and operation of massage parlors have been placed, going so far as requiring identification from customers who visit massage establishments late at night and logging their visits with the local police. France France requires three years of study and two final exams in order to apply for a license. Germany In Germany, massage is regulated by the government on a federal and national level. Only someone who has completed 3,200 hours of training (theoretical and practical) can use the professional title "Masseur und Medizinischer Bademeister" 'Masseur and Medical Spa Therapist'. This person can prolong his training depending on the length of professional experience to a Physiotherapist (1 year to 18 months additional training). The Masseur is trained in Classical Massage, Myofascial Massage, Exercise, and Movement Therapy. During the training, they will study Anatomy, Physiology, Pathology, Gynecology, Podiatry, Psychiatry, Psychology, Surgery, and probably most importantly Dermiatry and Orthopedics. They are trained in Electrotherapy and Hydrotherapy. Hydrotherapy includes Kneipp, Wraps, underwater massage, therapeutic washing, Sauna, and Steambath. A small part of their training will include special forms of massage which are decided by the local college, for example, foot reflex zone massage, Thai Massage, etc. Finally, a graduate is allowed to treat patients under the direction of a doctor. Graduates are regulated by the professional body which regulates Physiotherapists. This includes restrictions on advertising and the oath of confidentiality to clients. India In India, massage therapy is licensed by The Department of Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homoeopathy (AYUSH) under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (India) in March 1995. Massage therapy is based on Ayurveda, the ancient medicinal system that evolved around 600 BC. In ayurveda, massage is part of a set of holistic medicinal practices, contrary to the independent massage system popular in some other systems. In Siddha, Tamil traditional medicine from south India, massage is termed as "Thokkanam" and is classified into nine types, each for a specific variety of diseases. Japan In Japan, shiatsu is regulated but oil massage and Thai massage are not. Prostitution in Japan is not heavily policed, and prostitutes posing as massage therapists in "fashion health" shops and "pink salons" are fairly common in the larger cities. Myanmar In Myanmar, massage is unregulated. However, it is necessary to apply for a spa license with the government to operate a massage parlor in major cities such as Yangon. Blind and visually impaired people can become masseurs, but they are not issued licenses. There are a few professional spa training schools in Myanmar but these training centers are not accredited by the government. Mexico In Mexico massage therapists, called sobadores, combine massage using oil or lotion with a form of acupuncture and faith. Sobadores are used to relieve digestive system problems as well as knee and back pain. Many of these therapists work out of the back of a truck, with just a curtain for privacy. By learning additional holistic healer's skills in addition to massage, the practitioner may become a curandero. In some jurisdictions, prostitution in Mexico is legal, and prostitutes are allowed to sell sexual massages. These businesses are often confined to a specific area of the city, such as the Zona Norte in Tijuana. New Zealand In New Zealand, massage is unregulated. There are two levels of registration with Massage New Zealand, the professional body for massage therapists within New Zealand, although neither of these levels are government recognized. Registration at the Certified Massage Therapist level denotes competency in the practice of relaxation massage. Registration at the Remedial massage therapist denotes competency in the practice of remedial or orthopedic massage. Both levels of registration are defined by agreed minimum competencies and minimum hours. South Africa In South Africa, massage is regulated, but enforcement is poor. The minimum legal requirement to be able to practice as a professional massage therapist is a two-year diploma in Therapeutic Massage and registration with The Allied Health Professions Council of SA (AHPCSA). The qualification includes 240 credits, about 80 case studies, and about 100 hours of community service. South Korea In South Korea, blind and visually impaired people can become licensed masseurs. Thailand In Thailand, Thai massage is officially listed as one of the branches of traditional Thai medicine, recognized and regulated by the government. It is considered to be a medical discipline in its own right and is used for the treatment of a wide variety of ailments and conditions. Massage schools, centers, therapists, and practitioners are increasingly regulated by the Ministries of Education and Public Health in Thailand. United Kingdom To practice commercial massage or massage therapy in the UK, an ITEC or VTCT certificate must be obtained through training which includes Beauty and Spa Therapy, Hairdressing, Complementary Therapies, Sports & Fitness Training, and Customer Service. Therapists with appropriate paperwork and insurance may join the Complementary and Natural Healthcare Council (CNHC), a voluntary, government regulated, professional register. Its key aim is to protect the public. In addition, there are many professional bodies that have a required minimum standard of education and hold relevant insurance policies including the Federation of Holistic Therapists (FHT), the Complementary Therapists Association (CThA), and the Complementary Health Professionals (CHP). In contrast to the CNHC these bodies exist to support therapists rather than clients. United States According to research done by the American Massage Therapy Association, as of 2012 in the United States, there are between 280,000 and 320,000 massage therapists and massage school students. As of 2011, there were more than 300 accredited massage schools and programs in the United States. Most states have licensing requirements that must be met before a practitioner can use the title "massage therapist", and some states and municipalities require a license to practice any form of massage. If a state does not have any massage laws then a practitioner need not apply for a license with the state. Training programs in the US are typically 500 hours to 1000 hours in total training time and can award a certificate, diploma, or degree depending on the particular school. There are around 1,300 programs training massage therapists in the US; study will often include anatomy and physiology, kinesiology, massage techniques, first aid and CPR, business, ethical and legal issues, and hands-on practice along with continuing education requirements if regulated. The Commission on Massage Therapy Accreditation (COMTA) is one of the organizations that works with massage schools in the U.S. and there are almost 300 schools that are accredited through this agency. Forty-three states and the District of Columbia currently offer some type of credential to professionals in the massage and bodywork field—usually licensure, certification or registration. Thirty-eight states and the District of Columbia require some type of licensing for massage therapists. In the US, 39 states use the National Certification Board for Therapeutic Massage and Bodywork's certification program as a basis for granting licenses either by rule or statute. The National Board grants the designation Nationally Certified in Therapeutic Massage and Bodywork (NCTMB). There are two tests available and one can become certified through a portfolio process with equivalent training and experience. Between 10% and 20% of towns or counties regulate the profession. The National Certification offered by the NCBTMB does not mean that someone can practice massage in any state. These local regulations can range from prohibition on opposite sex massage, fingerprinting and venereal checks from a doctor, to prohibition on house calls because of concern regarding sale of sexual services. In the US, licensure is the highest level of regulation and this restricts anyone without a license from practicing massage therapy or calling themselves by that protected title. Certification allows only those who meet certain educational criteria to use the protected title and registration only requires a listing of therapists who apply and meet an educational requirement. It is important to note that a massage therapist may be certified, but not licensed. Licensing requirements vary per state, and often require additional criteria be met in addition to attending an accredited massage therapy school and passing a required state-specified exam (basically the certification requirements in many states). In the US, most certifications are locally based. Some states still do not require a license or a certification, but this is changing as more regulatory bodies governing the profession of massage are established in each state. Some states allow license reciprocity, where licensed massage therapists who relocate can relatively easily obtain a license in their new state. In late 2007, the Federation of State Massage Therapy Boards launched a new certification exam titled the MBLEx. Currently, 40 states have accepted this certification exam, along with the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands. In 1997 there were an estimated 114 million visits to massage therapists in the US. Massage therapy is the most used type of alternative medicine in hospitals in the United States. Between July 2010 and July 2011 roughly 38 million adult Americans (18 percent) had a massage at least once. People state that they use massage because they believe that it relieves pain from musculoskeletal injuries and other causes of pain, reduces stress and enhances relaxation, rehabilitates sports injuries, decreases feelings of anxiety and depression, and increases general well-being. In a poll of 25–35-year-olds, 79% said they would like their health insurance plan to cover massage. In 2006 Duke University Health System opened up a center to integrate medical disciplines with CAM disciplines such as massage therapy and acupuncture. There were 15,500 spas in the United States in 2007, with about two-thirds of the visitors being women. The number of visits rose from 91 million in 1999 to 136 million in 2003, generating a revenue that equals $11 billion. Job outlook for massage therapists is also projected to grow at 20% between 2010 and 2020 by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, faster than the average. See also Manual therapy Massage chair Spa References External links Manual therapy Mind–body interventions

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezra%20Pound

Ezra Pound

Ezra Weston Loomis Pound (30 October 1885 – 1 November 1972) was an expatriate American poet and critic, a major figure in the early modernist poetry movement, and a fascist collaborator in Italy during World War II. His works include Ripostes (1912), Hugh Selwyn Mauberley (1920), and his 800-page epic poem, The Cantos (c. 1917–1962). Pound's contribution to poetry began in the early 20th century with his role in developing Imagism, a movement stressing precision and economy of language. Working in London as foreign editor of several American literary magazines, he helped discover and shape the work of contemporaries such as T. S. Eliot, Ernest Hemingway, and James Joyce. He was responsible for the 1914 serialization of Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, the 1915 publication of Eliot's "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock", and the serialization from 1918 of Joyce's Ulysses. Hemingway wrote in 1932 that, for poets born in the late 19th or early 20th century, not to be influenced by Pound would be "like passing through a great blizzard and not feeling its cold." Angered by the carnage of World War I, Pound blamed the war on finance capitalism, which he called "usury". He moved to Italy in 1924 and through the 1930s and 1940s promoted an economic theory known as social credit, wrote for publications owned by the British fascist Sir Oswald Mosley, embraced Benito Mussolini's fascism, and expressed support for Adolf Hitler. During World War II and the Holocaust in Italy, he made hundreds of paid radio broadcasts for the Italian government, including in German-occupied Italy, attacking the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Great Britain, international finance, munitions makers and mongers, and Jews, among others, as causes, abettors and prolongers of the world war, as a result of which he was arrested in 1945 by American forces in Italy on charges of treason. He spent months in a U.S. military camp in Pisa, including three weeks in an outdoor steel cage. Deemed unfit to stand trial, he was incarcerated in St. Elizabeths psychiatric hospital in Washington, D.C., for over 12 years. While in custody in Italy, Pound began work on sections of The Cantos that were published as The Pisan Cantos (1948), for which he was awarded the Bollingen Prize for Poetry in 1949 by the Library of Congress, causing enormous controversy. After a campaign by his fellow writers, he was released from St. Elizabeths in 1958 and lived in Italy until his death in 1972. His economic and political views have ensured that his life and work remain controversial. Early life and education (1885–1908) Family background Pound was born in 1885 in a two-story clapboard house in Hailey, Idaho Territory, the only child of Homer Loomis Pound (1858–1942) and Isabel Weston (1860–1948), who married in 1884. Homer had worked in Hailey since 1883 as registrar of the General Land Office. Pound's grandfather, Thaddeus Coleman Pound, a Republican Congressman and the 10th Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin, had secured him the appointment. Homer had previously worked for Thaddeus in the lumber business. Both sides of Pound's family emigrated from England in the 17th century. On his father's side, the immigrant ancestor was John Pound, a Quaker who arrived from England around 1650. Ezra's paternal grandmother, Susan Angevine Loomis, married Thaddeus Coleman Pound. On his mother's side, Pound was descended from William Wadsworth, a Puritan who emigrated to Boston on the Lion in 1632. Captain Joseph Wadsworth helped to write the Connecticut constitution. The Wadsworths married into the Westons of New York; Harding Weston and Mary Parker were Pound's maternal grandparents. After serving in the military, Harding remained unemployed, so his brother Ezra Weston and Ezra's wife, Frances Amelia Wessells Freer (Aunt Frank), helped to look after Isabel, Pound's mother. Early education Isabel Pound was unhappy in Hailey and took Ezra with her to New York in 1887 when he was 18 months old. Her husband followed and found a job as an assayer at the Philadelphia Mint. After a move to 417 Walnut Street in Jenkintown, Pennsylvania, the family bought a six-bedroom house in 1893 at 166 Fernbrook Avenue, Wyncote. Pound's education began in dame schools: Miss Elliott's school in Jenkintown in 1892 and the Heathcock family's Chelten Hills School in Wyncote in 1893. Known as "Ra" (pronounced "Ray"), he attended Wyncote Public School from September 1894. His first publication was on 7 November 1896 in the Jenkintown Times-Chronicle ("by E. L. Pound, Wyncote, aged 11 years"), a limerick about William Jennings Bryan, who had just lost the 1896 presidential election. In 1897, aged 12, he transferred to Cheltenham Military Academy (CMA), where he wore an American Civil War-style uniform and was taught drilling and how to shoot. The following year he made his first trip overseas, a three-month tour with his mother and Aunt Frank, who took him to England, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, and Morocco. He attended CMA until 1900, at times as a boarder, but it seems he did not graduate. University In 1901 Pound was admitted, aged 15, to the University of Pennsylvania's College of Liberal Arts. Years later he said his aim was to avoid drill at the military academy. His one distinction in first year was in geometry, but otherwise his grades were mostly poor, including in Latin, his major; he achieved a B in English composition and a pass in English literature. In his second year he switched from the degree course to "non-degree special student status", he said "to avoid irrelevant subjects". He was not elected to a fraternity at Penn, but it seemed not to bother him. His parents and Aunt Frank took him on another three-month European tour in 1902, and the following year he transferred to Hamilton College in Clinton, New York, possibly because of his grades. Again he was not invited to join a fraternity, but this time he had hoped to do so, according to letters home, because he wanted to live in a fraternity house, and by April 1904 he regarded the move as a mistake. Signed up for the Latin–Scientific course, he appears to have avoided some classes; his transcript is short of credits. He studied the Provençal dialect and read Dante and Anglo-Saxon poetry, including Beowulf and The Seafarer. After graduating from Hamilton in 1905 with a PhB, he returned to Penn, where he fell in love with Hilda Doolittle, then at Bryn Mawr College, and hand-bound 25 of his poems for her, calling it Hilda's Book. (Doolittle became a poet herself, renamed H.D. by Pound.) After receiving his MA in Romance languages in 1906, he registered to write a PhD thesis on the jesters in Lope de Vega's plays; a two-year Harrison fellowship covered his tuition and a $500 grant, with which he sailed again to Europe. He spent three weeks in Madrid in various libraries, including in the Royal Library. On 31 May 1906 he was standing outside the palace during the attempted assassination of King Alfonso and left the city for fear of being mistaken for an anarchist. After Spain he visited Paris and London, returning to the United States in July 1906. His first essay, "Raphaelite Latin", was published in the Book News Monthly that September. He took courses in English in 1907, where he fell out with just about everyone, including the department head, Felix Schelling, with silly remarks during lectures and by winding an enormous tin watch very slowly while Schelling spoke. In the spring of 1907 he learned that his fellowship would not be renewed. Schelling told him he was wasting everyone's time, and he left without finishing his doctorate. Teaching From September 1907 Pound taught French and Spanish at Wabash College, a Presbyterian college with 345 students in Crawfordsville, Indiana, which he called "the sixth circle of hell". One former student remembered him as a breath of fresh air; another said he was "exhibitionist, egotistic, self-centered and self-indulgent". He was dismissed after a few months. Smoking was forbidden, but he would smoke cigarillos in his room in the same corridor as the president's office. He was asked to leave the college in January 1908 when his landladies, Ida and Belle Hall, found a woman in his room. Shocked at having been fired, he left for Europe soon after, sailing from New York in March on the RMS Slavonia. London (1908–1914) A Lume Spento Pound arrived in Gibraltar on 23 March 1908, where he earned $15 a day working as a guide for an American family there and in Spain. After stops in Seville, Grenada, and Genoa, by the end of April he was in Venice, living over a bakery near the San Vio bridge. In the summer he decided to self-publish his first collection of 44 poems in the 72-page A Lume Spento ("With Tapers Quenched"), 150 copies of which were printed in July 1908. The title is from the third canto of Dante's Purgatorio, alluding to the death of Manfred, King of Sicily. Pound dedicated the book to the Philadelphia artist William Brooke Smith, a friend from university who had recently died of tuberculosis. In "Canto LXXVI" (part of The Pisan Cantos), he records that he considered throwing the proofs into the Grand Canal, abandoning the book and poetry altogether: "by the soap-smooth stone posts where San Vio / meets with il Canal Grande / between Salviati and the house that was of Don Carlos / shd/I chuck the lot into the tide-water? / le bozze "A Lume Spento"/ / and by the column of Todero / shd/I shift to the other side / or wait 24 hours". Move to London In August 1908 Pound moved to London, carrying 60 copies of A Lume Spento. English poets such as Maurice Hewlett, Rudyard Kipling, and Alfred Tennyson had made a particular kind of Victorian verse—stirring, pompous, and propagandistic—popular. According to modernist scholar James Knapp, Pound rejected the idea of poetry as "versified moral essay"; he wanted to focus on the individual experience, the concrete rather than the abstract. Pound at first stayed in a boarding house at 8 Duchess Street, near the British Museum Reading Room; he had met the landlady during his travels in Europe in 1906. He soon moved to Islington (cheaper at 12s 6d a week board and lodging), but his father sent him £4 and he was able to move back into central London, to 48 Langham Street, near Great Titchfield Street. The house sat across an alley from the Yorkshire Grey pub, which made an appearance in "Canto LXXX" (The Pisan Cantos), "concerning the landlady's doings / with a lodger unnamed / az waz near Gt Tichfield St. next door to the pub". Pound persuaded the bookseller Elkin Mathews on Vigo Street to display A Lume Spento, and in an unsigned article on 26 November 1908, Pound reviewed it himself in the Evening Standard: "The unseizable magic of poetry is in this queer paper book; and words are no good in describing it." The following month he self-published a second collection, A Quinzaine for this Yule. It was his first book to have commercial success, and Elkin Matthews had another 100 copies printed. In January and February 1909, after the death of John Churton Collins left a vacancy, Pound lectured for an hour a week in the evenings on "The Development of Literature in Southern Europe" at the Regent Street Polytechnic. Mornings might be spent in the British Museum Reading Room, followed by lunch at the Vienna Café on Oxford Street, where Pound first met Wyndham Lewis in 1910. "There were mysterious figures / that emerged from recondite recesses / and ate at the WIENER CAFÉ". Ford Madox Ford described Pound as "approach[ing] with the step of a dancer, making passes with a cane at an imaginary opponent": He would wear trousers made of green billiard cloth, a pink coat, a blue shirt, a tie hand-painted by a Japanese friend, an immense sombrero, a flaming beard cut to a point, and a single, large blue earring." Meeting Dorothy Shakespear, Personae At a literary salon in 1909, Pound met the novelist Olivia Shakespear and later at the Shakespears' home at 12 Brunswick Gardens, Kensington, was introduced to her daughter, Dorothy, who became Pound's wife in 1914. The critic Iris Barry described her as "carrying herself delicately with the air, always, of a young Victorian lady out skating, and a profile as clear and lovely as that of a porcelain Kuan-yin". "Listen to it—Ezra! Ezra!—And a third time—Ezra!", Dorothy wrote in her diary on 16 February 1909. Pound mixed with the cream of London's literary circle, including Maurice Hewlett, Laurence Binyon, Frederic Manning, Ernest Rhys, May Sinclair, Ellen Terry, George Bernard Shaw, Hilaire Belloc, T. E. Hulme, and F. S. Flint. Through the Shakespears, he was introduced to the poet W. B. Yeats, Olivia Shakespear's former lover. He had already sent Yeats a copy of A Lume Spento, and Yeats had apparently found it "charming". Pound wrote to William Carlos Williams on 3 February 1909: "Am by way of falling into the crowd that does things here. London, deah old Lundon, is the place for poesy." According to Richard Aldington, London found Pound amusing. The newspapers interviewed him, and he was mentioned in Punch magazine, which on 23 June 1909 described "Mr. Ezekiel Ton" as "the most remarkable thing in poetry since Robert Browning ... [blending] the imagery of the unfettered West, the vocabulary of Wardour Street, and the sinister abandon of Borgiac Italy". In April 1909 Elkin Mathews published Personae of Ezra Pound (half the poems were from A Lume Spento) and in October a further 27 poems (16 new) as Exultations. Edward Thomas described Personae in English Review as "full of human passion and natural magic". Rupert Brooke complained in the Cambridge Review that Pound had fallen under the influence of Walt Whitman, writing in "unmetrical sprawling lengths that, in his hands, have nothing to commend them". But he did acknowledge that Pound had "great talents". In or around September, Pound moved into new rooms at Church Walk, off Kensington High Street, where he lived most of the time until 1914. He visited a friend, Walter Rummel, in Paris in March 1910 and was introduced to the American heiress and pianist Margaret Lanier Cravens. Although they had only just met, she offered to become a patron to the tune of $1,000 a year, and from then until her death in 1912 she apparently sent him money regularly. The Spirit of Romance, Canzoni, the New Age In June 1910 Pound returned for eight months to the United States; his arrival coincided with the publication in London of his first book of literary criticism, The Spirit of Romance, based on his lecture notes from the polytechnic. Patria Mia, his essays on the United States, were written at this time. In August he moved to New York, renting rooms on Waverly Place and Park Avenue South, facing Gramercy Square. Although he loved New York, he felt alienated by the commercialism and newcomers from Eastern and Southern Europe who were displacing the white Anglo-Saxon Protestants. The recently built New York Public Library Main Branch he found especially offensive. It was during this period that his antisemitism became apparent; he referred in Patria Mia to the "detestable qualities" of Jews. After persuading his parents to finance his passage back to Europe, he sailed from New York on the R.M.S. Mauretania on 22 February 1911. It was nearly 30 years—April 1939—before he visited the U.S. again. After three days in London he went to Paris, where he worked on a new collection of poetry, Canzoni (1911), panned by the Westminster Gazette as "affectation combined with pedantry". He wrote in Ford Madox Ford's obituary that Ford had rolled on the floor with laughter at its "stilted language". When he returned to London in August, he rented a room in Marylebone at 2A Granville Place, then shared a house at 39 Addison Road North, W11. By November A. R. Orage, editor of the socialist journal the New Age, had hired him to write a weekly column. Orage appears in The Cantos (Possum is T. S. Eliot): "but the lot of 'em, Yeats, Possum and Wyndham / had no ground beneath 'em. / Orage had." Pound contributed to the New Age from 30 November 1911 to 13 January 1921, attending editorial meetings in the basement of a grimy ABC tearoom in Chancery Lane. There and at other meetings he met Arnold Bennett, Cecil Chesterton, Beatrice Hastings, S. G. Hobson, T. E. Hulme, Katherine Mansfield, and H. G. Wells. In the New Age office in 1918, he also met C. H. Douglas, a British engineer who was developing his economic theory of social credit, which Pound found attractive. Douglas reportedly believed that Jews were a problem and needed to abandon a Messianic view of themselves as the "dominating race". According to Colin Holmes, the New Age itself published antisemitic material. It was within this environment, not in Italy, according to Tim Redman, that Pound first encountered antisemitic ideas about "usury". "In Douglas's program," Christopher Hitchens wrote in 2008, "Pound had found his true muse: a blend of folkloric Celtic twilight with a paranoid hatred of the money economy and a dire suspicion about an ancient faith." Poetry magazine, Ripostes, Imagism Hilda Doolittle arrived in London from Philadelphia in May 1911 with the poet Frances Gregg and Gregg's mother; when they returned in September, Doolittle stayed on. Pound introduced her to his friends, including Richard Aldington, who became her husband in 1913. Before that, the three of them lived in Church Walk, Kensington—Pound at no. 10, Aldington at no. 8, and Doolittle at no. 6—and worked daily in the British Museum Reading Room. At the British Museum, Laurence Binyon introduced Pound to the East Asian artistic and literary concepts Pound used in his later poetry, including Japanese ukiyo-e prints. The visitors' book first shows Pound in the Prints and Drawings Students' Room (known as the Print Room) on 9 February 1909, and later in 1912 and 1913, with Dorothy Shakespear, examining Chinese and Japanese art. Pound was working at the time on the poems that became Ripostes (1912), trying to move away from his earlier work. "I hadn't in 1910 made a language," he wrote years later. "I don't mean a language to use, but even a language to think in." In August 1912 Harriet Monroe hired Pound as foreign correspondent of Poetry: A Magazine of Verse, a new magazine in Chicago. The first edition, in October, featured two of his own poems, "To Whistler, American" and "Middle Aged". Also that month Stephen Swift and Co. in London published Ripostes of Ezra Pound, a collection of 25 poems, including a contentious translation of the 8th-century Old English poem The Seafarer, that demonstrate his shift toward minimalist language. In addition to Pound's work, the collection contains five poems by T. E. Hulme. Ripostes includes the first mention of Les Imagistes: "As for the future, Les Imagistes, the descendants of the forgotten school of 1909, have that in their keeping." While in the British Museum tearoom one afternoon with Doolittle and Aldington, Pound edited one of Doolittle's poems and wrote "H.D. Imagiste" underneath; he described this later as the founding of a movement in poetry, Imagisme. In the spring or early summer of 1912, they agreed, Pound wrote in 1918, on three principles: 1. Direct treatment of the "thing" whether subjective or objective. 2. To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation. 3. As regarding rhythm: to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence of a metronome. Poetry published Pound's "A Few Don'ts by an Imagist" in March 1913. Superfluous words, particularly adjectives, should be avoided, as well as expressions like "dim lands of peace". He wrote: "It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer's not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." Poets should "go in fear of abstractions". He wanted Imagisme "to stand for hard light, clear edges", he wrote later to Amy Lowell. An example of Imagist poetry is Pound's "In a Station of the Metro", published in Poetry in April 1913 and inspired by an experience on the Paris Underground. "I got out of a train at, I think, La Concorde," he wrote in "How I began" in T. P.'s Weekly on 6 June 1913, "and in the jostle I saw a beautiful face, and then, turning suddenly, another and another, and then a beautiful child's face, and then another beautiful face. All that day I tried to find words for what this made me feel. ... I could get nothing but spots of colour." A year later he reduced it to its essence in the style of a Japanese haiku. James Joyce, Pound's unpopularity In the summer of 1913 Pound became literary editor of The Egoist, a journal founded by the suffragette Dora Marsden. At the suggestion of W. B. Yeats, Pound encouraged James Joyce in December of that year to submit his work. The previous month Yeats, whose eyesight was failing, had rented Stone Cottage in Coleman's Hatch, Sussex, inviting Pound to accompany him as his secretary, and it was during this visit that Yeats introduced Pound to Joyce's Chamber Music and his "I hear an Army Charging Upon the Land". This was the first of three winters Pound and Yeats spent at Stone Cottage, including two with Dorothy after she and Ezra married in 1914. "Canto LXXXIII" records a visit: "so that I recalled the noise in the chimney / as it were the wind in the chimney / but was in reality Uncle William / downstairs composing / that had made a great Peeeeacock / in the proide ov his oiye." In his reply to Pound, Joyce gave permission to use "I hear an Army" and enclosed Dubliners and the first chapter of his novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Pound wrote to Joyce that the novel was "damn fine stuff". Harriet Shaw Weaver accepted it for The Egoist, which serialized it from 2 February 1914, despite the printers objecting to words like "fart" and "ballocks", and fearing prosecution over Stephen Dedalus's thoughts about prostitutes. On the basis of the serialization, the publisher that had rejected Dubliners reconsidered. Joyce wrote to Yeats: "I can never thank you enough for having brought me into relation with your friend Ezra Pound who is indeed a miracle worker." Around this time, Pound's articles in the New Age began to make him unpopular, to the alarm of Orage. Samuel Putnam knew Pound in Paris in the 1920s and described him as stubborn, contrary, cantankerous, bossy, touchy, and "devoid of humor"; he was "an American small-towner", in Putnam's view. His attitude caused him trouble in both London and Paris. English women, with their "preponderantly derivative" minds, were inferior to American women who had minds of their own, he wrote in the New Age. The English sense of what was right was based on respect for property, not morality. "[P]erched on the rotten shell of a crumbling empire", London had lost its energy. England's best authors—Conrad, Hudson, James, and Yeats—were not English. English writers and critics were ignorant, he wrote in 1913. Marriage Ezra and Dorothy were married on 20 April 1914 at St Mary Abbots in Kensington, the Shakespears' parish church, despite opposition from her parents, who worried about Ezra's income. His concession to marry in church had helped. Dorothy's annual income was £50, with another £150 from her family, and Ezra's was £200. Her father, Henry Hope Shakespear, had him prepare a financial statement in 1911, which showed that his main source of income was his father. After the wedding the couple moved into an apartment with no bathroom at 5 Holland Place Chambers, Kensington, next door to the newly wed H.D. and Aldington. This arrangement did not last. H.D. had been alarmed to find Ezra looking for a place to live outside the apartment building the day before his wedding. Once Dorothy and Ezra had moved into the building, Ezra would arrive unannounced at H.D.'s to discuss his writing, a habit that upset her, in part because his writing touched on private aspects of their relationship. She and Aldington decided to move several miles away to Hampstead. Des Imagistes, dispute with Amy Lowell The appearance of Des Imagistes, An Anthology (1914), edited by Pound, "confirmed the importance" of Imagisme, according to Ira Nadel. Published in the American magazine The Glebe in February 1914 and the following month as a book, it was the first of five Imagist anthologies and the only one to contain work by Pound. It included ten poems by Richard Aldington, seven by H. D., followed by F. S. Flint, Skipwith Cannell, Amy Lowell, William Carlos Williams, James Joyce ("I Hear an Army", not an example of Imagism), six by Pound, then Ford Madox Hueffer (as he was known as the time), Allen Upward and John Cournos. Shortly after its publication, an advertisement for Wyndham Lewis's new magazine, Blast promised it would cover "Cubism, Futurism, Imagisme and all Vital Forms of Modern Art"; in the end, Blast was published only twice, in 1914 and 1915. Pound extended Imagisme to art, naming it Vorticism. In June 1914 The Times announced Lewis's new Rebel Arts Centre for Vorticist art at 38 Great Ormond Street. The New England poet Amy Lowell, who was to win the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1926, was apparently unhappy that only one of her poems had appeared in Des Imagistes. She arrived in London in July 1914 to attend two dinners at the Dieudonné restaurant in Ryder Street, the first to celebrate the publication of Blast and the second, on 17 July, the publication of Des Imagistes. At the second, Ford Madox Hueffer announced that he had been an Imagiste long before Lowell and Pound, and that he doubted their qualifications; only Aldington and H.D. could lay claim to the title, in his view. During the subsequent row, Pound left the table and returned with a tin bathtub on his head, suggesting it as a symbol of what he called Les Nagistes, a school created by Lowell's poem "In a Garden", which ends with "Night, and the water, and you in your whiteness, bathing!" Apparently his behavior helped Lowell win people over to her point of view, as did her offer to fund future work. H.D. and Aldington were moving away from Pound's understanding of Imagisme anyway, as he aligned himself with Lewis's ideas. Lowell agreed to finance an annual anthology of Imagiste poets, but she insisted on democracy; according to Aldington, she "proposed a Boston Tea Party for Ezra" and an end to his despotic rule. Upset at Lowell, Pound began to call Imagisme "Amygism"; he declared the movement dead and asked the group not to call themselves Imagistes. Not accepting that it was Pound's invention, they refused and Anglicized the term. World War I and leaving England (1914–1921) Meeting Eliot, Cathay, translation When war was declared in August 1914, opportunities for writers were immediately reduced; poems were now expected to be patriotic. Pound earned £42 over the next year, apparently five times less than the year before. On 22 September 1914 T. S. Eliot traveled from Merton College, Oxford, with an introduction from Conrad Aiken, to have Pound read Eliot's unpublished "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock". Pound wrote to Harriet Monroe, editor of Poetry, on 30 September to say that Eliot—who was at Oxford on a fellowship from Harvard—had "sent in the best poem I have yet had or seen from an American ... He has actually trained himself and modernized himself on his own." Monroe did not like Prufrock's "very European world-weariness", according to Humphrey Carpenter, but she published it anyway, in June 1915. Pound's Cathay, published in April 1915, contains 25 examples of Classical Chinese poetry that Pound translated into English based on the notes of the Orientalist Ernest Fenollosa. Fenollosa's widow, Mary McNeill Fenollosa, had given Pound her husband's notes in 1913, after Laurence Binyon introduced them. Michael Alexander saw Cathay as the most attractive of Pound's work. There is a debate about whether the poems should be viewed primarily as translations or as contributions to Imagism and the modernization of English poetry. English professor Steven Yao argued that Cathay shows that translation does not need a thorough knowledge of the source language. Pound's translations from Old English, Latin, Italian, French and Chinese were highly disputed. According to Alexander, they made him more unpopular in some circles than the treason charge. Robert Graves wrote in 1955: "[Pound] knew little Latin, yet he translated Propertius; and less Greek, but he translated Alcaeus; and still less Anglo-Saxon, yet he translated The Seafarer. I once asked Arthur Waley how much Chinese Pound knew; Waley shook his head despondently." Pound was devastated when Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, from whom he had commissioned a sculpture of himself two years earlier, was killed in the trenches in June 1915. In response, he published Gaudier-Brzeska: A Memoir (1916), writing "A great spirit has been among us, and a great artist has gone." Two months before he died, Gaudier-Brzeska had written to Pound to say that he kept Cathay in his pocket "to put courage in my fellows". "Three Cantos", resignation from Poetry After the publication of Cathay, Pound mentioned that he was working on a long poem. He described it in September 1915 as a "cryselephantine poem of immeasurable length which will occupy me for the next four decades unless it becomes a bore". In February 1916, when Pound was 30, the poet Carl Sandburg paid tribute to him in Poetry magazine. Pound "stains darkly and touches softly", he wrote: All talk on modern poetry, by people who know, ends with dragging in Ezra Pound somewhere. He may be named only to be cursed as wanton and mocker, poseur, trifler and vagrant. Or he may be classed as filling a niche today like that of Keats in a preceding epoch. The point is, he will be mentioned. ...In the cool and purple meantime, Pound goes ahead producing new poems having the slogan, "Guts and Efficiency," emblazoned above his daily program of work. His genius runs to various schools and styles. He acquires traits and then throws them away. One characteristic is that he has no characteristics. He is a new roamer of the beautiful, a new fetcher of wild shapes, in each new handful of writings offered us. In June, July and August 1917 Pound had the first three cantos published, as "Three Cantos", in Poetry. He was now a regular contributor to three literary magazines. From 1917 he wrote music reviews for the New Age as William Atheling and art reviews as B. H. Dias. In May 1917 Margaret Anderson hired him as foreign editor of the Little Review. He also wrote weekly pieces for The Egoist and the Little Review; many of the latter complained about provincialism, which included the ringing of church bells. (When Pound lived near St Mary Abbots church in Kensington, he had "engaged in a fierce, guerrilla warfare of letters" about the bells with the vicar, Reverend R. E. Pennefather, according to Richard Aldington.) The volume of writing exhausted him. In 1918, after a bout of illness which was presumably the Spanish flu, he decided to stop writing for the Little Review. He had asked the publisher for a raise to hire a typist, the 23-year-old Iseult Gonne, causing rumors that they were having an affair, but he was turned down. A suspicion arose in June 1918 that Pound himself had written an article in The Egoist praising his own work, and it was clear from the response that he had acquired enemies. The poet F. S. Flint told The Egoist editor that "we are all tired of Mr. Pound". British literary circles were "tired of his antics" and of him "puffing and swelling himself and his friends", Flint wrote. "His work has deteriorated from book to book; his manners have become more and more offensive; and we wish he would go back to America." The March 1919 issue of Poetry published Pound's Poems from the Propertius Series, which appeared to be a translation of the Latin poet Sextus Propertius. Harriet Monroe, editor of Poetry, published a letter in April 1919 from a professor of Latin, W. G. Hale, who found "about three-score errors" in the text; he said Pound was "incredibly ignorant of Latin", that "much of what he makes his author say is unintelligible", and that "If Mr. Pound were a professor of Latin, there would be nothing left for him but suicide" (adding "I do not counsel this"). Pound replied to Monroe: "Cat-piss and porcupines!! The thing is no more a translation than my 'Altaforte' is a translation, or than Fitzgerald's Omar is a translation." His letter ended "In final commiseration". Monroe interpreted his silence after that as his resignation from Poetry magazine. Hugh Selwyn Mauberley By 1919 Pound felt there was no reason to stay in England. He had become "violently hostile" to England, according to Richard Aldington, feeling he was being "frozen out of everything" except the New Age, and concluding that the British were insensitive to "mental agility in any and every form". He had "muffed his chances of becoming literary director of London—to which he undoubtedly aspired," Aldington wrote in 1941, "by his own enormous conceit, folly, and bad manners." Published by John Rodker's The Ovid Press in June 1920, Pound's poem Hugh Selwyn Mauberley marked his farewell to London, and by December the Pounds were subletting their apartment and preparing to move to France. Consisting of 18 short parts, Mauberley describes a poet whose life has become sterile and meaningless. It begins with a satirical analysis of the London literary scene before turning to social criticism, economics, and the war. Here the word usury first appears in his work. Just as Eliot denied he was Prufrock, Pound denied he was Mauberley. In 1932 the critic F. R. Leavis, then director of studies in English at Downing College, Cambridge, called Mauberley "great poetry, at once traditional and original. Mr. Pound's standing as a poet rests on it, and rests securely". On 13 January 1921 Orage wrote in the New Age: "Mr. Pound has shaken the dust of London from his feet with not too emphatic a gesture of disgust, but, at least, without gratitude to this country. ... [He] has been an exhilarating influence for culture in England; he has left his mark upon more than one of the arts, upon literature, music, poetry and sculpture; and quite a number of men and movements owe their initiation to his self-sacrificing stimulus ..." With all this, however, Mr. Pound, like so many others who have striven for advancement of intelligence and culture in England, has made more enemies than friends, and far more powerful enemies than friends. Much of the Press has been deliberately closed by cabal to him; his books have for some time been ignored or written down; and he himself has been compelled to live on much less than would support a navvy. His fate, as I have said, is not unusual ... Taken by and large, England hates men of culture until they are dead. Paris (1921–1924) Meeting Hemingway, editing The Waste Land The Pounds settled in Paris around April 1921 and in December moved to an inexpensive ground-floor apartment at 70 bis Rue Notre-Dame-des-Champs. Pound became friendly with Marcel Duchamp, Fernand Léger, Tristan Tzara, and others of the Dada and Surrealist movements, as well as Basil Bunting. He was introduced to the American writer Gertrude Stein, who was living in Paris. She wrote years later that she liked him but did not find him amusing; he was "a village explainer, excellent if you were a village, but if you were not, not". Pound's collection Poems 1918–1921 was published in New York by Boni and Liveright in 1921. In December that year Ernest Hemingway, then aged 22, moved to Paris with his wife, Hadley Richardson, and letters of introduction from Sherwood Anderson. In February 1922 the Hemingways visited the Pounds for tea. Although Pound was 14 years older, the men became friends; Hemingway assumed the status of pupil and asked Pound to edit his short stories. Pound introduced him to his contacts, including Lewis, Ford, John Peale Bishop, Malcolm Cowley, and Derek Patmore, while Hemingway tried to teach Pound to box. Unlike Hemingway, Pound was not a drinker and preferred to spend his time in salons or building furniture for his apartment and bookshelves for Sylvia Beach's Shakespeare and Company bookstore. Eliot sent Pound the manuscript of The Waste Land in 1922. Pound edited it with comments like "make up yr. mind", and reduced it by about half. Eliot wrote in 1946: "I should like to think that the manuscript, with the suppressed passages, had disappeared irrecoverably; yet, on the other hand, I should wish the blue pencilling on it to be preserved as irrefutable evidence of Pound's critical genius." His dedication in The Waste Land was "For Ezra Pound / il miglior fabbro" (the "better craftsman"), from Canto 26 of Dante's Purgatorio. Meeting Olga Rudge Pound was 36 when he met the 26-year-old American violinist Olga Rudge in Paris in the summer of 1922. They were introduced at a salon hosted by the American heiress Natalie Barney at her 300-year-old house at 20 Rue Jacob, near the Boulevard Saint-Germain. The two moved in different social circles: Rudge was the daughter of a wealthy Youngstown, Ohio, steel family, living in her mother's Parisian apartment on the Right Bank, socializing with aristocrats, while Pound's friends were mostly impoverished writers of the Left Bank. Restarting The Cantos Twice the length of Paradise Lost and 50 times longer than The Waste Land, Pound's 800-page The Cantos ("Canto I" to "Canto CXVI", c. 1917–1962) became his life's work. His obituary in The Times described it as not a great poem, because of the lack of structure, but a great improvisation: "[T]he exasperating form permits the occasional, and in the early Cantos and in The Pisan Cantos not so occasional, irruption of passages of great poetry, hot and burning lava breaking through the cracks in piles of boring scree." The first three cantos had been published in Poetry magazine in June, July, and August 1917, but in 1922 Pound abandoned most of his work and began again. The early cantos, the "Ur-Cantos", became "Canto I" of the new work. In letters to his father in 1924 and 1927, Pound said The Cantos was like the medley of voices you hear when you turn the radio dial, and "[r]ather like or unlike subject and response and counter subject in fugue": A.A. Live man goes down into world of Dead. C.B. The 'repeat in history'. B.C. The 'magic moment' or moment of metamorphosis, bust thru from quotidien into 'divine or permanent world.' Gods., etc. Alluding to American, European and Oriental art, history and literature, the work is also autobiographical. In the view of Pound scholar Carroll F. Terrell, it is a great religious poem, describing humanity's journey from hell to paradise, a "revelation of how divinity is manifested in the universe ... the kind of intelligence that makes the cherrystone become a cherry tree." The poet Allen Tate argued in 1949 that it is "about nothing at all ... a voice but no subject". Responding to A Draft of XXX Cantos (1930), F. R. Leavis criticized its "lack of form, grammar, principle and direction". The lack of form became a common criticism. Pound wrote in the final complete canto, "Canto CXVI" (116, first published in the Paris Review in 1962), that he could not "make it cohere", although a few lines later, referring to the universe: "it coheres all right / even if my notes do not cohere." According to Pound scholar Walter Baumann, the demigod of "Canto CXVI"—"And I am not a demigod"—is Heracles of Sophocles' Women of Trachis (450–425 BCE), who exclaims before he dies (based on Pound's translation): "SPLENDOUR, / IT ALL COHERES". "Canto CXVI" ends with the lines "a little light, like a rushlight / to lead back to splendour." Italy (1924–1939) Birth of the children The Pounds were unhappy in Paris. Dorothy complained about the winters and Ezra's health was poor. At one dinner in the Place de l'Odéon, a Surrealist guest high on drugs had tried to stab Pound in the back; Robert McAlmon had wrestled with the attacker, and the guests had managed to leave before the police arrived. For Pound the event underlined that their time in France was over. They decided to move to a quieter place, leaving in October 1924 for the seaside town of Rapallo in northern Italy. Hemingway wrote in a letter that Pound had "indulged in a small nervous breakdown" during the packing, leading to two days at the American Hospital of Paris in Neuilly. During this period the Pounds lived on Dorothy's income, supplemented by dividends from stock she had invested in. Pregnant by Pound, Olga Rudge followed the couple to Italy, and in July 1925 she gave birth to a daughter, Maria, in a hospital in Brixen. Rudge and Pound placed the baby with a German-speaking peasant woman in Gais, South Tyrol, whose own child had died and who agreed to raise Maria for 200 lire a month. Pound reportedly believed that artists ought not to have children, because in his view motherhood ruined women. According to Hadley Richardson, he took her aside before she and Hemingway left Paris for Toronto to have their child, telling her: "Well, I might as well say goodbye to you here and now because [the baby] is going to change you completely." At the end of December 1925 Dorothy went on holiday to Egypt, returning on 1 March, and in May the Pounds and Olga Rudge left Rapallo for Paris to attend a semi-private concert performance at the Salle Pleyel of Le Testament de Villon, a one-act opera Pound had composed ("nearly tuneless", according to Carpenter) with the musicians Agnes Bedford and George Antheil. Pound had hired two singers for the performance; Rudge was on violin, Pound played percussion, and Joyce, Eliot and Hemingway were in the audience. The couple stayed on in Paris after the performance; Dorothy was pregnant and wanted the baby to be born at the American hospital. Hemingway accompanied her there in a taxi for the birth of a son, Omar Pound, on 10 September 1926. (Ezra was an admirer of Fitzgerald's translation of Omar Khayyam.) Ezra signed the birth certificate the following day at Neuilly town hall and wrote to his father, "next generation (male) arrived. Both D & it appear to be doing well." He ended up in the American hospital himself for tests and, he told Olga, a "small operation". Dorothy took Omar to England, where she stayed for a year and thereafter visited him every summer. He was sent to live at first in Felpham, Sussex, with a former superintendent of Norland College, which trains nannies, and later became a boarder at Charterhouse. When Dorothy was in England with Omar during the summers, Ezra would spend the time with Olga. Olga's father helped her buy a house in Venice in 1928, and from 1930 she also rented the top floor of a house in Sant'Ambrogio, Caso 60, near the Pounds in Rapallo. The Exile, Dial poetry award In 1925 a new literary magazine, This Quarter, dedicated its first issue to Pound, including tributes from Hemingway and Joyce. In Hemingway's contribution, "Homage to Ezra", he wrote that Pound "devotes perhaps one fifth of his working time to writing poetry and in this twenty per cent of effort writes a large and distinguished share of the really great poetry that has been written by any American living or dead—or any Englishman living or dead or any Irishman who ever wrote English." With the rest of his time he tries to advance the fortunes, both material and artistic, of his friends. He defends them when they are attacked, he gets them into magazines and out of jail. He loans them money. He sells their pictures. He arranges concerts for them. He writes articles about them. He introduces them to wealthy women. He gets publishers to take their books. He sits up all night with them when they claim to be dying and he witnesses their wills. He advances them hospital expenses and dissuades them from suicide. And in the end a few of them refrain from knifing him at the first opportunity. Against Hemingway's positive view of Pound, Richard Aldington told Amy Lowell that year that Pound had been almost forgotten in England: "as the rest of us go up, he goes down", he wrote. In the U.S., Pound won the $2,000 Dial poetry award in 1927 for his translation of the Confucian classic Great Learning. Using the prize money, he launched his own literary magazine, The Exile, in March, but only four issues appeared. It did well in the first year, with contributions from Hemingway, E. E. Cummings, Basil Bunting, Yeats, William Carlos Williams, and Robert McAlmon. Some of the poorest work consisted of Pound's rambling editorials on Confucianism or in praise of Lenin, according to biographer J. J. Wilhelm. His parents visited him in Rapallo that year, seeing him for the first time since 1914. His father had retired, so they moved to Rapallo themselves, taking a small house, Villa Raggio, on a hill above the town. Antisemitism, social credit Pound's antisemitism can be traced to at least 1910, when he wrote in Patria Mia, his essays for the New Age: "The Jew alone can retain his detestable qualities, despite climatic conditions." The sentence was removed from the 1950 edition. In 1922 he apparently disliked that so many Jews were contributing to The Dial, and in 1939, when he read his poetry at Harvard, he was said to have included antisemitic poems in the program because he believed there were Jews in the audience. A friend of Pound's, the writer Lina Caico, wrote to him in March 1937 asking him to use his musical contacts to help a German-Jewish pianist in Berlin who did not have enough money to live on because of the Nuremberg Laws. Normally willing to help fellow artists, Pound replied (at length): "You hit a nice sore spot ... Let her try Rothschild and some of the bastards who are murdering 10 million anglo saxons in England." He nevertheless denied being an antisemite; he said he liked Spinoza, Montaigne, and Alexander del Mar. "What I am driving at", he wrote to Jackson Mac Low, "is that some kike might manage to pin an antisem label on me IF he neglected the mass of my writing." Pound came to believe that World War I had been caused by finance capitalism, which he called "usury", and that the Jews had been to blame. He believed the solution lay in C. H. Douglas's idea of social credit. Pound several times used the term Leihkapital (loan capital), equating it with Jews. Hitler had used the same term in Mein Kampf (1926). "Your enemy is Das Leihkapital," Pound wrote in a 1942 radio script aimed at the UK, "international, wandering Loan Capital. Your enemy is not Germany, your enemy is money on loan. And it would be better to be infected with typhus ... than to be infected with this blindness which prevents you from understanding HOW you are undermined ... The big Jew is so bound up with this Leihkapital that no one is able to unscramble that omelet." The argument ran that without "usury" and Jews, there would be no class conflict. In addition to presenting his economic ideas in hundreds of articles and in The Cantos, Pound wrote over 1,000 letters a year throughout the 1930s. From 1932 he wrote 180 articles for The New English Weekly, a social-credit journal founded by A. R. Orage, and 60 for Il Mare, a Rapallo newspaper. He wrote to Bill Bird that the press in Paris was controlled by the Comité des forges. He also came under the influence of Charles Maurras, who led the far-right Action Française. From around 1932 he began using a dating system that counted Benito Mussolini's March on Rome in October 1922 as year zero. Meeting Mussolini In December 1932 Pound requested a meeting with Mussolini after being hired to work on a film script about Italian fascism. He had asked to see him before—Olga Rudge had played privately for Mussolini on 19 February 1927—but this time he was given an audience. They met on 30 January 1933 at the Palazzo Venezia in Rome, the day Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany. When Pound handed Mussolini a copy of A Draft of XXX Cantos, Mussolini reportedly said of a passage Pound highlighted that it was not English. Pound said: "No, it's my idea of the way a continental Jew would speak English", to which Mussolini replied "How entertaining" (divertente). Pound also tried to discuss an 18-point draft of his economic theories. (Daniel Swift writes that this story has been "told and retold, and in each version, the details shift".) Pound recorded the meeting in "Canto XLI". "XI of our era"—1933, 11 years after the March on Rome—is an example of his new dating system. Pound wrote to C. H. Douglas that he had "never met anyone who seemed to get my ideas so quickly as the boss". The meeting left him feeling that he had become a person of influence, Redman writes, someone who had been consulted by a head of state. When he returned to Rapallo, he was greeted at the station by the town band. Immediately after the meeting he began writing The ABC of Economics and Jefferson and/or Mussolini: L'Idea Statale Fascism as I Have Seen It (1935). The latter was ready by the end of February, although he had trouble finding a publisher. In 1942 he told Italy's Royal Finance Office that he had written the book for propaganda purposes in Italy's interests. He also wrote articles praising Mussolini and fascism for T. S. Eliot's The Criterion in July 1933, the New York World Telegram in November 1933, the Chicago Tribune on 9 April 1934, and in 65 articles for the British-Italian Bulletin, published by the Italian Embassy in London. Pound's antisemitism deepened with the introduction in Italy of the racial laws in 1938, preceded by the publication in July that year of the Manifesto of Race. Numerous restrictions were introduced against Jews, who were required to register. Foreign Jews were stripped of their Italian citizenship, and on 18 September 1938 Mussolini declared Judaism "an irreconcilable enemy of fascism". Visit to America When Olivia Shakespear died in October 1938 in London, Dorothy asked Ezra to organize the funeral, where he saw their 12-year-old son, Omar, for the first time in eight years. He visited Eliot and Wyndham Lewis, who produced a famous portrait of Pound reclining. Believing he could stop America's involvement in World War II, Pound sailed for New York in April 1939 on the SS Rex in a first-class suite. Giving interviews on the deck in a tweed jacket, he told reporters that Mussolini wanted peace. In Washington, D.C. he attended a session of Congress, sitting in a section of the gallery reserved for relatives (because of Thaddeus Coleman Pound). He lobbied senators and congressmen, had lunch with the Polish ambassador, warning him not to trust the English or Winston Churchill, and asked to see the President but was told it could not be done. He took part in a poetry reading at Harvard, where he agreed to be recorded by the Department of Speech, and in July he received an honorary doctorate from Hamilton College, along with the radio commentator H. V. Kaltenborn. Kaltenborn, whom Pound referred to at the time as Kaltenstein, gave an anti-fascist speech after lunch ("dictatorships shall die, but democracies shall live"), which Pound interrupted loudly to the point where, according to one account, the college president had to intervene. Pound described this years later to Wyndham Lewis: "That was a music hall day, with a stage set/ only at a Kawledg Komencement wd/ one git in mouth-shot at that sort of wind-bag/ that fahrt Kaltenbourne." Pound sailed back to Italy a few days later on the SS Conte di Savoia. Between May and September 1939 Pound wrote 12 articles for the Japan Times (he became their "Italian correspondent"), which included the claim that "Democracy is now currently defined in Europe as a 'country run by Jews'". He discussed the "essential fairness of Hitler's war aims" and wrote that Churchill was a senile front for the Rothschilds. World War II and radio broadcasts (1939–1945) Letter-writing campaign When war broke out in September 1939, Pound began a letter-writing campaign to the politicians he had petitioned months earlier. On 18 June 1940, after the fall of France, he wrote to Senator Burton K. Wheeler: "I have read a regulation that only those foreigners are to be admitted to the U.S. who are deemed to be useful etc/. The dirtiest jews from Paris, Blum??" He explained that they were all a pox. To his publisher, James Laughlin, he wrote that "Roosevelt represents Jewry" and signed off with "Heil Hitler". He began calling Roosevelt "Jewsfeldt" or "Stinky Rooosenstein". In Meridiano di Roma he compared Hitler and Mussolini to Confucius. In Oswald Mosley's newspaper, Action, he wrote that the English were "a slave race governed by the House of Rothschild since Waterloo". By May 1940, according to the historian Matthew Feldman, the British government regarded Pound as "a principal supplier of information to the BUF [British Union of Fascists] from abroad". His literary agent in New York, John J. Slocum, urged him to return to writing poetry and literary criticism; instead, Pound sent Slocum political manifestos, which he declined to attempt to publish in the United States. Radio broadcasts Between 23 January 1941 and 28 March 1945, including during the Holocaust in Italy, Pound recorded or composed hundreds of broadcasts for Italian radio, mostly for EIAR (Radio Rome) and later for a radio station in the Salò Republic, the Nazi puppet state in northern and central Italy. Broadcast in English, and sometimes in Italian, German, and French, the EIAR program was transmitted to England, central Europe, and the United States. Styling himself "Dr Ezra Pound" (his only doctorate was the honorary one from Hamilton College), he attacked the United States, Roosevelt, Roosevelt's family, Churchill, and the Jews. He praised Hitler, recommended eugenics to "conserve the best of the race", and referred to Jews as "filth". The broadcasts were monitored by the United States Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service, and on 26 July 1943 the United States District Court for the District of Columbia indicted Pound in absentia for treason. According to Feldman, the Pound archives at Yale contain receipts for 195 payments from the Italian Ministry of Popular Culture from 22 April 1941 to 26 January 1944. Over 33 months, Pound received 250,000 lire (then equivalent to $12,500; $185,000 as of 2013). On 9–10 September 1943, the German Wehrmacht occupied northern and central Italy. Hitler appointed Mussolini head of a fascist puppet state, the Italian Social Republic or Salò Republic. Pound called it the "Republic of Utopia". SS officers began concentrating Jews in transit camps before deporting them to Auschwitz-Birkenau. Of the first group of 1,034 Jews to arrive in Auschwitz from Rome on 23 October 1943 839 were gassed. In Rome when the German occupation began, Pound headed north to Gais, on foot and by train, to visit his daughter, a journey of about . On or around 23 November 1943, he met Fernando Mezzasoma, the new Minister of Popular Culture, in Salò. Pound wrote to Dorothy from Salò asking if she could obtain a radio confiscated from the Jews to give to Rudge, so that Rudge could help with his work. From 1 December 1943 Pound began writing scripts for the state's new radio station. The following day he suggested to Alessandro Pavolini, secretary of the Republican Fascist Party, that book stores be legally obliged to showcase certain books, including The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (1903), a hoax document purporting to be a Jewish plan to dominate the world. "The arrest of Jews will create a wave of useless mercy," Pound wrote, "thus the need to disseminate the Protocols. The intellectuals are capable of a passion more durable than emotional, but they need to understand the reasons for a conflict." On 26 January 1945, in a script called "Corpses of Course" for the program Jerry's Front Calling, Pound wrote: "Why shouldn't there be one grand beano; wiping out Sieff and Kuhn and Loeb and Guggenheim and Stinkenfinger and the rest of the nazal bleaters?" Arrest for treason In May 1944 the German military, trying to secure the coast against the Allies, forced the Pounds to evacuate their seafront apartment in Rapallo. From then until the end of the war, the couple lived with Rudge in her home above Rapallo at Sant' Ambrogio. There were food shortages, no coffee, and no newspapers, telephones, or letters. According to Rudge, Ezra and Dorothy would spend their nights listening to the BBC. In addition to the radio scripts, Pound was writing for the newspaper Il Popolo di Alessandria. He wanted to write for the more reputable Corriere della Sera in Milan, but the editor regarded his Italian as "incomprehensible". Mussolini and his mistress, Clara Petacci, were shot by Italian partisans on 28 April 1945. Their bodies were displayed in the Piazzale Loreto in Milan, abused by the crowd, then left hanging upside down. "Thus Ben and la Clara a Milano / by the heels at Milano". On 3 May armed partisans arrived at Rudge's home to find Pound alone. He picked up the Confucian text Four Books and a Chinese–English dictionary and was taken to their headquarters in Zoagli, then at his request to the U.S. Counter Intelligence Corps headquarters in Genoa, where he was interrogated by FBI agent Frank L. Amprin. Pound asked to send a cable to President Truman to help negotiate a "just peace" with Japan. He wanted to make a final broadcast called "Ashes of Europe Calling", in which he would recommend not only peace with Japan, but American management of Italy, the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine, and leniency toward Germany. His requests were denied and the script was forwarded to J. Edgar Hoover. A few days later Amprin removed over 7,000 letters, articles and other documents from Rudge's home as evidence. On 8 May, the day Germany surrendered, Pound gave the Americans a further statement: I am not anti-Semitic, and I distinguish between the Jewish usurer and the Jew who does an honest day's work for a living. Hitler and Mussolini were simple men from the country. I think that Hitler was a Saint, and wanted nothing for himself. I think that he was fooled into anti-Semitism and it ruined him. That was his mistake. When you see the "mess" that Italy gets into by bumping off Mussolini, you will see why someone could believe in some of his efforts. Later that day he told an American reporter, Edd Johnson, that Hitler was "a Jeanne d'Arc ... Like many martyrs, he held extreme views". Mussolini was "a very human, imperfect character who lost his head". On 24 May he was transferred to the United States Army Disciplinary Training Center north of Pisa, where he was placed in one of the camp's outdoor steel cages, with tar paper covers, lit up at night by floodlights. Engineers reinforced his cage the night before he arrived in case fascist sympathizers tried to break him out. Pound lived in isolation in the heat, sleeping on the concrete, denied exercise and communication, apart from daily access to the chaplain. After three weeks, he stopped eating. He recorded what seemed to be a breakdown in "Canto LXXX", where Odysseus is saved from drowning by Leucothea: "hast'ou swum in a sea of air strip / through an aeon of nothingness, / when the raft broke and the waters went over me". Medical staff moved him out of the cage the following week. On 14 and 15 June he was examined by psychiatrists, after which he was transferred to his own tent. He began to write, drafting what became known as The Pisan Cantos. The existence of two sheets of toilet paper showing the first ten lines of "Canto LXXIV" in pencil suggests he started it while in the cage. United States (1945–1958) St. Elizabeths Hospital Pound arrived back in Washington, D.C. on 18 November 1945, two days before the start of the Nuremberg trials. Lt. Col. P. V. Holder, one of the escorting officers, wrote in an affidavit that Pound was "an intellectual 'crackpot'" who intended to conduct his own defense. Dorothy would not allow it; Pound wrote in a letter: "Tell Omar I favour a defender who has written a life of J. Adams and translated Confucius. Otherwise how CAN he know what it is about?" He was arraigned on 27 November on charges of treason, and on 4 December he was placed in a locked room in the psychiatric ward of Gallinger Hospital. Three court-appointed psychiatrists, including Winfred Overholser, superintendent of St. Elizabeths Hospital, decided that he was mentally unfit to stand trial. They found him "abnormally grandiose ... expansive and exuberant in manner, exhibiting pressure of speech, discursiveness and distractibility." A fourth psychiatrist appointed by Pound's lawyer initially thought he was a psychopath, which would have made him fit to stand trial. On 21 December 1945, as case no. 58,102, he was transferred to Howard Hall, St. Elizabeths' maximum security ward, where he was held in a single cell with peepholes. Visitors were admitted to the waiting room for 15 minutes at a time, while patients wandered around screaming. A hearing on 13 February 1946 concluded that he was of "unsound mind"; he shouted in court: "I never did believe in Fascism, God damn it; I am opposed to Fascism." Pound's lawyer, Julien Cornell, requested his release at a hearing in January 1947. As a compromise, Overholser moved him to the more comfortable Cedar Ward on the third floor of the east wing of St. Elizabeths' Center Building. In early 1948 he was moved again, this time to a larger room in Chestnut Ward. Tytell writes that Pound was in his element in Chestnut Ward. At last provided for, he was allowed to read, write, and receive visitors, including Dorothy for several hours a day. (In October 1946 Dorothy had been placed in charge of his "person and property".) His room had a typewriter, floor-to-ceiling book shelves, and bits of paper hanging on string from the ceiling with ideas for The Cantos. He had turned a small alcove on the ward into his living room, where he entertained friends and literary figures. It reached the point where he refused to discuss any attempt to have him released. The Pisan Cantos, Bollingen Prize James Laughlin of New Directions had Cantos LXXIV–LXXXIV, known as The Pisan Cantos, ready for publication in 1946 and gave Pound an advance copy, but Laughlin held back, waiting for the right time to publish. A group of Pound's friends—T. S. Eliot, E. E. Cummings, W. H. Auden, Allen Tate, and Joseph Cornell—met Laughlin in June 1948 to discuss how to get Pound released. They planned to have him awarded the first Bollingen Prize, a new national poetry award with $1,000 prize money donated by the Mellon family. The awards committee consisted of 15 fellows of the Library of Congress, including several of Pound's supporters, such as Eliot, Tate, Conrad Aiken, Katherine Anne Porter, and Theodore Spencer. The idea was that the Justice Department would be in an untenable position if Pound won a major award and was not released. Laughlin published The Pisan Cantos on 20 July 1948, and the following February the prize went to Pound. There were two dissenting voices, Katherine Garrison Chapin and Karl Shapiro; the latter said he could not vote for an antisemite because he was Jewish himself. Pound had apparently prepared a statement—"No comment from the Bug House"—but decided instead to stay silent. There was uproar. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette quoted critics who said that poetry cannot "convert words into maggots that eat at human dignity and still be good poetry". Robert Hillyer, a Pulitzer Prize winner and president of the Poetry Society of America, attacked the committee in The Saturday Review of Literature, telling journalists that he "never saw anything to admire, not one line, in Pound". Congressman Jacob K. Javits demanded an investigation into the awards committee. It was the last time the Library of Congress administered the prize. Diagnosis During a case conference at St. Elizabeths on 28 January 1946, six psychiatrists had concluded that Pound suffered from psychopathic personality disorder but was not psychotic. Present during the meeting, he decided to lie on the floor while the psychiatrists interviewed him. In 1952 the American Psychiatric Association published its first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-1), and St. Elizabeths began diagnosing patients according to its definitions. In July 1953 a psychiatrist added to Pound's notes that he probably suffered from narcissistic personality disorder. The main feature of Pound's personality, he wrote, was his "profound, incredible, over-weaning (sic) narcissism". A personality disorder, unlike conditions that give rise to psychosis, is not regarded as a mental illness, and the diagnosis would have made Pound fit to stand trial. On 31 May 1955, at the request of the hospital's superintendent Winfred Overholser, the diagnosis was changed to "psychotic disorder, undifferentiated", which is classified as mental illness. In 1966, after his release from St. Elizabeths, Pound was diagnosed with bipolar disorder. Mullins and Kasper While in St. Elizabeths, Pound would often decline to talk to psychiatrists with names he deemed Jewish (he called psychiatrists "kikiatrists"), and he apparently told Charles Olson: "I was a Zionist in Italy, but now I'm for pogroms, after what I've experienced in here (SLiz)." He advised visitors to read the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and he referred to any visitor he happened not to like as Jewish. In November 1953 he wrote to Olivia Rossetti Agresti that Hitler was "bit by dirty Jew mania for World Domination, as yu used to point out/ this WORST of German diseases was got from yr/ idiolized and filthy biblical bastards. Adolf clear on the baccilus of kikism/ that is on nearly all the other poisons.[sic] but failed to get a vaccine against that." Pound struck up a friendship with Eustace Mullins, apparently associated with the Aryan League of America and author of the 1961 biography This Difficult Individual, Ezra Pound. Even more damaging was his friendship with John Kasper, a Ku Klux Klan member who, after Brown v. Board of Education (a 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision mandating racial desegregation in public schools), set up a Citizens' Council chapter, the Seaboard White Citizens' Council in Washington. Members had to be white, supportive of racial segregation, and believers in the divinity of Jesus. Kasper wrote to Pound after admiring him at university, and the two became friends. In 1953 Kasper opened a far-right bookstore, "Make it New", at 169 Bleecker Street, Greenwich Village, that displayed Pound's work in the window. With Pound's cooperation, he and another Pound admirer, T. David Horton, set up Square Dollar Series, a publishing imprint that reprinted Pound's books and others he approved of. It became increasingly clear that Pound was schooling Kasper in the latter's pro-segregation activism. In January and February 1957 the New York Herald Tribune ran a series of articles on their relationship, after which the FBI began photographing Pound's visitors. One article alleged that some of Kasper's pamphlets had, as John Tytell put it, "a distinctly Poundian ring" to them. Kasper was jailed in 1956 over a speech he made in Clinton, Tennessee, and he was questioned about the 1957 bombing of the Hattie Cotton School in Nashville. After Pound left hospital in 1958, the men kept in touch; he wrote to Kasper on 17 April 1959: "Antisemitism is a card in the enemy program, don't play it. ... They RELY ON YOUR PLAYING IT." New Times articles Between late 1955 and early 1957, Pound wrote at least 80 unsigned or pseudonymous articles—"often ugly", Swift notes—for the New Times of Melbourne, a newspaper connected to the social-credit movement. Noel Stock, one of Pound's correspondents and early biographers, worked for the paper and published Pound's articles there. A 24-year-old radio reporter at the time, Stock first wrote to Pound in hospital after reading The Pisan Cantos. In the New Times in April 1956, Pound wrote: "Our Victorian forebears would have been greatly scandalized at the idea that one might not be free to study inherited racial characteristics," and "Some races are retentive, mainly of the least desirable bits of their barbaric past." There was a "Jewish-Communist plot", which he compared to syphilis. Equality was dismissed as "anti-biological nonsense". "There were no gas ovens in Italy", he wrote in April 1956; a month later he referred to the "fuss about Hitler". On 10 August 1956: "It is perfectly well known that the fuss about 'de-segregation' in the United States has been started by Jews." Instead, America needed "race pride". Using pseudonyms, he sent his articles directly to Stock, so that the newspaper's editor may not have realized they had all been written by Pound. Stock sent Pound copies of the published articles, which he would distribute to his followers. He contributed similar material to other publications, including Edge, which Stock founded in October 1956. Stock called Edge the magazine of the "international Poundian underground". Release Pound's friends continued to try to get him out of St. Elizabeths. In 1948, in an effort to present his radio broadcasts as harmless, Olga Rudge self-published six of them (on cultural topics only) as If This Be Treason. She visited him twice, in 1952 and 1955, but could not convince him to be more assertive about his release. In 1950 she had written to Hemingway to complain that Pound's friends had not done enough. Hemingway and Rudge did not like each other. He told Dorothy in 1951 that "the person who makes least sense ...in all this is Olga Rudge". In what John Cohassey called a "controlled, teeth-gritting response", Hemingway replied to Rudge that he would pardon Pound if he could, but that Pound had "made the rather serious mistake of being a traitor to his country, and temporarily he must lie in the bed he made". He ended by saying "To be even more blunt, I have always loved Dorothy, and still do." Four years later, shortly after he won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954, Hemingway told Time magazine ..."I believe this would be a good year to release poets." The poet Archibald MacLeish asked him in June 1957 to write a letter on Pound's behalf. Hemingway believed Pound would not stop making inappropriate statements and friendships, but he signed MacLeish's letter anyway and pledged $1,500 to be handed to Pound upon his release. In an interview for the Paris Review in early 1958, Hemingway said that Pound should be released and Kasper jailed. Several publications began campaigning in 1957. Le Figaro published an appeal titled "The Lunatic at St Elizabeths". The New Republic, Esquire, and The Nation followed suit. The Nation argued that Pound was a "sick and vicious old man", but that he had rights. In 1958 MacLeish hired Thurman Arnold, a prestigious lawyer who ended up charging no fee, to file a motion to dismiss the 1945 indictment. Overholser, the hospital's superintendent, supported the application with an affidavit stating Pound was permanently and incurably insane, and that confinement served no therapeutic purpose. The motion was heard on 18 April 1958 by Chief Judge Bolitha Laws, who had committed Pound to St. Elizabeths in 1945. The Justice Department did not oppose the motion, and Pound was discharged on 7 May. Italy (1958–1972) Depression Pound and Dorothy arrived in Naples on the on 9 July 1958, where Pound was photographed giving a fascist salute to the waiting press. When asked when he had been released from the mental hospital, he replied: "I never was. When I left the hospital I was still in America, and all America is an insane asylum." They were accompanied by a young teacher Pound had met in hospital, Marcella Spann, ostensibly acting as his secretary. Disembarking at Genoa, the group arrived three days later at Schloss Brunnenburg, near Merano in South Tyrol, to live with Mary, where Pound met his grandchildren for the first time. Dorothy had usually ignored his affairs, but she used her legal power over his royalties to make sure Spann was seen off, sent back to the United States in October 1959. By December 1959 Pound was mired in depression. According to the writer Michael Reck, who visited him several times at St. Elizabeths, Pound was a changed man; he said little and called his work "worthless". In a 1960 interview in Rome with Donald Hall for Paris Review, he said: "You—find me—in fragments." He paced up and down during the three days it took to complete the interview, never finishing a sentence, bursting with energy one minute, then sagging, and at one point seemed about to collapse. Hall said it was clear that he "doubted the value of everything he had done in his life". Those close to him thought he was suffering from dementia, and in mid-1960 he spent time in a clinic when his weight dropped. He picked up again, but by early 1961 he had a urinary tract infection. Dorothy felt unable to look after him, so he went to live with Olga Rudge, first in Rapallo then in Venice; Dorothy mostly stayed in London after that with Omar. In 1961 Pound attended a meeting in Rome in honor of Oswald Mosley, who was visiting Italy. His health continued to decline, and his friends were dying: Wyndham Lewis in 1957, Ernest Hemingway in 1961 (Hemingway shot himself), E. E. Cummings in 1962, William Carlos Williams in 1963, and T. S. Eliot in 1965. In 1963 he told an interviewer, Grazia Levi: "I spoil everything I touch. ... All my life I believed I knew nothing, yes, knew nothing. And so words became devoid of meaning." He attended Eliot's funeral in London and visited W. B. Yeats' widow in Dublin (Yeats died in 1939). In 1966 he was admitted to the Genoa School of Medicine's psychiatric hospital for an evaluation after prostate surgery. His notes said he had psychomotor retardation, insomnia, depression, and he believed he had been "contaminated by microbes". According to a psychiatrist who treated him, Pound had previously been treated with electroconvulsive therapy. This time he was given imipramine and responded well. The doctors diagnosed bipolar disorder. Two years later he attended the opening of an exhibition in New York featuring his blue-inked version of Eliot's The Waste Land. He went on to Hamilton College and received a standing ovation. Meeting Ginsberg, Reck, and Russell In the restaurant of the Pensione Cici in Venice in 1967, Pound told Allen Ginsberg, Michael Reck, and Peter Russell that his poems were "a lot of double talk" and made no sense, and that his writing was "a mess", "stupid and ignorant all the way through". Reck wrote about the meeting in Evergreen Review the following year. "At seventy I realized that instead of being a lunatic, I was a moron," Pound reportedly said. He "looked very morose" and barely spoke: "There is nothing harder than conversing with Pound nowadays," Reck wrote. Pound offered a carefully worded rejection of his antisemitism, according to Reck. When Ginsberg reassured Pound that he had "shown us the way", he is said to have replied: "Any good I've done has been spoiled by bad intentions—the preoccupation with irrelevant and stupid things." Reck continued: "Then very slowly, with emphasis, surely conscious of Ginsberg's being Jewish: 'But the worst mistake I made was that stupid, suburban prejudice of anti-Semitism.'" Death Shortly before his death in 1972, an American Academy of Arts and Sciences committee, which included his publisher James Laughlin, proposed that Pound be awarded the Emerson-Thoreau Medal. After a storm of protest, the academy's council opposed it by 13 to 9. In the foreword of a Faber & Faber volume of his prose, he wrote in July: "In sentences referring to groups or races 'they' should be used with great care. re USURY: / I was out of focus, taking a symptom for a cause. / The cause is AVARICE." On his 87th birthday, on 30 October 1972, he was too weak to leave his bedroom. The next night he was admitted to the San Giovanni e Paolo Civil Hospital in Venice, where he died in his sleep on 1 November of "sudden blockage of the intestine". Alerted by telegram, Dorothy Pound, who was living in a care home near Cambridge, England, requested a Protestant funeral in Venice. Telegrams were sent via American embassies in Rome and London, and the consulate in Milan, but Rudge would not change the plans she had already made for the morning of 3 November. Omar Pound flew to Venice as soon as he could, with Peter du Sautoy of Faber & Faber, but he arrived too late. Four gondoliers dressed in black rowed Pound's body to Venice's municipal cemetery, Isola di San Michele, where after a Protestant service he was buried, near Diaghilev and Stravinsky, with other non-Italian Christians. According to Hugh Kenner, Pound had wanted to be buried in Idaho with his bust by Henri Gaudier-Brzeska on his grave. Dorothy Pound died in England the following year, aged 87. Olga Rudge died in 1996, aged 100, and was buried next to Pound. Critical reception Rehabilitation efforts, scholarship After the Bollingen Prize in 1949, Pound's friends made every effort to rehabilitate him. James Laughlin's New Directions Publishing published his Selected Poems, with an introduction by Eliot, and a censored selection of The Cantos. Ralph Fletcher Seymour published Patria Mia (written around 1912) to show that Pound was an American patriot. In advertisements, magazine articles, and critical introductions, Pound's friends and publishers attributed his antisemitism and fascism to mental illness. Literary scholar Betsy Erkkila writes that no one was more important to Pound's rehabilitation than Hugh Kenner, who was introduced to Pound by Marshall McLuhan in St. Elizabeths in May 1948, when Kenner was 25. Kenner's The Poetry of Ezra Pound (1951) adopted a New Critical approach, where all that mattered was the work itself. New Directions and Faber & Faber published Ezra Pound: Translations in 1953, introduced by Kenner, and the following year Literary Essays of Ezra Pound, introduced by Eliot. The first PhD dissertation on Pound was completed in 1948, and by 1970 there were around ten a year. Kenner's The Pound Era (1971), which overlooked the fascism, antisemitism, World War II, treason, and the Bollingen Award, effectively equated Pound with modernism. Pound scholar Leon Surette argued that Kenner's approach was hagiographic. He included in this approach Caroll F. Terrell's Paideuma: A Journal Devoted to Ezra Pound Scholarship, founded in 1972 and edited by Kenner and Eva Hesse, and Terrell's two-volume A Companion to the Cantos of Ezra Pound (1980–1984). In 1971 Terrell founded the National Poetry Foundation to focus on Pound, and organized conferences on Pound in 1975, 1980, 1985, and 1990. Following Eustace Mullins' biography, This Difficult Individual, Ezra Pound (1961), was Life of Ezra Pound (1970) by Noel Stock. A former reporter, Stock was one of the publishers of Pound's newspaper articles in the 1950s, including his antisemitism. Ronald Bush's The Genesis of Ezra Pound's Cantos (1976) became the first critical study of The Cantos. Several significant biographies appeared in the 1980s: J. J. Wilhelm's three-volume work (1985–1994), beginning with The American Roots of Ezra Pound; John Tytell's Ezra Pound: The Solitary Volcano (1987); and Humphrey Carpenter's 1005-page A Serious Character (1988). A. David Moody's three-volume Ezra Pound: Poet (2007–2015) combines biography with literary criticism. Studies that examine Pound's relationships with the far right include Robert Casillo's The Genealogy of Demons (1988); Tim Redman's Ezra Pound and Italian Fascism (1999); Leon Surette's Pound in Purgatory (1999); Matthew Feldman's Ezra Pound's Fascist Propaganda, 1935–45 (2013); and Alec Marsh's John Kasper and Ezra Pound (2015). Legacy Much of Pound's legacy lies in his advancement of some of the best-known modernist writers of the early 20th century, particularly between 1910 and 1925. In addition to Eliot, Joyce, Lewis, Frost, Williams, Hemingway, H.D., Aldington, and Aiken, he befriended and helped Cummings, Bunting, Ford, Marianne Moore, Louis Zukofsky, Jacob Epstein, Margaret Anderson, George Oppen, and Charles Olson. Beyond this, his legacy is mixed. He was a strong lyricist with an "ear" for words; his Times obituary said he had a "faultless sense of cadence". According to Ira Nadel, he "overturned poetic meter, literary style, and the state of the long poem". Nadel cited the importance of Pound's editing of The Waste Land, the publication of Ulysses, and his role in developing of Imagism. Hugh Witemeyer argued that Imagism was "probably the most important single movement" in 20th-century English-language poetry, because it affected all the leading poets of Pound's generation and the two generations after him. According to Hugh Kenner in 1951, although no great contemporary writer was less read than Pound, there was no one who could "over and over again appeal more surely, through sheer beauty of language" to people who would otherwise rather talk about poets than read them. Against this, Robert Conquest argued in 1979 that critics were responsible for having promoted Pound despite his "minimal talent", which was "grossly exaggerated". "This is an accusation less against the fantastic arrogance of Pound", he wrote, "than against the narrow-minded obscurantism of the departments of English and the critical establishment who have set up a system of apologetics which the slyest Jesuit of the seventeenth century would have baulked at." According to Samuel Putnam, those who respected Pound's poetry were less likely to respect his prose or work as a critic. The outrage over his collaboration with the Axis powers was so deep that it dominated the discussion. "A greater calamity cannot befall the art", Arthur Miller wrote in December 1945, "than that Ezra Pound, the Mussolini mouthpiece, should be welcomed back as an arbiter of American letters ..." Over the decades, according to Redman, critics argued that Pound was not really a poet or not really a fascist, or that he was a fascist but his poetry is not fascistic, or that there was an evil Pound and a good Pound. The American poet Elizabeth Bishop, 1956 Pulitzer Prize winner and one of his hospital visitors—Pound called her "Liz Bish"—reflected the ambivalence in her poem "Visits to St. Elizabeths" (1957). "This is the time / of the tragic man / that lies in the house of Bedlam." As the poem progresses, the tragic man, never named, becomes the talkative man; the honored man; the old, brave man; the cranky man; the cruel man; the busy man; the tedious man; the poet, the man; and, finally, the wretched man. Selected works (1908). A Lume Spento. Venice: A. Antonini (poems, privately printed). (1908). A Quinzaine for This Yule. London: Pollock (poems, privately printed); and Elkin Mathews. (1909). Personae. London: Elkin Mathews (poems). (1909). Exultations. London: Elkin Mathews (poems). (1910). The Spirit of Romance. London: J. M. Dent & Sons (prose). (1910). Provenca. Boston: Small, Maynard and Company (poems). (1911). Canzoni. London: Elkin Mathews (poems) (1912). The Sonnets and Ballate of Guido Cavalcanti Boston: Small, Maynard and Company (translations; cheaper edition destroyed by fire, London: Swift & Co). (1912). Ripostes. S. Swift, London, (poems; first mention of Imagism) (1915). Cathay. Elkin Mathews (poems; translations) (1916). Gaudier-Brzeska. A Memoir. London: John Lane (prose). (1916). Certain Noble Plays of Japan: From the Manuscripts of Ernest Fenollosa, chosen by Ezra Pound. (1916) with Ernest Fenollosa. "Noh", or, Accomplishment: A Study of the Classical Stage of Japan. London: Macmillan and Co. (1916). Lustra. London: Elkin Mathews (poems). (1917). Twelve Dialogues of Fontenelle (translations). (1917). Lustra. New York: Alfred A. Knopf (poems, with the first "Three Cantos"). (1918). Pavannes and Divisions New York: Alfred A. Knopf (prose). (1918). Quia Pauper Amavi London: Egoist Press (poems). (1919). The Fourth Canto. London: Ovid Press (poem). (1920). Hugh Selwyn Mauberley. London: Ovid Press (poem). (1920). Umbra. London: Elkin Mathews (poems and translations). (1920) with Ernest Fenollosa. Instigations: Together with an Essay on the Chinese Written Character. New York: Boni & Liveright (prose). (1921). Poems, 1918–1921. New York: Boni & Liveright. (1922). Remy de Gourmont: The Natural Philosophy of Love. New York: Boni & Liveright (translation). (1923). Indiscretions, or, Une revue des deux mondes. Paris: Three Mountains Press. (1924) as William Atheling. Antheil and the Treatise on Harmony. Paris (essays). (1925). A Draft of XVI Cantos. Paris: Three Mountains Press. The first collection of The Cantos. (1926). Personae: The Collected Poems of Ezra Pound. New York: Boni & Liveright. (1928). A Draft of the Cantos 17–27. London: John Rodker. (1928). Selected Poems. Edited and with an introduction by T. S. Eliot. London: Faber & Faber. (1928). Ta Hio: The Great Learning, newly rendered into the American language. Seattle: University of Washington Bookstore (translation). (1930). A Draft of XXX Cantos. Paris: Nancy Cunard's Hours Press. (1930). Imaginary Letters. Paris: Black Sun Press. Eight essays from the Little Review, 1917–18. (1931). How to Read. Harmsworth (essays). (1932). Guido Cavalcanti Rime. Genoa: Edizioni Marsano (translations). (1933). ABC of Economics. London: Faber & Faber (essays). (1934). Eleven New Cantos: XXXI–XLI. New York: Farrar & Rinehart (poems). (1934). Homage to Sextus Propertius. London: Faber & Faber (poems). (1934). ABC of Reading. New Haven: Yale University Press (essays). (1934). Make It New. London: Faber & Faber (essays). (1935). Alfred Venison's Poems: Social Credit Themes by the Poet of Titchfield Street. London: Stanley Nott, Ltd. Pamphlets on the New Economics, No. 9 (essays). (1935). Jefferson and/or Mussolini. London: Stanley Nott. (essays). (1935). Social Credit: An Impact. London: Stanley Nott. (essays). Repr.: Peter Russell (1951). Money Pamphlets by Pound, no. 5, London. (1936) with Ernest Fenollosa. The Chinese Written Character as a Medium for Poetry. London: Stanley Nott. (1937). The Fifth Decade of Cantos. New York: Farrar & Rinehart (poems). (1937). Polite Essays. London: Faber & Faber (essays). (1937). Confucius: Digest of the Analects, edited and published by Giovanni Scheiwiller, (translations) (1938). Guide to Kulchur. New York: New Directions. (1939). What Is Money For?. Greater Britain Publications (essays). Money Pamphlets by Pound, no. 3. London: Peter Russell. (1940). Cantos LXII–LXXI. New Directions, New York (John Adams Cantos 62–71). (1942). Carta da Visita di Ezra Pound. Edizioni di lettere d'oggi. Rome. English translation by John Drummond: A Visiting Card. Money Pamphlets by Pound, no. 4. London: Peter Russell, 1952 (essays). (1944). L'America, Roosevelt e le cause della guerra presente. Casa editrice della edizioni popolari, Venice. English translation, by John Drummond: America, Roosevelt and the Causes of the Present War, Money Pamphlets by Pound, no. 6, Peter Russell, London 1951 (1944). Introduzione alla Natura Economica degli S.U.A.. Casa editrice della edizioni popolari. Venice. English translation An Introduction to the Economic Nature of the United States, by Carmine Amore. Repr.: Peter Russell, Money Pamphlets by Pound, London 1950 (essay) (1944). Orientamenti. Casa editrice dalla edizioni popolari. Venice (prose) (1944). Oro et lavoro: alla memoria di Aurelio Baisi. Moderna, Rapallo. English translation: Gold and Work, Money Pamphlets by Pound, no. 2, Peter Russell, London 1952 (essays) (1948). If This Be Treason. Siena: privately printed for Olga Rudge by Tip Nuova (original drafts of six of Pound's Radio Rome broadcasts) (1948). The Pisan Cantos. New York: New Directions Publishing (Cantos 74–84) (1948). The Cantos of Ezra Pound (includes The Pisan Cantos). New Directions, poems (1949). Elektra (started in 1949, first performed 1987), a play by Ezra Pound and Rudd Fleming (1950). Seventy Cantos. London: Faber & Faber. (1950). Patria Mia. Chicago: R. F. Seymour (reworked New Age articles, 1912–1913). (1951). Confucius: The Great Digest and Unwobbling Pivot. New York: New Directions (translation). (1951). Confucius: Analects (John) Kaspar & (David) Horton, Square $ Series, New York (translation). (1954). The Classic Anthology Defined by Confucius. Harvard University Press (translations) (1954). Lavoro ed Usura. All'insegna del pesce d'oro. Milan (essays) (1955). Section: Rock-Drill, 85–95 de los Cantares. All'insegna del pesce d'oro, Milan (poems) (1956). Sophocles: The Women of Trachis. A Version by Ezra Pound. Neville Spearman, London (translation) (1957). Brancusi. Milan (essay) (1959). Thrones: 96–109 de los Cantares. New York: New Directions (poems). (1968). Drafts and Fragments: Cantos CX–CXVII. New York: New Directions (poems). See also John Amery Axis Sally (Mildred Gillars, Susan Sweney, Rita Zucca) Lord Haw-Haw/William Joyce Explanatory notes Citations Works cited Adams, Stephen J. (2005). "Hugh Selwyn Mauberley". In Demetres P. Tryphonopoulos and Stephen Adams (eds.) The Ezra Pound Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood. Albright, Daniel (2001) [1999]. "Early Cantos: I–XLI", in Ira Nadel (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Ezra Pound. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 59–91. Aldington, Richard (1941). Life for Life's Sake: A Book of Reminiscences. New York: The Viking Press. Alexander, Michael (1979). The Poetic Achievement of Ezra Pound. Berkeley: University of California Press. Alexander, Michael (1997). "Ezra Pound as Translator". Translation and Literature. 6(1), 23–30. Arrowsmith, Rupert Richard (2011). Modernism and the Museum: Asian, African, and Pacific Art and the London Avant-Garde. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bacigalupo, Massimo (2001) [1999]. "Pound as Critic". In Ira Nadel (ed.). 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London: Elkin Mathews. Pound, Ezra (1910). The Spirit of Romance. London: J. M. Dent & Sons. Pound, Ezra (1912). Ripostes. London: Stephen Swift & Co Ltd. Pound, Ezra (March 1913). "A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste". Poetry. I(6), 200–206. Pound, Ezra (April 1913). "In a Station of the Metro". Poetry. II(1), 40. Pound, Ezra (ed.) (1914). Des Imagistes. New York: Albert and Charles Boni. Pound, Ezra (June 1914). "Vortex". BLAST, edited by Wyndham Lewis, no. 1. Pound, Ezra (1915). Cathay. London: Elkin Mathews. Pound, Ezra (1916). Gaudier-Brzeska: A Memoir. London and New York: John Lane, The Bodley Head. Pound, Ezra (June 1917). "Three Cantos: I". Poetry. X(III), 113–121. Pound, Ezra (July 1917). "Three Cantos: II". Poetry. X(IV), 180–188. Pound, Ezra (August 1917)]. "Three Cantos: III". Poetry. X(V), 248–254. Pound, Ezra (1918). "A Retrospect". Pavannes and Divisions. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 95–111. Pound, Ezra (1920). "Hugh Selwyn Mauberley". London: The Ovid Press. Pound, Ezra (1934). "Cavalcanti". Make It New. London: Faber & Faber, 345–407. Pound, Ezra (Jan–Mar 1947). "Canto LXXVI". The Sewanee Review. 55(1), 56–67. Pound, Ezra (Summer Fall 1962). "Canto 116". Paris Review. 28, 14–16. Pound, Ezra (1970) [1967]. Pound/Joyce: The Letters of Ezra Pound to James Joyce. Edited by Forrest Read. New York: New Directions Publishing. Pound, Ezra (1974) [June 1914]. "How I Began". In Grace Schulman (ed.). Ezra Pound: A Collection of Criticism. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 23–26. Pound, Ezra (1990) [1926]. Personae: The Shorter Poems of Ezra Pound. Revised edition. Edited by Lea Baechler and A. Walter Litz. New York: New Directions Publishing. Pound, Ezra (1996) [1970]. The Cantos of Ezra Pound. New York: New Directions Publishing. Pound, Ezra (2003a). Poems and Translations. New York: Library of America. Pound, Ezra (2003b) [1948]. The Pisan Cantos. Edited by Richard Sieburth. New York: New Directions Books. Pound, Omar and Litz, A. Walton (1984). Ezra Pound and Dorothy Shakespear. Their Letters: 1909–1914. New York: New Directions Publishing. }} Pound, Omar and Spoo, Robert (1999). Ezra and Dorothy Pound: Letters in Captivity, 1945–1946. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Preda, Roxana (2005a). "Economics". In Demetres P. Tryphonopoulos and Stephen Adams (eds.). The Ezra Pound Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 87–89. Preda, Roxana (2005b). "Economics: Usury". In Demetres P. Tryphonopoulos and Stephen Adams (eds.). The Ezra Pound Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 89–90. Punch magazine (January–June 1909). Volume 136. Putnam, Samuel (1947). Paris Was Our Mistress: Memoirs of a Lost and Found Generation. New York: Viking Press. Qian, Zhaoming (2000). "Pound and Chinese Art in the 'British Museum Era'". In Dennis, Helen M. (ed). Ezra Pound and Poetic Influence. The Official Proceedings of the 17th International Ezra Pound Conference. Amsterdam and Atlanta: Rodopi, pp. 100–113. Reck, Michael (June 1968). "A Conversation between Ezra Pound and Allen Ginsberg". Evergreen Review. 12 (55): 27–29, 84. Reck, Michael (9 October 1986). "An Exchange on Ezra Pound". The New York Review of Books. Redman, Tim (1991). Ezra Pound and Italian Fascism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Redman, Tim (2001) [1999]. "Pound's politics and economics". In Ira Nadel (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Ezra Pound. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 249–263. Reynolds, Michael (2000) [1999]. Hemingway: The Final Years. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Ricks, Christopher (1988). T. S. Eliot and Prejudice. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Rossi, Romolo (2008). "A Psychiatrist's Recollections of Ezra Pound". Quaderni di Palazzo Serra. 15, 144–149. Sarfatti, Michele (2006). The Jews in Mussolini's Italy: From Equality to Persecution. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press. Sandburg, Carl (February 1916). "The Work of Ezra Pound". Poetry. Sieburth, Richard (August 1979). "Review: He Do the Enemy in Different Voices". Poetry. 134(5), 292–302. Sieburth, Richard (2003). "Introduction". In Ezra Pound. The Pisan Cantos. New York: New Directions Books, ix–xliii. Slatin, Myles (October 1955). "More by Ezra Pound". The Yale University Library Gazette. 30(2), 74–80. Spoo, Robert (2005). "Cravens, Margaret (1881–1912)". In Demetres P. Tryphonopoulos and Stephen Adams (eds.). The Ezra Pound Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 67. Stein, Gertrude (1933). The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas. New York: The Literary Guild. Stoicheff, Peter (Spring 1986)."The Composition and Publication History of Ezra Pound's Drafts & Fragments"]. Twentieth Century Literature. 32(1), 78–94. Stoicheff, Peter (1995). The Hall of Mirrors: Drafts & Fragments and the End of Ezra Pound's Cantos. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. Stock, Noel (1970). The Life of Ezra Pound. New York: Pantheon Books. Surette, Leon and Tryphonopoulos, Demetres (2005). "'With usura hath no man a house of good stone' (Pound, Canto 45): An Interview with Leon Surette". ESC: English Studies in Canada. Swift, Daniel (2017). The Bughouse: The Poetry, Politics, and Madness of Ezra Pound. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Tate, Allen (1955). "Ezra Pound and the Bollingen Prize". In Allen Tate (ed.). The Man Of Letters In The Modern World. New York: Meridian Books, 264–267. Terrell, Carroll F. (1993) [1980–1984]. A Companion to The Cantos of Ezra Pound. Berkeley: University of California Press. Thacker, Andrew (2018) [2010]. The Imagist Poets. Tavistock: Northcote House Publishers. Torrey, Edwin Fuller (1992) [1984]. The Roots of Treason and the Secret of St. Elizabeths. Bethesda, MD: Lucas Books. Tremblay, Tony (Fall & Winter 1998). "The Literary Occult in the Letters of Marshall McLuhan and Ezra Pound"]. Paideuma: Modern and Contemporary Poetry and Poetics. 27(2/3), 107–127. Tryphonopoulous, Demetres and Dunton, Sara (2019). "To Translate or Not To Translate? Pound's Prosodic Provocations in Hugh Selwyn Mauberley". In Lynn Kozak, Miranda Hickman (eds.). The Classics in Modernist Translation. London and New York: Bloomsbury. Tytell, John (1987). Ezra Pound: The Solitary Volcano. New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday. Wallace, Emily Mitchell (2010). "America". In Ira B. Nadel (ed.). Ezra Pound in Context. New York: Cambridge University Press, 202–220. Webb, Clive (2011). Rabble Rousers: The American Far Right in the Civil Rights Era. Athens: University of Georgia Press. Wilhelm, James J. (1985a). The American Roots of Ezra Pound. New York: Garland Publishing, 1985. Wilhelm, James J. (1985b). "Pounds's four fascinating grandparents". Paideuma: Modern and Contemporary Poetry and Poetics. 14(2/3), Fall & Winter, 377–384. Wilhelm, James J. (1990). Ezra Pound in London and Paris, 1908–1925. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press. Wilhelm, James J. (1994). Ezra Pound: The Tragic Years 1925–1972. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press. Wilson, Peter (2014) [1997]. A Preface to Ezra Pound. Abingdon and New York: Routledge. Witemeyer, Hugh (1981) [1969]. The Poetry of Ezra Pound: Forms and Renewal 1908–1920. Berkeley: University of California Press. Witemeyer, Hugh (2001) [1999]. "Early Poetry 1908–1920". In Ira Nadel (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Ezra Pound. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 43–58. Witemeyer, Hugh (2005a). "A Lume Spento". In Demetres P. Tryphonopoulos and Stephen Adams (eds.) The Ezra Pound Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 185–186. Witemeyer, Hugh (2005b). "A Quinzaine for This Yule". In Demetres P. Tryphonopoulos and Stephen Adams (eds.) The Ezra Pound Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 249. Yao, Steven G. (2010). "Translation", Ira B. Nadel (ed.) in Ezra Pound in Context. New York: Cambridge University Press. Further reading Articles Caldwell, Christopher (15 March 1999). "The Poet as Con Artist". The Weekly Standard. Campbell, James (17 May 2008). "Home from home". The Guardian. Ellison, Michael (27 October 1999). "Jew-hating Ezra Pound barred from poets' corner". The Guardian. Feldman, Matthew (2009). "Make It Crude: Ezra Pound's Antisemitic Propaganda for the BUF and PNF". Holocaust Studies. 15(1–2), 59–77. Mertens, Richard (April 2001). "Letter by letter". University of Chicago Magazine. Ormsby, Eric (7 July 2017). "Bedlam salon". Times Literary Supplement. Orwell, George (May 1949). "The Question of the Pound Award". The Partisan Review, 517. Also in Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, Ian (eds.). (1968). George Orwell: In Front of Your Nose: 1945–1950. Volume IV. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 490–491. Sokol, B. J. (December 1976). "What Went Wrong between Robert Frost and Ezra Pound". The New England Quarterly. 49(4), 521–541. Wertham, Fredric (Winter 2000) [1949]. "The Road to Rapallo: A Psychiatric Study". American Journal of Psychotherapy. 54(1), 102–115. Wheatley, David (13 May 2006). "The vain theories of a village explainer". The Irish Times. Audio and video Ezra Pound recordings. PennSound. University of Pennsylvania. "The Four Steps" (recording of Pound). BBC Home Service, 21 June 1958. Hammer, Langdon (February 2007). Lecture on Ezra Pound. Yale University. Sieburth, Richard (15 March 2013). "The Voice in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" (discusses recordings of Pound). Woodberry Poetry Room. Harvard University. Books Desai, Meghnad (2006). The Route of All Evil: The Political Economy of Ezra Pound. London: Faber & Faber. Eliot, T. S. (1917). Ezra Pound: His Metric and his Poetry. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. McDiarmid, Lucy (2014). Poets & the Peacock Dinner: The Literary History of a Meal. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Russell, Peter (ed.) (1950). An Examination of Ezra Pound. New York: New Directions (essays by Eliot, Sitwell, Tate, Hemingway, and others). Surette, Leon (1999). Pound in Purgatory: From Economic Radicalism to Anti-Semitism. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Witemeyer, Hugh (ed.) (1996). Pound/Williams: Selected letters of Ezra Pound and William Carlos Williams. New York: New Directions. External links The Ezra Pound Society Ezra Pound papers; photographs; and William Bird Ezra Pound papers. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Yale University. "Selected World War II Broadcasts". University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. "Ezra Pound collection". Simon Fraser University. "Ezra Pound collection, 1911–1920". Emory University. Ezra Pound papers, 1915–1959. Columbia University Libraries. "Ezra Pound". Federal Bureau of Investigation. "Frequently requested records: Ezra Pound". United States Department of Justice. Archives of the New Age. 1885 births 1972 deaths 20th-century American essayists 20th-century American male musicians 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American poets 20th-century translators American anti-capitalists American anti-communists American art critics American art historians American classical composers American collaborators with Fascist Italy American collaborators with Nazi Germany American conspiracy theorists American cultural critics American expatriates in England American expatriates in France American expatriates in Italy American fascists American historians American literary critics American magazine editors American male classical composers American male essayists American male non-fiction writers American modernist poets American opera composers American pamphleteers American people of English descent American prisoners and detainees American sinologists American social crediters American translators American white supremacists Anti-Masonry Antisemitism in Italy Bollingen Prize recipients Burials at Isola di San Michele Chinese–English translators Deaths from bowel obstruction English-language poets Epic poets Fascist writers Hamilton College (New York) alumni Historians of philosophy Imagists Literary theorists Lost Generation writers Male opera composers Nazi propagandists People declared mentally unfit for court People from Cheltenham, Pennsylvania People from Felpham People from Hailey, Idaho People of the Italian Social Republic People with bipolar disorder People with narcissistic personality disorder Philosophers of art Philosophers of economics Philosophers of history Philosophers of language Philosophers of social science Political philosophers Prisoners and detainees of the United States military Social critics Social philosophers Theorists on Western civilization Translators to English University of Pennsylvania alumni Vorticists Wabash College faculty Wadsworth family Writers about activism and social change Writers from Idaho People from Idaho Writers from Philadelphia

44984

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapellmeister

Kapellmeister

(, also , ) from German Kapelle (chapel) and Meister (master), literally "master of the chapel choir" designates the leader of an ensemble of musicians. Originally used to refer to somebody in charge of music in a chapel, the term has evolved considerably in its meaning and is today used for denoting the leader of a musical ensemble, often smaller ones used for TV, radio, and theatres. Historical usage In German-speaking countries during the approximate period 1500–1800, the word Kapellmeister often designated the director of music for a monarch or nobleman. For English speakers, it is this sense of the term that is most often encountered, since it appears frequently in biographical writing about composers who worked in German-speaking countries. During that period, in Italy, the position (Italian: maestro di capella) largely referred to directors of music assigned to cathedrals and sacred institutions rather than those under royal or aristocratic patronage. A Kapellmeister position was a senior one and involved supervision of other musicians. Johann Sebastian Bach worked from 1717 to 1723 as Kapellmeister for Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Cöthen. Joseph Haydn worked for many years as Kapellmeister for the Esterházy family, a high-ranking noble family of the Austrian Empire. George Frideric Handel served as Kapellmeister for George, Elector of Hanover (who eventually became King George I of Great Britain). A Kapellmeister might also be the director of music for a church. Thus, Georg Reutter was the Kapellmeister at St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna, where his young choristers included both Joseph and Michael Haydn. Becoming a Kapellmeister was a mark of success for professional musicians. For instance, Joseph Haydn once remarked that he was glad his father (a wheelwright) had lived long enough to see his son become a Kapellmeister. The term also implied the possession of considerable musical skill. When the 18th-century actor and musician Joachim Daniel Preisler heard the famous soprano Aloysia Weber (Mozart's sister-in-law) perform in her home, he paid her the following compliment in his diary: The well-known Mozardt is her brother-in-law and has taught her so well that she accompanies from a score and plays interludes like a Kapellmeister. By the end of the 18th century, many of the nobility had declined in their economic power relative to the newly prosperous middle class. Eventually, the maintenance of a became too expensive for most nobles, which led to a decline in the number of Kapellmeister positions. A well-known instance occurred in 1790, when Prince Anton Esterházy succeeded his father Nikolaus and dismissed almost all of the latter's extensive musical establishment. But Prince Anton was hardly alone in doing this; during this same period, "the steady decline in the number of orchestras supported by aristocratic families represented a ... change that affected all composers and their works." This was a difficult time for musicians, who needed to find new ways to support themselves. For instance, Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) never worked as a Kapellmeister but was supported by a somewhat unreliable combination of noble patronage, publication, and concert income. The case of Mozart Mozart never was a Kapellmeister in the sense given above. In 1787, he was given a paid position in the court of the Austrian Emperor, as ("chamber composer"), but authority in matters musical at the court was exercised primarily by Antonio Salieri. In reviews, diaries, and advertising, Mozart was commonly referred to as "". It seems that Mozart's prestige, along with the fact that he frequently appeared in public directing other musicians, led to the use of "Kapellmeister" as a term of respect. In April 1791, Mozart applied to become the Kapellmeister at St. Stephen's Cathedral and was designated by the City Council to take over this job following the death of the then-ailing incumbent, Leopold Hofmann. This never took place, since Mozart died (December 1791) before Hofmann did (1793). Similar terms and equivalents Variant spellings capellmeister and capelle, to refer to the orchestra or choir, are sometimes encountered in English language works about composers who held the title. The word specified that the Kapellmeister worked at a nobleman's court (); a held a somewhat less senior position. Equivalent positions existed in other European countries and were referred to with equivalent names. In Finnish kapellimestari is still the primary word used of conductors. Composers who held the post of Kapellmeister (listed chronologically by date of birth) Arnold von Bruck ( 1500–1554) was Kapellmeister in Vienna for Ferdinand I, King of Bohemia, Hungary and Croatia from 1527 to 1545. Mattheus Le Maistre (c. 1505–1577) was Kapellmeister at the court of the Electors of Saxony in Dresden from 1554 to 1568. Antonio Scandello (1517–1580) was Kapellmeister at the court of the Electors of Saxony in Dresden from 1568. Jacob Regnart (1540s–1599) was Kapellmeister at Innsbruck from 1585 to about 1596. Michael Praetorius (1571–1621) was Kapellmeister at Wolfenbüttel from 1604. Heinrich Schütz (1585–1673) was Kapellmeister to John George I, Elector of Saxony from 1619. Samuel Scheidt (1587–1653) was Kapellmeister to the Margrave of Brandenburg. Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber (1644–1704) was Kapellmeister in Salzburg from 1684. Georg Muffat (1653–1704) was Kapellmeister to the bishop of Passau from 1690 to his death. Agostino Steffani (1653–1728) was Kapellmeister from 1688 to 1698 at the court of Hanover. Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer (died 1746) was Kapellmeister to Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden, from at least 1695. Johann Ludwig Bach (1677–1731), a second cousin of J. S. Bach, was Kapellmeister at Meiningen. Georg Philipp Telemann (1681–1767) served as Kapellmeister for 16 years, starting in 1705, for the court of Erdmann II, Count of Promnitz, in Hamburg. Johann David Heinichen (1683–1729) held the position of Kapellmeister at the electoral Saxon court in Dresden from 1717 until his death. Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750) worked from 1717 to 1723 as Kapellmeister for Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen. George Frideric Handel (1685–1759) served as Kapellmeister from 1710 to 1712 for George, Elector of Hanover. Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757) was at St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome from 1715 to 1719. Johann Friedrich Fasch (1688–1758) was Kapellmeister from 1722 at Zerbst. Carlo Grua (c. 1700–1773) was Kapellmeister at the court of Mannheim under the Electorship of Charles III Philip. Carl Heinrich Graun (1704–1759) was Kapellmeister starting in 1740 for Frederick the Great (Frederick II of Prussia) Giuseppe Bonno (1711–1788) was Kapellmeister to the Prince of Saxe-Hildburghausen in the 1750s and 1760s. Giacomo Matteo Ignazio Cirri (1711–1787) was in the Cathedral of Forlì, in Italy, from 1759. Ludwig van Beethoven () (1712–1773), grandfather of Ludwig van Beethoven, served as Kapellmeister in the Electoral court of Bonn. Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714–1787) was Kapellmeister starting 1754 for Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Holy Roman Empress in Vienna. Niccolò Jommelli (1714–1774) served Charles II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg in Stuttgart from 1753 to 1768. Giovanni Battista Cirri (1724–1808) was in the Cathedral of Forlì, in Italy: from 1780, with Ignazio Cirri; after his death, alone. Christian Cannabich (1731–1798), Kapellmeister of the legendary Mannheim court orchestra from 1774. Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) had two Kapellmeister positions: first, from (probably) 1757 to 1761 for Count Morzin, then from 1761 on for the Eszterházy family. (He was Vice-Kapellmeister from 1761 to 1766.) Homesh Rajesh (1689-1754) , Kappelmeister of the Landis Universal Union Orchestra Hall on Lower Assembly C17. Johann Georg Albrechtsberger (1736–1809) was Kapellmeister at St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna. Michael Haydn (1737–1806) was Kapellmeister at from 1760 to 1761. Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf (1739–1799) was Kapellmeister to the Prince-Bishop of Breslau from 1770 to 1795. Andrea Luchesi (1741–1801) was the last Kapellmeister in the Electoral court of Bonn from 1774 to 1794. Antonio Salieri (1750–1825) was Royal and Imperial Kapellmeister to Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor from 1788 to 1824. Johann Friedrich Reichardt (1752–1814) was Kapellmeister to Frederick the Great at the royal Berlin opera. Joseph Martin Kraus (1756–1792) was Kapellmeister () in Stockholm at the court of king Gustav III of Sweden. Christian Kalkbrenner (1755–1806) was Kapellmeister of the Prussian Queen (1789) and after 1790 Kapellmeister of Prince Henry of Prussia at Rheinsberg castle. Wilhelm Friedrich Ernst Bach (1759–1845), grandson of Johann Sebastian, was also Kapellmeister of the Prussian Queen (1805–1811). Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826) was Kapellmeister at the Bresault theater (1804–1807) and Kapellmeister at Dresden for Count Heinrich Vitzthum (1816–1826). Richard Wagner (1813–1883) was Kapellmeister to Frederick Augustus II of Saxony from 1843 to 1849. Paul Wachs (1851–1915) was Kapellmeister at the Church of Saint-Merri in Paris, France. Contemporary usage In contemporary German, the term "Kapellmeister" has become less common than ("conductor"). When used today it designates the director or chief conductor of an orchestra or choir. It suggests involvement in orchestra or choir policy (for example, selecting repertoire, concert schedules, and guest conductors) as well as conducting. In military settings it refers to a bandmaster. The music director of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra traditionally holds the old-fashioned title . In other German opera houses, the term generally refers to a deputy conductor reporting to the ("General Music Director", usually also the chief conductor). An opera company may have several Kapellmeisters, ranked as (First...), (Second...), etc. The conductor Christian Thielemann has offered a nuanced account of the "Dirigent"/"Kapellmeister" distinction in contemporary usage. He suggests that "Kapellmeister" has unfairly acquired a sense of routine or failure to project glamour: "a Kapellmeister now describes a pale, meek figure beating time. A policeman on duty at the podium directing the musical traffic, no more." In fact, Thielemann, who is fully aware of the historical usage of the term, would himself prefer to be called a "Kapellmeister": "it implies such virtues as knowledge of a work, great ability, and dedication to the cause of music". The term "Kapellmeister Tradition" is commonly used to describe these qualities, as exemplified by such historically important conductors as Otto Klemperer, Klemens Krauss, and Erich Kleiber, in the sense that they have "paid their dues" on their way to international fame. See also Cantor (Christianity) Composer Music Bureau Master of the Queen's Music, approximate British equivalent to royal and noble Kapellmeisters of Germany References Sources Deutsch, Otto Erich (1965) Mozart: A Documentary Biography. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Jones, David Wyn (2009) "Reception," in David Wyn Jones, ed., Oxford Composer Companions: Haydn. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (1965) Mozart: A Documentary Biography. English translation by Eric Blom, Peter Branscombe, and Jeremy Noble. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1965. Griesinger, Georg August (1810) Biographical Notes Concerning Joseph Haydn. . English translation by Vernon Gotwals, in Haydn: Two Contemporary Portraits, Milwaukee: University of Wisconsin Press. Thielemann, Christian (2016) My Life with Wagner: Fairies, Rings, and Redemption: Exploring Opera's Most Enigmatic Composer. Pegasus Books. Extract quoted is readable on line at Google Books: My Life with Wagner: Fairies, Rings, and Redemption: Exploring Opera's Most Enigmatic Composer. Occupations in music German music history German words and phrases

46836

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Lloyd%20George

David Lloyd George

David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945) was a British statesman and Liberal Party politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1916 to 1922. The last Liberal to serve as prime minister, he held the office during the final two years of the First World War and led the British delegation at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. Lloyd George was born on 17 January 1863 in Chorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester, to Welsh parents; he spoke Welsh as his first language. From the age of around three months he was raised in Wales, first briefly in Pembrokeshire and then in Llanystumdwy, Carnarvonshire. He is so far the only British prime minister to have been Welsh and the only one to have spoken English as a second language. His father, a schoolmaster, died in 1864, and David was raised in Wales by his mother and her shoemaker brother, whose Liberal politics and Baptist faith strongly influenced Lloyd George; the same uncle helped the boy embark on a career as a solicitor after leaving school. Lloyd George became active in local politics, gaining a reputation as an orator and a proponent of a Welsh blend of radical Liberalism which championed nonconformism and the disestablishment of the Anglican church in Wales, equality for labourers and tenant farmers, and reform of land ownership. In 1890, he narrowly won a by-election to become the Member of Parliament for Caernarvon Boroughs, in which seat he remained for 55 years. He served in Henry Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet from 1905. After H. H. Asquith succeeded to the premiership in 1908, Lloyd George replaced him as Chancellor of the Exchequer. To fund extensive welfare reforms he proposed taxes on land ownership and high incomes in the "People's Budget" (1909), which the Conservative-dominated House of Lords rejected. The resulting constitutional crisis was only resolved after two elections in 1910 and the passage of the Parliament Act 1911. His budget was enacted in 1910, and with the National Insurance Act 1911 and other measures helped to establish the modern welfare state. In 1913, he was embroiled in the Marconi scandal, but he remained in office and promoted the disestablishment of the Church in Wales, until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 suspended its implementation. As wartime Chancellor, Lloyd George strengthened the country's finances and forged agreements with trade unions to maintain production. In 1915, Asquith formed a Liberal-led wartime coalition with the Conservatives and Labour. Lloyd George became Minister of Munitions and rapidly expanded production. Amongst other measures, he set up four large munitions factories as a counter measure to the shell crisis of the previous year. The so-called 'National Filling Factory' in Renfrewshire was named 'Georgetown' in Lloyd George's honour. In 1916, he was appointed Secretary of State for War but was frustrated by his limited power and clashes with the military establishment over strategy. Amid stalemate on the Western Front, confidence in Asquith's leadership waned. He was forced to resign in December 1916; Lloyd George succeeded him as prime minister, supported by the Conservatives and some Liberals. He centralised authority through a smaller war cabinet, a new Cabinet Office and his "Garden Suburb" of advisers. To combat food shortages he implemented the convoy system, established rationing, and stimulated farming. After supporting the disastrous French Nivelle Offensive in 1917, he had to reluctantly approve Field Marshal Haig's plans for the Battle of Passchendaele which resulted in huge casualties with little strategic benefit. Against the views of his commanders, he was finally able to see the Allies brought under one command in March 1918. The war effort turned to their favour that August and was won in November. In the aftermath he and the Conservatives maintained their coalition with popular support following the December 1918 "Coupon" election. His government had extended the franchise to all men and some women earlier in the year. Lloyd George was a major player in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 but the situation in Ireland worsened that year, erupting into the Irish War of Independence, which lasted until Lloyd George negotiated independence for the Irish Free State in 1921. At home he initiated reforms to education and housing but trade union militancy entered record levels, the economy became depressed in 1920 and unemployment rose; spending cuts followed (1921–22) and he was embroiled in a scandal over the sale of honours and the Chanak Crisis in 1922. Bonar Law won backbench support for the Conservatives to contend the next election alone. Lloyd George resigned as prime minister and never held office again, but continued as leader of a Liberal faction. After an awkward reunion with Asquith's faction in 1923, Lloyd George led the Liberals from 1926 to 1931. He put forward innovative proposals for public works and other reforms in a series of coloured books, but made only modest gains in the 1929 election. After 1931, he was a mistrusted figure heading a small rump of breakaway Liberals opposed to the National Government. He refused to serve in Winston Churchill's War Cabinet in 1940. He was raised to the peerage in 1945, shortly before his death. Upbringing and early life Lloyd George was born on 17 January 1863 in Chorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester, to Welsh parents. He was brought up as a Welsh-speaker. His father, William George, had been a teacher in both London and Liverpool. He also taught in the Hope Street Sunday Schools, which were administered by the Unitarians, where he met Unitarian minister James Martineau. In March of the same year, on account of his failing health, William George returned with his family to his native Pembrokeshire. He took up farming but died in June 1864 of pneumonia, aged 44. His widow, Elizabeth George (1828–96), sold the farm and moved with her children to her native Llanystumdwy in Caernarfonshire, where she lived in a cottage known as Highgate with her brother Richard Lloyd (1834–1917), who was a shoemaker, a minister (in the Scottish Baptists and then the Church of Christ), and a strong Liberal. Lloyd George was educated at the local Anglican school Llanystumdwy National School and later under tutors. Lloyd George's uncle was a towering influence on him, encouraging him to take up a career in law and enter politics; his uncle remained influential until his death in February 1917, aged 83, by which time his nephew had become prime minister. He added his uncle's surname to become "Lloyd George". His surname is usually given as "Lloyd George" and sometimes as "George". The influence of his childhood showed through in his entire career, as he attempted to aid the common man at the expense of what he liked to call "the Dukes" (that is, the aristocracy); however, biographer John Grigg argued that Lloyd George's childhood was nowhere near as poverty-stricken as he liked to suggest. Brought up a devout evangelical, as a young man he suddenly lost his religious faith. Biographer Don Cregier says he became "a Deist and perhaps an agnostic, though he remained a chapel-goer and connoisseur of good preaching all his life". He kept quiet about this, and was, according to Frank Owen, for 25 years "one of the foremost fighting leaders of a fanatical Welsh Nonconformity". It was also during this period of his life that Lloyd George first became interested in the issue of land ownership. As a young man he read books by Thomas Spence, John Stuart Mill and Henry George, as well as pamphlets written by George Bernard Shaw and Sidney Webb of the Fabian Society on the issue of land ownership. By the age of twenty-one, he had already read and taken notes on Henry George's Progress and Poverty. This strongly influenced Lloyd George's politics later in life; the People's Budget drew heavily on Georgist tax reform ideas. Articled to a firm of solicitors in Porthmadog, Lloyd George was admitted in 1884 after taking Honours in his final law examination and set up his own practice in the back parlour of his uncle's house in 1885. The practice flourished, and he established branch offices in surrounding towns, taking his brother William into partnership in 1887. Although many prime ministers have been barristers, Lloyd George is to date the only solicitor to have held that office. By then he was politically active, having campaigned for the Liberal Party in the 1885 election, attracted by Joseph Chamberlain's "unauthorised programme" of reforms. The election resulted firstly in a stalemate with neither the Liberals nor the Conservatives having a majority, the balance of power being held by the Irish Parliamentary Party. William Gladstone's proposal to bring about Irish Home Rule split the party, with Chamberlain eventually leading the breakaway Liberal Unionists. Uncertain of which wing to follow, Lloyd George moved a resolution in support of Chamberlain at a local Liberal Club and travelled to Birmingham to attend the first meeting of Chamberlain's National Radical Union, but he had his dates wrong and arrived a week too early. In 1907, he told Herbert Lewis that he thought Chamberlain's plan for a federal solution correct in 1886 and still thought so, that he preferred the unauthorised programme to the Whig-like platform of the official Liberal Party, and that "If Henry Richmond, Osborne Morgan and the Welsh members had stood by Chamberlain on an agreement as regards the disestablishment, they would have carried Wales with them". He married Margaret Owen, the daughter of a well-to-do local farming family, on 24 January 1888. Also in that year, he and other young Welsh Liberals founded a monthly paper Udgorn Rhyddid (Bugle of Freedom). They also won the Llanfrothen burial case, which established the right of Nonconformists to be buried according to their own denominational rites in parish burial grounds, a right given by the Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880 but which had up to then been ignored by the Anglican clergy. On Lloyd George's advice, a Baptist burial party broke open a gate to a cemetery which had been locked against them by the vicar. The vicar sued them for trespass and the local judge misrecorded the jury's verdict and found in his favour, awakening suspicions of bias by the local Tory landowning class. Lloyd George's clients won on appeal to the Divisional Court of Queen's Bench in London, where Lord Chief Justice Coleridge found in their favour. This case, which was hailed as a great victory throughout Wales, led to his adoption as the Liberal candidate for Carnarvon Boroughs on 27 December 1888. In 1889, he became an Alderman on Carnarvonshire County Council which had been created by the Local Government Act 1888, and was to remain so for the rest of his life. For the same county Lloyd George would also become a JP (1910) and chairman of Quarter Sessions (1929–38), and Deputy Lieutenant in 1921. At that time he appeared to be trying to create a separate Welsh national party modelled on Parnell's Irish Parliamentary Party and worked towards a union of the North and South Wales Liberal Federations. Member of Parliament Lloyd George was returned as Liberal MP for Carnarvon Boroughs – by a margin of 18 votes – in the by-election on 10 April 1890, following the death of the Conservative member Edmund Swetenham. He sat with an informal grouping of Welsh Liberal members who had a programme of disestablishing and disendowing the Church of England in Wales, temperance reform, and Welsh home rule. He would remain an MP for the same constituency until 1945, 55 years later. As backbench members of the House of Commons were not paid at that time, he supported himself and his growing family by continuing to practise as a solicitor, opening an office in London under the name of "Lloyd George and Co." and continuing in partnership with William George in Criccieth. In 1897, he merged his growing London practice with that of Arthur Rhys Roberts (who was to become Official Solicitor) under the name of "Lloyd George, Roberts and Co.". He served as the legal adviser of Theodor Herzl in his negotiations with the British government regarding the Uganda Scheme, proposed as an alternative homeland for the Jews due to Turkish refusal to grant a charter for Jewish settlement in Palestine. Issues He was soon speaking on Liberal issues (particularly temperance – the "local option" – and national as opposed to denominational education) throughout England as well as Wales. During the next decade Lloyd George campaigned in Parliament largely on Welsh issues and in particular for disestablishment and disendowment of the Church of England. He wrote extensively for Liberal papers such as the Manchester Guardian. When Gladstone retired in 1894 after the defeat of the second Home Rule Bill, the Welsh Liberal members chose him to serve on a deputation to William Harcourt to press for specific assurances on Welsh issues; when those were not provided, they resolved to take independent action if the government did not bring a bill for disestablishment. When that was not forthcoming, he and three other Welsh Liberals (D. A. Thomas, Herbert Lewis and Frank Edwards) refused the whip on 14 April 1894, but accepted Lord Rosebery's assurance and rejoined the official Liberals on 29 May. Thereafter he devoted much time to setting up branches of Cymru Fydd (Young Wales), which, he said, would in time become a force like the Irish National Party. He abandoned this idea after being criticised in Welsh newspapers for bringing about the defeat of the Liberal Party in the 1895 election and at a meeting in Newport on 16 January 1896 of the South Wales Liberal Federation, led by D. A. Thomas, he was shouted down. Lloyd George also supported the idea of Pan-Celtic unity and gave a speech at the 1904 Pan-Celtic Congress in Caernarfon. Opposes Boer War Lloyd George had been impressed by his journey to Canada in 1899. Although sometimes wrongly supposed – both at the time and subsequently – to be a Little Englander, he was not an opponent of the British Empire per se, but in a speech at Birkenhead (21 November 1901) he stressed that it needed to be based on freedom, including for India, not "racial arrogance". Consequently, he gained national fame by displaying vehement opposition to the Second Boer War. Following Rosebery's lead he based his attack firstly on what were supposed to be Britain's war aims – remedying the grievances of the Uitlanders and in particular the claim that they were wrongly denied the right to vote, saying "I do not believe the war has any connection with the franchise. It is a question of 45% dividends" and that England (which did not then have universal male suffrage) was more in need of franchise reform than the Boer republics. A second attack came on the cost of the war, which, he argued, prevented overdue social reform in England, such as old age pensions and workmen's cottages. As the fighting continued his attacks moved to its conduct by the generals, who, he said (basing his words on reports by William Burdett-Coutts in The Times), were not providing for the sick or wounded soldiers and were starving Boer women and children in concentration camps. But his major thrusts were reserved for the Chamberlains, accusing them of war profiteering through the family company Kynoch Ltd, of which Chamberlain's brother was chairman. The firm had won tenders to the War Office though its prices were higher than some of its competitors. After speaking at a meeting in Birmingham Lloyd George had to be smuggled out disguised as a policeman, as his life was in danger from the mob. At this time the Liberal Party was badly split as H. H. Asquith, R. B. Haldane and others were supporters of the war and formed the Liberal Imperial League. Opposes the Education Act 1902 Lloyd George was the main spokesman for the Nonconformists, and they made a major issue out of the government's Education Act 1902. It provided funding for Church of England schools, paid out of local taxation. The bill passed but opposition to it helped reunite the Liberals. His successful amendment that county councils need only fund those schools where the buildings were in good repair served to make the Act a dead letter in Wales, where the counties were able to show that most Church of England schools were in poor repair. Having already gained national recognition for his anti-Boer War campaigns, his leadership of the attacks on the Education Act gave him a strong parliamentary reputation and marked him as a likely future cabinet member. The Act served to reunify the Liberals after their divisions over the Boer War, and to increase Nonconformist influence in the party, which then included educational reform as policy in the 1906 election, which resulted in a Liberal landslide. President of the Board of Trade (1905–1908) In 1905, Lloyd George entered the new Liberal Cabinet of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman as President of the Board of Trade. The first priority on taking office was repeal of the 1902 Education Act. Lloyd George took the lead along with Augustine Birrell, President of the Board of Education. Lloyd George appears to have been the dominant figure on the committee drawing up the bill in its later stages, and insisted that the bill create a separate education committee for Wales. Birrell complained privately that the bill, introduced in the Commons on 9 April 1906, owed more to Lloyd George and that he himself had had little say in its contents. The bill passed the House of Commons greatly amended, but was completely mangled by the House of Lords. For the rest of the year, Lloyd George made numerous public speeches attacking the House of Lords for mutilating the bill with wrecking amendments, in defiance of the Liberals' electoral mandate to reform the 1902 Act. Lloyd George was rebuked by King Edward VII for these speeches: the Prime Minister defended him to the Kings's secretary Francis Knollys, stating that his behaviour in Parliament was more constructive but that in speeches to the public "the combative spirit seems to get the better of him". No compromise was possible and the bill was abandoned, allowing the 1902 Act to continue in effect. As a result of Lloyd George's lobbying, a separate department for Wales was created within the Board of Education. Nonconformists were bitterly upset by the failure of the Liberal Party to carry through on its most important promise to them, and over time their support for the Liberal Party slowly fell away. At the Board of Trade Lloyd George introduced legislation on many topics, from merchant shipping and the Port of London to companies and railway regulation. His main achievement was in stopping a proposed national strike of the railway unions by brokering an agreement between the unions and the railway companies. While almost all the companies refused to recognise the unions, Lloyd George persuaded the companies to recognise elected representatives of the workers who sat with the company representatives on conciliation boards—one for each company. If those boards failed to agree then an arbitrator would be called upon. Chancellor of the Exchequer (1908–1915) On Campbell-Bannerman's death he succeeded Asquith, who had become prime minister, as Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1908 to 1915. While he continued some work from the Board of Trade—for example, legislation to establish the Port of London Authority and to pursue traditional Liberal programmes such as licensing law reforms—his first major trial in this role was over the 1908–1909 Naval Estimates. The Liberal manifesto at the 1906 general election included a commitment to reduce military expenditure. Lloyd George strongly supported this, writing to Reginald McKenna, First Lord of the Admiralty, "the emphatic pledges given by all of us at the last general election to reduce the gigantic expenditure on armaments built up by the recklessness of our predecessors." He then proposed the programme be reduced from six to four dreadnoughts. This was adopted by the government, but there was a public storm when the Conservatives, with covert support from the First Sea Lord, Admiral Jackie Fisher, campaigned for more with the slogan "We want eight and we won't wait". This resulted in Lloyd George's defeat in Cabinet and the adoption of estimates including provision for eight dreadnoughts. During this period he was also a target of protest by the women's suffrage movement, as he professed support personally but did not move for changes within the Parliament process. People's Budget, 1909 In 1909, Lloyd George introduced his People's Budget, imposing a 20% tax on the unearned increase in value of land, payable at death of the owner or sale of the land, and ½ d. on undeveloped land and minerals, increased death duties, a rise in income tax, and the introduction of Supertax on income over £3,000. There were taxes also on luxuries, alcohol, and tobacco, so that money could be made available for the new welfare programmes as well as new battleships. The nation's landowners (well represented in the House of Lords) were intensely angry at the new taxes, mostly at the proposed very high tax on land values, but also because the instrumental redistribution of wealth could be used to detract from an argument for protective tariffs. The immediate consequences included the end of the Liberal League, and Rosebery breaking friendship with the Liberal Party, which in itself was for Lloyd George a triumph. He had won the case of social reform without losing the debate on Free Trade. Arthur Balfour denounced the budget as "vindictive, inequitable, based on no principles, and injurious to the productive capacity of the country." Roy Jenkins described it as the most reverberating since Gladstone's in 1860. In the House of Commons Lloyd George gave a brilliant account of the budget, which was attacked by the Conservatives. On the stump, notably at his Limehouse speech in 1909, he denounced the Conservatives and the wealthy classes with all his very considerable oratorical power. The budget was defeated by the Conservative majority in the House of Lords. The elections of 1910 narrowly upheld the Liberal government. The 1909 budget was passed on 28 April 1910 by the Lords, and received the Royal Assent on the 29th. Subsequently, the Parliament Act 1911 curtailed the veto power of the House of Lords. Although old-age pensions had already been introduced by Asquith as Chancellor, Lloyd George was largely responsible for the introduction of state financial support for the sick and infirm (known colloquially as "going on the Lloyd George" for decades afterwards)—legislation referred to as the Liberal Reforms. Lloyd George also succeeded in putting through Parliament his National Insurance Act 1911, making provision for sickness and invalidism, and a system of unemployment insurance. He was helped in his endeavours by forty or so backbenchers who regularly pushed for new social measures, often voted with Labour MPs. These social reforms in Britain were the beginnings of a welfare state and fulfilled the aim of dampening down the demands of the growing working class for rather more radical solutions to their impoverishment. Under his leadership after 1909 the Liberals extended minimum wages to farm workers. Mansion House Speech, 1911 Lloyd George was an opponent of warfare but he paid little attention to foreign affairs until the Agadir Crisis of 1911. After consulting Edward Grey (the foreign minister) and H.H. Asquith (the prime minister) he gave a stirring and patriotic speech at Mansion House on 21 July 1911. He stated: But if a situation were to be forced upon us in which peace could only be preserved by the surrender of the great and beneficent position Britain has won by centuries of heroism and achievement, by allowing Britain to be treated where her interests were vitally affected as if she were of no account in the Cabinet of nations, then I say emphatically that peace at that price would be a humiliation in tolerable for a great country like ours to endure. National honour is no party question. The security of our great international trade is no party question. He was warning both France and Germany, but the public response cheered solidarity with France and hostility toward Germany. Berlin was outraged, blaming Lloyd George for doing "untold harm both with regard to German public opinion and the negotiations." Count Metternich, Germany's ambassador in London, said, "Mr Lloyd George's speech came upon us like a thunderbolt". Marconi scandal 1913 In 1913, Lloyd George, along with Rufus Isaacs, the Attorney General, was involved in the Marconi scandal. Accused of speculating in Marconi shares on the inside information that they were about to be awarded a key government contract (which would have caused them to increase in value), he told the House of Commons that he had not speculated in the shares of "that company". He had in fact bought shares in the American Marconi Company. Welsh Church Act 1914 The Church of England no longer had majority adherence in most parts of Wales in preference to Wales-led Protestantism, in particular Calvinistic Methodism. Lloyd George had long called for disestablishment and was instrumental in introducing the Welsh Church Act 1914 which disestablished the Anglican Church in Wales (though, upon the outbreak of war, the actual coming into force of the Act was postponed by the Suspensory Act 1914 until 1920), removing the opportunity of the six Welsh Bishops in the new Church in Wales to sit in the House of Lords and removing (disendowing) certain pre-1662 property rights. First World War Lloyd George was as surprised as almost everyone else by the outbreak of the First World War. On 23 July 1914, almost a month after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and on the eve of the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Serbia, he made a speech advocating "economy" in the House of Commons, saying that Britain's relations with Germany were better than for many years. On 27 July he told C. P. Scott of the Manchester Guardian that Britain would keep out of the impending war. With the Cabinet divided, and most ministers reluctant for Britain to get involved, he struck Asquith as "statesmanlike" at the Cabinet meeting on 1 August, favouring keeping Britain's options open. The next day he seemed likely to resign if Britain intervened, but he held back at Cabinet on Monday 3 August, moved by news that Belgium would resist Germany's demand for passage for her army across her soil. He was seen as a key figure whose stance helped to persuade almost the entire Cabinet to support British intervention. He was able to give the more pacifist members of the cabinet and the Liberal Party a principle – the rights of small nations – which meant they could support the war and maintain united political and popular support. Lloyd George remained in office as Chancellor of the Exchequer for the first year of the Great War. The budget of 17 November 1914 had to allow for lower taxation receipts because of the reduction in world trade. The Crimean and Boer Wars had largely been paid for out of taxation; but Lloyd George raised debt financing of £321 million. Large (but deferred) increases in Supertax and income tax rates were accompanied by increases in excise duties, and the budget produced a tax increase of £63 million in a full year. His last budget, on 4 May 1915, showed a growing concern for the effects of alcohol on the war effort, with large increases in duties, and a scheme of state control of alcohol sales in specified areas. The excise proposals were opposed by the Irish Nationalists and the Conservatives, and were abandoned. Minister of Munitions Lloyd George gained a heroic reputation with his energetic work as Minister of Munitions, 1915–16, setting the stage for his move up to the height of power. After a long struggle with the War Office, he wrested responsibility for arms production away from the generals, making it a purely industrial department, with considerable expert assistance from Walter Runciman. The two men gained the respect of Liberal cabinet colleagues for improving administrative capabilities, and increasing outputs. When the Shell Crisis of 1915 dismayed public opinion with the news that the Army was running short of artillery shells, demands rose for a strong leader to take charge of munitions. In the first coalition ministry, formed in May 1915, Lloyd George was made Minister of Munitions, heading a new department. In this position he won great acclaim, which formed the basis for his political ascent. All historians agree that he boosted national morale and focussed attention on the urgent need for greater output, but many also say the increase in munitions output in 1915–16 was due largely to reforms already underway, though not yet effective, before he had even arrived. The Ministry broke through the cumbersome bureaucracy of the War Office, resolved labour problems, rationalised the supply system and dramatically increased production. Within a year it became the largest buyer, seller, and employer in Britain. Lloyd George was not at all satisfied with the progress of the war. He wanted to "knock away the props", by attacking Germany's allies – from early in 1915 he argued for the sending of British troops to the Balkans to assist Serbia and bring Greece and other Balkan countries onto the side of the Allies (this was eventually done – the Salonika expedition – although not on the scale that Lloyd George had wanted, and mountain ranges made his suggestions of grand Balkan offensives impractical); in 1916, he wanted to send machine guns to Romania (insufficient amounts were available for this to be feasible). These suggestions began a period of poor relations with the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, General Robertson, who was "brusque to the point of rudeness" and "barely concealed his contempt for Lloyd George's military opinions", to which he was in the habit of retorting "I've 'eard different". Lloyd George persuaded Kitchener, the Secretary of State for War, to raise a Welsh Division, and, despite Kitchener's threat of resignation, to recognise nonconformist chaplains in the Army. Late in 1915, Lloyd George became a strong supporter of general conscription, an issue that divided Liberals, and helped the passage of several conscription acts from January 1916 onwards. In spring 1916 Alfred Milner hoped Lloyd George could be persuaded to bring down the coalition government by resigning, but this did not happen. Secretary of State for War In June 1916 Lloyd George succeeded Lord Kitchener (who died when the ship HMS Hampshire was sunk taking him on a mission to Russia) as Secretary of State for War, although he had little control over strategy, as General Robertson had been given direct right of access to the Cabinet so as to bypass Kitchener. He did succeed in securing the appointment of Sir Eric Geddes to take charge of military railways behind British lines in France, with the honorary rank of major-general. Lloyd George told a journalist, Roy W. Howard, in late September that "the fight must be to a finish – to a knockout", a rejection of President Woodrow Wilson's offer to mediate. Lloyd George was increasingly frustrated at the limited gains of the Somme Offensive, criticising General Haig to Ferdinand Foch on a visit to the Western Front in September (British casualty ratios were worse than those of the French, who were more experienced and had more artillery), proposing sending Robertson on a mission to Russia (he refused to go), and demanding that more troops be sent to Salonika to help Romania. Robertson eventually threatened to resign. Much of the press still argued that the professional leadership of Haig and Robertson was preferable to civilian interference which had led to disasters like Gallipoli and Kut. Lord Northcliffe, owner of The Times stormed into Lloyd George's office and, finding him unavailable, told his secretary "You can tell him that I hear he has been interfering with Strategy, and that if he goes on I will break him", and the same day (11 October) Lloyd George also received a warning letter from H. A. Gwynne, editor of the Morning Post. He was obliged to give his "word of honour" to Asquith that he had complete confidence in Haig and Robertson and thought them irreplaceable, but he wrote to Robertson wanting to know how their differences had been leaked to the press (affecting to believe that Robertson had not personally "authorised such a breach of confidence & discipline"). He asserted his right to express his opinions about strategy in November, by which time ministers had taken to holding meetings to which Robertson was not invited. The weakness of Asquith as a planner and organiser was increasingly apparent to senior officials. After Asquith had refused, then agreed, and then refused again to agree to Lloyd George's demand that he should be allowed to chair a small committee to manage the war, he resigned in December 1916. Grey was among leading Asquithians who had identified Lloyd George's intentions the previous month. Lloyd George became prime minister, with the nation demanding he take vigorous charge of the war. A Punch cartoon of the time showed him as "The New Conductor" conducting the orchestra in the "Opening of the 1917 Overture". Although during the political crisis Robertson had advised Lloyd George to "stick to it" and form a small War Council, Lloyd George had planned if necessary to appeal to the country, his Military Secretary Colonel Arthur Lee having prepared a memo blaming Robertson and the General Staff for the loss of Serbia and Romania. Lloyd George was restricted by his promise to the Unionists to keep Haig as Commander-in-Chief and the press support for the generals, although Milner and Curzon were also sympathetic to campaigns to increase British power in the Middle East. After Germany's offer (12 December 1916) of a negotiated peace Lloyd George rebuffed President Wilson's request for the belligerents to state their war aims by demanding terms tantamount to German defeat. Prime Minister (1916–1922) War leader (1916–1918) Forming a government The fall of Asquith as prime minister split the Liberal Party into two factions: those who supported him and those who supported the coalition government. In his War Memoirs, Lloyd George compared himself with Asquith: There are certain indispensable qualities essential to the Chief Minister of the Crown in a great war. ... Such a minister must have courage, composure, and judgment. All this Mr. Asquith possessed in a superlative degree. ... But a war minister must also have vision, imagination and initiative—he must show untiring assiduity, must exercise constant oversight and supervision of every sphere of war activity, must possess driving force to energize this activity, must be in continuous consultation with experts, official and unofficial, as to the best means of using the resources of the country in conjunction with the Allies for the achievement of victory. If to this can be added a flair for conducting a great fight, then you have an ideal War Minister. After December 1916 Lloyd George relied on the support of Conservatives and of the press baron Lord Northcliffe (who owned both The Times and the Daily Mail). Besides the Prime Minister, the five-member War Cabinet contained three Conservatives (Lord President of the Council and Leader of the House of Lords Lord Curzon, Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons Bonar Law, and Minister without Portfolio Lord Milner) and Arthur Henderson, unofficially representing Labour. Edward Carson was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty, as had been widely touted during the intrigues of the previous month, but excluded from the War Cabinet. Amongst the few Liberal frontbenchers to support Lloyd George were Christopher Addison (who had played an important role in drumming up some backbench Liberal support for Lloyd George), H. A. L. Fisher, Lord Rhondda and Sir Albert Stanley. Edwin Montagu and Churchill joined the government in the summer of 1917. Lloyd George's Secretariat, popularly known as Downing Street's "Garden Suburb", assisted him in discharging his responsibilities within the constraints of the war cabinet system. Its function was to maintain contact with the numerous departments of government, to collect information, and to report on matters of special concern. Its leading members were George Adams and Philip Kerr, and the other secretaries included David Davies, Joseph Davies, Waldorf Astor and, later, Cecil Harmsworth. Lloyd George wanted to make the destruction of Ottoman Empire a major British war aim, and two days after taking office told Robertson that he wanted a major victory, preferably the capture of Jerusalem, to impress British public opinion. At the Rome Conference (5–6 January 1917) Lloyd George was discreetly quiet about plans to take Jerusalem, an object which advanced British interests rather than doing much to win the war. Lloyd George proposed sending heavy guns to Italy with a view to defeating Austria-Hungary, possibly to be balanced by a transfer of Italian troops to Salonika, but was unable to obtain the support of the French or Italians, and Robertson talked of resigning. Nivelle affair Lloyd George engaged almost constantly in intrigues calculated to reduce the power of the generals, including trying to subordinate British forces in France to the French General Nivelle. He backed Nivelle because he thought he had "proved himself to be a Man" by his successful counterattacks at Verdun, and because of his promises that he could break the German lines in 48 hours. Nivelle increasingly complained of Haig's dragging his feet rather than co-operating with their plans for the offensive. The plan was to put British forces under Nivelle's direct command for the great 1917 offensive. The British would attack first, thereby tying down the German reserves. Then the French would strike and score an overwhelming victory in two days. It was announced at a War Cabinet meeting on 24 February, to which neither Robertson nor Lord Derby (Secretary of State for War) had been invited. Ministers felt that the French generals and staff had shown themselves more skillful than the British in 1916, whilst politically Britain had to give wholehearted support to what would probably be the last major French effort of the war. The Nivelle proposal was then given to Robertson and Haig without warning on 26–27 February at the Calais Conference (minutes from the War Cabinet meeting were not sent to the King until 28 February, so that he did not have a prior chance to object). Robertson in particular protested vehemently. Finally a compromise was reached whereby Haig would be under Nivelle's orders but would retain operational control of British forces and keep a right of appeal to London "if he saw good reason". After further argument the status quo, that Haig was an ally of the French but was expected to defer to their wishes, was largely restored in mid-March. In the event the British attack at the Battle of Arras (9–14 April 1917) was partly successful but with much higher casualties than the Germans suffered. There had been many delays and the Germans, suspecting an attack, had shortened their lines to the strong Hindenburg Line. The French attack on the Aisne River in mid-April gained some tactically important high ground but failed to achieve the promised decisive breakthrough, pushing the French Army to the point of mutiny. While Haig gained prestige, Lloyd George lost credibility, and the affair further poisoned relations between himself and the "Brasshats". U-boat war Shipping In early 1917 the Germans had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in a bid to achieve victory on the Western Approaches. Lloyd George set up a Ministry of Shipping under Sir Joseph Maclay, a Glasgow shipowner who was not, until after he left office, a member of either House of Parliament, and housed in a wooden building in a specially drained lake in St James's Park, within a few minutes' walk from the Admiralty. The Junior Minister and House of Commons spokesman was Leo Chiozza Money, with whom Maclay did not get on, but on whose appointment Lloyd George insisted, feeling that their qualities would complement one another. The Civil Service staff was headed by the highly able John Anderson (then only thirty-four years old) and included Arthur Salter. A number of shipping magnates were persuaded, like Maclay himself, to work unpaid for the ministry (as had a number of industrialists for the Ministry of Munitions), who were also able to obtain ideas privately from junior naval officers who were reluctant to argue with their superiors in meetings. The ministers heading the Board of Trade, for Munitions (Addison) and for Agriculture and Food (Lord Rhondda), were also expected to co-operate with Maclay. In accordance with a pledge Lloyd George had given in December 1916 nearly 90% of Britain's merchant shipping tonnage was soon brought under state control (previously less than half had been controlled by the Admiralty), whilst remaining privately owned (similar measures were in force at the time for the railways). Merchant shipping was concentrated, largely on Chiozza Money's initiative, on the transatlantic route where it could more easily be protected, instead of being spread out all over the globe (this relied on imports coming first into North America). Maclay began the process of increasing ship construction, although he was hampered by shortages of steel and labour, and ships under construction in the United States were confiscated by the Americans when she entered the war. In May 1917 Eric Geddes, based at the Admiralty, was put in charge of shipbuilding, and in July he became First Lord of the Admiralty. Later the German U-Boats were defeated in 1918. Convoys Lloyd George had raised the matter of convoys at the War Committee in November 1916, only to be told by the admirals present, including Jellicoe, that convoys presented too large a target, and that merchant ship masters lacked the discipline to keep station in a convoy. In February 1917 Maurice Hankey, the secretary of the War Cabinet, wrote a memorandum for Lloyd George calling for the introduction of "scientifically organised convoys", almost certainly after being persuaded by Commander Reginald Henderson and the Shipping Ministry officials with whom he was in contact. After a breakfast meeting (13 February 1917) with Lloyd George, Sir Edward Carson (First Lord of the Admiralty) and Admirals Jellicoe and Duff agreed to "conduct experiments"; however, convoys were not in general use until August, by which time the rate of shipping losses was already in decline after peaking in April. Lloyd George later claimed in his War Memoirs that the delay in introducing convoys was because the Admiralty mishandled an experimental convoy between Britain and Norway, and because Jellicoe obtained, behind Maclay's back, an unrepresentative sample of merchant skippers claiming that they lacked the skill to "keep station" in convoy. In fact Hankey's diary shows that Lloyd George's interest in the matter was intermittent, whilst Frances Stevenson's diaries contain no mention of the topic. He may well have been reluctant, especially at a time when his relations with the generals were so poor, for a showdown with Carson, a weak administrator who was as much the mouthpiece of the admirals as Derby was of the generals, but who had played a key role in the fall of Asquith and who led a significant bloc of Conservative and Irish Unionist MPs. The new Commander of the Grand Fleet Admiral Beatty, whom Lloyd George visited at Invergordon on 15 April, was a supporter of convoys, as was the American Admiral Sims (the USA had just entered the war). The War Cabinet on 25 April authorised Lloyd George to look into the anti-submarine campaign, and on 30 April he visited the Admiralty. Duff had already recommended to Jellicoe that the Admiralty adopt convoys after a recent successful convoy from Gibraltar. Most of the organisations Lloyd George created during the First World War were replicated with the outbreak of the Second World War. As Lord Beaverbrook wrote, "There were no road signs on the journey he had to undertake." The latter's personal efforts to promote convoys were less consistent than he (and Churchill in The World Crisis and Beaverbrook in Men and Power) later claimed; the idea that he, after a hard struggle, sat in the First Lord's chair (on his 30 April visit to the Admiralty) and imposed convoys on a hostile Board is a myth; however, in Grigg's view the credit goes largely to men and institutions which he set in place, and with a freer hand, and making fewer mistakes, than in his dealings with the generals, he and his appointees took decisions which can reasonably be said to have saved the country. "It was a close-run thing ... failure would have been catastrophic." Russian Revolution Lloyd George welcomed the Fall of the Tsar, both in a private letter to his brother and in a message to the new Russian Prime Minister Prince Lvov, not least as the war could now be portrayed as a clash between liberal governments and the autocratic Central Powers. Like many observers he had been taken by surprise by the exact timing of the revolution (it had not been predicted by Lord Milner or General Wilson on their visit to Russia a few weeks earlier) and hoped – albeit with some concerns – that Russia's war effort would be invigorated like that of France in the early 1790s. Lloyd George gave a cautious welcome to the suggestion (19 March on the western calendar) by the Russian Foreign Minister Pavel Milyukov that the toppled Tsar and his family be given sanctuary in Britain (although Lloyd George would have preferred that they go to a neutral country). From the very start the King's adviser Stamfordham raised objections, and in April the British government withdrew its consent under Royal pressure. Eventually the Russian Royal Family were moved to the Urals where they were executed in 1918. Lloyd George was often blamed for the refusal of asylum, and in his War Memoirs he did not mention King George V's role in the matter, which was not explicitly confirmed until Kenneth Rose's biography of the King was published in 1983. Imperial War Cabinet An Imperial War Cabinet, including representatives from Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and India, met 14 times from 20 March 1917 to 2 May 1917 (a crisis period of the war) and twice in 1918. The idea was not entirely without precedent as there had been Imperial Conferences in 1887, 1894, 1897, 1902, 1907 and 1911, whilst the Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes had been invited to attend the Cabinet and War Committee on his visit to the UK in the spring of 1916. The South African Jan Smuts was appointed to the British War Cabinet in the early summer of 1917. Passchendaele Lloyd George set up a War Policy Committee (himself, Curzon, Milner, Law and Smuts, with Maurice Hankey as secretary) to discuss strategy, which held 16 meetings over the next six weeks. At the very first meeting (11 June) Lloyd George proposed helping the Italians to capture Trieste, explicitly telling the War Policy Committee (21 June 1917) that he wanted Italian soldiers to be killed rather than British. Haig believed that a Flanders Offensive had good chance of clearing the Belgian coast, from which German submarines and destroyers were operating (a popular goal with politicians), and that victory at Ypres "might quite possibly lead to (German) collapse". Robertson was less optimistic, but preferred Britain to keep her focus on defeating Germany on the Western Front, and had told Haig that the politicians would not "dare" overrule both soldiers if they gave the same advice. Haig promised he had no "intention of entering into a tremendous offensive involving heavy losses" (20 June) whilst Robertson wanted to avoid "disproportionate loss" (23 June). The Flanders Offensive was reluctantly sanctioned by the War Policy Committee on 18 July and the War Cabinet two days later, on condition it did not degenerate into a long drawn-out fight like the Somme. The War Cabinet promised to monitor progress and casualties and, if necessary call a halt, although in the event they made little effort to monitor progress until September. Frustrated at his inability to get his way, Lloyd George talked of resigning and taking his case to the public. The Battle of Passchendaele began on 31 July, but soon became bogged down in unseasonably early wet weather, which turned much of the battlefield into barely passable swamp in which men and animals sometimes drowned, whilst the mud and rain severely reduced the accuracy and effectiveness of artillery, the dominant weapon of the time. Lloyd George tried to enlist the King for diverting efforts against Austria-Hungary, telling Stamfordham (14 August) that the King and Prime Minister were "joint trustees of the nation" who had to avoid waste of manpower. A new Italian offensive began (18 August), but Robertson advised that it was "false strategy" to call off Passchendaele to send reinforcements to Italy, and despite being summoned to George Riddell's home in Sussex, where he was served apple pudding (his favourite dish), agreed only reluctantly. The Anglo-French leadership agreed in early September to send 100 heavy guns to Italy (50 of them French) rather than the 300 which Lloyd George wanted – Lloyd George talked of ordering a halt to Passchendaele, but in Hankey's words "funked it" (4 September). Had he not done so his government might have fallen, for as soon as the guns reached Italy Cadorna called off his offensive (21 September). At a meeting at Boulogne (25 September) Lloyd George broached with Painlevé the setting up of an Allied Supreme War Council then making Foch generalissimo. Law had written to Lloyd George that ministers must soon decide whether or not the offensive was to continue. Lloyd George and Robertson met Haig in France (26 September) to discuss the recent German peace feelers (which in the end were publicly repudiated by Chancellor Michaelis) and the progress of the offensive. Haig preferred to continue, encouraged by Plumer's recent successful attacks in dry weather at Menin Road (20 September) and Polygon Wood (26 September), and stating that the Germans were "very worn out". In October the wet weather returned for the final attack towards Passchendaele. At the final meeting of the War Policy Committee on 11 October 1917, Lloyd George authorised the offensive to continue, but warning of failure in three weeks' time. Hankey (21 October) claimed in his diary that Lloyd George had deliberately allowed Passchendaele to continue to discredit Haig and Robertson and make it easier for him to forbid similar offensives in 1918. Supreme War Council Lloyd George played a critical role in the Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour's famous Declaration: "His Majesty's government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country." The Italians suffered disastrous defeat at Caporetto, requiring British and French reinforcements to be sent. Lloyd George said he "wanted to take advantage of Caporetto to gain "control of the War". The Supreme War Council was inaugurated at the Rapallo Conference (6–7 November 1917). Lloyd George then gave a controversial speech at Paris (12 November) at which he criticised the high casualties of recent Allied "victories" (a word which he used with an element of sarcasm). These events led to an angry Commons debate (19 November), which Lloyd George survived. In reply to Robertson's 19 November memo, which warned (correctly) that the Germans would use the opportunity of Russia's departure from the war to attack in 1918 before the Americans were present in strength, Lloyd George wrote (wrongly) that the Germans would not attack and would fail if they did. That autumn he declared that he was willing "to risk his whole political reputation" to avoid a repetition of the Somme or Passchendaele. In December 1917 Lloyd George remarked to C. P. Scott that: "If people really knew, the war would be stopped tomorrow. But of course they don't know, and can't know." Manpower crisis and the unions A Manpower Committee was set up on 6 December 1917, consisting of the Prime Minister, Curzon, Carson, George Barnes and Smuts with Maurice Hankey as secretary, and Auckland Geddes (Minister of National Service – in charge of Army recruitment) in regular attendance. The first meeting of the Manpower Committee was on 10 December, and it met twice the next day and again on 15 December. Lloyd George questioned Generals Macready (Adjutant-General) and Macdonogh (Chief of Military Intelligence), who advised that the Allied superiority of numbers on the Western Front would not survive the transfer of German reinforcements from the East now that Russia was dropping out of the war. Deeply concerned about the publicity attracted by the recent Lansdowne Letter's mention of casualties, he suggested removing Haig and Robertson from office at this time, but this was met by a threat of resignation from Lord Derby. At this stage Lloyd George opposed extending conscription to Ireland – Carson advised that extending conscription to Ulster alone would be impractical. When Hankey's report eventually emerged it reflected Lloyd George's wishes: it gave top priority to shipbuilding and merchant shipping (not least to ship US troops to Europe), and placed Army manpower below both weapons production and civilian industry. The size of the Army in Britain was to be reduced from eight divisions to four, freeing about 40,000 men for service in France. In the House of Commons (20 December) Lloyd George also argued that the collapse of Russia and defeat of Italy required further "combing-out" of men from industry, in breach of pledges given to the trade unions in 1916. Auckland Geddes was given increased powers to direct labour – a new bill became law, despite the opposition of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, in February 1918. The unions were placated with the Caxton Hall conference (5 January 1918), at which Lloyd George outlined Allied war aims. He called for Germany to be stripped of her conquests (including her colonies, and Alsace-Lorraine, annexed in 1871) and democratised (although he was clear that this was not an Allied war aim, but something which would help to ensure the future peace of Europe), and for the liberation of the subject peoples of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. He also hinted at reparations (although it was suggested that these would not be on the scale imposed on France after 1871) and a new international order. Lloyd George explained to critics that he was hoping to detach Austria-Hungary and turn the German people against her rulers; the speech greatly increased his support amongst trade unions and the Labour Party. President Wilson at first considered abandoning his speech outlining US war aims – the "Fourteen Points", many of which were similar to the aims outlined by Lloyd George – but was persuaded by his adviser Colonel House to deliver it. Wilson's speech (8 January) overshadowed Lloyd George's, and is better remembered by posterity. Strategic priorities Lloyd George had told Edmund Allenby, who was appointed the new commander in Egypt in June, that his objective was "Jerusalem before Christmas" and that he had only to ask for reinforcements, although the exact nature of his offensives was still undecided when he was appointed. Amidst months of argument throughout the autumn of 1917 Robertson was able to block Lloyd George's plan to make Palestine the main theatre of operations by having Allenby make the impossible demand that thirteen extra divisions be sent to him. Allenby captured Jerusalem in December 1917. In the winter of 1917–18 Lloyd George secured the resignations of both the service chiefs. Removing the First Sea Lord Admiral Jellicoe earlier in 1917, as Lloyd George wanted, would have been politically impossible given Conservative anger at the return of Churchill (still blamed for the Dardanelles) to office as Minister of Munitions in July, and Lloyd George's preoccupations with Passchendaele, Caporetto and the Supreme War Council from July onward. By December it was clear that Lloyd George would have to sack Jellicoe or lose Eric Geddes (First Lord of the Admiralty), who wanted to return to his previous job in charge of military transport in France. The Christmas holiday, when Parliament was not sitting, provided a good opportunity. Before Jellicoe left for leave on Christmas Eve he received a letter from Geddes demanding his resignation. The other Sea Lords talked of resigning but did not do so, whilst Jellicoe's ally Carson remained a member of the War Cabinet until he resigned in January over Irish Home Rule. Relations with General Robertson had worsened further over the creation of the Supreme War Council at Versailles and he was eventually forced out over his insistence that the British delegate there be subordinate to Robertson as CIGS in London. Home front The War Cabinet was a very successful innovation. It met almost daily, with Maurice Hankey as secretary, and made all major political, military, economic and diplomatic decisions. Rationing was finally imposed in early 1918 for meat, sugar and fats (butter and margarine) – but not bread; the new system worked smoothly. From 1914 to 1918 trade-union membership doubled, from a little over four million to a little over eight million. Work stoppages and strikes became frequent in 1917–18 as the unions expressed grievances regarding prices, alcohol control, pay disputes, dilution of labour, fatigue from overtime and from Sunday work, and inadequate housing. The Corn Production Act 1917 bestowed upon the Board of Agriculture the power to ensure that all land was properly cultivated, appointed a wages board to operate a new minimum wage in agriculture, and guaranteed minimum prices for wheat and oats. Conscription put into uniform nearly every physically fit man, six million out of ten million eligible. Of these about 750,000 lost their lives and 1,700,000 were wounded. Most deaths were of young unmarried men; however, 160,000 wives lost their husbands and 300,000 children lost their fathers. Crises of 1918 In rapid succession in spring 1918 came a series of military and political crises. The Germans, having moved troops from the Eastern front and retrained them in new tactics, now had more soldiers on the Western Front than the Allies. Germany launched the full scale Spring Offensive starting on 21 March against the British and French lines, hoping for victory on the battlefield before the American troops arrived in numbers. The Allied armies fell back 40 miles in confusion, and, facing defeat, London realised it needed more troops to fight a mobile war. Lloyd George found half a million soldiers and rushed them to France, asked American President Woodrow Wilson for immediate help, and agreed to the appointment of French General Foch as commander in chief on the Western Front. He considered taking on the role of War Minister himself, but was dissuaded by the king, and instead appointed Lord Milner. Despite strong warnings that it was a bad idea, the War Cabinet decided to impose conscription on Ireland. The main reason was that trade unions in Britain demanded it as the price for cutting back on conscription exemptions for certain workers. Labour wanted the principle established that no one was exempt, but it did not demand that conscription actually take place in Ireland. The proposal was enacted but never enforced. The Catholic bishops for the first time entered the fray and called for open resistance to conscription. Many Irish Catholics and nationalists moved into Sinn Féin, a decisive moment marking the dominance of Irish politics by a party committed to leaving the UK altogether. At one point Lloyd George unknowingly misled the House of Commons in claiming that Haig's forces were stronger at the start of 1918 than they had been a year earlier – in fact the increase was in the number of labourers, most of them Chinese, Indians and black South Africans, and Haig had fewer infantry, holding a longer stretch of front. The prime minister had used incorrect information furnished by the War Department office headed by Major-General Sir Frederick Maurice. Maurice then made the spectacular public allegation that the War Cabinet had deliberately held soldiers back from the Western Front, and both Lloyd George and Law had lied to Parliament about it. Instead of going to the prime minister about the problem Maurice had waited and then broke King's Regulations by making a public attack. Asquith, still Liberal Party leader, took up the allegations and called for a Parliamentary Inquiry. While Asquith's presentation was poorly done, Lloyd George vigorously defended his position, treating the debate as a vote of confidence. He won over the House with a powerful refutation of Maurice's allegations. The Liberal Party was openly split for the first time. Meanwhile, the German offensive stalled. By summer the Americans were sending 10,000 fresh men a day to the Western Front, a speedup made possible by leaving their equipment behind and using British and French munitions. The German army had used up its last reserves and was steadily shrinking in numbers, further weakening its resolve. Victory came on 11 November 1918. That autumn Lloyd George was one of the many infected during the 1918 flu pandemic, but he survived. Postwar prime minister (1918–1922) At the end of the war Lloyd George's reputation stood at its zenith. Law, who was also from a provincial background, said "He can be dictator for life if he wishes." Headlines at this time declared a "huge majority win" and that "pacifists, even 'shining lights' such as Arnold Lupton, had been completely overthrown by Ramsay MacDonald and Philip Snowden". Coupon election of 1918 In the "Coupon election" of December 1918 he led a coalition of Conservatives and his own faction of Liberals to a landslide victory. Coalition candidates received a "coalition coupon" (an endorsement letter signed by Lloyd George and Law). He did not say "We shall squeeze the German lemon until the pips squeak" (that was Sir Eric Geddes), but he did express that sentiment about reparations from Germany to pay the entire cost of the war, including pensions. He said that German industrial capacity "will go a pretty long way". We must have "the uttermost farthing", and "shall search their pockets for it". As the campaign closed, he summarised his programme: Trial of the exiled Kaiser Wilhelm II; Punishment of those guilty of atrocities; Fullest indemnity from Germany; Britain for the British, socially and industrially; Rehabilitation of those broken in the war; and A happier country for all. The election was fought not so much on the peace issue and what to do with Germany, although those themes played a role. More important was the voters' evaluation of Lloyd George in terms of what he had accomplished so far and what he promised for the future. His supporters emphasised that he had won the Great War. Against his strong record in social legislation, he himself called for making "a country fit for heroes to live in". The Coalition gained an overwhelming victory, winning 525 of the 707 seats contested; however, the Conservatives had more than two-thirds of the Coalition's seats. Asquith's independent Liberals were crushed, although they were still the official opposition as the two Liberal factions combined had more seats than Labour. Accounts vary about the factional allegiance of some MPs: by some accounts as few as 29 uncouponed Liberals had been elected, only 3 with any junior ministerial experience, and only 23 of them were actually opponents of the coalition. Until April 1919 the government whip was extended to all Liberal MPs and Lloyd George might easily have been elected chairman of the Liberal MPs (Asquith was still party leader but had lost his seat) had he been willing to antagonise his Conservative coalition partners by doing so. Paris 1919 Lloyd George represented Britain at the Paris Peace Conference, clashing with French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, US President Woodrow Wilson, and Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando. Unlike Clemenceau and Orlando, Lloyd George on the whole stood on the side of generosity and moderation. He did not want to utterly destroy the German economy and political system—as Clemenceau demanded—with massive reparations. The economist John Maynard Keynes looked askance at Lloyd George's economic credentials in The Economic Consequences of the Peace, and in Essays in Biography called the Prime Minister a "goat-footed bard, half-human visitor to our age from the hag-ridden magic and enchanted woods of Celtic antiquity". Lloyd George was also responsible for the pro-German shift in the peace conditions regarding borders of Poland. Instead of handing over Upper Silesia (2,073,000 people), and the southern part of East Prussia (720,000 people) to Poland as was planned before, the plebiscite was organised. Danzig (366,000 people) was organised as Free City of Danzig. The Poles were grateful that he had saved that country from the Bolsheviks but were annoyed by his comment that they were "children who gave trouble". Distrusting Foreign Office professionals, Lloyd George and his team at Paris instead relied on non-professional experts through informal networks below them. They consulted with James Headlam-Morley about Danzig. Several academic historians also were consulted. Their experiences were the basis for building up diplomatic history as a field of academic research and the emergence of the new academic discipline of international relations. Asked how he had done at the peace conference, Lloyd George retorted: "I think I did as well as might be expected, seated as I was between Jesus Christ [Wilson] and Napoleon Bonaparte [Clemenceau]." Historian Antony Lentin evaluated his role in Paris as a major success, saying: Postwar social reforms A major programme of social reform was introduced under Lloyd George in the last months of the war, and in the post-war years. The Workmen's Compensation (Silicosis) Act 1918 (which was introduced a year later) allowed for compensation to be paid to men "who could prove they had worked in rock which contained no less than 80% silica." The Education Act 1918 raised the school leaving age to 14, increased the powers and duties of the Board of Education (together with the money it could provide to Local Education Authorities), and introduced a system of compulsory part-time continuation schools for children between the ages of 14 and 16. The Blind Persons Act 1920 provided assistance for unemployed blind people and blind persons who were in low paid employment. The Housing and Town Planning Act 1919 provided subsidies for house building by local authorities, and 170,000 dwellings were built under it by the end of 1922. which established, according to A. J. P. Taylor, "the principle that housing was a social service". A further 30,000 houses were constructed by private enterprise with government subsidy under a second act. The Land Settlement (Facilities) Act 1919 and Land Settlement (Scotland) Acts of 1919 encouraged local authorities to provide land for people to take up farming "and also to provide allotments in urban areas." The Rent Act 1920 was intended to safeguard working-class tenants against exorbitant rent increases, but it failed. Rent controls were continued after the war, and an "out-of-work donation" was introduced for ex-servicemen and civilians. Electoral changes: suffragism The Representation of the People Act 1918 greatly extended the franchise for men (by abolishing most property qualifications) and gave the vote to many women over 30, and the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 enabled women to sit in the House of Commons. The Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919 provided that "A person shall not be disqualified by sex or marriage from the exercise of any public function, or from being appointed to or holding any civil or judicial office or post, or from entering or assuming or carrying on any civil profession or vocation, or for admission to any incorporated society". Wages for workers The Unemployment Insurance Act 1920 extended national insurance to 11 million additional workers. This was considered to be a revolutionary measure, in that it extended unemployment insurance to almost the entire labour force, whereas only certain categories of workers had been covered before. As a result of this legislation, roughly three-quarters of the British workforce were now covered by unemployment insurance. The Agriculture Act 1920 provided for farm labourers to receive a minimum wage while the state continued to guarantee the prices of farm produce until 1921. It also provided tenant farmers with greater protection by granting them better security of tenure In education, teachers' salaries were standardised, and more than doubled from pre-War levels, in 1921 by the Burnham Committee. The Mining Industry Act 1920 placed a mandatory requirement to provide social welfare opportunities to mining communities, while the Public Health (Tuberculosis) Act 1921 increased the obligation of local authorities to treat and prevent TB. Health reforms In 1919, the government set up the Ministry of Health, a development which led to major improvements in public health in the years that followed. Whilst the Unemployed Workers' Dependants (Temporary Provisions) Act 1921 provided payments for the wives and dependent children of unemployed workers. The Employment of Women, Young Persons, and Children Act 1920 prohibited the employment of children below the limit of compulsory school age in railways and transport undertakings, building and engineering construction works, factories, and mines. The legislation also prohibited the employment of children in ships at sea (except in certain circumstances, such as in respect of family members employed on the same vessel). The National Health Insurance Act 1920 increased insurance benefits, and eligibility for pensions was extended to more people. The means limit for pensions was raised by about two-thirds, immigrants and their wives were allowed to receive pensions after living in Britain for ten years, and the imprisonment and "failure to work" disqualifications for receiving pensions were abolished. The Blind Persons Act 1920 reduced the pension age for blind people from 70 to 50. Old age pensions were nearly doubled (from £26 5s to £47 5s a year), efforts were made to help returning soldiers find employment, and the Whitley Councils of employees and employers set up. What was the cost? The reforming efforts of the Coalition Government were such that, according to the historian Kenneth O. Morgan, its achievements were greater than those of the pre-war Liberal governments; however, the reform programme was substantially rolled back by the Geddes Axe, which cut public expenditure by £76 million, including substantial cuts to education, and abolished the Agricultural Wages Board. Ireland During Asquith's premiership, the armed insurrection by Irish republicans, known as the Easter Rising, had taken place in Dublin during Easter Week, 1916. The government responded with harsh repression; key leaders were quickly executed. The mostly Catholic Irish nationalists then underwent a dramatic change of mood, and shifted to demand vengeance and independence. In 1917, Lloyd George called the 1917–18 Irish Convention in an attempt to settle the outstanding Home Rule for Ireland issue; however, the upsurge in republican sympathies in Ireland following the Easter Rising coupled with Lloyd George's disastrous attempt to extend conscription to Ireland in April 1918 and led to the landslide victory of Sinn Féin and the wipeout of the Irish Parliamentary Party at the December 1918 election. Replaced by Sinn Féin MPs, they immediately declared an Irish Republic. Lloyd George presided over the Government of Ireland Act 1920 which partitioned Ireland into Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland in May 1921 during the Anglo-Irish War. Lloyd George famously declared of the Irish Republican Army that "We have murder by the throat!" However, he soon afterwards began negotiations with IRA leaders to recognise their authority and to end a bloody conflict. This culminated in the Anglo-Irish Treaty signed in December 1921 with Irish leaders. Under it Southern Ireland, representing over a fifth of the United Kingdom's territory, seceded in 1922 to form the Irish Free State. Foreign policy crises A series of foreign policy crises gave Lloyd George his last opportunity to hold national and international leadership. Everything went wrong. The League of Nations got off to a slow start and was largely ineffective. The Treaty of Versailles had set up a series of temporary organisations, composed of delegations from key powers, to ensure the successful application of the Treaty. The system worked poorly. The assembly of ambassadors was repeatedly overruled and became a nonentity. Most of the commissions were deeply divided and unable to either make decisions or convince the interested parties to carry them out. The most important commission was on Reparations, and France seized full control of it. Raymond Poincaré, president of France, was intensely anti-German, was unrelenting in his demands for huge reparations, and was repeatedly challenged by Germany. France finally invaded western Germany, and Berlin responded by imposing a runaway inflation that seriously damaged the German economy and also damaged the French economy. The United States, after refusing to ratify the League in 1920, almost completely disassociated itself from it. In 1921, the U.S. set up its own international programme for world disarmament that led to the successful Washington Naval Conference, leaving only a minor role for Britain. As the reparations crisis escalated, the United States seized control of it too, with the Dawes Plan of 1924 by which American banks loaned large sums to Germany, which paid reparations to the Allies, who in turn paid off their war loans to the United States. In 1921, Lloyd George successfully concluded the Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement. Despite much effort he was unable to negotiate full diplomatic relations, as the Russians rejected all repayment of Tsarist era debts, and Conservatives in Britain grew exceedingly wary of the communist threat to European stability. Indeed, Henry Wilson, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, worried that Lloyd George had become "a traitor & a Bolshevist". Lloyd George in 1922 set about to make himself master of peace in the world, especially through the Genoa Conference that he expected would rival Paris of 1919 in visibility, and restore his reputation. Poincaré and the French demanded a military alliance that was far beyond what the British would accept. Germany and Russia made their own agreement at Rapallo which wrecked the Genoa conference. Finally, Lloyd George decided to support Greece in a war against Turkey. This led to the Chanak Crisis when the Dominions, with the exception of Newfoundland and New Zealand, rejected the British policy and refused to support the proposed war. Domestic crises The more conservative wing of the Unionist Party had no intention of introducing reforms, which led to three years of frustrated fighting within the coalition both between the National Liberals and the Unionists and between factions within the Conservatives themselves. Many Conservatives were angered by the granting of independence to the Irish Free State and by Edwin Montagu's moves towards limited self-government for India, while a sharp economic downturn and wave of strikes in 1921 damaged Lloyd George's credibility. A scandal erupted in 1922 when it became known that Lloyd George had awarded honours and titles, such as baronetcies, to rich businessmen in return for cash in the range of £10,000 and more, via Maundy Gregory. A major attack on his corruption in the House of Lords followed, resulting in the Honours (Prevention of Abuses) Act 1925. Other complaints were that the Cabinet contained too many Scots, too few men from Oxbridge and the great public schools, too many businessmen, and too few gentlemen. Fall from power 1922 The coalition was dealt its final blow in October 1922. The Conservatives felt let down by France over the Chanak Crisis, with Law telling France, "We cannot act alone as the policeman of the world." The Conservative leader, Austen Chamberlain, summoned a meeting of Conservative members of parliament at the Carlton Club to discuss their attitude to the Coalition in the forthcoming election. Chamberlain and most Conservative leaders supported Lloyd George; however, the rank and file rejected the coalition. The main attack came from Stanley Baldwin, then President of the Board of Trade, who spoke of Lloyd George as a "dynamic force" who would break the Conservative Party. They sealed Lloyd George's fate on 19 October 1922 by voting in favour of the motion to end the coalition and fight the election "as an independent party, with its own leader and its own programme." Lloyd George submitted his resignation to the King that afternoon. Later political career (1922–1945) Liberal reunion Throughout the 1920s Lloyd George remained highly visible in politics; predictions that he would return to power were common, but it never happened. He still controlled a large fund (thought to have been between £1m and £3m, or £50m–£150m at 2015 prices) from his investments in newspaper ownership and from his sale of titles. Before the 1923 election, he resolved his dispute with Asquith, allowing the Liberals to run a united ticket against Stanley Baldwin's policy of protective tariffs. Baldwin both feared and despised Lloyd George, and one of his aims was to keep him out of power. He later claimed that he had adopted tariffs, which cost the Conservatives their majority, out of concern that Lloyd George was about to do so on his return from a tour of North America. Although there was press speculation at the time that Lloyd George would do so (or adopt US-style Prohibition to appeal to newly enfranchised women voters), there is no evidence that this was his intent. Asquith and Lloyd George reached agreement on 13 November 1923 and issued a joint Free Trade manifesto, followed by a more general one. Lloyd George agreed to contribute £100,000 (in the event he claimed to have contributed £160,000 including help given to individual candidates; Liberal HQ put the figure at £90,000). In 1924, Lloyd George, realising that Liberal defeat was inevitable and keen to take control of the party himself, spent only £60,000. At the 1924 general election, Baldwin won a clear victory. Despite having a large majority, he appointed the leading coalitionists such as Austen Chamberlain and Lord Birkenhead (and former Liberal Winston Churchill) to senior cabinet places, to discourage any restoration of the 1916–1922 coalition. Liberal leader The disastrous election result in 1924 left the Liberals as a weak third party in British politics, with just over 40 MPs. Although Asquith, who had again lost his seat and was created an Earl, remained Liberal leader, Lloyd George was elected chairman of the Liberal MPs by 26 votes to 7. Sir John Simon and his followers were still loyal to Asquith (after 1931 Simon would lead a breakaway National Liberal Party, which eventually merged with the Conservatives) whilst Walter Runciman led a separate radical group within the Parliamentary Party. Lloyd George was now mainly interested in the reform of land ownership, but had only been permitted to put a brief paragraph about it in the hastily drafted 1924 Liberal manifesto. In the autumn of 1925, despite the hostility of Charles Hobhouse, Runciman and Alfred Mond, he began an independent campaign, soon to become "The Land and the Nation" (the Green Book, first of a series of policy papers produced by Lloyd George in the late 1920s). Asquith rebuked him, but was ignored, and they reached an agreement in principle on 2 December, then together they presented Lloyd George's plans to the National Liberal Federation on 26 February 1926. The Liberal Shadow Cabinet, including Lloyd George, unequivocally backed Baldwin's handling of the General Strike on 3 May, but Lloyd George then wrote an article for the American press more sympathetic to the strikers, and did not attend the Shadow Cabinet on 10 May, sending his apologies on "policy grounds". Asquith sent him a public letter (20 May) rebuking him for not attending the meeting to discuss his opinions with colleagues in private. Lloyd George's letter of 10 May had not been published, making it appear that Asquith had fired the first shot, and Lloyd George sent a public reply, moderate in tone (the journalist C. P. Scott helped him draft it), on 25 May. In late May, the executive of the National Liberal Federation convened to plan the agenda for the following month's conference. 16 were pro Asquith and 8 pro Lloyd George; they planned a motion expressing confidence in Asquith, but another option was also proposed to seek Asquith's opinion first, and also general feeling of regret at having been forced to choose between Asquith and Lloyd George. Asquith then wrote another public letter (1 June) stating that he regarded Lloyd George's behaviour as tantamount to resignation, the same as if a Cabinet Minister had refused to abide by the principle of collective responsibility. Twelve leading Liberals wrote in Asquith's support to The Times (1 June); however, Lloyd George had more support in the wider party than among the grandees: the London Liberal Candidates' Association (3 June) defied its officers and expressed its dismay at the split, effectively supporting Lloyd George, and on 8 June the Liberal MPs voted 20:10 urging a reconciliation. Asquith had planned to launch a fightback at the National Liberal Federation in Weston-Super-Mare, but on 12 June, five days before the conference was due to start, he suffered a stroke which put him out of action for three months. Lloyd George was given a rapturous welcome. Asquith resigned as party leader in October, dying in 1928. As Liberal leader at last, Lloyd George used his fund to finance candidates and put forward innovative ideas for public works to reduce unemployment, detailed in works such as Britain's Industrial Future (known as the Yellow Book), and We Can Conquer Unemployment (known as the Orange Book). Charles Masterman, a member of the commission which prepared Britain's Industrial Future, wrote: "When Lloyd George came back to the party, ideas came back to the party". Lloyd George was helped by John Maynard Keynes to write We Can Conquer Unemployment, setting out economic policies to solve unemployment. In 1927, Lloyd George gave £300,000 and an annual grant of between £30,000 and £40,000 for the operations of the Liberal headquarters. He also gave £2,000 per annum to the parliamentary party until 1931. Even with the money the results at the 1929 general election were disappointing. The Liberals increased their support only to 60 or so seats, while Labour became the largest party for the first time. Once again, the Liberals ended up supporting a minority Labour government. In 1929, Lloyd George became Father of the House (longest-serving member of the Commons), an honorific position without power. Marginalised In 1931, an illness prevented his joining the National Government when it was formed. Later when the National Government called a General Election he tried to pull the Liberal Party out of it but succeeded in taking only a few followers, most of whom were related to him; the main Liberal Party remained in the coalition for a year longer, under the leadership of Sir Herbert Samuel. By the 1930s Lloyd George was on the margins of British politics, although still intermittently in the public eye and publishing his War Memoirs. Lloyd George was President of the London Welsh Trust, which runs the London Welsh Centre, Gray's Inn Road, from 1934 until 1935. Lloyd George's "New Deal" In January 1935 Lloyd George announced a programme of economic reform, called "Lloyd George's New Deal" after the American New Deal. This Keynesian economic programme was essentially the same as that of 1929. MacDonald requested that he put his case before the Cabinet. In March, Lloyd George submitted a 100-page memorandum (published as Organizing Prosperity: A Scheme of National Reconstruction) that was cross-examined between April and June in ten meetings of the Cabinet's sub-committee; however, the programme did not find favour; two-thirds of Conservative MPs were against Lloyd George joining the National government, and some Cabinet members would have resigned if he had joined. Support for Nazi Germany Lloyd George was consistently pro-German after 1923, in part due to his growing conviction that Germany had been treated unfairly at Versailles. He supported German demands for territorial concessions and recognition of its "great power" status; he paid much less attention to the security concerns of France, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Belgium. In a speech in 1933, he warned that if Adolf Hitler were overthrown Communism would replace him in Germany. In August 1934, he insisted Germany could not wage war, and assured European nations that there would be no risk of war during the next ten years. In September 1936, he visited Germany to talk with Hitler. Hitler said he was pleased to have met "the man who won the war"; Lloyd George was moved, and called Hitler "the greatest living German". Lloyd George also visited Germany's public works programmes and was impressed. On his return to Britain, he wrote an article for the Daily Express praising Hitler and stating: "The Germans have definitely made up their minds never to quarrel with us again." He believed Hitler was "the George Washington of Germany"; that he was rearming Germany for defence and not for offensive war; that a war between Germany and the Soviet Union would not happen for at least ten years; that Hitler admired the British and wanted their friendship but that there was no British leadership to exploit this; however, by 1937, Lloyd George's distaste for Neville Chamberlain led him to disavow Chamberlain's appeasement policies. Final years In the last important parliamentary intervention of his career, which occurred during the crucial Norway Debate of May 1940, Lloyd George made a powerful speech that helped to undermine Chamberlain as prime minister and to pave the way for the ascendancy of Churchill. Churchill offered Lloyd George the agriculture portfolio in his Cabinet, initially subject to Chamberlain's approval, but this condition and, once Chamberlain had withdrawn his opposition, Lloyd George's unwillingness to sit alongside Chamberlain, led him to refuse. Lloyd George also thought that Britain's chances in the war were dim, and he remarked to his secretary: "I shall wait until Winston is bust." He wrote to the Duke of Bedford in September 1940, during the Battle of Britain, advocating a negotiated peace with Germany. A pessimistic speech by Lloyd George on 7 May 1941 led Churchill to compare him with Philippe Pétain. On 11 June 1942, he made his last speech in the House of Commons, and he cast his last vote in the Commons on 18 February 1943 as one of the 121 MPs (97 Labour) condemning the Government for its failure to back the Beveridge Report. Fittingly, his final vote was in defence of the welfare state which he had helped to create. He continued to attend Castle Street Baptist Chapel in London, and to preside over the National Eisteddfod at its Thursday session each summer. In September 1944 he and Frances left his home, Bron-y-de in Churt, for Tŷ Newydd, a farm near his boyhood home in Llanystumdwy. He was now weakening rapidly and his voice failing. He was still an MP but, concerned about his health (he felt physically unable to campaign) and the wartime social changes in the constituency, he feared Carnarvon Boroughs might go Conservative at the next election. Wishing, as the last surviving author of the Versailles settlement, to have an official platform to speak on any peace settlement he accepted a peerage. It was announced in the 1945 New Year Honours that Lloyd George would be made an earl, which he was as Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, and Viscount Gwynedd, of Dwyfor in the County of Caernarvonshire on 12 February 1945; however, he did not live long enough to take his seat in the House of Lords. Death Lloyd George died of cancer at the age of 82 on 26 March 1945, with his wife Frances and his daughter Megan at his bedside. Four days later, on Good Friday, he was buried beside the river Dwyfor in Llanystumdwy. A boulder marks the grave; there is no inscription; however a monument designed by the architect Sir Clough Williams-Ellis was subsequently erected around the grave, bearing an englyn (strict-metre stanza) engraved on slate in his memory composed by his nephew W. R. P. George. Nearby stands the Lloyd George Museum, also designed by Williams-Ellis and opened in 1963. Assessment Lloyd George has often been ranked highly among modern British prime ministers, but his legacy remains complicated and controversial. Scholars have praised his welfare reforms and his efforts to mobilise and lead Britain to victory during the First World War, but he has also been criticised for adopting a "presidential" style of leadership, for distrusting his own commanders during the war, and for his strategic failures and involvement in various scandals. His legacies over Ireland and the Treaty of Versailles are also controversial, and although an ardent Zionist, he expressed antisemitic views. In the post-war period he arguably alienated many of the workers he had earlier championed, helping to swell Labour's popular support at the Liberals' expense (not helped by his conflicts with Asquithian Liberals after 1916). Historian Martin Pugh in The Oxford Companion to British History argues that:[Lloyd George] made a greater impact on British public life than any other 20th-cent. statesman. He laid the foundations of what later became the welfare state, and put a progressive income tax system at the centre of government finance. He also left his mark on the system of government by enlarging the scope of the prime minister's role. He was acclaimed, not without reason, as the 'Man Who Won the War'. ... he was blamed by many Liberals for destroying their party in 1918, hated in the Labour movement for his handling of industrial issues after 1918, and disparaged by Conservatives for his radicalism. George Riddell, 1st Baron Riddell, a wealthy newspaper publisher, was a close confidant and financial supporter of Lloyd George from 1908 to 1922, and Riddell's revealing diary is a valuable source for the period. During Lloyd George's first year as prime minister, in summer 1917, Riddell assessed his personality:His energy, capacity for work, and power of recuperation are remarkable. He has an extraordinary memory, imagination, and the art of getting at the root of a matter. ... He is not afraid of responsibility, and has no respect for tradition or convention. He is always ready to examine, scrap or revise established theories and practices. These qualities give him unlimited confidence in himself. ... He is one of the craftiest of men, and his extraordinary charm of manner not only wins him friends, but does much to soften the asperities of his opponents and enemies. He is full of humour and a born actor. ... He has an instinctive power of divining the thoughts and intentions of people with whom he is conversing ... His chief defects are: (1) Lack of appreciation of existing institutions, organisations, and stolid, dull people ... their ways are not his ways and their methods are not his methods. (2) Fondness for a grandiose scheme in preference to an attempt to improve existing machinery. (3) Disregard of difficulties in carrying out big projects ... he is not a man of detail. In 2007, historian John Shepherd wrote in History Today:In any poll of modern historians Winston Churchill and David Lloyd George would emerge as the two most renowned prime ministers during the past century. Family Margaret and children He had five children by his first wife, Margaret: Richard (1889–1968), Mair (1890–1907, who died during an appendectomy), Olwen (1892–1990), Gwilym (1894–1967) and Megan (1902–1966). Despite his long-term affair with Frances Stevenson, he remained married to Margaret, and remained fond of her until her death on 20 January 1941; Lloyd George was deeply upset by the fact that bad weather prevented him from being with her when she died. Gwilym and Megan both followed him into politics, and were elected members of parliament. They were politically faithful to their father throughout his life, but after 1945 each drifted away from the Liberal Party, Gwilym finishing his career as a Conservative Home Secretary and Megan becoming a Labour MP in 1957. Frances Lloyd George met Frances Stevenson in 1910; she worked for him first as a teacher for Megan in 1911; she became his secretary and, from early 1913, his long-term mistress. Lloyd George may have been the father of Stevenson's daughter Jennifer (1929–2012), born long before they wed, but it is more likely that she was the daughter of Thomas Tweed, with whom Stevenson had had an affair. To the disapproval of his children he finally married Frances in October 1943; he was aged 80 at the time. Frances was the first Countess Lloyd-George, and is now largely remembered for her diaries, which dealt with the great issues, and statesmen, of Lloyd George's heyday. A volume of their letters, My Darling Pussy, has also been published; Lloyd George's nickname for Frances referred to her gentle personality. Descendants The Canadian historian Margaret MacMillan, who detailed Lloyd George's role at the 1919 Peace Conference in her book, Peacemakers, is his great-granddaughter. The British television historian and presenter Dan Snow is a great-great-grandson. Honours Peerage Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor and Viscount Gwynedd of Dwyfor in the county of Caernarvonshire (created 12 February 1945). Decorations Order of Merit (Civil) 1919 Knight of Grace, Order of Saint John; Chancellor of the Welsh Priory from 1918 and Prior of Wales from 1943. Grand Cordon of the Legion of Honour (France) 1920 Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (Belgium) Grand Cross of the Order of St Maurice and St Lazarus (Italy) Cross of Liberty (Estonia) (3rd class 1st rank) for civilian service, 29 April 1925 Academic Oxford University – DCL 1908 Fellow of Jesus College 1910 University of Wales – LLD 1908 Glasgow University – LLD 1917 University of Edinburgh – LLD 1918 Rector – 1920 Durham University – DCL 1919 Sheffield University – DLitt 1919 Cambridge University – LLD 1920 Birmingham University – LLD 1921 Leeds University – LLD 1922 Freedoms Lloyd George was made Honorary Freeman of the following cities and towns: Cardiff – 24 June 1908 City of London – 1908 Master of the Worshipful Company of Curriers (London) Birmingham, Manchester – 1908 Blackpool – 1918 Neath – 1920 Criccieth - July 1919. Bristol, York, Glasgow, Barnsley – 1921 Leeds, Aberystwyth – 1922 Salford – October 1922 Montreal, Brecon, Llandovery, Carmarthen, Llanelli, Swansea – 1923 Portsmouth – 1924 Namesakes Lloyd George Avenue is an extension of the A470 road, connecting Central Cardiff to Cardiff Bay. Mount Lloyd George in the Northern Rocky Mountains of British Columbia, Canada was named after Lloyd George during the First World War, and still retains the name. Kibbutz Ramat David in the Jezreel Valley in northern Israel and the adjacent Ramat David Airbase are named after him. David Lloyd George Elementary School in Vancouver was named after Lloyd George in 1921. Cultural depictions Selected works The People's Budget, Hodder & Stoughton 1909 The Lords, The Land and the People, Hodder & Stoughton 1909 The People's Will, Hodder & Stoughton 1910 Better Times, Hodder & Stoughton 1910 The People's Insurance, Hodder & Stoughton 1912 Through Terror to Triumph (edited by Frances Stevenson), Hodder and Stoughton, 1915 The Great Crusade (edited by Frances Stevenson), Hodder and Stoughton, 1918 Is It Peace?, Hodder and Stoughton, 1923 Where Are We Going?, George H. Doran Company, 1923 (American version of Is It Peace?, same contents but re-arranged) Slings and Arrows (selected and with an introduction by Philip Guedalla), Cassell and Company, Ltd, 1929 How to Tackle Unemployment (with the Marquess of Lothian and B. Seebohm Rowntree), The Press Printers Ltd, 1930 The Truth About Reparations and War-Debts, William Heinemann Ltd, 1932 War Memoirs, 6 volumes, Ivor Nicholson and Watson, 1933 – 1936: re-published in 2 volumes by Odhams Press, 1938 Organizing Prosperity, Ivor Nicholson and Watson, 1935 The Truth About the Peace Treaties Volume I, Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1938 The Truth About the Peace Treaties Volume II, Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1938 Published in the US as Memoirs of the Peace Conference, 2 volumes, Yale University Press, 1939 See also Liberalism in the United Kingdom Interwar Britain Statue of David Lloyd George, Parliament Square Lloyd George's Beer Song Notes Citations Bibliography Biographical online all volumes reprinted in 2002; online copies The Young Lloyd George (1973); Lloyd George: The People's Champion, 1902–1911 (1978); Lloyd George: From Peace to War, 1912–1916 (1985); Lloyd George: War Leader, 1916–1918 (2002) online online Specialised studies Boyle, Timothy. “New Light on Lloyd George’s Mansion House Speech.” Historical Journal 23#2 (1980), pp. 431–33, online. online Marriott, J. A. R. Modern England 1885-1945 A History of My Own Times (1948) pp 390–516. online Primary sources Lord Riddell. Lord Riddell's Intimate Diary of the Peace Conference And After (1933) online free Further reading Dangerfield, George. The Strange Death of Liberal England (1935) online free; Fry, Michael Graham. And fortune fled: David Lloyd George, the first democratic statesman, 1916-1922 (Peter Lang, 2010) highly detailed scholarly coverage of his foreign policy as prime minister. Somervell, D. C. The Reign of King George V, (1936) pp 161–306. online free External links Parliamentary Archives, The Lloyd George Papers Lloyd George - 1919 Paris Peace Conference - UK Parliament Living Heritage More about David Lloyd George on the Downing Street website. Lloyd George Society website BBC Wales History – Profile of David Lloyd George www.notableabodes.com includes a clip of Lloyd George reading from his 1916 National Eisteddfod speech "Why should we not sing?" Spartacus Educational: David Lloyd George 1863 births 1945 deaths 20th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom British people of World War I British Zionists Burials in Wales Chancellors of the Exchequer of the United Kingdom Councillors in Wales Deaths from cancer in Wales Deputy Lieutenants of Caernarvonshire Earls Lloyd-George of Dwyfor Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus Knights of Grace of the Order of St John Leaders of the Liberal Party (UK) Liberal Party (UK) MPs for Welsh constituencies Liberal Party prime ministers of the United Kingdom David Members of Parliament for Caernarfon Members of the Order of Merit Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom National Liberal Party (UK, 1922) politicians Peers created by George VI People from Chorlton-on-Medlock People of the Victorian era Politicians from Manchester Politics of Caernarfonshire Presidents of the Board of Trade Rectors of the University of Edinburgh Secretaries of State for War (UK) UK MPs 1886–1892 UK MPs 1892–1895 UK MPs 1895–1900 UK MPs 1900–1906 UK MPs 1906–1910 UK MPs 1910 UK MPs 1910–1918 UK MPs 1918–1922 UK MPs 1922–1923 UK MPs 1923–1924 UK MPs 1924–1929 UK MPs 1929–1931 UK MPs 1931–1935 UK MPs 1935–1945 UK MPs who were granted peerages Welsh people of World War I Welsh solicitors Welsh-speaking politicians

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony%20Burgess

Anthony Burgess

John Anthony Burgess Wilson, (; 25 February 1917 – 22 November 1993), who published under the name Anthony Burgess, was an English writer and composer. Although Burgess was primarily a comic writer, his dystopian satire A Clockwork Orange remains his best-known novel. In 1971, it was adapted into a controversial film by Stanley Kubrick, which Burgess said was chiefly responsible for the popularity of the book. Burgess produced numerous other novels, including the Enderby quartet, and Earthly Powers. He wrote librettos and screenplays, including the 1977 TV mini-series Jesus of Nazareth. He worked as a literary critic for several publications, including The Observer and The Guardian, and wrote studies of classic writers, notably James Joyce. A versatile linguist, Burgess lectured in phonetics, and translated Cyrano de Bergerac, Oedipus Rex, and the opera Carmen, among others. Burgess also composed over 250 musical works; he considered himself as much a composer as an author, although he achieved considerably more success in writing. Biography Early life In 1917, Burgess was born at 91 Carisbrook Street in Harpurhey, a suburb of Manchester, England, to Catholic parents, Joseph and Elizabeth Wilson. He described his background as lower middle class; growing up during the Great Depression, his parents, who were shopkeepers, were fairly well off, as the demand for their tobacco and alcohol wares remained constant. He was known in childhood as Jack, Little Jack, and Johnny Eagle. At his confirmation, the name Anthony was added and he became John Anthony Burgess Wilson. He began using the pen name Anthony Burgess upon the publication of his 1956 novel Time for a Tiger. His mother Elizabeth (née Burgess) died at the age of 30 at home on 19 November 1918, during the 1918 flu pandemic. The causes listed on her death certificate were influenza, acute pneumonia, and cardiac failure. His sister Muriel had died four days earlier on 15 November from influenza, broncho-pneumonia, and cardiac failure, aged eight. Burgess believed he was resented by his father, Joseph Wilson, for having survived, when his mother and sister did not. After the death of his mother, Burgess was raised by his maternal aunt, Ann Bromley, in Crumpsall with her two daughters. During this time, Burgess's father worked as a bookkeeper for a beef market by day, and in the evening played piano at a public house in Miles Platting. After his father married the landlady of this pub, Margaret Dwyer, in 1922, Burgess was raised by his father and stepmother. By 1924 the couple had established a tobacconist and off-licence business with four properties. Burgess was briefly employed at the tobacconist shop as a child. On 18 April 1938, Joseph Wilson died from cardiac failure, pleurisy, and influenza at the age of 55, leaving no inheritance despite his apparent business success. Burgess' stepmother died of a heart attack in 1940. Burgess has said of his largely solitary childhood "I was either distractedly persecuted or ignored. I was one despised. ... Ragged boys in gangs would pounce on the well-dressed like myself." Burgess attended St. Edmund's Elementary School before moving on to Bishop Bilsborrow Memorial Elementary School, both Catholic schools, in Moss Side. He later reflected "When I went to school I was able to read. At the Manchester elementary school I attended, most of the children could not read, so I was ... a little apart, rather different from the rest." Good grades resulted in a place at Xaverian College (1928–37). Music Burgess was indifferent to music until he heard on his home-built radio "a quite incredible flute solo", which he characterised as "sinuous, exotic, erotic", and became spellbound. Eight minutes later the announcer told him he had been listening to Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune by Claude Debussy. He referred to this as a "psychedelic moment ... a recognition of verbally inexpressible spiritual realities". When Burgess announced to his family that he wanted to be a composer, they objected as "there was no money in it". Music was not taught at his school, but at the age of about 14 he taught himself to play the piano. University Burgess had originally hoped to study music at university, but the music department at the Victoria University of Manchester turned down his application because of poor grades in physics. Instead, he studied English language and literature there between 1937 and 1940, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts. His thesis concerned Marlowe's Doctor Faustus, and he graduated with an upper second-class honours, which he found disappointing. When grading one of Burgess's term papers, the historian A. J. P. Taylor wrote "Bright ideas insufficient to conceal lack of knowledge." Marriage Burgess met Llewela "Lynne" Isherwood Jones at the university where she was studying economics, politics and modern history, graduating in 1942 with an upper second-class. She reportedly claimed to be a distant relative of Christopher Isherwood, although the Lewis and Biswell biographies dispute this. Burgess and Jones were married on 22 January 1942. Military service Burgess spent six weeks in 1940 as a British Army recruit in Eskbank before becoming a Nursing Orderly Class 3 in the Royal Army Medical Corps. During his service, he was unpopular and was involved in incidents such as knocking off a corporal's cap and polishing the floor of a corridor to make people slip. In 1941, Burgess was pursued by the Royal Military Police for desertion after overstaying his leave from Morpeth military base with his future bride Lynne. The following year he asked to be transferred to the Army Educational Corps and, despite his loathing of authority, he was promoted to sergeant. During the blackout, his pregnant wife Lynne was raped and assaulted by four American deserters; perhaps as a result, she lost the child. Burgess, stationed at the time in Gibraltar, was denied leave to see her. At his stationing in Gibraltar, which he later wrote about in A Vision of Battlements, he worked as a training college lecturer in speech and drama, teaching alongside Ann McGlinn in German, French and Spanish. McGlinn's communist ideology would have a major influence on his later novel A Clockwork Orange. Burgess played a key role in "The British Way and Purpose" programme, designed to introduce members of the forces to the peacetime socialism of the post-war years in Britain. He was an instructor for the Central Advisory Council for Forces Education of the Ministry of Education. Burgess' flair for languages was noticed by army intelligence, and he took part in debriefings of Dutch expatriates and Free French who found refuge in Gibraltar during the war. In the neighbouring Spanish town of La Línea de la Concepción, he was arrested for insulting General Franco but released from custody shortly after the incident. Early teaching career Burgess left the army in 1946 with the rank of sergeant-major. For the next four years he was a lecturer in speech and drama at the Mid-West School of Education near Wolverhampton and at the Bamber Bridge Emergency Teacher Training College near Preston. Burgess taught in the extramural department of Birmingham University (1946–50). In late 1950, he began working as a secondary school teacher at Banbury Grammar School (now Banbury School) teaching English literature. In addition to his teaching duties, he supervised sports and ran the school's drama society. He organised a number of amateur theatrical events in his spare time. These involved local people and students and included productions of T. S. Eliot's Sweeney Agonistes. Reports from his former students and colleagues indicate that he cared deeply about teaching. With financial assistance provided by Lynne's father, the couple was able to put a down payment on a cottage in the village of Adderbury, close to Banbury. He named the cottage "Little Gidding" after one of Eliot's Four Quartets. Burgess cut his journalistic teeth in Adderbury, writing several articles for the local newspaper, the Banbury Guardian. Malaya In 1954, Burgess joined the British Colonial Service as a teacher and education officer in Malaya, initially stationed at Kuala Kangsar in Perak. Here he taught at the Malay College (now Malay College Kuala Kangsar – MCKK), modeled on English public school lines. In addition to his teaching duties, he was a housemaster in charge of students of the preparatory school, who were housed at a Victorian mansion known as "King's Pavilion". A variety of the music he wrote there was influenced by the country, notably Sinfoni Melayu for orchestra and brass band, which included cries of Merdeka (independence) from the audience. No score, however, is extant. Burgess and his wife had occupied a noisy apartment where privacy was minimal, and this caused resentment. Following a dispute with the Malay College's principal about this, Burgess was reposted to the Malay Teachers' Training College at Kota Bharu, Kelantan. Burgess attained fluency in Malay, spoken and written, achieving distinction in the examinations in the language set by the Colonial Office. He was rewarded with a salary increase for his proficiency in the language. He devoted some of his free time in Malaya to creative writing "as a sort of gentlemanly hobby, because I knew there wasn't any money in it," and published his first novels: Time for a Tiger, The Enemy in the Blanket and Beds in the East. These became known as The Malayan Trilogy and were later published in one volume as The Long Day Wanes. Brunei After a brief period of leave in Britain during 1958, Burgess took up a further Eastern post, this time at the Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin College in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei. Brunei had been a British protectorate since 1888, and was not to achieve independence until 1984. In the sultanate, Burgess sketched the novel that, when it was published in 1961, was to be entitled Devil of a State and, although it dealt with Brunei, for libel reasons the action had to be transposed to an imaginary East African territory similar to Zanzibar, named Dunia. In his autobiography Little Wilson and Big God (1987) Burgess wrote: About this time, Burgess collapsed in a Brunei classroom while teaching history and was diagnosed as having an inoperable brain tumour. Burgess was given just a year to live, prompting him to write several novels to get money to provide for his widow. He gave a different account, however, to Jeremy Isaacs in a Face to Face interview on the BBC The Late Show (21 March 1989). He said "Looking back now I see that I was driven out of the Colonial Service. I think possibly for political reasons that were disguised as clinical reasons". He alluded to this in an interview with Don Swaim, explaining that his wife Lynne had said something "obscene" to the Duke of Edinburgh during an official visit, and the colonial authorities turned against him. He had already earned their displeasure, he told Swaim, by writing articles in the newspaper in support of the revolutionary opposition party the Parti Rakyat Brunei, and for his friendship with its leader Dr. Azahari. Burgess' biographers attribute the incident to the author's notorious mythomania. Geoffrey Grigson writes, Repatriate years Burgess was invalided home in 1959 and relieved of his position in Brunei. He spent some time in the neurological ward of a London hospital (see The Doctor is Sick) where he underwent cerebral tests that found no illness. On discharge, benefiting from a sum of money which Lynne Burgess had inherited from her father, together with their savings built up over six years in the East, he decided to become a full-time writer. The couple lived first in an apartment in Hove, near Brighton. They later moved to a semi-detached house called "Applegarth" in Etchingham, about four miles from Bateman's where Rudyard Kipling had lived in Burwash, and one mile from the Robertsbridge home of Malcolm Muggeridge. Upon the death of Burgess's father-in-law, the couple used their inheritance to decamp to a terraced town house in Chiswick. This provided convenient access to the BBC Television Centre where he later became a frequent guest. During these years Burgess became a regular drinking partner of the novelist William S. Burroughs. Their meetings took place in London and Tangiers. A sea voyage the couple took with the Baltic Line from Tilbury to Leningrad in June 1961 resulted in the novel Honey for the Bears. He wrote in his autobiographical You've Had Your Time (1990), that in re-learning Russian at this time, he found inspiration for the Russian-based slang Nadsat that he created for A Clockwork Orange, going on to note, "I would resist to the limit any publisher's demand that a glossary be provided." Liana Macellari, an Italian translator twelve years younger than Burgess, came across his novels Inside Mr. Enderby and A Clockwork Orange, while writing about English fiction. The two first met in 1963 over lunch in Chiswick and began an affair. In 1964, Liana gave birth to Burgess' son, Paolo Andrea. The affair was hidden from Burgess's alcoholic wife, whom he refused to leave for fear of offending his cousin (by Burgess's stepmother, Margaret Dwyer Wilson), George Dwyer, the Roman Catholic Bishop of Leeds. Lynne Burgess died from cirrhosis of the liver, on 20 March 1968. Six months later, in September 1968, Burgess married Liana, acknowledging her four-year-old boy as his own, although the birth certificate listed Roy Halliday, Liana's former partner, as the father. Paolo Andrea (also known as Andrew Burgess Wilson) died in London in 2002, aged 37. Liana died in 2007. Tax exile Burgess was a Conservative (though, as he clarified in an interview with The Paris Review, his political views could be considered "a kind of anarchism" since his ideal of a "Catholic Jacobite imperial monarch" wasn't practicable,) a (lapsed) Catholic and Monarchist, harbouring a distaste for all republics. He believed socialism for the most part was "ridiculous" but did "concede that socialised medicine is a priority in any civilised country today." To avoid the 90% tax the family would have incurred because of their high income, they left Britain and toured Europe in a Bedford Dormobile motor-home. During their travels through France and across the Alps, Burgess wrote in the back of the van as Liana drove. In this period, he wrote novels and produced film scripts for Lew Grade and Franco Zeffirelli. His first place of residence after leaving England was Lija, Malta (1968–70). The negative reaction from a lecture that Burgess delivered to an audience of Catholic priests in Malta precipitated a move by the couple to Italy after the Maltese government confiscated the property. (He would go on to fictionalise these events in Earthly Powers a decade later.) The Burgesses maintained a flat in Rome, a country house in Bracciano, and a property in Montalbuccio. On hearing rumours of a mafia plot to kidnap Paolo Andrea while the family was staying in Rome, Burgess decided to move to Monaco in 1975. Burgess was also motivated to move to the tax haven of Monaco as the country did not levy income tax and widows were exempt from death duties, a form of taxation on their husband's estates. The couple also had a villa in France, at Callian, Var, Provence. Burgess lived for two years in the United States, working as a visiting professor at Princeton University with the creative writing program (1970) and as a distinguished professor at the City College of New York (1972). At City College he was a close colleague and friend of Joseph Heller. He went on to teach creative writing at Columbia University and was writer-in-residence at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (1969) and at the University at Buffalo (1976). He lectured on the novel at the University of Iowa in 1975. Eventually he settled in Monaco in 1976, where he was active in the local community, becoming a co-founder in 1984 of the Princess Grace Irish Library, a centre for Irish cultural studies. In May 1988, Burgess made an extended appearance with, among others, Andrea Dworkin on the episode What Is Sex For? of discussion programme After Dark. He spoke at one point about divorce: "Liking involves no discipline; love does... A marriage, say that lasts twenty years or more, is a kind of civilisation, a kind of microcosm – it develops its own language, its own semiotics, its own slang, its own shorthand... sex is part of it, part of the semiotics. To destroy, wantonly, such a relationship, is like destroying a whole civilisation." Although Burgess lived not far from Graham Greene, whose house was in Antibes, Greene became aggrieved shortly before his death by comments in newspaper articles by Burgess, and broke off all contact. Gore Vidal revealed in his 2006 memoir Point to Point Navigation that Greene disapproved of Burgess's appearance on various European television stations to discuss his (Burgess') books. Vidal recounts that Greene apparently regarded a willingness to appear on television as something that ought to be beneath a writer's dignity. "He talks about his books", Vidal quotes an exasperated Greene as saying. During this time, Burgess spent much time at his chalet two kilometres (1¼ miles) outside Lugano, Switzerland. Death Burgess wrote: "I shall die somewhere in the Mediterranean lands, with an inaccurate obituary in the Nice-Matin, unmourned, soon forgotten." In fact, Burgess died in the country of his birth. He returned to Twickenham, an outer suburb of London, where he owned a house, to await death. Burgess died on 22 November 1993 from lung cancer, at the Hospital of St John & St Elizabeth in London. His ashes were inurned at the Monaco Cemetery. The epitaph on Burgess's marble memorial stone, reads: "Abba Abba" which means "Father, father" in Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and other Semitic languages and is pronounced by Christ during his agony in Gethsemane (Mark 14:36) as he prays God to spare him. It is also the title of Burgess's 22nd novel, concerning the death of John Keats. Eulogies at his memorial service at St Paul's, Covent Garden, London in 1994 were delivered by the journalist Auberon Waugh and the novelist William Boyd. The Times obituary heralded the author as "a great moralist". His estate was worth US$3 million, and included a large European property portfolio of houses and apartments. Life in music An accomplished musician, Burgess composed regularly throughout his life, and once said: Several of his pieces were broadcast during his lifetime on BBC Radio. His Symphony No. 3 in C was premiered by the University of Iowa orchestra in Iowa City in 1975. Burgess described his Sinfoni Melayu as an attempt to "combine the musical elements of the country [Malaya] into a synthetic language which called on native drums and xylophones." The structure of Napoleon Symphony: A Novel in Four Movements (1974) was modelled on Beethoven's Eroica symphony, while Mozart and the Wolf Gang (1991) mirrors the sound and rhythm of Mozartian composition, among other things attempting a fictional representation of Symphony No.40. Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 features prominently in A Clockwork Orange (and in Stanley Kubrick's film version of the novel). Many of his unpublished compositions are listed in This Man and Music. He wrote a good deal of music for recorder as his son played the instrument. Several of his pieces for recorder and piano including the Sonata No. 1, Sonatina and "Tre Pezzetti" have been included on a major CD release from recorder player John Turner and pianist Harvey Davies; the double album also includes related music from 15 other composers and is titled Anthony Burgess – The Man and his Music. Burgess produced a translation of Meilhac and Halévy's libretto to Bizet's Carmen, which was performed by the English National Opera, and wrote for the 1973 Broadway musical Cyrano, using his own adaptation of the original Rostand play as his basis. He created Blooms of Dublin in 1982, an operetta based on James Joyce's Ulysses (televised for the BBC) and wrote a libretto for Weber's Oberon, performed by the Glasgow-based Scottish Opera. On the BBC's Desert Island Discs radio programme in 1966, Burgess chose as his favourite music Purcell's "Rejoice in the Lord Alway"; Bach's Goldberg Variations No. 13; Elgar's Symphony No. 1 in A-flat major; Wagner's "Walter's Trial Song" from Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg; Debussy's "Fêtes" from Nocturnes; Lambert's The Rio Grande; Walton's Symphony No. 1 in B-flat minor; and Vaughan Williams' On Wenlock Edge. Linguistics "Burgess's linguistic training", wrote Raymond Chapman and Tom McArthur in The Oxford Companion to the English Language: "...is shown in dialogue enriched by distinctive pronunciations and the niceties of register." During his years in Malaya, and after he had mastered Jawi, the Arabic script adapted for Malay, Burgess taught himself the Persian language, after which he produced a translation of Eliot's The Waste Land into Persian (unpublished). He worked on an anthology of the best of English literature translated into Malay, which failed to achieve publication. Burgess's published translations include two versions of Cyrano de Bergerac, Oedipus the King and Carmen. Burgess's interest in language was reflected in the invented, Anglo-Russian teen slang of A Clockwork Orange (Nadsat), and in the movie Quest for Fire (1981), for which he invented a prehistoric language (Ulam) for the characters. His interest is reflected in his characters. In The Doctor is Sick, Dr Edwin Spindrift is a lecturer in linguistics who escapes from a hospital ward which is peopled, as the critic Saul Maloff put it in a review, with "brain cases who happily exemplify varieties of English speech." Burgess, who had lectured on phonetics at the University of Birmingham in the late 1940s, investigates the field of linguistics in Language Made Plain and A Mouthful of Air. The depth of Burgess's multilingual proficiency came under discussion in Roger Lewis's 2002 biography. Lewis claimed that during production in Malaysia of the BBC documentary A Kind of Failure (1982), Burgess's supposedly fluent Malay was not understood by waitresses at a restaurant where they were filming. It was claimed that the documentary's director deliberately kept these moments intact in the film to expose Burgess's linguistic pretensions. A letter from David Wallace that appeared in the magazine of the London Independent on Sunday newspaper on 25 November 2002 shed light on the affair. Wallace's letter read, in part: Lewis may not have been fully aware of the fact that a quarter of Malaysia's population is made up of Hokkien- and Cantonese-speaking Chinese. However, Malay had been installed as the National Language with the passing of the Language Act of 1967. By 1982 all national primary and secondary schools in Malaysia would have been teaching with Bahasa Melayu as a base language (see Harold Crouch, Government and Society in Malaysia, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1996). Work Novels His Malayan trilogy The Long Day Wanes was Burgess's first published fiction. Its three books are Time for a Tiger, The Enemy in the Blanket and Beds in the East. Devil of a State is a follow-on to the trilogy, set in a fictionalised version of Brunei. It was Burgess's ambition to become "the true fictional expert on Malaya." In these works, Burgess was working in the tradition established by Kipling for British India, and Conrad and Maugham for Southeast Asia. Burgess operated more in the mode of Orwell, who had a good command of Urdu and Burmese (necessary for Orwell's work as a police officer) and Kipling, who spoke Hindi (having learnt it as a child). Like many of his fellow English expatriates in Asia, Burgess had excellent spoken and written command of his operative language(s), both as a novelist and as a speaker, including Malay. Burgess's repatriate years (c. 1960–69) produced Enderby and The Right to an Answer, which touches on the theme of death and dying, and One Hand Clapping, a satire on the vacuity of popular culture. The Worm and the Ring (1961) had to be withdrawn from circulation under the threat of libel action from one of Burgess's former colleagues, a school secretary. His dystopian novel, A Clockwork Orange, was published in 1962. It was inspired initially by an incident during the London Blitz of World War II in which his wife Lynne was robbed, assaulted, and violated by deserters from the US Army in London during the blackout. The event may have contributed to her subsequent miscarriage. The book was an examination of free will and morality. The young anti-hero, Alex, captured after a short career of violence and mayhem, undergoes a course of aversion therapy treatment to curb his violent tendencies. This results in making him defenceless against other people and unable to enjoy some of his favourite music that, besides violence, had been an intense pleasure for him. In the non-fiction book Flame into Being (1985), Burgess described A Clockwork Orange as "a jeu d'esprit knocked off for money in three weeks. It became known as the raw material for a film which seemed to glorify sex and violence." He added, "the film made it easy for readers of the book to misunderstand what it was about, and the misunderstanding will pursue me till I die." In a 1980 BBC interview, Burgess distanced himself from the novel and cinematic adaptations. Near the time of publication, the final chapter was cut from the American edition of the book. Burgess had written A Clockwork Orange with 21 chapters, meaning to match the age of majority. "21 is the symbol of human maturity, or used to be, since at 21 you got to vote and assumed adult responsibility," Burgess wrote in a foreword for a 1986 edition. Needing money and thinking that the publisher was "being charitable in accepting the work at all," Burgess accepted the deal and allowed A Clockwork Orange to be published in the US with the twenty-first chapter omitted. Stanley Kubrick's film adaptation of A Clockwork Orange was based on the American edition, and thus helped to perpetuate the loss of the last chapter. In 2021, The International Anthony Burgess Foundation premiered a webpage cataloging various stage productions of "A Clockwork Orange" from around the world. In Martin Seymour-Smith's Novels and Novelists: A Guide to the World of Fiction, Burgess related that he would often prepare a synopsis with a name-list before beginning a project. Seymour-Smith wrote: Nothing Like the Sun is a fictional recreation of Shakespeare's love-life and an examination of the supposedly partly syphilitic sources of the bard's imaginative vision. The novel, which drew on Edgar I. Fripp's 1938 biography Shakespeare, Man and artist, won critical acclaim and placed Burgess among the first rank novelists of his generation. M/F (1971) was listed by the writer himself as one of the works of which he was most proud. Beard's Roman Women was revealing on a personal level, dealing with the death of his first wife, his bereavement, and the affair that led to his second marriage. In Napoleon Symphony, Burgess brought Bonaparte to life by shaping the novel's structure to Beethoven's Eroica symphony. The novel contains a portrait of an Arab and Muslim society under occupation by a Christian western power (Egypt by Catholic France). In the 1980s, religious themes began to feature heavily (The Kingdom of the Wicked, Man of Nazareth, Earthly Powers). Though Burgess lapsed from Catholicism early in his youth, the influence of the Catholic "training" and worldview remained strong in his work all his life. This is notable in the discussion of free will in A Clockwork Orange, and in the apocalyptic vision of devastating changes in the Catholic Church – due to what can be understood as Satanic influence – in Earthly Powers (1980). Burgess kept working through his final illness and was writing on his deathbed. The late novel Any Old Iron is a generational saga of two families, one Russian-Welsh, the other Jewish, encompassing the sinking of the Titanic, World War I, the Russian Revolution, the Spanish Civil War, World War II, the early years of the State of Israel, and the rediscovery of Excalibur. A Dead Man in Deptford, about Christopher Marlowe, is a companion novel to Nothing Like the Sun. The verse novel Byrne was published posthumously. Burgess announced in a 1972 interview that he was writing a novel about the Black Prince which incorporated John Dos Passos' narrative techniques, although he never finished writing it. After Burgess's death, English writer Adam Roberts completed this novel, and it was published in 2018. In 2019, a previously unpublished analysis of A Clockwork Orange was discovered titled, "The Clockwork Condition." It is structured as Burgess' philosophical musings on the novel that won him so much acclaim. Critical studies Burgess started his career as a critic. His English Literature, A Survey for Students, was aimed at newcomers to the subject. He followed this with The Novel To-day (Longmans, 1963) and The Novel Now: A Student's Guide to Contemporary Fiction (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1967). He wrote the Joyce studies Here Comes Everybody: An Introduction to James Joyce for the Ordinary Reader (also published as Re Joyce) and Joysprick: An Introduction to the Language of James Joyce. Also published was A Shorter 'Finnegans Wake,' Burgess's abridgement. His 1970 Encyclopædia Britannica entry on the novel (under "Novel, the") is regarded as a classic of the genre. Burgess wrote full-length critical studies of William Shakespeare, Ernest Hemingway and D. H. Lawrence, as well as Ninety-nine Novels: The Best in English since 1939. Screenwriting Burgess wrote the screenplays for Moses the Lawgiver (Gianfranco De Bosio 1974), Jesus of Nazareth (Franco Zeffirelli 1977), and A.D. (Stuart Cooper, 1985). Burgess was co-writer of the script for the TV series Sherlock Holmes and Doctor Watson (1980). The film treatments he produced include Amundsen, Attila, The Black Prince, Cyrus the Great, Dawn Chorus, The Dirty Tricks of Bertoldo, Eternal Life, Onassis, Puma, Samson and Delilah, Schreber, The Sexual Habits of the English Middle Class, Shah, That Man Freud and Uncle Ludwig. Burgess devised a Stone Age language for La Guerre du Feu (Quest for Fire; Jean-Jacques Annaud, 1981). Burgess wrote many unpublished scripts, including Will! or The Bawdy Bard about Shakespeare, based on the novel Nothing Like The Sun. Encouraged by the success of Tremor of Intent (a parody of James Bond adventures), Burgess wrote a screenplay for The Spy Who Loved Me featuring characters from and a similar tone to the novel. It had Bond fighting the criminal organization CHAOS in Singapore to try to stop an assassination of Queen Elizabeth II using surgically-implanted bombs at Sydney Opera House. It was described as "an outrageous medley of sadism, hypnosis, acupuncture, and international terrorism." His screenplay was rejected, although the huge submarine silo seen in the finished film was reportedly Burgess's inspiration. Archive The largest archive of Anthony Burgess's belongings is housed at the International Anthony Burgess Foundation in Manchester, UK. The holdings include: handwritten journals and diaries; over 8000 books from Burgess's personal library; manuscripts of novels, journalism and musical compositions; professional and private photographs dating from between 1918 and 1993; an extensive archive of sound recordings; Burgess's music collection; furniture; musical instruments including two of Burgess's pianos; and correspondence that includes letters from Angela Carter, Graham Greene, Thomas Pynchon and other notable writers and publishers. The International Anthony Burgess Foundation was established by Burgess's widow, Liana, in 2003. Beginning in 1995, Anthony Burgess' widow bestowed a large archive of his papers at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin with several additions made in subsequent years. Comprising over 136 boxes, the archive includes typed and handwritten manuscripts, sheet music, correspondence, clippings, contracts and legal documents, appointment books, magazines, photographs, and personal effects. A substantial amount of unpublished and unproduced music compositions is included in the collection, along with a small number of audio recordings of Burgess' interviews and performances of his work. Over 90 books from Burgess' library can also be found in the Ransom Center's holdings. In 2014, the Ransom Center added the archive of Burgess' long-time agent Gabriele Pantucci, which also includes substantial manuscripts, sheet music, correspondence, and contracts. Burgess' archive at the Ransom Center is supplemented by significant archives of artists Burgess admired including James Joyce, Graham Greene, and D. H. Lawrence. Honours Burgess garnered the Commandeur des Arts et des Lettres distinction of France and became a Monégasque Commandeur de Merite Culturel (Monaco). He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. In 1991 he was awarded the title of Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature. He took honorary degrees from St Andrews, Birmingham and Manchester universities. Earthly Powers was shortlisted for, but failed to win, the 1980 English Booker Prize for fiction (the prize went to William Golding for Rites of Passage). Commemoration The International Anthony Burgess Foundation operates a performance space and café-bar at 3 Cambridge Street, Manchester. The University of Manchester unveiled a plaque in October 2012 that reads: "The University of Manchester commemorates Anthony Burgess, 1917–1993, Writer and Composer, Graduate, BA English 1940". It was the first monument to Burgess in the United Kingdom. Selected works Novels Time for a Tiger (1956) (Volume 1 of the Malayan trilogy, The Long Day Wanes) The Enemy in the Blanket (1958) (Volume 2 of the trilogy) Beds in the East (1959) (Volume 3 of the trilogy) The Right to an Answer (1960) The Doctor is Sick (1960) The Worm and the Ring (1961) Devil of a State (1961) (as Joseph Kell) One Hand Clapping (1961) A Clockwork Orange (1962; 2008 Prometheus Hall of Fame Award) The Wanting Seed (1962) Honey for the Bears (1963) (as Joseph Kell) Inside Mr. Enderby (1963) (Volume 1 of the Enderby quartet) The Eve of St. Venus (1964) Nothing Like the Sun: A Story of Shakespeare's Love Life (1964) A Vision of Battlements (1965) Tremor of Intent: An Eschatological Spy Novel (1966) Enderby Outside (1968) (Volume 2 of the Enderby quartet) M/F (1971) Napoleon Symphony: A Novel in Four Movements (1974) The Clockwork Testament, or Enderby's End (1974) (Volume 3 of the Enderby quartet) Beard's Roman Women (1976) Abba Abba (1977) 1985 (1978) Man of Nazareth (based on his screenplay for Jesus of Nazareth) (1979) Earthly Powers (1980) The End of the World News: An Entertainment (1982) Enderby's Dark Lady, or No End of Enderby (1984) (Volume 4 of the Enderby quartet) The Kingdom of the Wicked (1985) The Pianoplayers (1986) Any Old Iron (1988) Mozart and the Wolf Gang (1991) A Dead Man in Deptford (1993) Byrne: A Novel (in verse) (1995) Notes References Bibliography Further reading Selected studies Geoffrey Aggeler, Anthony Burgess: The Artist as Novelist (Alabama, 1979, ) Boytinck, Paul. Anthony Burgess: An Annotated Bibliography and Reference Guide. New York, London: Garland Publishing, 1985. xxvi, 349 pp. Includes introduction, chronology and index, . Anthony Burgess, "The Clockwork Condition." The New Yorker. June 4 & 11, 2012. pp.: 69-76. Samuel Coale, Anthony Burgess (New York, 1981, ) A. A. Devitis, Anthony Burgess (New York, 1972) Carol M. Dix, Anthony Burgess (British Council, 1971. Northcote House Publishers, ) Martine Ghosh-Schellhorn, Anthony Burgess: A Study in Character (Peter Lang AG, 1986, ) Richard Mathews, The Clockwork Universe of Anthony Burgess (Borgo Press, 1990, ) Paul Phillips, The Music of Anthony Burgess (1999) Paul Phillips, "Anthony Burgess", New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd ed. (2001) Paul Phillips, A Clockwork Counterpoint: The Music and Literature of Anthony Burgess (Manchester University Press, 2010, ) John J. Stinson, Anthony Burgess Revisited (Boston, 1991, ) Collections The largest collection of Burgess's papers and belongings, including literary and musical papers, is archived at the International Anthony Burgess Foundation (IABF) in Manchester. Another large archival collection of Burgessiana is held at the Harry Ransom Center of the University of Texas at Austin: ; The Anthony Burgess Center of the University of Angers, with which Burgess's widow Liana was connected, also has some papers. External links The International Anthony Burgess Foundation The Anthony Burgess Papers at the Harry Ransom Center The Gabriele Pantucci Collection of Anthony Burgess at the Harry Ransom Center The Anthony Burgess Center at the University of Angers BBC TV interview Burgess reads from A Clockwork Orange 1917 births 1993 deaths Academics of the University of Birmingham Alumni of the Victoria University of Manchester British expatriates in Malta Burials in Monaco City College of New York faculty Columbia University faculty Commanders of the Order of Cultural Merit (Monaco) Constructed language creators Deaths from cancer in England Deaths from lung cancer English autobiographers English composers English essayists English expatriates in Italy English expatriates in Monaco English expatriates in the United States English literary critics English male journalists English male screenwriters English historical novelists English science fiction writers English travel writers Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature Intelligence Corps soldiers James Joyce scholars Male essayists People from Harpurhey Princeton University faculty Sonneteers 20th-century biographers 20th-century classical musicians 20th-century British composers 20th-century essayists 20th-century English musicians 20th-century English novelists University at Buffalo faculty Writers from Manchester Writers from Lancashire Writers of historical fiction set in antiquity Writers of historical fiction set in the early modern period Writers of historical fiction set in the modern age British Army personnel of World War II Royal Army Medical Corps soldiers Royal Army Educational Corps soldiers People from Chiswick 20th-century English screenwriters 20th-century pseudonymous writers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene%20V.%20Debs

Eugene V. Debs

Eugene Victor "Gene" Debs (November 5, 1855 – October 20, 1926) was an American socialist, political activist, trade unionist, one of the founding members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), and five times the candidate of the Socialist Party of America for President of the United States. Through his presidential candidacies as well as his work with labor movements, Debs eventually became one of the best-known socialists living in the United States. Early in his political career, Debs was a member of the Democratic Party. He was elected as a Democrat to the Indiana General Assembly in 1884. After working with several smaller unions, including the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, Debs led his union in a major ten-month strike against the CB&Q Railroad in 1888. Debs was instrumental in the founding of the American Railway Union (ARU), one of the nation's first industrial unions. After workers at the Pullman Palace Car Company organized a wildcat strike over pay cuts in the summer of 1894, Debs signed many into the ARU. He led a boycott by the ARU against handling trains with Pullman cars in what became the nationwide Pullman Strike, affecting most lines west of Detroit and more than 250,000 workers in 27 states. Purportedly to keep the mail running, President Grover Cleveland used the United States Army to break the strike. As a leader of the ARU, Debs was convicted of federal charges for defying a court injunction against the strike and served six months in prison. In prison, Debs read various works of socialist theory and emerged six months later as a committed adherent of the international socialist movement. Debs was a founding member of the Social Democracy of America (1897), the Social Democratic Party of America (1898) and the Socialist Party of America (1901). Debs ran as a Socialist candidate for President of the United States five times, including 1900 (earning 0.6 percent of the popular vote), 1904 (3.0 percent), 1908 (2.8 percent), 1912 (6.0 percent), and 1920 (3.4 percent), the last time from a prison cell. He was also a candidate for United States Congress from his native state Indiana in 1916. Debs was noted for his oratorical skills, and his speech denouncing American participation in World War I led to his second arrest in 1918. He was convicted under the Sedition Act of 1918 and sentenced to a ten-year term. President Warren G. Harding commuted his sentence in December 1921. Debs died in 1926, not long after being admitted to a sanatorium due to cardiovascular problems that developed during his time in prison. Biography Early life Eugene Victor "Gene" Debs was born on November 5, 1855, in Terre Haute, Indiana, to Jean Daniel and Marguerite Mari Bettrich Debs, who immigrated to the United States from Colmar, Alsace, France. His father, who came from a prosperous family, owned a textile mill and meat market. Debs was named after the French authors Eugène Sue and Victor Hugo. Debs attended public school, dropping out of high school at age 14. He took a job with the Vandalia Railroad cleaning grease from the trucks of freight engines for fifty cents a day. He later became a painter and car cleaner in the railroad shops. In December 1871, when a drunken locomotive fireman failed to report for work, Debs was pressed into service as a night fireman. He decided to remain a fireman on the run between Terre Haute and Indianapolis, earning more than a dollar a night for the next three and half years. In July 1875, Debs left to work at a wholesale grocery house, where he remained for four years while attending a local business school at night. Debs joined the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen (BLF) in February 1875 and became active in the organization. In 1877 he served as a delegate of the Terre Haute lodge to the organization's national convention. Debs was elected associate editor of the BLF's monthly organ, Firemen's Magazine, in 1878. Two years later, he was appointed Grand Secretary and Treasurer of the BLF and editor of the magazine in July 1880. He worked as a BLF functionary until January 1893 and as the magazine's editor until September 1894. At the same time, he became a prominent figure in the community. He served two terms as Terre Haute's city clerk from September 1879 to September 1883. In the fall of 1884, he was elected as a Democrat to represent Terre Haute and Vigo counties in the Indiana General Assembly. He served for one term in 1885. Marriage and family Debs married Katherine "Kate" Metzel on June 9, 1885. Their home still stands in Terre Haute, preserved on the campus of Indiana State University. Labor activism The railroad brotherhoods were comparatively conservative organizations, focused on providing fellowship and services rather than on collective bargaining. Their motto was "Benevolence, Sobriety, and Industry". As editor of the official journal of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, Debs initially concentrated on improving the brotherhood's death and disability insurance programs. During the early 1880s, Debs's writing stressed themes of self-upliftment: temperance, hard work, and honesty. Debs also held the view that "labor and capital are friends" and opposed strikes as a means of settling differences. The brotherhood had never authorized a strike from its founding in 1873 to 1887, a record which Debs was proud of. Railroad companies cultivated the brotherhood and granted them perks like free transportation to their conventions for the delegates. Debs also invited railroad president Henry C. Lord to write for the magazine. Summarizing Debs's thought in this period, the historian David A. Shannon wrote: "Debs's desideratum was one of peace and co-operation between labor and capital, but he expected management to treat labor with respect, honor and social equality". Debs gradually became convinced of the need for a more unified and confrontational approach as railroads were powerful forces in the economy. One influence was his involvement in the Burlington Railroad Strike of 1888, a defeat for labor that convinced Debs of "the need to reorganize across craft lines," according to Joanne Reitano. After stepping down as Brotherhood Grand Secretary in 1893, Debs organized one of the first industrial unions in the United States, the American Railway Union (ARU), for unskilled workers. He was elected president of the ARU upon its founding, with fellow railway labor organizer George W. Howard as first vice president. The union successfully struck the Great Northern Railway in April 1894, winning most of its demands. Pullman Strike In 1894, Debs became involved in the Pullman Strike, which grew out of a compensation dispute started by the workers who constructed the rail cars made by the Pullman Palace Car Company. The Pullman Company, citing falling revenue after the economic Panic of 1893, had cut the wages of its employees by twenty-eight percent. The workers, many of whom were already members of the ARU, appealed for support to the union at its convention in Chicago, Illinois. Debs tried to persuade union members, who worked on the railways, that the boycott was too risky given the hostility of the railways and the federal government, the weakness of the union, and the possibility that other unions would break the strike. The membership ignored his warnings and refused to handle Pullman cars or any other railroad cars attached to them, including cars containing US Mail. After ARU Board Director Martin J. Elliott extended the strike to St. Louis, doubling its size to eighty thousand workers, Debs relented and decided to take part in the strike, which was now endorsed by almost all members of the ARU in the immediate area of Chicago. On July 9, 1894, a New York Times editorial called Debs "a lawbreaker at large, an enemy of the human race". Strikers fought by establishing boycotts of Pullman train cars and with Debs's eventual leadership the strike came to be known as "Debs' Rebellion". The federal government intervened, obtaining an injunction against the strike on the grounds that the strikers had obstructed the US Mail, carried on Pullman cars, by refusing to show up for work. President Grover Cleveland, whom Debs had supported in all three of his presidential campaigns, sent the United States Army to enforce the injunction. The presence of the army was enough to break the strike. Overall, thirty strikers were killed in the strike, thirteen of them in Chicago, and thousands were blacklisted. An estimated $80 million worth of property was damaged and Debs was found guilty of contempt of court for violating the injunction and sent to federal prison. Debs was represented by Clarence Darrow, later a leading American lawyer and civil libertarian, who had previously been a corporate lawyer for the railroad company. While it is commonly thought that Darrow "switched sides" to represent Debs, a myth repeated by Irving Stone's biography, Clarence Darrow For the Defense, he had in fact resigned from the railroad earlier, after the death of his mentor William Goudy. A Supreme Court case decision, In re Debs, later upheld the right of the federal government to issue the injunction. Socialist leader At the time of his arrest for mail obstruction, Debs was not yet a socialist. While serving his six-month term in the jail at Woodstock, Illinois, Debs and his ARU comrades received a steady stream of letters, books and pamphlets in the mail from socialists around the country. Debs recalled several years later: I began to read and think and dissect the anatomy of the system in which workingmen, however organized, could be shattered and battered and splintered at a single stroke. The writings of [Edward] Bellamy and [Robert] Blatchford early appealed to me. The Cooperative Commonwealth of [Laurence] Gronlund also impressed me, but the writings of [Karl] Kautsky were so clear and conclusive that I readily grasped, not merely his argument, but also caught the spirit of his socialist utterance – and I thank him and all who helped me out of darkness into light. Additionally, Debs was visited in jail by the Milwaukee socialist newspaper editor Victor L. Berger, who in Debs's words "came to Woodstock, as if a providential instrument, and delivered the first impassioned message of Socialism I had ever heard". In his 1926 obituary in Time, it was said that Berger left him a copy of Das Kapital and "prisoner Debs read it slowly, eagerly, ravenously". Debs emerged from jail at the end of his sentence a changed man. He would spend the final three decades of his life proselytizing for the socialist cause. After Debs and Martin Elliott were released from prison in 1895, Debs started his socialist political career. Debs persuaded ARU membership to join with the Brotherhood of the Cooperative Commonwealth to found the Social Democracy of America. Debs's wife Kate was opposed to socialism and was "hostile" to Debs's socialist activism as "it threatened her sense of middle-class respectability". The "tempestuous relationship with a wife who rejects the very values he holds most dear" was the basis of Irving Stone's biographical novel Adversary in the House. Split to found the Social Democratic Party The Social Democracy of America (SDA), founded in 1897 by Eugene V. Debs from the remnants of his American Railway Union, was deeply divided between those who favored a tactic of launching a series of colonies to build socialism by practical example and others who favored establishment of a European-style socialist political party with a view to capture of the government apparatus through the ballot box. The June 1898 convention would be the group's last, with the minority political action wing quitting the organization to establish a new organization, the Social Democratic Party of America (SDP), also called the Social Democratic Party of the United States. Debs was elected to the National Executive Board, the five-member committee which governed the party, and his brother, Theodore Debs, was selected as its paid executive secretary, handling day-to-day affairs of the organization. Although by no means the sole decision-maker in the organization, Debs's status as prominent public figure in the aftermath of the Pullman strike provided cachet and made him the recognized spokesman for the party in the newspapers. Presidential elections Along with Elliott, who ran for Congress in 1900, Debs was the first federal office candidate for the fledgling socialist party, running unsuccessfully for president the same year. Debs and his running mate Job Harriman received 87,945 votes (0.6 percent of the popular vote) and no electoral votes. Following the 1900 Election, the Social Democratic Party and dissidents who had split from the Socialist Labor Party in 1899 unified forces at a Socialist Unity Convention held in Indianapolis in mid-1901 – a meeting which established the Socialist Party of America (SPA). Debs was the Socialist Party of America candidate for president in 1904, 1908, 1912, and 1920 (the final time from prison). Though he received increasing numbers of popular votes in each subsequent election, he never won any votes in the Electoral College. In both 1904 and 1908, Debs ran with running-mate Ben Hanford. They received 402,810 votes in 1904, for 3.0 percent of the popular vote and an overall third-place finish. In the 1908 election, they received a slightly higher number of votes (420,852) than in their previous run, but at 2.8 percent, a smaller percentage of the total votes cast. In 1912, Debs ran with Emil Seidel as a running mate and received 901,551 votes, which was 6.0 percent of the popular vote. Though he won no state's electoral votes, in Florida, he came in second behind Wilson and ahead of President William Howard Taft and former President Teddy Roosevelt. Finally, in 1920, running with Seymour Stedman, Debs won 913,693 votes, which remains the all-time high number of votes for a Socialist Party candidate. Notably, the Nineteenth Amendment passed in 1920, granting women the federal right to vote, and with the expanded voting pool, his vote total accounted for only 3.4 percent of the total number of votes cast. The size of the vote is nevertheless remarkable since Debs was at the time a federal prisoner in jail for sedition, though he promised to pardon himself if elected. Although he received some success as a third-party candidate, Debs was largely dismissive of the electoral process as he distrusted the political bargains that Victor Berger and other "sewer socialists" had made in winning local offices. He put much more value on organizing workers into unions, favoring unions that brought together all workers in a given industry over those organized by the craft skills workers practiced. Founding the Industrial Workers of the World After his work with the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and the American Railway Union, Debs's next major work in organizing a labor union came during the founding of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). On June 27, 1905, in Chicago, Illinois, Debs and other influential union leaders including Bill Haywood, leader of the Western Federation of Miners; and Daniel De Leon, leader of the Socialist Labor Party, held what Haywood called the "Continental Congress of the working class". Haywood stated: "We are here to confederate the workers of this country into a working-class movement that shall have for its purpose the emancipation of the working class". Debs stated: "We are here to perform a task so great that it appeals to our best thought, our united energies, and will enlist our most loyal support; a task in the presence of which weak men might falter and despair, but from which it is impossible to shrink without betraying the working class". Socialists split with the Industrial Workers of the World Although the IWW was built on the basis of uniting workers of industry, a rift began between the union and the Socialist Party. It started when the electoral wing of the Socialist Party, led by Victor Berger and Morris Hillquit, became irritated with speeches by Haywood. In December 1911, Haywood told a Lower East Side audience at New York's Cooper Union that parliamentary Socialists were "step-at-a-time people whose every step is just a little shorter than the preceding step". It was better, Haywood said, to "elect the superintendent of some branch of industry, than to elect some congressman to the United States Congress". In response, Hillquit attacked the IWW as "purely anarchistic". The Cooper Union speech was the beginning of a split between Haywood and the Socialist Party, leading to the split between the factions of the IWW, one faction loyal to the Socialist Party and the other to Haywood. The rift presented a problem for Debs, who was influential in both the IWW and the Socialist Party. The final straw between Haywood and the Socialist Party came during the Lawrence Textile Strike, when disgusted with the decision of the elected officials in Lawrence, Massachusetts, to send police, who subsequently used their clubs on children, Haywood publicly declared that "I will not vote again" until such a circumstance was rectified. Haywood was purged from the National Executive Committee by passage of an amendment that focused on the direct action and sabotage tactics advocated by the IWW. Debs was probably the only person who could have saved Haywood's seat. In 1906, when Haywood had been on trial for his life in Idaho, Debs had described him as "the Lincoln of Labor" and called for Haywood to run against Theodore Roosevelt for president, but times had changed and Debs, facing a split in the party, chose to echo Hillquit's words, accusing the IWW of representing anarchy. Debs thereafter stated that he had opposed the amendment, but that once it was adopted it should be obeyed. Debs remained friendly to Haywood and the IWW after the expulsion despite their perceived differences over IWW tactics. Prior to Haywood's dismissal, the Socialist Party membership had reached an all-time high of 135,000. One year later, four months after Haywood was recalled, the membership dropped to 80,000. The reformists in the Socialist Party attributed the decline to the departure of the "Haywood element" and predicted that the party would recover, but it did not. In the election of 1912, many of the Socialists who had been elected to public office lost their seats. Leadership style Debs was noted by many to be a charismatic speaker who sometimes called on the vocabulary of Christianity and much of the oratorical style of evangelism, even though he was generally disdainful of organized religion. Howard Zinn opined that "Debs was what every socialist or anarchist or radical should be: fierce in his convictions, kind and compassionate in his personal relations." Heywood Broun noted in his eulogy for Debs, quoting a fellow Socialist: "That old man with the burning eyes actually believes that there can be such a thing as the brotherhood of man. And that's not the funniest part of it. As long as he's around I believe it myself". Although sometimes called "King Debs", Debs himself was not wholly comfortable with his standing as a leader. As he told an audience in Detroit in 1906: Incarceration Debs's speeches against the Wilson administration and the war earned the enmity of President Woodrow Wilson, who later called Debs a "traitor to his country". On June 16, 1918, Debs made a speech in Canton, Ohio, urging resistance to the military draft of World War I. He was arrested on June 30 and charged with ten counts of sedition. His trial defense called no witnesses, asking that Debs be allowed to address the court in his defense. That unusual request was granted, and Debs spoke for two hours. He was found guilty on September 12. At his sentencing hearing on September 14, he again addressed the court and his speech has become a classic. Heywood Broun, a liberal journalist and not a Debs partisan, said it was "one of the most beautiful and moving passages in the English language. He was for that one afternoon touched with inspiration. If anyone told me that tongues of fire danced upon his shoulders as he spoke, I would believe it". Debs said in part: Your honor, I have stated in this court that I am opposed to the form of our present government; that I am opposed to the social system in which we live; that I believe in the change of both but by perfectly peaceable and orderly means. ... I am thinking this morning of the men in the mills and factories; I am thinking of the women who, for a paltry wage, are compelled to work out their lives; of the little children who, in this system, are robbed of their childhood, and in their early, tender years, are seized in the remorseless grasp of Mammon, and forced into the industrial dungeons, there to feed the machines while they themselves are being starved body and soul. ... Your honor, I ask no mercy, I plead for no immunity. I realize that finally the right must prevail. I never more fully comprehended than now the great struggle between the powers of greed on the one hand and upon the other the rising hosts of freedom. I can see the dawn of a better day of humanity. The people are awakening. In due course of time they will come into their own. When the mariner, sailing over tropic seas, looks for relief from his weary watch, he turns his eyes toward the Southern Cross, burning luridly above the tempest-vexed ocean. As the midnight approaches the Southern Cross begins to bend, and the whirling worlds change their places, and with starry finger-points the Almighty marks the passage of Time upon the dial of the universe; and though no bell may beat the glad tidings, the look-out knows that the midnight is passingthat relief and rest are close at hand. Let the people take heart and hope everywhere, for the cross is bending, midnight is passing, and joy cometh with the morning. Debs was sentenced on September 18, 1918, to ten years in prison and was also disenfranchised for life. Debs presented what has been called his best-remembered statement at his sentencing hearing: Your Honor, years ago I recognized my kinship with all living beings, and I made up my mind that I was not one bit better than the meanest on earth. I said then, and I say now, that while there is a lower class, I am in it, and while there is a criminal element, I am of it, and while there is a soul in prison, I am not free. Debs appealed his conviction to the Supreme Court. In its ruling on Debs v. United States, the court examined several statements Debs had made regarding World War I and socialism. While Debs had carefully worded his speeches in an attempt to comply with the Espionage Act, the Court found he had the intention and effect of obstructing the draft and military recruitment. Among other things, the Court cited Debs's praise for those imprisoned for obstructing the draft. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. stated in his opinion that little attention was needed since Debs's case was essentially the same as that of Schenck v. United States, in which the court had upheld a similar conviction. Debs went to prison on April 13, 1919. In protest of his jailing, Charles Ruthenberg led a parade of unionists, socialists, anarchists, and communists to march on May 1 (May Day) in Cleveland, Ohio. The event quickly broke into the violent May Day riots of 1919. Debs ran for president in the 1920 election while in prison in Atlanta, Georgia, at the Atlanta Federal Penitentiary. He received 919,799 votes (3.4 percent), slightly less than he had won in 1912, when he received 6 percent, the highest number of votes for a Socialist Party presidential candidate in the United States. During his time in prison, Debs wrote a series of columns deeply critical of the prison system. They appeared in sanitized form in the Bell Syndicate and were published in his only book, Walls and Bars, with several added chapters. It was published posthumously. In March 1919, President Wilson asked Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer for his opinion on clemency, offering his own: "I doubt the wisdom and public effect of such an action." Palmer generally favored releasing people convicted under the wartime security acts, but when he consulted with Debs's prosecutorseven those with records as defenders of civil libertiesthey assured him that Debs's conviction was correct and his sentence appropriate. The President and his Attorney General both believed that public opinion opposed clemency and that releasing Debs could strengthen Wilson's opponents in the debate over the ratification of the peace treaty. Palmer proposed clemency in August and October 1920 without success. At one point, Wilson wrote: "While the flower of American youth was pouring out its blood to vindicate the cause of civilization, this man, Debs, stood behind the lines sniping, attacking, and denouncing them. ... This man was a traitor to his country and he will never be pardoned during my administration." In January 1921, Palmer, citing Debs's deteriorating health, proposed to Wilson that Debs receive a presidential pardon freeing him on February 12, Lincoln's birthday. Wilson returned the paperwork after writing "Denied" across it. On December 23, 1921, President Warren G. Harding commuted Debs's sentence to time served, effective Christmas Day. He did not issue a pardon. A White House statement summarized the administration's view of Debs's case: There is no question of his guilt. ... He was by no means, however, as rabid and outspoken in his expressions as many others, and but for his prominence and the resulting far-reaching effect of his words, very probably might not have received the sentence he did. He is an old man, not strong physically. He is a man of much personal charm and impressive personality, which qualifications make him a dangerous man calculated to mislead the unthinking and affording excuse for those with criminal intent. Last years When Debs was released from the Atlanta Penitentiary, the other prisoners sent him off with "a roar of cheers" and a crowd of fifty thousand greeted his return to Terre Haute to the accompaniment of band music. En route home, Debs was warmly received at the White House by Harding, who greeted him by saying: "Well, I've heard so damned much about you, Mr. Debs, that I am now glad to meet you personally." In 1924, Debs was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize by the Finnish Socialist Karl H. Wiik on the grounds that "Debs started to work actively for peace during World War I, mainly because he considered the war to be in the interest of capitalism." He spent his remaining years trying to recover his health, which was severely undermined by prison confinement. In late 1926, he was admitted to Lindlahr Sanitarium in Elmhurst, Illinois. He died there of heart failure on October 20, 1926, at the age of 70. His body was cremated and buried in Highland Lawn Cemetery in Terre Haute, Indiana. Legacy Debs helped motivate the American left to organize political opposition to corporations and World War I. American socialists, communists, and anarchists honor his work for the labor movement and motivation to have the average working man build socialism without large state involvement. Several books have been written about his life as an inspirational American socialist. The Vermont senator and presidential candidate Bernie Sanders has long been an admirer of Debs and produced in 1979 a documentary about Debs which was released as a film and an audio LP record as an audio-visual teaching aid. In the documentary, he described Debs as "probably the most effective and popular leader that the American working class has ever had". Sanders hung a portrait of Debs in city hall in Burlington, Vermont, when he served as mayor of the city in the 1980s and has a plaque dedicated to Debs in his congressional office. On May 22, 1962, Debs's home was purchased for $9,500 by the Eugene V. Debs Foundation, which worked to preserve it as a Debs memorial. In 1965 it was designated as an official historic site of the state of Indiana, and in 1966 it was designated as a National Historic Landmark of the United States. The preservation of the museum is monitored by the National Park Service. In 1990, the Department of Labor named Debs a member of its Labor Hall of Fame. While Debs did not leave a collection of papers to a university library, the pamphlet collection which he and his brother amassed is held by Indiana State University in Terre Haute. The scholar Bernard Brommel, author of a 1978 biography of Debs, has donated his biographical research materials to the Newberry Library in Chicago, where they are open to researchers. The original manuscript of Debs's book Walls and Bars, with handwritten amendments, presumably by Debs, is held in the Thomas J. Morgan Papers in the special collections department of the University of Chicago Library. Eugene Township in Lake of the Woods County, Minnesota, was likely named after Debs. The community of Debs in Minnesota's Beltrami County may have also been named after him. Eugene V Debs Hall in Buffalo, NY is a 501(c)7 nonprofit social club; and home to the Eugene V. Debs Local Initiative, a project to document and commemorate Buffalo's labor movement history. Former New York radio station WEVD (now ESPN radio) was named in his honor. Debs Place, a housing block in Co-op City in the Bronx, New York, was named in his honor. The Eugene V. Debs Cooperative House in Ann Arbor, Michigan, was named after Debs. There are at least two beers named after Debs, namely Debs's Red Ale and Eugene. The Oregon State Senator Eugene "Debbs" Potts was named in Debs's honour. Representation in other media John Dos Passos included Debs as a historical figure in his U.S.A. Trilogy. Debs is featured among other figures in the 42nd Parallel (1930). His affiliation with the Industrial Workers of the World prompted actions by such fictional characters in the novel as Mac. Fifty Years Before Your Eyes (1950) is a documentary including historic footage of Debs, among others, directed by Robert Youngson. The narrator of Hocus Pocus by Kurt Vonnegut is named Eugene Debs Hartke in honor of Debs (p. 1). Debs appears in the Southern Victory Series novels The Great War: Breakthroughs and American Empire: Blood and Iron by Harry Turtledove. Democratic socialist Bernie Sanders voices Debs in a 1979 documentary about his political career. The alternate history collection Back in the USSA by Kim Newman and Eugene Byrne is set in a world where Debs leads a communist revolution in the United States in 1917. Works Locomotive Firemen's Magazine (editor, 1880–1894). Vol. 4 (1880) | Vol. 5 (1881) | Vol. 6 (1882) | Vol. 7 (1883) | Vol. 8 (1884) | Vol. 9 (1885) | Vol. 10 (1886) | Vol. 11 (1887) | Vol. 12 (1888) | Vol. 13 (1889) | Vol. 14 (1890) | Vol. 15 (1891) | Vol. 16 (1892) | Vol. 17 (1893) | Vol. 18 (1894) . Debs: His Life, Writings, and Speeches: With a Department of Appreciations (1908). Girard, Kansas: Appeal to Reason. Labor and Freedom (1916). St. Louis: Phil Wagner. Audio version. Letters of Eugene V. Debs. J. Robert Constantine (ed.). In Three Volumes. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. —Abridged single volume version published as Gentle Rebel: Letters of Eugene V. Debs. (1995). Selected Works of Eugene V. Debs. Tim Davenport and David Walters (eds.). Volume 1, Building Solidarity on the Tracks, 1877–1892. (2019). Chicago: Haymarket Books. Volume 2, The Rise and Fall of the American Railway Union, 1892–1896. (2020). Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2020. "Susan B. Anthony: Pioneer of Freedom" (July 1917). Pearson's Magazine. 38: 1. pp. 5–7. Walls and Bars: Prisons and Prison Life In The "Land Of The Free" (1927). Chicago: Socialist Party of America. See also List of civil rights leaders List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States Perennial candidates in the United States References Footnotes Bibliography Further reading External links Eugene V. Debs Foundation Museum and memorial in Deb's home from 1890 until his death in 1926 Eugene V. Debs Collection at Wabash Valley Visions and Voices Digital Memory Project. 6,000 PDFs of Debs-related correspondence. The Debs Project: Eugene V. Dabs Selected Works. Informational website. Photos of Debs at Indiana State University Library 1921 film of Eugene Debs departing Atlanta penitentiary and exiting White House after visiting Harding Bernard J. Brommel – Eugene V. Debs Papers at the Newberry Library |- 1855 births 1926 deaths 20th-century American politicians American anti-capitalists American anti–World War I activists American democracy activists American Marxists American pacifists American people in rail transportation American people of French descent American prisoners and detainees American Railway Union people American socialists Anti-poverty advocates Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen people Burials in Indiana Candidates in the 1900 United States presidential election Candidates in the 1904 United States presidential election Candidates in the 1908 United States presidential election Candidates in the 1912 United States presidential election Candidates in the 1920 United States presidential election Indiana Democrats Non-interventionism Industrial Workers of the World members Leaders of American trade unions Members of the Indiana House of Representatives People convicted under the Espionage Act of 1917 Politicians from Terre Haute, Indiana Prisoners and detainees of the United States federal government Progressive Era in the United States Recipients of American presidential clemency Social Democratic Party of America politicians Socialist Party of America politicians from Indiana Socialist Party of America presidential nominees Stateless people Trade unionists from Indiana

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20de%20Gaulle

Charles de Gaulle

Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (; ; 22 November 18909 November 1970) was a French army officer and statesman who led Free France against Nazi Germany in World War II and chaired the Provisional Government of the French Republic from 1944 to 1946 in order to restore democracy in France. In 1958, he came out of retirement when appointed President of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) by President René Coty. He rewrote the Constitution of France and founded the Fifth Republic after approval by referendum. He was elected President of France later that year, a position to which he was reelected in 1965 and held until his resignation in 1969. Born in Lille, he graduated from Saint-Cyr in 1912. He was a decorated officer of the First World War, wounded several times and later taken prisoner at Verdun. During the interwar period, he advocated mobile armoured divisions. During the German invasion of May 1940, he led an armoured division which counterattacked the invaders; he was then appointed Undersecretary for War. Refusing to accept his government's armistice with Germany, de Gaulle fled to England and exhorted the French to resist occupation and to continue the fight in his Appeal of 18 June. He led the Free French Forces and later headed the French National Liberation Committee against the Axis. Despite frosty relations with the United States, he generally had Winston Churchill's support and emerged as the undisputed leader of Free France. He became head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic in June 1944, the interim government of France following its liberation. As early as 1944, de Gaulle introduced a dirigiste economic policy, which included substantial state-directed control over a capitalist economy which was followed by 30 years of unprecedented growth, known as the Trente Glorieuses. Frustrated by the return of petty partisanship in the new Fourth Republic, he resigned in early 1946 but continued to be politically active as founder of the Rassemblement du Peuple Français (RPF; "Rally of the French People"). He retired in the early 1950s and wrote his War Memoirs, which quickly became a staple of modern French literature. When the Algerian War was ripping apart the unstable Fourth Republic, the National Assembly brought him back to power during the May 1958 crisis. He founded the Fifth Republic with a strong presidency, and he was elected to continue in that role. He managed to keep France together while taking steps to end the war, much to the anger of the Pieds-Noirs (ethnic French born in Algeria) and the military; both previously had supported his return to power to maintain colonial rule. He granted independence to Algeria and acted progressively towards other French colonies. In the context of the Cold War, de Gaulle initiated his "politics of grandeur" asserting that France as a major power should not rely on other countries, such as the United States, for its national security and prosperity. To this end, he pursued a policy of "national independence" which led him to withdraw from NATO's military integrated command and to launch an independent nuclear development program that made France the fourth nuclear power. He restored cordial Franco-German relations to create a European counterweight between the Anglo-American and Soviet spheres of influence through the signing of the Élysée Treaty on 22 January 1963. However, he opposed any development of a supranational Europe, favouring Europe as a continent of sovereign nations. De Gaulle openly criticised the United States intervention in Vietnam and the "exorbitant privilege" of the United States dollar. In his later years, his support for the slogan "Vive le Québec libre" and his two vetoes of Britain's entry into the European Economic Community generated considerable controversy in both North America and Europe. Although reelected to the presidency in 1965, he faced widespread protests by students and workers in May 1968, but had the Army's support and won an election with an increased majority in the National Assembly. De Gaulle resigned in 1969 after losing a referendum in which he proposed more decentralisation. He died a year later at his residence in Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, leaving his presidential memoirs unfinished. Many French political parties and figures claim a Gaullist legacy; many streets and monuments in France were dedicated to his memory after his death. Early life Childhood and origins Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was born on 22 November 1890 in Lille in the Nord department, the third of five children. He was raised in a devoutly Catholic and traditional family. His father, Henri de Gaulle, was a professor of history and literature at a Jesuit college and eventually founded his own school. Henri de Gaulle came from a long line of parliamentary gentry from Normandy and Burgundy. The name is thought to be Dutch in origin, and may well have derived from van der Walle, de Walle ("from the rampart, defensive wall") or de Waal ("the Walloon") De Gaulle's mother, Jeanne (born Maillot), descended from a family of wealthy entrepreneurs from Lille. She had French, Irish, Scottish, and German ancestry. De Gaulle's father encouraged historical and philosophical debate between his children at mealtimes, and through his encouragement, de Gaulle grew familiar with French history from an early age. Struck by his mother's tale of how she cried as a child when she heard of the French capitulation to the Germans at Sedan in 1870, he developed a keen interest in military strategy. He was also influenced by his uncle, also named Charles de Gaulle, who was a historian and passionate Celticist who wrote books and pamphlets advocating the union of the Welsh, Scots, Irish, and Bretons into one people. His grandfather Julien-Philippe was also a historian, and his grandmother Josephine-Marie wrote poems which impassioned his Christian faith. Education and intellectual influences By the time he was ten he was reading medieval history. De Gaulle began writing in his early teens, especially poetry, and later his family paid for a composition, a one-act play in verse about a traveller, to be privately published. A voracious reader, he favored philosophical tomes by such writers as Bergson, Péguy, and Barrès. In addition to the German philosophers Nietzsche, Kant, and Goethe, he read the works of the ancient Greeks (especially Plato) and the prose of the romanticist poet Chateaubriand. De Gaulle was educated in Paris at the Collège Stanislas and studied briefly in Belgium where he continued to display his interest in reading and studying history and shared the great pride many of his countrymen felt in their nation's achievements. At the age of fifteen he wrote an essay imagining "General de Gaulle" leading the French Army to victory over Germany in 1930; he later wrote that in his youth he had looked forward with somewhat naive anticipation to the inevitable future war with Germany to avenge the French defeat of 1870. France during de Gaulle's teenage years was a divided society, with many developments which were unwelcome to the de Gaulle family: the growth of socialism and syndicalism, the legal separation of Church and State in 1905, and the reduction in the term of military service to two years in the same year. Equally unwelcome were the Entente Cordiale with Britain, the First Moroccan Crisis, and above all the Dreyfus Affair. Henri de Gaulle came to be a supporter of Dreyfus, but was less concerned with his innocence per se than with the disgrace which the army had brought onto itself. The same period also saw a resurgence in evangelical Catholicism, the dedication of the Sacré-Cœur, Paris, and the rise of the cult of Joan of Arc. De Gaulle was not an outstanding pupil until his mid-teens, but from July 1906 he worked harder at school as he focused on winning a place to train as an army officer at the military academy, Saint-Cyr. Lacouture suggests that de Gaulle joined the army, despite being by inclination more suited to a career as a writer and historian, partly to please his father and partly because it was one of the few unifying forces which represented the whole of French society. He later wrote that "when I entered the Army, it was one of the greatest things in the world", a claim which Lacouture points out needs to be treated with caution: the army's reputation was at a low ebb in the early 1900s after the Dreyfus Affair. It was used extensively for strike-breaking and there were fewer than 700 applicants for St Cyr in 1908, down from 2,000 at the turn of the century. Early career Officer cadet and lieutenant De Gaulle won a place at St Cyr in 1909. His class ranking was mediocre (119th out of 221 entrants), but he was relatively young and this was his first attempt at the exam. Under a law of 21 March 1905, aspiring army officers were required to serve a year in the ranks, including time both as a private and as an NCO, before attending the academy. Accordingly, in October 1909, de Gaulle enlisted (for four years, as required, rather than the normal two-year term for conscripts) in the of the French Army, based at Arras. This was a historic regiment with Austerlitz, Wagram, and Borodino amongst its battle honours. In April 1910 he was promoted to corporal. His company commander declined to promote him to sergeant, the usual rank for a potential officer, commenting that the young man clearly felt that nothing less than Constable of France would be good enough for him. He was eventually promoted to sergeant in September 1910. De Gaulle took up his place at St Cyr in October 1910. By the end of his first year he had risen to 45th place. At St Cyr, de Gaulle acquired the nickname of "the great asparagus" because of his height (196 cm, 6'5"), high forehead, and nose. He did well at the academy and received praise for his conduct, manners, intelligence, character, military spirit, and resistance to fatigue. In 1912, he graduated 13th in his class and his passing-out report noted that he was a gifted cadet who would undoubtedly make an excellent officer. The future Marshal Alphonse Juin passed out first in the class, although the two do not appear to have been close friends at the time. Preferring to serve in France rather than the distant overseas colonies, in October 1912 he rejoined the 33rd Infantry Regiment as a sous-lieutenant (second lieutenant). The regiment was now commanded by Colonel (and future Marshal) Philippe Pétain, whom de Gaulle would follow for the next 15 years. He later wrote in his memoirs: "My first colonel, Pétain, taught me the art of command". It has been claimed that in the build-up to World War I, de Gaulle agreed with Pétain about the obsolescence of cavalry and of traditional tactics in the age of machine guns and barbed wire, and often debated great battles and the likely outcome of any coming war with his superior. Lacouture is sceptical, pointing out that although Pétain wrote glowing appraisals of de Gaulle in the first two-quarters of 1913, it is unlikely that he stood out among the 19 captains and 32 lieutenants under his command. De Gaulle would have been present at the 1913 Arras manoeuvres, at which Pétain criticised General to his face, but there is no evidence in his notebooks that he accepted Pétain's unfashionable ideas about the importance of firepower against the dominant doctrine emphasizing "offensive spirit". De Gaulle stressed how Maurice de Saxe had banned volley fire, how French armies of the Napoleonic period had relied on infantry column attack, and how French military power had declined in the nineteenth century because of – supposedly – excessive concentration on firepower (e.g. the Chassepot rifle) rather than élan. He also appears to have accepted the then fashionable lesson drawn from the recent Russo-Japanese War, of how bayonet charges by Japanese infantry with high morale had succeeded in the face of enemy firepower. De Gaulle was promoted to first lieutenant in October 1913. First World War Combat When war finally broke out in France in early August 1914, the 33rd Regiment, considered one of the best fighting units in France, was immediately thrown into checking the German advance at Dinant. However, the French Fifth Army commander, General Charles Lanrezac, remained wedded to 19th-century battle tactics, throwing his units into pointless bayonet charges with bugles and full colours flying against the German artillery, incurring heavy losses. As a platoon commander, de Gaulle was involved in fierce fighting from the outset. He received his baptism of fire on 15 August and was among the first to be wounded, receiving a bullet in the knee at the Battle of Dinant. It is sometimes claimed that in hospital, he grew bitter at the tactics used, and spoke with other injured officers against the outdated methods of the French army. However, there is no contemporary evidence that he understood the importance of artillery in modern warfare. Instead, in his writing at the time, he criticised the "overrapid" offensive, the inadequacy of French generals, and the "slowness of the English troops". He rejoined his regiment in October, as commander of the 7th company. Many of his former comrades were already dead. In December he became regimental adjutant. De Gaulle's unit gained recognition for repeatedly crawling out into no man's land to listen to the conversations of the enemy in their trenches, and the information brought back was so valuable that on 18 January 1915 he received the Croix de Guerre. On 10 February he was promoted to captain, initially on probation. On 10 March 1915, de Gaulle was shot in the left hand, a wound which initially seemed trivial but became infected. The wound incapacitated him for four months and later forced him to wear his wedding ring on the right hand. In August he commanded the 10th company before returning to duty as regimental adjutant. On 3 September 1915 his rank of captain became permanent. In late October, returning from leave, he returned to command of 10th company again. As a company commander at Douaumont (during the Battle of Verdun) on 2 March 1916, while leading a charge to try to break out of a position which had become surrounded by the enemy, he received a bayonet wound to the left thigh after being stunned by a shell and was captured after passing out from the effects of poison gas. He was one of the few survivors of his battalion. He was pulled out of an empty shell crater by German soldiers and taken prisoner. The circumstances of his capture would later become a subject of debate as anti-Gaullists spread rumour that he had actually surrendered, a claim de Gaulle nonchalantly dismissed. Prisoner De Gaulle spent 32 months in six different prisoner camps, but he spent most time in the , where his treatment was satisfactory. In captivity, de Gaulle read German newspapers (he had learned German at school and spent a summer vacation in Germany) and gave talks on his view of the course of the conflict to fellow prisoners. His patriotic fervour and confidence in victory earned him yet another nickname, Le Connétable ("The Constable"), the title of the medieval commander-in-chief of the French army. In Ingolstadt were also journalist Remy Roure, who would eventually become a political ally of de Gaulle, and Mikhail Tukhachevsky, a future commander of the Red Army. During his time as a POW, de Gaulle got to know well Tukhachevsky, whose theories about a fast-moving, mechanized army closely resembled his. While a prisoner of war, de Gaulle wrote his first book, Discorde chez l'ennemi (The Enemy's House Divided), analysing the issues and divisions within the German forces. The book was published in 1924. De Gaulle made five unsuccessful escape attempts, and was moved to a higher-security facility and punished on his return with long periods of solitary confinement and with the withdrawal of privileges such as newspapers and tobacco. He attempted escape by hiding in a laundry basket, digging a tunnel, digging a hole through a wall, and even posing as a nurse to fool his guards. In his letters to his parents, he constantly spoke of his frustration that the war was continuing without him, calling the situation "a shameful misfortune" and compared it to being cuckolded. As the war neared its end, he grew depressed that he was playing no part in the victory, but despite his efforts, he remained in captivity until the armistice. On 1 December 1918, three weeks later, he returned to his father's house in the Dordogne to be reunited with his three brothers, who had all served in the army and survived the war. Between the wars Early 1920s: Poland and staff college After the armistice, de Gaulle served with the staff of the French Military Mission to Poland as an instructor of Poland's infantry during its war with communist Russia (1919–1921). He distinguished himself in operations near the River Zbrucz, with the rank of major in the Polish army, and won Poland's highest military decoration, the Virtuti Militari. De Gaulle returned to France, where he became a lecturer in military history at St Cyr. He was already a powerful speaker, after practice as a prisoner of war. He then studied at the École de Guerre (staff college) from November 1922 to October 1924. Here he clashed with his instructor Colonel Moyrand by arguing for tactics based on circumstances rather than doctrine, and after an exercise in which he had played the role of commander, he refused to answer a question about supplies, replying "de minimis non-curat praetor" ("a leader does not concern himself with trivia") before ordering the responsible officer to answer Moyrand. He obtained respectable, but not outstanding grades – 15 or so out of 20 – on many of his assessments. Moyrand wrote in his final report that he was "an intelligent, cultured and serious-minded officer; has brilliance and talent" but criticised him for not deriving as much benefit from the course as he should have done, and for his arrogance: his "excessive self-confidence", his harsh dismissal of the views of others "and his attitude of a King in exile". Having entered 33rd out of 129, he graduated in 52nd place, with a grade of assez bien ("good enough"). He was posted to Mainz to help supervise supplies of food and equipment for the French Army of Occupation. De Gaulle's book La Discorde chez l'ennemi had appeared in March 1924. In March 1925 he published an essay on the use of tactics according to circumstances, a deliberate gesture in defiance of Moyrand. Mid-1920s: ghostwriter for Pétain De Gaulle's career was saved by Pétain, who arranged for his staff college grade to be amended to bien ("good"—but not the "excellent" which would have been needed for a general staff posting). From 1 July 1925 he worked for Pétain (as part of the Maison Pétain), largely as a "pen officer" (ghostwriter). De Gaulle disapproved of Pétain's decision to take command in Morocco in 1925 (he was later known to remark that "Marshal Pétain was a great man. He died in 1925, but he did not know it") and of what he saw as the lust for public adulation of Pétain and his wife. In 1925 de Gaulle began to cultivate Joseph Paul-Boncour, his first political patron. On 1 December 1925 he published an essay on the "Historical Role of French Fortresses". This was a popular topic because of the Maginot Line which was then being planned, but his argument was quite nuanced: he argued that the aim of fortresses should be to weaken the enemy, not to economise on defence. Friction arose between de Gaulle and Pétain over Le Soldat, a history of the French soldier which he had ghost-written and for which he wanted greater writing credit. He had written mainly historical material, but Pétain wanted to add a final chapter of his own thoughts. There was at least one stormy meeting late in 1926 after which de Gaulle was seen to emerge, white with anger, from Pétain's office. In October 1926 he returned to his duties with the Headquarters of the Army of the Rhine. De Gaulle had sworn that he would never return to the École de Guerre except as commandant, but at Pétain's invitation, and introduced to the stage by his patron, he delivered three lectures there in April 1927: "Leadership in Wartime", "Character", and "Prestige". These later formed the basis for his book The Edge of the Sword (1932). Many of the officers in the audience were his seniors, who had taught and examined him only a few years earlier. Late-1920s: Trier and Beirut After spending twelve years as a captain, a normal period, de Gaulle was promoted to commandant (major) on 25 September 1927. In November 1927 he began a two-year posting as commanding officer of the 19th chasseurs à pied (a battalion of élite light infantry) with the occupation forces at Trier (Treves). De Gaulle trained his men hard (a river crossing exercise of the freezing Moselle River at night was vetoed by his commanding general). He imprisoned a soldier for appealing to his deputy (Member of Parliament) for a transfer to a cushier unit, and when investigated initially tried to invoke his status as a member of the Maison Pétain, eventually appealing to Pétain to protect himself from a reprimand for interfering with the soldier's political rights. An observer wrote of de Gaulle at this time that although he encouraged young officers, "his ego...glowed from far off". In the winter of 1928–1929, thirty soldiers ("not counting Annamese") died from so-called "German flu", seven of them from de Gaulle's battalion. After an investigation, he was singled out for praise in the ensuing parliamentary debate as an exceptionally capable commanding officer, and mention of how he had worn a mourning band for a private soldier who was an orphan earned an exclamation of praise from the Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré. The breach between de Gaulle and Pétain over the ghost-writing of Le Soldat had deepened in 1928. Pétain brought in a new ghostwriter, Colonel Audet, who was unwilling to take on the job and wrote to de Gaulle in some embarrassment to take over the project. Pétain was quite friendly about the matter but did not publish the book. In 1929 Pétain did not use de Gaulle's draft text for his eulogy for the late Ferdinand Foch, whose seat at the Academie Française he was assuming. The Allied occupation of the Rhineland was coming to an end, and de Gaulle's battalion was due to be disbanded, although the decision was later rescinded after he had moved to his next posting. De Gaulle wanted a teaching post at the École de Guerre in 1929. There was apparently a threat of mass resignation of the faculty were he appointed to a position there. There was talk of a posting to Corsica or North Africa, but on Pétain's advice he accepted a two-year posting to Lebanon and Syria. In Beirut he was chief of the 3rd Bureau (military operations) of General Louis-Paul-Gaston de Bigault du Granrut, who wrote him a glowing reference recommending him for high command in the future. 1930s: staff officer In the spring of 1931, as his posting in Beirut drew to a close, de Gaulle once again asked Pétain for a posting to the École de Guerre. Pétain tried to obtain an appointment for him as Professor of History there, but once again the faculty would not have him. Instead de Gaulle, drawing on plans he had drawn up in 1928 for reform of that institution, asked Pétain to create a special post for him which would enable him to lecture on "the Conduct of War" both to the École de Guerre and to the Centre des Hautes Études Militaires (CHEM – a senior staff college for generals, known as the "school for marshals"), and also to civilians at the École Normale Supérieure, and to civil servants. Pétain instead advised him to apply for a posting to the Secrétariat Général du Conseil Supérieur de la Défense Nationale (SGDN – General Secretariat of the Supreme War Council, reporting to the Under-Secretary to the Prime Minister, although later moved to the Ministry of War in 1936) in Paris. Pétain promised to lobby for the appointment, which he thought would be good experience for him. De Gaulle was posted to SGDN in November 1931, initially as a "drafting officer". He was promoted to lieutenant-colonel in December 1932 and appointed Head of the Third Section (operations). His service at SGDN gave him six years' experience of the interface between army planning and government, enabling him to take on ministerial responsibilities in 1940. After studying arrangements in the US, Italy, and Belgium, de Gaulle drafted a bill for the organisation of the country in time of war. He made a presentation about his bill to the CHEM. The bill passed the Chamber of Deputies but failed in the Senate. Early 1930s: proponent of armoured warfare Unlike Pétain, de Gaulle believed in the use of tanks and rapid maneuvers rather than trench warfare. De Gaulle became a disciple of Émile Mayer (1851–1938), a retired lieutenant-colonel (his career had been damaged by the Dreyfus Affair) and military thinker. Mayer thought that although wars were still bound to happen, it was "obsolete" for civilised countries to threaten or wage war on one another as they had in previous centuries. He had a low opinion of the quality of French generals, and was a critic of the Maginot Line and a proponent of mechanised warfare. Lacouture suggests that Mayer focused de Gaulle's thoughts away from his obsession with the mystique of the strong leader (Le Fil d'Epée: 1932) and back to loyalty to Republican institutions and military reform. In 1934 de Gaulle wrote Vers l'Armée de Métier (Towards a Professional Army). He proposed mechanization of the infantry, with stress on an élite force of 100,000 men and 3,000 tanks. The book imagined tanks driving around the country like cavalry. De Gaulle's mentor Emile Mayer was somewhat more prophetic than he was about the future importance of air power on the battlefield. Such an army would both compensate for France's population shortage, and be an efficient tool to enforce international law, particularly the Treaty of Versailles, which forbade Germany from rearming. He also thought it would be a precursor to a deeper national reorganisation, and wrote that "a master has to make his appearance [...] whose orders cannot be challenged – a man upheld by public opinion". Only 700 copies were sold in France; the claim that thousands of copies were sold in Germany is thought to be an exaggeration. De Gaulle used the book to widen his contacts among journalists, notably with André Pironneau, editor of L'Écho de Paris. The book attracted praise across the political spectrum, apart from the hard left who were committed to the Republican ideal of a citizen army. De Gaulle's views attracted the attention of the maverick politician Paul Reynaud, to whom he wrote frequently, sometimes in obsequious terms. Reynaud first invited him to meet him on 5 December 1934. The de Gaulle family were very private. De Gaulle was deeply focused on his career at this time. There is no evidence that he was tempted by fascism, and there is little evidence of his views either on domestic upheavals in 1934 and 1936 or the many foreign policy crises of the decade. He approved of the rearmament drive which the Popular Front government began in 1936, although French military doctrine remained that tanks should be used in penny packets for infantry support (ironically, in 1940 it would be German panzer units that would be used in a manner similar to what de Gaulle had advocated). A rare insight into de Gaulle's political views is a letter to his mother warning her that war with Germany was sooner or later inevitable and reassuring her that Pierre Laval's pact with the USSR in 1935 was for the best, likening it to Francis I's alliance with the Turks against the Emperor Charles V. Late-1930s: tank regiment From April 1936, whilst still in his staff position at SGDN, de Gaulle was also a lecturer to generals at CHEM. De Gaulle's superiors disapproved of his views about tanks, and he was passed over for promotion to full colonel in 1936, supposedly because his service record was not good enough. He interceded with his political patron Reynaud, who showed his record to the Minister of War Édouard Daladier. Daladier, who was an enthusiast for rearmament with modern weapons, ensured that his name was entered onto the promotion list for the following year. In 1937 General Bineau, who had taught him at St Cyr, wrote on his report on his lectureship at CHEM that he was highly able and suitable for high command in the future, but that he hid his attributes under "a cold and lofty attitude". He was put in command of the 507th Tank Regiment (consisting of a battalion of medium Char D2s and a battalion of R35 light tanks) at Metz on 13 July 1937, and his promotion to full colonel took effect on 24 December that year. De Gaulle attracted public attention by leading a parade of 80 tanks into the Place d'Armes at Metz, in his command tank "Austerlitz". By now de Gaulle was beginning to be a well-known figure, known as "Colonel Motor(s)". At the invitation of the publisher Plon, he produced another book, La France et son Armée (France and Her Army) in 1938. De Gaulle incorporated much of the text he had written for Pétain a decade earlier for the uncompleted book Le Soldat, to Pétain's displeasure. In the end, de Gaulle agreed to include a dedication to Pétain (although he wrote his own rather than using the draft Pétain sent him), which was later dropped from postwar editions. Until 1938 Pétain had treated de Gaulle, as Lacouture puts it, "with unbounded good will", but by October 1938 he privately thought his former protégé "an ambitious man, and very ill-bred". Second World War: the Fall of France Early war At the outbreak of World War II, de Gaulle was put in command of the French Fifth Army's tanks (five scattered battalions, largely equipped with R35 light tanks) in Alsace. On 12 September 1939 he attacked at Bitche, simultaneously with the Saar Offensive. At the start of October 1939, Reynaud asked for a staff posting under de Gaulle, but in the event remained at his post as Minister of Finance. De Gaulle's tanks were inspected by President Lebrun, who was impressed, but regretted that it was too late to implement his ideas. He wrote a paper L'Avènement de la force mécanique (The coming of the Armoured Force) which he sent to General Georges (commander-in-chief on the northeast front – who was not especially impressed) and the politician Leon Blum. Daladier, Prime Minister at the time, was too busy to read it. In late-February 1940, Reynaud told de Gaulle that he had been earmarked for command of an armoured division as soon as one became available. Early in 1940 (the exact date is uncertain), de Gaulle proposed to Reynaud that he be appointed Secretary-General of the War Council, which would in effect have made him the government's military adviser. When Reynaud became prime minister in March he was reliant on Daladier's backing, so the job went instead to the politician Paul Baudouin. In late-March, de Gaulle was told by Reynaud that he would be given command of the 4th Armoured Division, due to form by 15 May. The government appeared likely to be restructured, as Daladier and Maurice Gamelin (commander-in-chief) were under attack in the aftermath of the Allied defeat in Norway, and had this happened de Gaulle, who on 3 May, was still lobbying Reynaud for a restructuring of the control of the war, might well have joined the government. By 7 May he was assembling the staff of his new division. Battle of France: division commander The Germans attacked the West on 10 May. De Gaulle activated his new division on 12 May. The Germans broke through at Sedan on 15 May 1940. That day, with three tank battalions assembled, less than a third of his paper strength, he was summoned to headquarters and told to attack to gain time for General Robert Touchon's Sixth Army to redeploy from the Maginot Line to the Aisne. General Georges told him it was his chance to implement his ideas. De Gaulle commandeered some retreating cavalry and artillery units and also received an extra half-brigade, one of whose battalions included some heavy B1 bis tanks. The attack at Montcornet, a key road junction near Laon, began around 04:30 on 17 May. Outnumbered and without air support, he lost 23 of his 90 vehicles to mines, anti-tank weapons, or Stukas. On 18 May he was reinforced by two fresh regiments of armoured cavalry, bringing his strength up to 150 vehicles. He attacked again on 19 May and his forces were once again devastated by German Stukas and artillery. He ignored orders from General Georges to withdraw, and in the early afternoon demanded two more divisions from Touchon, who refused his request. Although de Gaulle's tanks forced the German infantry to retreat to Caumont, the action brought only temporary relief and did little to slow the spearhead of the German advance. Nevertheless, it was one of the few successes the French enjoyed while suffering defeats elsewhere across the country. He delayed his retreat until 20 May. On 21 May, at the request of propaganda officers, he gave a talk on French radio about his recent attack. In recognition for his efforts de Gaulle was promoted to the rank of temporary (acting, in Anglophone parlance) brigadier-general on 23 May 1940. Despite being compulsorily retired as a colonel on 22 June (see below) he would wear the uniform of a brigadier-general for the rest of his life. On 28–29 May, de Gaulle attacked the German bridgehead south of the Somme at Abbeville, taking around 400 German prisoners in the last attempt to cut an escape route for the Allied forces falling back on Dunkirk. The future General Paul Huard, who served under de Gaulle at this time, recorded how he would often stand on a piece of high ground, keeping other officers literally at six yards' distance, subjecting his subordinates to harsh criticism and making all decisions autocratically himself, behaviour consistent with his later conduct as a political leader. Lacouture points out that for all his undoubted energy and physical courage there is no evidence in his brief period of command that he possessed the "hunter's eye" of the great battlefield commander, and that not a single one of his officers joined him in London, although some joined the Resistance in France. De Gaulle's rank of brigadier-general became effective on 1 June 1940. That day he was in Paris. After a visit to his tailor to be fitted for his general's uniform, he visited Reynaud, who appears to have offered him a government job for the first time, and later afterwards the commander-in-chief Maxime Weygand, who congratulated him on saving France's honour and asked him for his advice. On 2 June he sent a memo to Weygand vainly urging that the French armoured divisions be consolidated from four weak divisions into three stronger ones and concentrated into an armoured corps under his command. He made the same suggestion to Reynaud. Battle of France: government minister On 5 June, the day the Germans began the second phase of their offensive (Fall Rot), Prime Minister Paul Reynaud appointed de Gaulle a government minister, as Under-Secretary of State for National Defence and War, with particular responsibility for coordination with the British. Weygand objected to the appointment, thinking him "a mere child". Pétain (Deputy Prime Minister) was also displeased at his appointment and told Reynaud the story of the ghost-writing of Le Soldat. His appointment received a good deal of press attention, both in France and in the UK. He asked for an English-speaking aide and Geoffroy Chodron de Courcel was given the job. On 8 June, de Gaulle visited Weygand, who believed it was "the end" and that after France was defeated Britain would also soon sue for peace. He hoped that after an armistice the Germans would allow him to retain enough of a French Army to "maintain order" in France. He gave a "despairing laugh" when de Gaulle suggested fighting on. On 9 June, de Gaulle flew to London and met British Prime Minister Winston Churchill for the first time. It was thought that half a million men could be evacuated to French North Africa, provided the British and French navies and air forces coordinated their efforts. Either at this meeting or on 16 June, he urged Churchill in vain to throw more Royal Air Force (RAF) aircraft into the Battle of France, but conceded there and then that Churchill was right to refuse. In his memoirs, de Gaulle mentioned his support for the proposal to continue the war from French North Africa, but at the time he was more in favour of the plan to form a "redoubt" in Brittany than he later admitted. Italy entered the war on 10 June. That day de Gaulle was present at two meetings with Weygand (he only mentions one in his memoirs), one at the defence committee and a second where Weygand barged into Reynaud's office and demanded an armistice. When Weygand asked de Gaulle, who wanted to carry on fighting, if he had "anything to suggest", de Gaulle replied that it was the government's job to give orders, not to make suggestions. De Gaulle wanted Paris to be stubbornly defended by de Lattre, but instead it was declared an open city. At around 23:00 Reynaud and de Gaulle left Paris for Tours; the rest of the government left Paris on 11 June. Battle of France: Briare and Tours On 11 June, de Gaulle drove to Arcis-sur-Aube and offered General Hunziger (Commander of the Central Army Group) Weygand's job as Commander-in-Chief. Hunziger accepted in principle (although according to Henri Massis he was merely amused at the prospect of forming a Breton redoubt – Hunziger would sign the armistice on behalf of Pétain a few weeks later) but de Gaulle was unable to persuade Reynaud to sack Weygand. Later on 11 June, de Gaulle attended the meeting of the Anglo-French Supreme War Council at the Chateau du Muguet at Briare. The British were represented by Churchill, Anthony Eden, General John Dill (Chief of the Imperial General Staff), General Hastings Ismay and Edward Spears, and the French by Reynaud, Pétain, Weygand, and Georges. Churchill demanded that the French take to guerrilla warfare, and reminded Pétain of how he had come to the aid of the British with forty French divisions in March 1918, receiving a dusty answer in each case. De Gaulle's fighting spirit made a strong impression on the British. At the meeting de Gaulle met Pétain for the first time in two years. Pétain noted his recent promotion to general, adding that he did not congratulate him, as ranks were of no use in defeat. When de Gaulle protested that Pétain himself had been promoted to brigadier-general and division commander at the Battle of the Marne in 1914, he replied that there was "no comparison" with the present situation. De Gaulle later conceded that Pétain was right about that much at least. De Gaulle missed the second day of the conference as he was in Rennes for a meeting (not mentioned in his memoirs) to discuss the plans for the Breton redoubt with General René Altmayer. He then returned to attend a cabinet meeting, at which it was clear that there was a growing movement for an armistice, and which decided that the government should move to Bordeaux rather than de Gaulle's preference for Quimper in Brittany. On 13 June, de Gaulle attended another Anglo-French conference at Tours with Churchill, Lord Halifax, Lord Beaverbrook, Spears, Ismay, and Alexander Cadogan. This time few other major French figures were present apart from Reynaud and Baudoin. He was an hour late, and his account is not reliable. Reynaud demanded that France be released from the agreement which he had made with Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain in March 1940, so that France could seek an armistice. De Gaulle wrote that Churchill was sympathetic to France seeking an armistice, provided that an agreement was reached about what was to happen to the French fleet. This claim was later made by apologists for the Vichy Regime, e.g., General Georges, who claimed that Churchill had supported the armistice as a means of keeping the Germans out of French North Africa. However, is not supported by other eyewitnesses (Churchill himself, Roland de Margerie, Spears) who agree that Churchill said that he "understood" the French action but that he did not agree with it. He murmured at de Gaulle that he was "l’homme du destin (the man of destiny)", although it is unclear whether de Gaulle actually heard him. At the cabinet meeting that evening Pétain strongly supported Weygand's demand for an armistice, and said that he himself would remain in France to share the suffering of the French people and to begin the national rebirth. De Gaulle was dissuaded from resigning by the Interior Minister Georges Mandel, who argued that the war was only just beginning, and that de Gaulle needed to keep his reputation unsullied. Battle of France: Franco-British Union De Gaulle arrived at Bordeaux on 14 June, and was given a new mission to go to London to discuss the potential evacuation to North Africa. He had a brief meeting with Admiral Darlan about the potential role of the French Navy. That evening, by coincidence, he dined in the same restaurant as Pétain: he went over to shake his hand in silence, the last time they ever met. Next morning no aircraft could be found so he had to drive to Brittany, where he visited his wife and daughters, and his aged mother (whom he never saw again, as she died in July), before taking a boat to Plymouth (he asked the skipper if he would be willing to carry on the war under the British flag), where he arrived on 16 June. He ordered the boat Pasteur, with a cargo of munitions, to be diverted to a British port, which caused some members of the French Government to call for him to be put on trial. On the afternoon of Sunday 16 June, de Gaulle was at 10 Downing Street for talks about Jean Monnet's mooted Anglo-French political union. He telephoned Reynaud – they were cut off during the conversation and had to resume later – with the news that the British had agreed. He took off from London on a British aircraft at 18:30 on 16 June (it is unclear whether, as was later claimed, he and Churchill agreed that he would be returning soon), landing at Bordeaux at around 22:00 to be told that he was no longer a minister, as Reynaud had resigned as prime minister after the Franco-British Union had been rejected by his cabinet. Pétain had become prime minister with a remit of seeking an armistice with Nazi Germany. De Gaulle was now in imminent danger of arrest. Flight with Edward Spears De Gaulle visited Reynaud, who still hoped to escape to French North Africa and declined to come to London. Reynaud still had control of secret government funds until the handover of power the next day. It has been suggested that he ordered de Gaulle to go to London, but no written evidence has ever been found to confirm this. Georges Mandel also refused to come. At around 09:00 on the morning of 17 June, he flew to London on a British aircraft with Edward Spears. The escape was hair-raising. Spears claimed that de Gaulle had been reluctant to come, and that he had pulled him into the aircraft at the last minute, although de Gaulle's biographer does not accept this. Jean Laurent brought 100,000 gold francs in secret funds provided to him by Reynaud. De Gaulle later told André Malraux of the mental anguish which his flight to London – a break with the French Army and with the recognised government, which would inevitably be seen as treason by many – had caused him. Second World War: leader of the Free French in exile Appeal from London De Gaulle landed at Heston Airport soon after 12:30 on 17 June 1940. He saw Churchill at around 15:00 and Churchill offered him broadcast time on BBC. They both knew about Pétain's broadcast earlier that day that stated that "the fighting must end" and that he had approached the Germans for terms. That evening de Gaulle dined with Jean Monnet and denounced Pétain's "treason". The next day the British Cabinet (Churchill was not present, as it was the day of his "Finest Hour" speech) were reluctant to agree to de Gaulle giving a radio address, as Britain was still in communication with the Pétain government about the fate of the French fleet. Duff Cooper (Minister of Information) had an advance copy of the text of the address, to which there were no objections. The cabinet eventually agreed after individual lobbying, as indicated by a handwritten amendment to the cabinet minutes. De Gaulle's Appeal of 18 June exhorted the French people not to be demoralized and to continue to resist the occupation of France. He also – apparently on his own initiative – declared that he would broadcast again the next day. No recording survives of the 18 June speech. Few listened to it, although it was published in some newspapers in metropolitan (mainland) France. The speech was largely aimed at French soldiers who were then in Britain after being evacuated from Norway and Dunkirk; most showed no interest in fighting for de Gaulle's Free French Forces and were repatriated back to France to become German prisoners of war. In his next broadcast on 19 June de Gaulle denied the legitimacy of the government at Bordeaux. He called on the North African troops to live up to the tradition of Bertrand Clausel, Thomas Robert Bugeaud, and Hubert Lyautey by defying orders from Bordeaux. The British Foreign Office protested to Churchill. De Gaulle also tried, largely in vain, to attract the support of French forces in the French Empire. He telegraphed to General Charles Noguès (Resident-General in Morocco and Commander-in-Chief of French forces in North Africa), offering to serve under him or to cooperate in any way. Noguès, who was dismayed by the armistice but agreed to go along with it, refused to cooperate and forbade the press in French North Africa to publish de Gaulle's appeal. Noguès told the British liaison officer that de Gaulle's attitude was "unseemly". De Gaulle also sent a telegram to Weygand offering to serve under his orders, receiving a dismissive reply. After the armistice was signed on 21 June 1940, de Gaulle spoke at 20:00 on 22 June to denounce it. The Bordeaux government reacted immediately, annulling his temporary promotion to brigadier-general with effect from the same day, and forcibly retiring him from the French Army (with the rank of colonel) on 23 June "as a disciplinary measure" (par mesure de discipline). On 23 June the British Government denounced the armistice as a breach of the Anglo-French treaty signed in March, and stated that they no longer regarded the Bordeaux Government as a fully independent state. They also "took note" of the plan to establish a French National Committee (FNC) in exile, but did not mention de Gaulle by name. Jean Monnet, Chairman of the Anglo-French Coordinating Committee, believed de Gaulle could not yet claim that he alone represented fighting France, and that French opinion would not rally to a man operating from British soil. He said this in a letter to de Gaulle on June 23, and noted he had made his concerns known to British Foreign Office officials Alexander Cadogan and Robert Vansittart, as well as Edward Spears. Monnet soon resigned as Chairman of the Anglo-French Coordinating Committee, and departed for the US to continue his work securing supplies from North America (now with the British Purchasing Commission.) Leader of the Free French The armistice took effect from 00:35 on 25 June. Alexander Cadogan of the foreign office sent Gladwyn Jebb, then a fairly junior official, to ask de Gaulle to tone down his next broadcast on 26 June; de Gaulle backed down under protest when Jebb told him that he would otherwise be banned from broadcasting. He claimed erroneously that the French fleet was to be handed over to the Germans. On 26 June de Gaulle wrote to Churchill demanding recognition of his French Committee. On 28 June, after Churchill's envoys had failed to establish contact with the French leaders in North Africa, the British Government recognised de Gaulle as leader of the Free French, despite the reservations of Halifax and Cadogan at the foreign office. Cadogan later wrote that de Gaulle was "that c*** of a fellow", but other foreign office figures Robert Vansittart and Oliver Harvey were quite sympathetic, as was The Times which gave de Gaulle plenty of coverage. De Gaulle had little success in attracting the support of major figures. Ambassador Charles Corbin, who had strongly supported the mooted Anglo-French Union on 16 June, resigned from the French Foreign Office but retired to South America. Alexis Leger, Secretary-General at the Quai d'Orsay (who hated Reynaud for sacking him) came to London but went on to the US. Roland de Margerie stayed in France despite his opposition to the armistice. De Gaulle received support from Captain Tissier and André Dewavrin (both of whom had been fighting in Norway prior to joining the Free French), Gaston Palewski, Maurice Schumann, and the jurist René Cassin. Pétain's government was recognised by the US, the USSR, and the Papacy, and controlled the French fleet and the forces in almost all her colonies. At this time de Gaulle's followers consisted of a secretary of limited competence, three colonels, a dozen captains, a famous law professor (Cassin), and three battalions of legionnaires who had agreed to stay in Britain and fight for him. For a time the New Hebrides were the only French colony to back de Gaulle. On 30 June 1940 Admiral Muselier joined the Free French. De Gaulle initially reacted angrily to news of the Royal Navy's attack on the French fleet (3 July); Pétain and others wrongly blamed him for provoking it by his 26 June speech (in fact it had been planned at least as early as 16 June). He considered withdrawing to Canada to live as a private citizen and waited five days before broadcasting. Spears called on de Gaulle on 5 July and found him "astonishingly objective" and acknowledging that it was the right thing from the British point of view. Spears reported to Churchill that de Gaulle had shown "a splendid dignity". In his broadcast of 8 July he spoke of the "pain and anger" caused by the attack and that it was a "hateful tragedy not a glorious battle", but that one day the enemy would have used the ships against England or the French Empire, and that the defeat of England would mean "bondage forever" for France. "Our two ancient nations...remain bound to one another. They will either go down both together or both together they will win". On Bastille Day (14 July) 1940 de Gaulle led a group of between 200 and 300 sailors to lay a wreath at the statue of Ferdinand Foch at Grosvenor Gardens. A mass of anonymous flowers were left on his mother's grave on 16 July 1940, suggesting he was not without admirers in France. From 22 July 1940 de Gaulle used 4 Carlton Gardens in central London as his London headquarters. His family had left Brittany (the other ship which left at the same time was sunk) and lived for a time at Petts Wood. As his daughter Anne was terrified by the Blitz they moved to Ellesmere in Shropshire, a four-hour journey from London and where de Gaulle was only able to visit them once a month. His wife and daughter also lived for a time in the country at Rodinghead House, Little Gaddesden, in Hertfordshire, 45 kilometres (28 miles) from central London. De Gaulle lived at the Connaught Hotel in London, then from 1942 to 1944 he lived in Hampstead, North London. The press by early August described Free French military as fighting under de Gaulle's command. The Vichy regime had already sentenced him to four years' imprisonment; on 2 August 1940 de Gaulle was condemned to death by court martial in absentia, although Pétain commented that he would ensure that the sentence was never carried out. De Gaulle said of the sentence, "I consider the act of the Vichy men as void; I shall have an explanation with them after the victory". He and Churchill reached agreement on 7 August 1940, that Britain would fund the Free French, with the bill to be settled after the war (the financial agreement was finalised in March 1941). A separate letter guaranteed the territorial integrity of the French Empire. General Georges Catroux, Governor of French Indo-China (which was increasingly coming under Japan's thumb), disapproved of the armistice and congratulated de Gaulle, whom he had known for many years. He was sacked by Vichy and arrived in London on 31 August; de Gaulle had gone to Dakar, but they met in Chad four weeks later. He was the most senior military figure to defect to the Free French. De Gaulle's support grew out of a base in the colonial French Equatorial Africa. In the fall of 1940, the colonial empire largely supported the Vichy regime. Félix Éboué, governor of Chad, switched his support to General de Gaulle in September. Encouraged, de Gaulle traveled to Brazzaville in October, where he announced the formation of an Empire Defense Council in his "Brazzaville Manifesto", and invited all colonies still supporting Vichy to join him and the Free French forces in the fight against Germany, which most of them did by 1943. In October 1940, after talks between the Foreign Office and Louis Rougier, de Gaulle was asked to tone down his attacks on Pétain. On average he spoke on BBC radio three times a month. De Gaulle established the Order of Liberation in Brazzaville in November 1940. De Gaulle and Pétain: rival visions of France Prime Minister Pétain moved the government to Vichy (2 July) and had the National Assembly (10 July) vote to dissolve itself and give him dictatorial powers, making the beginning of his Révolution nationale (National Revolution) intended to "reorient" French society. This was the dawn of the Vichy regime. De Gaulle's subsequent speeches reached many parts of the territories under the Vichy regime, helping to rally the French resistance movement and earning him much popularity amongst the French people and soldiers. The British historian Christopher Flood noted that there were major differences between the speeches of de Gaulle and Pétain, which reflected their views on themselves and of France. Pétain always used the personal pronoun je, portrayed himself as both a Christ-like figure sacrificing himself for France while also assuming a God-like tone of a semi-omniscient narrator who knew truths about the world that the rest of the French did not. De Gaulle began by making frequent use of "I" and "me" in his war-time speeches, but over time, their use declined. Unlike Pétain, de Gaulle never invoked quasi-religious imagery to enhance his prestige. De Gaulle always mentioned Pétain by name whereas Pétain never mentioned de Gaulle directly, referring to him as the "faux ami" ("false friend"). Pétain exonerated the French military of responsibility for the defeat of 1940 which he blamed on the moral decline of French society (thus making his Révolution nationale necessary) while de Gaulle blamed the military chiefs while exonerating French society for the defeat (thus suggesting that French society was nowhere near as rotten as Pétain claimed, making the Révolution nationale unnecessary). Pétain claimed that France had "stupidly" declared war on Germany in 1939 at British prompting while de Gaulle spoke of the entire era since 1914 as "la guerre de trente ans" ("the thirty years' war"), arguing the two world wars were really one with a long truce in between. The only historical figure Pétain invoked was Joan of Arc as a model of self-sacrificing French patriotism in the "eternal struggle" against England whereas de Gaulle invoked virtually every major French historical figure from the ancient Gauls to World War I. De Gaulle's willingness to invoke historical figures from before and after 1789 was meant to suggest that his France was an inclusive France where there was room for both left and right, in contrast to Pétain's demand for national unity under his leadership. Most significantly, Pétain's speeches always stressed the need for France to withdraw from a hostile and threatening world to find unity. By contrast, de Gaulle's speeches, while praising the greatness of France, lacked Pétain's implicit xenophobia; the fight for a free, democratic and inclusive France was always portrayed as part of a wider worldwide struggle for world freedom, where France would be an anchor for a new democratic order. De Gaulle spoke more of "the Republic" than of "democracy"; before his death René Cassin claimed that he had "succeeded in turning de Gaulle towards democracy". However, claims that de Gaulle was surrounded by Cagoulards, Royalists and other right-wing extremists are untrue. Some of André Dewavrin's closest colleagues were Cagoulards, although Dewavrin always denied that he himself was. Many leading figures of the Free French and the Resistance, e.g., Jean Moulin and Pierre Brossolette, were on the political left. By the end of 1940 de Gaulle was beginning to be recognised as the leader of the Resistance, a position cemented after Jean Moulin's visit to London in autumn 1941. In the summer of 1941 the BBC set aside five minutes per day (later increased to ten) for the Free French, with Maurice Schumann as the main spokesman, and eventually there was a programme "Les Francais parlent aux Francais". A newspaper France was also soon set up. De Gaulle organised the Free French Forces and the Allies gave increasing support and recognition to de Gaulle's efforts. In London in September 1941 de Gaulle formed the French National Committee, with himself as president. It was an all-encompassing coalition of resistance forces, ranging from conservative Catholics like himself to communists. By early 1942, the "Fighting French" movement, as it was now called, gained rapidly in power and influence; it overcame Vichy in Syria and Lebanon, adding to its base. Dealing with the French communists was a delicate issue, for they were under Moscow's control and the USSR was friendly with Germany in 1940–41 as a result of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. They came into the Free French movement only when Germany invaded Russia in June 1941. De Gaulle's policy then became one of friendship directly with Moscow, but Stalin showed little interest. In 1942, de Gaulle created the Normandie-Niemen squadron, a Free French Air Force regiment, in order to fight on the Eastern Front. It is the only Western allied formation to have fought until the end of the war in the East. De Gaulle's relations with the Anglo-Saxons In his dealings with the British and Americans (both referred to as the "Anglo-Saxons", in de Gaulle's parlance), he always insisted on retaining full freedom of action on behalf of France and was constantly on the verge of losing the Allies' support. Some writers have sought to deny that there was deep and mutual antipathy between de Gaulle and British and American political leaders. De Gaulle personally had ambivalent feelings about Britain, possibly in part because of childhood memories of the Fashoda Incident. As an adult he spoke German much better than he spoke English. He had a multilingual translator and driver, Olivia Jordan, from 1940 to 1943. He had thought little of the British Army's contribution to the First World War, and even less of that of 1939–40, and in the 1930s he had been a reader of the journal Action Française which blamed Britain for German foreign policy gains at France's expense. De Gaulle explained his position: In addition, de Gaulle harboured a suspicion of the British in particular, believing that they were seeking to seize France's colonial possessions in the Levant. Winston Churchill was often frustrated at what he perceived as de Gaulle's patriotic arrogance, but also wrote of his "immense admiration" for him during the early days of his British exile. Although their relationship later became strained, Churchill tried to explain the reasons for de Gaulle's behaviour in the second volume of his history of World War II: De Gaulle described his adversarial relationship with Churchill in these words: "When I am right, I get angry. Churchill gets angry when he is wrong. We are angry at each other much of the time." On one occasion in 1941 Churchill spoke to him on the telephone. De Gaulle said that the French people thought he was a reincarnation of Joan of Arc, to which Churchill replied that the English had had to burn the last one. Clementine Churchill, who admired de Gaulle, once cautioned him, "General, you must not hate your friends more than you hate your enemies." De Gaulle himself stated famously, "No Nation has friends, only interests." After his initial support, Churchill, emboldened by American antipathy to the French general, urged his War Cabinet to remove de Gaulle as leader of the Free France. But the War Cabinet warned Churchill that a precipitate break with de Gaulle would have a disastrous effect on the whole resistance movement. By autumn 1943, Churchill had to acknowledge that de Gaulle had won the struggle for leadership of Free France. De Gaulle's relations with Washington were even more strained. President Roosevelt for a long time refused to recognize de Gaulle as the representative of France, insisting on negotiations with the Vichy government. Roosevelt in particular hoped that it would be possible to wean Pétain away from Germany. Roosevelt maintained recognition of the Vichy regime until late 1942, and saw de Gaulle as an impudent representative of a minority interest. After 1942, Roosevelt championed General Henri Giraud, more compliant with US interests than de Gaulle, as the leader of the Free France. At the Casablanca Conference (1943), Roosevelt forced de Gaulle to cooperate with Giraud, but de Gaulle was considered as the undisputed leader of the Resistance by the French people and Giraud was progressively deprived of his political and military roles. The British and Soviet governments urged Roosevelt to recognise de Gaulle's provisional government, but Roosevelt delayed doing so as long as possible and even recognised the Italian provisional government before the French one. British and Soviet allies were outraged that the US president unilaterally recognised the new government of a former enemy before de Gaulle's one and both recognised the French government in retaliation, forcing Roosevelt to recognise de Gaulle in late 1944, but Roosevelt managed to exclude de Gaulle from the Yalta Conference. Roosevelt eventually abandoned his plans to rule France as an occupied territory and to transfer French Indochina to the United Nations. Plane sabotage On 21 April 1943, de Gaulle was scheduled to fly in a Wellington bomber to Scotland to inspect the Free French Navy. On take-off, the bomber's tail dropped, and the plane nearly crashed into the airfield's embankment. Only the skill of the pilot, who became aware of sabotage on takeoff, saved them. On inspection, it was found that aeroplane's separator rod had been sabotaged, using acid. Britain's MI6 investigated the incident, but no one was ever apprehended. Publicly, blame for the incident was cast on German intelligence however behind closed doors de Gaulle blamed the Western Allies, and later told colleagues that he no longer had confidence in them. Algiers Working with the French Resistance and other supporters in France's colonial African possessions after Operation Torch in November 1942, de Gaulle moved his headquarters to Algiers in May 1943, leaving Britain to be on French territory. He became first joint head (with the less resolutely independent General Henri Giraud, the candidate preferred by the US who wrongly suspected de Gaulle of being a British puppet) and then—after squeezing out Giraud by force of personality—sole chairman of the French Committee of National Liberation. De Gaulle was held in high regard by Allied commander General Dwight Eisenhower. In Algiers in 1943, Eisenhower gave de Gaulle the assurance in person that a French force would liberate Paris and arranged that the army division of French General Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque would be transferred from North Africa to the UK to carry out that liberation. Eisenhower was impressed by the combativeness of units of the Free French Forces and "grateful for the part they had played in mopping up the remnants of German resistance"; he also detected how strongly devoted many were to de Gaulle and how ready they were to accept him as the national leader. Preparations for D-Day As preparations for the liberation of Europe gathered pace, the US in particular found de Gaulle's tendency to view everything from the French perspective to be extremely tiresome. Roosevelt, who refused to recognize any provisional authority in France until elections had been held, referred to de Gaulle as "an apprentice dictator", a view backed by a number of leading Frenchmen in Washington, including Jean Monnet, who later became an instrumental figure in the setting up of the European Coal and Steel Community that led to the modern European Union. Roosevelt directed Churchill to not provide de Gaulle with strategic details of the imminent invasion because he did not trust him to keep the information to himself. French codes were considered weak, posing a risk since the Free French refused to use British or American codes. De Gaulle refused to share coded information with the British, who were then obliged secretly to break the codes to read French messages. Nevertheless, a few days before D-Day, Churchill, whose relationship with the General had deteriorated since he arrived in Britain, decided he needed to keep him informed of developments, and on 2 June he sent two passenger aircraft and his representative, Duff Cooper, to Algiers to bring de Gaulle back to Britain. De Gaulle refused because of Roosevelt's intention to install a provisional Allied military government in the former occupied territories pending elections, but he eventually relented and flew to Britain the next day. Upon his arrival at RAF Northolt on 4 June 1944 he received an official welcome, and a letter reading "My dear general! Welcome to these shores, very great military events are about to take place!" Later, on his personal train, Churchill informed him that he wanted him to make a radio address, but when informed that the Americans continued to refuse to recognise his right to power in France, and after Churchill suggested he request a meeting with Roosevelt to improve his relationship with the president, de Gaulle became angry, demanding to know why he should "lodge my candidacy for power in France with Roosevelt; the French government exists". De Gaulle became worried that the German withdrawal from France might lead to a breakdown of law and order in the country and even a possible communist takeover. During the general conversation which followed with those present, de Gaulle was involved in an angry exchange with the Labour minister, Ernest Bevin, and, raising his concerns about the validity of the new currency to be circulated by the Allies after the liberation, de Gaulle commented scornfully, "go and wage war with your false money". De Gaulle was very concerned that an American takeover of the French administration would just provoke a communist uprising. Churchill then lost his temper, saying that Britain would always be an ally to the United States, and that under the circumstances, if they had to choose between France and the US, Britain would always choose the latter. De Gaulle replied that he realised this would always be the case. The next day, de Gaulle refused to address the French nation as the script again made no mention of his being the legitimate interim ruler of France. It instructed the French people to obey Allied military authorities until elections could be held, and so the row continued, with de Gaulle calling Churchill a "gangster". Churchill accused de Gaulle of treason in the height of battle, and demanded that he be flown back to Algiers "in chains if necessary". De Gaulle and Churchill had a complex relationship during the wartime period. De Gaulle did show respect and admiration for Churchill, and even some light humorous interactions between the two have been noted by observers such as Duff Cooper, the British Ambassador to the French Committee of Liberation. Churchill explained his support for de Gaulle during the darkest hours, calling him "L'homme du destin". In Casablanca in 1943, Churchill supported de Gaulle as the embodiment of a French Army that was otherwise defeated, stating that "De Gaulle is the spirit of that Army. Perhaps the last survivor of a warrior race." Churchill supported de Gaulle as he had been one of the first major French leaders to reject Nazi German rule outright, stating in August 1944 that "I have never forgotten, and can never forget, that he [de Gaulle] stood forth as the first eminent Frenchman to face the common foe in what seemed to be the hour of ruin of his country and possibly, of ours." In the years to come, the sometimes hostile, sometimes friendly dependent wartime relationship of de Gaulle and his future political peers reenacted the historical national and colonial rivalry and lasting enmity between the French and the British, and foreshadowed the deep distrust of France for post-war Anglo-American partnerships. Return to France De Gaulle ignored les Anglo-Saxons, and proclaimed the authority of Free France over the metropolitan territory the next day. Under the leadership of General de Lattre de Tassigny, France fielded an entire army – a joint force of Free French together with French colonial troops from North Africa – on the Western Front. Initially landing as part of Operation Dragoon, in the south of France, the French First Army helped to liberate almost one third of the country and participated in the invasion and occupation of Germany. As the invasion slowly progressed and the Germans were pushed back, de Gaulle made preparations to return to France. On 14 June 1944, he left Britain for France for what was supposed to be a one-day trip. Despite an agreement that he would take only two staff, he was accompanied by a large entourage with extensive luggage, and although many rural Normans remained mistrustful of him, he was warmly greeted by the inhabitants of the towns he visited, such as the badly damaged Isigny. Finally he arrived at the city of Bayeux, which he now proclaimed as the capital of Free France. Appointing his Aide-de-Camp Francois Coulet as head of the civil administration, de Gaulle returned to the UK that same night on a French destroyer, and although the official position of the supreme military command remained unchanged, local Allied officers found it more practical to deal with the fledgling administration in Bayeux in everyday matters. De Gaulle flew to Algiers on 16 June and then went on to Rome to meet the Pope and the new Italian government. At the beginning of July he at last visited Roosevelt in Washington, where he received the 17-gun salute of a senior military leader rather than the 21 guns of a visiting head of state. The visit was 'devoid of trust on both sides' according to the French representative, however, Roosevelt did make some concessions towards recognising the legitimacy of the Bayeux administration. Meanwhile, with the Germans retreating in the face of the Allied onslaught, harried all the way by the resistance, there were widespread instances of revenge attacks on those accused of collaboration. A number of prominent officials and members of the feared Milice were murdered, often by exceptionally brutal means, provoking the Germans into appalling reprisals, such as in the destruction of the village of Oradour-sur-Glane and the killing of its 642 inhabitants. Liberation of the French capital was not high on the Allies' list of priorities as it had comparatively little strategic value, but both de Gaulle and the commander of the French 2nd Armored Division, General Philippe Leclerc were still extremely concerned about a communist takeover. De Gaulle successfully lobbied for Paris to be made a priority for liberation on humanitarian grounds and obtained from Allied Supreme Commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower an agreement that French troops would be allowed to enter the capital first. A few days later, General Leclerc's division entered the outskirts of the city, and after six days of fighting in which the resistance played a major part, the German garrison of 5000 men surrendered on 25 August, although some sporadic outbreaks of fighting continued for several days. General Dietrich von Choltitz, the commander of the garrison, was instructed by Adolf Hitler to raze the city to the ground, however, he simply ignored the order and surrendered his forces. It was fortunate for de Gaulle that the Germans had forcibly removed members of the Vichy government and taken them to Germany a few days earlier on 20 August; it allowed him to enter Paris as a liberator in the midst of the general euphoria, but there were serious concerns that communist elements of the resistance, which had done so much to clear the way for the military, would try to seize the opportunity to proclaim their own 'Peoples' Government' in the capital. De Gaulle made contact with Leclerc and demanded the presence of the 2nd Armoured Division to accompany him on a massed parade down the Champs-Élysées, "as much for prestige as for security". This was in spite of the fact that Leclerc's unit was fighting as part of the American 1st Army and were under strict orders to continue their next objective without obeying orders from anyone else. In the event, the American General Omar Bradley decided that Leclerc's division would be indispensable for the maintenance of order and the liquidation of the last pockets of resistance in the French capital. Earlier, on 21 August, de Gaulle had appointed his military advisor General Marie-Pierre Koenig as Governor of Paris. As his procession came along the Place de la Concorde on Saturday 26 August, it came under machine gun fire by Vichy militia and fifth columnists. Later, on entering the Notre Dame Cathedral to be received as head of the provisional government by the Committee of Liberation, loud shots broke out again, and Leclerc and Koenig tried to hustle him through the door, but de Gaulle shook off their hands and never faltered. While the battle began outside, he walked slowly down the aisle. Before he had gone far a machine pistol fired down from above, at least two more joined in, and from below the FFI and police fired back. A BBC correspondent who was present reported; De Gaulle himself though wrote, "There were no bullets whistling around my ears." (Aucune balle ne siffle à mes oreilles.) He thought the shots were probably over-excited troops firing at shadows. No culprits, if there were any, were ever identified. Later, in the great hall of the Hôtel de Ville, de Gaulle was greeted by a jubilant crowd and, proclaiming the continuity of the Third Republic, delivered a famous proclamation; That evening, the Wehrmacht launched a massive aerial and artillery barrage of Paris in revenge, leaving several thousand dead or injured. The situation in Paris remained tense, and a few days later de Gaulle, still unsure of the trend of events asked General Eisenhower to send some American troops into Paris as a show of strength. This he did 'not without some satisfaction', and so, on 29 August, the US 28th Infantry Division was rerouted from its journey to the front line and paraded down the Champs Elysees. The same day, Washington and London agreed to accept the position of the Free French. The following day General Eisenhower gave his de facto blessing with a visit to the General in Paris. 1944–1946: Provisional Government of Liberated France Roosevelt insisted that an Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories (AMGOT) should be implemented in France, but this was opposed by both the Secretary of War and the Under-Secretary for War, as well as by Eisenhower, who had been strongly opposed to the imposition of AMGOT in North Africa. Eisenhower, unlike Roosevelt, wanted to cooperate with de Gaulle, and he secured a last-minute promise from the President on the eve of D-Day that the Allied officers would not act as military governors and would instead cooperate with the local authorities as the Allied forces liberated French Territory. De Gaulle would later claim in his memoirs that he blocked AMGOT. With the prewar parties and most of their leaders discredited, there was little opposition to de Gaulle and his associates forming an interim administration. In order not to be seen as presuming on his position in such austere times, de Gaulle did not use one of the grand official residences such as Hotel de Matignon or the presidential palace on the Elysee, but resided briefly in his old office at the War Ministry. When he was joined by his wife and daughters a short while later, they moved into a small state-owned villa on edge of Bois de Boulogne which had once been set aside for Hermann Göring. Living conditions immediately after the liberation were even worse than under German rule. About 25% of the city was in ruins and public services and fuel were almost nonexistent. Large-scale public demonstrations erupted all over France, protesting the apparent lack of action at improving the supply of food, while in Normandy, bakeries were pillaged. The problem was not French agriculture, which had largely continued operating without problems, but the near-total breakdown of the country's infrastructure. Large areas of track had been destroyed by bombing, most modern equipment, rolling stock, lorries and farm animals had been taken to Germany and all the bridges over the Seine, the Loire and the Rhone between Paris and the sea had been destroyed. The black market pushed real prices to four times the level of 1939, causing the government to print money to try to improve the money supply, which only added to inflation. On 10 November 1944, Churchill flew to Paris to a reception by de Gaulle and the two together were greeted by thousands of cheering Parisians on the next day. Harold Nicolson stated that Anthony Eden told him that "not for one moment did Winston stop crying, and that he could have filled buckets by the time he received the Freedom of Paris." He said "they yelled for Churchill in a way that he has never heard any crowd yell before." At an official luncheon, de Gaulle said, "It is true that we would not have seen [the liberation] if our old and gallant ally England, and all the British dominions under precisely the impulsion and inspiration of those we are honouring today, had not deployed the extraordinary determination to win, and that magnificent courage which saved the freedom of the world. There is no French man or woman who is not touched to the depths of their hearts and souls by this." Curbing the Communist Resistance After the celebrations had died down, de Gaulle began conferring with leading Resistance figures who, with the Germans gone, intended to continue as a political and military force, and asked to be given a government building to serve as their headquarters. The Resistance, in which the Communists were competing with other trends for leadership, had developed its own manifesto for social and political change known as the National Council of the Resistance (CNR) Charter, and wanted special status to enter the army under their own flags, ranks and honours. Despite their decisive support in backing him against Giraud, de Gaulle disappointed some of the Resistance leaders by telling them that although their efforts and sacrifices had been recognised, they had no further role to play and, that unless they joined the regular army, they should lay down their arms and return to civilian life. Believing them to be a dangerous revolutionary force, de Gaulle moved to break up the liberation committees and other militias. The communists were not only extremely active, but they received a level of popular support that disturbed de Gaulle. As early as May 1943, the US Secretary of State Cordell Hull had written to Roosevelt urging him to take action to attempt to curb the rise of communism in France. Provisional Government of the French Republic On 10 September 1944 the Provisional Government of the French Republic, or Government of National Unanimity formed. It included many of de Gaulle's Free French associates such as Gaston Palewski, Claude Guy, Claude Mauriac and Jacques Soustelle, together with members of the main parties, which included the Socialists and a new Christian Democratic Party, the MRP under the leadership of Georges Bidault, who served as Foreign Minister. The president of the prewar Senate Jules Jeanneney was brought back as second-ranking member, but because of their links with Russia, de Gaulle allowed the Communists only two minor positions in his government. While they were now a major political force with over a million members, of the full cabinet of 22 men, only Augustin Laurent and Charles Tillon—who as head of Francs-Tireurs et Partisans had been one of the most active members of the resistance—were given ministries. However, de Gaulle did pardon the Communists' leader Maurice Thorez, who had been sentenced to death in absentia by the French government for desertion. On his return home from Russia, Thorez delivered a speech supporting de Gaulle in which he said that for the present, the war against Germany was the only task that mattered. There were also a number of new faces in the government, including a literary academic, Georges Pompidou, who had written to one of de Gaulle's recruiting agents offering his services, and Jean Monnet, who in spite of his past opposition to the General now recognized the need for unity and served as Commissioner for Economic Planning. Of equal rank to ministers and answerable only to the prime minister, a number of Commissioners of the Republic (Commissaires de la République) were appointed to re-establish the democratic institutions of France and to extend the legitimacy of the provisional government. A number of former Free French associates served as commissioners, including Henri Fréville, Raymond Aubrac and Michel Debré, who was charged with reforming the civil service. Controversially, de Gaulle also appointed Maurice Papon as Commissioner for Aquitaine in spite of his involvement in the deportation of Jews while serving as a senior police official in the Vichy regime during the occupation. (Over the years, Papon remained in high official positions but continued to be implicated in controversial events such as the Paris massacre of 1961, eventually being convicted of crimes against humanity in 1998.) In social policy, legislation was introduced in February 1945 that provided for the establishment of works committees in all private industrial establishments employing more than 50 (originally more than 100) people. Tour of major cities De Gaulle's policy was to postpone elections as long as 2.6 million French were in Germany as prisoners of war and forced laborers. In mid-September, he embarked upon a tour of major provincial cities to increase his public profile and to help cement his position. Although he received a largely positive reception from the crowds who came out to see him, he reflected that only a few months previously the very same people had come out to cheer Marshal Pétain when he was serving the Vichy regime. Raymond Aubrac said that the General showed himself to be ill-at-ease at social functions; in Marseille and Lyon he became irate when he had to sit next to former Resistance leaders and also voiced his distaste for the rowdy, libidinous behavior of French youths during the Maquisard parades which preceded his speech. When he reached Toulouse, de Gaulle also had to confront the leaders of a group which had proclaimed themselves to be the provincial government of the city. During the tour, de Gaulle showed his customary lack of concern for his own safety by mixing with the crowds and thus making himself an easy target for an assassin. Although he was naturally shy, the good use of amplification and patriotic music enabled him to deliver his message that though all of France was fragmented and suffering, together they would rise again. During every speech he would stop halfway through to invite the crowd to join him in singing La Marseillaise, before continuing and finishing by raising his hands in the air and crying "Vive la France!" Legal purges (Épuration légale) As the war entered the final stages, the nation was forced to confront the reality of how many of its people had behaved under German rule. In France, collaborators were more severely punished than in most other occupied countries. Immediately after the liberation, countless women accused of aiding, abetting, and taking German soldiers as lovers were subjected to public humiliations such as being shaved bald and paraded through the streets in their underwear. Women who got this treatment were lucky as many others were simply attacked by lynch mobs. With so many of their former members having been hunted down and killed by the Nazis and paramilitary Milice, the Partisans had already summarily executed an estimated 4,500 people, and the Communists in particular continued to press for severe action against collaborators. In Paris alone, over 150,000 people were at some time detained on suspicion of collaboration, although most were later released. Famous figures accused included the industrialist Louis Renault, the actress Arletty, who had lived openly with a German officer in the Ritz, the opera star Tino Rossi, the chanteuse Édith Piaf, the stage actor Sacha Guitry and Coco Chanel, who was briefly detained but fled to Switzerland. Keenly aware of the need to seize the initiative and to get the process under firm judicial control, de Gaulle appointed Justice Minister François de Menthon to lead the Legal Purge (Épuration légale) to punish traitors and to clear away the traces of the Vichy regime. Knowing that he would need to reprieve many of the 'economic collaborators'—such as police and civil servants who held minor roles under Vichy in order to keep the country running as normally as possible—he assumed, as head of state, the right to commute death sentences. Of the near 2,000 people who received the death sentence from the courts, fewer than 800 were executed. De Gaulle commuted 998 of the 1,554 capital sentences submitted before him, including all those involving women. Many others were given jail terms or had their voting rights and other legal privileges taken away. It is generally agreed that the purges were conducted arbitrarily, with often absurdly severe or overly lenient punishments being handed down. It was also notable that the less well-off people who were unable to pay for lawyers were more harshly treated. As time went by and feelings grew less intense, a number of people who had held fairly senior positions under the Vichy government—such as Maurice Papon and René Bousquet—escaped consequences by claiming to have worked secretly for the resistance or to have played a double game, working for the good of France by serving the established order. Later, there was the question of what to do with the former Vichy leaders when they were finally returned to France. Marshal Pétain and Maxime Weygand were war heroes from World War I and were now extremely old; convicted of treason, Pétain received a death sentence which his old protégé de Gaulle commuted to life imprisonment, while Weygand was eventually acquitted. Three Vichy leaders were executed. Joseph Darnand, who became an SS officer and led the Milice paramilitaries who hunted down members of the Resistance, was executed in October 1945. Fernand de Brinon, the third-ranking Vichy official, was found guilty of war crimes and executed in April 1947. The two trials of the most infamous collaborator of all, Pierre Laval, who was heavily implicated in the murder of Jews, were widely criticised as being unfair for depriving him of the opportunity to properly defend himself, although Laval antagonized the court throughout with his bizarre behavior. He was found guilty of treason in May 1945 and de Gaulle was adamant that there would be no commuting the death sentence, saying that Laval's execution was "an indispensable symbolic gesture required for reasons of state". There was a widespread belief, particularly in the years that followed, that de Gaulle was trying to appease both the Third Republic politicians and the former Vichy leaders who had made Laval their scapegoat. Winter of 1944 The winter of 194445 was especially difficult for most of the population. Inflation showed no sign of slowing down and food shortages were severe. The prime minister and the other Gaullists were forced to try to balance the desires of ordinary people and public servants for a return to normal life with pressure from Bidault's MRP and the Communists for the large scale nationalisation programme and other social changes that formed the main tenets of the CNR Charter. At the end of 1944 the coal industry and other energy companies were nationalised, followed shortly afterwards by major banks and finance houses, the merchant navy, the main aircraft manufacturers, airlines and a number of major private enterprises such as the Renault car company at Boulogne-Billancourt, whose owner had been implicated as a collaborator and accused of having made huge profits working for the Nazis. In some cases, unions, feeling that things were not progressing quickly enough, took matters into their own hands, occupying premises and setting up workers' committees to run the companies. Women were also allowed the vote for the first time, a new social security system was introduced to cover most medical costs, unions were expanded and price controls introduced to try to curb inflation. At de Gaulle's request, the newspaper Le Monde was founded in December 1944 to provide France with a quality daily journal similar to those in other countries. Le Monde took over the premises and facilities of the older Le Temps, whose independence and reputation had been badly compromised during the Vichy years. During this period there were a number of minor disagreements between the French and the other Allies. The British ambassador to France Duff Cooper said that de Gaulle seemed to seek out real or imagined insults to take offence at whatever possible. De Gaulle believed Britain and the US were intending to keep their armies in France after the war and were secretly working to take over its overseas possessions and to prevent it from regaining its political and economic strength. In late October he complained that the Allies were failing to adequately arm and equip the new French army and instructed Bidault to use the French veto at the European Council. On Armistice Day in 1945, Winston Churchill made his first visit to France since the liberation and received a good reception in Paris where he laid a wreath to Georges Clemenceau. The occasion also marked the first official appearance of de Gaulle's wife Yvonne, but the visit was less friendly than it appeared. De Gaulle had instructed that there be no excessive displays of public affection towards Churchill and no official awards without his prior agreement. When crowds cheered Churchill during a parade down the Elysee, de Gaulle was heard to remark, "Fools and cretins! Look at the rabble cheering the old bandit". Visit to the Soviet Union With the Russian forces making more rapid advances into German-held territory than the West, there was a sudden public realisation that the Soviet Union was about to dominate large parts of eastern Europe. In fact, in October 1944, Churchill had agreed to allow Bulgaria, Romania and Hungary to fall under the Soviet sphere of influence after the war, with shared influence in Yugoslavia. The UK was to retain hegemony over Greece, although there had been no agreement over Poland, whose eastern territories were already in Soviet hands under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, and which retained a government in exile in London. De Gaulle had not been invited to any of the 'Big Three' Conferences, although the decisions made by Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt in dividing up Europe were of huge importance to France. De Gaulle and his Foreign Minister Bidault stated that they were not in favour of a 'Western Bloc' that would be separate from the rest of Europe, and hoped that a resurgent France might be able to act as a 'third force' in Europe to temper the ambitions of the two emerging superpowers, America and Soviet Union. He began seeking an audience with Stalin to press his 'facing both ways' policy, and finally received an invitation in late 1944. In his memoirs, de Gaulle devoted 24 pages to his visit to the Soviet Union, but a number of writers make the point that his version of events differs significantly from that of the Soviets, of foreign news correspondents, and with their own eyewitness accounts. De Gaulle wanted access to German coal in the Ruhr as reparations after the war, the left bank of the Rhine to be incorporated into French territory, and for the Oder-Neisse line in Poland to become Germany's official eastern border. De Gaulle began by requesting that France enter into a treaty with the Soviet Union on this basis, but Stalin, who remained in constant contact with Churchill throughout the visit, said that it would be impossible to make such an agreement without the consent of Britain and America. He suggested that it might be possible to add France's name to the existing Anglo-Soviet Agreement if they agreed to recognise the Soviet-backed provisional Polish government known as the Lublin Committee as rightful rulers of Poland, but de Gaulle refused on the grounds that this would be 'un-French', as it would mean it being a junior partner in an alliance. During the visit, de Gaulle accompanied the deputy Soviet leader Vyacheslav Molotov on a tour of the former battleground at Stalingrad, where he was deeply moved at the scene of carnage he witnessed and surprised Molotov by referring to "our joint sacrifice". Though the treaty which was eventually signed by Bidault and Molotov carried symbolic importance in that it enabled de Gaulle to demonstrate that he was recognised as the official head of state and show that France's voice was being heard abroad, it was of little relevance to Stalin due to France's lack of real political and military power; it did not affect the outcome of the post-war settlement. Stalin later commented that like Churchill and Roosevelt, he found de Gaulle to be awkward and stubborn and believed that he was 'not a complicated person' (by which he meant that he was an old-style nationalist). Stalin also felt that he lacked realism in claiming the same rights as the major powers and did not object to Roosevelt's refusal to allow de Gaulle to attend the 'Big Three' conferences that were to come at Yalta and Potsdam. Strasbourg At the end of 1944 French forces continued to advance as part of the American armies, but during the Ardennes Offensive there was a dispute over Eisenhower's order to French troops to evacuate Strasbourg, which had just been liberated so as to straighten the defensive line against the German counterattack. Strasbourg was an important political and psychological symbol of French sovereignty in Alsace and Lorraine, and de Gaulle, saying that its loss would bring down the government, refused to allow a retreat, predicting that "Strasbourg will be our Stalingrad". By early 1945 it was clear that the price controls which had been introduced to control inflation had only served to boost the black market and prices continued to move ever upwards. By this time the army had swelled to over 1.2 million men and almost half of state expenditure was going to military spending. De Gaulle was faced with his first major ministerial dispute when the very able but tough-minded economics minister Pierre Mendès France demanded a programme of severe monetary reform which was opposed by the Finance Ministry headed by Aime Lepercq, who favoured a programme of heavy borrowing to stimulate the economy. When de Gaulle, knowing there would be little appetite for further austerity measures sided with Lepercq, Mendès France tendered his resignation, which was rejected because de Gaulle knew he needed him. Lepercq was killed in a road accident a short time afterwards and was succeeded by Pleven, but when in March, Mendès France asked unsuccessfully for taxes on capital earnings and for the blocking of certain bank accounts, he again offered his resignation and it was accepted. Yalta Conference De Gaulle was never invited to the summit conferences of Allied leaders such as Yalta and Potsdam. He never forgave the Big Three leaders (Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin) for their neglect and continued to rage against it as having been a negative factor in European politics for the rest of his life. After the Rhine crossings, the French First Army captured a large section of territory in southern Germany, but although this later allowed France to play a part in the signing of the German surrender, Roosevelt in particular refused to allow any discussion about de Gaulle participating in the Big Three conferences that would shape Europe in the post-war world. Churchill pressed hard for France to be included 'at the inter-allied table', but on 6 December 1944 the American president wired both Stalin and Churchill to say that de Gaulle's presence would "merely introduce a complicating and undesirable factor". At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, despite Stalin's opposition, Churchill and Roosevelt insisted that France be allowed a post-war occupation zone in Germany, and also made sure that it was included among the five nations that invited others to the conference to establish the United Nations. This was important because it guaranteed France a permanent seat on the UN Security Council, a prestigious position that, despite pressure from emerging nations, it still holds today. President Truman On his way back from Yalta, Roosevelt asked de Gaulle to meet him in Algiers for talks. The General refused, believing that there was nothing more to be said, and for this he received a rebuke from Georges Bidault and from the French press, and a severely angered Roosevelt criticised de Gaulle to Congress. Soon after, on 12 April 1945, Roosevelt died, and despite their uneasy relationship de Gaulle declared a week of mourning in France and forwarded an emotional and conciliatory letter to the new American president, Harry S. Truman, in which he said of Roosevelt, "all of France loved him". De Gaulle's relationship with Truman was to prove just as difficult as it had been with Roosevelt. With Allied forces advancing deep into Germany, another serious situation developed between American and French forces in Stuttgart and Karlsruhe, when French soldiers were ordered to transfer the occupation zones to US troops. Wishing to retain as much German territory in French hands as possible, de Gaulle ordered his troops, who were using American weapons and ammunition, to resist, and an armed confrontation seemed imminent. Truman threatened to cut off supplies to the French army and to take the zones by force, leaving de Gaulle with little choice but to back down. De Gaulle never forgave Truman and hinted he would work closely with Stalin, leading Truman to tell his staff, "I don't like the son of a bitch." The first visit by de Gaulle to Truman in the U.S. was not a success. Truman told his visitor that it was time that the French got rid of the Communist influence from its government, to which de Gaulle replied that this was France's own business. But Truman, who admitted that his feelings towards the French were becoming 'less and less friendly', went on to say that under the circumstances, the French could not expect much economic aid and refused to accept de Gaulle's request for control of the west bank of the Rhine. During the argument which followed, de Gaulle reminded Truman that the US was using the French port of Nouméa in New Caledonia as a base against the Japanese. Victory in Europe In May 1945 the German armies surrendered to the Americans and British at Rheims, and a separate armistice was signed with France in Berlin. De Gaulle refused to allow any British participation in the victory parade in Paris. However, among the vehicles that took part was an ambulance from the Hadfield-Spears Ambulance Unit, staffed by French doctors and British nurses. One of the nurses was Mary Spears, who had set up the unit and had worked almost continuously since the Battle of France with Free French forces in the Middle East, North Africa and Italy. Mary's husband was General Edward Spears, the British liaison to the Free French who had personally spirited de Gaulle to safety in Britain in 1940. When de Gaulle saw the Union Flags and Tricolours side by side on the ambulance, and heard French soldiers cheering, "Voilà Spears! Vive Spears!", he ordered that the unit be closed down immediately and its British staff sent home. A number of French troops returned their medals in protest and Mary wrote, "it is a pitiful business when a great man suddenly becomes small." Another confrontation with the Americans broke out soon after the armistice when the French sent troops to occupy the French-speaking Italian border region of Val d'Aoste. The French commander threatened to open fire on American troops if they tried to stop them, and an irate Truman ordered the immediate end to all arms shipments to France. Truman sent de Gaulle an angry letter saying that he found it unbelievable that the French could threaten to attack American troops after they had done so much to liberate France. However, de Gaulle was generally well received in the United States immediately after World War II and supported the United States in public comments. He visited New York City on 27 August 1945 to great welcome by thousands of people of the city and its mayor Fiorello LaGuardia. On that day, de Gaulle wished "Long live the United States of America". He visited New York City Hall and Idlewild Airport (now John F. Kennedy International Airport), and presented LaGuardia with the Grand Croix of the Legion of Honour award. Confrontation in Syria and Lebanon On VE Day, there were also serious riots in French Tunisia. A dispute with Britain over control of Syria and Lebanon quickly developed into an unpleasant diplomatic incident that demonstrated France's weaknesses. In May, de Gaulle sent General Beynet to establish an air base in Syria and a naval base in Lebanon, provoking an outbreak of nationalism in which some French nationals were attacked and killed. On 20 May, French artillery and warplanes fired on demonstrators in Damascus. After several days, upwards of 800 Syrians lay dead. Churchill's relationship with de Gaulle was now at rock bottom. In January he told a colleague that he believed that de Gaulle was "a great danger to peace and for Great Britain. After five years of experience, I am convinced that he is the worst enemy of France in her troubles ... he is one of the greatest dangers to European peace.... I am sure that in the long run no understanding will be reached with General de Gaulle". On 31 May, Churchill told de Gaulle "immediately to order French troops to cease fire and withdraw to their barracks". British forces moved in and forced the French to withdraw from the city; they were then escorted and confined to barracks. With this political pressure added, the French ordered a ceasefire; De Gaulle raged but France was isolated and suffering a diplomatic humiliation. The secretary of the Arab League Edward Atiyah said, "France put all her cards and two rusty pistols on the table". De Gaulle saw it as a heinous Anglo-Saxon conspiracy: he told the British ambassador Duff Cooper, "I recognise that we are not in a position to wage war against you, but you have betrayed France and betrayed the West. That cannot be forgotten". Potsdam Conference At the Potsdam Conference in July, to which de Gaulle was not invited, a decision was made to divide Vietnam, which had been a French colony for over a hundred years, into British and Chinese spheres of influence. Soon after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, de Gaulle sent the French Far East Expeditionary Corps to re-establish French sovereignty in French Indochina. However, the resistance leaders in Indo-China proclaimed the freedom and independence of Vietnam, and a civil war broke out that lasted until France was defeated in 1954. New elections and resignation Since the liberation, the only parliament in France had been an enlarged version of the Algiers Provisional Consultative Assembly, and at last, in October 1945, elections were held for a new Constituent Assembly whose main task was to provide a new constitution for the Fourth Republic. De Gaulle favoured a strong executive for the nation, but all three of the main parties wished to severely restrict the powers of the president. The Communists wanted an assembly with full constitutional powers and no time limit, whereas de Gaulle, the Socialists and the Popular Republican Movement (MRP) advocated one with a term limited to only seven months, after which the draft constitution would be submitted for another referendum. In the election, the second option was approved by 13 million of the 21 million voters. The big three parties won 75% of the vote, with the Communists winning 158 seats, the MRP 152 seats, the Socialists 142 seats and the remaining seats going to the various far right parties. On 13 November 1945, the new assembly unanimously elected Charles de Gaulle head of the government, but problems immediately arose when it came to selecting the cabinet, due to his unwillingness once more to allow the Communists any important ministries. The Communists, now the largest party and with their charismatic leader Maurice Thorez back at the helm, were not prepared to accept this for a second time, and a furious row ensued, during which de Gaulle sent a letter of resignation to the speaker of the Assembly and declared that he was unwilling to trust a party that he considered to be an agent of a foreign power (Russia) with authority over the police and armed forces of France. Eventually, the new cabinet was finalised on 21 November, with the Communists receiving five out of the twenty-two ministries, and although they still did not get any of the key portfolios, de Gaulle believed that the draft constitution placed too much power in the hands of parliament with its shifting party alliances. One of his ministers said he was "a man equally incapable of monopolizing power as of sharing it". De Gaulle outlined a programme of further nationalisations and a new economic plan which were passed, but a further row came when the Communists demanded a 20 percent reduction in the military budget. Refusing to "rule by compromise", de Gaulle once more threatened to resign. There was a general feeling that he was trying to blackmail the assembly into complete subservience by threatening to withdraw his personal prestige which he insisted was what alone kept the ruling coalition together. Although the MRP managed to broker a compromise which saw the budget approved with amendments, it was little more than a stop-gap measure. Barely two months after forming the new government, de Gaulle abruptly resigned on 20 January 1946. The move was called "a bold and ultimately foolish political ploy", with de Gaulle hoping that as a war hero, he would be soon brought back as a more powerful executive by the French people. However, that did not turn out to be the case. With the war finally over, the initial period of crisis had passed. Although there were still shortages, particularly of bread, France was now on the road to recovery, and de Gaulle suddenly did not seem so indispensable. The Communist publication Combat wrote, "There was no cataclysm, and the empty plate didn't crack". 1946–1958: Out of power After monopolizing French politics for six years, Charles de Gaulle suddenly dropped out of sight, and returned to his home to write his war memoirs. De Gaulle had told Pierre Bertaux in 1944 that he planned to retire because "France may still one day need an image that is pure ... If Joan of Arc had married, she would no longer have been Joan of Arc". The famous opening paragraph of Mémoires de guerre begins by declaring, "All my life, I have had a certain idea of France (une certaine idée de la France)", comparing his country to an old painting of a Madonna, and ends by declaring that, given the divisive nature of French politics, France cannot truly live up to this ideal without a policy of "grandeur". During this period of formal retirement, however, de Gaulle maintained regular contact with past political lieutenants from wartime and RPF days, including sympathizers involved in political developments in French Algeria, becoming "perhaps the best-informed man in France". In April 1947, de Gaulle made a renewed attempt to transform the political scene by creating a Rassemblement du Peuple Français (Rally of the French People, or RPF), which he hoped would be able to move above the familiar party squabbles of the parliamentary system. Despite the new party's taking 40 percent of the vote in local elections and 121 seats in 1951, lacking its own press and access to television, its support ebbed away. In May 1953, he withdrew again from active politics, though the RPF lingered until September 1955. As with all colonial powers France began to lose its overseas possessions amid the surge of nationalism. French Indochina (now Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia), colonised by France during the mid-19th century, had been lost to the Japanese after the defeat of 1940. De Gaulle had intended to hold on to France's Indochina colony, ordering the parachuting of French agents and arms into Indochina in late 1944 and early 1945 with orders to attack the Japanese as American troops hit the beaches. Although de Gaulle had moved quickly to consolidate French control of the territory during his brief first tenure as president in the 1940s, the communist Vietminh under Ho Chi Minh began a determined campaign for independence from 1946 onwards. The French fought a bitter seven-year war (the First Indochina War) to hold on to Indochina. It was largely funded by the United States and grew increasingly unpopular, especially after the stunning defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. France pulled out that summer under Prime Minister Pierre Mendès France. The independence of Morocco and Tunisia was arranged by Mendès France and proclaimed in March 1956. Meanwhile, in Algeria some 350,000 French troops were fighting 150,000 combatants of the Algerian Liberation Movement (FLN). Within a few years, the Algerian war of independence reached a summit in terms of savagery and bloodshed and threatened to spill into metropolitan France itself. Between 1946 and 1958 the Fourth Republic had 24 separate ministries. Frustrated by the endless divisiveness, de Gaulle famously asked "How can you govern a country which has 246 varieties of cheese?" 1958: Collapse of the Fourth Republic The Fourth Republic was wracked by political instability, failures in Indochina, and inability to resolve the Algerian question. On 13 May 1958, the Pied-Noir settlers seized the government buildings in Algiers, attacking what they saw as French government weakness in the face of demands among the Berber and Arab majority for Algerian independence. A "Committee of Civil and Army Public Security" was created under the presidency of General Jacques Massu, a Gaullist sympathiser. General Raoul Salan, Commander-in-Chief in Algeria, announced on radio that he was assuming provisional power, and appealed for confidence in himself. At a 19 May press conference, de Gaulle asserted again that he was at the disposal of the country. As a journalist expressed the concerns of some who feared that he would violate civil liberties, de Gaulle retorted vehemently: "Have I ever done that? On the contrary, I have re-established them when they had disappeared. Who honestly believes that, at age 67, I would start a career as a dictator?" A constitutionalist by conviction, he maintained throughout the crisis that he would accept power only from the lawfully constituted authorities. De Gaulle did not wish to repeat the difficulty the Free French movement experienced in establishing legitimacy as the rightful government. He told an aide that the rebel generals "will not find de Gaulle in their baggage". The crisis deepened as French paratroops from Algeria seized Corsica and a landing near Paris was discussed (Operation Resurrection). Political leaders on many sides agreed to support the General's return to power, except François Mitterrand, Pierre Mendès France, Alain Savary, the Communist Party, and certain other leftists. On 29 May the French President, René Coty, told parliament that the nation was on the brink of civil war, so he was "turning towards the most illustrious of Frenchmen, towards the man who, in the darkest years of our history, was our chief for the reconquest of freedom and who refused dictatorship in order to re-establish the Republic. I ask General de Gaulle to confer with the head of state and to examine with him what, in the framework of Republican legality, is necessary for the immediate formation of a government of national safety and what can be done, in a fairly short time, for a deep reform of our institutions." De Gaulle accepted Coty's proposal under the precondition that a new constitution would be introduced creating a powerful presidency in which a sole executive, the first of which was to be himself, ruled for seven-year periods. Another condition was that he be granted extraordinary powers for a period of six months. De Gaulle remained intent on replacing the weak constitution of the Fourth Republic. He is sometimes described as the author of the new constitution, as he commissioned it and was responsible for its overall framework. The actual drafter of the text was Michel Debré who wrote up de Gaulle's political ideas and guided the text through the enactment process. On 1 June 1958, de Gaulle became Prime Minister and was given emergency powers for six months by the National Assembly, fulfilling his desire for parliamentary legitimacy. On 28 September 1958, a referendum took place and 82.6 percent of those who voted supported the new constitution and the creation of the Fifth Republic. The colonies (Algeria was officially a part of France, not a colony) were given the choice between immediate independence and the new constitution. All African colonies voted for the new constitution and the replacement of the French Union by the French Community, except Guinea, which thus became the first French African colony to gain independence and immediately lost all French assistance. 1958–1962: Founding of the Fifth Republic In the November 1958 election, Charles de Gaulle and his supporters (initially organised in the Union pour la Nouvelle République-Union Démocratique du Travail, then the Union des Démocrates pour la Vème République, later still the Union des Démocrates pour la République, UDR) won a comfortable majority. In December, he was elected President of France by the electoral college with 78% of the vote; he was inaugurated in January 1959. As head of state, he also became ex officio the Co-Prince of Andorra. De Gaulle oversaw tough economic measures to revitalise the country, including the issuing of a new franc (worth 100 old francs). Less than a year after taking office, he was confronted with national tragedy, after the Malpasset Dam in Var collapsed in early December, killing over 400 in floods. Internationally, he rebuffed both the United States and the Soviet Union, pushing for an independent France with its own nuclear weapons and strongly encouraged a "Free Europe", believing that a confederation of all European nations would restore the past glories of the great European empires. He set about building Franco-German cooperation as the cornerstone of the European Economic Community (EEC), paying the first state visit to Germany by a French head of state since Napoleon. In January 1963, Germany and France signed a treaty of friendship, the Élysée Treaty. France also reduced its dollar reserves, trading them for gold from the Federal government of the United States, thereby reducing American economic influence abroad. On 23 November 1959, in a speech in Strasbourg, he announced his vision for Europe: His expression, "Europe, from the Atlantic to the Urals", has often been cited throughout the history of European integration. It became, for the next ten years, a favourite political rallying cry of de Gaulle's. His vision stood in contrast to the Atlanticism of the United States and Britain, preferring instead a Europe that would act as a third pole between the United States and the Soviet Union. By including in his ideal of Europe all the territory up to the Urals, de Gaulle was implicitly offering détente to the Soviets. As the last chief of government of the Fourth Republic, de Gaulle made sure that the Treaty of Rome creating the European Economic Community was fully implemented, and that the British project of Free Trade Area was rejected, to the extent that he was sometimes considered as a "Father of Europe". Algeria Upon becoming president, de Gaulle was faced with the urgent task of finding a way to bring to an end the bloody and divisive war in Algeria. His intentions were obscure. He had immediately visited Algeria and declared, Je vous ai compris—'I have understood you', and each competing interest had wished to believe it was them that he had understood. The settlers assumed he supported them, and would be stunned when he did not. In Paris, the left wanted independence for Algeria. Although the military's near-coup had contributed to his return to power, de Gaulle soon ordered all officers to quit the rebellious Committees of Public Safety. Such actions greatly angered the pieds-noirs and their military supporters. He faced uprisings in Algeria by the pied-noirs and the French armed forces. On assuming the prime minister role in June 1958 he immediately went to Algeria, and neutralised the army there, with its 600,000 soldiers. The Algiers Committee of Public Safety was loud in its demands on behalf of the settlers, but de Gaulle made more visits and sidestepped them. For the long term he devised a plan to modernize Algeria's traditional economy, deescalated the war, and offered Algeria self-determination in 1959. A pied-noir revolt in 1960 failed, and another attempted coup failed in April 1961. French voters approved his course in a 1961 referendum on Algerian self-determination. De Gaulle arranged a cease-fire in Algeria with the March 1962 Evian Accords, legitimated by another referendum a month later. It gave victory to the FLN, which came to power and declared independence. The long crisis was over. Although the Algerian issue was settled, Prime Minister Michel Debré resigned over the final settlement and was replaced with Georges Pompidou on 14 April 1962. France recognised Algerian independence on 3 July 1962, and a blanket amnesty law was belatedly voted in 1968, covering all crimes committed by the French army during the war. In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 Pied-Noirs left the country. After 5 July, the exodus accelerated in the wake of the French deaths during the Oran massacre of 1962. Assassination attempts De Gaulle was targeted for death by the Organisation armée secrète (OAS), in retaliation for his Algerian initiatives. Several assassination attempts were made on him; the most famous took place on 22 August 1962, when he and his wife narrowly escaped from an organized machine gun ambush on their Citroën DS limousine. De Gaulle commented "Ils tirent comme des cochons" ("They shoot like pigs"). The attack was arranged by Colonel Jean-Marie Bastien-Thiry at Petit-Clamart. Frederick Forsyth used this incident as a basis for his novel The Day of the Jackal. Direct presidential elections In September 1962, de Gaulle sought a constitutional amendment to allow the president to be directly elected by the people and issued another referendum to this end. After a motion of censure voted by the parliament on 4 October 1962, de Gaulle dissolved the National Assembly and held new elections. Although the left progressed, the Gaullists won an increased majority—this despite opposition from the Christian democratic Popular Republican Movement (MRP) and the National Centre of Independents and Peasants (CNIP) who criticised de Gaulle's euroscepticism and presidentialism. De Gaulle's proposal to change the election procedure for the French presidency was approved at the referendum on 28 October 1962 by more than three-fifths of voters despite a broad "coalition of no" formed by most of the parties, opposed to a presidential regime. Thereafter the president was to be elected by direct universal suffrage for the first time since Louis Napoleon in 1848. 1962–1968: Politics of grandeur With the Algerian conflict behind him, de Gaulle was able to achieve his two main objectives, the reform and development of the French economy, and the promotion of an independent foreign policy and a strong presence on the international stage. This was named by foreign observers the "politics of grandeur" (politique de grandeur). See Gaullism. "Thirty glorious years" In the immediate post-war years France was in poor shape; wages remained at around half prewar levels, the winter of 1946–1947 did extensive damage to crops, leading to a reduction in the bread ration, hunger and disease remained rife and the black market continued to flourish. Germany was in an even worse position, but after 1948 things began to improve dramatically with the introduction of Marshall Aid—large scale American financial assistance given to help rebuild European economies and infrastructure. This laid the foundations of a meticulously planned program of investments in energy, transport and heavy industry, overseen by the government of Prime Minister Georges Pompidou. In the context of a population boom unseen in France since the 18th century, the government intervened heavily in the economy, using dirigisme—a unique combination of free-market and state-directed economy—with indicative five-year plans as its main tool. This was followed by a rapid transformation and expansion of the French economy. High-profile projects, mostly but not always financially successful, were launched: the extension of Marseille's harbour (soon ranking third in Europe and first in the Mediterranean); the promotion of the Caravelle passenger jetliner (a predecessor of Airbus); the decision to start building the supersonic Franco-British Concorde airliner in Toulouse; the expansion of the French auto industry with state-owned Renault at its centre; and the building of the first motorways between Paris and the provinces. Aided by these projects, the French economy recorded growth rates unrivalled since the 19th century. In 1964, for the first time in nearly 100 years France's GDP overtook that of the United Kingdom. This period is still remembered in France with some nostalgia as the peak of the Trente Glorieuses ("Thirty Glorious Years" of economic growth between 1945 and 1974). In 1967, de Gaulle decreed a law that obliged all firms over certain sizes to distribute a small portion of their profits to their employees. By 1974, as a result of this measure, French employees received an average of 700 francs per head, equivalent to 3.2% of their salary. Fourth nuclear power During his first tenure as president, de Gaulle became enthusiastic about the possibilities of nuclear power. France had carried out important work in the early development of atomic energy and in October 1945, he established the French Atomic Energy Commission Commissariat à l'énergie atomique, (CEA) responsible for all scientific, commercial, and military uses of nuclear energy. However, partly due to communist influences in government opposed to proliferation, research stalled and France was excluded from American, British and Canadian nuclear efforts. By October 1952, the United Kingdom had become the third country—after the United States and the Soviet Union—to independently test and develop nuclear weapons. This gave Britain the capability to launch a nuclear strike via its Vulcan bomber force and they began developing a ballistic missile program known as Blue Streak. As early as April 1954 while out of power, de Gaulle argued that France must have its own nuclear arsenal; at the time nuclear weapons were seen as a national status symbol and a way of maintaining international prestige with a place at the 'top table' of the United Nations. Full-scale research began again in late 1954 when Prime Minister Pierre Mendès France authorized a plan to develop the atomic bomb; large deposits of uranium had been discovered near Limoges in central France, providing the researchers with an unrestricted supply of nuclear fuel. France's independent Force de Frappe (strike force) came into being soon after de Gaulle's election with his authorization for the first nuclear test. With the cancellation of Blue Streak, the US agreed to supply Britain with its Skybolt and later Polaris weapons systems, and in 1958, the two nations signed the Mutual Defence Agreement forging close links which have seen the US and UK cooperate on nuclear security matters ever since. Although at the time it was still a full member of NATO, France proceeded to develop its own independent nuclear technologies—this would enable it to become a partner in any reprisals and would give it a voice in matters of atomic control. After six years of effort, on 13 February 1960, France became the world's fourth nuclear power when a high-powered nuclear device was exploded in the Sahara some 700 miles south-south-west of Algiers. In August 1963, France decided against signing the Partial Test Ban Treaty designed to slow the arms race because it would have prohibited it from testing nuclear weapons above ground. France continued to carry out tests at the Algerian site until 1966, under an agreement with the newly independent Algeria. France's testing program then moved to the Mururoa and Fangataufa Atolls in the South Pacific. In November 1967, an article by the French Chief of the General Staff (but inspired by de Gaulle) in the Revue de la Défense Nationale caused international consternation. It was stated that the French nuclear force should be capable of firing "in all directions"—thus including even America as a potential target. This surprising statement was intended as a declaration of French national independence, and was in retaliation to a warning issued long ago by Dean Rusk that US missiles would be aimed at France if it attempted to employ atomic weapons outside an agreed plan. However, criticism of de Gaulle was growing over his tendency to act alone with little regard for the views of others. In August, concern over de Gaulle's policies had been voiced by Valéry Giscard d'Estaing when he queried 'the solitary exercise of power'. NATO With the onset of the Cold War and the perceived threat of invasion from the Soviet Union and the countries of the eastern bloc, the United States, Canada and a number of western European countries set up the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) to co-ordinate a military response to any possible attack. France played a key role during the early days of the organisation, providing a large military contingent and agreeing—after much soul-searching—to the participation of West German forces. But after his election in 1958 Charles de Gaulle took the view that the organisation was too dominated by the US and UK, and that America would not fulfill its promise to defend Europe in the event of a Soviet invasion. De Gaulle demanded political parity with Britain and America in NATO, and for its geographic coverage to be extended to include French territories abroad, including Algeria, then experiencing civil war. This was not forthcoming, and so in March 1959 France, citing the need for it to maintain its own independent military strategy, withdrew its Mediterranean Fleet (ALESCMED) from NATO, and a few months later de Gaulle demanded the removal of all US nuclear weapons from French territory. De Gaulle hosted a superpower summit on 17 May 1960 for arms limitation talks and détente efforts in the wake of the 1960 U-2 incident between United States President Dwight Eisenhower, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, and United Kingdom Prime Minister Harold Macmillan. De Gaulle's warm relations with Eisenhower were noticed by United States military observers at that time. De Gaulle told Eisenhower: "Obviously you cannot apologize but you must decide how you wish to handle this. I will do everything I can to be helpful without being openly partisan." When Khrushchev condemned the United States U-2 flights, de Gaulle expressed to Khrushchev his disapproval of 18 near-simultaneous secret Soviet satellite overflights of French territory; Khrushchev denied knowledge of the satellite overflights. Lieutenant General Vernon A. Walters wrote that after Khrushchev left, "De Gaulle came over to Eisenhower and took him by the arm. He took me also by the elbow and, taking us a little apart, he said to Eisenhower, 'I do not know what Khrushchev is going to do, nor what is going to happen, but whatever he does, I want you to know that I am with you to the end.' I was astounded at this statement, and Eisenhower was clearly moved by his unexpected expression of unconditional support". General Walters was struck by de Gaulle's "unconditional support" of the United States during that "crucial time". De Gaulle then tried to revive the talks by inviting all the delegates to another conference at the Élysée Palace to discuss the situation, but the summit ultimately dissolved in the wake of the U-2 incident. In 1964, de Gaulle visited the Soviet Union, where he hoped to establish France as an alternative influence in the Cold War. De Gaulle always viewed Communism as a passing phenomenon, and never used the term 'Soviet Union', always calling it Russia. In his view, Russian national interests rather than Communist ideology determined the decision-making in the Kremlin. Later, he proclaimed a new alliance between the nations, but although Soviet premier Alexei Kosygin later visited Paris, the Soviets clearly did not consider France a superpower and knew that they would remain dependent on the NATO alliance in the event of a war. In 1965, de Gaulle pulled France out of SEATO, the southeast Asian equivalent of NATO, and refused to participate in any future NATO maneuvers. In February 1966, France withdrew from the NATO Military Command Structure, but remained within the organisation. De Gaulle, haunted by the memories of 1940, wanted France to remain the master of the decisions affecting it, unlike in the 1930s when it had to follow in step with its British ally. He also ordered all foreign military personnel to leave France within a year. This latter action was particularly badly received in the US, prompting Dean Rusk, the US Secretary of State, to ask de Gaulle whether the removal of American military personnel was to include exhumation of the 50,000 American war dead buried in French cemeteries. European Economic Community (EEC) France, experiencing the disintegration of its colonial empire and severe problems in Algeria, turned towards Europe after the Suez Crisis, and to West Germany in particular. In the years after, the economies of both nations integrated and they led the drive towards European unity. One of the conditions of Marshall Aid was that the nations' leaders must co-ordinate economic efforts and pool the supply of raw materials. By far the most critical commodities in driving growth were coal and steel. France assumed it would receive large amounts of high-quality German coal from the Ruhr as reparations for the war, but the US refused to allow this, fearing a repetition of the bitterness after the Treaty of Versailles which partly caused World War II. Under the inspiration of the French statesmen Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman, together with the German leader Konrad Adenauer, the rift between the two nations had begun to heal and in 1951, along with Italy and the Benelux countries, they formed the European Coal and Steel Community. Following the Treaty of Rome of 1957, this became the European Economic Community. De Gaulle had not been instrumental in setting up the new organization and, from the start, he opposed efforts by fellow EEC member countries to move toward some form of political integration that, in de Gaulle's thinking, would impinge on the sovereignty of France, both internally and externally. To counter those supranational tendencies that he disparaged, he put forward in 1961 the so-called Fouchet Plan that maintained all decision-making powers in the hands of governments, reducing the projected European parliamentary assembly to a mere consultative assembly. As expected, the plan was rejected by France's partners. In July 1965, de Gaulle provoked a major six-month crisis when he ordered the boycott of EEC institutions (see Empty chair crisis below) until his demands – the withdrawal of a European Commission proposal to reinforce the community institutions to the detriment of national sovereignty, and the acceptance of France's proposal regarding the financing of the newly established Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) – were met with the Luxembourg compromise. De Gaulle, who in spite of recent history admired Germany and spoke excellent German, as well as English, established a good relationship with the aging West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer—culminating in the Elysee Treaty in 1963—and in the first few years of the Common Market, France's industrial exports to the other five members tripled and its farm export almost quadrupled. The franc became a solid, stable currency for the first time in half a century, and the economy mostly boomed. Adenauer however, all too aware of the importance of American support in Europe, gently distanced himself from the general's more extreme ideas, wanting no suggestion that any new European community would in any sense challenge or set itself at odds with the US. In Adenauer's eyes, the support of the US was more important than any question of European prestige. Adenauer was also anxious to reassure Britain that nothing was being done behind its back and was quick to inform British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan of any new developments. Great Britain initially declined to join the EEC, preferring to remain with another organisation known as the European Free Trade Area, mostly consisting of the northern European countries and Portugal. By the late 1950s, German and French living standards began to exceed those in Britain, and the government of Harold Macmillan, realising that the EEC was a stronger trade bloc than EFTA, began negotiations to join. De Gaulle vetoed the British application to join the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1963, famously uttering the single word 'non' into the television cameras at the critical moment, a statement used to sum up French opposition towards Britain for many years afterwards. Macmillan said afterwards that he always believed that de Gaulle would prevent Britain joining, but thought he would do it quietly, behind the scenes. He later complained privately that "all our plans are in tatters". American President John F. Kennedy urged de Gaulle to accept the United Kingdom in the EEC, stating that a Europe without Great Britain would create a situation in which the United States were bearing the enormous costs of Europe's protection without any voice. Kennedy applied pressure to de Gaulle by threatening to withdraw American troops from European soil, but de Gaulle believed that the United States would lose the Cold War if they were to leave Europe. It encouraged de Gaulle to see Great Britain as America's "Trojan Horse". British Prime Minister Churchill once said to him that if he had the choice between France and the United States, he would always choose the United States. Churchill's successor, Macmillan, prioritised the rebuilding of the Anglo-American "Special Relationship". With the American agreement to supply Britain with the Skybolt nuclear missile, de Gaulle thought that the United Kingdom would not go along with his vision for a West European strategically independent from the United States. He maintained there were incompatibilities between continental European and British economic interests. In addition, he demanded that the United Kingdom accept all the conditions laid down by the six existing members of the EEC (Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands) and revoke its commitments to countries within its own free trade area (which France had not done with its own). He supported a deepening and an acceleration of Common Market integration rather than an expansion. However, in this latter respect, a detailed study of the formative years of the EEC argues that the defence of French economic interests, especially in agriculture, in fact played a more dominant role in determining de Gaulle's stance towards British entry than the various political and foreign policy considerations that have often been cited. Dean Acheson believed that Britain made a grave error in not signing up to European integration right from the start, and that they continued to suffer the political consequences for at least two decades afterwards. However he also stated his belief that de Gaulle used the 'Common Market' (as it was then termed) as an "exclusionary device to direct European trade towards the interest of France and against that of the United States, Britain and other countries." Claiming continental European solidarity, de Gaulle again rejected British entry when they next applied to join the community in December 1967 under the Labour leadership of Harold Wilson. During negotiations, de Gaulle chided Britain for relying too much on the Americans, saying that sooner or later they would always do what was in their best interests. Wilson said he then gently raised the spectre of the threat of a newly powerful Germany as a result of the EEC, which de Gaulle agreed was a risk. After de Gaulle left office the United Kingdom applied again and finally became a member of the EEC in January 1973. Recognition of the People's Republic of China In January 1964, France was, after the UK, among the first of the major Western powers to open diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC), which was established in 1949 and which was isolated on the international scene. By recognizing Mao Zedong's government, de Gaulle signaled to both Washington and Moscow that France intended to deploy an independent foreign policy. The move was criticized in the United States as it seemed to seriously damage US policy of containment in Asia. De Gaulle justified this action by "the weight of evidence and reason", considering that China's demographic weight and geographic extent put it in a position to have a global leading role. De Gaulle also used this opportunity to arouse rivalry between the USSR and China, a policy that was followed several years later by Henry Kissinger's "triangular diplomacy" which also aimed to create a Sino-Soviet split. France established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China – the first step towards formal recognition without first severing links with the Republic of China (Taiwan), led by Chiang Kai-shek. Hitherto the PRC had insisted that all nations abide by a "one China" condition, and at first it was unclear how the matter would be settled. However, the agreement to exchange ambassadors was subject to a delay of three months, and in February, Chiang Kai-shek resolved the problem by cutting off diplomatic relations with France. Eight years later, US President Richard Nixon visited the PRC and began normalising relations—a policy which was confirmed in the Shanghai Communiqué of 28 February 1972. As part of a European tour, Nixon visited France in 1969. He and de Gaulle both shared the same non-Wilsonian approach to world affairs, believing in nations and their relative strengths, rather than in ideologies, international organisations, or multilateral agreements. De Gaulle is famously known for calling the UN the pejorative "le Machin" ("the thingamajig"). Visit to Latin America During the autumn of 1964, de Gaulle embarked on a grueling 20,000-mile trek across Latin America despite being a month away from his 75th birthday, a recent operation for prostate cancer, and concerns over security. He had visited Mexico the previous year and spoke, in Spanish, to the Mexican people on the eve of their celebrations of their independence at the Palacio Nacional in Mexico City. During his new 26-day visit, he was again keen to gain both cultural and economic influence. He spoke constantly of his resentment of US influence in Latin America—"that some states should establish a power of political or economic direction outside their own borders". Yet France could provide no investment or aid to match that from Washington. US dollar crisis In the Bretton Woods system put in place in 1944, US dollars were convertible to gold. In France, it was called "America's exorbitant privilege" as it resulted in an "asymmetric financial system" where foreigners "see themselves supporting American living standards and subsidizing American multinationals". As American economist Barry Eichengreen summarized: "It costs only a few cents for the Bureau of Engraving and Printing to produce a $100 bill, but other countries had to pony up $100 of actual goods in order to obtain one". In February 1965, President Charles de Gaulle announced his intention to exchange its US dollar reserves for gold at the official exchange rate. He sent the French Navy across the Atlantic to pick up the French reserve of gold, which had been moved there during World War II, and was followed by several countries. As it resulted in considerably reducing US gold stock and US economic influence, it led US President Richard Nixon to unilaterally end the convertibility of the dollar to gold on 15 August 1971 (the "Nixon Shock"). This was meant to be a temporary measure but the dollar became permanently a floating fiat money and in October 1976, the US government officially changed the definition of the dollar; references to gold were removed from statutes. Second term In December 1965, de Gaulle returned as president for a second seven-year term. In the first round he did not win the expected majority, receiving 45% of the vote. Both of his main rivals did better than expected; the leftist François Mitterrand received 32% and Jean Lecanuet, who advocated for what Life described as "Gaullism without de Gaulle", received 16%. De Gaulle won a majority in the second round, with Mitterrand receiving 44.8%. In September 1966, in a famous speech in Phnom Penh in Cambodia, he expressed France's disapproval of the US involvement in the Vietnam War, calling for a US withdrawal from Vietnam as the only way to ensure peace. De Gaulle considered the war to be the "greatest absurdity of the twentieth century". De Gaulle conversed frequently with George Ball, United States President Lyndon Johnson's Under Secretary of State, and told Ball that he feared that the United States risked repeating France's tragic experience in Vietnam, which de Gaulle called "ce pays pourri" ("the rotten country"). Ball later sent a 76-page memorandum to Johnson critiquing Johnson's current Vietnam policy in October 1964. De Gaulle later visited Guadeloupe for two days, in the aftermath of Hurricane Inez, bringing aid which totaled billions of francs. Empty Chair Crisis During the establishment of the European Community, de Gaulle helped precipitate the Empty Chair Crisis, one of the greatest crises in the history of the EEC. It involved the financing of the Common Agricultural Policy, but almost more importantly the use of qualified majority voting in the EC (as opposed to unanimity). In June 1965, after France and the other five members could not agree, de Gaulle withdrew France's representatives from the EC. Their absence left the organisation essentially unable to run its affairs until the Luxembourg compromise was reached in January 1966. De Gaulle succeeded in influencing the decision-making mechanism written into the Treaty of Rome by insisting on solidarity founded on mutual understanding. He vetoed Britain's entry into the EEC a second time, in June 1967. Six-Day War With tension rising in the Middle East in 1967, de Gaulle on 2 June declared an arms embargo against Israel, just three days before the outbreak of the Six-Day War. This, however, did not affect spare parts for the French military hardware with which the Israeli armed forces were equipped. This was an abrupt change in French policy. In 1956, France, Britain and Israel had cooperated in an elaborate effort to retake the Suez Canal from Egypt. Israel's air force operated French Mirage and Mystère jets in the Six-Day War, and its navy was building its new missile boats in Cherbourg. Though paid for, their transfer to Israel was now blocked by de Gaulle's government. But they were smuggled out in an operation that drew further denunciations from the French government. The last boats took to the sea in December 1969, directly after a major deal between France and now-independent Algeria exchanging French armaments for Algerian oil. Under de Gaulle, following the independence of Algeria, France embarked on foreign policy more favorable to the Arab side. President de Gaulle's position in 1967 at the time of the Six-Day War played a part in France's new-found popularity in the Arab world. Israel turned towards the United States for arms, and toward its own industry. In a televised news conference on 27 November 1967, de Gaulle described the Jewish people as "this elite people, sure of themselves and domineering". In his letter to David Ben-Gurion dated 9 January 1968, he explained that he was convinced that Israel had ignored his warnings and overstepped the bounds of moderation by taking possession of Jerusalem, and Jordanian, Egyptian, and Syrian territory by force of arms. He felt Israel had exercised repression and expulsions during the occupation and that it amounted to annexation. He said that provided Israel withdrew its forces, it appeared that it might be possible to reach a solution through the UN framework which could include assurances of a dignified and fair future for refugees and minorities in the Middle East, recognition from Israel's neighbours, and freedom of navigation through the Gulf of Aqaba and the Suez Canal. Nigerian Civil War The Eastern Region of Nigeria declared itself independent under the name of the Independent Republic of Biafra on 30 May 1967. On 6 July, the first shots in the Nigerian Civil War were fired, marking the start of a conflict that lasted until January 1970. Britain provided military aid to the Federal Republic of Nigeria—yet more was made available by the Soviet Union. Under de Gaulle's leadership, France embarked on a period of interference outside the traditional French zone of influence. A policy geared toward the break-up of Nigeria put Britain and France into opposing camps. Relations between France and Nigeria had been under strain since the third French nuclear explosion in the Sahara in December 1960. From August 1968, when its embargo was lifted, France provided limited and covert support to the Biafra rebels. Although French arms helped to keep Biafra in action for the final 15 months of the civil war, its involvement was seen as insufficient and counterproductive. The Biafran chief of staff stated that the French "did more harm than good by raising false hopes and by providing the British with an excuse to reinforce Nigeria." Vive le Québec libre! In July 1967, de Gaulle visited Canada, which was celebrating its centenary with a world fair in Montreal, Expo 67. On 24 July, speaking to a large crowd from a balcony at Montreal's city hall, de Gaulle shouted "Vive le Québec libre! Vive le Canada français! Et vive la France!" (Long live free Quebec! Long live French Canada, and long live France!). The Canadian media harshly criticized the statement, and the Prime Minister of Canada, Lester B. Pearson, stated that "Canadians do not need to be liberated". De Gaulle left Canada abruptly two days later, without proceeding to Ottawa as scheduled. He never returned to Canada. The speech offended many English-speaking Canadians and was heavily criticized in France as well, and led to a significant diplomatic rift between the two countries. The event however was seen as a watershed moment by the Quebec sovereignty movement, and is still a significant milestone of Quebec's history to the eyes of most Quebecers. In the following year, de Gaulle visited Brittany, where he declaimed a poem written by his uncle (also called Charles de Gaulle) in the Breton language. The speech followed a series of crackdowns on Breton nationalism. De Gaulle was accused of hypocrisy, on the one hand supporting a "free" Quebec because of linguistic and ethnic differences from other Canadians, while on the other hand suppressing a regional and ethnic nationalist movement in Brittany. Official visit to Poland General de Gaulle paid an official visit to Poland on 6 September 1967 and spent an entire week there. De Gaulle described it as his "pilgrimage to Poland" and visited Warsaw, Gdańsk, Kraków and Nazi death camp Auschwitz-Birkenau. He met with crowds of people on the streets and shouted (in Polish) "Long live Poland! Our dear, noble and brave Poland!". Without discussion, de Gaulle announced that France officially recognized the new Polish western border that was established in 1945. May 1968 De Gaulle's government was criticized within France, particularly for its heavy-handed style. While the written press and elections were free, and private stations such as Europe 1 were able to broadcast in French from abroad, the state's ORTF had a monopoly on television and radio. This monopoly meant that the government was in a position to directly influence broadcast news. In many respects, Gaullist France was conservative, Catholic, and there were few women in high-level political posts (in May 1968, the government's ministers were 100% male). Many factors contributed to a general weariness of sections of the public, particularly the student youth, which led to the events of May 1968. The mass demonstrations and strikes in France in May 1968 severely challenged De Gaulle's legitimacy. He and other government leaders feared that the country was on the brink of revolution or civil war. On 29 May, De Gaulle disappeared without notifying Prime Minister Pompidou or anyone else in the government, stunning the country. He fled to Baden-Baden in Germany to meet with General Massu, head of the French military there, to discuss possible army intervention against the protesters. De Gaulle returned to France after being assured of the military's support, in return for which De Gaulle agreed to amnesty for the 1961 coup plotters and OAS members. In a private meeting discussing the students' and workers' demands for direct participation in business and government he coined the phrase "La réforme oui, la chienlit non", which can be politely translated as 'reform yes, masquerade/chaos no.' It was a vernacular scatological pun meaning 'chie-en-lit, no' (shit-in-bed, no). The term is now common parlance in French political commentary, used both critically and ironically referring back to de Gaulle. But de Gaulle offered to accept some of the reforms the demonstrators sought. He again considered a referendum to support his moves, but on 30 May, Pompidou persuaded him to dissolve parliament (in which the government had all but lost its majority in the March 1967 elections) and hold new elections instead. The June 1968 elections were a major success for the Gaullists and their allies; when shown the spectre of revolution or civil war, the majority of the country rallied to him. His party won 352 of 487 seats, but de Gaulle remained personally unpopular; a survey conducted immediately after the crisis showed that a majority of the country saw him as too old, too self-centered, too authoritarian, too conservative, and too anti-American. Later life Retirement De Gaulle resigned the presidency at noon, 28 April 1969, following the rejection of his proposed reform of the Senate and local governments in a nationwide referendum. In an eight-minute televised speech two days before the referendum, De Gaulle warned that if he was "disavowed" by a majority of the voters, he would resign his office immediately. This ultimatum, coupled with increased De Gaulle fatigue among the French, convinced many that this was an opportunity to be rid of the 78-year-old general and the reform package was rejected. Two months later Georges Pompidou was elected as his successor. De Gaulle retired once again to his beloved nine-acre country estate, La Boisserie (the woodland glade), in Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, 120 miles southeast of Paris. There the General, who often described old age as a "shipwreck," continued his memoirs, dictated to his secretary from notes. To visitors, de Gaulle said, "I will finish three books, if God grants me life." The Renewal, the first of three planned volumes to be called Memoirs of Hope, was quickly finished and immediately became the fastest seller in French publishing history. Personal life De Gaulle married Yvonne Vendroux on 7 April 1921 in Église Notre-Dame de Calais. They had three children: Philippe (born 1921), Élisabeth (1924–2013), who married General Alain de Boissieu, and Anne (1928–1948). Anne had Down's syndrome and died of pneumonia at the age of 20. He always had a particular love for Anne; one Colombey resident recalled how he used to walk with her hand-in-hand around the property, caressing her and talking quietly about the things she understood. De Gaulle had an older brother Xavier (1887–1955) and sister Marie-Agnes (1889–1983), and two younger brothers, Jacques (1893–1946) and Pierre (1897–1959). He was particularly close to the youngest, Pierre, who so resembled him that presidential bodyguards often saluted him by mistake when he visited his famous brother or accompanied him on official visits. One of De Gaulle's grandsons, also named Charles de Gaulle, was a member of the European Parliament from 1994 to 2004, his last tenure being for the National Front. The younger Charles de Gaulle's move to the anti-Gaullist Front National was widely condemned by other family members, in open letters and newspaper interviews. "It was like hearing the pope had converted to Islam", one said. Another grandson, Jean de Gaulle, was a member of the French parliament until his retirement in 2007. Death On 9 November 1970, less than two weeks before his 80th birthday, Charles de Gaulle died suddenly, despite enjoying very robust health his entire life (except for a prostate operation a few years earlier). He had been watching the evening news on television and playing Solitaire around 7:40 p.m. when he suddenly pointed to his head and said, "I feel a pain right here", and then collapsed. His wife called the doctor and the local priest, but by the time they arrived he had died from an aneurysm. His wife asked that she be allowed to inform her family before the news was released. She was able to contact her daughter in Paris quickly, but their son, who was in the navy, was difficult to track down. President Georges Pompidou was not informed until 4 AM the next day, and announced the general's death on television some 18 hours after the event. He simply said, "Le général de Gaulle est mort; la France est veuve." ("General de Gaulle is dead. France is a widow.") De Gaulle had made arrangements that insisted his funeral be held at Colombey, and that no presidents or ministers attend his funeral—only his Compagnons de la Libération. Despite his wishes, such were the number of foreign dignitaries who wanted to honor de Gaulle that Pompidou was forced to arrange a separate memorial service at the Notre-Dame Cathedral, to be held at the same time as his actual funeral. The funeral on 12 November 1970 was the biggest such event in French history, with hundreds of thousands of French people—many carrying blankets and picnic baskets—and thousands of cars parked in the roads and fields along the routes to the two venues. Thousands of guests attended the event, included de Gaulle's successor Georges Pompidou, American President Richard Nixon, British Prime Minister Edward Heath, UN general secretary U Thant, Soviet statesman Nikolai Podgorny, Italian President Giuseppe Saragat, West German Chancellor Willy Brandt and Queen Juliana of the Netherlands. Special trains were laid on to bring extra mourners to the region and the crowd was packed so tightly that those who fainted had to be passed overhead toward first-aid stations at the rear. The General was conveyed to the church on an armoured reconnaissance vehicle and carried to his grave, next to his daughter Anne, by eight young men of Colombey. As he was lowered into the ground, the bells of all the churches in France tolled, starting from Notre Dame and spreading out from there. De Gaulle specified that his tombstone bear the simple inscription of his name and his years of birth and death. Therefore, it simply states, "Charles de Gaulle, 1890–1970". At the service, President Pompidou said, "de Gaulle gave France her governing institutions, her independence and her place in the world." André Malraux, the writer and intellectual who served as his Minister of Culture, called him "a man of the day before yesterday and the day after tomorrow." De Gaulle's family turned the La Boisserie residence into a foundation. It currently houses the Charles de Gaulle Museum. Legacy Reputation Historians have accorded Napoleon and de Gaulle the top-ranking status of French leaders in the 19th and 20th centuries. According to a 2005 survey, carried out in the context of the tenth anniversary of the death of Socialist President François Mitterrand, 35 percent of respondents said Mitterrand was the best French president ever, followed by Charles de Gaulle (30 percent) and then Jacques Chirac (12 percent). Another poll by BVA four years later showed that 87% of French people regarded his presidency positively. Statues honouring de Gaulle have been erected in London, Warsaw, Moscow, Bucharest and Quebec. The first Algerian president, Ahmed Ben Bella, said that de Gaulle was the "military leader who brought us the hardest blows" prior to Algerian independence, but "saw further" than other politicians, and had a "universal dimension that is too often lacking in current leaders." Likewise, Léopold Sédar Senghor, the first president of Senegal, said that few Western leaders could boast of having risked their lives to grant a colony independence. In 1990, President Mitterrand, de Gaulle's old political rival, presided over the celebrations to mark the 100th anniversary of his birth. Mitterrand, who once wrote a vitriolic critique of him called the "Permanent Coup d'État", quoted a recent opinion poll, saying, "As General de Gaulle, he has entered the pantheon of great national heroes, where he ranks ahead of Napoleon and behind only Charlemagne." Under the influence of Jean-Pierre Chevènement, the leader of CERES, the left-wing and souverainist faction of the Socialist Party, Mitterrand had, except on certain economic and social policies, rallied to much of Gaullism. Between the mid-1970s and mid-1990s there developed a left-right consensus, dubbed "Gaullo-Mitterrandism", behind the "French status" in NATO: i.e. outside the integrated military command. Relationships with other political leaders Although he initially enjoyed good relations with US President John F. Kennedy, who admired his stance against the Soviet Union—particularly when the Berlin Wall was being built—and who called him "a great captain of the Western world", their relationship later cooled. He was Kennedy's most loyal ally during the Cuban Missile Crisis and supported the right that the US claimed to defend its interests in the western hemisphere, in contrast to German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer who doubted Kennedy's commitment to Europe and thought the crisis could have been avoided. De Gaulle accepted that it might be necessary for the United States to take preemptive military action against Cuba, unlike many other European leaders of his time. De Gaulle was a prominent figure at the state funerals of two American presidents: Kennedy and Dwight Eisenhower (Eisenhower's funeral was his only visit to the U.S. since the funeral of JFK). De Gaulle was admired by the later President Nixon. After a meeting at the Palace of Versailles just before the general left office, Nixon declared that "He did not try to put on airs but an aura of majesty seemed to envelop him ... his performance—and I do not use that word disparagingly—was breathtaking." On arriving for his funeral several months later, Nixon said of him, "greatness knows no national boundaries". Lt. General Vernon A. Walters, a military attaché of Dwight Eisenhower and later military attaché in France from 1967 to 1973, noted the strong relationship between de Gaulle and Eisenhower, de Gaulle's unconditional support of Eisenhower during the U-2 incident, and de Gaulle's strong support of John F. Kennedy during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Thus Walters was intensely curious as to the great contrast between de Gaulle's close relations with two United States presidents during notable Cold War crises and de Gaulle's later decision to withdraw France from NATO's military command, and Walters spoke with many close military and political aides of de Gaulle. Walters' conclusion, based upon de Gaulle's comments to many of his aides (and to Eisenhower during a meeting at Ramboullet Castle in 1959), is that de Gaulle feared that later United States presidents after Eisenhower would not have Eisenhower's special ties to Europe and would not risk nuclear war over Europe. Also, de Gaulle interpreted the peaceful resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis without fighting to take back Cuba from communism a mere 90 miles from the United States as an indication that the United States might not fight for Europe's defense 3,500 miles away following Soviet aggression in Europe, but would only go to war following a nuclear strike against the United States itself. De Gaulle told Eisenhower that France did not seek to compete with the Strategic Air Command or army of the United States, but believed that France needed a way to strike the Soviet Union. A number of commentators have been critical of de Gaulle for his failure to prevent the massacres after Algerian independence while others take the view that the struggle had been so long and savage that it was perhaps inevitable. The Australian historian Brian Crozier wrote, "that he was able to part with Algeria without civil war was a great though negative achievement which in all probability would have been beyond the capacity of any other leader France possessed." In April 1961, when four rebel generals seized power in Algeria, he "did not flinch in the face of this daunting challenge", but appeared on television in his general's uniform to forbid Frenchmen to obey the rebels' orders in an "inflexible display of personal authority". De Gaulle was an excellent manipulator of the media, as seen in his shrewd use of television to persuade around 80% of Metropolitan France to approve the new constitution for the Fifth Republic. In so doing, he refused to yield to the reasoning of his opponents who said that, if he succeeded in Algeria, he would no longer be necessary. He afterwards enjoyed massive approval ratings, and once said that "every Frenchman is, has been or will be Gaullist". That de Gaulle did not necessarily reflect mainstream French public opinion with his veto was suggested by the decisive majority of French people who voted in favour of British membership when the much more conciliatory Pompidou called a referendum on the matter in 1972. His early influence in setting the parameters of the EEC can still be seen today, most notably with the controversial Common Agricultural Policy. Some writers take the view that Pompidou was a more progressive and influential leader than de Gaulle because, though also a Gaullist, he was less autocratic and more interested in social reforms. Although he followed the main tenets of de Gaulle's foreign policy, he was keen to work towards warmer relations with the United States. A banker by profession, Pompidou is also widely credited, as de Gaulle's prime minister from 1962 to 1968, with putting in place the reforms which provided the impetus for the economic growth which followed. In 1968, shortly before leaving office, de Gaulle refused to devalue the Franc on grounds of national prestige, but upon taking over Pompidou reversed the decision almost straight away. It was ironic, that during the financial crisis of 1968, France had to rely on American (and West German) financial aid to help shore up the economy. Perry has written that the "events of 1968 illustrated the brittleness of de Gaulle's rule. That he was taken by surprise is an indictment of his rule; he was too remote from real life and had no interest in the conditions under which ordinary French people lived. Problems like inadequate housing and social services had been ignored. The French greeted the news of his departure with some relief as the feeling had grown that he had outlived his usefulness. Perhaps he clung onto power too long, perhaps he should have retired in 1965 when he was still popular." Brian Crozier said "the fame of de Gaulle outstrips his achievements, he chose to make repeated gestures of petulance and defiance that weakened the west without compensating advantages to France" Régis Debray called de Gaulle "super-lucide" and pointed out that virtually all of his predictions, such as the fall of communism, the reunification of Germany and the resurrection of 'old' Russia, came true after his death. Debray compared him with Napoleon ('the great political myth of the 19th century'), calling de Gaulle his 20th century equivalent. "The sublime, it seems, appears in France only once a century ... Napoleon left two generations dead on battlefield. De Gaulle was more sparing with other people's blood; even so, he left us, as it were, stranded, alive but dazed... A delusion, perhaps, but one that turns the world upside down: causes events and movements; divides people into supporters and adversaries; leaves traces in the form of civil and penal codes and railways, factories and institutions (the Fifth Republic has already lasted three times as long as the Empire). A statesman who gets something going, who has followers, escapes the reality of the reports and statistics and become part of imagination. Napoleon and de Gaulle modified the state of things because they modified souls". However, Debray pointed out that there is a difference between Napoleon and de Gaulle: "How can the exterminator be compared with the liberator? ... The former ran the whole enterprise into the ground, while the latter managed to save it. So that to measure the rebel against the despot, the challenger against the leader, is just glaringly idiotic. You simply do not put an adventurer who worked for himself or his family on the same level as a commander-in-chief serving his country. ... Regrettably, Gaullism and Bonapartism have a number of features in common, but Napoleon and de Gaulle do not have the same moral value. ... the first wanted a Holy French Empire without the faith, a Europe under French occupation. The second wanted to rescue the nation from the emperors and establish a free France in a free Europe". While de Gaulle had many admirers, he was at the same time one of the most hated and reviled men in modern French history. Memorials A number of monuments have been built to commemorate the life of Charles de Gaulle. France's largest airport, located in Roissy, outside Paris, is named Charles de Gaulle Airport in his honour. France's nuclear-powered aircraft carrier is also named after him. Honours and awards French Grand-Croix of the Légion d'honneur – 1945 (Officer – 1934; Knight – 1919) Grand Master of the Ordre de la Libération Grand-Croix of the Ordre national du Mérite – 1963 Croix de guerre 1915 Croix de guerre (1939–1945) Combatant's Cross Medal for the War Wounded 1914–1918 Inter-Allied Victory medal (France) 1914–1918 Commemorative war medal (France) 1939–1945 Commemorative war medal (France) Foreign Silver Cross of Virtuti Militari of Poland (1920) Chief Commander of the US Legion of Merit (24 August 1945) Grand Cordon of the Order of the Dragon of Annam (last awarded 1945) Knight Grand Cross decorated with Grand Cordon of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (16 June 1959) Knight of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri of Thailand (11 October 1960) Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (Sweden, 8 May 1963) Collar of the Order of Merit of Chile (October 1964) Knight of the Order of the Elephant (Denmark, 5 April 1965) Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Cambodia Grand Cross of the Order of the Million Elephants and the White Parasol of Laos Extraordinary Grand Cross of the Order of Boyaca of Colombia Grand Cross of the Sharifian Order of Military Merit of Morocco Grand Collar of the Order of the Liberator General San Martín National Order of Merit of Ecuador Grand Cordon of the Order of Military Merit of Brazil National Order of Merit of Paraguay Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sun of Peru Grand Collar and Medal of the Order of the Southern Cross of Brazil Grand Collar of the Order of Pahlavi of Iran Grand Cross of the Military Order of Ayacucho of Peru Grand Collar of the Order of the Aztec Eagle of Mexico Grand Cordon of the Order of the Two Rivers of Iraq Collar of the Order of the Liberator of Venezuela Collar of the National Order of the Condor of the Andes of Bolivia Grand Cordon of the Order of Umayyad of Syria Grand Cross of the National Order of the Cedar of Lebanon Member of the Order of the Benevolent Ruler of Nepal Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold of Belgium Grand Cross of the Order of Saint-Charles of Monaco Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Collar of the Order of Al-Hussein bin Ali (Jordan) Knight of the Supreme Order of Christ of the Vatican Knight Grand Collar of the Order of Pius IX of the Vatican Grand Officer of the Order of the Redeemer of Greece Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order of the United Kingdom Papal Lateran Cross of the Vatican Grand Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta of Poland Commander of the Bavarian Order of Merit Medals Medal of the Mexican Academy of Military Studies Medal of Rancagua of Chile Medal of Mexico Medal of the Legionnaires of Quebec Medal of the City of Valparaiso Medal of Honour of the Congress of Peru Iraqi medal Plaque and Medal of the City of Lima, Peru Royal Medal of Tunisia Medal of the City of New Orleans Pakistani medal Greek medal Order of the American Legion Medal of the College Joseph Celestine Mutis of Spain Works French editions La Discorde Chez l'Ennemi (1924) Histoire des Troupes du Levant (1931) Written by Major de Gaulle and Major Yvon, with Staff Colonel de Mierry collaborating in the preparation of the final text. Le Fil de l'Épée (1932) Vers l'Armée de Métier (1934) La France et son Armée (1938) Trois Études (1945) (Rôle Historique des Places Fortes; Mobilisation Economique à l'Étranger; Comment Faire une Armée de Métier) followed by the Memorandum of 26 January 1940. Volume I – L'Appel 1940–1942 (1954) Volume II – L'Unité, 1942–1944 (1956) Volume III – Le Salut, 1944–1946 (1959) Mémoires d'Espoir Volume I – Le Renouveau 1958–1962 (1970) Discours et Messages Volume I – Pendant la Guerre 1940–1946 (1970) Volume II – Dans l'attente 1946–1958 (1970) Volume III – Avec le Renouveau 1958–1962 (1970) Volume IV – Pour l'Effort 1962–1965 (1970) Volume V – Vers le Terme 1966–1969 English translations The Enemy's House Divided (La Discorde chez l'ennemi). Tr. by Robert Eden. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 2002. The Edge of the Sword (Le Fil de l'Épée). Tr. by Gerard Hopkins. Faber, London, 1960 Criterion Books, New York, 1960 The Army of the Future (Vers l'Armée de Métier). Hutchinson, London-Melbourne, 1940. Lippincott, New York, 1940 France and Her Army (La France et son Armée). Tr. by F.L. Dash. Hutchinson London, 1945. Ryerson Press, Toronto, 1945 War Memoirs: Call to Honour, 1940–1942 (L'Appel). Tr. by Jonathan Griffin. Collins, London, 1955 (2 volumes). Viking Press, New York, 1955. War Memoirs: Unity, 1942–1944 (L'Unité). Tr. by Richard Howard (narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents). Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1959 (2 volumes). Simon & Schuster, New York, 1959 (2 volumes). War Memoirs: Salvation, 1944–1946 (Le Salut). Tr. by Richard Howard (narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents). Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1960 (2 volumes). Simon & Schuster, New York, 1960 (2 volumes). Memoirs of Hope: Renewal, 1958–1962. Endeavour, 1962– (Le Renouveau) (L'Effort). Tr. by Terence Kilmartin. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1971. See also Foreign policy of Charles de Gaulle Gaullism Gaullist Party List of names and terms of address used for Charles de Gaulle List of things named after Charles de Gaulle References Further reading Biographies Cogan, Charles. Charles de Gaulle: A Brief Biography with Documents. (1995). 243 pp. Fenby, Jonathan, The General: Charles de Gaulle and the France He Saved. (2011). Simon and Schuster. Jackson, Julian, A Certain Idea of France: The Life of Charles de Gaulle (2018) 887pp; the magisterial work on de Gaulle. Lacouture, Jean, De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890–1944 (1984; English ed. 1991), 640 pp; excerpt and text search; vol 2. De Gaulle: The Ruler 1945–1970 (1993), 700 pp, a standard scholarly biography. Shennan, Andrew. De Gaulle (1993) 200 pp. Williams, Charles. The Last Great Frenchman: A Life of General De Gaulle (1997), 560pp. excerpt and text search World War II Berthon, Simon. Allies at War: The Bitter Rivalry among Churchill, Roosevelt, and de Gaulle. (2001). 356 pp. - Total pages: 238 Danan, Yves Maxime, République française : capitale Alger (1940–1944), L'Harmattan, Paris, 2019. DePorte, Anton W. De Gaulle's foreign policy, 1944–1946 (1967) Funk, Arthur Layton. Charles de Gaulle: The Crucial Years, 1943–1944 (1959) online edition Keegan, John (1994) [1982] Six Armies in Normandy: From D-Day to the Liberation of Paris . Kersaudy, Francois. Churchill and De Gaulle (2nd ed 1990) 482pp. La Feber, Walter. "Roosevelt, Churchill, and Indochina: 1942–45." American Historical Review (1975): 1277–1295. in JSTOR - Total pages: 512 Pratt, Julius W. "De Gaulle and the United States: How the Rift Began," History Teacher (1968) 1#4 pp. 5–15 in JSTOR Rossi, Mario. "United States Military Authorities and Free France, 1942–1944," The Journal of Military History (1997) 61#1 pp. 49–64 in JSTOR Weinberg, Gerhard L. Visions of Victory: The Hopes of Eight World War II Leaders. (2005). 292 pp. chapter on de Gaulle Politics Berstein, Serge, and Peter Morris. The Republic of de Gaulle 1958–1969 (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (2006) excerpt and text search Cameron, David R. and Hofferbert, Richard I. "Continuity and Change in Gaullism: the General's Legacy." American Journal of Political Science 1973 17(1): 77–98. , a statistical analysis of the Gaullist voting coalition in elections 1958–73 Fulltext: Abstract in Jstor Cogan, Charles G. "The Break-up: General de Gaulle's Separation from Power," Journal of Contemporary History Vol. 27, No. 1 (Jan. 1992), pp. 167–199, re: 1969 in JSTOR Diamond, Robert A. France under de Gaulle (Facts on File, 1970), highly detailed chronology 1958–1969. 319pp Furniss, Edgar J., Jr. De Gaulle and the French Army. (1964) Gough, Hugh and Horne, John, eds. De Gaulle and Twentieth-Century France. (1994). 158 pp. essays by experts Hauss, Charles. Politics in Gaullist France: Coping with Chaos (1991) online edition Hoffmann, Stanley. Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s (1974) online edition Jackson, Julian. "General de Gaulle and His Enemies: Anti-Gaullism in France Since 1940," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 6th Ser., Vol. 9 (1999), pp. 43–65 in JSTOR Merom, Gil. "A 'Grand Design'? Charles de Gaulle and the End of the Algerian War," Armed Forces & Society(1999) 25#2 pp: 267–287 online Nester, William R. De Gaulle's Legacy: The Art of Power in France's Fifth Republic (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014) Northcutt, Wayne. Historical Dictionary of the French Fourth and Fifth Republics, 1946–1991 (1992) Pierce, Roy, "De Gaulle and the RPF—A Post-Mortem," The Journal of Politics Vol. 16, No. 1 (Feb. 1954), pp. 96–119 in JSTOR Rioux, Jean-Pierre, and Godfrey Rogers. The Fourth Republic, 1944–1958 (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1989) Shepard, Todd. The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France. (2006). 288 pp. Williams, Philip M. and Martin Harrison. De Gaulle's Republic (1965) online edition Foreign policy Bozo, Frédéric. Two Strategies for Europe: De Gaulle, the United States and the Atlantic Alliance (2000) Gordon, Philip H. A Certain Idea of France: French Security Policy and the Gaullist Legacy (1993) online edition Grosser, Alfred. French foreign policy under De Gaulle (Greenwood Press, 1977) Hoffmann, Stanley. "The Foreign Policy of Charles de Gaulle." in The Diplomats, 1939–1979 (Princeton University Press, 2019) pp. 228–254. online Kolodziej, Edward A. French International Policy under de Gaulle and Pompidou: The Politics of Grandeur (1974) online edition Kulski, W. W. De Gaulle and the World: The Foreign Policy of the Fifth French Republic (1966) online free to borrow Logevall, Fredrik. "De Gaulle, Neutralization, and American Involvement in Vietnam, 1963–1964," Pacific Historical Review 61#1 (Feb. 1992), pp. 69–102 in JSTOR Mahan, E. Kennedy, De Gaulle and Western Europe. (2002). 229 pp. Mangold, Peter. The Almost Impossible Ally: Harold Macmillan and Charles de Gaulle. (2006). 275 pp. IB Tauris, London, Martin, Garret Joseph. General de Gaulle's Cold War: Challenging American Hegemony, 1963–1968 (Berghahn Books; 2013) 272 pages Moravcsik, Andrew. "Charles de Gaulle and Europe: The New Revisionism." Journal of Cold War Studies (2012) 14#1 pp: 53–77. Nuenlist, Christian. Globalizing de Gaulle: International Perspectives on French Foreign Policies, 1958–1969 (2010) Newhouse, John. De Gaulle and the Anglo-Saxons (New York: Viking Press, 1970) Paxton, Robert O. and Wahl, Nicholas, eds. De Gaulle and the United States: A Centennial Reassessment. (1994). 433 pp. White, Dorothy Shipley. Black Africa and de Gaulle: From the French Empire to Independence. (1979). 314 pp. Ideas and memory Cerny, Philip G. The Politics of Grandeur: Ideological Aspects of de Gaulle's Foreign Policy. (1980). 319 pp. Clague, Monique. "Conceptions of Leadership: Charles de Gaulle and Max Weber," Political Theory (1975) 3#4 pp. 423–440 in JSTOR Converse, Philip E., et al. De Gaulle and Eisenhower: The public image of the victorious general (1961), Statistical analysis of public opinion polls in US and France Hazareesingh, Sudhir. In the Shadow of the General: Modern France and the Myth of De Gaulle (2012) online review Hoffmann, Stanley. "The Hero as History: De Gaulle's War Memoirs" in Hoffman Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s (1974) pp 187–201 online edition Johnson, Douglas. "The Political Principles of General de Gaulle," International Affairs (1965) 41#4 pp. 650–662 in JSTOR Mahoney, Daniel J. De Gaulle: Statesmanship, Grandeur, and Modern Democracy. (1996). 188 pp. intellectual history Mahoney, Daniel J. "A 'Man of Character': The Statesmanship of Charles de Gaulle," Polity (1994) 27#1 pp. 157–173 in JSTOR Morrisey, Will. "Reflections on De Gaulle: Political Founding in Modernity." (2002). 266 pp. intellectual history Pedley, Alan. As Mighty as the Sword: A Study of the Writings of Charles de Gaulle (1996) 226pp External links Fondation Charles-de-Gaulle Mémorial Charles de Gaulle 1890 births 1970 deaths 20th-century presidents of France 20th-century Princes of Andorra Collège Stanislas de Paris alumni Conservatism in France Charles École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr alumni French anti-communists French Army officers French Army personnel who were court-martialed French generals French military personnel of World War I French military personnel of World War II French military writers French nationalists French people of the Algerian War French prisoners of war in World War I French Roman Catholics Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (France) Grand Masters of the Order of Liberation Heads of state of France Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order Knights Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic Politicians from Lille People of the Nigerian Civil War People sentenced to death in absentia Political party founders Princes of Andorra Prime Ministers of France Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France) Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France) Recipients of the Order of the Dragon of Annam Recipients of the Silver Cross of the Virtuti Militari World War I prisoners of war held by Germany World War II political leaders Deaths from aneurysm Neurological disease deaths in France French people of Irish descent French people of Scottish descent French people of Flemish descent French people of German descent People of the Cold War Shooting survivors Time Person of the Year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016

2016

2016 was designated as: International Year of Pulses by the sixty-eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly. International Year of Global Understanding (IYGU) by the International Council for Science (ICSU), the International Social Science Council (ISSC), and the International Council for Philosophy and Human Sciences (CIPSH). Events January January 3 – Following the fallout caused by the execution of Nimr al-Nimr, Saudi Arabia and several other countries end their diplomatic relations with Iran. January 8 – Joaquín Guzmán, widely regarded as the world's most powerful drug trafficker, is recaptured following his escape from a maximum security prison in Mexico. January 12 – Ten people are killed and 15 wounded in a bombing near the Blue Mosque in Istanbul. January 16 The International Atomic Energy Agency announces that Iran has adequately dismantled its nuclear weapons program, allowing the United Nations to lift sanctions immediately. 30 people are killed and 56 injured in terrorist attacks in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, targeting a hotel and a nearby restaurant. A siege occurs and 176 hostages are released afterwards, by government forces. In the general election of the Republic of China (Taiwan), the Democratic Progressive Party, led by Tsai Ing-wen, secured a majority in the Legislative Yuan, resulting in the first majority by a non-KMT party and the first majority won by the DPP. Tsai become the 14th President for Taiwan, and also become the first female leader for China. January 28 – The World Health Organization announces an outbreak of the Zika virus. February February 7 – North Korea launches a reconnaissance satellite named Kwangmyŏngsŏng-4 into space, falsely condemned as a long-range ballistic missile test. February 12 – Pope Francis and Patriarch Kirill sign an Ecumenical Declaration in the first such meeting between leaders of the Catholic and Russian Orthodox Churches since their schism in 1054. March March 9 – A total solar eclipse was visible from Indonesia. March 14 – The ESA and Roscosmos launch the joint ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter on a mission to Mars. March 21 The International Criminal Court finds former Congolese Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity, the first time the ICC convicted someone of sexual violence. Barack Obama visits Cuba, marking the first time a sitting US president has visited the island nation since president Calvin Coolidge visited in 1928. March 22 – 2016 Brussels bombings: Suicide bombing attacks at Brussels' Zaventem airport and Maalbeek metro station kill 35 people and injure 300 more. March 24 – Ex-Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadžić is sentenced to 40 years in prison after being found guilty of genocide and crimes against humanity committed during the Bosnian War. April April 1–5 – 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes: Clashes occur along the Nagorno-Karabakh line of contact with the Artsakh Defense Army, backed by the Armenian Armed Forces, on one side and the Azerbaijani Armed Forces on the other. The US State Department estimates that a total of 350 people have been killed in the clashes, which have been defined as "the worst" since the 1994 ceasefire. April 3 – The International Consortium of Investigative Journalists (ICIJ) and the German newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung publish a set of 11.5 million confidential documents from the Panamanian corporate Mossack Fonseca that provides detailed information on more than 214,000 offshore companies, including the identities of shareholders and directors including noted personalities and heads of state. May May 9 – Rodrigo Duterte is elected the President of the Philippines. May 10–14 – The Eurovision Song Contest 2016 is held in Stockholm, Sweden, and is won by Ukrainian entrant Jamala with the song "1944". May 19 – EgyptAir Flight 804 crashes into the Mediterranean Sea en route from Paris to Cairo, killing all 66 people on board. May 20 – Tsai Ing-wen is sworn in as the President of the Republic of China (Taiwan). May 30 – Former Chadian President Hissène Habré is sentenced to life in prison for crimes against humanity committed during his tenure from 1982 to 1990, the first time an African Union-backed court convicted a former ruler of a country within its jurisdiction. June June 1 – The Gotthard Base Tunnel, the world's longest and deepest railway tunnel, is opened following two decades of construction work. June 10 – July 10 – France hosts the UEFA Euro 2016 football tournament, which is won by Portugal. June 12 – A gunman claiming allegiance to the Islamic State opens fire at a gay nightclub in Orlando, Florida, killing 49 people and injuring 53 others. June 16 – British Labour MP Jo Cox is murdered in Birstall, West Yorkshire. June 23 – The United Kingdom votes in a referendum to leave the European Union. June 24 – British Prime Minister David Cameron announces his intention to step down as Prime Minister following the results of the 2016 referendum. June 28 – 2016 Atatürk Airport attack: ISIL is suspected to be responsible for attacking Atatürk Airport in Istanbul, Turkey, killing 45 people and injuring around 230 others. July July 1 – Latvia becomes the 35th member of the OECD. July 2 – 2016 Australian federal election: Malcolm Turnbull's Liberal/National Coalition Government is narrowly re-elected, defeating the Labor Party led by Bill Shorten. July 5 – NASA's Juno spacecraft enters orbit around Jupiter and begins a 20-month survey of the planet. July 6 – The augmented reality mobile game Pokémon Go is released, breaking numerous records in terms of sales and revenue. July 12 – The Philippines wins the arbitration case they filed at the Permanent Court of Arbitration regarding the legality of China's "Nine-Dash Line" claim over the South China Sea under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. July 14 – 2016 Nice truck attack: 86 people are killed and more than 400 others injured in a truck attack in Nice, France, during Bastille Day celebrations. July 15–16 – In Turkey, a faction within the Turkish Armed Forces that organized themselves as the Peace at Home Council, unsuccessfully stages a coup against the state institutions, resulting in the deaths of at least 240 people and triggering a series of unprecedented purges throughout the country. July 22 – The final videocassette recorder is manufactured by the Japanese company Funai. July 26 – Swiss Solar Impulse 2 becomes the first solar-powered aircraft to circumnavigate the Earth. Hillary Clinton becomes the Democratic candidate at the 2016 DNC, becoming the first woman to be nominated for a major political party. August August 5–21 – The 2016 Summer Olympics are held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the first time in South America. August 24 – A 6.2 earthquake hits central Italy, killing 299 people. August 31 – The Brazilian Senate votes (61–20) to impeach the President of Brazil Dilma Rousseff. The Vice President of Brazil, Michel Temer, who had assumed the presidential powers and duties as Acting President of Brazil during Rousseff's suspension, takes office for the remainder of her term. September September 1 – An annular solar eclipse was visible from Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Mozambique and Madagascar. September 3 – The US and China, together responsible for 40% of the world's carbon emissions, both formally join the Paris global climate agreement. September 8 – NASA launches OSIRIS-REx, its first asteroid sample return mission. The probe will visit Bennu and is expected to return with samples in 2023. September 9 – The government of North Korea conducts its fifth and reportedly biggest nuclear test. World leaders condemn the act, with South Korea calling it "maniacal recklessness". September 28 International investigators conclude that Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 was shot down by a Buk missile that came from an area controlled by pro-Russian rebels in eastern Ukraine. Global levels exceed 400 ppm at the time of year normally associated with minimum levels. A 400 ppm level is believed to be higher than anything experienced in human history. September 30 – Two paintings by Vincent van Gogh with a combined value of $100 million, Seascape at Scheveningen and Congregation Leaving the Reformed Church in Nuenen, are recovered after having been stolen on December 7, 2002 from the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam. October October 7 – Three events that played a significant role in the 2016 United States presidential election all take place on the same afternoon: (1) U.S. intelligence agencies publicly accuse the Russian government of using computer hacking to interfere with the U.S. election process; (2) The Washington Post releases a videotape showing candidate Donald Trump privately bragging about sexual improprieties; (3) WikiLeaks releases thousands of private emails from inside the political campaign of candidate Hillary Clinton. October 13 – The Maldives announces its decision to withdraw from the Commonwealth of Nations. October 15 – 150 nations meet at the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) summit in Rwanda and agree to phase out hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) as an amendment to the Montreal Protocol. November November 2 – The Chicago Cubs win the World Series for the first time since 1908, ending the longest championship drought in American sports history. November 6 – The Government of India announced the demonetisation of certain banknotes, causing prolonged cash shortages in the weeks that followed and significant disruption throughout the economy. November 8 – 2016 United States presidential election: Businessman and television personality Donald Trump is elected the 45th President of the United States in a surprise victory against his opponent, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. November 14 – The remains of Philippine dictator Ferdinand Marcos are buried in a private ceremony at the Libingan ng mga Bayani prompting protests throughout the Philippines. November 24 – The Colombian government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia—People's Army sign a revised peace deal, slowing the Colombian conflict. November 28 – LaMia Flight 2933 crashes into a mountain near Medellín, Colombia, killing 71 of the 77 people on board, including members of the Brazilian Chapecoense football squad. December December 4 – A constitutional referendum is held in Italy, resulting in the resignation of the Prime Minister. December 19 – Andrei Karlov, the Russian ambassador to Turkey, is assassinated by an off-duty Turkish police officer at an art exhibition in Ankara. December 22 – A study finds the VSV-EBOV vaccine against the Ebola virus between 70 and 100% effective, and thus making it the first proven vaccine against the disease. December 23 – The United Nations Security Council adopts Resolution 2334 condemning "Israeli settlements in Palestinian territories occupied since 1967". December 25 – 2016 Russian Defence Ministry Tupolev Tu-154 crash: A Tupolev Tu-154 jetliner of the Russian Defence Ministry crashes into the Black Sea shortly after taking off from Sochi International Airport, Russia, while en route to Khmeimim Air Base, Syria. All 92 people on board, including 64 members of the Alexandrov Ensemble choir of the Russian Armed Forces, are killed. December 31 – Withdrawal of the majority of U.S. troops from Afghanistan after 15 years of war. General Pemon conflict in Venezuela. Births February 5 – Jigme Namgyel Wangchuck, heir apparent to the throne of Bhutan March 2 – Prince Oscar, Duke of Skåne, third in the line of succession to the Swedish throne Deaths January January 1 – Vilmos Zsigmond, Hungarian-American cinematographer (b. 1930) January 2 – Sheikh Nimr, Saudi Shia religious leader (b. 1959) January 3 Paul Bley, Canadian pianist (b. 1932) Peter Naur, Danish computer scientist (b. 1928) January 4 – Michel Galabru, French actor (b. 1922) January 5 – Pierre Boulez, French composer, conductor and writer (b. 1925) January 6 – Silvana Pampanini, Italian actress (b. 1925) January 7 André Courrèges, French fashion designer (b. 1923) Princess Ashraf of Iran (b. 1919) January 8 Otis Clay, American soul singer (b. 1942) Maria Teresa de Filippis, Italian racing driver (b. 1926) January 10 David Bowie, English singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1947) Yusuf Zuayyin, 51st and 53rd Prime Minister of Syria (b. 1931) Michael Galeota, American actor (b. 1984) January 11 – Monte Irvin, American baseball player (b. 1919) January 14 René Angélil, Canadian singer and manager (b. 1942) Alan Rickman, English actor and director (b. 1946) January 15 – Dan Haggerty, American actor (b. 1941) January 18 Glenn Frey, American musician (b. 1948) Michel Tournier, French writer (b. 1924) January 19 – Ettore Scola, Italian screenwriter and film director (b. 1931) January 23 – Jimmy Bain, Scottish musician (b. 1947) January 24 – Marvin Minsky, American computer scientist (b. 1927) January 26 Black, English singer-songwriter (b. 1962) Abe Vigoda, American actor (b. 1921) January 28 – Paul Kantner, American singer and musician (b. 1941) January 29 Jean-Marie Doré, 11th Prime Minister of Guinea (b. 1938) Jacques Rivette, French film director and critic (b. 1928) January 30 Frank Finlay, English actor (b. 1926) Francisco Flores Pérez, President of El Salvador (b. 1959) January 31 – Terry Wogan, Irish broadcaster (b. 1938) February February 1 – Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores, 27th President of Guatemala (b. 1930) February 3 – Joe Alaskey, American voice actor (b. 1952) February 4 Edgar Mitchell, American astronaut (b. 1930) Maurice White, American singer-songwriter (b. 1941) February 8 – Amelia Bence, Argentine actress (b. 1914) February 9 – Sushil Koirala, 37th Prime Minister of Nepal (b. 1939) February 13 Trifon Ivanov, Bulgarian footballer (b. 1965) Slobodan Santrač, Serbian football player and manager (b. 1946) Antonin Scalia, American Supreme Court Justice (b. 1936) February 15 Vanity, Canadian singer and actress (b. 1959) George Gaynes, Finnish-born American actor (b. 1917) February 16 – Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egyptian politician and diplomat, Secretary-General of the United Nations (b. 1922) February 17 Mohamed Hassanein Heikal, Egyptian journalist (b. 1923) Andrzej Żuławski, Polish film director and writer (b. 1940) February 19 Umberto Eco, Italian writer and philosopher (b. 1932) Harper Lee, American writer (b. 1926) February 22 Sonny James, American country singer (b. 1928) Douglas Slocombe, British cinematographer (b. 1913) February 23 – Donald E. Williams, American astronaut (b. 1942) February 24 – Peter Kenilorea, 1st Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands (b. 1943) February 28 George Kennedy, American actor (b. 1925) Frank Kelly, Irish actor (b. 1938) February 29 – Hannes Löhr, German footballer (b. 1942) March March 2 – Berta Cáceres, Honduran environmental activist and indigenous leader (b. 1971) March 5 Hassan Al-Turabi, Sudanese spiritual leader (b. 1932) Nikolaus Harnoncourt, Austrian conductor (b. 1929) Ray Tomlinson, American computer programmer (b. 1941) March 6 – Nancy Reagan, American actress, First Lady of the United States (b. 1921) March 8 Sir George Martin, English record producer, composer, arranger and engineer (b. 1926) Claus Ogerman, German conductor and composer (b. 1930) March 9 – Naná Vasconcelos, Brazilian jazz percussionist and vocalist (b. 1944) March 10 Anita Brookner, English novelist (b. 1928) Keith Emerson, British musician (b. 1944) Roberto Perfumo, Argentine footballer and sport commentator (b. 1942) March 12 – Lloyd Shapley, American Nobel mathematician (b. 1923) March 13 – Hilary Putnam, American philosopher, mathematician and computer scientist (b. 1926) March 14 – Peter Maxwell Davies, English composer and conductor (b. 1934) March 17 – Meir Dagan, Israeli general and former Director of Mossad (b. 1945) March 18 – Guido Westerwelle, German politician, Vice-Chancellor of Germany (b. 1961) March 20 – Anker Jørgensen, Prime Minister of Denmark (b. 1922) March 21 – Andrew Grove, Hungarian-American electronic executive (b. 1936) March 22 – Rob Ford, Canadian politician, 64th Mayor of Toronto (b. 1969) March 23 – Ken Howard, American actor (b. 1944) March 24 Roger Cicero, German jazz and pop musician (b. 1970) Johan Cruyff, Dutch footballer and manager (b. 1947) Garry Shandling, American actor and comedian (b. 1949) March 26 – Raúl Cárdenas, Mexican footballer and coach (b. 1928) March 29 – Patty Duke, American actress (b. 1946) March 31 Ronnie Corbett, Scottish comedian (b. 1930) Georges Cottier, Swiss cardinal (b. 1922) Hans-Dietrich Genscher, German politician, Vice-Chancellor of Germany (b. 1927) Zaha Hadid, Iraqi-British architect (b. 1950) Imre Kertész, Hungarian Nobel author (b. 1929) April April 1 – Pratyusha Banerjee, Indian television actress (b. 1991) April 2 – Gato Barbieri, Argentine jazz saxophonist (b. 1932) April 3 Don Francks, Canadian actor, musician and singer (b. 1932) Cesare Maldini, Italian football player and manager (b. 1932) April 4 – Chus Lampreave, Spanish actress (b. 1930) April 6 – Merle Haggard, American country singer (b. 1937) April 8 – Erich Rudorffer, German fighter ace (b. 1917) April 10 – Howard Marks, Welsh drug smuggler, writer and legalisation campaigner (b. 1945) April 12 Anne Jackson, American actress (b. 1925) Balls Mahoney, American professional wrestler (b. 1972) Arnold Wesker, British playwright (b. 1932) April 16 – Louis Pilot, Luxembourgian football player and manager (b. 1940) April 17 – Doris Roberts, American actress, author, and philanthropist (b. 1925) April 19 Patricio Aylwin, 32nd President of Chile (b. 1918) Ronit Elkabetz, Israeli actress and film director (b. 1964) Walter Kohn, Austrian-born American Nobel physicist (b. 1923) April 20 Chyna, American professional wrestler (b. 1969) Guy Hamilton, British film director (b. 1922) Victoria Wood, British comedian (b. 1953) April 21 Lonnie Mack, American singer-guitarist (b. 1941) Prince, American singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist (b. 1958) April 23 – Banharn Silpa-archa, 21st Prime Minister of Thailand (b. 1932) April 24 Billy Paul, American soul singer (b. 1934) Klaus Siebert, German Olympic biathlete (b. 1955) Papa Wemba, Congolese singer and musician (b. 1949) April 26 – Harry Wu, Chinese human rights activist (b. 1937) April 27 – Viktor Gavrikov, Lithuanian-Swiss chess Grandmaster (b. 1957) April 30 – Harry Kroto, English Nobel chemist (b. 1939) May May 1 – Solomon W. Golomb, American mathematician (b. 1932) May 2 – Afeni Shakur, American music businesswoman (b. 1947) May 4 Jean-Baptiste Bagaza, 2nd President of Burundi (b. 1946) Bob Bennett, American politician (b. 1933) May 5 Siné, French political cartoonist (b. 1928) Isao Tomita, Japanese composer (b. 1932) May 6 – Margot Honecker, East German politician (b. 1927) May 8 Nick Lashaway, American actor (b. 1988) William Schallert, American actor (b. 1922) May 10 – Kang Young-hoon, 21st Prime Minister of South Korea (b. 1922) May 16 – Giovanni Coppa, Italian cardinal (b. 1925) May 17 Guy Clark, American singer-songwriter (b. 1941) Yūko Mizutani, Japanese voice actress (b. 1964) May 19 Alexandre Astruc, French film critic and director (b. 1923) Marco Pannella, Italian politician (b. 1930) Alan Young, British-born Canadian-American actor (b. 1919) May 21 Akhtar Mansour, Afghan militant, Supreme leader of the Taliban Sándor Tarics, Hungarian Olympic water polo player (b. 1913) Nick Menza, German-born American drummer (b. 1964) May 22 – Bata Živojinović, Serbian actor and politician (b. 1933) May 25 – Yang Jiang, Chinese playwright, author, and translator (b. 1911) May 26 Loris Francesco Capovilla, Italian cardinal (b. 1915) Arturo Pomar, Spanish chess grandmaster (b. 1931) May 28 Giorgio Albertazzi, Italian actor (b. 1923) David Cañada, Spanish cyclist (b. 1975) May 31 Mohamed Abdelaziz, 3rd Secretary-General of the Polisario Front (b. 1947) Corry Brokken, Dutch singer (b. 1932) Antonio Imbert Barrera, Dominican politician (b. 1920) June June 2 – Tom Kibble, British physicist (b. 1932) June 3 Muhammad Ali, American Olympic and professional boxer (b. 1942) Luis Salom, Spanish motorcycle racer (b. 1991) June 4 – Carmen Pereira, Bissau-Guinean politician (b. 1937) June 5 – Jerome Bruner, American psychologist (b. 1915) June 6 Viktor Korchnoi, Russian-born Swiss chess grandmaster (b. 1931) Theresa Saldana, American actress and author (b. 1954) Peter Shaffer, British playwright and screenwriter (b. 1926) Kimbo Slice, Bahamian-American mixed martial artist, boxer, wrestler and actor (b. 1974) June 7 – Stephen Keshi, Nigerian footballer and manager (b. 1962) June 8 – Qahhor Mahkamov, 1st President of Tajikistan (b. 1932) June 9 – Hassan Muhammad Makki, 10th Prime Minister of Yemen (b. 1933) June 10 Christina Grimmie, American singer (b. 1994) Gordie Howe, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1928) June 11 – Rudi Altig, German road racing cyclist (b. 1937) June 12 Omar Mateen, American mass murderer (b. 1986) George Voinovich, American politician (b. 1936) Janet Waldo, American actress (b. 1919) June 14 – Ann Morgan Guilbert, American actress (b. 1928) June 16 – Jo Cox, English politician (b. 1974) June 17 – Rubén Aguirre, Mexican actor, comedian, producer, screenwriter and director (b. 1934) June 18 – Vittorio Merloni, Italian entrepreneur (b. 1933) June 19 Götz George, German actor (b. 1938) Victor Stănculescu, Romanian general and politician (b. 1928) Anton Yelchin, Russian-born American actor (b. 1989) June 20 – Edgard Pisani, French politician (b. 1918) June 23 Michael Herr, American writer, journalist and screenwriter (b. 1940) Ralph Stanley, American bluegrass musician (b. 1927) June 25 – Maurice G. Dantec, French writer (b. 1959) June 27 Bud Spencer, Italian actor, swimmer, and water polo player (b. 1929) Alvin Toffler, American writer and futurist (b. 1928) June 28 Scotty Moore, American guitarist (b. 1931) Pat Summitt, American basketball coach (b. 1952) June 30 – Martin Lundström, Swedish Olympic cross country skier (b. 1918) July July 1 – Yves Bonnefoy, French poet (b. 1923) July 2 Michael Cimino, American screenwriter and film director (b. 1939) Rudolf E. Kálmán, Hungarian-born American electrical engineer (b. 1930) Patrick Manning, Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago (b. 1946) Michel Rocard, Prime Minister of France (b. 1930) Elie Wiesel, Romanian-born American Nobel writer and political activist (b. 1928) Caroline Aherne, English actress, comedian and writer (b. 1963) July 3 – Noel Neill, American actress (b. 1920) July 4 – Abbas Kiarostami, Iranian film director (b. 1940) July 6 John McMartin, American actor (b. 1929) Turgay Şeren, Turkish footballer (b. 1932) July 8 Abdul Sattar Edhi, Pakistani philanthropist, social activist, and ascetic (b. 1928) William H. McNeill, Canadian-American historian and author (b. 1917) July 9 – Silvano Piovanelli, Italian cardinal (b. 1924) July 12 – Goran Hadžić, Serbian politician and convicted war criminal (b. 1958) July 13 Héctor Babenco, Argentine-Brazilian film director (b. 1946) Bernardo Provenzano, Italian criminal (b. 1933) Zygmunt Zimowski, Polish bishop (b. 1949) July 14 – Péter Esterházy, Hungarian writer (b. 1950) July 16 Nate Thurmond, American basketball player (b. 1941) Alan Vega, American vocalist and visual artist (b. 1938) July 19 Garry Marshall, American film director, television producer and actor (b. 1934) Anthony D. Smith, British historical sociologist (b. 1939) July 22 – Ursula Franklin, German-born Canadian scientist (b. 1921) July 23 – Thorbjörn Fälldin, 2-Time Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1926) July 25 Halil İnalcık, Turkish historian (b. 1916) Dwight Jones, American basketball player (b. 1952) Tim LaHaye, American evangelist and author (b. 1926) July 27 Einojuhani Rautavaara, Finnish composer (b. 1928) Piet de Jong, Dutch politician and naval officer, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b. 1915) July 28 Mahasweta Devi, Indian social activist and writer (b. 1926) Vladica Kovačević, Serbian footballer (b. 1940) Émile Derlin Zinsou, 4th President of Dahomey (b. 1918) July 30 – Gloria DeHaven, American actress (b. 1925) July 31 Fazil Iskander, Russian writer (b. 1929) Bobbie Heine Miller, South African tennis player (b. 1909) Chiyonofuji Mitsugu, Japanese sumo wrestler (b. 1955) Seymour Papert, South African-born American mathematician and computer scientist (b. 1928) August August 1 – Queen Anne of Romania, French-born consort of former King Michael of Romania (b. 1923) August 2 David Huddleston, American actor (b. 1930) Franciszek Macharski, Polish cardinal (b. 1927) Ahmed Zewail, Egyptian-American Nobel chemist (b. 1946) August 3 – Chris Amon, New Zealand motor racing driver (b. 1943) August 9 – Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster (b. 1951) August 13 Kenny Baker, English actor (b. 1934) Françoise Mallet-Joris, Belgian writer (b. 1930) August 14 Hermann Kant, German writer (b. 1926) Fyvush Finkel, American actor (b. 1922) August 15 Dalian Atkinson, English footballer (b. 1968) Stefan Henze, German canoeist and coach (b. 1981) Bobby Hutcherson, American jazz musician (b. 1941) August 16 Andrew Florent, Australian tennis player (b. 1970) João Havelange, Brazilian athlete and football executive (b. 1916) August 17 – Arthur Hiller, Canadian film director (b. 1923) August 18 – Ernst Nolte, German historian (b. 1923) August 19 Lou Pearlman, American music manager and record producer (b. 1954) Nina Ponomaryova, Russian Olympic discus thrower (b. 1929) Jack Riley, American actor (b. 1935) Mohammad Ali Samatar, 5th Prime Minister of Somalia (b. 1931) August 22 S. R. Nathan, 6th President of Singapore (b. 1924) Toots Thielemans, Belgian jazz musician (b. 1922) August 23 Steven Hill, American actor (b. 1922) Berit Mørdre Lammedal, Norwegian cross-country skier (b. 1940) Reinhard Selten, German Nobel economist (b. 1930) August 24 Michel Butor, French writer (b. 1926) Walter Scheel, 8th President of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) (b. 1919) Roger Y. Tsien, American Nobel biologist (b. 1952) August 25 James Cronin, American Nobel physicist (b. 1931) Sonia Rykiel, French fashion designer (b. 1930) Rudy Van Gelder, American recording engineer (b. 1924) August 26 – Harald Grønningen, Norwegian cross country skier (b. 1934) August 28 Binyamin Ben-Eliezer, Israeli politician and former Deputy Prime Minister (b. 1936) Mr. Fuji, American professional wrestler and wrestling manager (b. 1934) Juan Gabriel, Mexican singer-songwriter (b. 1950) August 29 – Gene Wilder, American actor (b. 1933) August 30 Věra Čáslavská, Czech gymnast (b. 1942) Marc Riboud, French photographer (b. 1923) September September 1 – Jon Polito, American actor (b. 1950) September 2 Islam Karimov, 1st President of Uzbekistan (b. 1938) Daniel Willems, Belgian cyclist (b. 1956) September 3 Johnny Rebel, American white supremacist singer and songwriter (b. 1938) Jean-Christophe Yoccoz, French mathematician (b. 1957) September 5 Hugh O'Brian, American actor (b. 1925) Phyllis Schlafly, American writer and political activist (b. 1924) September 7 Joseph Keller, American mathematician (b. 1923) Norbert Schemansky, American weightlifter (b. 1924) September 8 Prince Buster, Jamaican singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1938) Dragiša Pešić, 5th Prime Minister of Serbia and Montenegro (b. 1954) September 11 – Alexis Arquette, American actress, cabaret performer, underground cartoonist, and activist (b. 1969) September 12 – Sándor Csoóri, Hungarian poet (b. 1930) September 13 – Jonathan Riley-Smith, English medieval historian (b. 1938) September 16 Edward Albee, American playwright (b. 1928) Gabriele Amorth, Italian Catholic priest and exorcist (b. 1925) Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, 10th President and 49th Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1920) António Mascarenhas Monteiro, 2nd President of Cape Verde (b. 1944) Qiao Renliang, Chinese singer and actor (b. 1987) September 17 Charmian Carr, American actress (b. 1942) Sigge Parling, Swedish footballer (b. 1930) September 20 – Curtis Hanson, American film director and screenwriter (b. 1945) September 23 – Marcel Artelesa, French footballer (b. 1938) September 24 Bill Mollison, Australian researcher, author and biologist (b. 1928) Bill Nunn, American actor (b. 1953) September 25 José Fernández, Cuban-American baseball pitcher (b. 1992) David Padilla, 53rd President of Bolivia (b. 1927) Arnold Palmer, American professional golfer (b. 1929) Jean Shepard, American honky-tonk singer-songwriter (b. 1933) Rod Temperton, English songwriter, record producer and musician (b. 1949) September 26 – Herschell Gordon Lewis, American film director and screenwriter (b. 1929) September 27 – Jamshid Amouzegar, 71st Prime Minister of Iran (b. 1923) September 28 – Shimon Peres, 9th President and 8th Prime Minister of Israel, Nobel Peace Prize laureate (b. 1923) September 29 – Miriam Defensor Santiago, Filipino politician (b. 1945) September 30 – Trịnh Thị Ngọ, Vietnamese radio personality (b. 1931) October October 1 – David Herd, Scottish footballer (b. 1934) October 2 – Neville Marriner, British conductor (b. 1924) October 4 – Brigitte Hamann, German-Austrian historian and author (b. 1940) October 5 – Michal Kováč, 1st President of Slovakia (b. 1930) October 8 Gary Dubin, American actor and voice actor (b. 1959) Stylianos Pattakos, Greek military officer (b. 1912) October 9 Mamadou Dembelé, 3rd Prime Minister of Mali (b. 1934) Andrzej Wajda, Polish film director (b. 1926) October 11 – Teatao Teannaki, 2nd President of Kiribati (b. 1936) October 12 – Thomas Mikal Ford, American actor and comedian (b. 1964) October 13 Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX), King of Thailand (b. 1927) Dario Fo, Italian actor, Nobel playwright and comedian (b. 1926) October 14 – Klim Churyumov, Soviet-Ukrainian astronomer (b. 1937) October 16 Kigeli V, King of Rwanda (b. 1936) Viktor Zubkov, Russian basketball player (b. 1937) October 20 – Junko Tabei, Japanese mountaineer (b. 1939) October 23 – Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani, Emir of Qatar (b. 1932) October 24 Jorge Batlle, 38th President of Uruguay (b. 1927) Bobby Vee, American pop singer (b. 1943) October 25 – Carlos Alberto Torres, Brazilian footballer (b. 1944) October 27 – Takahito, Prince Mikasa (b. 1915) October 28 – Nicholas Brathwaite, 3rd Prime Minister of Grenada (b. 1925) October 29 Roland Dyens, French classical guitarist and composer (b. 1955) Pen Sovan, 32nd Prime Minister of Cambodia (b. 1936) October 31 – Silvio Gazzaniga, Italian sculptor (b. 1921) November November 2 – Oleg Popov, Soviet and Russian clown (b. 1930) November 3 – W. D. Amaradeva, Sri Lankan Musician (b. 1927) November 4 – Jean-Jacques Perrey, French electronic music producer (b. 1929) November 5 – Marek Svatoš, Slovak ice hockey player (b. 1982) November 6 – Zoltán Kocsis, Hungarian pianist, conductor and composer (b. 1952) November 7 Leonard Cohen, Canadian singer, songwriter and poet (b. 1934) Janet Reno, American lawyer, U.S. Attorney General (b. 1938) November 11 Ilse Aichinger, Austrian writer (b. 1921) Željko Čajkovski, Croatian football player (b. 1925) Robert Vaughn, American actor (b. 1932) November 12 – Lupita Tovar, Mexican-American actress (b. 1910) November 13 Enzo Maiorca, Italian free diver (b. 1931) Leon Russell, American musician (b. 1942) November 14 Gwen Ifill, American journalist (b. 1955) Gardnar Mulloy, American tennis player (b. 1913) November 15 Mose Allison, American jazz musician (b. 1927) Sixto Durán Ballén, 37th President of Ecuador (b. 1921) November 16 Jay Wright Forrester, American computer engineer (b. 1918) Melvin Laird, American politician and writer (b. 1922) Daniel Prodan, Romanian football player (b. 1972) November 17 – Whitney Smith, American vexillologist (b. 1940) November 18 Denton Cooley, American heart surgeon (b. 1920) Sharon Jones, American soul singer (b. 1956) November 20 Gabriel Badilla, Costa Rican footballer (b. 1984) Konstantinos Stephanopoulos, 5th President of Greece (b. 1926) William Trevor, Irish writer (b. 1928) November 22 – M. Balamuralikrishna, Indian musician, multi-instrumentalist, singer and composer (b. 1930) November 23 – Andrew Sachs, German-born British actor (b. 1930) November 24 Florence Henderson, American actress (b. 1934) Pauline Oliveros, American composer (b. 1932) November 25 Fidel Castro, First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba and President of the State Council of Cuba (b. 1926) Ron Glass, American actor (b. 1945) David Hamilton, British photographer (b. 1933) November 27 – Ioannis Grivas, 176th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1923) November 28 Cléber Santana, Brazilian footballer (b. 1981) Mark Taimanov, Russian chess Grandmaster and concert pianist (b. 1926) Van Williams, American actor (b. 1934) November 29 – Luis Alberto Monge, 39th President of Costa Rica (b. 1925) December December 2 – Sammy Lee, American Olympic diver (b. 1920) December 4 – Gotlib, French comic artist (b. 1934) December 5 Geydar Dzhemal, Russian Islamic philosopher (b. 1947) Jayalalithaa Jayaram, Indian politician (b. 1948) December 6 – Peter Vaughan, British actor (b. 1923) December 7 Junaid Jamshed, Pakistani recording artist (b. 1964) Paul Elvstrøm, Danish Olympic yachtsman (b. 1928) Greg Lake, British musician (b. 1947) December 8 John Glenn, American aviator, astronaut and politician (b. 1921) Joseph Mascolo, American actor (b. 1929) December 10 – Esma Redžepova, Macedonian-Romani singer (b. 1943) December 12 E. R. Braithwaite, Guyanese-born British-American novelist, writer, teacher, and diplomat (b. 1912) Javier Echevarría Rodríguez, Spanish bishop (b. 1932) December 13 Thomas Schelling, American Nobel economist (b. 1921) Alan Thicke, Canadian actor and songwriter (b. 1947) December 14 Paulo Evaristo Arns, Brazilian prelate (b. 1921) Bernard Fox, Welsh actor (b. 1927) December 16 – Faina Melnik, Ukrainian-born Russian Olympic discus thrower (b. 1945) December 17 – Henry Heimlich, American physician (b. 1920) December 18 – Zsa Zsa Gabor, Hungarian-American actress and socialite (b. 1917) December 19 – Andrei Karlov, Russian diplomat (b. 1954) December 20 – Michèle Morgan, French actress (b. 1920) December 22 – Miruts Yifter, Ethiopian long-distance runner (b. 1944) December 23 Heinrich Schiff, Austrian cellist (b. 1951) Piers Sellers, British-American astronaut and meteorologist (b. 1955) Vesna Vulović, Serbian air disaster survivor (b. 1950) December 24 Richard Adams, British author (b. 1920) Rick Parfitt, British musician (b. 1948) Liz Smith, British actress (b. 1921) December 25 George Michael, British singer (b. 1963) Vera Rubin, American astronomer (b. 1928) December 26 – Ashot Anastasian, Armenian chess grandmaster (b. 1964) December 27 Carrie Fisher, American actress and writer (b. 1956) Ratnasiri Wickremanayake, 12th Prime Minister of Sri Lanka (b. 1933) December 28 Gregorio Conrado Álvarez, President of Uruguay (b. 1925) Michel Déon, French writer (b. 1919) Debbie Reynolds, American actress, dancer, and singer (b. 1932) December 29 Néstor Gonçalves, Uruguayan footballer (b. 1936) Ferdinand Kübler, Swiss racing cyclist (b. 1919) December 30 – Tyrus Wong, Chinese-born American artist (b. 1910) December 31 William Christopher, American actor and comedian (b. 1932) Henning Christophersen, Danish politician (b. 1939) Nobel Prizes Chemistry – Ben Feringa, Jean-Pierre Sauvage, Fraser Stoddart Economics – Oliver Hart, Bengt R. Holmström Literature – Bob Dylan Peace – Juan Manuel Santos Physics – John M. Kosterlitz, Duncan Haldane, David J. Thouless Physiology or Medicine – Yoshinori Ohsumi New English words dark kitchen moscovium nihonium oganesson tennessine See also 2010s political history List of international years References Leap years in the Gregorian calendar

53299

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookhaven%20National%20Laboratory

Brookhaven National Laboratory

Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory located in Upton, Long Island, and was formally established in 1947 at the site of Camp Upton, a former U.S. Army base and Japanese internment camp. Its name stems from its location within the Town of Brookhaven, approximately 60 miles east of New York City. It is managed by Stony Brook University and Battelle Memorial Institute. Research at BNL includes nuclear and high energy physics, energy science and technology, environmental and bioscience, nanoscience, and national security. The 5,300 acre campus contains several large research facilities, including the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider and National Synchrotron Light Source II. Seven Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work conducted at Brookhaven Lab. Overview BNL is staffed by approximately 2,750 scientists, engineers, technicians, and support personnel, and hosts 4,000 guest investigators every year. The laboratory has its own police station, fire department, and ZIP code (11973). In total, the lab spans a area that is mostly coterminous with the hamlet of Upton, New York. BNL is served by a rail spur operated as-needed by the New York and Atlantic Railway. Co-located with the laboratory is the Upton, New York, forecast office of the National Weather Service. Major programs Although originally conceived as a nuclear research facility, Brookhaven Lab's mission has greatly expanded. Its foci are now: Nuclear and high-energy physics Physics and chemistry of materials Environmental and climate research Nanomaterials Energy research Nonproliferation Structural biology Accelerator physics Operation Brookhaven National Lab was originally owned by the Atomic Energy Commission and is now owned by that agency's successor, the United States Department of Energy (DOE). DOE subcontracts the research and operation to universities and research organizations. It is currently operated by Brookhaven Science Associates LLC, which is an equal partnership of Stony Brook University and Battelle Memorial Institute. From 1947 to 1998, it was operated by Associated Universities, Inc. (AUI), but AUI lost its contract in the wake of two incidents: a 1994 fire at the facility's high-beam flux reactor that exposed several workers to radiation and reports in 1997 of a tritium leak into the groundwater of the Long Island Central Pine Barrens on which the facility sits. History Foundations Following World War II, the US Atomic Energy Commission was created to support government-sponsored peacetime research on atomic energy. The effort to build a nuclear reactor in the American northeast was fostered largely by physicists Isidor Isaac Rabi and Norman Foster Ramsey Jr., who during the war witnessed many of their colleagues at Columbia University leave for new remote research sites following the departure of the Manhattan Project from its campus. Their effort to house this reactor near New York City was rivalled by a similar effort at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to have a facility near Boston. Involvement was quickly solicited from representatives of northeastern universities to the south and west of New York City such that this city would be at their geographic center. In March 1946 a nonprofit corporation was established that consisted of representatives from nine major research universities — Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, Johns Hopkins, MIT, Princeton, University of Pennsylvania, University of Rochester, and Yale University. Out of 17 considered sites in the Boston-Washington corridor, Camp Upton on Long Island was eventually chosen as the most suitable in consideration of space, transportation, and availability. The camp had been a training center for the US Army during both World War I and World War II. After the latter war, Camp Upton was deemed no longer necessary and became available for reuse. A plan was conceived to convert the military camp into a research facility. On March 21, 1947, the Camp Upton site was officially transferred from the U.S. War Department to the new U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), predecessor to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). Research and facilities Reactor history In 1947 construction began on the first nuclear reactor at Brookhaven, the Brookhaven Graphite Research Reactor. This reactor, which opened in 1950, was the first reactor to be constructed in the United States after World War II. The High Flux Beam Reactor operated from 1965 to 1999. In 1959 Brookhaven built the first US reactor specifically tailored to medical research, the Brookhaven Medical Research Reactor, which operated until 2000. Accelerator history In 1952 Brookhaven began using its first particle accelerator, the Cosmotron. At the time the Cosmotron was the world's highest energy accelerator, being the first to impart more than 1 GeV of energy to a particle. The Cosmotron was retired in 1966, after it was superseded in 1960 by the new Alternating Gradient Synchrotron (AGS). The AGS was used in research that resulted in 3 Nobel prizes, including the discovery of the muon neutrino, the charm quark, and CP violation. In 1970 in BNL started the ISABELLE project to develop and build two proton intersecting storage rings. The groundbreaking for the project was in October 1978. In 1981, with the tunnel for the accelerator already excavated, problems with the superconducting magnets needed for the ISABELLE accelerator brought the project to a halt, and the project was eventually cancelled in 1983. The National Synchrotron Light Source operated from 1982 to 2014 and was involved with two Nobel Prize-winning discoveries. It has since been replaced by the National Synchrotron Light Source II. After ISABELLE'S cancellation, physicist at BNL proposed that the excavated tunnel and parts of the magnet assembly be used in another accelerator. In 1984 the first proposal for the accelerator now known as the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) was put forward. The construction got funded in 1991 and RHIC has been operational since 2000. One of the world's only two operating heavy-ion colliders, RHIC is as of 2010 the second-highest-energy collider after the Large Hadron Collider. RHIC is housed in a tunnel 2.4 miles (3.9 km) long and is visible from space. On January 9, 2020, It was announced by Paul Dabbar, undersecretary of the US Department of Energy Office of Science, that the BNL eRHIC design has been selected over the conceptual design put forward by Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility as the future Electron–ion collider (EIC) in the United States. In addition to the site selection, it was announced that the BNL EIC had acquired CD-0 (mission need) from the Department of Energy. BNL's eRHIC design proposes upgrading the existing Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, which collides beams light to heavy ions including polarized protons, with a polarized electron facility, to be housed in the same tunnel. Other discoveries In 1958, Brookhaven scientists created one of the world's first video games, Tennis for Two. In 1968 Brookhaven scientists patented Maglev, a transportation technology that utilizes magnetic levitation. Major facilities Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), which was designed to research quark–gluon plasma and the sources of proton spin. Until 2009 it was the world's most powerful heavy ion collider. It is the only collider of spin-polarized protons. Center for Functional Nanomaterials (CFN), used for the study of nanoscale materials. National Synchrotron Light Source II (NSLS-II), Brookhaven's newest user facility, opened in 2015 to replace the National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS), which had operated for 30 years. NSLS was involved in the work that won the 2003 and 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Alternating Gradient Synchrotron, a particle accelerator that was used in three of the lab's Nobel prizes. Accelerator Test Facility, generates, accelerates and monitors particle beams. Tandem Van de Graaff, once the world's largest electrostatic accelerator. Computational Science resources, including access to a massively parallel Blue Gene series supercomputer that is among the fastest in the world for scientific research, run jointly by Brookhaven National Laboratory and Stony Brook University. Interdisciplinary Science Building, with unique laboratories for studying high-temperature superconductors and other materials important for addressing energy challenges. NASA Space Radiation Laboratory, where scientists use beams of ions to simulate cosmic rays and assess the risks of space radiation to human space travelers and equipment. Off-site contributions It is a contributing partner to ATLAS experiment, one of the four detectors located at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). It is currently operating at CERN near Geneva, Switzerland. Brookhaven was also responsible for the design of the SNS accumulator ring in partnership with Spallation Neutron Source in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Brookhaven plays a role in a range of neutrino research projects around the world, including the Daya Bay Reactor Neutrino Experiment in China and the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. Public access For other than approved Public Events, the Laboratory is closed to the general public. The lab is open to the public on several Sundays during the summer for tours and special programs. The public access program is referred to as 'Summer Sundays' and takes place on four Sundays from mid-July to mid-August, and features a science show and a tour of the lab's major facilities. The laboratory also hosts science fairs, science bowls, and robotics competitions for local schools, and lectures, concerts, and scientific talks for the local community. The Lab estimates that each year it enhances the science education of roughly 35,000 K-12 students on Long Island, more than 200 undergraduates, and 550 teachers from across the United States. Controversy and environmental cleanup In January 1997, ground water samples taken by BNL staff revealed concentrations of tritium that were twice the allowable federal drinking water standards—some samples taken later were 32 times the standard. The tritium was found to be leaking from the laboratory's High Flux Beam Reactor's spent-fuel pool into the aquifer that provides drinking water for nearby Suffolk County residents. DOE's and BNL's investigation of this incident concluded that the tritium had been leaking for as long as 12 years without DOE's or BNL's knowledge. Installing wells that could have detected the leak was first discussed by BNL engineers in 1993, but the wells were not completed until 1996. The resulting controversy about both BNL's handling of the tritium leak and perceived lapses in DOE's oversight led to the termination of AUI as the BNL contractor in May 1997. The responsibility for failing to discover Brookhaven's tritium leak has been acknowledged by laboratory managers, and DOE admits it failed to properly oversee the laboratory's operations. Brookhaven officials repeatedly treated the need for installing monitoring wells that would have detected the tritium leak as a low priority despite public concern and the laboratory's agreement to follow local environmental regulations. DOE's on-site oversight office, the Brookhaven Group, was directly responsible for Brookhaven's performance, but it failed to hold the laboratory accountable for meeting all of its regulatory commitments, especially its agreement to install monitoring wells. Senior DOE leadership also shared responsibility because they failed to put in place an effective system that encourages all parts of DOE to work together to ensure that contractors meet their responsibilities on environmental, safety and health issues. Unclear responsibilities for environment, safety and health matters has been a recurring problem for DOE management. Since 1993, DOE has spent more than US$580 million on remediating soil and groundwater contamination at the lab site and completed several high-profile projects. These include the decommissioning and decontamination of the Brookhaven Graphite Research Reactor, removal of mercury-contaminated sediment from the Peconic River, and installation and operation of 16 on- and off-site groundwater treatment systems that have cleaned more than 25 billion gallons of groundwater since 1996. Shortly after winning the contract to operate the lab in 1997, BSA formed a Community Advisory Council (CAC) to advise the laboratory director on cleanup projects and other items of interest to the community. The CAC represents a diverse range of interests and values of individuals and groups who are interested in or affected by the actions of the Laboratory. It consists of representatives from 26 local business, civic, education, environment, employee, government, and health organizations. The CAC sets its own agenda, brings forth issues important to the community, and works to provide consensus recommendations to Laboratory management. Nobel Prizes Nobel Prize in Physics 1957 – Chen Ning Yang and Tsung-Dao Lee – parity laws 1976 – Samuel C. C. Ting – J/Psi particle 1980 – James Cronin and Val Logsdon Fitch – CP-violation 1988 – Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz, Jack Steinberger – Muon neutrino 2002 – Raymond Davis, Jr. – Solar neutrino Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2003 – Roderick MacKinnon – Ion channel 2009 – Venkatraman Ramakrishnan and Thomas A. Steitz – Ribosome See also Center for the Advancement of Science in Space—operates the US National Laboratory on the ISS. Goldhaber fellows References "Dr. Strangelet or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Big Bang" External links Brookhaven National Lab Official Website Physics Today: DOE Shuts Brookhaven Lab’s HFBR in a Triumph of Politics Over Science 404 Summer Sundays at Brookhaven National Laboratory Annotated bibliography for Brookhaven Laboratory from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Headlines Stony Brook University United States Department of Energy national laboratories Federally Funded Research and Development Centers Laboratories in the United States Nuclear research institutes Particle physics facilities Brookhaven, New York Tourist attractions in Suffolk County, New York Battelle Memorial Institute Superfund sites in New York (state) 1947 establishments in New York (state) Physics institutes Theoretical physics institutes Institutes associated with CERN Energy infrastructure on Long Island, New York

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20L.%20Jackson

Samuel L. Jackson

Samuel Leroy Jackson (born December 21, 1948) is an American actor and producer. One of the most widely recognized actors of his generation, the films in which he has appeared have collectively grossed over $27 billion worldwide, making him the highest-grossing actor of all time (excluding cameo appearances and voice roles). He rose to fame with films such as Coming to America (1988), Goodfellas (1990), Patriot Games (1992), Juice (1992), Menace II Society (1993), True Romance (1993), Jurassic Park (1993), and Fresh (1994). Jackson continued gaining greater prominence for his collaborations with director Spike Lee in the films School Daze (1988), Do the Right Thing (1989), Mo' Better Blues (1990), Jungle Fever (1991), Oldboy (2013) and Chi-Raq (2015) and in the Quentin Tarantino films Pulp Fiction (1994), Jackie Brown (1997), Django Unchained (2012), and The Hateful Eight (2015). For his role in Pulp Fiction, he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. In 2021 it was announced by the Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences that Jackson will be the recipient of the Honorary Academy Award. Jackson is a highly prolific actor, having appeared in over 150 films. His other roles include Die Hard with a Vengeance (1995), A Time to Kill (1996), Hard Eight (1996), Eve's Bayou (1997), The Red Violin (1998), The Negotiator (1998), Unbreakable (2000), Shaft (2000) and its 2019 sequel/reboot, Coach Carter (2005), Snakes on a Plane (2006), The Other Guys (2010), Kingsman: The Secret Service (2014), Kong: Skull Island (2017), and Glass (2019). Jackson also won widespread recognition as the Jedi Mace Windu in the Star Wars prequel trilogy (1999–2005), and later voiced the role in the animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008). With his permission, his likeness was used for the Ultimate version of the Marvel Comics character Nick Fury; he subsequently played Fury in 11 Marvel Cinematic Universe films, beginning with a cameo appearance in Iron Man (2008), as well as guest-starring in the television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. He will reprise this role in the upcoming Disney+ series Secret Invasion, which is set to premiere in 2022. Jackson has provided his voice for several animated films, documentaries, television series, and video games, including Lucius Best/Frozone in the Pixar films The Incredibles (2004) and Incredibles 2 (2018), Whiplash in Turbo (2013), the title character of the anime television series Afro Samurai (2007), and Frank Tenpenny in the video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas (2004). In 2016, Jackson served as the narrator of the acclaimed documentary I Am Not Your Negro based on James Baldwin's writings. Early life Samuel Leroy Jackson was born in Washington, D.C., on December 21, 1948, the only child of Elizabeth Harriett ( Montgomery) and Roy Henry Jackson. He grew up in Chattanooga, Tennessee. His father lived away from the family in Kansas City, Missouri, and later died of alcoholism. Jackson met him only twice during his life. He was raised by his mother, a factory worker and later a supplies buyer for a mental institution; he was also raised by his maternal grandparents, Edgar and Pearl Montgomery, as well as extended family. According to DNA tests, Jackson partially descends from the Benga people of Gabon, and he became a naturalized citizen of Gabon in 2019. He attended several segregated schools and graduated from Riverside High School in Chattanooga. He played the French horn, piccolo, trumpet, and flute in the school orchestra. He developed a stutter during childhood and learned to "pretend to be other people who didn't stutter". He still uses the word "motherfucker" to get through a speech block. He still has days where he stutters. Initially intent on pursuing a degree in marine biology, he attended Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia. After joining a local acting group to earn extra points in a class, he found an interest in acting and switched his major. Before graduating in 1972, he co-founded the Just Us Theatre. After Martin Luther King Jr.'s assassination in 1968, Jackson attended King's funeral in Atlanta as one of the ushers. He then travelled to Memphis, Tennessee, to join an equal rights protest march. In a 2005 Parade interview, he revealed, "I was angry about the assassination, but I wasn't shocked by it. I knew that change was going to take something different – not sit-ins, not peaceful coexistence." In 1969, Jackson and several other students held members of the Morehouse College board of trustees (including Martin Luther King Sr.) hostage on the campus, demanding reform in the school's curriculum and governance. The college eventually agreed to change its policy, but Jackson was charged with and eventually convicted of unlawful confinement, a second-degree felony. He was then suspended for two years for his criminal record and his actions. He would later return to the college to earn a BA in drama in 1972. While he was suspended, he took a job as a social worker in Los Angeles. He decided to return to Atlanta, where he met with Stokely Carmichael, H. Rap Brown, and others active in the Black Power movement. He began to feel empowered with his involvement in the movement, especially when the group began buying guns. However, before he could become involved with any significant armed confrontations, his mother sent him to Los Angeles after the FBI warned her that he would die within a year if he remained with the group. In a 2018 interview with Vogue, he denied having been a member of the Black Panther Party. Career 1970s Jackson initially majored in marine biology at Morehouse College before switching to architecture. He later settled on drama after taking a public speaking class and appearing in a version of The Threepenny Opera. Jackson began acting on the stage, including Home and A Soldier's Play. He appeared in several television films, and made his feature film debut in the blaxploitation independent film Together for Days (1972). After these initial roles, Jackson moved from Atlanta to New York City in 1976 and spent the next decade appearing in stage plays, including the premiers of The Piano Lesson and Two Trains Running at the Yale Repertory Theater. Jackson developed addictions to alcohol and cocaine, which prevented him from proceeding with the two plays to Broadway (actors Charles S. Dutton and Anthony Chisholm took his place). Throughout his early film career, mainly in minimal roles in films such as Coming to America and various television films, Jackson was mentored by Morgan Freeman. 1980s After a 1981 performance in the play A Soldier's Play, Jackson was introduced to director Spike Lee, who cast him for small roles in School Daze (1988) and Do the Right Thing (1989). He also worked for three years as a stand-in for Bill Cosby on The Cosby Show. 1990s Jackson played a minor role in the 1990 Martin Scorsese film Goodfellas, as real-life Mafia associate Stacks Edwards. Having overdosed on heroin several times, he gave up the drug in favor of cocaine. His family entered him into a New York rehabilitation clinic. After he successfully completed rehabilitation, he appeared in Jungle Fever as a crack cocaine addict. Jackson said that the role was cathartic, commenting, "It was a funny kind of thing. By the time I was out of rehab, about a week or so later I was on set and we were ready to start shooting." His performance was so acclaimed that the jury of 1991 Cannes Film Festival added a special "Supporting Actor" award just for him. Following this role, Jackson became involved with the comedy Strictly Business and dramas Juice and Patriot Games. He then moved on to two other comedies: National Lampoon's Loaded Weapon 1 (his first starring role) and Amos & Andrew. Jackson worked with director Steven Spielberg in 1993's Jurassic Park. After a turn as the criminal Big Don in 1993's True Romance—written by Quentin Tarantino and directed by Tony Scott—Tarantino asked Jackson to play Jules Winnfield in Pulp Fiction. Jackson was surprised to learn that the part had been specifically written for him: "To know that somebody had written something like Jules for me. I was overwhelmed, thankful, arrogant—this whole combination of things that you could be, knowing that somebody's going to give you an opportunity like that." Although Pulp Fiction was Jackson's thirtieth film, the role made him internationally recognized and he received praise from critics. In a review by Entertainment Weekly, his role was commended: "As superb as Travolta, Willis, and Keitel are, the actor who reigns over Pulp Fiction is Samuel L. Jackson. He just about lights fires with his gremlin eyes and he transforms his speeches into hypnotic bebop soliloquies." For the Academy Awards, Miramax Films pushed for, and received, the Best Supporting Actor nomination for Jackson. He also received a Golden Globe nomination and won the BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Role. After Pulp Fiction, Jackson received multiple scripts to review: "I could easily have made a career out of playing Jules over the years. Everybody's always sending me the script they think is the new Pulp Fiction." With a succession of poor-performing films such as Kiss of Death, The Great White Hype, and Losing Isaiah, Jackson began to receive poor reviews from critics who had praised his performance in Pulp Fiction. This ended with his involvement in the two box-office successes, Die Hard with a Vengeance, starring alongside Bruce Willis in the third installment of the Die Hard series; and A Time to Kill, where he played a father put on trial for killing two men who raped his daughter. For A Time to Kill, Jackson earned an NAACP Image for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture and a Golden Globe nomination for a Best Supporting Actor. Quickly becoming a box office star, Jackson continued with three starring roles in 1997. In 187 he played a dedicated teacher striving to leave an impact on his students. He received an Independent Spirit award for Best First Feature alongside first-time writer/director Kasi Lemmons in the drama Eve's Bayou, for which he also served as executive producer. He joined up again with Tarantino for Jackie Brown and received the Silver Bear for Best Actor at the Berlin Film Festival and a fourth Golden Globe nomination for his portrayal of arms merchant Ordell Robbie In 1998, he worked with established actors: Sharon Stone and Dustin Hoffman in Sphere; and Kevin Spacey in The Negotiator, playing a hostage negotiator who resorts to taking hostages himself when he is falsely accused of murder and embezzlement. In 1999, Jackson starred in the horror film Deep Blue Sea, and as Jedi Master Mace Windu in George Lucas' Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. In an interview, Jackson claimed that he did not have a chance to read the script for the film and did not learn he was playing the character Mace Windu until he was fitted for his costume (though he later said that he was eager to accept any role, just for the chance to be a part of the Star Wars saga). 2000s On June 13, 2000, Jackson was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7018 Hollywood Blvd. He began the next decade of his film career playing a Marine colonel put on trial in Rules of Engagement, co-starred with Bruce Willis for a third time in the supernatural thriller Unbreakable, and starred in the 2000 remake of the 1971 film Shaft. He reprised both of the latter roles in 2019, his Unbreakable character Mr. Glass in Glass and Shaft in another film titled Shaft. Jackson's sole film in 2001 was The Caveman's Valentine, a murder thriller directed by Lemmons in which he played a homeless musician. In 2002, he played a recovering alcoholic, attempting to keep custody of his kids while fighting a battle of wits (in Changing Lanes) with Ben Affleck's character. He returned for Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones, seeing his minor supporting role develop into a major character. Mace Windu's purple lightsaber in the film was the result of Jackson's suggestion; he wanted to be sure that his character would stand out in a crowded battle scene. Jackson then acted as an NSA agent, alongside Vin Diesel in XXX, and as a kilt-wearing drug dealer in The 51st State. In 2003, Jackson again worked with John Travolta in Basic and then as a police sergeant alongside Colin Farrell in the television show remake SWAT A song within the soundtrack was named after him, entitled Sammy L. Jackson by Hot Action Cop. Jackson also appeared in HBO's documentary Unchained Memories, as a narrator along many other stars like Angela Bassett and Whoopi Goldberg. Based on reviews gathered by Rotten Tomatoes, in 2004 Jackson starred in both his lowest and highest ranked films in his career. In the thriller Twisted, Jackson played a mentor to Ashley Judd. The film garnered a 2% approval rating on the website, with reviewers calling his performance "lackluster" and "wasted". He then lent his voice to the computer-animated film The Incredibles as the superhero Frozone. The film received a 97% approval rating, and Jackson's performance earned him an Annie Award nomination for Best Voice Acting. He then went on to do a cameo in another Quentin Tarantino film, Kill Bill: Volume 2. In 2005, he starred in the sports drama Coach Carter, where he played a coach (based on the actual coach Ken Carter) dedicated to teaching his players that education is more important than basketball. Although the film received mixed reviews, Jackson's performance was praised despite the film's storyline. Bob Townsend of the Atlanta Journal-Constitution commended Jackson's performance, "He takes what could have been a cardboard cliché role and puts flesh on it with his flamboyant intelligence." Jackson also returned for two sequels: XXX: State of the Union, this time commanding Ice Cube, and the final Star Wars prequel film, Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith. His last film for 2005 was The Man alongside comedian Eugene Levy. On November 4, 2005, he was presented with the Hawaii International Film Festival Achievement in Acting Award. On January 30, 2006, Jackson was honored with a hand and footprint ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theatre; he is the seventh African American and 191st actor to be recognized in this manner. In an interview that year, he said that he chooses roles that are "exciting to watch" and have an "interesting character inside of a story", and that in his roles he wanted to "do things [he hasn't] done, things [he] saw as a kid and wanted to do and now [has] an opportunity to do". He next starred opposite actress Julianne Moore in the box office bomb Freedomland, where he depicted a police detective attempting to help a mother find her abducted child while quelling a citywide race riot. Jackson's second film of the year, Snakes on a Plane, gained cult film status months before it was released based on its title and cast. Jackson's decision to star in the film was solely based on the title. To build anticipation for the film, he also cameoed in the 2006 music video "Snakes on a Plane (Bring It)" by Cobra Starship. On December 2, 2006, Jackson won the German Bambi Award for International Film, based on his many film contributions. In December 2006, Jackson starred in Home of the Brave, as a doctor returning home from the Iraq War. On January 30, 2007, Jackson was featured as narrator in Bob Saget's direct-to-DVD Farce of the Penguins. The film was a spoof of the box office success March of the Penguins (which was narrated by Morgan Freeman). Also in 2007, he portrayed a blues player who imprisons a young woman (Christina Ricci) addicted to sex in Black Snake Moan, and the horror film 1408, an adaptation of the Stephen King short story. Later the same year, Jackson portrayed an athlete who impersonates former boxing heavyweight Bob Satterfield in director Rod Lurie's drama, Resurrecting the Champ. In 2008, Jackson reprised his role of Mace Windu in the CGI film, Star Wars: The Clone Wars, followed by Lakeview Terrace where he played a racist cop who terrorizes an interracial couple. In November of the same year, he starred along with Bernie Mac and Isaac Hayes (who both died before the film's release) in Soul Men. In 2008, he portrayed the villain in The Spirit, which was poorly received by critics and the box office. In 2009, he again worked with Quentin Tarantino when he narrated several scenes in the World War II film Inglourious Basterds. 2010s In 2010, he starred in the drama Mother and Child and portrayed an interrogator who attempts to locate several nuclear weapons in the direct-to-video film Unthinkable. Alongside Dwayne Johnson, Jackson again portrayed a police officer in the opening scenes of the comedy The Other Guys. He also co-starred with Tommy Lee Jones for a film adaptation of The Sunset Limited. Throughout Jackson's career, he has appeared in many films alongside mainstream rappers. These include Tupac Shakur (Juice), Queen Latifah (Juice/Sphere/Jungle Fever), Method Man (One Eight Seven), LL Cool J (Deep Blue Sea/S.W.A.T.), Busta Rhymes (Shaft), Eve (xXx), Ice Cube (xXx: State of the Union), Xzibit (xXx: State of the Union), David Banner (Black Snake Moan), and 50 Cent (Home of the Brave). Additionally, Jackson has appeared in five films with actor Bruce Willis (National Lampoon's Loaded Weapon 1, Pulp Fiction, Die Hard with a Vengeance, Unbreakable, and Glass) and the actors were slated to work together in Black Water Transit before both dropped out. In 2002, Jackson gave his consent for Marvel Comics to design their "Ultimate" version of the character Nick Fury after his likeness. In the 2008 film Iron Man, he made a cameo as the character in a post-credit scene. In February 2009, Jackson signed on to a nine-picture deal with Marvel which would see him appear as the character in Iron Man 2, Thor, Captain America: The First Avenger, and The Avengers as well as any other sequels they would produce. He reprised the role in Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014) and Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015). In February 2015, Jackson stated that he only has two movies left on his Marvel contract following Ultron. In 2018 and 2019, Jackson made cameo appearances as Fury in the Avengers sequels Infinity War and Endgame, and starred as a younger, de-aged Fury in Captain Marvel alongside Brie Larson. Among his more recent film roles, Jackson appeared in Quentin Tarantino's Django Unchained, which was released December 25, 2012, Tarantino's The Hateful Eight, which was released in 70mm on December 25, 2015, and Jordan Vogt-Roberts' Kong: Skull Island, which was released on March 10, 2017. In 2019, Jackson reprised his Unbreakable role as Mr. Glass in the film Glass, and his Shaft role in Shaft, both sequels to his 2000 films. Also in 2019, he appeared in the Brie Larson film Unicorn Store, and had a prominent role as Nick Fury in the Marvel film Spider-Man: Far From Home. Upcoming films He is set to produce a live-action film adaptation of Afro Samurai, and is assuming the role of Sho'nuff in a remake of The Last Dragon. Television and other roles In addition to films, Jackson also appeared in several television shows, a video game, music videos, as well as audiobooks. Jackson had a small part in the Public Enemy music video for "911 Is a Joke". Jackson voiced several television show characters, including the lead role in the anime series, Afro Samurai, in addition to a recurring part as the voice of Gin Rummy in several episodes of the animated series The Boondocks. He was in the Pilot for Ghostwriter. He guest-starred as himself in an episode of the BBC/HBO sitcom Extras. He voiced the main antagonist, Officer Frank Tenpenny, in the video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas. Jackson also hosted a variety of awards shows. He has hosted the MTV Movie Awards (1998), the ESPYs (1999, 2001, 2002, and 2009), and the Spike TV Video Game Awards (2005, 2006, 2007, and 2012). In November 2006, he provided the voice of God for The Bible Experience, the New Testament audiobook version of the Bible. He was given the lead role because producers believed his deep, authoritative voice would best fit the role. He also recorded the Audible.com audiobook of Go the Fuck to Sleep. For the Atlanta Falcons' 2010 season, Jackson portrayed Rev. Sultan in the Falcons "Rise Up" commercial. He reprised his role as Nick Fury in a cameo appearance on Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. in 2013 and the season finale in 2014. He also appeared in the Capital One cash-back credit card commercials. Jackson released a song about social justice with KRS-One, Sticky Fingaz, Mad Lion & Talib Kweli about violence in America called "I Can't Breathe" which were the last words said by Eric Garner. In 2020 he appeared in the television documentary series Enslaved. He is set to reprise his role as Nick Fury in an upcoming Disney+ streaming series Secret Invasion. Box office performance Throughout the 1990s, A.C. Neilson E.C.I., a box office tracking company, determined that Jackson appeared in more films than any other actor who grossed $1.7 billion domestically. By 2011, the films that featured Jackson as a leading actor or supporting co-star have grossed a total of $2.81 to $4.91 billion at the North American box office. This placed him as the seventh highest-grossing lead actor and the second highest-grossing actor, behind only voice actor Frank Welker. The 2009 edition of The Guinness World Records, which uses a different calculation to determine film grosses, stated that Jackson is the world's highest grossing actor with $7.42 billion generated across 68 films. Audiobooks 2011: Adam Mansbach: Go the Fuck to Sleep, publisher: BRILLIANCE CORP, 2014: Chester Himes: A Rage in Harlem, publisher: BRILLIANCE CORP, Personal life In 1980, Jackson married actress and producer LaTanya Richardson, whom he met while attending Morehouse College. The couple have a daughter named Zoe (born 1982). In 2009, they started their own charity to help support education. Jackson has said that he watches his own films in cinemas: "Even during my theater years, I wished I could watch the plays I was inwhile I was in them! I dig watching myself work." He also enjoys collecting the action figures of the characters he portrays in his films, including Jules Winnfield, Shaft, Mace Windu, and Frozone. Jackson is bald but enjoys wearing wigs in his films. He said about his decision to shave his head, "I keep ending up on those 'bald is beautiful' lists. It's cool. You know, when I started losing my hair, it was during the era when everybody had lots of hair. All of a sudden, I felt this big hole in the middle of my afro. I couldn't face having a comb over so I had to quickly figure what the haircut for me was." His first bald role was in The Great White Hype. He usually gets to pick his own hairstyles for each character he portrays. He poked fun at his baldness the first time he appeared bald on The Tonight Show, explaining that he had to shave his head for one role, but then kept receiving more and more bald roles and had to keep shaving his head so that wigs could be made for him. He joked that "the only way [he's] gonna have time to grow [his] hair back is if [he's] not working". He is noted for often wearing a Kangol hat in public. Jackson has a clause in his contracts that allows him to play golf during film shoots. He has played in the Gary Player Invitational charity golf tournament to assist Gary Player in raising funds for children in South Africa. Jackson is a keen basketball fan, supporting the Toronto Raptors and the Harlem Globetrotters. He has supported English soccer team Liverpool FC since appearing in The 51st State, which was shot in Liverpool. He also supports Irish soccer team Bohemian FC. Jackson campaigned during the 2008 Democratic Primary for Barack Obama in Texarkana, Texas. He said, "Barack Obama represents everything I was told I could be growing up. I am a child of segregation. When I grew up and people told me I could be president, I knew it was a lie. But now we have a representative... the American Dream is a reality. Anyone can grow up to be a president." He also said, "I voted for Barack because he was black. That's why other folks vote for other peoplebecause they look like them". He compared his Django Unchained character, a villainous house slave, to black conservative Justice Clarence Thomas, saying that the character has "the same moral compass as Clarence Thomas does". In June 2013, Jackson launched a joint campaign with Prizeo in an effort to raise money to fight Alzheimer's disease. As part of the campaign, he recited various fan-written monologues and a popular scene from the AMC series Breaking Bad. In August 2013, he started a vegan diet for health reasons, explaining that he is "just trying to live forever", and attributed a weight loss to his new diet. He had largely abandoned the diet by March 2017, but still praised it. He launched a campaign called "One for the Boys", which teaches men about testicular cancer and urges them to "get themselves checked out". In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Samuel L. Jackson encouraged people to wear masks during pandemic as part of the State of California's Your Actions Save Lives campaign. Jackson along with Dwayne Johnson also encouraged coronavirus patients to donate blood plasma to help others fighting the virus. Jackson also read a satirical book, Stay the F*ck at Home, spreading awareness to social distance on Jimmy Kimmel Live. See also List of Samuel L. Jackson performances List of awards and nominations received by Samuel L. Jackson References Further reading External links Samuel L. Jackson at Twitter Extensive biography of Samuel L. Jackson 1948 births Living people 20th-century African-American people 20th-century American male actors 21st-century African-American people 21st-century American male actors Activists for African-American civil rights African-American film producers African-American male actors African-American television producers American film producers American male film actors American male television actors American male video game actors American male voice actors American people of Benga descent Best Supporting Actor BAFTA Award winners Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor winners Film producers from Tennessee Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead winners Male actors from Tennessee Male actors from Washington, D.C. Morehouse College alumni People from Chattanooga, Tennessee People with acquired Gabonese citizenship People with speech impediment Science fiction fans Silver Bear for Best Actor winners Spokespersons Television producers from Tennessee

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurel%20and%20Hardy

Laurel and Hardy

Laurel and Hardy were a comedy duo act during the early Classical Hollywood era of American cinema, consisting of Englishman Stan Laurel (1890–1965) and American Oliver Hardy (1892–1957). Starting their career as a duo in the silent film era, they later successfully transitioned to "talkies". From the late 1920s to the mid-1950s, they were internationally famous for their slapstick comedy, with Laurel playing the clumsy, childlike friend to Hardy's pompous bully. Their signature theme song, known as "The Cuckoo Song", "Ku-Ku", or "The Dance of the Cuckoos" (by Hollywood composer T. Marvin Hatley) was heard over their films' opening credits, and became as emblematic of them as their bowler hats. Prior to emerging as a team, both had well-established film careers. Laurel had acted in over 50 films, and worked as a writer and director, while Hardy was in more than 250 productions. Both had appeared in The Lucky Dog (1921), but were not teamed at the time. They first appeared together in a short film in 1926, when they signed separate contracts with the Hal Roach film studio. They officially became a team in 1927 when they appeared in the silent short Putting Pants on Philip. They remained with Roach until 1940, and then appeared in eight B movie comedies for 20th Century Fox and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer from 1941 to 1945. After finishing their film commitments at the end of 1944, they concentrated on performing stage shows, and embarked on a music hall tour of England, Ireland and Scotland. They made their last film in 1950, a French-Italian co-production called Atoll K. They appeared as a team in 107 films, starring in 32 short silent films, 40 short sound films, and 23 full-length feature films. They also made 12 guest or cameo appearances, including in the Galaxy of Stars promotional film of 1936. On December 1, 1954, they made their sole American television appearance, when they were surprised and interviewed by Ralph Edwards on his live NBC-TV program This Is Your Life. Since the 1930s, their works have been released in numerous theatrical reissues, television revivals, 8-mm and 16-mm home movies, feature-film compilations, and home videos. In 2005, they were voted the seventh-greatest comedy act of all time by a UK poll of professional comedians. The official Laurel and Hardy appreciation society is The Sons of the Desert, after a fictitious fraternal society in the film of the same name. Early careers Stan Laurel Stan Laurel (June 16, 1890 – February 23, 1965) was born Arthur Stanley Jefferson in Ulverston, Lancashire, England, into a theatrical family. His father, Arthur Joseph Jefferson, was a theatrical entrepreneur and theatre owner in northern England and Scotland who, with his wife, was a major force in the industry. In 1905, the Jefferson family moved to Glasgow to be closer to their business mainstay of the Metropole Theatre, and Laurel made his stage debut in a Glasgow hall called the Britannia Panopticon one month short of his 16th birthday. Arthur Jefferson secured Laurel his first acting job with the juvenile theatrical company of Levy and Cardwell, which specialized in Christmas pantomimes. In 1909, Laurel was employed by Britain's leading comedy impresario Fred Karno as a supporting actor, and as an understudy for Charlie Chaplin. Laurel said of Karno, "There was no one like him. He had no equal. His name was box-office." In 1912, Laurel left England with the Fred Karno Troupe to tour the United States. Laurel had expected the tour to be merely a pleasant interval before returning to London; however, he decided to remain in the U.S. In 1917, Laurel was teamed with Mae Dahlberg as a double act for stage and film; they were living as common-law husband and wife. The same year, Laurel made his film debut with Dahlberg in Nuts in May. While working with Mae, he began using the name "Stan Laurel" and changed his name legally in 1931. Dahlberg demanded roles in his films, and her tempestuous nature made her difficult to work with. Dressing room arguments were common between the two; it was reported that producer Joe Rock paid her to leave Laurel and to return to her native Australia. In 1925, Laurel joined the Hal Roach film studio as a director and writer. From May 1925 until September 1926, he received credit in at least 22 films. Laurel appeared in over 50 films for various producers before teaming up with Hardy. Prior to that, he experienced only modest success. It was difficult for producers, writers, and directors to write for his character, with American audiences knowing him either as a "nutty burglar" or as a Charlie Chaplin imitator. Oliver Hardy Oliver Hardy (January 18, 1892 – August 7, 1957) was born Norvell Hardy in Harlem, Georgia. By his late teens, Hardy was a popular stage singer and he operated a movie house in Milledgeville, Georgia, the Palace Theater, financed in part by his mother. For his stage name he took his father's first name, calling himself "Oliver Norvell Hardy", while offscreen his nicknames were "Ollie" and "Babe". The nickname "Babe" originated from an Italian barber near the Lubin Studios in Jacksonville, Florida, who would rub Hardy's face with talcum powder and say "That's nice-a baby!" Other actors in the Lubin company mimicked this, and Hardy was billed as "Babe Hardy" in his early films. Seeing film comedies inspired him to take up comedy himself and, in 1913, he began working with Lubin Motion Pictures in Jacksonville. He started by helping around the studio with lights, props, and other duties, gradually learning the craft as a script-clerk for the company. It was around this time that Hardy married his first wife, Madelyn Saloshin. In 1914, Hardy was billed as "Babe Hardy" in his first film, Outwitting Dad. Between 1914 and 1916 Hardy made 177 shorts as Babe with the Vim Comedy Company, which were released up to the end of 1917. Exhibiting a versatility in playing heroes, villains and even female characters, Hardy was in demand for roles as a supporting actor, comic villain or second banana. For 10 years he memorably assisted star comic and Charlie Chaplin imitator Billy West, and appeared in the comedies of Jimmy Aubrey, Larry Semon, and Charley Chase. In total, Hardy starred or co-starred in more than 250 silent shorts, of which roughly 150 have been lost. He was rejected for enlistment by the Army during World War I due to his large size. In 1917, after the collapse of the Florida film industry, Hardy and his wife Madelyn moved to California to seek new opportunities. History as Laurel and Hardy Hal Roach Hal Roach recounted how Laurel and Hardy became a team: Hardy was already working for Roach (and others) when Roach hired Laurel, whom he had seen in vaudeville. Laurel had very light blue eyes, and Roach discovered that, due to the technology of film at that time, Laurel's eyes wouldn't photograph properly—blue photographed as white. This problem is apparent in their first silent film together, The Lucky Dog, where an attempt was made to compensate for the problem by applying heavy makeup to Laurel's eyes. For about a year, Roach had Laurel work at the studio as a writer. Then panchromatic film was developed; they tested Laurel, and found the problem was solved. Laurel and Hardy were then put together in a film, and they seemed to complement each other. Comedy teams were usually composed of a straight man and a funny man, but these two were both comedians; however, each knew how to play the straight man when the script required it. Roach said, "You could always cut to a close-up of either one, and their reaction was good for another laugh." Style of comedy and characterisations The humor of Laurel and Hardy was highly visual, with slapstick used for emphasis. They often had physical arguments (in character) which were quite complex and involved a cartoonish style of violence. Their ineptitude and misfortune precluded them from making any real progress, even in the simplest endeavors. Much of their comedy involves "milking" a joke, where a simple idea provides a basis for multiple, ongoing gags without following a defined narrative. Stan Laurel was of average height and weight, but appeared comparatively small and slight next to Oliver Hardy, who was and weighed about in his prime. Details of their hair and clothing were used to enhance this natural contrast. Laurel kept his hair short on the sides and back, growing it long on top to create a natural "fright wig". Typically, at times of shock, he simultaneously screwed up his face to appear as if crying while pulling up his hair. In contrast, Hardy's thinning hair was pasted on his forehead in spit curls and he sported a toothbrush moustache. To achieve a flat-footed walk, Laurel removed the heels from his shoes. Both wore bowler hats, with Laurel's being narrower than Hardy's, and with a flattened brim. The characters' normal attire called for wing collar shirts, with Hardy wearing a necktie which he would twiddle when he was particularly self-conscious; and Laurel, a bow tie. Hardy's sports jacket was a little small and done up with one straining button, whereas Laurel's double-breasted jacket was loose-fitting. A popular routine was a "tit-for-tat" fight with an adversary. It could be with their wives—often played by Mae Busch, Anita Garvin, or Daphne Pollard—or with a neighbor, often played by Charlie Hall or James Finlayson. Laurel and Hardy would accidentally damage someone's property, and the injured party would retaliate by ruining something belonging to Laurel or Hardy. After calmly surveying the damage, one or the other of the "offended" parties found something else to vandalize, and the conflict escalated until both sides were simultaneously destroying items in front of each other. An early example of the routine occurs in their classic short Big Business (1929), which was added to the National Film Registry in 1992. Another short film which revolves around such an altercation was titled Tit for Tat (1935). One of their best-remembered dialogue devices was the "Tell me that again" routine. Laurel would tell Hardy a genuinely smart idea he came up with, and Hardy would reply, "Tell me that again." Laurel would then try to repeat the idea, but, having instantly forgotten it, babble utter nonsense. Hardy, who had difficulty understanding Laurel's idea when expressed clearly, would then understand the jumbled version perfectly. While much of their comedy remained visual, humorous dialogue often occurred in Laurel and Hardy's talking films as well. Examples include: "You can lead a horse to water, but a pencil must be led." (Laurel, Brats) "I was dreaming I was awake, but I woke up and found meself asleep." (Laurel, Oliver the Eighth) "A lot of weather we've been having lately." (Hardy, Way Out West) In some cases, their comedy bordered on the surreal, in a style Laurel called "white magic". For example, in the 1937 film Way Out West, Laurel clenches his fist and pours tobacco into it as if it were a pipe. He then flicks his thumb upward as if working a lighter. His thumb ignites and he matter-of-factly lights his "pipe". Amazed at seeing this, Hardy unsuccessfully attempts to duplicate it throughout the film. Much later he finally succeeds, only to be terrified when his thumb catches fire. Laurel repeats the pipe joke in the 1938 film Block-Heads, again to Hardy's bemusement. This time, the joke ends when a match Laurel was using relights itself, Hardy throws it into the fireplace, and it explodes with a loud bang. Rather than showing Hardy suffering the pain of misfortunes, such as falling down stairs or being beaten by a thug, banging and crashing sound effects were often used so the audience could visualize the mayhem. The 1927 film Sailors Beware was a significant one for Hardy because two of his enduring trademarks were developed. The first was his "tie twiddle" to demonstrate embarrassment. Hardy, while acting, had received a pail of water in the face. He said, "I had been expecting it, but I didn't expect it at that particular moment. It threw me mentally and I couldn't think what to do next, so I waved the tie in a kind of tiddly-widdly fashion to show embarrassment while trying to look friendly." His second trademark was the "camera look", where he breaks the fourth wall and, in frustration, stares directly at the audience. Hardy said: "I had to become exasperated, so I just stared right into the camera and registered my disgust." Offscreen, Laurel and Hardy were quite the opposite of their movie characters: Laurel was the industrious "idea man", while Hardy was more easygoing. Catchphrases Laurel and Hardy's best-known catchphrase is, "Well, here's another nice mess you've gotten me into!" It was earlier used by W. S. Gilbert in both The Mikado (1885) and The Grand Duke (1896). It was first used by Hardy in The Laurel-Hardy Murder Case in 1930. In popular culture, the catchphrase is often misquoted as "Well, here's another fine mess you've gotten me into", which was never spoken by Hardy—a misunderstanding that stems from the title of their film Another Fine Mess. When Hardy said the phrase, Laurel's frequent, iconic response was to start to cry, pull his hair up, exclaim "Well, I couldn't help it...", then whimper and speak gibberish. Some variations on the phrase occurred. For example, in Chickens Come Home, Ollie impatiently says to Stan, "Well...", and Stan continues for him: "Here's another nice mess I've gotten you into." The films Thicker than Water and The Fixer-Uppers use the phrase "Well, here's another nice kettle of fish you pickled me in!" In Saps at Sea, the phrase becomes "Well, here's another nice bucket of suds you've gotten me into!" The catchphrase, in its original form, was fittingly used as the last line of dialogue in the duo's last film, Atoll K (1951). In moments of particular distress or frustration, Hardy often exclaimed, "Why don't you do something to help me?", as Laurel stood helplessly by. "D'oh!" was another catchphrase used by Hardy, and by mustachioed Scottish actor James Finlayson, who appeared in 33 Laurel and Hardy films. Hardy uses the expression in the duo's first sound film, Unaccustomed As We Are (1929) when his character's wife smashes a record over his head. The phrase, expressing surprise, impatience, or incredulity, inspired the trademark "D'oh!" of character Homer Simpson (voiced by Dan Castellaneta) in the long-running animated comedy The Simpsons. Films Laurel's and Hardy's first film pairing, although as separate performers, was in the silent The Lucky Dog. Its production details have not survived, but film historian Bo Bergulund has placed it between September 1920 and January 1921. According to interviews they gave in the 1930s, the pair's acquaintance at the time was casual, and both had forgotten their initial film entirely. The plot sees Laurel's character befriended by a stray dog which, after some lucky escapes, saves him from being blown up by dynamite. Hardy's character is a mugger attempting to rob Laurel. They later signed separate contracts with the Hal Roach Studios, and next appeared in the 1926 film 45 Minutes From Hollywood. Hal Roach is considered the most important person in the development of Laurel's and Hardy's film careers. He brought them together, and they worked for Roach for over 20 years. Charley Rogers, who worked closely with the three men for many years, said, "It could not have happened if Laurel, Hardy and Roach had not met at the right place and the right time." Their first "official" film together was Putting Pants on Philip, released December 3, 1927. The plot involves Laurel as Philip, a young Scotsman who arrives in the United States in full kilted splendor, and suffers mishaps involving the kilt. His uncle, played by Hardy, tries to put trousers on him. Also in 1927, the pair starred in The Battle of the Century, a classic short involving over 3,000 cream pies; believed lost, a copy of it was found in 2015. Laurel said to the duo's biographer John McCabe: "Of all the questions we're asked, the most frequent is, how did we come together? I always explain that we came together naturally." Laurel and Hardy were joined by accident and grew by indirection. In 1926, both were part of the Roach Comedy All Stars, a stock company of actors who took part in a series of films. Laurel's and Hardy's parts gradually grew larger, while those of their fellow stars diminished, because Laurel and Hardy were considered great actors. Their teaming was suggested by Leo McCarey, their supervising director from 1927 and 1930. During that period, McCarey and Laurel jointly devised the team's format. McCarey also influenced the slowing of their comedy action from the silent era's typically frantic pace to a more natural one. The formula worked so well that Laurel and Hardy played the same characters for the next 30 years. Although Roach employed writers and directors such as H. M. Walker, Leo McCarey, James Parrott and James W. Horne on the Laurel and Hardy films, Laurel, who had a considerable background in comedy writing, often rewrote entire sequences and scripts. He also encouraged the cast and crew to improvise, then meticulously reviewed the footage during editing. By 1929, he was the pair's head writer, and it was reported that the writing sessions were gleefully chaotic. Stan had three or four writers who competed with him in a perpetual game of 'Can You Top This?' Hardy was quite happy to leave the writing to his partner. He said, "After all, just doing the gags was hard enough work, especially if you have taken as many falls and been dumped in as many mudholes as I have. I think I earned my money". Laurel eventually became so involved in their films' productions, many film historians and afficionadi consider him an uncredited director. He ran the Laurel and Hardy set, no matter who was in the director's chair, but never felt compelled to assert his authority. Roach remarked: "Laurel bossed the production. With any director, if Laurel said 'I don't like this idea,' the director didn't say 'Well, you're going to do it anyway.' That was understood." As Laurel made so many suggestions, there was not much left for the credited director to do. In 1929 the silent era of film was coming to an end. Many silent-film actors failed to make the transition to "talkies"—some, because they felt sound was irrelevant to their craft of conveying stories with body language; and others, because their spoken voices were considered inadequate for the new medium. However, the addition of spoken dialogue only enhanced Laurel's and Hardy's performances; both had extensive theatrical experience, and could use their voices to great comic effect. Their films also continued to feature much visual humour. In these ways, they made a seamless transition to their first sound film, Unaccustomed As We Are (1929) (whose title took its name from the familiar phrase, "Unaccustomed as we are to public speaking"). In the opening dialogue, Laurel and Hardy began by spoofing the slow and self-conscious speech of the early talking actors which became a routine they would use regularly. Laurel and Hardy's first feature film was Pardon Us (1931). The following year, The Music Box, whose plot revolved around the pair delivering a piano up a long flight of steps, won an Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Subject. While The Music Box remains one of the duo's most widely known films, their 1929 silent Big Business is by far the most critically acclaimed. Its plot sees Laurel and Hardy as Christmas tree salesmen who are drawn into a classic tit-for-tat battle, with a character played by James Finlayson, that eventually destroys his house and their car. Big Business was added to the United States National Film Registry as a national treasure in 1992. Sons of the Desert (1933) is often cited as Laurel and Hardy's best feature-length film. A number of Laurel and Hardy films were reshot with them speaking in Spanish, Italian, French or German. The plots remained similar to the English versions, although the supporting actors were often changed to those who were native language-speakers. Neither Laurel nor Hardy could speak these languages, but they memorized and delivered their lines phonetically, and received voice coaching. Pardon Us (1931) was reshot in all four foreign languages. Blotto, Hog Wild and Be Big! were remade in French and Spanish versions. Night Owls was remade in both Spanish and Italian, and Below Zero and Chickens Come Home in Spanish. Babes in Toyland (1934) remains a perennial on American television during the Christmas season. When interviewed, Hal Roach spoke scathingly about the film and Laurel's behavior. Laurel was unhappy with the plot, and after an argument was allowed to make the film his way. The rift damaged Roach-Laurel relations to the point that Roach said that after Toyland, he no longer wished to produce Laurel and Hardy films. Nevertheless, their association continued for another six years. Hoping for greater artistic freedom, Laurel and Hardy split with Roach, and signed with 20th Century-Fox in 1941 and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1942. However, their working conditions were now completely different: they were simply hired actors, relegated to both studios’ B-film units, and not initially allowed to contribute to the scripts or improvise, as they had always done. When their films proved popular, the studios allowed them more input, and they starred in eight features until the end of 1944. These films, while far from their best work, were still very successful. Budgeted between $300,000 and $450,000 each, they earned millions at the box office for Fox and MGM. The Fox films were so profitable, the studio kept making Laurel and Hardy comedies after it discontinued its other "B" series films. The busy team decided to take a rest during 1946, but 1947 saw their first European tour in 15 years. A film based in the charters of "Robin Hood" was planned during the tour, but not realized. In 1947, Laurel and Hardy famously attended the reopening of the Dungeness loop of the Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway, where they performed improvised routines with a steam locomotive for the benefit of local crowds and dignitaries. In 1948, on the team's return to America, Laurel was sidelined by illness and temporarily unable to work. He encouraged Hardy to take movie parts on his own. Hardy's friend John Wayne hired him to co-star in The Fighting Kentuckian for Republic Pictures, and Bing Crosby got him a small part in Frank Capra's Riding High. In 1950–51, Laurel and Hardy made their final feature-length film together, Atoll K. A French-Italian co-production directed by Leo Joannon, it was plagued by problems with language barriers, production issues, and both actors' serious health issues. When Laurel received the script's final draft, he felt its heavy political content overshadowing the comedy. He quickly rewrote it, with screen comic Monty Collins contributing visual gags, and hired old American friend Alf Goulding to direct the Laurel and Hardy scenes. During filming, Hardy began to lose weight precipitously and developed an irregular heartbeat, and Laurel experienced painful prostate complications. Critics were disappointed with the storyline, English dubbing, and Laurel's sickly physical appearance. The film was not commercial successful on its first release, and brought an end to Laurel and Hardy's film careers. Atoll K did finally turn a profit when it was rereleased in other countries. In 1954, an American distributor removed 18 minutes of footage and released it as Utopia; widely released on film and video, it is the film's best-known version. After Atoll K wrapped in April 1951, Laurel and Hardy returned to America and used the remainder of the year to rest. Stan appeared, in character, in a silent TV newsreel, Swim Meet, playing a co-director of a local California contest. Most Laurel and Hardy films have survived and are still in circulation. Three of their 107 films are considered lost and have not been seen in complete form since the 1930s. The silent film Hats Off from 1927 has vanished completely. The first half of Now I'll Tell One (1927) is lost, and the second half has yet to be released on video. In the 1930 operatic Technicolor musical The Rogue Song, Laurel and Hardy appear in 10 sequences, only one of which exists with the complete soundtrack. Radio Laurel and Hardy made at least 2 pilots for radio, a half-hour NBC series, based on the skit, Driver’s License, and a 1944 NBC pilot. Final years Following the making of Atoll K, Laurel and Hardy took some months off to deal with health issues. On their return to the European stage in 1952, they undertook a well-received series of public appearances, performing a short Laurel-written sketch, "A Spot of Trouble". The following year, Laurel wrote a routine entitled "Birds of a Feather". On September 9, 1953, their boat arrived in Cobh in the Republic of Ireland. Laurel recounted their reception: While touring Britain and Ireland in 1953, Laurel and Hardy appeared on radio in Ireland, and on a live BBC television broadcast of the popular show Face the Music with host Henry Hall a week later. These shows do not appear to have been preserved on record, tape or kinescope, but notes from the Face The Music appearance have been recently discovered. According to them, Ollie informs Stan that the program has an audience of six million and that host Henry Hall is "going to introduce us to them"—to which Stan replies, "That's going to take a long time, isn't it?" On May 17, 1954, Laurel and Hardy made their last live stage performance in Plymouth, UK at the Palace Theatre. On December 1, 1954, they made their only American television appearance when they were surprised and interviewed by Ralph Edwards on his live NBC-TV program This Is Your Life. Lured to the Knickerbocker Hotel under the pretense of a business meeting with producer Bernard Delfont, the doors opened to their suite, #205, flooding the room with light and Edwards' voice. The telecast was preserved on a kinescope and later released on home video. Partly due to the broadcast's positive response, the team began renegotiating with Hal Roach, Jr. for a series of color NBC Television specials, to be called Laurel and Hardy's Fabulous Fables. However, the plans had to be shelved as the aging comedians continued to suffer from declining health. In 1955, America's magazine TV Guide ran a color spread on the team with current photos. That year, they made their final public appearance together while taking part in This Is Music Hall, a BBC Television program about the Grand Order of Water Rats, a British variety organization. Laurel and Hardy provided a filmed insert where they reminisced about their friends in British variety. They made their final appearance on camera in 1956 in a private home movie, shot by a family friend at the Reseda, CA home of Stan Laurel's daughter, Lois. The three-minute film has no audio. In 1956, while following his doctor's orders to improve his health due to a heart condition, Hardy lost over , but nonetheless suffered several strokes causing reduced mobility and speech. Despite his long and successful career, Hardy's home was sold to help cover his medical expenses. He died of a stroke on August 7, 1957, and longtime friend Bob Chatterton said Hardy weighed just at the time of his death. Hardy was laid to rest at Pierce Brothers' Valhalla Memorial Park, North Hollywood. Following Hardy's death, scenes from Laurel and Hardy's early films were seen once again in theaters, featured in Robert Youngson's silent-film compilation The Golden Age of Comedy. For the remaining eight years of his life, Stan Laurel refused to perform, and declined Stanley Kramer's offer of a cameo in his landmark 1963 film It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World. In 1960, Laurel was given a special Academy Award for his contributions to film comedy, but was unable to attend the ceremony due to poor health. Actor Danny Kaye accepted the award on his behalf. Despite not appearing on screen after Hardy's death, Laurel did contribute gags to several comedy filmmakers. During this period, most of his communication was in the form of written correspondence, and he insisted on personally answering every fan letter. Late in life, he welcomed visitors from the new generation of comedians and celebrities, including Dick Cavett, Jerry Lewis, Peter Sellers, Marcel Marceau, Johnny Carson and Dick Van Dyke. Jerry Lewis offered Laurel a job as consultant, but he chose to help only on Lewis's 1960 feature The Bellboy. Dick Van Dyke was a long-time fan, and based his comedy and dancing styles on Laurel's. When he discovered Laurel's home number in the phonebook and called him, Laurel invited him over for the afternoon. Van Dyke hosted a television tribute to Stan Laurel the year he died. Laurel lived until 1965 and survived to see the duo's work rediscovered through television and classic film revivals. He died on February 23 in Santa Monica and is buried at Forest Lawn-Hollywood Hills in Los Angeles, California. Supporting cast members Laurel and Hardy's films included a supporting cast of comic actors, some of whom appeared regularly: Harry Bernard played bit parts as a waiter, a bartender or a cop. Mae Busch often played the formidable Mrs. Hardy and other characters, particularly sultry femme fatales. Charley Chase, the Hal Roach film star and brother of James Parrott, a writer/director of several Laurel and Hardy films, made four appearances. Dorothy Coburn appeared in nearly a dozen early silent shorts. Baldwin Cooke played bit parts as a waiter, a bartender or a cop. Richard Cramer appeared as a scowling, menacing villain or opponent. Peter Cushing, well before becoming a star in Hammer Horror films, made an appearance in A Chump at Oxford. Bobby Dunn appeared as a cross-eyed bartender and telegram messenger, as well as the genial shoplifter in Tit for Tat. Eddie Dunn made several appearances, notably as the belligerent taxi driver in Me and My Pal. James Finlayson, a balding, mustachioed Scotsman known for displays of indignation and squinting, pop-eyed "double takes," made 33 appearances and is perhaps their most celebrated foil. Anita Garvin appeared in a number of Laurel and Hardy films, often cast as Mrs. Laurel. Billy Gilbert made many appearances, most notably as bombastic, blustery foreign characters such as those in The Music Box (1932) and Block-Heads. Charlie Hall, who usually played angry, diminutive adversaries, appeared nearly 50 times. Jean Harlow had a small role in the silent short Double Whoopee (1929) and two other films in the early part of her career. Arthur Housman made several appearances as a comic drunk. Isabelle Keith was the only actress to appear as wife to both Laurel and Hardy (in Perfect Day and Be Big!, respectively). Edgar Kennedy, master of the "slow burn," often appeared as a cop, a hostile neighbor or a relative. Walter Long played grizzled, unshaven, physically threatening villains. Sam Lufkin appeared several times, usually as a cop or streetcar conductor. Charles Middleton made a handful of appearances, usually as a sourpuss adversary. James C. Morton appeared as a bartender or exasperated policeman. Vivien Oakland appeared in several early silent films, and later talkies including Scram! and Way Out West. Blanche Payson was featured in several sound shorts, including Oliver's formidable wife in Helpmates. Daphne Pollard was featured as Oliver's diminutive but daunting wife. Viola Richard appeared in several early silent films, most notably as the beautiful cave girl in Flying Elephants (1928). Charley Rogers, an English actor and gag writer, appeared several times. Tiny Sandford was a tall, burly, physically imposing character actor who played authority figures, notably cops. Thelma Todd appeared several times before her own career as a leading lady comedienne. Ben Turpin, the cross-eyed Mack Sennett comedy star, made two memorable appearances. Ellinor Vanderveer made many appearances as a dowager, high society matron or posh party guest. Music The duo's famous signature tune, known variously as "The Cuckoo Song", "Ku-Ku" or "The Dance of the Cuckoos", was composed by Roach musical director Marvin Hatley as the on-the-hour chime for KFVD, the Roach studio's radio station. Laurel heard the tune on the station and asked Hatley if they could use it as the Laurel and Hardy theme song. The original theme, recorded by two clarinets in 1930, was recorded again with a full orchestra in 1935. Leroy Shield composed the majority of the music used in the Laurel and Hardy short sound films. A compilation of songs from their films, titled Trail of the Lonesome Pine, was released in 1975. The title track was released as a single in the UK and reached #2 in the charts. Influence and legacy Laurel and Hardy's influence over a very broad range of comedy and other genres has been considerable. Lou Costello of the famed duo of Abbott and Costello, stated "They were the funniest comedy duo of all time", adding "Most critics and film scholars throughout the years have agreed with this assessment." Writers, artists and performers as diverse as Samuel Beckett, Jerry Lewis, Peter Sellers, Marcel Marceau Steve Martin, John Cleese, Harold Pinter, Alec Guinness, J. D. Salinger, René Magritte and Kurt Vonnegut amongst many others, have acknowledged an artistic debt. Starting in the 1960s, the exposure on television of (especially) their short films has ensured a continued influence on generations of comedians. Posthumous revivals and popular culture Since the 1930s, the works of Laurel and Hardy have been released again in numerous theatrical reissues, television revivals (broadcast, especially public television and cable), 16 mm and 8 mm home movies, feature-film compilations and home video. After Stan Laurel's death in 1965, there were two major motion-picture tributes: Laurel and Hardy's Laughing '20s was Robert Youngson's compilation of the team's silent-film highlights, and The Great Race was a large-scale salute to slapstick that director Blake Edwards dedicated to "Mr. Laurel and Mr. Hardy". For many years the duo were impersonated by Jim MacGeorge (as Laurel) and Chuck McCann (as Hardy) in children's TV shows and television commercials for various products. Numerous colorized versions of copyright-free Laurel and Hardy features and shorts have been reproduced by a multitude of production studios. Although the results of adding color were often in dispute, many popular titles are currently only available in the colorized version. The color process often affects the sharpness of the image, with some scenes being altered or deleted, depending on the source material used. Their film Helpmates was the first film to undergo the process and was released by Colorization Inc., a subsidiary of Hal Roach Studios, in 1983. Colorization was a success for the studio and Helpmates was released on home video with the colorized version of The Music Box in 1986. There are three Laurel and Hardy museums. One is in Laurel's birthplace, Ulverston, United Kingdom and another one is in Hardy's birthplace, Harlem, Georgia, United States. The third one is located in Solingen, Germany. Maurice Sendak showed three identical Oliver Hardy figures as bakers preparing cakes for the morning in his award-winning 1970 children's book In the Night Kitchen. This is treated as a clear example of "interpretative illustration" wherein the comedians' inclusion harked back to the author's childhood. The Beatles used cut-outs of Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy in the cutout celebrity crowd for the cover of their 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. A 2005 poll by fellow comedians and comedy insiders of the top 50 comedians for The Comedian's Comedian, a TV documentary broadcast on UK's Channel 4, voted the duo the seventh-greatest comedy act ever, making them the top double act on the list. Merchandiser Larry Harmon claimed ownership of Laurel's and Hardy's likenesses and has issued Laurel and Hardy toys and coloring books. He also co-produced a series of Laurel and Hardy cartoons in 1966 with Hanna-Barbera Productions. His animated versions of Laurel and Hardy guest-starred in a 1972 episode of Hanna-Barbera's The New Scooby-Doo Movies. In 1999, Harmon produced a direct-to-video feature live-action comedy entitled The All New Adventures of Laurel & Hardy in For Love or Mummy. Actors Bronson Pinchot and Gailard Sartain were cast playing the lookalike nephews of Laurel and Hardy named Stanley Thinneus Laurel and Oliver Fatteus Hardy. The Indian comedy duo Ghory and Dixit was known as the Indian Laurel and Hardy. In 2011 the German/French TV station Arte released in co-production with the German TV station ZDF the 90-minute documentary Laurel & Hardy: Their Lives and Magic. The film, titled in the original German Laurel and Hardy: Die komische Liebesgeschichte von "Dick & Doof", was written and directed by German film-maker Andreas Baum. It includes many movie clips, rare and unpublished photographs, interviews with family, fans, friends, showbiz pals and newly recovered footage. Laurel's daughter Lois Laurel Hawes said of the film: "The best documentary about Laurel and Hardy I have ever seen!". It has also been released as a Director's Cut with a length of 105 minutes, plus 70 minutes of bonus materials on DVD. Appreciation society The official Laurel and Hardy appreciation society is known as The Sons of the Desert, after a fraternal society in their film of the same name (1933). It was established in New York City in 1965 by Laurel and Hardy biographer John McCabe, with Orson Bean, Al Kilgore, Chuck McCann, and John Municino as founding members, with the sanction of Stan Laurel. Since the group's inception, well over 150 chapters of the organization have formed across North America, Europe, and Australia. An Emmy-winning film documentary about the group, Revenge of the Sons of the Desert, has been released on DVD as part of The Laurel and Hardy Collection, Vol. 1. Around the world Laurel and Hardy are popular around the world but are known under different names in various countries and languages. Biopic A biopic titled Stan & Ollie directed by Jon S. Baird and starring Steve Coogan as Stan and John C. Reilly as Oliver was released in 2018 and chronicled the duo's 1953 tour of Great Britain and Ireland. The film received positive reviews from critics, garnering a 94% "Fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes. For their performances, Reilly and Coogan were nominated for a Golden Globe and a BAFTA award respectively. Filmographies Laurel and Hardy filmography Oliver Hardy filmography Stan Laurel filmography See also Pekka and Pätkä References Notes Citations Bibliography Andrews, Robert. Famous Lines: A Columbia Dictionary of Familiar Quotations. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997. Anobile, Richard J., ed. A Fine Mess: Verbal and Visual Gems from The Crazy World of Laurel & Hardy. New York: Crown Publishers, 1975. Barr, Charles. Laurel and Hardy (Movie Paperbacks). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968; First edition 1967, London: Studio Vista. Bergen, Ronald. The Life and Times of Laurel and Hardy. New York: Smithmark, 1992. Brooks, Leo M. The Laurel & Hardy Stock Company. Hilversum, Netherlands: Blotto Press, 1997. Byron, Stuart and Elizabeth Weis, eds. The National Society of Film Critics on Movie Comedy. New York: Grossman/Viking, 1977. Crowther, Bruce. Laurel and Hardy: Clown Princes of Comedy. New York: Columbus Books, 1987. Cullen, Frank, Florence Hackman and Donald McNeilly. Vaudeville, Old and New: An Encyclopedia of Variety Performers in America. London: Routledge, 2007. Durgnat, Raymond. "Beau Chumps and Church Bells" (essay). The Crazy Mirror: Hollywood Comedy and the American Image. New York: Dell Publishing, 1970. Everson, William K. The Complete Films of Laurel and Hardy. New York: Citadel, 2000; First edition 1967. Everson, William K. The Films of Hal Roach. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1971. Gehring, Wes D. Laurel & Hardy: A Bio-Bibliography. Burnham Bucks, UK: Greenwood Press, 1990. Gehring, Wes D. Film Clowns of the Depression: Twelve Defining Comic Performances. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., 2007. . Guiles, Fred Lawrence. Stan: The Life of Stan Laurel. New York: Stein & Day, 1991; First edition 1980. . Harness, Kyp. The Art of Laurel and Hardy: Graceful Calamity in the Films. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., 2006. . Kanin, Garson. Together Again!: Stories of the Great Hollywood Teams. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1981. . Kerr, Walter. The Silent Clowns. New York: Da Capo Press, 1990, First edition 1975, Alfred A. Knopf. . Lahue, Kalton C. World of Laughter: The Motion Picture Comedy Short, 1910–1930. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966. . Louvish, Simon. Stan and Ollie: The Roots of Comedy: The Double Life of Laurel and Hardy. London: Faber & Faber, 2001. . Louvish, Simon. Stan and Ollie: The Roots of Comedy: The Double Life of Laurel and Hardy. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2002. . Maltin, Leonard. Movie Comedy Teams. New York: New American Library, 1985; First edition 1970. . Maltin, Leonard, Selected Short Subjects (First published as The Great Movie Shorts. New York: Crown Publishers, 1972.) New York: Da Capo Press, 1983. . Maltin, Leonard. The Laurel & Hardy Book (Curtis Films Series). Sanibel Island, Florida: Ralph Curtis Books, 1973. . Maltin, Leonard. The Great Movie Comedians. New York: Crown Publishers, 1978. . Marriot, A. J. Laurel & Hardy: The British Tours. Hitchen, Herts, UK: AJ Marriot, 1993. Marriot, A. J. Laurel and Hardy: The U.S. Tours. Hitchen, Herts, UK: AJ Marriot, 2011. Mast, Gerald. The Comic Mind: Comedy and the Movies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979; First edition 1973. . McCabe, John. Mr. Laurel & Mr. Hardy: An Affectionate Biography. London: Robson Books, 2004; First edition 1961; Reprint: New York: Doubleday & Co., 1966. . McCabe, John. The Comedy World of Stan Laurel. Beverly Hills: Moonstone Press, 1990; First edition 1974, Doubleday & Co. . McCabe, John, with Al Kilgore and Richard W. Bann. Laurel & Hardy. New York: Bonanza Books, 1983; First edition 1975, E.P. Dutton. . McCabe, John. Babe: The Life of Oliver Hardy. London: Robson Books, 2004; First edition 1989, Citadel. . McCaffrey, Donald W. "Duet of Incompetence" (essay). The Golden Age of Sound Comedy: Comic Films and Comedians of the Thirties. New York: A.S. Barnes, 1973. . McGarry, Annie. Laurel & Hardy. London: Bison Group, 1992. . MacGillivray, Scott. Laurel & Hardy: From the Forties Forward. Second edition: New York: iUniverse, 2009 ; first edition: Lanham, Maryland: Vestal Press, 1998. McIntyre, Willie. The Laurel & Hardy Digest: A Cocktail of Love and Hisses. Ayrshire, Scotland: Willie McIntyre, 1998. . McIver, Stuart B. Dreamers, Schemers and Scalawags. Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press Inc., 1998. Mitchell, Glenn. The Laurel & Hardy Encyclopedia. New York: Batsford, 2010; First edition 1995. . Nollen, Scott Allen. The Boys: The Cinematic World of Laurel and Hardy. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., 1989. . Okuda, Ted and James L. Neibaur. Stan Without Ollie: The Stan Laurel Solo Films: 1917–1927. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., 2012. . Robb, Brian J. The Pocket Essential Laurel & Hardy. Manchester, UK: Pocket Essentials, 2008. . Robinson, David. The Great Funnies: A History of Film Comedy. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1969. . Sanders, Jonathan. Another Fine Dress: Role Play in the Films of Laurel and Hardy. London: Cassell, 1995. . Scagnetti, Jack. The Laurel & Hardy Scrapbook. New York: Jonathan David Publishers, 1982. . Sendak, Maurice. In the Night Kitchen. New York: HarperCollins, 1970. . Skretvedt, Randy. Laurel and Hardy: The Magic Behind the Movies. Anaheim, California: Past Times Publishing Co., 1996; First edition 1987, Moonstone Press. . Smith, Leon. Following the Comedy Trail: A Guide to Laurel & Hardy and Our Gang Film Locations. Littleton, Massachusetts: G.J. Enterprises, 1984. . Staveacre, Tony. Slapstick!: The Illustrated Story. London: Angus & Robertson Publishers, 1987. . Stone, Rob, et al. Laurel or Hardy: The Solo Films of Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy. Manchester, New Hampshire: Split Reel, 1996. . Ward, Richard Lewis. A History of the Hal Roach Studios. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 2006. . Weales, Gerald. Canned Goods as Caviar: American Film Comedy of the 1930s. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. . External links Official The Sons of the Desert website The Laurel and Hardy Magazine website Comedy duos Film duos Silent film comedians American male comedians English male comedians American male film actors English male film actors American male silent film actors English male silent film actors 20th Century Fox contract players Hal Roach Studios short film series Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract players Articles containing video clips 20th-century American male actors 20th-century English male actors

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorial%20Day

Memorial Day

Memorial Day (originally known as Decoration Day) is a federal holiday in the United States for mourning the U.S. military personnel who have died while serving in the United States armed forces. It is observed on the last Monday of May. It was formerly observed on May 30 from 1868 to 1970. Many people visit cemeteries and memorials on Memorial Day to honor and mourn those who died while serving in the U.S. military. Many volunteers place an American flag on graves of military personnel in national cemeteries. Memorial Day is also considered the unofficial beginning of summer in the United States. Many cities and people have claimed to have first celebrated the event. In 1868, General John A. Logan of the Grand Army of the Republic called for a "Decoration Day", which was widely celebrated. By 1890, every Northern state had adopted it as a holiday. The World Wars turned it into a generalized day of remembrance, instead of just for the Civil War. In 1971, Congress standardized the holiday as "Memorial Day" and changed its observance to the last Monday in May. Two other days celebrate those who have served or are serving in the U.S. military: Armed Forces Day (which is earlier in May), an unofficial U.S. holiday for honoring those currently serving in the armed forces, and Veterans Day (on November 11), which honors those who have served in the United States Armed Forces. Claimed origins The history of Memorial Day in the United States is complex. The U.S. Department of Veterans' Affairs recognizes that approximately 25 places claim to have originated the holiday. At Columbus [Georgia] State University there is a Center for Memorial Day Research, and the University of Mississippi incorporates a Center for Civil War Research that has also led research into Memorial Day's origins. The practice of decorating soldiers' graves with flowers is an ancient custom. Soldiers' graves were decorated in the U.S. before and during the American Civil War. Many of the origination claims are myths, unsupported by evidence, while others are one-time cemetery dedications or funeral tributes. In 2014, one scholarly effort attempted to separate the myths and one-time events from the activities that actually led to the establishment of the federal holiday. Precedents in the South According to the United States Library of Congress website, "Southern women decorated the graves of soldiers even before the Civil War’s end. Records show that by 1865, Mississippi, Virginia, and South Carolina all had precedents for Memorial Day." The earliest Southern Memorial Day celebrations were simple, somber occasions for veterans and their families to honor the dead and tend to local cemeteries. In following years, the Ladies' Memorial Association and other groups increasingly focused rituals on preserving Confederate Culture and the Lost Cause of the Confederacy narrative. Warrenton, Virginia On June 3, 1861, Warrenton, Virginia, was the location of the first Civil War soldier's grave ever to be decorated, according to a Richmond Times-Dispatch newspaper article in 1906. This decoration was for the funeral of the first soldier killed in action during the Civil War, John Quincy Marr, who died on June 1, 1861, during a skirmish at Battle of Fairfax Courthouse in Virginia. Savannah, Georgia In July 1862, women in Savannah, Georgia, decorated the graves at Laurel Grove Cemetery of Colonel Francis S. Bartow and his comrades who died at Battle of Manassas (First Battle of Bull Run) the year before. Jackson, Mississippi On April 26, 1865, in Jackson, Mississippi, Sue Landon Vaughan supposedly decorated the graves of Confederate and Union soldiers. However, the earliest recorded reference to this event did not appear until many years after. Regardless, mention of the observance is inscribed on the southeast panel of the Confederate Monument in Jackson, erected in 1891. Charleston, South Carolina On May 1, 1865, in Charleston, South Carolina, recently freed African-Americans held a parade of 10,000 people to honor 257 dead Union soldiers, whose remains they had reburied from a mass grave in a Confederate prison camp. Historian David W. Blight cites contemporary news reports of this incident in the Charleston Daily Courier and the New-York Tribune. Although Blight claimed that "African Americans invented Memorial Day in Charleston, South Carolina", in 2012, he stated in the New York Times article that he "has no evidence" that the event in Charleston effectively led to General Logan’s call for the national holiday. Blight said, "I’m much more interested in the meaning that’s being conveyed in that incredible ritual than who’s first.” Columbus, Georgia The United States National Park Service and numerous scholars attribute the beginning of a Memorial Day practice in the South to a group of women of Columbus, Georgia. The women were the Ladies Memorial Association of Columbus. They were represented by Mary Ann Williams (Mrs. Charles J. Williams) who, as Secretary, wrote a letter to press in March 1866 asking their assistance in establishing annual holiday to decorate the graves of soldiers throughout the south. The letter was reprinted in several southern states and the plans were noted in newspapers in the north. The date of April 26 was chosen. The holiday was observed in Atlanta, Augusta, Macon, Columbus and elsewhere in Georgia as well as Montgomery, Alabama; Memphis, Tennessee; Louisville, Kentucky; New Orleans, Louisiana; Jackson, Mississippi, and across the south. In some cities, mostly in Virginia, other dates in May and June were observed. General John A. Logan commented on the observances in a speech to veterans on July 4, 1866, in Salem, Illinois. After General Logan's General Order No. 11 to the Grand Army of the Republic to observe May 30, 1868, the earlier version of the holiday began to be referred to as Confederate Memorial Day. Columbus, Mississippi A year after the war's end, in April 1866, four women of Columbus gathered together to decorate the graves of the Confederate soldiers. They also felt moved to honor the Union soldiers buried there, and to note the grief of their families, by decorating their graves as well. The story of their gesture of humanity and reconciliation is held by some writers as the inspiration of the original Memorial Day despite its occurring last among the claimed inspirations. Precedents in the North Gettysburg, Pennsylvania The 1863 cemetery dedication at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, included a ceremony of commemoration at the graves of dead soldiers. Some have therefore claimed that President Abraham Lincoln was the founder of Memorial Day. However, Chicago journalist Lloyd Lewis tried to make the case that it was Lincoln's funeral that spurred the soldiers' grave decorating that followed. Boalsburg, Pennsylvania On July 4, 1864, ladies decorated soldiers' graves according to local historians in Boalsburg, Pennsylvania. Boalsburg promotes itself as the birthplace of Memorial Day. However, no reference to this event existed until the printing of the History of the 148th Pennsylvania Volunteers in 1904. In a footnote to a story about her brother, Mrs. Sophie (Keller) Hall described how she and Emma Hunter decorated the grave of Emma's father, Reuben Hunter. The original story did not account for Reuben Hunter's death occurring two months later on September 19, 1864. It also did not mention Mrs. Elizabeth Myers as one of the original participants. However, a bronze statue of all three women gazing upon Reuben Hunter's grave now stands near the entrance to the Boalsburg Cemetery. Although July 4, 1864, was a Monday, the town now claims that the original decoration was on one of the Sundays in October 1864. National Decoration Day On May 5, 1868, General John A. Logan issued a proclamation calling for "Decoration Day" to be observed annually and nationwide; he was commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR), an organization of and for Union Civil War veterans founded in Decatur, Illinois. With his proclamation, Logan adopted the Memorial Day practice that had begun in the Southern states three years earlier. The northern states quickly adopted the holiday. In 1868, memorial events were held in 183 cemeteries in 27 states, and 336 in 1869. One author claims that the date was chosen because it was not the anniversary of any particular battle. According to a White House address in 2010, the date was chosen as the optimal date for flowers to be in bloom in the North. Michigan state holiday In 1871, Michigan made Decoration Day an official state holiday and by 1890, every northern state had followed suit. There was no standard program for the ceremonies, but they were typically sponsored by the Women's Relief Corps, the women's auxiliary of the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR), which had 100,000 members. By 1870, the remains of nearly 300,000 Union dead had been reinterred in 73 national cemeteries, located near major battlefields and thus mainly in the South. The most famous are Gettysburg National Cemetery in Pennsylvania and Arlington National Cemetery, near Washington, :D.C. Waterloo, New York proclamation On May 26, 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated an "official" birthplace of the holiday by signing the presidential proclamation naming Waterloo, New York, as the holder of the title. This action followed House Concurrent Resolution 587, in which the 89th Congress had officially recognized that the patriotic tradition of observing Memorial Day had begun one hundred years prior in Waterloo, New York. The village credits druggist Henry C. Welles and county clerk John B. Murray as the founders of the holiday. The legitimacy of this claim has been called into question by several scholars. Early national history In April 1865, following Lincoln's assassination, commemorations were widespread. The more than 600,000 soldiers of both sides who died in the Civil War meant that burial and memorialization took on new cultural significance. Under the leadership of women during the war, an increasingly formal practice of decorating graves had taken shape. In 1865, the federal government also began creating the United States National Cemetery System for the Union war dead. By the 1880s, ceremonies were becoming more consistent across geography as the GAR provided handbooks that presented specific procedures, poems, and Bible verses for local post commanders to utilize in planning the local event. Historian Stuart McConnell reports: on the day itself, the post assembled and marched to the local cemetery to decorate the graves of the fallen, an enterprise meticulously organized months in advance to assure that none were missed. Finally came a simple and subdued graveyard service involving prayers, short patriotic speeches, and music … and at the end perhaps a rifle salute. Relationship to Confederate Memorial Day In 1868, some Southern public figures began adding the label "Confederate" to their commemorations and claimed that Northerners had appropriated the holiday. The first official celebration of Confederate Memorial Day as a public holiday occurred in 1874, following a proclamation by the Georgia legislature. By 1916, ten states celebrated it, on June 3, the birthday of CSA President Jefferson Davis. Other states chose late April dates, or May 10, commemorating Davis' capture. The Ladies' Memorial Association played a key role in using Memorial Day rituals to preserve Confederate culture. Various dates ranging from April 25 to mid-June were adopted in different Southern states. Across the South, associations were founded, many by women, to establish and care for permanent cemeteries for the Confederate dead, organize commemorative ceremonies, and sponsor appropriate monuments as a permanent way of remembering the Confederate dead. The most important of these was the United Daughters of the Confederacy, which grew from 17,000 members in 1900 to nearly 100,000 women by World War I. They were "strikingly successful at raising money to build Confederate monuments, lobbying legislatures and Congress for the reburial of Confederate dead, and working to shape the content of history textbooks." By 1890, there was a shift from the emphasis on honoring specific soldiers to a public commemoration of the Confederate South. Changes in the ceremony's hymns and speeches reflect an evolution of the ritual into a symbol of cultural renewal and conservatism in the South. By 1913, David Blight argues, the theme of American nationalism shared equal time with the Confederate. Renaming By the 20th century, various Union memorial traditions, celebrated on different days, merged, and Memorial Day eventually extended to honor all Americans who died while in the U.S. military service. Indiana from the 1860s to the 1920s saw numerous debates on how to expand the celebration. It was a favorite lobbying activity of the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR). An 1884 GAR handbook explained that Memorial Day was "the day of all days in the G.A.R. Calendar" in terms of mobilizing public support for pensions. It advised family members to "exercise great care" in keeping the veterans sober. Memorial Day speeches became an occasion for veterans, politicians, and ministers to commemorate the Civil War and, at first, to rehash the "atrocities" of the enemy. They mixed religion and celebratory nationalism for the people to make sense of their history in terms of sacrifice for a better nation. People of all religious beliefs joined together and the point was often made that German and Irish soldiers – ethnic minorities which faced discrimination in the United States – had become true Americans in the "baptism of blood" on the battlefield. In the national capital in 1913 the four-day "Blue-Gray Reunion" featured parades, re-enactments, and speeches from a host of dignitaries, including President Woodrow Wilson, the first Southerner elected to the White House since the War. James Heflin of Alabama gave the main address. Heflin was a noted orator; his choice as Memorial Day speaker was criticized, as he was opposed for his support of segregation; however, his speech was moderate in tone and stressed national unity and goodwill, gaining him praise from newspapers. The name "Memorial Day", which was first attested in 1882, gradually became more common than "Decoration Day" after World War II but was not declared the official name by federal law until 1967. On June 28, 1968, Congress passed the Uniform Monday Holiday Act, which moved four holidays, including Memorial Day, from their traditional dates to a specified Monday in order to create a convenient three-day weekend. The change moved Memorial Day from its traditional May 30 date to the last Monday in May. The law took effect at the federal level in 1971. After some initial confusion and unwillingness to comply, all 50 states adopted Congress's change of date within a few years. By the early 20th century, the GAR complained more and more about the younger generation. In 1913, one Indiana veteran complained that younger people born since the war had a "tendency ... to forget the purpose of Memorial Day and make it a day for games, races, and revelry, instead of a day of memory and tears". Indeed, in 1911 the scheduling of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway car race (later named the Indianapolis 500) was vehemently opposed by the increasingly elderly GAR. The state legislature in 1923 rejected holding the race on the holiday. But the new American Legion and local officials wanted the big race to continue, so Governor Warren McCray vetoed the bill and the race went on. Civil religious holiday Memorial Day endures as a holiday which most businesses observe because it marks the unofficial beginning of summer. The Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) and Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War (SUVCW) advocated returning to the original date. The VFW stated in 2002: Changing the date merely to create three-day weekends has undermined the very meaning of the day. No doubt, this has contributed a lot to the general public's nonchalant observance of Memorial Day. In 2000, Congress passed the National Moment of Remembrance Act, asking people to stop and remember at 3:00 pm. On Memorial Day, the flag of the United States is raised briskly to the top of the staff and then solemnly lowered to the half-staff position, where it remains only until noon. It is then raised to full-staff for the remainder of the day. The National Memorial Day Concert takes place on the west lawn of the United States Capitol. The concert is broadcast on PBS and NPR. Music is performed, and respect is paid to the people who gave their lives for their country. Across the United States, the central event is attending one of the thousands of parades held on Memorial Day in large and small cities. Most of these feature marching bands and an overall military theme with the Active Duty, Reserve, National Guard, and Veteran service members participating along with military vehicles from various wars. Scholars, following the lead of sociologist Robert Bellah, often make the argument that the United States has a secular "civil religion" – one with no association with any religious denomination or viewpoint – that has incorporated Memorial Day as a sacred event. With the Civil War, a new theme of death, sacrifice, and rebirth enters the civil religion. Memorial Day gave ritual expression to these themes, integrating the local community into a sense of nationalism. The American civil religion, in contrast to that of France, was never anticlerical or militantly secular; in contrast to Britain, it was not tied to a specific denomination, such as the Church of England. The Americans borrowed from different religious traditions so that the average American saw no conflict between the two, and deep levels of personal motivation were aligned with attaining national goals. Longest observance Since 1868 Doylestown, Pennsylvania, has held annual Memorial Day parades which it claims to be the nation's oldest continuously running. Grafton, West Virginia, has also had an ongoing parade since 1867. However, the Memorial Day parade in Rochester, Wisconsin, predates Doylestown's by one year. Poppies In 1915, following the Second Battle of Ypres, Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae, a physician with the Canadian Expeditionary Force, wrote the poem, "In Flanders Fields". Its opening lines refer to the fields of poppies that grew among the soldiers' graves in Flanders. In 1918, inspired by the poem, YWCA worker Moina Michael attended a YWCA Overseas War Secretaries' conference wearing a silk poppy pinned to her coat and distributed over two dozen more to others present. In 1920, the National American Legion adopted it as its official symbol of remembrance. Observance dates (1971–2031) Related traditions Decoration Day (Appalachia and Liberia) Decoration Days in Southern Appalachia and Liberia are an unbroken tradition which arose by the 19th century. Decoration practices are localized and unique to individual families, cemeteries, and communities, but common elements that unify the various Decoration Day practices are thought to represent syncretism of predominantly Christian cultures in 19th century Southern Appalachia with pre-Christian influences from Scotland, Ireland, and African cultures. Appalachian and Liberian cemetery decoration traditions are thought to have more in common with one another than with United States Memorial Day traditions which are focused on honoring the military dead. Appalachian and Liberian cemetery decoration traditions pre-date the United States Memorial Day holiday. In the United States, cemetery decoration practices have been recorded in the Appalachian regions of West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, northern South Carolina, northern Georgia, northern and central Alabama, and northern Mississippi. Appalachian cemetery decoration has also been observed in areas outside Appalachia along routes of westward migration from that region: northern Louisiana, northeastern Texas, Arkansas, eastern Oklahoma, and southern Missouri. According to scholars Alan and Karen Jabbour, "the geographic spread ... from the Smokies to northeastern Texas and Liberia, offer strong evidence that the southern Decoration Day originated well back in the nineteenth century. The presence of the same cultural tradition throughout the Upland South argues for the age of the tradition, which was carried westward (and eastward to Africa) by nineteenth-century migration and has survived in essentially the same form till the present." While these customs may have inspired in part rituals to honor military dead like Memorial Day, numerous differences exist between Decoration Day customs and Memorial Day, including that the date is set differently by each family or church for each cemetery to coordinate the maintenance, social, and spiritual aspects of decoration. In film, literature, and music Films In Memorial Day, a 2012 war film starring James Cromwell, Jonathan Bennett, and John Cromwell, a character recalls and relives memories of World War II. Music Charles Ives's symphonic 1912 poem Decoration Day depicts the holiday as he experienced it in his childhood, with his father's band leading the way to the town cemetery, the playing of "Taps" on a trumpet, and a livelier march tune on the way back to the town. It is frequently played with three other Ives works based on holidays, as the second movement of A Symphony: New England Holidays. American rock band Drive-By Truckers released a Jason Isbell–penned song titled "Decoration Day" on their 2003 album of the same title. Poetry Poems commemorating Memorial Day include: Francis M. Finch's "The Blue and the Gray" (1867) Michael Anania's "Memorial Day" (1994) Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's "Decoration Day" (1882) Joyce Kilmer's "Memorial Day" See also United States Remembrance Day at the Gettysburg Battlefield, an annual honoring of Civil War dead held near the anniversary of the Gettysburg Address A Great Jubilee Day, first held the last Monday in May 1783 (American Revolutionary War) Armed Forces Day, third Saturday in May, a more narrowly observed remembrance honoring those currently serving in the U.S. military Armistice Day, November 11, the original name of Veterans Day in the United States Confederate Memorial Day, observed on various dates in many states in the South in memory of those killed fighting for the Confederacy during the American Civil War Memorial Day massacre of 1937, May 30, held to remember demonstrators shot by police in Chicago Nora Fontaine Davidson, credited with the first Memorial Day ceremony in Petersburg, Virginia Patriot Day, September 11, in memory of people killed in the September 11, 2001 attacks United States military casualties of war Veterans Day, November 11, in memory of American military deaths during World War I. See Remembrance Day for similar observances in Canada, the United Kingdom, and other Commonwealth nations. Other countries ANZAC Day, April 25, an analogous observance in Australia and New Zealand Armistice Day, November 11, the original name of Veterans Day in the United States and Remembrance Day in Canada, the United Kingdom, and other Commonwealth nations Heroes' Day, various dates in various countries recognizing national heroes International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers, May 29, international observance recognizing United Nations peacekeepers Remembrance Day, November 11, a similar observance in Canada, the United Kingdom, and many other Commonwealth nations originally marking the end of World War I Remembrance of the Dead ("Dodenherdenking"), May 4, a similar observance in the Netherlands Volkstrauertag ("People's Mourning Day"), a similar observance in Germany usually in November Yom Hazikaron (Israeli memorial day), the day before Independence Day (Israel), around Iyar 4 Decoration Day (Canada), a Canadian holiday that recognizes veterans of Canada's military which has largely been eclipsed by the similar Remembrance Day Memorial Day (South Korea), June 6, the day to commemorate the men and women who died while in military service during the Korean War and other significant wars or battles Victoria Day, a Canadian holiday on the last Monday before May 25 each year, lacks the military memorial aspects of Memorial Day but serves a similar function as marking the start of cultural summer References Further reading Albanese, Catherine. "Requiem for Memorial Day: Dissent in the Redeemer Nation", American Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 4 (Oct. 1974), pp. 386–98 in JSTOR Bellah, Robert N. "Civil Religion in America". Daedalus 1967 96(1): 1–21. online edition Bellware, Daniel, and Richard Gardiner, The Genesis of the Memorial Day Holiday in America (Columbus State University, 2014). Blight, David W. "Decoration Day: The Origins of Memorial Day in North and South" in Alice Fahs and Joan Waugh, eds. The Memory of the Civil War in American Culture (2004), online edition pp. 94–129; the standard scholarly history Blight, David W. Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (2000) ch. 3, "Decorations" excerpt and text search Buck, Paul H. The Road to Reunion, 1865–1900 (1937) Cherry, Conrad. "Two American Sacred Ceremonies: Their Implications for the Study of Religion in America", American Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 4 (Winter, 1969), pp. 739–54 in JSTOR Dennis, Matthew. Red, White, and Blue Letter Days: An American Calendar (2002) Jabbour, Alan, and Karen Singer Jabbour. Decoration Day in the Mountains: Traditions of Cemetery Decoration in the Southern Appalachians (University of North Carolina Press; 2010) Myers, Robert J. "Memorial Day". Chapter 24 in Celebrations: The Complete Book of American Holidays. (1972) External links 36 USC 116. Memorial Day (designation law) United States Department of Veterans Affairs National Moment of Remembrance Home Page National Memorial Day Museum website National Memorial Day Concert site The History of Memorial Day Memorial Day celebration suggestions, 1898 Public holidays in the United States May observances Observances honoring victims of war Holidays and observances by scheduling (nth weekday of the month) Federal holidays in the United States United States flag flying days Holidays Monday observances

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Inglis%20Clark

Andrew Inglis Clark

Andrew Inglis Clark (24 February 1848 – 14 November 1907) was an Australian founding father and co-author of the Australian Constitution; he was also an engineer, barrister, politician, electoral reformer and jurist. He initially qualified as an engineer, but he re-trained as a barrister to effectively fight for social causes which deeply concerned him. After a long political career, mostly spent as Attorney-General and briefly as Opposition Leader, he was appointed a Senior Justice of the Supreme Court of Tasmania. Despite being acknowledged as the leading expert on the Australian Constitution, he was never appointed to the High Court of Australia. He popularised the Hare-Clark voting system, and introduced it to Tasmania. In addition Clark was a prolific author, though most of his writings were never published, rather they were circulated privately. Clark was also Vice-Chancellor of the University of Tasmania. Throughout his life, Clark was a progressive. He championed the rights of workers to organise through trades unions, universal suffrage (including women's suffrage) and the rights to a fair trial – all issues which today we take for granted, but were so radical in the 1880s that he was described as a 'communist' by the Hobart Mercury. "Clark was an Australian Jefferson, who, like the great American Republican, fought for Australian independence; an autonomous judiciary; a wider franchise and lower property qualifications; fairer electoral boundaries; checks and balances between the judicature, legislature and executive; modern, liberal universities; and a Commonwealth that was federal, independent and based on natural rights." Yet he also had a rich and warm home life. He is described as "never too busy to mend a toy for a child, and his wife once wrote on hearing of his imminent return from America: 'to celebrate your return I must do something or bust". The Australian federal Division of Clark is named after him. Early life and marriage Clark was born in Hobart, Tasmania, the son of a Scottish engineer, Alexander Clark. He was educated at Hobart High School. After leaving school, he was apprenticed to his family's engineering business, becoming a qualified engineer, and finally its business manager. His father had established a highly successful engineering business, based on an iron foundry. The business was also involved with industrial design and construction of flour mills, water mills, coal mines and other substantial undertaking. He grew to manhood during the 1860s, when the major issue, even in remote Tasmania, was the American Civil War and emancipation. This last issue had an especial resonance in Tasmania where a form of slavery, transportation, had been abolished as recently as 1853. Convicts were still a common sight for years later. As late as 1902, Clark would publicly be moved to tears when discussing slavery. Clark became fascinated by all things American. In 1872, Clark disappointed his father by leaving to study law, becoming an articled clerk with R. P. Adams. He was called to the bar in 1877. Clark, as a child attended a Baptist Sabbatical School until 1872 when the chapel was dissolved on a motion put by Clark due to the "lack of discipline and proper order of government in worship." He then joined a Unitarian chapel, which led him into contact with leading American Unitarians, including Moncure Conway and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. The friendship formed with the latter would strongly influence his views and the development of the Clarks' draft of the Australian Constitution. Early in his life, Clark developed a passion for justice and liberty. He joined the Minerva Club where he participated in debate on contemporary social issues. In 1874, he edited its journal Quadrilateral. As a 'young ardent republican', he was also a member of the American Club, where at the 1876 annual dinner, he declared "We have met here tonight in the name of the principles which were proclaimed by the founders of the Anglo-American Republic... and we do so because we believe those principles to be permanently applicable to the politics of the world". He was inspired by Italian Risorgimento, especially by Joseph Mazzini of whom he had a picture in every room. He became a radical, a democrat and a republican. In 1878 he married Grace Paterson (Ross) Clark, the daughter of local shipbuilder John Ross, with whom he had five sons and two daughters: Esma (1878) Alexander (1879) Marine engineer Andrew (1882) Justice of the Supreme Court of Tasmania 1928–1953. Conway (1883) Architect Wendell (1885) Doctor Melvyn (1886) Carrel (1888) Clerk of Tasmanian Legislative Council Ethel (1889) One of the many mysteries of Clark's private life is the circumstances of his marriage. As the son of a prominent family, and a leading figure of his church who was marrying the daughter of a well-known businessman, his marriage might have been expected to be a major social event. Instead, they slipped away to Melbourne, where they were married in the presence of a few friends. Political career In 1878, Clark stood for election to the House of Assembly, despite his reputation as an extreme ultra-republican. He was attacked by the Hobart Mercury for "holding such very extreme ultra-republican, if not revolutionary, ideas" that his proper place should be among the 'Communists', and the Launceston Examiner as a "stranger from Hobart". He was elected, unopposed to the electorate of Norfolk Plains. His election was largely due to the influence of Thomas Reibey, a political power broker and a recent Premier. Clark was the founder of the Southern Tasmania Political Reform Association, whose agenda included manhood suffrage, fixed term parliaments, and electoral reform. While a member of the House of Assembly, Clark was regarded as republican and ultra-progressive. He was one of the few members legislate as a backbencher and introduce a private members bill. He failed to reform industrial law by amending the Master and Servant Act, but he succeeded with the Criminal Procedure Amendment Act in 1881.The ADB refers to "Criminal Law Amendment Act" of 1880. The Tasmania House of Assembly records do not include an Act with this title. There was however a "Criminal Procedure Amendment Act" in 1880. This confusion is complicated by the lack of a Hansard service prior to 1979. He also assisted with reframing the customs tariff. In the 1882 election, Clark was defeated. He failed when he stood for election in 1884 (East Hobart) and 1886 (South Hobart). In 1887, Clark was re-elected, in a by-election as member for East Hobart. In 1888, he was re-elected as member for South Hobart and remained there until the seat was abolished in 1897. He was then the member for Hobart until he resigned upon his appointment to the Supreme Court in 1898. In March 1888, he became Attorney General in the government of Sir Philip Fysh. Since the Premier was in the Legislative Council, Clark was responsible for introducing legislation into the Assembly. Over the next five years he shepherded through the lower house much progressive and humanitarian legislation. His goal was to break the power of property in Tasmanian politics. The legislation covered such diverse reforms as legalising trades unions, providing parliamentary salaries, preventing cruelty to animals, reforming laws on lunacy, trusteeship and companies, the custody of children and the protection of children from neglect and abuse. He also introduced laws to restrict the immigration of Chinese. Clark failed in his attempts to impose a land tax, introduce universal (including female) suffrage and centralise the police. Clark was the most important 19th-century Attorney-General of Tasmania. His considerable drafting skills enabled him to modernise and simplify the law over a number of areas. He introduced a total of 228 bills into the Assembly. His best known achievement as Attorney-General was the introduction of proportional representation based on the Hare-Clark system of the single transferable vote. One of the major political issues addressed by Clark during his career concerned the Tasmanian Main Line Railway – a railway which connected Tasmania's two main cites, Hobart and Launceston. In 1873, the Main Line Railway Company began the construction of the line, which opened in 1876. There were a series of disputes between the Company and the government over payments due to the Company under its Deed of Concession.ADB Audley Coote, Chief Engineer of the Mainline Railway Co Clark had spoken about the problem, advocating the acquisition of the Company by the government as early as 1878. With his dual qualifications as both an engineer and a lawyer, Clark was in a unique position to understand the issues involved. As Attorney-General, he was the government's chief negotiator. In 1889, the Supreme Court awarded the Company arrears of interest. Clark urged the government to appeal, and in 1890 he went to England to argue the case before the Privy Council. Clark may have been a poor speaker in court, but he was a superb negotiator. It was his forte. With full powers, he settled the case out of court by arranging the purchase of the Company's property by the government. In 1891, Clark returned to Tasmania from London by way of the United States. It was a fateful choice. He was introduced to a fellow Unitarian Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr, with whom he corresponded for the rest of his life. The contacts and people he met in Boston were to profoundly inform his views about political constitutions. Not the least of the consequences was the introduction of the term "commonwealth" to describe the Australian polity. This term is used in two ways: the Commonwealth Government and the Commonwealth of Australia. In 1892, the fall of the Fysh government ended Clark's term as Attorney-General. When Sir Edward Braddon formed a government in 1894, Clark again became Attorney-General, the same year he was given the title 'Honourable' for life. He resigned in 1897, when his colleagues failed to consult him over the lease of Crown land to private interests, after which he became Leader of the Opposition. Clark left politics to become a Justice of the Supreme Court of Tasmania in 1898. Hare–Clark electoral system In 1896, after several failed attempts, Clark was able to get a system of proportional representation adopted by the Tasmanian Parliament, but it was to be only on a trial basis for both Hobart (to elect 6 MPs) and Launceston (to elect 4 MPs). The modified single transferable vote method, immediately known as the Hare–Clark system, was renewed annually until suspended in 1902. Clark died in 1907, just as permanent proportional representation struggled through Parliament and over a year before it was used for the first time throughout Tasmania at the general election in April 1909. Early legal career Clark was called to bar in 1877. He soon gained a reputation as a criminal lawyer in a 'poisoning case', but went on to gain a large practice in civil and commercial law as well. He practiced law both while in and out of parliament. During those periods when he was not serving as Attorney-General, he worked hard to build a successful practice. He failed to find his fortune in the law due to his generosity and refusal 'to accept anything beyond a reasonable and modest fee'. In 1887 he went into partnership with Matthew Wilkes Simmons. His career in private practice gave him a broad grounding in the law which stood him in good stead once he was promoted to the bench. Clark was knowledgeable in all branches of the law, but pre-eminent as a constitutional lawyer and jurist. Clark, never in robust health, in fact described as "small, spare, [and] nervous" by Alfred Deakin, died at his home 'Rosebank' in Battery Point on 14 November 1907. He is buried in the old Queenborough Cemetery at Sandy Bay. ReferencesNotesCitations' External links Dictionary of Australian Biography University of Tasmania digital collections containing many letters to and from Andrew Inglis Clark Members of the Tasmanian House of Assembly 1848 births 1907 deaths Single transferable vote Australian federationists Leaders of the Opposition in Tasmania Judges of the Supreme Court of Tasmania Attorneys-General of Tasmania Colony of Tasmania judges 19th-century Australian politicians Australian republicans

58394

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon

Narconon

Narconon International (commonly known as Narconon) is a Scientology organization which promotes the theories of founder L. Ron Hubbard regarding substance abuse treatment and addiction. Its parent company is the Association for Better Living and Education (ABLE), which is owned and controlled by the Church of Scientology. Headquartered in Hollywood, California, United States, Narconon operates several dozen residential centers worldwide, chiefly in the U.S. and western Europe. The organization was formed in 1966 by Scientologist William Benitez with Hubbard's help, and was incorporated in 1970. While both the Church of Scientology and Narconon state that Narconon is a secular program independent of the religious doctrines of Scientology, and that it provides legitimate drug education and rehabilitation, the organization has been described by many government reports and former patients as a Scientology front group. Hubbard's writings, which underlie the program, assert that drugs and their metabolites are stored in the body's fatty tissue, causing the addict's cravings when partially released later on, and can be flushed out through a regimen known as Purification Rundown, which involves exercise, sauna and intake of high doses of vitamins. This hypothesis is contradicted by experimental evidence, and is not medically accepted. There are no independently recognized studies that confirm the efficacy of the Narconon program. The program has garnered considerable controversy as a result of its origins in Scientology and its methods. Its drug rehabilitation treatment has been described as "medically unsafe", "quackery" and "medical fraud", while academic and medical experts have dismissed its educational program as containing "factual errors in basic concepts such as physical and mental effects, addiction and even spelling". Narconon's facilities have been the location of several deaths, some of which have been linked to a lack of trained medical personnel on site. History Origins Narconon was established 19 February 1966 as a drug rehabilitation program based on the book Scientology: The Fundamentals of Thought by L. Ron Hubbard, the creator of Scientology, and was first delivered to drug abusers in the Arizona prison system. The name "Narconon" originally referred not to an organization but to the program. Narconon's creator was William C. Benitez, a former Arizona prison inmate who had served time for narcotics offenses. His work was supported by Hubbard, and in 1970 Hubbard sponsored the incorporation of Narconon as an organization. The organization was co-founded by Benitez and two Scientologists, Henning Heldt and Arthur Maren. Even before Narconon became established, Scientology and Dianetics were promoted as providing a cure for drug addiction. In 1970, the Rev. John W. Elliot, senior minister of the Church of Scientology and chairman of its Drug Abuse Prevention team, announced that "Dianetic Counseling" had "completely cured 30 out of 30 people" who came to Scientology for help. Rev. Elliott also reported that Dianetics could cure hay fever, asthma and arthritis. In the early days of Narconon, no distinction was made between Scientology's "religious" and "secular" branches; Narconon was considered by Scientologists to be an example of Scientology in action. "Narconon, with the Scientology program, is another example of the workability of Dianetics and Scientology", said an adherent in 1970. "The program has been expanded and is used in all Scientology churches and missions". The Narconon website reports that the keynote of Narconon is that the “…individual is responsible for his own condition and that anyone can improve his condition if he is given a workable way to do so… man is basically good and it is pain, suffering, and loss that lead him astray". It positions the program as an approach to rehabilitation without recourse to alternative drugs. This early program did not, however, deal directly with withdrawal symptoms. In 1973, the Narconon program adopted procedures to include drug-free withdrawal. 21st century A number of Scientologist celebrities have publicly attested that Narconon was helpful in their own lives. Musician Nicky Hopkins and actress Kirstie Alley have credited Narconon for their recovery from addiction to drugs and alcohol. Alley has since become a public spokesperson for Narconon. Elsewhere, the New York Rescue Workers Detoxification Project has used Hubbard's sauna detoxification regimen in an effort to improve the health of rescue workers exposed to toxic substances from 9/11, although the results are disputed. Toxicologist Dr Ronald E. Gots described the Narconon / Purification Rundown program in a 1987 report on its use by California firefighters: In 2004 and 2005, WISE at Work magazine and International Scientology News each published articles clarifying the relationship between Narconon and Scientology; each placed Narconon in Scientology's "Division 6B", with responsibility for introducing the public to Scientology services. By the end of 2005, according to the International Association of Scientologists (IAS), Narconon was operating 183 rehabilitation centers around the world. New centers opened that year included in Hastings, East Sussex, England (now closed), and in Battle Creek, Michigan. Narconon President Clark Carr asserted that drug prevention lectures "have been given to over 2 million children and adults over several decades... and are currently being delivered across the United States, all New England States, Washington D.C., Georgia, Florida, Oklahoma and surrounding states, Michigan and Illinois, Texas, New Mexico, Idaho, California, Nevada, Hawaii and possibly others" in response to an inquiry from The Humanist. On 17 July 2006, the Narconon center in Trois-Rivières, Quebec, Canada started a website at Narcodex.ca. Narcodex was a wiki purported to contain drug information. The domain name of Narcodex.ca was owned by ABLE Canada, a Scientology subsidiary. The funding for the website came entirely from Narconon Trois-Rivières, which also controlled the content on the site. The center was closed by the local health authorities in 2012. In July 2013, Narconon proposed to acquire the 150 acre Hockley, Ontario estate of Donald Blenkarn, who had died the previous year. Narconon planned to convert the estate into a rehabilitation center for alcohol and other drug use, but drew widespread opposition from residents who were opposed to the presence of a rehab center, and to the presence of Narconon and Scientology specifically. The Blenkarn family ultimately chose to sell to an unidentified person within the community for below the asking price, and rejected a counter-offer from Narconon. In January 2014, Narconon instituted a Hubbard-based detoxification program in Annapolis, Maryland to treat veterans suffering from war-related conditions. The treatments were funded by the Department of Defense through a September 2010 grant for $633,677 given to University of Albany, where David O. Carpenter serves as the director of the school's Institute for Health and the Environment and is the program's chief investigator. As of December 2014, seven Gulf War veterans completed the program. It was administered on a seven-day-per-week schedule, with the regimen being completed in 33 days. The program's purpose was to discover whether Hubbard's program has a scientific basis for therapy and whether it was effective in reducing symptoms and improving the functional status of veterans whose physical pain and anxiety improved upon completion of the program. Carpenter affirmed that the program was effective in his own treatment. Narconon and Scientology Narconon's affiliation with the Church of Scientology has made the program a focus of controversy. The organization has never denied that many of its administrators are committed Scientologists or that its methods are based on the teachings of L. Ron Hubbard. In its early days, Narconon used unaltered Scientology materials in its courses, and Scientology executives ran the organization; founders Heldt and Maren were high-ranking members of the Church's public-relations department known as the Guardian's Office (GO). In April 1970, Scientology spokesman Max Prudente described Narconon as "based solely on the philosophy and tenets of Scientology", claiming an 85% success rate. However, as Narconon promoted its drug treatment services to a variety of governmental jurisdictions within the U.S., the organization repeatedly found itself at the center of controversy when its ties to Scientology were raised by journalists or politicians. Such ties raised questions about the constitutional appropriateness of governmental bodies sponsoring a religiously affiliated organization (see Lemon v. Kurtzman). These problems were further intensified by claims that the program was medically unsound and served as a fundraising and recruitment program for Scientology. By the late 1970s, Scientology was keen to disavow its connection with Narconon. When the FBI raided Scientology offices on 8 July 1977, papers seized revealed that Scientologists were instructed to refer to Narconon and other "front groups" using code names: In 1994, John Wood, the head of Narconon UK, denied any connection between Narconon and Scientology, saying, "I know beyond doubt that Narconon does not recruit for nor promote the Church of Scientology", despite the final stage in Narconon's process for patients at that time being "Route to nearest Org (Scientology organisation) for further services", but by 2001 Scientology spokesman Graeme Wilson was describing Narconon as Scientology's "affiliate charity". A March 1998 Boston Herald series exposed how two Scientology-linked groups, Narconon and the World Literacy Crusade, used anti-drug and learn-to-read programs to gain access to public schools without disclosing their Scientology ties. Heber Jentzsch, president of the Church of Scientology International, who said in an interview that the Purification Rundown saved his life, confirmed after the Herald report was published that Scientology's Los Angeles law firm had hired private investigators to look into the personal life of Herald reporter Joseph Mallia, who wrote the series. The Herald noted numerous other instances over the years where reporters were harassed with "noisy investigations" after writing stories exposing Scientology. In Montreal, Narconon employees describe themselves as "FSM's", a Scientology abbreviation for Field Staff Member, while in Georgia a memo released under court order showed Narconon executive director Mary Rieser reporting directly to Scientology's Office of Special Affairs (OSA) as well as to parent organization ABLE. Drug rehabilitation program Since its establishment, Narconon has faced considerable controversy over the safety and effectiveness of its rehabilitation methods and the organization's links to Scientology. Medical professionals has been sharply critical of Narconon's methods, which rely on theories of drug metabolism that are not supported by mainstream toxicology. Narconon teaches that drugs reside in body fat, and remain there indefinitely; and that to recover from drug abuse, addicts can remove the drugs from their fat through saunas and use of vitamins. Experts disagree with this basic understanding of physiology, saying that no significant amount of drugs are stored in fat, and that drugs can't be "sweated out" as Narconon claims. In one 2005 report, experts stated that Narconon's treatment methods "does not reflect accurate, widely accepted medical and scientific evidence." Particular criticism has been directed at the therapy's use of vitamins (including massive doses of niacin) and extended sauna sessions. David Root, an occupational medicine practitioner and a member of the Narconon Scientific Advisory Board, defended the program's validity. He told the San Francisco Chronicle in 1991 that drugs and other poisons "come out through the skin in the form of sebaceous, or fatty, sweat. The material is frequently visible and drips, or is rubbed off on towels". This apparently explains the need for "daily doses of vitamins, minerals, and oils, including niacin". Narconon's "New Life Program" consists of two principal stages: detoxification and rehabilitation. The program, adapted from Hubbard's Purification Rundown, consists of six elements: exercise, sauna, supplements, sufficient liquids, regular diet with fresh vegetables, and adequate sleep. According to Narconon spokesman John Bitinas, there are more than 200 beds at Narconon Arrowhead, the program's flagship center in Pittsburg County, Oklahoma. Asked whether medications are used to help patients going through withdrawal, he said that, "Narconon is drug-free, meaning we do not use substitute drugs as part of our rehabilitation process." All patients are assessed at enrollment to determine whether they are "psychiatrically or medically qualified for the level of care we offer here. If they are found to need a higher level of care then Narconon is qualified to offer at that time, they are referred to a more appropriate facility." If patients require medications to treat physical conditions like diabetes or infections, those medications are prescribed by the Narconon physician, who is part-time but available on-call on a 24-hour basis, according to Bitinas. Each U.S. patient spends an average of three to four months at Narconon, for a fee that ranges from $10,000 to around $30,000. Overview The Narconon detoxification program is based on Hubbard's theory that "small amounts of drugs [and their metabolites] stored in fat are released at a later time causing the person to re-experience the drug effect and desire to use again." According to Narconon, exercise helps to release toxins from body fat as fat deposits are burned for energy, while concurrently releasing chemicals via sweating, sebum (produced by the skin's sebaceous glands), and regular bowel movements. Narconon is not a medical model. The program rejects the disease model of addiction, and its literature has described the terminology used by that model as being disempowering to patients. The Narconon program follows the "social education" model of drug rehabilitation. The program is four to six months long and includes a regimen of detoxification that includes "aerobic exercise, dry-sauna sweating, hydration and nutrition supplements; life skills trainings; and personalized plans for after-graduation living." The main premise of the detoxification regimen is that "the activation of drug residuals stored in the body can elicit drug cravings in the former drug user thus tempting relapse. The Narconon detoxification regimen is designed to eliminate drug residues from drug users' bodies and thus reduce the cravings that may be caused by these residues." Experts from mainstream medicine and toxicology have repeatedly argued that Hubbard's method has no validity: "one may from a pharmacological point of view strongly question the idea of using enforced sweating to expel drugs from the body", said Professor Folke Sjoqvist in a 1996 report for the Swedish government, while an Oklahoma Board of Mental Health report from 1990 states that, "Although minute quantities of some drugs may be found in sweat the amount represents a small fraction of drug elimination". In a deposition concerning the death of Patrick Desmond at Narconon Georgia, expert witness Louis A. Casal was questioned by plaintiff's attorney Jeff Harris: Narconon asserts that methadone, amphetamines, methamphetamines, morphine, copper, mercury, and other toxins, some consumed years earlier, leave the body by means of sweating. This contrasts with the view of the body's drug retention taken by mainstream science, which has found that most recreational drugs leave the body within a few days (with the exception of cannabis, which in the case of frequent use can remain in the body for up to a month). Niacin According to Narconon, vitamin and mineral supplements are needed to address nutritional deficiencies and offset nutrient loss due to sweating. Other key elements in the program are the use of niacin, which Hubbard believed to increase free fatty acid mobilization, and the inclusion of polyunsaturated fats that he thought to increase the excretion rate of some toxin compounds. Together with a proper amount of sleep, this regime is thought by Narconon to mobilize and eliminate long-term stored toxins. Narconon's "drug bomb" includes a niacin dose of 4000 mg/day. The risk to patients of taking high-dose niacin is one reason why medical experts assessing the Narconon program have found that it is a danger to patients; the program has been banned in a number of jurisdictions including Quebec and France as a result. Because Narconon doctrines dictate that patients undergoing its program exhibit physical symptoms relating to the drugs that are (supposedly) being "sweated out," and because Narconon's staff are not medically qualified or typically qualified in orthodox drug rehabilitation, there is a risk that serious medical symptoms—from niacin overdose or from other causes—may be misinterpreted by Narconon staff as the desirable effects of detoxification: Training Routines The remainder of the Narconon course uses "Training Routines" or "TRs" originally devised by Hubbard to teach communications skills to Scientologists. In the Narconon variant, these courses claim to be designed to rehabilitate drug abusers. These routines sometimes include TR 8, which involves the individual commanding an ashtray to "stand up" and "sit down", and thanking it for doing so, as loudly as they can. Former Scientologists say that the purpose of the drill is for the individual to "beam" their "intention" into the ashtray to make it move. Efficacy Narconon typically claims success rates as high as 75% of the graduates of its program remaining drug-free for the rest of their lives, and has in the past claimed "very close to a 100% success rate". However, these numbers are highly controversial, and there exist no independent studies that support these claims. Independent researchers have found considerably lower rates of success. At least one website critical of Narconon cites a Swedish research study that gives a rate of 6.6%. Narconon has reported the same study's findings as being much more favorable, although its representation of the study is greatly simplified. The Church of Scientology claims that "the Narconon success rate is not merely the world's highest, it is four times better than international averages", while a systematic review of evidence regarding Narconon's efficacy conducted by the Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services on behalf of the Norwegian Directorate of Health concluded that: In April 2014, the town council of Wyong, New South Wales, Australia refused permission for Narconon to open a new centre at nearby Yarramalong, saying that the program's method of treatment was a factor in the decision. Wyong Mayor Doug Eaton said: Education program Florida In 1999, Scientologists from Clearwater, Florida tried to get a Narconon drug education program instituted into the Pinellas County school district curriculum. After a hearing on the matter, a school district committee refused to allow students to participate in an anti-drug program based on Hubbard's teachings, citing that teaching students about the "tone scale" and other trappings of Scientology was inappropriate for a drug education program for their schools. California In 2004, Narconon offered an anti-drug program to public schools in California, free of charge. However, a series of articles in the San Francisco Chronicle in June 2004, resulted in California school officials investigating Narconon's claims. The study found that Narconon's program did not reflect medically and scientifically based practices and that it offered students misleading information about drug use and abuse. As a result of the investigation, on 23 February 2005, the state's superintendent of public instruction, Jack O'Connell, officially recommended that all schools in the state reject the Narconon program. O'Connell's secretary announced that the school systems in Los Angeles and San Francisco had dropped the program. The president of Narconon, Clark Carr, responded that the study presented only limited information about his organization's work, and that those efforts were "accurate and relevant to the current challenges children face with drugs." A May 2014 investigation by the Chronicle discovered that some California schools were still using the Narconon program, in spite of the 2004 decision. Steve Heilig, one of the experts who evaluated the Narconon education program on behalf of the school district and found it to be scientifically unsound, urged schools to check the accreditation of drug education programs before allowing them access to students, saying, "One imperative of drug education is that we not deceive students, as once they discover that you are not telling them factual information, they are likely to disbelieve everything you say". United Kingdom The UK prisons ombudsman recommended to prison governors that Narconon rehabilitation programs not be used in prisons although some schools in the UK are using these programs; The Sunday Times said this was because schools are less aware of Narconon's links to the Scientology. In September 2012, the 149 Church of England schools in the Diocese of London were warned not to accept offers from Narconon to give lectures to their pupils, following complaints from parents. In November 2016, Narconon was reported to have given talks on the dangers of drug addiction in two schools in Camden, London. Elizabeth Kitcatt, Camden School for Girls headteacher, said in a statement that the students found the talk "very useful", while Harry Shapiro, Director of DrugWise, called out the schools for being unaware to the group's ties to Scientology. A Brecknock Primary spokeswoman said: "The school's deputy head was in the room for the whole drug awareness talk and at no point was there any mention of Scientology or any religious connotations. It was marketed as an anti-drug talk and that's exactly what it was". President of Narconon UK Noel Nile claimed that the group was "in the business of saving lives". Cecchini/Lennox study In 2008, Narconon executive Marie Cecchini published, with Richard Lennox, a paper that claimed to show that the Narconon educational program reduced drug use among youths. However, the study was funded by Narconon's parent organisation, ABLE, and subsequent correspondence in the same journal asserted that the study's conclusions were contradicted by its own data: that the control group "were more likely to resist pressures to take drugs" than the Narconon group. Deaths Jocelyne Dorfmann, Grancey-sur-Ource, France (1984) In 1984, a 34-year-old French woman named Jocelyne Dorfmann died from an untreated epilepsy seizure while undergoing treatment at a Narconon center in Grancey-sur-Ource (near Dijon). The assistant-director of that center was convicted of lack of assistance to a person in danger. The Narconon center was closed. Medical experts reported that her death was caused by "an epileptic seizure due to the absence of sufficient treatment at its beginning and of emergency treatment during the seizure". Narconon staff failed to call for medical assistance, as a result of which Dorfmann died. X del Pozo, Cercedilla, Spain (1985) In 1985, a young man surnamed Del Pozo, a native of Ceuta, injected himself with an overdose of heroin while he was in Narconon Cercedilla, in the Community of Madrid. He was taken by ambulance to the hospital, where he died. The El Escorial Court opened an investigation, but ended up closing the case for lack of evidence and testimonies to clarify the incident. Paride Ella and Giuseppe Tomba, Valsassina, Italy (1995) In 1995, two young men, Paride Ella (22) and Giuseppe Tomba (26), died suddenly at the Narconon centre in Taceno, Province of Lecco, Italy. Ella died of acute kidney failure (symptoms consistent with a niacin overdose), while the recorded cause of death for Giuseppe Tomba was heart attack. Both patients suffered similar symptoms, namely vomiting and diarrhea, for days before their deaths. The young men died within a few days of one another, in the so-called "detoxification" stage of the Narconon program. The Narconon centre had no medical staff and was unable in either case to diagnose the seriousness of their condition. Before the deaths, Taceno's mayor had asked for the Narconon centre to be closed. Federica X, Torre dell'Orso, Italy (2002) In 2002, a 33-year-old Italian patient identified as "Federica X", from Torre dell'Orso, died under similar conditions. Federica died from peritonitis, according to her autopsy. She first began to suffer from stomach pains on Monday 7 October, and was driven to a first aid station where she was given painkillers. Federica was driven to hospital the following evening, where she died soon after being admitted in a coma. Narconon patient Giovanni Costa later stabbed staff member Rodolfo Savino, whom Costa claimed had ignored Federica's symptoms and had given her insufficient medical aid. Costa was arrested and charged with attempted murder. Patrick Desmond, Norcross, Georgia, United States (2008) Patrick W. "Ricko" Desmond, a former member of the United States Marine Corps, died at Narconon Georgia on 11 June 2008, aged 28, from a heroin overdose. Desmond's family alleged wrongful death and filed a lawsuit against Narconon, claiming that their actions led to his death and that Narconon falsely claimed to be a licensed inpatient program. WSB-TV in Atlanta reported that: Desmond's family paid Narconon $30,000 for his treatment. Narconon Georgia director Mary Rieser commented to a reporter: The lawsuit between Narconon Georgia and the Desmond family was settled out of court in February 2013, three days before jury selection was scheduled to begin. The settlement followed harsh sanctions against Narconon by the trial judge Stacey K. Hydrick, who said in a court order that Narconon Georgia had: and that it had: Judge Hydrick withdrew Narconon's response to the Desmond family's allegations, meaning that if the case had not been settled then the family's claims would essentially have gone unopposed by Narconon. Narconon International denied that it had any connection with Narconon Georgia, although documents disclosed in the Patrick case showed that Narconon Georgia's executive director, Mary Rieser, reported to Narconon International, Scientology's Office of Special Affairs, and to ABLE, describing in her reports the evening of Patrick's death: John Cunningham, Watsonville, California, United States (2015) In July 2015, John Cunningham, a 58-year-old Boeing employee addicted to benzodiazepines, was sent by his sister to Redwood Cliffs, a Narconon facility in Watsonville, California. The staff at Redwood Cliffs sent Cunningham to be detoxed to Bright Futures Recovery, which removed Cunningham from medications he was taking for depression. Cunningham was sent to the "local ER three times in just five days for withdrawal symptoms". On 22 August 2015, he was left alone in his room long enough for him to "hang himself by a belt in his bedroom closet". Cunningham's sister did not know that Narconon was a Scientology outfit until after her brother's death. Represented by attorney H. Gavin Long, Cunningham's family sued Redwood Cliffs and Bright Futures Recovery for $1 million each. The rehabilitation centers countered with an offer of "$100,000 and $350,000, respectively". The family refused and took the case to a jury in Santa Cruz. After a twelve-day trial where Narconon tried to argue that they had not referred Cunningham to Bright Futures Recovery, the jury awarded the family $11 million. According to journalist Tony Ortega, it was very rare for the case to go to a jury, and since this court case, "Scientology cut ties with its Northern California Narconon network, and the Redwood Cliffs facility has closed. But Narconon is still on the hook for its share of the verdict". Deaths at Narconon Arrowhead, Oklahoma, United States (2009–2012) In August 2012, Pittsburg County sheriffs and the Oklahoma Department of Mental Health (ODMHSAS), along with the Oklahoma State Bureau of Investigation (OSBI), began an investigation of deaths at Narconon Arrowhead following the deaths of three patients in a period of nine months. The investigation included the recent deaths of four patients: Stacy Dawn Murphy, aged 20, who died at Narconon Arrowhead on 19 July 2012; Hillary Holten, 21, who was found dead at the facility on 11 April 2012; and 32-year-old Gabriel Graves, who died at the facility on 26 October 2011. The investigation later expanded to cover the death 28-year-old Kaysie Dianne Werninck, who died at Narconon Arrowhead on 3 March 2009. Following media attention surrounding the deaths, the National Association of Forensic Counselors (NAFC) permanently revoked the Certified Chemical Dependency Counseling certification of several Narconon Arrowhead employees, including director Gary Smith. In August 2013, the ODMHSAS permanently revoked the facility's permit for medical detoxification after Narconon had exhausted all avenues for protesting the decision. In August 2013, Inspector General Kim Poff and investigator Michael DeLong, both of the ODMHSAS, who had been investigating the deaths at Narconon Arrowhead, had their employment terminated. No reason was given for the termination, but the investigators' attorney later claimed that the two were wrongfully fired, saying: "Their termination, in part, relates to the Narconon investigation". Narconon in Oklahoma Narconon began operations in Oklahoma in 1990, as an unlicensed facility on the site of the Chilocco Indian Agricultural School near the town of Newkirk, claiming that it did not require a state license as it was operating on an Indian reservation. In 1992 Narconon applied for a state licence, and was twice refused by the ODMHSAS, which found "no evidence that drug and alcohol abuse education was part of the program" and declared the program "not medically safe", a decision to which Narconon spokesperson Kirstie Alley responded, "The arrogance and irresponsibility of the mental health board will not survive the outrage of the many thousands of parents, graduates and supporters from the scientific community". Between 1989 and 1992, Narconon, through Scientology attorney Tim Bowles, filed lawsuits against the ODMHSAS; its members; and local newspaper editor Robert Lobsinger, who had written about Narconon's Scientology connection. Narconon contacted the Mayor of Newkirk's 12-year-old son at a library, and hired private detectives to research Narconon's opponents, leading residents to fear retribution if they spoke out against the organization. A Narconon spokesman quoted by The New York Times described Narconon's critics in Newkirk as "in favor of drug abuse… They're either connected to selling drugs or they're using drugs." Narconon achieved exemption from the requirement for state licensing in 1992, as a result of approval from the Commission on Accreditation of Rehabilitation Facilities. Scientology leader David Miscavige commented on the case in an interview with ABC News Nightline, saying, "There are a group of people on this planet who find us to be a threat to their existence, and they will do everything in their power to stop us. And that is the mental health field. I didn't pick a war with them." In 2012, a paid advert in the Oklahoma Gazette contained allegations from a previously unknown group named "Oklahomans for the preservation of homeland security and american values, (ohsav)" . The advert referred to recent TV news stories about Narconon and Scientology, named some of Narconon's critics in Oklahoma, and alleged those critics had "subjugated [their] individuality for [their] own thirst for hatred", had an "agenda of religious intolerance, racial discrimination or disdain for corporate America", and blamed them for "public disinformation hate campaigns against Blacks, Jews, Muslims and Scientologists". The advertisement showed the characteristics of a Scientology "DA flier". Kaysie Dianne Werninck The parents of Kaysie Dianne Werninck, who died at Narconon Arrowhead on 3 March 2009, filed a lawsuit against the center claiming her death was "a result of the defendant's [Narconon's] gross negligence". The case was settled. Gabriel Graves Gabriel Graves, who died at the facility in October 2011, was the subject of an open records request made to the ODMHSAS by the Tulsa World newspaper, which revealed reports of use and distribution of drugs at the facility. Graves' autopsy recorded his cause of death as "unknown". Hillary Holten Hillary Holten, whose parents filed a lawsuit against Narconon Arrowhead, is alleged by her parents to have died due to lack of medical care. Their lawsuit states that she "had a history of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia, a condition that required the daily administration of Dexamethasone and in extreme circumstances, an injection of liquid cortisone", and that Narconon Arrowhead did not properly manage her condition. Gary Smith of Narconon refrained from comment, adding that "there are federal rights to privacy laws which prohibit us from discussing anything about former clients." Stacy Murphy Stacy Murphy's father said Narconon officials told him that when his daughter was found dead alone in the "detox" room, and that she had not been checked on for two and a half hours. "That's too long, if they thought she was overdosed, why didn't they have someone with her the whole time?" he said, adding, "We sent her there to get better, not to die". Gary Smith responded in an email statement that, "It is always deeply saddening when drug addiction takes a life or destroys a family. ... For the family the pain of losing a loved one to addiction is unimaginable." A patient who was resident at Narconon Arrowhead at the time of Stacy's death said, "There was no doctor there, no nurse on staff. There's nothing like that there ... The staff, they're all former patients. ... My understanding is that everyone there is pretty much a former patient. ... The drugs that would have saved Stacy's life were either not available or no one there knew how to administer it." Now told reporters that he feared retaliation by Narconon for talking to the police and media: "I'm afraid for my life." Stacy's roommate, Destanie Ramsey, called police on the night of her death in order to leave Narconon Arrowhead, where she claimed she was being held against her will. Public and media response Protests over the deaths took place outside Narconon Arrowhead; one protest in late June 2012, planned to include bereaved family members, was disrupted by road resurfacing works outside the facility, paid for by Narconon. Pittsburg County Commission Chairman Gene Rogers explained that, "[Gary Smith] called me and said they might be having a problem with the public that weekend and he wanted help policing the area and he asked about doing overlaying [of the road]". Oklahoma State Senator Tom Ivester commented that, "Clearly something isn't right and we have a moral obligation to do everything in our power to end this predatory business being run by the Church of Scientology disguised as drug treatment", adding, "This is a disgusting business that preys on desperate family members and their sick loved ones, scamming them out of thousands of dollars with the promise of providing hope and new life. It's a disgrace to have these people operating in the state of Oklahoma." In direct response to the Arrowhead deaths, Ivestor introduced legislation to expand Oklahoma's ability to regulate rehab facilities. In response to an NBC Rock Center segment on the facility, Narconon President Clark Carr called its criticism of Narconon "bigoted" and described the program as addicts' "last chance for a decent, honest, drug-free life". Controversies State code violations Narconon facilities in California have been cited repeatedly for violations by state inspectors. Violations included administering medication without authorization, having alcohol on the premises, and not having proper bedding for patients. Narconon has also attempted to silence opposition, including sending letters to neighbors of a proposed facility in Leona Valley threatening legal action for criticism. Residents had been concerned that Narconon would increase crime. The local town council recommended an eight-foot security fence and independent security, which was objected to by Narconon officials. Investigation in Russia In April 2007, it was revealed that the public procurator in Moscow's South District had begun an investigation into Narconon's activities in Russia. The Moskovskij Komsomolets newspaper reported that legal proceedings were begun against the head of the clinic "Narconon-Standard" for violating bans in Russian medical practices. Russian law enforcement became interested after receiving many complaints from citizens about the high fees charged by Narconon. The Narconon office in Bolshaya Tulskaya St. was searched, and documents and unidentified medications were seized. One year later, as part of an investigation in Ulyanovsk into the Church of Scientology, police searched a Narconon office in the town of Dimitrovgrad. Narconon Trois-Rivières closed by Quebec health authorities On 17 April 2012, Quebec health officials ordered the Narconon facility in Trois-Rivières to close, and to relocate its 32 residents. After an investigation into Narconon Trois-Rivières' activities by the Centre Québécois d’Agrément (CQA), an independent body that monitors the quality of healthcare, the Mauricie Region's Health and Social Services Agency decided not to re-certify Narconon due to concerns that its methods "may represent a risk to health" of patients. The Agency's director, Marc Latour, said that Narconon Trois-Rivières was dangerous for patients, that it violated many of the criteria governing rehabilitation centres in Quebec, and that there was no medical supervision and no scientific basis to its treatment. He added that at least four clients had been hospitalized in recent months because of methods used at the centre. Narconon Trois-Rivières issued a response, saying, "People with drug problems and their families should have a right to choose the program that works for them as these days there are many good alternative programs". The closure followed a two-year campaign by ex-Narconon patient and staff member David Love, whose negative experiences with the program prompted him to become one of its fiercest critics in Canada. While he was at Narconon Trois-Rivieres, Love reports that: Before the centre's closure, Narconon had alleged that Love's allegations were fictitious and that he had been bribed to make them; Andre Ahern, Director of Legal Affairs for Narconon Trois-Rivieres, said: Love is one of five former Narconon patients who have filed a complaint with Quebec's Human Rights Commission, alleging that their drug addiction was exploited by Narconon, which recruited them into the program and made them perform manual labour while taking part in it. Love also alleges that Narconon Trois-Rivieres earned around $16 million for Scientology between its opening in 2005 and its forced closure in 2012. Narconon President Clark Carr stated that the facility closed because the province changed its stance on "what kind of drug rehabilitation it would tolerate" to "strictly medical, drug substitution, and so forth". Narconon was informed that it had to reacquire a license, but would only be approved if its method of treatment was changed. Pur Detox suicide attempt In September 2012, Pur Detox, a Narconon offshoot, was sued in Orange County, California for negligence, medical malpractice, and negligent supervision. William Sweeney, the plaintiff, "suffered severe personal injuries" after a suicide attempt, jumping from a third floor balcony at the clinic, in Dana Point. Sweeney's complaint alleges that he was taken off his prescribed psychiatric medication at the facility, and that it was this which led to his suicide attempt. Arrest of Heber Jentzsch In December 1988, the president of the Church of Scientology International, Heber Jentzsch, was arrested in Spain after an investigation into Narconon that resulted in (later dropped) allegations that he and Scientology were defrauding Spanish citizens and running its centers with unqualified staff. The judge in the case said at a news conference after the arrests that the only god of Scientology was money, and compared the church to a pyramid scheme in which members pay increasing sums of money. The judge said that Narconon swindled its clients and lured them into Scientology. By the end of 1991, the Spanish court found there was no evidence to support prosecutors' allegations that drug rehabilitation and other programs sponsored by Scientology in Spain amounted to illicit gatherings aimed at activities such as fraud. In April 2002, the charge was formally dropped. The court also ordered that the bail bond deposited for Jentzsch's release in 1988 be returned to Scientology along with interest, which nearly doubled the original amount. Slatkin fraud On 8 November 2006, the Associated Press reported that Narconon was one of the Scientology groups that would pay back a total of 3.5 million of illegal funds from EarthLink co-founder Reed Slatkin: Head of Narconon deported from Kazakhstan In July 2008, the head of Narconon in Kazakhstan was deported: Kazakh Justice Minister Zagipa Baliyeva announced that "foreigners from the USA, Georgia, South Korea and Japan have been deported from the country by law-enforcement agencies and in line with court rulings for violating the rules regarding the stay of foreigners and carrying out missionary activities without registration. In particular, with a further ban on entering Kazakhstan for five years, the head of the Narconon public foundation affiliated with the Church of Scientology has been deported," adding, "27 cases were uncovered where heads of non-traditional religious organizations violated the law on the freedom of conscience and religious organizations; in particular, materials propagating radical ideas and teachings of non-traditional religions were seized from them". Accusation of website graphics design/layout plagiarism In January 2001, Narconon came under fire when they appeared to plagiarize the entire layout and site design of the webzine Urban75.com for their websites heroinaddiction.com and cocaineaddiction.com, among others. The editor of Urban75 posted up comparisons of the copying, showing that Narconon had not even removed Urban75's hidden JavaScript code, unique to Urban75. The Register noted the irony of this scandal, quoting a critic who wrote, "Scientology has sued countless individuals and organizations putatively [sic] for 'copyright violation' and the organization claims loudly that they're at the 'forefront of protecting proprietary information on the Internet'." Narconon Georgia closed amid investigation for insurance fraud In April 2013, agents of the insurance commissioner of the U.S. state of Georgia and the Gwinnett County district attorney's office searched the group's offices in Norcross, Georgia, questioning employees as they arrived at work and impounding more than a dozen computers and boxes full of documents. The insurance commissioner said during the investigation that, "We have credible information that indicates that insurance fraud is taking place with Narconon". The family of one patient said that the group was billing insurance companies for treatments that had never been given, and the doctors for whom the costs were being billed claimed never to have met the patient. State investigators discovered nearly $3 million of insurance fraud at Narconon Georgia; in September 2013, the facility surrendered its state license in order to avoid criminal charges. Lawsuits California In March 2014, attorney Ryan Hamilton filed two civil lawsuits against Narconon with the state of California. The first civil suit was filed on behalf of Angelo Amato of Illinois, who purchased Narconon's Purification Rundown at Narconon Fresh Start (a.k.a. Sunshine Summit Lodge) in Warner Springs, after Amato searched the Internet for drug treatment facilities and believed allegedly fraudulent claims by Scientology that purported to be from an "independent consultant" web site. Amato claims to have been defrauded of $31,000 and began the Narconon program only to discover that it was actually Scientology being practiced, alleging that no actual drug treatment was offered at the facility. The second civil suit was filed on behalf of plaintiffs Christie Estrada and Branden Chavez of New Mexico, who also researched "drug treatment facilities" on the Internet and were allegedly deceived by Narconon Fresh Start in to paying $33,000 before the Purification Rundown process could be applied, with Narconon Fresh Start allegedly asking for $23,000 of that fee up front in cash. The defendants in this case are also Narconon Fresh Start. The core plaintiff complaints cover a spectrum of allegations of criminal misconduct by Scientology that include insurance fraud, denial that Narconon is tied to Scientology, fraudulent claims that Narconon staff were medically trained in drug treatment, and a number of other deceptive claims. Nevada In February 2014, Hamilton filed an additional civil suit against Narconon with the state of Nevada. His clients, Michael Tarr and his mother Cathy, sued Narconon Fresh Start (doing business as Rainbow Canyon Retreat) for fraud, breach of contract and negligence. The Tarrs claimed that, while residing at Narconon to treat his former heroin addiction, Michael did not receive detoxification treatment but rather indoctrination into Scientology, and asked the court to award them punitive damages as well as a refund of Narconon's $33,000 fees and their legal expenses. The Tarrs' civil suit followed closely behind a previous lawsuit filed by Hamilton on behalf of David, Stacy, and Jack Welch of Texas, who also allege that Narconon Fresh Start committed breach of contract, fraud, and negligence. In April 2014, Hamilton filed another lawsuit against Narconon Nevada, this time on behalf of Harry and Lauren Geanacopulos and their son Peter. The Geanacopulos family's complaint argues that Narconon's programme content and success rate were misrepresented to them and that it has no genuine medical or scientific basis. Hamilton claimed to possess a Narconon internal document showing that the program was used as a "bridge" to introduce clients to Scientology. National Association of Forensic Counselors In May 2014, the NAFC filed a lawsuit in Oklahoma, naming Narconon, Scientology and eighty other defendants. The NAFC is a body that provides certification to drug abuse counsellors. The filing sought an injunction to prevent Narconon from using the NAFC's trademarks, certifications or logos; it also sought punitive damages. The filing alleged that Narconon and the other defendants conspired to: going on to claim that Narconon: Oklahoma On 5 June 2014, one-time Narconon employee Eric Tenorio was issued a subpoena to appear before a multi-county grand jury in Oklahoma that was investigating alleged insurance fraud and credit card fraud being committed at Narconon Arrowhead. The grand jury is empowered to hand down state and federal indictments and to subpoena current and previous employees, agents, and operators of the facility. The grand jury investigation of Narconon Arrowhead came shortly after Tenorino filed documentation with the state of Oklahoma and with the NAFC, which resulted in NAFC filing their own civil lawsuits against 82 named defendants working for Narconon. Colorado At the Scientology facility in Fort Collins, Colorado, operating under the name "A Life Worth Living", there have been numerous law enforcement call-outs, medical emergencies, and other related requests for emergency services reported under a Freedom of Information Act request made available to the public on the Scribd document server, detailing numerous recorded incidents of Scientology operatives refusing to allow patents to leave, refusing to return their property, and patients making 9-1-1 calls that are interrupted by Scientology operatives. Spin-offs and related groups Narconon also operates and markets drug rehabilitation facilities under other names, partly to hide that they are part of Scientology. There are also other Scientology-affiliated drug rehabilitation groups that are based on the Purification Rundown. Blue by the Sea in Emerald Coast, Florida, is the name of the former Narconon Gulf Coast. Drug Free Ambassadors is a Narconon program targeting schools and youth organizations. Fresh Start is a pseudonym sometimes used by Narconon's facility in Nevada. Elevate Addiction Services was formally known as Narconon Redwood Cliffs, Narconon Pinecone Grove, and Narconon Emerald Pines. Despite the change of names faculty and owners remain the same and similar practices are used. Get Off Drugs Naturally is a business name for Narconon's Australian branch. Israel Says No to Drugs is a Scientology-affiliated organization based in Jaffa, Israel. Pur Detox (also Pür Detox with an umlaut) is a Scientology-affiliated clinic in Dana Point, California. The clinic has come under scrutiny due to a lawsuit by one of the former patients. Rainbow Canyon Rehabilitation Center, Rainbow Canyon Retreat or just Rainbow Canyon is the name of a Narconon center in Caliente, Nevada. Say No to Drugs Say Yes To Life or Yes to Life, No to Drugs is a front group for Narconon and Scientology, organizing races and street festivals to support Narconon. Sober Living in Orange County is the Purification Rundown operated at the Orange County Scientology Org itself. Suncoast Rehabilitation Center is a trade name or subsidiary of Narconon Spring Hill Inc., Florida. The center has come under scrutiny from the local authorities for their patient housing. The nearby Novus Medical Detox Center, while not directly affiliated to Scientology, is operated by the landlord of the Suncoast center. Teen-anon or Streetcats is a Narconon program at the Narconon Vista Bay facility. The Truth About Drugs and Foundation for a Drug-Free World are slogans under which Scientology and Narconon advertise their programs while concealing their Scientology origins. Though not directly linked to Narconon, the New York Rescue Workers Detoxification Project and Second Chance Program are both Scientology-affiliated and also use the Purification Rundown. Narconon and support from other religious groups Non-Scientology religious figures that have voiced support for Narconon have included the Rev. Charles Kennedy of The Glorious Church of God in Christ, Imam Wilmore Sadiki, James Mclaughlin of the Wayman Chapel, Baptist pastor Alfreddie Johnson, the Rev. Catherine Bego of the Word Evangelism Ministry, and Tony Muhammad of the Nation of Islam. See also Association for Better Living and Education Clear Body, Clear Mind Criminon Front organization Narconon Day New York Rescue Workers Detoxification Project Project Chanology Purification Rundown Second Chance Program References External links Official Narconon and Scientology sites Narconon International Purification Rundown Others Narconon Drug Abuse Prevention Program Evaluation by the State of California. Stop-Narconon.org & Narconon Exposed Information deleted from Way Back Machine Front organizations Hemet, California Pseudoscience Religion in Riverside County, California Religious prison-related organizations Scientology and society

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Bonanno

Joseph Bonanno

Joseph Charles Bonanno (born Giuseppe Carlo Bonanno; ; January 18, 1905 – May 11, 2002), sometimes referred to as Joe Bananas, was an Italian-American crime boss of the Bonanno crime family, which he ran from 1931 to 1968. Bonanno was born in Castellammare del Golfo, Sicily, where his father was also involved in organized crime. At the age of three, Bonanno immigrated to New York City with his family, for about 10 years before he moved back to Italy. He later slipped back into the United States in 1924, by stowing away on a Cuban fishing boat bound for Tampa, Florida. After the Castellammarese War, Salvatore Maranzano was murdered in 1931, and Bonanno took control of most of the crime family, and at age 26, Bonanno became one of the youngest-ever bosses of a crime family. In 1963, Bonanno made plans with Joseph Magliocco to assassinate several rivals on the Mafia Commission. When Magliocco gave the contract to one of his top hit men, Joseph Colombo, he revealed the plot to its targets. The Commission spared Magliocco's life but forced him into retirement, while Bonanno fled to Canada. In 1964, he briefly returned to New York before disappearing until 1966. The "Banana War" ensued and lasted until 1968, when Bonanno retired to Arizona. Later in life, he became a writer, publishing the book A Man of Honor: The Autobiography of Joseph Bonanno in 1983. Bonanno died on May 11, 2002, in Tucson, Arizona. Early life Bonanno was born on January 18, 1905, in Castellammare del Golfo, Sicily, to Salvatore Bonanno and Catherine Bonventre. Joseph's uncles, Giuseppe Bonanno and his older brother and advisor, Stefano, led a mafia clan in Castellammare del Golfo. The clan's strongest ally was the leader of the Magaddino Mafia clan Stefano Magaddino, the brother of Joseph's maternal grandmother. During the 1900s, the clans feuded with Felice Buccellato, the boss of the Buccellato Mafia clan. After the murders of Stefano and Giuseppe, their younger brother, Salvatore, took revenge by killing members of the Buccellatos. In 1902, Magaddino arrived in New York and became a powerful member of the Castellammarese clan. When Joseph was three years old, his family moved to the United States and settled in Williamsburg, Brooklyn for about 10 years before returning to Italy. His father had returned to Sicily in 1911, and died of a heart attack in 1915. In 1921, Magaddino fled to Buffalo, New York to avoid murder charges. Bonanno slipped back into the United States in 1924, by stowing away on a Cuban fishing boat bound for Tampa, Florida with Peter Magaddino. According to Bonanno, upon arriving at a train station in Jacksonville, Bonanno was detained by immigration officers and was later released under $1,000 bail. He was welcomed by Willie Moretti and an unidentified man. It was later revealed that Magaddino was responsible for bailing him out as a favour for Giovanni Bonventre, Bonanno's uncle. Bonanno first worked at a bakery owned by his uncle and later took up acting classes near Union Square, Manhattan. He had become active in the Mafia during his youth in Italy, and he fled to the United States after Benito Mussolini initiated a crackdown. Bonanno himself claimed years later that he fled because he was ardently anti-Fascist. Bonanno became involved in bootlegging activities. He operated a distillery located inside an apartment building basement with Gaspar DiGregorio and Giovanni Romano, who was later killed in the distillery due to an accidental explosion. During this time, boss Salvatore Maranzano took a liking to Bonanno and became his mentor. The Castellammarese War and aftermath During the Castellammarese War, between 1930 and 1931, Maranzano and Bonanno fought against a rival group based in Brooklyn, led by Joe Masseria and Giuseppe Morello. However, a third, secret, faction soon emerged, composed of younger mafiosi on both sides. These younger mafiosi were disgusted with the old-world predilections of Masseria, Maranzano and other old-line mafiosi, whom they called "Mustache Petes." This group of "Young Turk" mafiosi was led by Masseria's second-in-command, Lucky Luciano, and included Frank Costello, Vito Genovese, Joe Adonis, Carlo Gambino and Albert Anastasia on the Masseria side and Joe Profaci, Tommy Gagliano, Tommy Lucchese, Joseph Magliocco and Stefano Magaddino on the Maranzano side. Although Bonanno was more steeped in the old-school traditions of "honor", "tradition", "respect" and "dignity" than other mafiosi of his generation, he saw the need to modernize and joined forces with the Young Turks. In a secret deal with Maranzano, Luciano agreed to engineer the death of his boss, Masseria, in return for receiving Masseria's rackets and becoming Maranzano's second-in-command; he was killed April 15, 1931. However, although Maranzano was slightly more forward-thinking than Masseria, Luciano had come to believe that Maranzano was even more greedy and hidebound than Masseria had been, declaring himself capo di tutti capi (boss of all bosses); as a consequence, Luciano arranged Maranzano's murder on September 10, 1931. After Maranzano's death, Bonanno became boss–or as he called himself, "Father"–of the bulk of Maranzano's family. At the age of 26, Bonanno became one of the youngest-ever bosses of a crime family. Bonanno's role in the events leading up to Maranzano's death has been disputed. Years later, Bonanno wrote in his autobiography that he did not know about Luciano's plans; he claimed to have only learned about them from Magaddino. According to Bonanno, he subsequently learned that Maranzano and Luciano had had a falling out over influence in the Garment District. Reportedly, relations between the two had soured to the point that Maranzano was planning to kill Luciano as early as one day after Maranzano was ultimately assassinated. Maranzano had given the contract to Irish gangster Vincent "Mad Dog" Coll, who was actually on his way to Maranzano's office on the day of Maranzano's death. According to Bonanno, he concluded that going to war with Luciano would serve no purpose, since Luciano only wanted to be left alone to run his own rackets and "demanded nothing from us." He also believed that his soldiers would not be enthused about going to the mattresses again so soon after the end of the Castellamarese War. For this reason, Bonanno said, he decided to choose "the path of peace." However, according to mob expert Anthony Bruno, it "defies mob logic" to believe that Luciano would have allowed Bonanno to stay alive had Bonanno still supported Maranzano. In place of the capo di tutti capi in Maranzano's plan, Luciano established a national commission in which each of the families would be represented by their boss and to which each family would owe allegiance. Each family would be largely autonomous in their designated area, but the Commission would arbitrate disputes between gangs. In 1931, two months after Maranzano was murdered, Bonanno was married to Fay Labruzzo (December 31, 1905 – September 9, 1980). They had three children: Salvatore "Bill" Bonanno, Catherine, and Joseph Charles Jr. Bonanno had property in Hempstead, New York, and later Middletown, New York. His son, Bill developed a severe mastoid ear infection at the age of 10; his parents enrolled him in a Catholic boarding school in the dry climate of Tucson, Arizona. After this, Bonanno also maintained a home in Tucson from the early 1940s. Bonanno family Bonanno had several legitimate businesses, including three coat manufacturing companies, laundries, cheese suppliers, funeral homes, and a trucking company. The funeral parlor Bonanno owned in Brooklyn was suspected to be used as a front for disposing of bodies, specially building double-decker coffins to fit more than one body would be buried at once. In 1945, Bonanno became a U.S. citizen, and later that year, he was convicted for violating wage laws, and was fined $450. Bonanno allegedly attended the Grand Hotel et des Palmes Mafia meeting in Palermo in October 1957. A month later, in November 1957, the Apalachin Conference was called by Vito Genovese to discuss the future of Cosa Nostra, which Bonanno was reported to have attended. However, the meeting was aborted when police investigated the destination of the many out-of-state attendees' vehicles and arrested many of the fleeing mafiosi. Bonanno claimed he had skipped the meeting, but the attending capo Gaspar DiGregorio was carrying Bonanno's recently renewed driver's license. An official police report instead lists him as being caught fleeing on foot. All those apprehended were fined, up to $10,000 each, and given prison sentences ranging from three to five years. However, all the convictions were overturned on appeal in 1960. In any case, Bonanno suffered a heart attack and was removed from testifying in the trial. Commission plot and disappearance In 1963, Bonanno made plans to assassinate several rivals on the Mafia Commission—bosses Tommy Lucchese, Carlo Gambino, and Stefano Magaddino, as well as Frank DeSimone. Bonanno sought Profaci crime family boss Joseph Magliocco's support, and Magliocco readily agreed due to his bitterness from being denied a seat on the Commission previously. Bonanno's audacious goal was to take over the Commission and make Magliocco his right-hand man. Magliocco was assigned the task of killing Lucchese and Gambino, and gave the contract to one of his top hit men, Joseph Colombo. However, the opportunistic Colombo revealed the plot to its targets. The other bosses realized that Magliocco could not have planned this himself. Remembering how close Bonanno was with Magliocco (and before him, Joe Profaci), as well as their close ties through marriages, the other bosses concluded Bonanno was the real mastermind. The Commission summoned Bonanno and Magliocco to explain themselves. In mid 1964, Bonanno fled to Montreal, leaving Magliocco to deal with the Commission. Badly shaken and in failing health, Magliocco confessed his role in the plot. The Commission spared Magliocco's life, but forced him to retire as Profaci family boss and pay a $50,000 fine. As a reward for turning on his boss, Colombo took control of the Profaci family. On Bonanno's immigration documents, he falsely declared that he had never been convicted of a criminal offense. Bonanno was detained for nearly 90 days at Bordeaux Prison until he was forced to leave Canada. In October 1964, he returned to Manhattan, but on October 21, 1964, the day before Bonanno was scheduled to testify to a grand jury inquiry, his lawyers said that after having dinner with them, Bonanno was kidnapped, allegedly by Magaddino's men, as he entered the apartment house where one of his lawyers lived on Park Avenue and East 36th Street. FBI recordings of New Jersey boss Sam "the Plumber" Decavalcante revealed that the other bosses were taken by surprise when Bonanno disappeared, and other FBI recordings captured angry Bonanno soldiers saying, "That son-of-a-bitch took off and left us here alone." The "Banana War" During Bonanno's two-year absence, Gaspar DiGregorio took advantage of family discontent over Bill Bonanno's role to claim family leadership. The Mafia Commission named DiGregorio as Bonanno family boss, and the DiGregorio revolt led to four years of strife in the Bonanno family, labeled by the media as the "Banana War". This led to a divide in the family between loyalists to Bill and loyalists to DiGregorio. In early 1966, DiGregorio allegedly contacted Bill about having a peace meeting. Bill agreed and suggested his grand-uncle's house on Troutman Street in Brooklyn as a meeting site. On January 28, 1966, as Bill and his loyalists approached the house, they were met with gunfire; no one was wounded during this confrontation. Bonanno reappeared on May 17, 1966, at Foley Square. In 1968, DiGregorio was wounded by machine gun fire and later suffered a heart attack. The Commission eventually became dissatisfied with DiGregorio's efforts at quelling the family rebellion, and eventually dropped DiGregorio and swung their support to Paul Sciacca. In 1968, after a heart attack, Bonanno ended the family warfare by agreeing to retire as boss and move to Arizona. As part of this peace agreement, Bill also resigned as consigliere and moved out of New York with his father. Later career in Arizona and California In 1974, Bonanno and his son subsequently moved to Arizona, living in the Catalina Vista neighborhood of Tucson, Arizona with his family. In the late 1970s, his two sons, Bill and Joe Jr., brought high heat in Northern California after getting involved with Lou Peters, a Cadillac-Oldsmobile dealer, in San Jose, Lodi and Stockton. Louis E. Peters turned into an undercover for the FBI, helping them indict Bonanno. In April 1983, Joseph Bonanno and his son Bill appeared on the CBS News TV program 60 Minutes to be interviewed by correspondent Mike Wallace. Later in 1983, he served eight months in prison for obstruction of justice. In 1985, he was imprisoned for 14 months for contempt of court after refusing to testify in a federal racketeering case. Assigned federal inmate number 07255-008, he was transferred from the Federal Correctional Institution in Tucson, Arizona to the U.S. Medical Center for Federal Prisoners in Springfield, Missouri due to ill health at his advanced age and released on November 1, 1986. During Salvatore Bonanno's trial, he gave interviews to author Gay Talese that formed part of the basis of his 1971 true crime book Honor Thy Father. Joseph Bonanno was initially infuriated by the book and refused to speak to Salvatore for a year. By the late 1970s, however, Bonanno's attitude had changed; he had become interested in writing an autobiography to offer his own take on his life. Bonanno's book was published in 1983 as A Man of Honor: The Autobiography of Joseph Bonanno. Bonanno justified his decision to write A Man of Honor on the grounds that omertà represented a lifestyle and tradition greater than or beyond just the code of silence it is generally understood to be: as he had not been compelled to reveal his secrets by becoming an informant or government witness, Bonanno reasoned, he did not violate his code of honor. Bonanno's editor for A Man of Honor was publisher Michael Korda who said of Bonanno, "In a world where most of the players were, at best, semiliterate, Bonanno read poetry, boasted of his knowledge of the classics, and gave advice to his cohorts in the form of quotes from Thucydides or Machiavelli." Bonanno died on May 11, 2002, of heart failure at the age of 97. He is buried at Holy Hope Cemetery & Mausoleum in Tucson. In popular culture In 1991, Bonanno's daughter-in-law, Rosalie Profaci Bonanno, published the memoir Mafia Marriage: My Story. This book was eventually converted to the 1993 Lifetime network film Love, Honor, & Obey: The Last Mafia Marriage. Bonanno was portrayed by Ben Gazzara. In the 1991 film Mobsters, Joe Bonanno is portrayed by actor John Chappoulis. In 1999, Showtime produced a biographical film called Bonanno: A Godfather's Story. The film chronicles the rise and fall of organized crime in the United States. Bonanno was portrayed by Martin Landau. In 2004, Joe's daughter-in-law began putting Joe's personal items up for auction on eBay. This continued until 2008. In 2006, episode 66 of The Sopranos, "Members Only", Eugene Pontecorvo wants to retire and uses Joe Bonanno as an example of a retired mob member. Also in episode 76, "Cold Stones", Tony mentions that "Joe Bananas" went to war against Carlo Gambino for seven years. In 2009, Joe's cousin, Thomas Bonanno, participated as a Mafia expert in the filming of Deadliest Warrior: "Mafia vs. Yakuza", demonstrating his skills and marksmanship with a Thompson submachine gun as well as talking about "true" Sicilian Mafia philosophy and culture. In 2014, "Eldorado", the series finale of Boardwalk Empire, Joe Bonanno, played by Amadeo Fusca, has a non-speaking cameo role. He is seen sitting at the table as Lucky Luciano gathers the country's most powerful crime bosses and forms The Commission. He is portrayed by Chazz Palminteri in the 2019 TV series Godfather of Harlem. In the 2019 film The Irishman, Frank Sheeran (played by Robert De Niro), compares Bonanno's "kidnapping", in a telephone conversation with the wife of Jimmy Hoffa, to her husband's disappearance. References Further reading Talese, Gay (1971). Honor Thy Father. Cleveland: World Publishing Company. Crittle, Simon, The Last Godfather: The Rise and Fall of Joey Massino Berkley (2006) DeStefano, Anthony. The Last Godfather: Joey Massino & the Fall of the Bonanno Crime Family. California: Citadel, 2006. External links 1905 births 2002 deaths American crime bosses American gangsters of Italian descent American gangsters of Sicilian descent Bonanno crime family Bosses of the Bonanno crime family Capo dei capi Italian emigrants to the United States Italian crime bosses Italian gangsters Organized crime memoirists American writers of Italian descent 20th-century American memoirists Non-fiction writers about organized crime in the United States American male non-fiction writers People from Castellammare del Golfo People from Hempstead (village), New York People from Tucson, Arizona People from Williamsburg, Brooklyn Prohibition-era gangsters

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20medicine%20and%20medical%20technology

Timeline of medicine and medical technology

This is a timeline of the history of medicine and medical technology. Antiquity 3300 BC – During the Stone Age, early doctors used very primitive forms of herbal medicine. 3000 BC – Ayurveda The origins of Ayurveda have been traced back to around 4,000 BCE. c. 2600 BC – Imhotep the priest-physician who was later deified as the Egyptian god of medicine. 2500 BC – Iry Egyptian inscription speaks of Iry as eye-doctor of the palace, palace physician of the belly, guardian of the royal bowels, and he who prepares the important medicine (name cannot be translated) and knows the inner juices of the body. 1900–1600 BC Akkadian clay tablets on medicine survive primarily as copies from Ashurbanipal's library at Nineveh. 1800 BC – Code of Hammurabi sets out fees for surgeons and punishments for malpractice 1800 BC – Kahun Gynecological Papyrus 1600 BC – Hearst papyrus, coprotherapy and magic 1551 BC – Ebers Papyrus, coprotherapy and magic 1500 BC – Saffron used as a medicine on the Aegean island of Thera in ancient Greece 1500 BC – Edwin Smith Papyrus, an Egyptian medical text and the oldest known surgical treatise (no true surgery) no magic 1300 BC – Brugsch Papyrus and London Medical Papyrus 1250 BC – Asklepios 9th century – Hesiod reports an ontological conception of disease via the Pandora myth. Disease has a "life" of its own but is of divine origin. 8th century – Homer tells that Polydamna supplied the Greek forces besieging Troy with healing drugs. Homer also tells about battlefield surgery Idomeneus tells Nestor after Machaon had fallen: A surgeon who can cut out an arrow and heal the wound with his ointments is worth a regiment. 700 BC – Cnidos medical school; also one at Cos 500 BC – Darius I orders the restoration of the House of Life (First record of a (much older) medical school) 500 BC – Bian Que becomes the earliest physician known to use acupuncture and pulse diagnosis 500 BC – the Sushruta Samhita is published, laying the framework for Ayurvedic medicine c. 490 – c. 430 – Empedocles four elements 500 BC - Pills were used. They were presumably invented so that measured amounts of a medicinal substance could be delivered to a patient. 510–430 BC – Alcmaeon of Croton scientific anatomic dissections. He studied the optic nerves and the brain, arguing that the brain was the seat of the senses and intelligence. He distinguished veins from the arteries and had at least vague understanding of the circulation of the blood. Variously described by modern scholars as Father of Anatomy; Father of Physiology; Father of Embryology; Father of Psychology; Creator of Psychiatry; Founder of Gynecology; and as the Father of Medicine itself. There is little evidence to support the claims but he is, nonetheless, important. fl. 425 BC – Diogenes of Apollonia c. 484 – 425 BC – Herodotus tells us Egyptian doctors were specialists: Medicine is practiced among them on a plan of separation; each physician treats a single disorder, and no more. Thus the country swarms with medical practitioners, some undertaking to cure diseases of the eye, others of the head, others again of the teeth, others of the intestines, and some those which are not local. 496–405 BC – Sophocles "It is not a learned physician who sings incantations over pains which should be cured by cutting." 420 BC – Hippocrates of Cos maintains that diseases have natural causes and puts forth the Hippocratic Oath. Origin of rational medicine. Medicine after Hippocrates c. 400 BC – 1 BC – The Huangdi Neijing (Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine) is published, laying the framework for traditional Chinese medicine 4th century BC – Philistion of Locri Praxagoras distinguishes veins and arteries and determines only arteries pulse 375–295 BC – Diocles of Carystus 354 BC – Critobulus of Cos extracts an arrow from the eye of Phillip II, treating the loss of the eyeball without causing facial disfigurement. 3rd century BC – Philinus of Cos founder of the Empiricist school. Herophilos and Erasistratus practice androtomy. (Dissecting live and dead human beings) 280 BC – Herophilus Dissection studies the nervous system and distinguishes between sensory nerves and motor nerves and the brain. also the anatomy of the eye and medical terminology such as (in Latin translation "net like" becomes retiform/retina. 270 – Huangfu Mi writes the Zhenjiu Jiayijing (The ABC Compendium of Acupuncture), the first textbook focusing solely on acupuncture 250 BC – Erasistratus studies the brain and distinguishes between the cerebrum and cerebellum physiology of the brain, heart and eyes, and in the vascular, nervous, respiratory and reproductive systems. 219 – Zhang Zhongjing publishes Shang Han Lun (On Cold Disease Damage). 200 BC – the Charaka Samhita uses a rational approach to the causes and cure of disease and uses objective methods of clinical examination 124–44 BC – Asclepiades of Bithynia 116–27 BC – Marcus Terentius Varro Prototypal germ theory of disease. 1st century AD – Rufus of Ephesus; Marcellinus a physician of the first century AD; Numisianus 23–79 AD – Pliny the Elder writes Natural History c. 25 BC – c. 50 AD – Aulus Cornelius Celsus Medical encyclopedia 50–70 AD – Pedanius Dioscorides writes De Materia Medica – a precursor of modern pharmacopoeias that was in use for almost 1600 years 2nd century AD Aretaeus of Cappadocia 98–138 AD – Soranus of Ephesus 129–216 AD – Galen – Clinical medicine based on observation and experience. The resulting tightly integrated and comprehensive system, offering a complete medical philosophy dominated medicine throughout the Middle Ages and until the beginning of the modern era. After Galen 200 AD d. 260 – Gargilius Martialis, short Latin handbook on Medicines from Vegetables and Fruits 4th century Magnus of Nisibis, Alexandrian doctor and professor book on urine 325–400 – Oribasius 70 volume encyclopedia 362 – Julian orders xenones built, imitating Christian charity (proto hospitals) 369 – Basil of Caesarea founded at Caesarea in Cappadocia an institution (hospital) called Basilias, with several buildings for patients, nurses, physicians, workshops, and schools 375 – Ephrem the Syrian opened a hospital at Edessa They spread out and specialized nosocomia for the sick, brephotrophia for foundlings, orphanotrophia for orphans, ptochia for the poor, xenodochia for poor or infirm pilgrims, and gerontochia for the old. 400 – The first hospital in Latin Christendom was founded by Fabiola at Rome 420 – Caelius Aurelianus a doctor from Sicca Veneria (El-Kef, Tunisia) handbook On Acute and Chronic Diseases in Latin. 447 – Cassius Felix of Cirta (Constantine, Ksantina, Algeria), medical handbook drew on Greek sources, Methodist and Galenist in Latin 480–547 Benedict of Nursia founder of "monastic medicine" 484–590 – Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus fl. 511–534 – Anthimus Greek: Ἄνθιμος 536 – Sergius of Reshaina (died 536) – A Christian theologian-physician who translated thirty-two of Galen's works into Syriac and wrote medical treatises of his own 525–605 – Alexander of Tralles Alexander Trallianus 500–550 – Aetius of Amida Encyclopedia 4 books each divided into 4 sections second half of 6th century building of xenodocheions/bimārestāns by the Nestorians under the Sasanians, would evolve into the complex secular "Islamic hospital", which combined lay practice and Galenic teaching 550–630 Stephanus of Athens 560–636 – Isidore of Seville c. 620 Aaron of Alexandria Syriac . He wrote 30 books on medicine, the "Pandects". He was the first author in antiquity who mentioned the diseases of smallpox and measles translated by Māsarjawaih a Syrian Jew and Physician, into Arabic about A. D. 683 c. 630 – Paul of Aegina Encyclopedia in 7 books very detailed surgery used by Albucasis 790–869 – Leo Itrosophist also Mathematician or Philosopher wrote "Epitome of Medicine" c. 800–873 – Al-Kindi (Alkindus) De Gradibus 820 – Benedictine hospital founded, School of Salerno would grow around it 857d – Mesue the elder (Yūḥannā ibn Māsawayh) Syriac Christian c. 830–870 – Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Johannitius) Syriac-speaking Christian also knew Greek and Arabic. Translator and author of several medical tracts. c. 838–870 – Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, writes an encyclopedia of medicine in Arabic. c. 910d – Ishaq ibn Hunayn 9th century – Yahya ibn Sarafyun a Syriac physician Johannes Serapion, Serapion the Elder c. 865–925 – Rhazes pediatrics, and makes the first clear distinction between smallpox and measles in his al-Hawi. d. 955 – Isaac Judaeus Isḥāq ibn Sulaymān al-Isrāʾīlī Egyptian born Jewish physician 913–982 – Shabbethai Donnolo alleged founding father of School of Salerno wrote in Hebrew d. 982–994 – 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi Haly Abbas 1000 – Albucasis (936–1018) surgery Kitab al-Tasrif, surgical instruments. d. 1075 – Ibn Butlan Christian physician of Baghdad Tacuinum sanitatis the Arabic original and most of the Latin copies, are in tabular format 1018–1087 – Michael Psellos or Psellus a Byzantine monk, writer, philosopher, politician and historian. several books on medicine c. 1030 – Avicenna The Canon of Medicine The Canon remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European universities until the 18th century. c. 1071–1078 – Simeon Seth or Symeon Seth an 11th-century Jewish Byzantine translated Arabic works into Greek 1084 – First documented hospital in England Canterbury d. 1087 – Constantine the African 1083–1153 – Anna Komnene, Latinized as Comnena 1095 – Congregation of the Antonines, was founded to treat victims of "St. Anthony's fire" a skin disease. late 11th early 12th century – Trotula 1123 – St Bartholomew's Hospital founded by the court jester Rahere Augustine nuns originally cared for the patients. Mental patients were accepted along with others 1127 – Stephen of Antioch translated the work of Haly Abbas 1100–1161 – Avenzoar Teacher of Averroes 1170 – Rogerius Salernitanus composed his Chirurgia also known as The Surgery of Roger 1126–1198 – Averroes c. 1161d – Matthaeus Platearius 1200–1499 1203 – Innocent III organized the hospital of Santo Spirito at Rome inspiring others all over Europe c. 1210–1277 – William of Saliceto, also known as Guilielmus de Saliceto 1210–1295 – Taddeo Alderotti – Scholastic medicine 1240 Bartholomeus Anglicus 1242 – Ibn an-Nafis suggests that the right and left ventricles of the heart are separate and discovers the pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation c. 1248 – Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany and pharmacy, studied animal anatomy and medicine veterinary medicine. 1249 – Roger Bacon writes about convex lens spectacles for treating long-sightedness 1257 – 1316 Pietro d'Abano also known as Petrus De Apono or Aponensis 1260 – Louis IX established Les Quinze-vingt; originally a retreat for the blind, it became a hospital for eye diseases, and is now one of the most important medical centers in Paris c. 1260–1320 Henri de Mondeville 1284 – Mansur hospital of Cairo c. 1275 – c. 1328 Joannes Zacharias Actuarius a Byzantine physician wrote the last great compendium of Byzantine medicine 1275–1326 – Mondino de Luzzi "Mundinus" carried out the first systematic human dissections since Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos 1500 years earlier. 1288 – The hospital of Santa Maria Nuova founded in Florence, it was strictly medical. 1300 – concave lens spectacles to treat myopia developed in Italy. 1310 – Pietro d'Abano's Conciliator (c. 1310) d. 1348 – Gentile da Foligno 1292–1350 – Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziya 1306–1390 – John of Arderne d. 1368 – Guy de Chauliac f. 1460 – Heinrich von Pfolspeundt 1443–1502 – Antonio Benivieni Pathological anatomy 1493–1541 – Paracelsus On the relationship between medicine and surgery surgery book 1500–1799 early 16th century: Paracelsus, an alchemist by trade, rejects occultism and pioneers the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine. Burns the books of Avicenna, Galen and Hippocrates. Hieronymus Fabricius His "Surgery" is mostly that of Celsus, Paul of Aegina, and Abulcasis citing them by name. Caspar Stromayr 1500?–1561 Pierre Franco Ambroise Paré (1510–1590) pioneered the treatment of gunshot wounds. Bartholomeo Maggi at Bologna, Felix Wurtz of Zurich, Léonard Botal in Paris, and the Englishman Thomas Gale (surgeon), (the diversity of their geographical origins attests to the widespread interest of surgeons in the problem), all published works urging similar treatment to Paré's. But it was Paré's writings which were the most influential. 1518 – College of Physicians founded now known as Royal College of Physicians of London is a British professional body of doctors of general medicine and its subspecialties. It received the royal charter in 1518 1510–1590 – Ambroise Paré surgeon 1540–1604 – William Clowes – Surgical chest for military surgeons 1543 – Andreas Vesalius publishes De Fabrica Corporis Humani which corrects Greek medical errors and revolutionizes European medicine 1546 – Girolamo Fracastoro proposes that epidemic diseases are caused by transferable seedlike entities 1550–1612 – Peter Lowe 1553 – Miguel Serveto describes the circulation of blood through the lungs. He is accused of heresy and burned at the stake 1556 – Amato Lusitano describes venous valves in the Ázigos vein 1559 – Realdo Colombo describes the circulation of blood through the lungs in detail 1563 – Garcia de Orta founds tropical medicine with his treatise on Indian diseases and treatments 1570–1643 – John Woodall Ship surgeons used lemon juice to treat scurvy wrote "The Surgions Mate" 1590 – Microscope was invented, which played a huge part in medical advancement 1596 – Li Shizhen publishes Běncǎo Gāngmù or Compendium of Materia Medica 1603 – Girolamo Fabrici studies leg veins and notices that they have valves which allow blood to flow only toward the heart 1621–1676 – Richard Wiseman 1628 – William Harvey explains the circulatory system in Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus 1683–1758 – Lorenz Heister 1688–1752 – William Cheselden 1701 – Giacomo Pylarini gives the first smallpox inoculations in Europe. They were widely practised in the East before then. 1714–1789 – Percivall Pott 1720 – Lady Mary Wortley Montagu 1728–1793 – John Hunter 1736 – Claudius Aymand performs the first successful appendectomy 1744–1795 – Pierre-Joseph Desault First surgical periodical 1747 – James Lind discovers that citrus fruits prevent scurvy 1749–1806 – Benjamin Bell – Leading surgeon of his time and father of a surgical dynasty, author of "A System of Surgery" 1752–1832 – Antonio Scarpa 1763–1820 – John Bell 1766–1842 – Dominique Jean Larrey Surgeon to Napoleon 1768–1843 – Astley Cooper surgeon lectures principles and practice 1774–1842 – Charles Bell, surgeon 1774 – Joseph Priestley discovers nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, ammonia, hydrogen chloride and oxygen 1777–1835 – Baron Guillaume Dupuytren – Head surgeon at Hôtel-Dieu de Paris, The age Dupuytren 1785 – William Withering publishes "An Account of the Foxglove" the first systematic description of digitalis in treating dropsy 1790 – Samuel Hahnemann rages against the prevalent practice of bloodletting as a universal cure and founds homeopathy 1796 – Edward Jenner develops a smallpox vaccination method 1799 – Humphry Davy discovers the anesthetic properties of nitrous oxide 1800–1899 1800 – Humphry Davy announces the anaesthetic properties of nitrous oxide. 1803–1841 – Morphine was first isolated by Friedrich Sertürner, this is generally believed to be the first isolation of an active ingredient from a plant. 1813–1883 – James Marion Sims vesico-vaganial surgery Father of surgical gynecology. 1816 – Rene Laennec invents the stethoscope. 1827–1912 – Joseph Lister antiseptic surgery Father of modern surgery 1818 – James Blundell performs the first successful human transfusion. 1842 – Crawford Long performs the first surgical operation using anesthesia with ether. 1845 – John Hughes Bennett first describes leukemia as a blood disorder. 1846 – First painless surgery with general anesthetic. 1847 – Ignaz Semmelweis discovers how to prevent puerperal fever. 1849 – Elizabeth Blackwell is the first woman to gain a medical degree in the United States. 1850 – Female Medical College of Pennsylvania (later Woman's Medical College), the first medical college in the world to grant degrees to women, is founded in Philadelphia. 1858 – Rudolf Carl Virchow 13 October 1821 – 5 September 1902 his theories of cellular pathology spelled the end of Humoral medicine. 1861 - Louis Pasteur discovers Germ Theory 1867 – Lister publishes Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery, based partly on Pasteur's work. 1870 – Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch establish the germ theory of disease. 1878 – Ellis Reynolds Shipp graduates from the Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania and begins practice in Utah. 1879 – First vaccine for cholera. 1881 – Louis Pasteur develops an anthrax vaccine. 1882 – Louis Pasteur develops a rabies vaccine. 1890 – Emil von Behring discovers antitoxins and uses them to develop tetanus and diphtheria vaccines. 1895 – Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers medical use of X-rays in medical imaging 1900–1999 1901 – Karl Landsteiner discovers the existence of different human blood types 1901 – Alois Alzheimer identifies the first case of what becomes known as Alzheimer's disease 1903 – Willem Einthoven invents electrocardiography (ECG/EKG) 1906 – Frederick Hopkins suggests the existence of vitamins and suggests that a lack of vitamins causes scurvy and rickets 1907 – Paul Ehrlich develops a chemotherapeutic cure for sleeping sickness 1907 – Henry Stanley Plummer develops the first structured patient record and clinical number (Mayo clinic) 1908 – Victor Horsley and R. Clarke invents the stereotactic method 1909 – First intrauterine device described by Richard Richter. 1910 – Hans Christian Jacobaeus performs the first laparoscopy on humans 1917 – Julius Wagner-Jauregg discovers the malarial fever shock therapy for general paresis of the insane 1921 – Edward Mellanby discovers vitamin D and shows that its absence causes rickets 1921 – Frederick Banting and Charles Best discover insulin – important for the treatment of diabetes 1921 – Fidel Pagés pioneers epidural anesthesia 1923 – First vaccine for diphtheria 1926 – First vaccine for pertussis 1927 – First vaccine for tuberculosis 1927 – First vaccine for tetanus 1929 – Hans Berger discovers human electroencephalography 1930 - first successful sex reassignment surgery performed on lili Elbe in Dresden, Germany. 1932 – Gerhard Domagk develops a chemotherapeutic cure for streptococcus 1933 – Manfred Sakel discovers insulin shock therapy 1935 – Ladislas J. Meduna discovers metrazol shock therapy 1935 – First vaccine for yellow fever 1936 – Egas Moniz discovers prefrontal lobotomy for treating mental diseases; Enrique Finochietto develops the now ubiquitous self-retaining thoracic retractor 1938 – Ugo Cerletti and Lucio Bini discover electroconvulsive therapy 1938 – Howard Florey and Ernst Chain investigate Penicillin and attempted to mass-produce it and tested it on the policeman Albert Alexander (police officer) who recovered but died due to a lack of Penicillin 1943 – Willem J. Kolff builds the first dialysis machine 1944 – Disposable catheter – David S. Sheridan 1946 – Chemotherapy – Alfred G. Gilman and Louis S. Goodman 1947 – Defibrillator – Claude Beck 1948 – Acetaminophen – Julius Axelrod, Bernard Brodie 1949 – First implant of intraocular lens, by Sir Harold Ridley 1949 – Mechanical assistor for anesthesia – John Emerson 1952 – Jonas Salk develops the first polio vaccine (available in 1955) 1952 – Cloning – Robert Briggs and Thomas King 1953 – First live birth from frozen sperm 1953 – Heart-lung machine – John Heysham Gibbon 1953 – Medical ultrasonography – Inge Edler 1954 – Joseph Murray performs the first human kidney transplant (on identical twins) 1954 – Ventouse – Tage Malmstrom 1955 – Tetracycline – Lloyd Conover 1956 – Metered-dose inhaler – 3M 1957 – William Grey Walter invents the brain EEG topography (toposcope) 1958 – Pacemaker – Rune Elmqvist 1959 – In vitro fertilization – Min Chueh Chang 1960 – Invention of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) 1960 – First combined oral contraceptive approved by the FDA 1962 – Hip replacement – John Charnley 1962 – Beta blocker James W. Black 1962 – Albert Sabin develops first oral polio vaccine 1963 – Artificial heart – Paul Winchell 1963 – Thomas Starzl performs the first human liver transplant 1963 – James Hardy performs the first human lung transplant 1963 – Valium (diazepam) – Leo H. Sternbach 1964 – First vaccine for measles 1965 – Frank Pantridge installs the first portable defibrillator 1965 – First commercial ultrasound 1966 – C. Walton Lillehei performs the first human pancreas transplant 1966 – Rubella Vaccine – Harry Martin Meyer and Paul D. Parkman 1967 – First vaccine for mumps 1967 - René Favaloro develops Coronary Bypass surgery 1967 – Christiaan Barnard performs the first human heart transplant 1968 – Powered prothesis – Samuel Alderson 1968 – Controlled drug delivery – Alejandro Zaffaron 1969 – Balloon catheter – Thomas Fogarty 1969 – Cochlear implant – William House 1970 – Cyclosporine, the first effective immunosuppressive drug is introduced in organ transplant practice 1971 - MMR Vaccine - developed by Maurice Hilleman 1971 – Genetically modified organisms – Ananda Chakrabart 1971 – Magnetic resonance imaging – Raymond Vahan Damadian 1971 – Computed tomography (CT or CAT Scan) – Godfrey Hounsfield 1971 – Transdermal patches – Alejandro Zaffaroni 1971 – Sir Godfrey Hounsfield invents the first commercial CT scanner 1972 – Insulin pump Dean Kamen 1973 – Laser eye surgery (LASIK) – Mani Lal Bhaumik 1974 – Liposuction – Giorgio Fischer 1976 – First commercial PET scanner 1978 – First live birth from in vitro fertilisation (IVF) 1978 – Last fatal case of smallpox 1979 – Antiviral drugs – George Hitchings and Gertrude Elion 1980 – Raymond Damadian builds first commercial MRI scanner 1980 – Lithotripter – Dornier Research Group 1980 – First vaccine for hepatitis B – Baruch Samuel Blumberg 1980 – Cloning of interferons – Sidney Pestka 1981 – Artificial skin – John F. Burke and Ioannis V Yannas 1981 – Bruce Reitz performs the first human heart-lung combined transplant 1982 – Human insulin – Eli Lilly 1985 – Automated DNA sequencer – Leroy Hood and Lloyd Smith 1985 – Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) – Kary Mullis 1985 – Surgical robot – Yik San Kwoh 1985 – DNA fingerprinting – Alec Jeffreys 1985 – Capsule endoscopy – Tarun Mullick 1986 – Fluoxetine HCl – Eli Lilly and Co 1987 – commercially available Statins – Merck & Co. 1987 – Tissue engineering – Joseph Vacanti & Robert Langer 1988 – Intravascular stent – Julio Palmaz 1988 – Laser cataract surgery – Patricia Bath 1989 – Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) – Alan Handyside 1989 – DNA microarray – Stephen Fodor 1990 – Gamow bag® – Igor Gamow 1992 – First vaccine for hepatitis A available 1992 – Electroactive polymers (artificial muscle) – SRI International 1992 – Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) – Andre van Steirteghem 1995 – Adult stem cell use in regeneration of tissues and organs in vivo – B. G Matapurkar U.S . International Patent 1996 – Dolly the Sheep cloned 1998 – Stem cell therapy – James Thomson 2000–present 2000 – The Human Genome Project draft was completed. 2001 – The first telesurgery was performed by Jacques Marescaux. 2003 – Carlo Urbani, of Doctors without Borders alerted the World Health Organization to the threat of the SARS virus, triggering the most effective response to an epidemic in history. Urbani succumbs to the disease himself in less than a month. 2005 – Jean-Michel Dubernard performs the first partial face transplant. 2006 – First HPV vaccine approved. 2006 – The second rotavirus vaccine approved (first was withdrawn). 2007 – The visual prosthetic (bionic eye) Argus II. 2008 – Laurent Lantieri performs the first full face transplant. 2011 – first successful Uterus transplant from a deceased donor in Turkey 2013 – The first kidney was grown in vitro in the U.S. 2013 – The first human liver was grown from stem cells in Japan. 2014 – A 3D printer is used for first ever skull transplant. 2016 – The first ever artificial pancreas was created 2019 – 3D-print heart from human patient's cells. See also Timeline of antibiotics Timeline of vaccines Timeline of hospitals Further reading 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 18, Medicine, Wikisource. Notes Reference: 1. International patent USA. .wef 1995. US PTO no.6227202 and 20020007223. 2. R. Maingot’s Text Book of Abdominal operations.1997 USA. 3. Text book of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2010 J P Publishers. References Matapurkar B G. (1995). US international Patent 6227202 and 20020007223.medical use of Adult Stem cells. A new physiological phenomenon of Desired Metaplasia for regeneration of tissues and organs in vivo. Annals of NYAS 1998. Bynum, W. F. and Roy Porter, eds. Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (2 vol. 1997); 1840pp; 72 long essays by scholars excerpt and text search Conrad, Lawrence I. et al. The Western Medical Tradition: 800 BC to AD 1800 (1995); excerpt and text search Bynum, W.F. et al. The Western Medical Tradition: 1800-2000 (2006) excerpt and text search Loudon, Irvine, ed. Western Medicine: An Illustrated History (1997) online McGrew, Roderick. Encyclopedia of Medical History (1985) Porter, Roy, ed. The Cambridge History of Medicine (2006); 416pp; excerpt and text search Porter, Roy, ed. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine (2001) excerpt and text search excerpt and text search Singer, Charles, and E. Ashworth Underwood. A Short History of Medicine (2nd ed. 1962) Watts, Sheldon. Disease and Medicine in World History (2003), 166pp online External links Interactive timeline of medicine and medical technology (requires Flash plugin) The Historyscoper History of medicine Medical

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbine%20High%20School%20massacre

Columbine High School massacre

The Columbine High School massacre was a school shooting and attempted bombing that occurred on April 20, 1999, at Columbine High School in Columbine, Colorado, United States. The perpetrators, twelfth grade (senior) students Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, murdered 12 students and one teacher. Ten students were killed in the school library, where the pair subsequently committed suicide. Twenty-one additional people were injured by gunshots, and gunfire was also exchanged with the police. Another three people were injured trying to escape. At the time, it was the deadliest high school shooting in U.S. history. The crime has inspired several copycats, including many deadlier shootings across the world, and "Columbine" has become a byword for school shootings. In addition to the shootings, Harris and Klebold planted several homemade bombs in the school, although they failed to detonate. Two bombs were set up as diversions at another location away from the school, one of which (partially) detonated. The motive remains unclear, but they had planned for around a year and hoped to massacre the most victims in U.S. history, which at the time meant exceeding the death toll of the Oklahoma City bombing. The police were slow to enter the school and were heavily criticized for not intervening during the shooting. The incident resulted in the introduction of the Immediate Action Rapid Deployment tactic, which is used in active shooter situations. Columbine also resulted in an increased emphasis on school security with zero tolerance policies. Debates and moral panic were sparked over guns and gun control laws, high school cliques, subcultures (e. g. goths), outcasts, and school bullying, as well as teenage use of pharmaceutical antidepressants, the Internet and violence in video games and movies. Many impromptu memorials were created after the massacre, including victims Rachel Scott's car and John Tomlin's truck. Fifteen crosses for the victims and shooters were also erected on top of a hill in Clement Park. The crosses for Harris and Klebold were removed later following controversy. The Columbine Memorial began planning as a permanent memorial in June 1999 and opened to the public on September 21, 2007. Perpetrators Eric Harris Eric David Harris (April 9, 1981 – April 20, 1999) was born in Wichita, Kansas. The Harris family relocated often, as Harris's father was a U.S. Air Force transport pilot. His mother was a homemaker. The family moved from Plattsburgh, New York, to Littleton, Colorado, in July 1993, when his father retired from military service. The Harris family lived in rented accommodations for the first three years that they lived in the Littleton area. During this time, he attended Ken Caryl Middle School, and Harris met Klebold. In 1996, the Harris family purchased a house south of CHS. His older brother attended college at the University of Colorado Boulder. Dylan Klebold Dylan Bennet Klebold (; September 11, 1981 – April 20, 1999) was born in Lakewood, Colorado. His parents were pacifists and attended a Lutheran church with their children. Both Dylan and his older brother Byron attended confirmation classes in accordance with the Lutheran tradition. As had been the case with his older brother, Klebold was named after a renowned poet – in his case the playwright Dylan Thomas. At the family home, the Klebolds also observed some rituals in keeping with Klebold's maternal grandfather's Jewish heritage. Klebold attended Normandy Elementary in Littleton, Colorado for the first two grades before transferring to Governor's Ranch Elementary and became part of the CHIPS ("Challenging High Intellectual Potential Students") program. He found the transition to Ken Caryl Middle School difficult. Harris and Klebold often wore black baseball caps. As was typical in the 1990s, they wore them backwards. Harris wore a KMFDM cap, and apparently did not wear it during the massacre. Klebold's cap had a Colorado Avalanche logo on the front and a Boston Red Sox logo sewn onto the back. Criminal history In 1996, 15-year-old Eric Harris created a private website on America Online (AOL). It was initially to host levels (WADs) Harris created for use in the first-person shooter video games Doom and Doom II, as well as Quake. On the site, Harris began a blog. It included details about Harris sneaking out of the house to cause mischief and vandalism, such as lighting fireworks, with his friend Dylan Klebold and others. Beginning in early 1997, the blog postings began to show the first signs of Harris's anger against society. By the end of the year, the site contained instructions on how to make explosives. Harris's site attracted few visitors and caused no concern until August 1997. Harris ended a blog post detailing murderous fantasies with "All I want to do is kill and injure as many of you as I can, especially a few people. Like Brooks Brown"; a classmate of his. After Brown's parents viewed the site, they contacted the Jefferson County (Jeffco) Sheriff's Office on August 7, 1997. An investigator wrote a draft affidavit to request a search warrant for the Harris household, but it was never submitted to a judge. On January 30, 1998, Harris and Klebold were arrested for breaking into a white van parked near Littleton and stealing tools and computer equipment. They would subsequently attend a joint court hearing, where they pled guilty to the felony theft. The judge sentenced them to a juvenile diversion program. As a result, both delinquents attended mandatory classes such as anger management and talked with diversion officers. They both were eventually released from diversion several weeks early because of positive actions in the program and put on probation. Writings Shortly after the court hearing for the van break-in, Harris reverted his website back to just hosting user-created levels of Doom. He began to write his thoughts down in a journal instead. In both of these journals, Harris and Klebold would later plot the attack. Soon after beginning his journal, Harris typed out one plan of attack which included after the massacre possibly escaping to a foreign country or hijacking an aircraft at Denver International Airport and crashing it into New York City. Klebold had already been keeping a personal journal since March 1997; As early as November of that year, Klebold had mentioned going on a killing spree. Klebold had used his journal to vent about his personal problems as well as what he'd wear and use during the attack. Harris also made entries on topics such as his sexuality on his journal where he described the desire for sex with women, especially his desire of raping and torturing them in his bedroom. Harris also expressed interest in cannibalism and stated that he would like to dismember a woman whom he could have sex with. Harris and Klebold also used their schoolwork to foreshadow the massacre. They both displayed themes of violence in their creative writing projects. In December 1997, Harris wrote a paper on school shootings titled "Guns in School", and a poem from the perspective of a bullet. Klebold wrote a short story about a man killing students which worried his teacher so much that she alerted his parents. Both had also actively researched war and murder. For one project, Harris wrote a paper on the Nazis and Klebold wrote a paper on Charles Manson. In a psychology class, Harris wrote he dreamed of going on a shooting spree with Klebold. Harris's journals described several experimental bomb detonations. Nearly a year before the massacre, Klebold wrote a message in Harris's 1998 yearbook: "killing enemies, blowing up stuff, killing cops!! My wrath for January's incident will be godlike. Not to mention our revenge in the commons." The commons was slang for the school cafeteria. Tapes Basement Tapes Harris and Klebold were both enrolled in video production classes and kept five video tapes that were recorded with school video equipment. Only two of these, Hitmen for Hire and Rampart Range, and part of a third known as Radioactive Clothing, have been released. The remaining three tapes detail their plans and reasons for the massacre, including the ways they hid their weapons and deceived their parents. Most of these were shot in the Harris family basement, and are thus known as the Basement Tapes. Thirty minutes before the attack, they made a final video saying goodbye and apologizing to their friends and families. In December 1999, before anybody else had seen them, Time magazine published an article on these tapes. The victims' family members threatened to sue Jefferson County. As a result, select victim families and journalists were allowed to see them, and they were then kept from the public indefinitely for fear of inspiring future massacres. The tapes have since been destroyed. There are only transcripts of some of the dialogue, and a short clip recorded surreptitiously by a victim's father. The pair claimed they were going to make copies of the tapes to send to news stations, but never did so. When an economics class had Harris make an ad for a business, he and Klebold made a video called Hitmen for Hire on December 8, 1998, which was released in February 2004. It depicts them as part of the Trench Coat Mafia, a clique in the school who wore black trench coats, extorting money for protecting preps from bullies. They were apparently not a part of the Trench Coat Mafia, but were friends with some of its members. They wore black trench coats on the day of the massacre, and the video seemed a kind of dress rehearsal, showing them walking the halls of the school, and shooting bullies outside with fake guns. On October 21, 2003, a video was released showing the pair doing target practice on March 6, 1999, in nearby foothills known as Rampart Range, with the weapons they would use in the massacre. Nixon tape Before the massacre, Harris left a micro cassette labeled "Nixon" on the kitchen table. On it Harris said "It is less than nine hours now," placing the recording at some time around 2:30 a.m. He went on to say "People will die because of me" and "It will be a day that will be remembered forever." Weaponry Guns In the months prior to the attacks, Harris and Klebold acquired two 9 mm firearms and two 12-gauge shotguns. Harris had a Hi-Point 995 Carbine with thirteen 10-round magazines and a Savage-Springfield 67H pump-action shotgun. Klebold used a 9×19mm Intratec TEC-9 semi-automatic handgun with one 52-, one 32-, and one 28-round magazine and a Stevens 311D double-barreled shotgun. Harris's shotgun was sawed-off to around and Klebold shortened his shotgun's length to , a felony under the National Firearms Act. On November 22, 1998, their friend Robyn Anderson purchased the carbine rifle and the two shotguns for the pair at the Tanner Gun Show, as they were too young to legally purchase the guns themselves. After the attack, she told investigators that she had believed the pair wanted the items for target shooting, and that she had no prior knowledge of their plans. Anderson was not charged. Harris and Klebold both held part-time jobs at a local Blackjack Pizza. Through Philip Duran, a coworker, Klebold bought a TEC-9 handgun from Mark Manes for $500 at another gun show on January 23. Manes, Manes' girlfriend, and Duran are all in the Rampart Range video. After the massacre, Manes and Duran were both prosecuted. Each was charged with supplying a handgun to a minor and possession of a sawed-off shotgun. Manes and Duran were sentenced to a total of six years and four-and-a-half years in prison, respectively. Explosives In addition to the firearms, the complex and highly planned attack involved several improvised explosive devices. Harris and Klebold constructed a total of 99 bombs. These included pipe bombs, carbon dioxide cartridges filled with gunpowder (called "crickets"), Molotov cocktails, and propane tanks converted to bombs. The propane bombs were used in the cafeteria, in their cars, and in another location as a diversion. For ignition, they used kitchen matches, cannon fuse, and model rocket igniters as well as timing devices built from clocks and batteries for the cafeteria, car, and diversion bombs. During the massacre, they carried lighters as well as match strikers taped to their forearms to light the pipe bombs and crickets. They had 45 crickets, 8 of which detonated, and 9 Molotov cocktails, 2 of which functioned. Harris also attempted to make napalm, and envisioned a kind of backpack and flamethrower. They both attempted to get another friend and coworker Chris Morris, who was a part of the Trench Coat Mafia, to keep the napalm at his house, but he refused. Harris also tried to recruit him to be a third shooter, but would play it off as a joke when rebuked. Pipe bombs Harris's website contained directions on making pipe bombs, including use of shrapnel. Harris's parents once discovered one of his pipe bombs. Harris's journal logged the creation of 25 pipe bombs. Klebold scared his coworkers by once bringing a pipe bomb into work. They would give various nick-names to their pipe bombs. After the massacre, two pipe bombs had been left in Klebold's bedroom, one named "Vengeance" and another "Atlanta", presumably after the Olympic Park bombing. Cafeteria bombs They had in their possession 8 propane tanks all converted into bombs. The weekend before the shooting, Harris and Klebold bought two propane tanks and other supplies from a hardware store. They bought six propane tanks on the morning of the attack. Harris was caught on a Texaco gas station security camera at 9:12 a.m. buying a Blue Rhino propane tank. Both cafeteria bombs included a single 20 pound tank, attached pipe bombs, and supporting gasoline canisters alongside. Car bombs Both car bombs were made from two 20-pound propane tanks, pipe bombs, and various containers filled with gasoline were spread throughout the vehicles. Eight pipe bombs were placed in Klebold's car, and one in Harris's. Knives Harris and Klebold were both equipped with knives, but investigators do not believe they ever used them during the massacre. Harris had a boot knife on his belt and a "Khyber-pass" machete bowie knife, taped to the back of his ankle. Both had an "R" etched into the handle, and the machete had a swastika on the sheath. Klebold had a "Cobra" knife mounted to his belt on the left side as well as a switchblade in his right pocket. The massacre According to the shooter's respective journals and video tapes, it is believed by investigators that the pair intended to detonate their propane bombs in the cafeteria at the busiest lunch hour, killing hundreds of students. After this, they would shoot and stab survivors, as well as lob bombs. Bombs set in their cars in the parking lot would also eventually detonate, killing more students as well as possibly any police officers, paramedics, firemen, or reporters who had come to the school. However, this failed to occur since the bombs in the cafeteria and cars failed to detonate. Several official sources claim they planned to shoot the fleeing survivors from the parking lot, but moved to the staircase on the hill at the west side of the school when the bombs failed. Other sources claim the top of the staircase where the massacre began was their preferred spot to wait for the bombs to go off all along. A total of 188 rounds of ammunition were fired by the perpetrators during the massacre. Firing nearly twice as much as Klebold, Harris fired his carbine rifle a total of 96 times, and discharged his shotgun 25 times. Klebold fired the TEC-9 handgun 55 times, and 12 rounds from his double-barreled shotgun. Law enforcement officers fired 141 rounds during exchanges of gunfire with the shooters. Planting the bombs On Tuesday morning, April 20, 1999, Harris and Klebold placed two duffel bags in the cafeteria. Each bag contained propane bombs, set to detonate during the "A" lunch shift, which began at 11:15 a.m. No witness recalled seeing the duffel bags being added to the 400 or so backpacks that were already in the cafeteria. The security staff at CHS did not observe the bags being placed in the cafeteria; a custodian was replacing the school security videotape at around 11:14 a.m. Shortly after the massacre, police speculated the bombs were placed during this "tape change". They also investigated whether the bombs were placed during the "after-prom" party held the prior weekend. Some internet sleuths claim the bomb placement can be seen on the surveillance video at around 10:58 a.m. Harris and Klebold are seen in the tapes planting the bombs in casual school clothes separately. Jeffco Sheriff's Deputy Neil Gardner was assigned to the high school as a full-time school resource officer. Gardner usually ate lunch with students in the cafeteria, but on April 20 he was eating lunch in his patrol car at the northwest corner of the campus, watching students in the Smokers' Pit in Clement Park, a meadow adjacent to the school. Two backpacks filled with pipe bombs, aerosol canisters, and small propane bombs were also placed in a field about south of CHS, and south of the fire station. The bombs were intended as a diversion to draw firefighters and emergency personnel away from the school. Only the pipe bombs and one of the aerosol canisters detonated, causing a small fire, which was quickly extinguished by the fire department. It went off after first having been moved. Bomb technicians immediately examined the bombs and relayed to police at the school the possibility of devices with motion activators. Harris and Klebold changed clothes and returned separately to CHS. Harris parked his vehicle in the junior student parking lot, and Klebold parked in the adjoining senior student parking lot. The school cafeteria was their primary bomb target; the cafeteria had a long outside window-wall, ground-level doors, and was just north of the senior parking lot. The library was located above the cafeteria in the second-story of the window-wall. Each car contained bombs. As Harris pulled into the parking lot, he encountered classmate Brooks Brown, with whom he had recently patched up a longstanding series of disputes. According to Brown, who was smoking a cigarette, he was surprised to see Harris, whom he earlier noted had been absent from a class test. Brown confronted Harris about missing the test. Harris seemed unconcerned, commenting "It doesn't matter anymore." Harris went on: "Brooks, I like you now. Get out of here. Go home." Brown, feeling uneasy, and already prepared to skip his next class, walked away down South Pierce Street. Meanwhile, Harris and Klebold armed themselves, using straps and webbing to conceal weapons beneath black trench coats (technically dusters). They lugged backpacks and duffel bags that were filled with pipe bombs and ammunition. Harris also had his shotgun in one of the bags. Beneath the trench coats, Harris wore a homemade bandolier and a white T-shirt that read "Natural selection" in black letters; Klebold wore a black T-shirt that read "Wrath" in red letters. The cafeteria bombs failed to detonate. Had these bombs exploded with full power, they could have killed or severely wounded all of the 488 students in the cafeteria, and possibly made the ceiling collapse by destroying the pillars holding it up, dropping the library into the cafeteria. 11:19 a.m.: Shooting begins At 11:19 a.m., 17-year-old Rachel Scott and her friend Richard Castaldo were having lunch and sitting on the grass next to the west entrance of the school. Klebold threw a pipe bomb towards the parking lot; the bomb only partially detonated, causing it to give off smoke. Castaldo thought it was no more than a crude senior prank. Likewise, several students during the incident first thought that they were watching a prank. A witness reported hearing "Go! Go!" before Klebold and Harris pulled their guns from beneath their trench coats and began shooting. Scott was killed instantly when she was hit four times with rounds fired from Harris' carbine; one shot was to the left temple. Castaldo was shot eight times in the chest, arm, and abdomen; he fell unconscious to the ground and was left paralyzed below the chest. Harris aimed his carbine down the west staircase in the direction of three students: Daniel Rohrbough, Sean Graves, and Lance Kirklin. The students figured they were paintball guns, and were about to walk up the staircase directly below the shooters. Harris fired, killing Rohrbough, while injuring Graves and Kirklin. William David Sanders, a teacher and coach at the school, was in the cafeteria when he heard the gunfire and began warning students. The shooters turned and began firing west in the direction of five students sitting on the grassy hillside adjacent to the steps and opposite the west entrance of the school: Michael Johnson was hit in the face, leg, and arm, but ran and escaped; Mark Taylor was shot in the chest, arms, and leg and fell to the ground, where he faked death; the other three escaped uninjured. Klebold walked down the steps toward the cafeteria. He came up to Lance Kirklin, who was already wounded and lying on the ground, weakly calling for help. Klebold said, "Sure. I'll help you," then shot Kirklin in the face with his shotgun. Although gravely injured, Kirklin would survive. Graves—paralyzed beneath the waist—had crawled into the doorway of the cafeteria's west entrance and collapsed. He rubbed blood on his face and played dead. After shooting Kirklin, Klebold walked towards the cafeteria door. He then stepped over the injured Graves to enter the cafeteria. Graves remembers Klebold saying, "Sorry, dude." Klebold only briefly entered the cafeteria and did not shoot at the several people still inside. Officials speculated that Klebold went to check on the propane bombs. Harris was still on top of the stairs shooting, and severely wounded and partially paralyzed 17-year-old Anne-Marie Hochhalter as she tried to flee. Klebold came out of the cafeteria and went back up the stairs to join Harris. They shot at students standing close to a soccer field but did not hit anyone. They walked toward the west entrance, throwing pipe bombs in several directions, including onto the roof; only a few of these pipe bombs detonated. Witnesses heard one of them say, "This is what we always wanted to do. This is awesome!" Meanwhile, art teacher Patti Nielson was inside the school; she had noticed the commotion and walked toward the west entrance with student Brian Anderson. Nielson had intended to walk outside to tell the two students, "Knock it off," thinking they were either filming a video or pulling a student prank. As Anderson opened the first set of double doors, the gunmen shot out the windows, injuring him with flying glass; Nielson was hit in the shoulder with shrapnel. Anderson and Nielson ran back down the hall into the library, and Nielson alerted the students inside to the danger, telling them to get under desks and keep silent. She dialed 9-1-1 and hid under the library's administrative counter. Anderson fell to the floor, bleeding from his injuries, then hid inside the magazine room adjacent to the library. 11:22 a.m.: Police response At 11:22 a.m., a custodian called Deputy Neil Gardner, the assigned resource officer to Columbine, on the school radio, requesting assistance in the senior parking lot. The only paved route took him around the school to the east and south on Pierce Street, where at 11:23 a.m., he heard on his police radio that a female was down, and assumed she had been struck by a car. While exiting his patrol car in the senior lot at 11:24, he heard another call on the school radio, "Neil, there's a shooter in the school." Harris, at the west entrance, immediately turned and fired ten shots from his carbine at Gardner, who was away. As Harris reloaded his carbine, Gardner leaned over the top of his car and fired four rounds at Harris from his service pistol. Harris ducked back behind the building, and Gardner momentarily believed that he had hit him. Harris then reemerged and fired at least four more rounds at Gardner (which missed and struck two parked cars), before retreating into the building. No one was hit during the exchange of gunfire. Gardner reported on his police radio, "Shots in the building. I need someone in the south lot with me." By this point, Harris had shot 47 times, and Klebold just 5. The shooters then entered the school through the west entrance, moving along the main north hallway, throwing pipe bombs and shooting at anyone they encountered. Klebold shot Stephanie Munson in the ankle, but she was able to walk out of the school. The pair then shot out the windows to the east entrance of the school. After proceeding through the hall several times and shooting toward—and missing—any students they saw, they went toward the west entrance and turned into the library hallway. Deputies Paul Smoker and Paul Magor, motorcycle patrolmen for the Jefferson County Sheriff's Office, were writing a traffic ticket north of the school when the "female down" call came in at 11:23 a.m. Taking the shortest route, they drove their motorcycles over grass between the athletic fields and headed toward the west entrance. When they saw Deputies Scott Taborsky, Rick Searle, and Kevin Walker following them in their patrol car, they abandoned their motorcycles for the safety of the car. The six deputies had begun to rescue two wounded students near the ball fields when another gunfight broke out at 11:26, as Harris returned to the double doors and again began shooting at Deputy Gardner, who returned fire. From the hilltop, Deputy Smoker fired three rounds from his pistol at Harris, who again retreated into the building. As before, no one was hit. Inside the school cafeteria, Dave Sanders and two custodians, Jon Curtis and Jay Gallatine, initially told students to get under the tables, then successfully evacuated students up the staircase leading to the second floor of the school. The stairs were located around the corner from the library hallway in the main south hallway. Sanders then tried to secure as much of the school as he could. By now, Harris and Klebold were inside the main hallway. Sanders and another student were down at the end of the hallway, where he gestured for students in the library to stay. They encountered Harris and Klebold, who were approaching from the corner of the north hallway. Sanders and the student turned and ran in the opposite direction. Harris and Klebold shot at them both, with Harris hitting Sanders twice in the back and neck, hitting his teeth on exit, but missing the student. The latter ran into a science classroom and warned everyone to hide. Klebold walked over towards Sanders, who had collapsed, and tossed a pipe bomb, then returned to Harris up the library hallway. Sanders struggled toward the science area, and a teacher took him into a classroom where 30 students were located. Due to his knowledge of first aid, student Aaron Hancey was brought to the classroom from another by teachers despite the unfolding commotion. With the assistance of a fellow student named Kevin Starkey, and teacher Teresa Miller, Hancey administered first aid to Sanders for three hours, attempting to stem the blood loss using shirts from students in the room, and showing him pictures from his wallet to keep him talking. Using a phone in the room, Miller and several students maintained contact with police outside the school. As the shooting unfolded, pipe bombs were tossed in the hallways and down into the cafeteria. Patti Nielson in the library called 9-1-1, telling her story and urging students in the library to take cover beneath desks. According to transcripts, her call was received by a 9–1–1 operator at 11:25:18 a.m. 11:29–11:36 a.m.: Library massacre At 11:29 a.m., Harris and Klebold entered the library. Fifty-two students, two teachers and two librarians were inside. Harris fired his shotgun twice at a desk. Student Evan Todd had been standing near a pillar when the shooters entered the library and had just taken cover behind a copier. Todd was hit by wood splinters in the eye and lower back but was not seriously injured. He then hid behind the administrative counter. The gunmen walked into the library, towards the two rows of computers. Sitting at the north row was disabled student Kyle Velasquez. Klebold fired his shotgun, fatally hitting him in the head and back. They put down their ammunition-filled duffel bags at the south—or lower—row of computers and reloaded their weapons. They then walked between the computer rows, toward the windows facing the outside staircase. Throughout the massacre in the library, they ordered everybody to get up, saying that the library was going to explode. They said how long they had been waiting for this and seemed to be enjoying themselves, shouting things like, "Yahoo!" after shooting. While ordering the jocks to stand up, one of the two said, "Anybody with a white hat or a sports emblem on it is dead." Wearing a white baseball cap at Columbine was a tradition among sports team members. Nobody stood up, and several students tried to hide their white hats. Windows were shot out in the direction of the recently arrived police. Officers returned fire, and the gunmen retreated from the windows; no one was injured. Klebold removed his trench coat. He then fired his shotgun at a nearby table, injuring three students: Patrick Ireland, Daniel Steepleton, and Makai Hall. Harris walked toward the lower row of computer desks with his shotgun and fired a single shot under the first desk, while down on one knee. He hit 14-year-old Steven Curnow with a mortal wound to the neck. He then moved to the adjacent computer desk, injuring 17-year-old Kacey Ruegsegger with a shot which passed completely through her right shoulder, also grazing her neck and severing a major artery. When she started gasping in pain, Harris said, "Quit your bitching." Harris then walked to a table south of the lower computer table, with two students underneath: Cassie Bernall and Emily Wyant. Harris slapped the surface of the table twice as he knelt, and said "Peek-a-boo" before shooting Bernall once in the head with the shotgun, killing her. Harris at this point held the gun with one hand, and the weapon hit his face in recoil, injuring his nose. He told Klebold he had done so, and Klebold responded "Why'd you do that?" After fatally shooting Bernall, Harris turned toward the next table, where Bree Pasquale sat next to the table rather than under it. Harris's nose was bleeding; witnesses later reported that he had blood around his mouth. Harris asked Pasquale if she wanted to die, and she responded with a plea for her life. Harris laughed and responded "Everyone's gonna die." When Klebold said "shoot her," Harris responded "No, we're gonna blow up the school anyway." Klebold noticed Ireland trying to provide aid to Hall, who had suffered a wound to his knee. As Ireland tried to help Hall, his head rose above the table, Klebold shot him a second time, hitting him twice in the head and once in the foot. Ireland was knocked unconscious, but survived. Klebold then walked toward another table, where he discovered 18-year-old Isaiah Shoels, 16-year-old Matthew Kechter and 16-year-old Craig Scott (Rachel's younger brother), hiding underneath. Klebold called out to Harris that he found a "nigger" and tried to pull Shoels out from under the table. Harris left Pasquale and joined him. According to witnesses, they taunted Shoels for a few seconds, making derogatory racial comments. The gunmen both fired under the table; Harris shot Shoels once in the chest, killing him, and Klebold shot and killed Kechter. Though Shoels was not shot in the head, Klebold said: "I didn't know black brains could fly that far." Meanwhile, Scott was uninjured; lying in the blood of his friends, feigning death. Harris then yelled; "Who's ready to die next?!" He turned and threw a "cricket" at the table where Hall, Steepleton, and Ireland were located. It landed on Steepleton's thigh; Hall quickly noticed it and tossed it behind them, and it exploded in mid-air. Harris walked toward the bookcases between the west and center section of tables in the library. He jumped on one and shook it, apparently attempting to topple it, then shot at the books which had fallen. Klebold walked to the east area of the library. Harris walked from the bookcase, past the central area to meet Klebold. The latter shot at a display case next to the door, then turned and shot toward the closest table, hitting and injuring 17-year-old Mark Kintgen in the head and shoulder. He then turned toward the table to his left and fired, injuring 18-year-olds Lisa Kreutz, Lauren Townsend, and Valeen Schnurr with the same shotgun blast. Klebold then moved toward the same table and fired several shots with the TEC-9, killing Townsend. At this point, the seriously injured Valeen Schnurr began screaming, "Oh my God, oh my God!" In response, Klebold asked Schnurr if she believed in the existence of God; when Schnurr replied she did, Klebold asked "Why?" and commented "God is gay." Klebold reloaded but walked away from the table. Harris approached another table where two girls were hiding. He bent down to look at them and dismissed them as "pathetic". Harris then moved to another table where he fired twice, injuring 16-year-olds Nicole Nowlen and John Tomlin. Tomlin moved out from under the table. Klebold shot him repeatedly, killing him. Harris then walked back over to the other side of the table where Townsend lay dead. Behind the table, a 16-year-old girl named Kelly Fleming had, like Bree Pasquale, sat next to the table rather than beneath it due to a lack of space. Harris shot Fleming with his shotgun, hitting her in the back and killing her. He shot at the table behind Fleming, hitting Townsend, who was already dead, Kreutz again, and wounding 18-year-old Jeanna Park. The shooters moved to the center of the library, where they reloaded their weapons at a table. Harris then pointed his carbine under a table, but the student he was aiming at moved out of the way. Harris turned his gun back on the student and told him to identify himself. It was John Savage, an acquaintance of Klebold's. He asked Klebold what they were doing, to which he shrugged and answered, "Oh, just killing people." Savage asked if they were going to kill him. Possibly because of a fire alarm, Klebold said, "What?" Savage asked again whether they were going to kill him. Klebold said no, and told him to run. Savage fled, escaping through the library's main entrance. After Savage left, Harris turned and fired his carbine at the table directly north of where he had been, hitting the ear and hand of 15-year-old Daniel Mauser. Mauser reacted by either shoving a chair at Harris or grabbing at his leg; Harris fired again and hit Mauser in the center of the face at close range, killing him. Both shooters moved south and fired randomly under another table, critically injuring two 17-year-olds, Jennifer Doyle and Austin Eubanks, and fatally wounding 17-year-old Corey DePooter, at 11:35. There were no further victims. They had killed 10 people in the library and wounded 12. At this point, Klebold was quoted as saying they might start knifing people, though they never did. They headed towards the library's main counter. Harris threw a Molotov cocktail toward the southwestern end of the library, but it failed to explode. They converged close to where Todd had moved after having been wounded. Klebold pulled the chair out from the desk, then he pointed his TEC-9 at Todd, who was wearing a white hat. Klebold asked if he was a jock, and when Todd said no Klebold responded "Well, that's good. We don't like jocks." Klebold then demanded to see his face; Todd partly lifted his hat so his face would remain obscured. When Klebold asked Todd to give him one reason why he should not kill him, Todd said: "I don't want trouble." Klebold responded back angrily "Trouble? You don't even know what...trouble is!" Todd tried to correct himself: "That's not what I meant! I mean, I don't have a problem with you guys. I never will and I never did." Klebold then told Harris he was going to let Todd live, but that Harris could kill him if he wanted. Harris seemed to pay little attention and said: "Let's go to the commons." Klebold fired a single shot into an open library staff break room, hitting a small television. While Harris was walking away, Klebold said, "One more thing!", then picked up the chair beside the library counter under which Patti Nielson was hiding, and slammed the chair down on top of the computer terminal and library counter. Klebold joined Harris at the library entrance. The two walked out of the library at 11:36. Cautiously, fearing the shooters' return, 10 injured and 29 uninjured survivors began to evacuate the library through the north emergency exit door, which led to the sidewalk adjacent to the west entrance. Kacey Ruegsegger was evacuated from the library by Craig Scott. Had she not been evacuated at this point, Ruegsegger would likely have bled to death from her injuries. Patrick Ireland, unconscious, and Lisa Kreutz, unable to move, remained in the building. Patti Nielson crawled into the exterior break room, into which Klebold had earlier fired shots, and hid in a cupboard. 12:08 p.m.: Suicides After leaving the library, Harris and Klebold entered the science area, where they caused a fire in an empty storage closet. It was extinguished by a teacher who had hidden in an adjacent room. The gunmen then proceeded toward the south hallway, where they shot into an empty science room. At 11:44 a.m., they were captured on the school security cameras as they re-entered the cafeteria. The recording shows Harris kneeling on the landing and firing a single shot toward one of the propane bombs left in the cafeteria, in an unsuccessful attempt to detonate it. As Klebold approached the propane bomb and examined it, Harris took a drink from one of the cups left behind. Klebold lit a Molotov cocktail and threw it at the propane bomb. About a minute later, the gallon of fuel attached to the bomb ignited, causing a fire that was extinguished by the fire sprinklers a few minutes later. They left the cafeteria at 11:46. After leaving the cafeteria, they returned to the main north and south hallways of the school and fired several shots into walls and ceilings as students and teachers hid in rooms. They walked through the south hallway into the main office before returning to the north hallway. At 11:56, they returned to the cafeteria, and briefly entered the school kitchen. They returned up the staircase and into the south hallway at 12:00 p.m. They re-entered the library, which was empty of survivors except for the unconscious Patrick Ireland and the injured Lisa Kreutz. Once inside, at 12:02 p.m., police were shot at again through the library windows and returned fire. Nobody was injured in the exchange. By 12:05, all gunfire from the school had ceased. By 12:08 p.m., both gunmen had killed themselves. Harris sat down with his back to a bookshelf and fired his shotgun through the roof of his mouth; Klebold went down on his knees and shot himself in the left temple with his TEC-9. An article by The Rocky Mountain News stated that Patti Nielson overheard them shout "One! Two! Three!" in unison, just before a loud boom, however Nielson claimed that she had never spoken with either of the writers of the article. In 2002, the National Enquirer published two post-mortem photos of Harris and Klebold in the library. Klebold's gun was underneath his body and so unseen in the photo, leading to speculation that Harris shot Klebold before killing himself. However, some of Klebold's blood was on Harris' legs. Also, just before shooting himself, Klebold lit a Molotov cocktail on a nearby table, underneath which Patrick Ireland was laying, which caused the tabletop to momentarily catch fire. Underneath the scorched film of material was a piece of Harris' brain matter, suggesting Harris had shot himself by this point. Crisis ends SWAT response By 12:00 p.m., SWAT teams were stationed outside the school, and ambulances started taking the wounded to local hospitals. A call for additional ammunition for police officers in case of a shootout came at 12:20. Authorities reported pipe bombs by 1:00, and two SWAT teams entered the school at 1:09, moving from classroom to classroom, discovering hidden students and faculty. They entered at the end of the school opposite the library, hampered by old maps and unaware a new wing had recently been added. They were also hampered by the sound of the fire alarms. Leawood Elementary Meanwhile, families of students and staff were asked to gather at nearby Leawood Elementary School to await information. All students, teachers, and school employees were taken away, questioned, and offered medical care in small holding areas before being bussed to meet with their family members at Leawood Elementary. Some of the victims' families were told to wait on one final school bus that never came. The boy in the window Patrick Ireland had regained and lost consciousness several times after being shot by Klebold. Paralyzed on his right side, he crawled to the library windows where, on live television, at 2:38 p.m., he stretched out the window, intending to fall into the arms of two SWAT team members standing on the roof of an emergency vehicle, but instead falling directly onto the vehicle's roof in a pool of blood. He became known as "the boy in the window." The team members, Donn Kraemer and John Ramoniec, were later criticized for allowing Ireland to drop more than seven feet to the ground while doing nothing to try to ensure he could be lowered to the ground safely or break his fall. "1 bleeding to death" At 2:15 p.m., students placed a sign in the window: "1 bleeding to death," in order to alert police and medical personnel of Dave Sanders' location in the science room. Police initially feared it was a ruse by the shooters. A shirt was also tied to the doorknob. At 2:30, this was spotted, and by 2:40, SWAT officers evacuated the room of students and called for a paramedic. Hancey and Starkey were reluctant to leave Sanders behind. By 3:00, the SWAT officers had moved Sanders to a storage room, which was more easily accessible. As they did so, a paramedic arrived and found Sanders had no pulse. He had died of his injuries in the storage room before he could receive medical care. He was the only teacher to die in the shooting. Suicide mission; estimated 25 dead Lisa Kreutz, shot in the shoulder, arms, hand, and thigh, remained laying in the library. She had tried to move but became light-headed. Kreutz kept track of time by the sound of the school's bells until police arrived. Kreutz was finally evacuated at 3:22 p.m., along with Patti Nielson, Brian Anderson, and the three library staff who had hidden in the rooms adjacent to the library. Officials found the bodies in the library by 3:30. By 4:00, Sheriff John P. Stone made an initial estimate of 25 dead students and teachers, fifty wounded, and referred to the massacre as a "suicide mission." President Bill Clinton later issued a statement. Bomb squad response Stone said that police officers were searching the bodies of the gunmen. They feared they had used their pipe bombs to booby-trap corpses, including their own. At 4:30 p.m., the school was declared safe. At 5:30, additional officers were called in, as more explosives were found in the parking lot and on the roof. By 6:15, officials had found a bomb in Klebold's car in the parking lot, set to detonate the gas tank. Stone then marked the entire school as a crime scene. At 10:40 p.m., a member of the bomb squad, who was attempting to dispose of an un-detonated pipe bomb, accidentally lit a striking match attached to the bomb by brushing it against the wall of the ordnance disposal trailer. The bomb detonated inside the trailer but no one was injured. The bomb squad disrupted the car bomb. Klebold's car was repaired and, in 2006, put up for auction. Immediate aftermath On the morning of April 21, bomb squads combed the high school. By 8:30 a.m., the official death toll of 15 was released. The earlier estimate was ten over the true death toll count, but close to the total count of wounded students. The total count of deaths was 12 students (14 including the shooters) and one teacher; 20 students and one teacher were injured as a result of the shootings. Three more victims were injured indirectly as they tried to escape the school. It was then the worst school shooting in U.S. history. At 10:00 a.m., the bomb squad declared the building safe for officials to enter. By 11:30 a.m., a spokesman of the sheriff declared the investigation underway. Thirteen of the bodies were still inside the high school as investigators photographed the building. At 2:30 p.m., a press conference was held by Jeffco District Attorney David Thomas and Sheriff John Stone, at which they said that they suspected others had helped plan the shooting. Formal identification of the dead had not yet taken place, but families of the children thought to have been killed had been notified. Throughout the late afternoon and early evening, the bodies were gradually removed from the school and taken to the Jeffco Coroner's Office to be identified and autopsied. By 5:00 p.m., the names of many of the dead were known. An official statement was released, naming the 15 confirmed deaths and 27 injuries related to the massacre. On April 22, the cafeteria bombs were discovered. In the days following the shootings, Rachel Scott's car and John Tomlin's truck became memorials, and impromptu memorials were held in Clement Park. On April 30, carpenter Greg Zanis erected fifteen 6-foot-tall wooden crosses to honor those who had died at the school. Daniel Rohrbough's father cut down the two meant for the gunmen. There were also fifteen trees planted, and he cut down two of those as well. In November 2021, a report was leaked to NPR, about that year's National Rifle Association's convention in Denver. In a series of audios, Wayne LaPierre and other top officials, suggested raising one million dollars for the victims' families and the cancellation of the convention was considered by some within the organization. Search warrant press conference Also on April 30, high-ranking officials of Jefferson County (Jeffco) and the Jeffco Sheriff's Office met to decide if they should reveal that Michael Guerra had drafted an affidavit for a search warrant of Harris's residence more than a year before the shootings, based on his previous investigation of Harris's website and activities. Since the affidavit's contents lacked the necessary probable cause, they decided not to disclose this information at a press conference held on April 30, nor did they mention it in any other way. Over the next two years, Guerra's original draft and investigative file documents were lost. In September 1999, a Jeffco investigator failed to find the documents during a secret search of the county's computer system. A second attempt in late 2000 found copies of the document within the Jeffco archives. Their loss was termed "troubling" by a grand jury convened after the file's existence was reported in April 2001. It was concealed by the Jeffco Sheriff's Office and not revealed until September 2001, resulting from an investigation by the TV show 60 Minutes. The documents were reconstructed and released to the public, but the original documents are still missing. The final grand-jury investigation was released in September 2004. Christian martyrdom In the wake of the shooting, victims Rachel Scott and Cassie Bernall came to be regarded as Christian martyrs by Evangelical Christians. Christian churches used the martyr narrative of Scott's and Bernall's deaths to promote themselves and recruit members. The closest living witness to Scott's death, Richard Castaldo, has stated Harris asked Scott if she believed in God, and murdered her after she answered "You know I do," but this has been questioned and Castaldo later stated he was not sure. Considerable media attention focused upon Bernall, who had been killed by Harris in the library and who Harris was reported to have asked, "Do you believe in God?" immediately prior to her murder. Bernall was reported to have responded "Yes" to this question before her murder. Emily Wyant, the closest living witness to Bernall's death, denied that Bernall and Harris had such an exchange. Joshua Lapp thought Bernall had been queried about her belief, but was unable to correctly point out where Bernall was located, and was closer to survivor Valeen Schnurr during the shootings. Likewise, another witness, Craig Scott, claimed the discussion was with Bernall. However, when asked to indicate where the conversation had been coming from, he pointed to where Schnurr was shot. Schnurr herself claims that she was the one questioned as to her belief in God. We are Columbine Classes at Columbine were held at nearby Chatfield Senior High for the remaining three weeks of the 1999 school year. In August 1999, students returned to the school, and principal Frank DeAngelis led a rally of students clad in "We are Columbine" shirts. Secondary casualties Six months after the shootings, Anne Marie Hochhalter's mother killed herself. Several former students and teachers suffer from PTSD. Greg Barnes, a 17-year-old student who had witnessed Sanders' shooting, committed suicide in May 2000. Survivor Austin Eubanks, who was injured during the shooting, became heavily medicated, developing an opioid addiction. Eventually overcoming and later speaking publicly about the addiction, Eubanks died from an accidental overdose in 2019 at the age of 37. Conspiracy theories and misinformation In the immediate aftermath, conspiracy theories and unfounded claims were made by several anti-government movements and extremist religious and political movements, such as the Westboro Baptist Church and televangelist Jerry Falwell Sr. Westboro's founder and then-leader, Fred Phelps, unfoundedly claimed that both Harris and Klebold were gay; saying: "Two filthy fags slaughtered 13 people at Columbine High." Falwell also claimed that Harris and Klebold were gay, though he retracted afterward. Conspiracy theories also arose from anti-gun control activists and extremists, claiming that the massacre had either been staged or that both Harris and Klebold had been government agents, aiming at promoting tougher gun control legislation. Motive The shooting was planned as a terrorist attack that would cause "the most deaths in U.S. history", but the motive has never been ascertained with any degree of certainty. In a letter provided with the May 15 report on the Columbine attack, Sheriff John Stone and Undersheriff John A. Dunaway wrote they "cannot answer the most fundamental question—why?" In the days following the event media speculation regarding the killers' motive was rife. Media reports were disseminated suggesting various motives of the killers, although all theories were largely unsubstantiated and turned out to be myths. These reports included blaming bullying, goth culture, video games, Marilyn Manson, and targeting jocks and minorities. Other rumours were spread in the local area but not largely disseminated by the media, such as the false claim spread by some students that the killers were bullied because they were homosexual. Mental disorder FBI's theory The FBI concluded that the killers were victims of mental illness, that Harris was a clinical psychopath, and Klebold was depressive. Dr. Dwayne Fuselier, the supervisor in charge of the Columbine investigation, would later remark: "I believe Eric went to the school to kill and didn't care if he died, while Dylan wanted to die and didn't care if others died as well." In April 1998, a year prior to the shooting, Harris wrote a letter of apology to the owner of the van as part of his diversion program. Around the same time, he derided him in his journal, stating that he believed himself to have the right to steal something if he wanted to. By far the most prevalent theme in Klebold's journals is his wish for suicide and private despair at his lack of success with women, which he refers to as an "infinite sadness." Klebold had repeatedly documented his desires to kill himself, and his final remark in the Basement Tapes, shortly before the attack, is a resigned statement made as he glances away from the camera: "Just know I'm going to a better place. I didn't like life too much." The FBI's theory was used by Dave Cullen for his 2009 book Columbine. Harris was depicted as the mastermind, having a messianic-level superiority complex and hoping to demonstrate his superiority to the world. Klebold was a follower who primarily participated in the massacre as a means to simply end his life. This theory has been met with criticism. Critics cite the fact that Klebold, not Harris, was the first to mention a killing spree in his journal. They also cite evidence that Harris was depressed as well, such as his prescription for antidepressants mentioned below. Medication Opponents of contemporary psychiatry like Peter Breggin claim that the psychiatric medications prescribed to Harris may have exacerbated his aggressiveness. Harris had complained of depression, anger, and suicidal thoughts, for which he was prescribed antidepressants. Toxicology reports confirmed that Harris had Luvox in his bloodstream at the time of the shootings, whereas Klebold had no medications in his system. Harris continued his scheduled meetings with his psychologist until a few months before the massacre. Media speculation Bullying Early stories following the massacre charged that school administrators and teachers at Columbine had long condoned bullying by jocks and this explained the motive. The link between bullying and school violence has attracted increasing attention since. Accounts from various parents and school staffers reported bullying in the school. Reportedly, Harris and Klebold were regularly called "faggots." Klebold said on the Basement Tapes, "You've been giving us shit for years." And when talking to his father about jocks had stated, "They sure give Eric hell." Brown also noted Harris was born with mild chest indent. This made him reluctant to take his shirt off in gym class, and other students would laugh at him. Nathan Vanderau, a friend of Klebold, and Alisa Owen, who knew Harris, noted they were picked on. Vanderau recalled that a "cup of fecal matter" was thrown at them. It has been alleged that Harris and Klebold were once both confronted by a group of students at CHS who sprayed them with ketchup while referring to them as "faggots" and "queers." Klebold told his mother it had been the worst day of his life. According to Brown, "That happened while teachers watched. They couldn't fight back. They wore the ketchup all day and went home covered with it." According to classmate Chad Laughlin, it involved seniors pelting Klebold with "ketchup-covered tampons" in the commons. Laughlin also stated "A lot of the tension in the school came from the class above us...There were people fearful of walking by a table where you knew you didn't belong, stuff like that. Certain groups certainly got preferential treatment across the board." A similar theory was expounded by Brooks Brown in his book on the massacre, No Easy Answers; he noted that teachers commonly ignored bullying and that whenever Harris and Klebold were bullied by the jocks at CHS, they would make statements such as: "Don't worry, man. It happens all the time!" Cullen and others dispute the theory of "revenge for bullying" as a motivation. While acknowledging the pervasiveness of bullying in high schools including CHS, Cullen claimed they were not victims of bullying. He noted Harris was more often the perpetrator than victim of bullying. In a fact check published on April 19, 2019, on the eve of the commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the massacre, Gillian Brockell in The Washington Post underscored that, contrary to the popular view, their attack was not revenge for being bullied. Peter Langman also argues against bullying being the cause of the attack. Other researchers have also argued against the bullying hypothesis. Isolation Rejection was also highlighted as a cause. Social cliques within high schools such as the Trench Coat Mafia were widely discussed. One perception formed was that Harris and Klebold were both outcasts who had been isolated from their classmates, prompting feelings of helplessness, insecurity, and depression, as well as a strong need for power and attention. Harris's last journal entry reads, "I hate you people for leaving me out of so many fun things," while Klebold wrote "The lonely man strikes with absolute rage." In an interview, Brown described them as the school's worst outcasts, "the losers of the losers." This concept too has been questioned, as both Harris and Klebold had a close circle of friends and a wider informal social group. Cullen and Brockell both also say they were not in the Trench Coat Mafia and were not isolated outcasts or loners. Peter Langman concurs by also arguing against the pair being loners and outcasts. Political terrorism Though neither perpetrator mentioned either as the reason for the date of attack, the attack occurred on April 20 (the birthday of Adolf Hitler), and there is some evidence to suggest the attack was supposed to have occurred on April 19—the date of the Oklahoma City Bombing, which led to media speculation that the attack was political. Some peers, such as Robyn Anderson, stated that the pair were not interested in Nazism, and they did not worship or admire Hitler in any way. However, in retrospect, Anderson also stated that there were many things the pair did not tell friends. Harris at least did revere the Nazis, often praising them in his journal. Sociologist Ralph Larkin has theorized that the massacre was to trigger a revolution of outcast students and the dispossessed: "[A]s an overtly political act in the name of oppressed students victimized by their peers.… The Columbine shootings redefined such acts not merely as revenge but as a means of protest of bullying, intimidation, social isolation, and public rituals of humiliation." In contrast with the theory that attack was political, one author argues Columbine was only increasingly linked to terrorism after the September 11 attacks. Marilyn Manson In the late 1990s, Marilyn Manson and his eponymous band established themselves as a household name, and as one of the most controversial rock acts in music history. Their two album releases prior to the massacre were both critical and commercial successes, and by the time of their Rock Is Dead Tour in 1999, the frontman had become a culture war iconoclast and a rallying icon for alienated youth. Immediately after the massacre, a significant portion of blame was directed at the band and, specifically, at its outspoken frontman. In the weeks following the shootings, media reports about Harris and Klebold portrayed them and the Trench Coat Mafia as part of a gothic cult. Early media reports alleged that the shooters were fans, and were wearing the group's T-shirts during the massacre. Although these claims were later proven to be false, news outlets continued to run sensationalist stories with headlines such as "Killers Worshipped Rock Freak Manson" and "Devil-Worshipping Maniac Told Kids To Kill." Speculation in national media and among the public led many to believe that Manson's music and imagery were the shooter's sole motivation, despite reports that revealed that the two were not big fans. Despite this, Marilyn Manson were widely criticized by religious, political, and entertainment-industry figures. Under mounting pressure in the days after Columbine, the group postponed their last five North American tour dates out of respect for the victims and their families. Manson published his response to these accusations in an op-ed piece for Rolling Stone, titled "Columbine: Whose Fault Is It?", in which he castigated America's gun culture, the political influence of the National Rifle Association, and the media's irresponsible coverage, which he said facilitated the placing of blame on a scapegoat. After concluding the European and Japanese legs of their tour on August 8, the band withdrew from public view to work on their next album, 2000's Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death) as an artistic rebuttal to the allegations leveled against them. Video games Violent video games were also blamed. Parents of some of the victims filed several unsuccessful lawsuits against video game manufacturers. Jerald Block believes their immersion in a virtual world best explains the massacre. While Brooks Brown disagrees that video games caused the massacre, he agrees elements of their plan came from video games. Harris and Klebold were both fans of shooter video games such as Doom, Quake, Duke Nukem 3D and Postal. A file on Harris's computer read the massacre will "be like the LA riots, the Oklahoma bombing, WWII, Vietnam, Duke and Doom all mixed together." In his last journal entry, Harris wished to "Get a few extra frags on the scoreboard." After the massacre, it was alleged Harris created Doom and Duke Nukem 3D levels resembling CHS, but these were never found. Doom They were avid fans of Doom especially. Harris said of the massacre, "It's going to be like...Doom." He also wrote "I must not be sidetracked by my feelings of sympathy...so I will force myself to believe that everyone is just another monster from Doom." In Harris's yearbook, Klebold wrote "I find a similarity between people and Doom zombies." Harris named his shotgun Arlene after a character in the Doom novels. The TEC-9 Klebold used resembled an AB-10, a weapon from the Doom novels that Harris referenced several times. Harris spent a great deal of time creating a large WAD, named Tier (German for 'animal', and a song by Rammstein), calling it his "life's work." The WAD was uploaded to the Columbine school computer and to AOL shortly before the attack, but appears to have been lost. Duke Nukem 3D The other game mentioned specifically by Harris for what the massacre would be like was Duke Nukem 3D. The game has pipe bombs and one of the enemies is the "pig cop." Brooks Brown wrote that pipe bombs were set in the halls of the school with the intention of causing a chain reaction, because that's what happens in Duke Nukem 3D. Brown also wrote they shot wildly because it works in Duke Nukem 3D. Legacy Following the Columbine shooting, schools across the United States instituted new security measures such as see-through backpacks, metal detectors, school uniforms, and security guards. Some schools implemented the numbering of school doors in order to improve public safety response. Several schools throughout the country resorted to requiring students to wear computer-generated IDs. Schools also adopted a zero tolerance approach to possession of weapons and threatening behavior by students. Despite the effort, several social science experts feel the zero tolerance approach adopted in schools has been implemented too harshly, with unintended consequences creating other problems. Despite the safety measures that were implemented in the wake of the tragedy at Columbine, school shootings continued to take place in the United States, including shootings at Virginia Tech, Sandy Hook Elementary School, and Stoneman Douglas High School. Some schools renewed existing anti-bullying policies. Rachel's Challenge was started by Rachel Scott's parents, and lectures schools about bullying and suicide. Police tactics Police departments reassessed their tactics and now train for Columbine-like situations after criticism over the slow response and progress of the SWAT teams during the shooting. Police followed a traditional tactic at Columbine: surround the building, set up a perimeter, and contain the damage. That approach has been replaced by a tactic known as the Immediate Action Rapid Deployment tactic. This tactic calls for a four-person team to advance into the site of any ongoing shooting, optimally a diamond-shaped wedge, but even with just a single officer if more are not available. Police officers using this tactic are trained to move toward the sound of gunfire and neutralize the shooter as quickly as possible. Their goal is to stop the shooter at all costs; they are to walk past wounded victims, as the aim is to prevent the shooter from killing or wounding more. Dave Cullen has stated: "The active protocol has proved successful at numerous shootings... At Virginia Tech alone, it probably saved dozens of lives." Lawsuits After the massacre, many survivors and relatives of deceased victims filed lawsuits. Under Colorado state law at the time, the maximum a family could receive in a lawsuit against a government agency was $600,000. Most cases against the Jeffco police department and school district were dismissed by the federal court on the grounds of government immunity. The case against the sheriff's office regarding the death of Dave Sanders was not dismissed due to the police preventing paramedics from going to his aid for hours after they knew the gunmen were dead. The case was settled out of court in August 2002 for $1,500,000. In April 2001, the families of more than 30 victims received a $2,538,000 settlement in their case against the families of Harris, Klebold, Manes, and Duran. Under the terms of the settlement, the Harrises and the Klebolds contributed $1,568,000 through their homeowners' policies, with another $32,000 set aside for future claims; the Manes contributed $720,000, with another $80,000 set aside for future claims; and the Durans contributed $250,000, with an additional $50,000 available for future claims. The family of victim Shoels rejected this settlement, but in June 2003 were ordered by a judge to accept a $366,000 settlement in their $250-million lawsuit against the shooters' families. In August 2003, the families of victims Fleming, Kechter, Rohrbough, Townsend, and Velasquez received undisclosed settlements in a wrongful death suit against the Harrises and Klebolds. Parents of some of the victims filed several unsuccessful lawsuits against film companies, over films such as The Basketball Diaries, which includes a dream sequence with a student shooting his classmates in a trench coat. In the Basement Tapes, they debate on whether or not Steven Spielberg or Quentin Tarantino are appropriate choices to direct films about the massacre. Their home videos also show inspiration taken from Pulp Fiction. Both were fans of the film Lost Highway. Apocalypse Now was found in Harris's VCR. Memorials Many impromptu memorials were created after the massacre, including victims Rachel Scott's car and John Tomlin's truck. In 2000, youth advocate Melissa Helmbrecht organized a remembrance event in Denver featuring two surviving students, called "A Call to Hope." The library where most of the massacre took place was removed and replaced with an atrium. In 2001, a new library, the HOPE memorial library, was built next to the west entrance. On February 26, 2004, thousands of pieces of evidence from the massacre were put on display at the Jeffco fairgrounds in Golden. A permanent memorial began planning in June 1999. A permanent memorial "to honor and remember the victims of the April 20, 1999 shootings at Columbine High School" began planning in June 1999, and was dedicated on September 21, 2007, in Clement Park. The memorial fund raised $1.5 million in donations over eight years of planning. Designing took three and a half years and included feedback from victims' families, survivors, the high school's students and staff, and the community. Soon after the massacre, music students at CU Boulder raised money to commission a piece of music to honor Columbine. The university band turned to Frank Ticheli, who responded by composing the wind ensemble work An American Elegy. The following year, the Columbine band premiered the piece at CU Boulder's concert hall. As of 2019, Ticheli's sheet music publisher estimates An American Elegy has been performed 10000 times. Gun control The shooting resulted in calls for more gun control measures. The gun show loophole and background checks became a focus of a national debate. It was the deadliest mass shooting during the era of the Federal Assault Weapons Ban. Victim Daniel Mauser's father Tom Mauser has become a gun control advocate. In 2000, federal and state legislation was introduced that would require safety locks on firearms as well as ban the importation of high-capacity ammunition magazines. Though laws were passed that made it a crime to buy guns for criminals and minors, there was considerable controversy over legislation pertaining to background checks at gun shows. There was concern in the gun lobby over restrictions on Second Amendment rights in the United States. Frank Lautenberg introduced a proposal to close the gun show loophole in federal law. It was passed in the Senate, but did not pass in the House. Michael Moore's 2002 documentary Bowling for Columbine focused heavily on the American obsession with handguns, its grip on Jeffco, and its role in the shooting. In 2019, the MyLastShot Project was launched as a student-led gun violence prevention resource. The campaign was created by students from Columbine High School, and involves students placing stickers on their driver's licenses, student ID's, or phones that states their wishes to have the graphic photos of their bodies publicized if they die in a shooting. Popular culture "Columbine" has since become a euphemism for a school shooting, rather like "going postal" is for workplace violence. Columbine students Jonathan and Stephen Cohen wrote a song called Friend of Mine (Columbine), which briefly received airplay in the US after being performed at a memorial service broadcast on nationwide television. The song was pressed to CD, with the proceeds benefiting families affected by the massacre, and over 10,000 copies were ordered. Shortly following the release of the CD single, the song was also featured on the Lullaby for Columbine CD. Since the advent of social media, a fandom for shooters Harris and Klebold has had a documented presence on social media sites, especially Tumblr. Fans of Harris and Klebold refer to themselves as "Columbiners." An article published in 2015 in the Journal of Transformative Works, a scholarly journal which focuses on the sociology of fandoms, noted that Columbiners were not fundamentally functionally different from more mainstream fandoms. Columbiners create fan art and fan fiction, even cosplaying the pair, and have a scholarly interest in the shooting. A video game called Super Columbine Massacre RPG! was based on the massacre. The Flash game Pico's School was also inspired by it. Film and television The 1999 black comedy, Duck! The Carbine High Massacre is inspired by the Columbine massacre. The first documentary on the massacre may have been the TLC documentary Lost Boys in 2000. The 2002 Michael Moore documentary film Bowling for Columbine won several awards. Also in 2002, A&E made "Columbine: Understanding Why". The 2003 Gus Van Sant film Elephant depicts a fictional school shooting, but is based in part on the Columbine massacre. The 2003 Ben Coccio film Zero Day was also based on the massacre. In 2004, the shooting was dramatized in the documentary Zero Hour. Most of the cafeteria scenes for the episode that dramatized the incident were filmed in the actual location. In 2005, Lifetime produced Dawn Anna. In 2007, the massacre was documented in an episode of the National Geographic Channel documentary series The Final Report. The 2009 film April Showers, written and directed by Andrew Robinson, who was a senior at CHS during the shooting, was based on Columbine. The 2013 film Kids for Cash about the kids for cash scandal detail it as part of the "zero-tolerance" policy in the wake of the Columbine shootings. The 2016 biographical film I'm Not Ashamed, based on the journals of Rachel Scott. The 2020 action film Run Hide Fight is inspired by the Columbine massacre. Copycats The Columbine shootings influenced subsequent school shootings, with several such plots mentioning it. Fear of copycats has sometimes led to the closing of entire school districts. Since Columbine, over 74 copycat cases have been reported, 21 of which resulted in attacks, while the rest were thwarted by law enforcement. In many of them, the perpetrators cited Harris and Klebold as heroes or martyrs. Analysis Harris and Klebold have become what the Napa Valley Register have called "cultural icons" for troubled youth. According to psychiatrist E. Fuller Torrey of the Treatment Advocacy Center, a legacy of the Columbine shootings is its "allure to disaffected youth." Sociologist Ralph Larkin examined twelve major school shootings in the US in the following eight years and found that in eight of those, "the shooters made explicit reference to Harris and Klebold." Larkin wrote that the Columbine massacre established a "script" for shootings. "Numerous post-Columbine rampage shooters referred directly to Columbine as their inspiration; others attempted to supersede the Columbine shootings in body count." A 2015 investigation by CNN identified "more than 40 people...charged with Columbine-style plots." A 2014 investigation by ABC News identified "at least 17 attacks and another 36 alleged plots or serious threats against schools since the assault on Columbine High School that can be tied to the 1999 massacre." Ties identified by ABC News included online research by the perpetrators into the Columbine shooting, clipping news coverage and images of Columbine, explicit statements of admiration of Harris and Klebold, such as writings in journals and on social media, in video posts, and in police interviews, timing planned to an anniversary of Columbine, plans to exceed the Columbine victim counts, and other ties. In 2015, journalist Malcolm Gladwell writing in The New Yorker magazine proposed a threshold model of school shootings in which Harris and Klebold were the triggering actors in "a slow-motion, ever-evolving riot, in which each new participant's action makes sense in reaction to and in combination with those who came before." In February 2016, after Klebold's mother, Sue Klebold, surfaced to speak out on mental health and suicide prevention, she was condemned by then Attorney General of Colorado, Cynthia Coffman, who tweeted that Klebold had been "irresponsible and inflammatory" for her interview with Diane Sawyer, she also added on a follow-up tweet that Klebold had been "selfish" and that her interview could have "very negative consequences". Coffman's remarks were condemned by Ted Zocco-Hochhalter, father of a student paralyzed in the attack, who said there was nothing wrong with Klebold coming up as a remorseful mother trying to spark awareness on mental issues. Other mental health organizations echoed Zocco-Hochhalter's remarks. Timeline The first copycat may have been the W. R. Myers High School shooting, just eight days after Columbine, when a 14-year-old Canadian student went into his school at lunchtime with a sawed-off .22 rifle under his dark blue trench coat, and opened fire, killing one student. A month after the massacre, Heritage High School in Conyers, Georgia had a shooting which Attorney General Janet Reno called a Columbine "copycat". A friend of Harris and Klebold, Eric Veik, was arrested after threatening to "finish the job" at CHS in October 1999. In 2001, Charles Andrew Williams, the perpetrator of the Santana High School shooting, reportedly told his friends that he was going to "pull a Columbine," though none of them took him seriously and played it off as a joke. In 2005, Jeff Weise, a teenager wearing a trench coat, killed his grandfather, who was a police officer, and his grandfather's girlfriend. He took his grandfather's weapon and his squad car, and drove to his former high school in Red Lake and murdered several students before killing himself. In an apparent reference to Columbine, he asked one student if they believed in God. The perpetrator of the Dawson College shooting wrote a note praising Harris and Klebold. Convicted students Brian Draper and Torey Adamcik of Pocatello High School in Idaho, who murdered their classmate Cassie Jo Stoddart, mentioned Harris and Klebold in their homemade videos, and were reportedly planning a "Columbine-like" shooting. The perpetrator of the Emsdetten school shooting praised Harris in his diary. In November 2007, Pekka-Eric Auvinen imitated Columbine with a shooting in Jokela in Tuusula, Finland. He wore a shirt that said "Humanity is Overrated" and attempted to start a fire inside the school but failed. In December 2007, a man killed two at a Youth with a Mission center in Arvada, Colorado and another two at the New Life Church in Colorado Springs before killing himself. He quoted Harris prior to the attack under the heading "Christianity is YOUR Columbine". In a self-made video recording sent to the news media by Seung-Hui Cho prior to his committing the Virginia Tech shootings in 2007, the deadliest school and campus shooting, he referred to the Columbine massacre as an apparent motivation. In the recording, he wore a backwards baseball cap and referred to Harris and Klebold as "martyrs." Adam Lanza, the perpetrator of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in 2012, the deadliest shooting at a primary school in U. S. history, had "an obsession with mass murders, in particular, the April 1999 shootings at Columbine High School in Colorado." In April 2014, shortly before the 15th anniversary, a 16-year-old boy went on a stabbing rampage at his school in Pennsylvania, injuring 24 people, including himself. The boy said he was inspired by Columbine and that he intended to attack on the date of the anniversary but that due to the fact that there were no classes on that day, he chose Eric Harris's birthday to carry out his actions. In June 2014, a married young couple killed two Las Vegas Police Department officers and a civilian before being confronted by police. The man was fatally shot by police and the woman committed suicide. They were later quoted as wanting to commit the "next Columbine" and reportedly idolized Harris and Klebold. The Tumblr fandom of the Columbine shooters gained widespread media attention in February 2015 after three of its members conspired to commit a mass shooting at a Halifax mall on Valentine's Day. In 2017, two 15-year-old school boys from Northallerton in England were charged with conspiracy to murder after becoming infatuated with the crime and "hero-worshipping" Harris and Klebold. The Santa Fe High School shooting, in which ten people were killed, strongly resembled the Columbine massacre; the perpetrator, Dimitrios Pagourtzis, used a pump-action shotgun and homemade explosives, wore similar clothing as Harris and Klebold (including a black trench coat and combat boots) and reportedly yelled "Surprise!" to a victim during the shooting, a possible reference to the library massacre at Columbine. The Kerch Polytechnic College massacre appears to be a copycat crime. The shooter wore a white shirt which said "Hatred" (in Russian), one fingerless glove, planted bombs, and committed suicide with a shotgun in the library. In September 2021, two teens were arrested in Lee County, Florida and were accused of plotting a school shooting. A search conducted of the teen's homes showed a map of the school with security cameras labeled. Several knives and a gun were also found. The Sheriff Department said the teens had a "particular interest in Columbine" and that they had been ordered to undergo mental evaluation before possible charges being filed. Additionally four teenagers were charged in Pennsylvania, after a police investigation found detailed evidence of a plan to target Dunmore High School outside of Scranton, Pennsylvania on April 20, 2024, on the 25th anniversary of the attack. Text messages between the students planning the attack, claiming "dibs" on certain potential victims, and that they wanted everything to go down like Columbine. In October 2021, a 15-year-old girl was arrested in Weber County, Utah for planning a "mass casualty incident like Columbine" at her school. She was charged with use of a weapon of mass destruction, a first-degree felony. See also Folie à deux – a psychiatric syndrome in which symptoms of a delusional belief, and sometimes hallucinations, are transmitted from one individual to another Gun politics in the United States Gun violence in the United States Mass shootings in the United States List of attacks related to secondary schools List of school-related attacks List of school shootings in the United States Notes References Citations Bibliography Cited works Further reading Are Dylan Klebold and Eric Harris’s parents to blame for the Columbine shooting? − Interview by Susan Greene to author Dave Cullen on the responsibility by Harris's and Klebold's parents on the Colorado Independent on February 10, 2016. Primary sources Eric Harris's journal called "The Book of God", , acolumbinesite.com. Another transcription Dylan Klebold's journal called "The Book of Existences", Another transcription, includes yearbook Videos External links Video of the evacuation in progress, Second video of the evacuation (KUSA-TV (9News) news coverage via CNN) FBI file on the Columbine massacre Jefferson County CO Library – Columbine massacre archives – index of articles from the Rocky Mountain News – index of articles from ABC News The Lullaby for Columbine Project 1999 in Colorado 1999 mass shootings in the United States 1999 murders in the United States April 1999 crimes April 1999 events in the United States Arson in Colorado Articles containing video clips Attacks in the United States in 1999 Bullying and suicide Bullying in the United States Car and truck bombings in the United States Gun politics in the United States High school killings in the United States High school shootings in the United States Massacres in 1999 Mass murder in Colorado Mass murder in the United States Mass shootings in Colorado Mass shootings in the United States Murder–suicides in Colorado Murdered American students Presidency of Bill Clinton School bombings in the United States School massacres in the United States School shootings committed by minors School shootings committed by adults

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School%20shooting

School shooting

A school shooting is an attack at an educational institution, such as a primary school, secondary school, or university, involving the use of firearms. Many school shootings are also categorized as mass shootings due to multiple casualties. The phenomenon is most widespread in the United States, which has the highest number of school-related shootings, but school shootings have taken place in many countries across the world. According to studies, factors behind school shooting include family dysfunction, lack of family supervision, ready access to firearms, and mental illness among many other psychological issues. Among the topmost motives of attackers were: bullying/persecution/threatened (75%) and revenge (61%), while 54% reported having numerous reasons. The remaining motives included an attempt to solve a problem (34%), suicide or depression (27%), and seeking attention or recognition (24%). School shootings have sparked a political debate over gun violence, zero tolerance policies, gun rights and gun control. Profiling The United States Secret Service published the results from a study regarding 37 school shooting incidents, involving 41 individuals in the United States from December 1974 through May 2000. In a previous report of 18 school shootings by the FBI, they released a profile that described shooters as middle-class, lonely/alienated, awkward, Caucasian males who had access to guns. The most recent report cautioned against the assumption that a perpetrator can be identified by a certain 'type' or profile. The results from the study indicated that perpetrators came from varying backgrounds, making a singular profile difficult when identifying possible assailant. For example, some perpetrators were children of divorce, lived in foster homes, or came from intact nuclear families. The majority of individuals had rarely or never gotten into trouble at school and had a healthy social life. Some, such as Alan Lipman, have warned against the dearth of empirical validity of profiling methods. Family dynamics One assumption into the catalytic causes of school shootings comes from the "non-traditional" household perspective, which focuses on how family structure and family stability are related to child outcomes. Broadly speaking, proponents of this hypothesis claim that family structures such as single mothers, same-sex parents, extended family, or cohabitation are more harmful to the development of a child's mental well-being, than heterosexual, married parents (often equated with the idea of a nuclear family). This perspective is found to back federal efforts such as the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) of 1996 and US federal tax incentives. However, these assumptions on the detrimental effects of "non-traditional" family structures have repeatedly been shown to be false flags, with the true issues lying within socio-economic realities. Longitudinal research has shown the robust, positive effects of higher incomes and higher education levels on child well-being and emotional development, which reflects on the family stability, and not family structure. Further, proponents of this hypothesis often cite family statistics for those who commit crimes, but leave out how these compare to other populations, including the general population. For example, a 2009 survey conducted by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) revealed that substance abuse amongst children raised by single mothers was higher than children raised by their biological parents. However, the percentage of substance abuse amongst children raised by single-mothers was not only remarkably low (5.4%), but also only 1.2% higher than children raised by both their parents. Those rates reveal to be even smaller when compared to other demographics of the same time period. According surveys commissioned by to the National Institute on Drug Abuse between 20 and 30% of teenagers used/abused illicit substances, a much higher rate than single-mother households. Another example of poorly cited statistics to further this narrative can be found in children who have lost at least one parent. In the U.S., the rate of parental death before age 16 is 8%. The rate of parental death is disproportionately high for prisoners (30–50%), however, it is also disproportionately high for high-performing scientists (26%) and US presidents (34%). Harvard's Baker Foundation Professor, Emerita, Dr. Teresa M. Amabile states, "Those kinds of events can crush a child, they can lead to a lot of problems; they can lead to substance abuse, they can lead to various forms of emotional illness. They can also lead to incredible resilience and almost superhuman behaviors, seemingly, if people can come through those experiences intact. I don’t know if we—we being the field in general—have discovered what the keys are, what makes the difference for kids." Understanding that socio-economic factors have greater effects on child development and emotional stability have led many to argue that single-parent and other non-traditional households should be afforded equivalent incentives by the state, as are afforded married households, and that focussing on family structure rather than family stability derails efforts to understand the realities of mass-shooters. Parental supervision “Studies have found that within offenders’ families, there is frequently a lack of supervision, low emotional closeness, and intimacy”. In a 2018 publication, Dr. George S. Everly, Jr, of The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health outlined an accumulation of seven, recurring themes that warrant consideration regarding school shooters. One factor is that school shooters tended to isolate themselves, and "exhibited an obsessive quality that often led to detailed planning, but ironically they seemed to lack an understanding of the consequences of their behavior and thus may have a history of adverse encounters with law enforcement." A criticism in the media of past shooters was questioning how so much planning could commence without alerting the parents or guardians to their efforts. However, this has proven to be as difficult of a question to answer as anticipating any of the past school shootings. Data from the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, covering decades of US school shootings, reveals that 68% of shooters obtained weapons from their home or the home of a relative. Since 1999, out of 145 US school shootings committed by children/adolescents, 80% of the guns used were taken from their homes or relative's home. The availability of firearms has direct effect on the probability of initiating a school shooting. This has led many to question whether parents should be held criminally negligent for their children's gun-related crimes. By 2018, a total of four parents were convicted of failing to lock up the guns that were used to shoot up US schools by their children. Such incidents may also lead to nationwide discussion on gun laws. The FBI offer a guide for helping to identify potential school shooters, The School Shooter: A Threat Assessment Perspective. "Student 'Rules the Roost'" "The parents set few or no limits on the child's conduct, and regularly give in to his demands. The student insists on an inordinate degree of privacy, and parents have little information about his activities, school life, friends, or other relationships. The parents seem intimidated by their child. They may fear he will attack them physically if they confront or frustrate him, or they may be unwilling to face an emotional outburst, or they may be afraid that upsetting the child will spark an emotional crisis. Traditional family roles are reversed: for example, the child acts as if he were the authority figure, while parents act as if they were the children." "No Limits or Monitoring of TV and Internet" "Parents do not supervise, limit or monitor the student's television watching or his use of the Internet. The student may have a TV in his own room or is otherwise free without any limits to spend as much time as he likes watching violent or otherwise inappropriate shows. The student spends a great deal of time watching television rather than in activities with family or friends. Similarly, parents do not monitor computer use or Internet access. The student may know much more about computers than the parents do, and the computer may be considered off limits to the parents while the student is secretive about his computer use, which may involve violent games or Internet research on violence, weapons, or other disturbing subjects." This last passage includes the archaic notion that violent video games leads to school shootings. The FBI offer three cautions with their guide, 1) No trait or characteristic should be considered in isolation or given more weight than the others, 2) One bad day may not reflect a student's real personality or usual behavior, and 3) Many of these traits and behaviors are seen in adolescents with other, non-violent, issues. Daniel Schechter, Clinical Psychiatrist, wrote that for a baby to develop into a troubled adolescent who then turns lethally violent, a convergence of multiple interacting factors must occur, that is "every bit as complicated...as it is for a tornado to form on a beautiful spring day in Kansas". Thus, reinforcing the issue that school shooters do not necessarily come from "bad" parents. No more than they could come from attentive, educated, negligent, single, married, abusive, or loving parents. Younger age According to Raine (2002), immaturity is one of many identified factors increasing the likelihood of an individual committing criminal acts of violence and outbursts of aggression. This fact is supported by findings on brain development occurring as individuals age from birth. According to the Australian-based Raising children network and Centre for Adolescent Health (and a number of other sources): the main change occurring in the developing brain during adolescence is the (so-called) pruning of unused connections in thinking and processing. While this is occurring within the brain, retained connections are strengthened. Synaptic pruning occurs because the nervous system in humans develops by firstly, the over-producing of parts of the nervous system, axons, neurons, and synapses, to then later in the development of the nervous system, make the superfluous parts redundant, i.e. pruning (or apoptosis, otherwise known as cell death). These changes occur in certain parts of the brain firstly; the pre-frontal cortex, the brain location where decision-making occurs, is the concluding area for development. While the pre-frontal cortex is developing, children and teenagers might possibly rely more on the brain part known as the amygdala; involving thinking that is more emotionally active, including aggression and impulsiveness. As a consequence each individual is more likely to want to make riskier choices, and to do so more frequently. Steinberg (2004) identified the fact of adolescents taking more risks, typically, than adults; Deakin et al. (2004), and Overman et al. (2004) indicate a decline in risk taking from adolescence to adulthood; Steinberg (2005), Figner et al. (2009), and Burnett et al. (2010) identified adolescent age individuals as more likely to take risks than young children and adults. School bullying Dorothy Espelage of the University of Florida notes that 8 percent of bullying victims become "angry, and aggressively so." She added, "They become very angry, they may act out aggressively online. They may not hit back, but they definitely ruminate." "Bullying is common in schools and seemed to play a role in the lives of many of the school shooters". A typical bullying interaction consists of three parts, the offender/bully, a victim, and one or more bystanders. This formula of three enables the bully to easily create public humiliation for their victim. Students who are bullied tend to develop behavioral problems, depression, less self-control and poorer social skills, and to do worse in school. Once humiliated, victims never want to be a victim again and try to regain their image by joining groups. Often, they are rejected by their peers and follow through by restoring justice in what they see as an unjust situation. Their plan for restoration many times results in violence as shown by the school shooters. 75% of school shooters had been bullied or left behind evidence of having been victims of bullying. Notoriety Shooting massacres in English-speaking countries often occur close together in time. In the summer of 1966, two major stories broke: Richard Speck murdered eight women on a single night in Chicago, and Charles Whitman shot and killed 15 people from a clocktower at the University of Texas in Austin. Neither was seeking fame, but with the new television news climate, they received it anyway. Seeing this, 18-year-old Robert Benjamin Smith bought a gun, and on November 12, 1966, he killed four women and a toddler inside the Rose-Mar College of Beauty in Mesa, Arizona. “I wanted to get known, just wanted to get myself a name,” explained Smith. He had hoped to kill nearly ten times as many people, but had arrived at the beauty college campus too early. Upon his arrest, he was without remorse, saying simply, “I wanted people to know who I was.” Towers, et al. (2015), found a small, but significant temporary increase in the probability of a second school shooting within 2 weeks after a known school shooting, which was only slightly smaller than the probability of repeats after mass killings involving firearms. However, much more work is needed with greater scope on investigations, to understand whether this is a real phenomenon or not. Some attribute this to copycat behavior, which can be correlated with the level of media exposure. In these copycat shootings, oftentimes the perpetrators see a past school shooter as an idol, so they want to carry out an even more destructive, murderous shooting in hopes of gaining recognition or respect. Some mass murderers study media reports of previous killers. Recent premeditative writings were presented according to court documents and showed Joshua O'Connor wrote that he wanted the "death count to be as high as possible so that the shooting would be infamous". O'Connor was arrested before he was able to carry out his plan. Infamy and notoriety, "a desire to be remembered" has been reported as the leading reason for planned shootings by most perpetrators who were taken alive either pre or post shooting. Injustice collectors In a 2015 New Republic essay, Columbine author Dave Cullen describes a subset of school shooters (and other mass murderers) known as "injustice collectors", or people who "never forget, never forgive, [and] never let go" before they strike out. The essay describes and expands on the work of retired FBI profiler Mary Ellen O'Toole, who has published a peer-reviewed journal article on the subject. It also quotes Gary Noesner, who helped create and lead the FBI's hostage negotiation unit, and served as Chief Negotiator for ten years. Mental illness The degree to which mental illness does or does not contribute to school shootings has been debated in society. Although the vast majority of mentally ill individuals are non-violent, some evidence has suggested that mental illness or mental health symptoms are nearly universal among school shooters. A 2002 report by the US Secret Service and US Department of Education found evidence that a majority of school shooters displayed evidence of mental health symptoms, often undiagnosed or untreated. Criminologists Fox and DeLateur note that mental illness is only part of the issue, however, and mass shooters tend to externalize their problems, blaming others and are unlikely to seek psychiatric help, even if available. According to an article written on gun violence and mental illness, the existence of violence as an outlet for the mentally ill is quite prominent in some instances (Swanson et al., 2015). The article lists from a study that 12% of people with serious mental illness had committed minor or serious violence within the last year, compared to 2% of people without illness committing those same acts. Other scholars have concluded that mass murderers display a common constellation of chronic mental health symptoms, chronic anger or antisocial traits, and a tendency to blame others for problems. However, they note that attempting to "profile" school shooters with such a constellation of traits will likely result in many false positives as many individuals with such a profile do not engage in violent behaviors. McGinty and colleagues conducted a study to find out if people tended to associate the violence of school shootings with mental illness, at the expense of other factors such as the availability of high-capacity magazines. Nearly 2,000 participants read a news piece on a shooting in which the shooter is diagnosed as having a mental illness and who used high capacity magazines. One group read an article that presented only the facts of the case. A different group read an article about the same shooting, but in it the author advocated for gun restrictions for people with mental illness. Another group read about the shooting in an article that suggested the proposal to ban large-capacity magazines, which acted to advocate that shootings could stem from a societal problem rather than an individual problem. The control group did not read anything. Participants were then all asked to fill in a questionnaire asking about their views on gun control and whether they thought there should be restrictions on high-capacity magazines. 71% of the control group thought that gun restrictions should be applied to people with mental illness, and nearly 80% of participants who read the articles agreed. Despite the fact that the article exposed the readers to both the mental illness of the shooter, and the fact that the shooter used high-capacity magazines, participants advocated more for gun restrictions on people with mental illness rather than bans on high-capacity magazines. This suggests that people believe mental illness is the culprit for school shootings in lieu of the accessibility of guns or other environmental factors. The authors expressed concern that proposals to target gun control laws at people with mental illness do not take into account the complex nature of the relationship between serious mental illness and violence, much of which is due to additional factors such as substance abuse. However, the link is unclear since research has shown that violence in mentally ill people occurs more in interpersonal environments. It is also mentionable that school size can play a role on the presence of shooter mental health concerns. In a presented study from researchers Baird, Roellke & Zeifman from the Social Science Journal, it is presented that school size and level of attention given to students can precede violent actions, as students who commit mass shootings in larger schools are likely to have transitioned from smaller schools. This adds important nuance to the idea that larger schools are more prone to mass violence by showing that the stress associated with losing the personal support given in a smaller community is a weight on students. A 2016 opinion piece concluded that 22% of mass murders are committed by people who suffer from a serious mental illness, and 78% do not. This study also concluded that many people with mental illnesses do not engage in violence against others and that most violent behavior is due to factors other than mental illness. Aftereffects After experiencing the threat of a school shooting, as well as the changes in the school via countermeasures, students continue to experience the trauma . In several peer‐reviewed articles on mental health consequences of school shootings by Lowe & Galea, it is shown that mass shootings can bring on the onset of PTSD and continued depression. In the cities that are home to these kind of events, the town can experience continued paranoia and an exaggerated sense of fear. Lowe & Galea continue to say that continued research is necessary to pinpoint the exact mental symptoms that occur in the victims of school shootings. Violent media theory It has long been debated whether there exists a correlation between school shooting perpetrators and the type of media they consume. A popular profile for school shooters is someone who has been exposed to or enjoys playing violent video games. However, this profile is considered by many researchers to be misguided or erroneous. Ferguson (2009) has argued that a third variable of gender explains the illusory correlation between video game use and the type of people who conduct school shootings. Ferguson explains that the majority of school shooters are young males, who are considerably more aggressive than the rest of the population. A majority of gamers are also young males. Thus, it appears likely that the view that school shooters are often people who play violent video games is more simply explained by the third variable of gender. The idea of profiling school shooters by the video games they play comes from the belief that playing violent video games increases a person's aggression level, which in turn, can cause people to perpetrate extreme acts of violence, such as a school shooting. There is little to no data supporting this hypothesis (Ferguson, 2009) but it has become a vivid profile used by the media since the Columbine Massacre in 1999. A summation of past research on video game violence finds that video games have little to no effect on aggression. (Anderson, 2004; Ferguson, 2007 & Spencer, 2009) Again, this supports the idea that although it is a popular opinion to link school shooters to being violent video gamers; this misconception is often attributable to third variables and has not been supported by research on the connection between aggression and gaming. Taking influences from literature One of the infamous books, the 1977 novel Rage by Stephen King (written under the pseudonym Richard Bachman), was linked to five school shootings and hostage situations that took place between 1988 and 1997; the most recent of these, Heath High School shooting in 1997, was ultimately influential in King's decision to pull the book out of print for good. Frequency trends School shootings are a "modern phenomenon". There were scattered instances of gunmen or bombers attacking schools in the years before the Frontier Middle School shooting in Moses Lake, Washington in 1996, "but they were lower profile", according to journalist Malcolm Gladwell in 2015. Beginning in the late 1990s, there has been a steep increase in the frequency of school shootings across the globe. In the United States specifically, the most recent trend has been downward following the spikes of the 1990s, yet at the same time they are trending towards a higher likelihood of being premeditated and executed with a strict plan in mind. A study by Northeastern University found that "four times the number of children were killed in schools in the early 1990s than today". On August 27, 2018, NPR reported that a U.S. Education Department report, released earlier in the year, for the 2015–2016 school year said "nearly 240 schools ... reported at least 1 incident involving a school-related shooting". However, when NPR researched this 'claim', it could confirm only 11 actual incidents. By region Africa The following is a list of incidents of shootings that occurred in schools in Africa. Asia The following is a list of incidents of shootings that occurred in schools in Asia. Canada This article is listed in chronological order and provides additional details of incidents in which a firearm was discharged at a school in Canada, including incidents of shootings on a school bus. Mass killings in Canada are covered by a List of massacres in Canada. Europe The following is a list of incidents of shootings that occurred at schools in Europe. Mexico The following is a list of incidents of shootings that occurred at schools in Mexico. Oceania The following is a list of incidents of shootings that occurred in Oceania. South America The following is a list of incidents of shootings that occurred in South American schools. United States School shootings are a "uniquely American crisis", according to The Washington Post in 2018. School shootings are considered an "overwhelmingly American" phenomenon due to the availability of firearms in the United States. Kids at U.S. schools have active shooter drills. According to USA Today, in 2019 “about 95% of public schools now have students and teachers practice huddling in silence, hiding from an imaginary gunman.” Between the 1999 Columbine High School massacre in Colorado and the 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in Connecticut, there were 31 school shootings in the United States and 14 in the rest of the world combined. Between 2000 and 2010, counting incidents from 37 countries in which someone was injured or killed on school grounds, with two or more victims, and not counting “single homicides, off-campus homicides, killings caused by government actions, militaries, terrorists or militants”, the number of such incidents in the United States was one less than in the other 36 countries combined; in the vast majority of the United States incidents, perpetrators used guns. The United States Federal government tracks school shootings, and as noted above, a U.S. Education Department report, released earlier in the year, for the 2015–2016 school year said "nearly 240 schools ... reported at least 1 incident involving a school-related shooting". NPR independently evaluated this claim and only confirmed 11 of the 240 cited incidents. Addressing school shootings in the United States was made more difficult by the passage by United States Congress of the Dickey Amendment in 1996, which mandated that no Centers for Disease Control and Prevention funds “may be used to advocate or promote gun control”, although this does not mean the CDC has stopped researching gun violence. Instead, Congress relies on independent research done by non-partisan organizations for getting data on gun violence in the United States. Between the 1999 Columbine High School massacre and the 2018 Santa Fe High School shooting in Texas, more than 214,000 students experienced gun violence at 216 schools, and at least 141 children, educators and other people were killed and another 284 were injured. 38% of the students who experienced school shootings were African American although African American students were 16.6% of the school population. Schools in at least 36 states and the District of Columbia have experienced a shooting. Many school shootings in the United States result in one non-fatal injury. The type of firearm most commonly used in school shootings in the United States is the handgun. Three school shootings (the 1999 Columbine High School massacre in Colorado, the 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in Connecticut, and the 2018 Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Florida), accounted for 43% of the fatalities; the type of firearm used in the most lethal school shootings was the rifle. High-capacity magazines, which allow the perpetrator to fire dozens of rounds without having to reload, were used in the Columbine High School massacre and the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. 70% of the perpetrators of school shootings were under the age of 18, with the median age of 16. More than 85% of the perpetrators of school shootings obtained their firearms from their own homes or from friends or relatives. Targeted school shootings, those occurring for example in the context of a feud, were about three times as common as those that appeared indiscriminate. Most perpetrators of school shootings exhibited no signs of debilitating mental disorder, such as psychosis or schizophrenia, although most mass killers typically have or exhibit signs of depression. On the other hand, Eric Harris was almost certainly a psychopath as noted by the FBI. Between the 1999 Columbine High School massacre in Colorado and 2015, "more than 40 people" were "charged with Columbine-style plots;" almost all were white male teenagers and almost all had studied the Columbine attack or cited the Columbine perpetrators Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold as inspiration. At least 68 schools that experienced a school shooting employed a police officer or security guard; in all but a few, the shooting ended before any intercession. Security guards or resource officers were present during four of the five school shooting incidents with the highest number of dead or injured: the 1999 Columbine High School massacre in Colorado, the 2001 Santana High School shooting in California, the 2018 Marshall County High School shooting in Kentucky, and the 2018 Stoneman Douglas High School shooting. There were 11 firearm-related events that occurred at a school or campus in the first 23 days of 2018. As of May 2018, more people, including students and teachers, were killed in 2018 in schools in the United States than were killed in military service for the United States, including both combat and non-combat military service, according to an analysis by The Washington Post. In terms of the year-to-date number of individual deadly school shootings incidents in the United States, early 2018 was much higher than 2017, with 16 in 2018 and four in 2017, through May; the year-to-day through May number of incidents was the highest since 1999. As of May 2018, thirteen school shootings took place on K–12 school property in 2018 that resulted in firearm-related injuries or deaths, including 32 killed and 65 injured, according to Education Week. 22 school shootings where someone was hurt or killed occurred in the United States in the first 20 weeks of 2018, according to CNN. List of school shootings in the United States As of October 2018, the ten deadliest school shootings in the United States since the 1999 Columbine High School massacre in Colorado in which 13 were killed were the: 2007 Virginia Tech shooting (33 dead) 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in Newtown, Connecticut (27 dead) 2018 Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida (17 dead) 2015 Umpqua Community College shooting near Roseburg, Oregon (10 dead) 2018 Santa Fe High School shooting in Texas (10 dead) 2005 Red Lake shootings in Minnesota (10 dead) 2012 Oikos University shooting in Oakland, California (7 dead) 2006 West Nickel Mines School shooting in Bart Township, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania (6 dead) 2008 Northern Illinois University shooting (6 dead) 2014 Marysville Pilchuck High School shooting in Washington state (5 dead) Other infamous school shootings that occurred in the United States include the 1966 University of Texas tower shooting in Austin in which 16 were killed; the 2001 Santana High School shooting in Santee, California, in which two were killed; the 2018 Marshall County High School shooting in Benton, Kentucky, in which two were killed; and the 2021 Oxford High School shooting in Oxford Township, Michigan, in which four were killed. Studies of United States school shootings During 1996, the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) together with the US Department of Education and the United States Department of Justice, published a review of deaths related to schools occurring as a result of violence, including explicitly "unintentional firearm-related death", for the academic years 1992–1993 and 1993–1994. A second study (Anderson; Kaufman; Simon 2001), a continuation from the 1996 study, was published December 5, and covered the period 1994–1999. A United States Secret Service study concluded that schools were placing false hope in physical security, when they should be paying more attention to the pre-attack behaviors of students. Zero-tolerance policies and metal detectors "are unlikely to be helpful," the Secret Service researchers found. The researchers focused on questions concerning the reliance on SWAT teams when most attacks are over before police arrive, profiling of students who show warning signs in the absence of a definitive profile, expulsion of students for minor infractions when expulsion is the spark that push some to return to school with a gun, buying software not based on school shooting studies to evaluate threats although killers rarely make direct threats, and reliance on metal detectors and police officers in schools when shooters often make no effort to conceal their weapons. In May 2002, the Secret Service published a report that examined 37 U.S. school shootings. They had the following findings: Incidents of targeted violence at school were rarely sudden, impulsive acts. Prior to most incidents, other people knew about the attacker's idea or plan to attack. Most attackers did not threaten their targets directly prior to advancing the attack. There is no accurate or useful profile of students who engaged in targeted school violence. Most attackers engaged in some behavior prior to the incident that caused others concern or indicated a need for help. Most attackers had difficulty coping with significant losses or personal failures. Moreover, many had considered or attempted suicide. Many attackers felt bullied, persecuted, or injured by others prior to the attack. Most attackers had access to and had used weapons prior to the attack. In many cases, other students were involved in some capacity. Despite prompt law enforcement responses, most shooting incidents were stopped by means other than law enforcement intervention. Cultural references Film There have been many representations of American school shootings in films and TV shows produced by both United States and international production companies. While films Elephant, We Need to Talk about Kevin, Beautiful Boy, and Mass are solely focused on the either the act or the aftermath. Many of the shows such as Criminal Minds, Degrassi: the Next Generation, Law and Order, and One Tree Hill investigate the crime for an episode or use it as a plot point for about half a season. Music Californian punk rock group The Offspring has created two songs about school shootings in the United States. In "Come Out and Play" (1994), the focus is on clashing school gangs, lamenting that "[kids] are getting weapons with the greatest of ease", "It goes down the same as a thousand before / No one's getting smarter / No one's learning the score / A never ending spree of death and violence and hate". In the 2008 song "Hammerhead", a campus gunman thinks he is a soldier in a warzone. One of the more provocative songs to come out of the Parkland, Florida high school shooting was "thoughts & prayers" from alternative artist/rapper grandson (born Jordan Benjamin). The song is a critique of politicians sending out their "thoughts and prayers" to the victims of the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting and other mass shootings, accompanied by what he perceives as a consistent resistance to gun control laws. The song "Pumped Up Kicks" by the band Foster the People, was inspired by the Columbine High School massacre. Political impact School shootings and other mass killings have had a major political impact. Governments have discussed gun-control laws, to increase time for background checks. Also, bulletproof school supplies have been created, including backpacks, desks, bullet-resistant door panels, and classroom whiteboards (or bulletin boards) which reinforce walls or slide across doors to deflect bullets. Another organization that has proposed possible solutions to school shootings is the National Rifle Association (NRA), to allow teachers to carry weapons on school grounds as a means of protecting themselves and others. So far, ten states have already introduced legislation to allow weapons on school property with eighteen states already allowing guns to be carried on school grounds, but not without constraints. Most states also require the gun carriers to receive advance permission from the districts' superintendents or trustees. "In New York State, written permission from the school is required in order to carry a firearm on school grounds." Due to the political impact, this has spurred some to press for more stringent gun control laws. In the United States, the National Rifle Association is opposed to such laws, and some groups have called for fewer gun control laws, citing cases of armed students ending shootings and halting further loss of life, and claiming that the prohibitions against carrying a gun in schools do not deter the gunmen. One such example is the Mercaz HaRav Massacre, where the attacker was stopped by a student, Yitzhak Dadon, who shot him with his personal firearm which he lawfully carried concealed. At a Virginia law school, there is a disputed claim that three students retrieved pistols from their cars and stopped the attacker without firing a shot. Also, at a Mississippi high school, the vice principal retrieved a firearm from his vehicle and then eventually stopped the attacker as he was driving away from the school. In other cases, such as shootings at Columbine and Red Lake High Schools, the presence of an armed police officer did little to nothing to prevent the killings. The Gun-Free Schools Act was passed in 1994 in response to gun related violence in schools, so many school systems started adopting the Zero-Tolerance Law. The Gun-Free Schools Act required people to be expelled from the school for a year. By the year of 1997 the Zero-Tolerance for any type of weapon was implemented by more than 90 percent of U.S public schools. Police response and countermeasures Analysis of the Columbine school shooting and other incidents where first responders waited for backup has resulted in changed recommendations regarding what bystanders and first responders should do. An analysis of 84 mass shooting cases in the US from 2000 to 2010 found that the average response time by police was 3 minutes. In most instances that exceeds the time the shooter is engaged in killing. While immediate action may be extremely dangerous, it may save lives which would be lost if people involved in the situation remain passive, or a police response is delayed until overwhelming force can be deployed. It is recommended by the department of homeland security that civilians involved in the incident take active steps to evacuate, hide, or counter the shooter and that individual law enforcement officers present or first arriving at the scene attempt immediately to engage the shooter. In many instances, immediate action by civilians or law enforcement has saved lives. College and university response and countermeasures The Massengill Report was an after-action report created in the wake of the Virginia Tech shooting, which brought national attention to the need for colleges and universities to take concerning behavior and threats seriously. It has led to the creation of hundreds of behavioral intervention teams which help access and co-ordinate institutional responses to behavioral concerns on college and university campuses. School countermeasures Armed classrooms There has been considerable policy discussion about how to help prevent school and other types of mass shootings. One suggestion that has come up is the idea to allow firearms in the classroom. "Since the issue of arming teachers is a relatively new topic, it has received little empirical study. Therefore, most of the literature does not come from peer reviewed sources but rather published news reports. In addition, most of these reports are not objective and clearly appear to support a specific side of the debate." So far, data has been inconclusive as to whether or not arming teachers would have any sort of benefit for schools. For years, some areas in the US have allowed "armed classrooms" to deter (or truncate) future attacks by changing helpless victims into armed defenders. Advocates of arming teachers claim that it will reduce fatalities in school shootings, but many others disagree. Many teachers have had their concerns with the idea of armed classrooms. "One teacher stated that although she is pro-gun, she does not feel as though she could maintain gun safety on school grounds (Reuters, 2012). Teachers expressed the fear that bigger students could overpower them, take the weapon, and then use it against the teacher or other students." Some members of the armed forces have also had concerns with armed classrooms. Police forces in Texas brought up the potential for teachers to leave a gun where a student could retrieve and use it. "They are further concerned that if every teacher had a gun, there would be an unnecessarily large number of guns in schools (even including elementary schools). This large number of guns could lead to accidental shootings, especially those involving younger children who do not understand what guns do." To diminish school shootings there are many preventive measures that can be taken such as: Installing wireless panic alarms to alert law enforcement. Limiting points of entry with security guarding them. Strategically placing telephones for emergencies so police are always reachable at any point in the campus. Employing school psychologists to monitor and provide mental health services for those that need help. Coordinating a response plan between local police and schools in the event of a threat. In a 2013 research report published by the Center for Homicide Research, they find that many also reject the idea of having armed classrooms due to what is termed the "weapons effect", which is the phenomenon in which simply being in the presence of a weapon can increase feelings of aggression. "In Berkowitz & LaPage's (1967) examination of this effect, students who were in the presence of a gun reported higher levels of aggressive feelings towards other students and gave more violent evaluations of other students' performance on a simple task in the form of electric shocks. This finding points to possible negative outcomes for students exposed to guns in the classroom (Simons & Turner, 1974; Turner & Simons, 1976)." In 2008, Harrold Independent School District in Texas became the first public school district in the U.S. to allow teachers with state-issued firearm-carry permits to carry their arms in the classroom; special additional training and ricochet-resistant ammunition were required for participating teachers. Students at the University of Utah have been allowed to carry concealed pistols (so long as they possess the appropriate state license) since a State Supreme Court decision in 2006. In addition to Utah, Wisconsin and Mississippi each have legislation that allow students, faculty and employees with the proper permit, to carry concealed weapons on their public university's campuses. Colorado and Oregon state courts have ruled in favor of Campus Carry laws by denying their universities' proposals to ban guns on campus, ruling that the UC Board of Regents and the Oregon University System did not have the authority to ban weapons on campus. A selective ban was then re-instated, wherein Oregon state universities enacted a ban on guns in school building and sporting events or by anyone contracted with the university in question. A commentary in the conservative National Review Online argues that the armed school approach for preventing school attacks, while new in the US, has been used successfully for many years in Israel and Thailand. Teachers and school officials in Israel are allowed and encouraged to carry firearms if they have former military experience in the IDF, which almost all do. Statistics on what percentage of teachers are actually armed are unavailable and in Israel, for example, the intent is to counter politically motivated terrorist attacks on high value, soft targets, not personal defense against, or protection from, unbalanced individual students. The National Rifle Association has explicitly called for placing armed guards in all American schools. However, Steven Strauss, a faculty member at the Harvard Kennedy School of Government, offered a preliminary calculation that placing armed guards in every American school might cost as much as $15 billion/year, and perhaps only save 10 lives per year (at a cost of $1.5 billion/life saved). Preventive measures Because of the increase in guns in the United States, many schools and local communities are taking it into their own hands by providing young students with early gun safety courses to make them aware of the dangers these objects actually are, also to prevent school shootings. According to Katherine A. Fowler, PhD, at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. An average 1,297 children die (two children per 100,000) and 5,790 are treated for injuries caused by guns each year, the study reported. Six percent of these deaths were accidental, 38% were suicides, 53% were homicides and the remaining 3% were from legal intervention or undetermined reasons. Guns injured children at a rate of 8 per 100,000 children, but this rate is likely considerably higher because of unreported injuries. A preventive measure proposed for stopping school shooting has been focused on securing firearms in the home. A shooting in Sparks, Nevada on October 21, 2013, left a teacher and the shooter, a twelve-year-old student, dead with two seriously injured. The handgun used in the shooting had been taken from the shooter's home. Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, Red Lake High School in Red Lake, Minnesota in 2005, and Heath High School in West Paducah, Kentucky in 1997 also involved legal guns taken from the home. A 2000 study of firearm storage in the United States found that "from the homes with children and firearms, 55% reported to have one or more firearms in an unlocked place". 43% reported keeping guns without a trigger lock in an unlocked place. In 2005 a study was done on adult firearm storage practices in the United States found that over 1.69 million youth under age 18 are living in homes with loaded and unlocked firearms. Also, 73% of children under age 10 living in homes with guns reported knowing the location of their parents' firearms. Most states have Child Access Prevention Laws—laws designed to prevent children from accessing firearms. Each state varies in the degree of the severity of these laws. The toughest laws enforce criminal liability when a minor achieves access to a carelessly stored firearm. The weakest forbid people from directly providing a firearm to a minor. There is also a wide range of laws that fall in between the two extremes. One example is a law that enforces criminal liability for carelessly stored firearms, but only where the minor uses the firearm and causes death or serious injury. An example of a weaker law is a law that enforces liability only in the event of reckless, knowing or deliberate behavior by the adult. In 2019, the United States Secret Service released an analysis of targeted school violence, concluding the best practice for prevention was forming a "multidisciplinary threat assessment team, in conjunction with the appropriate policies, tools, and training". An earlier report published in 2018 concluded there was no single profile of a student attacker, and emphasized the importance of the threat assessment process instead. The threat assessment process described includes gathering information about student behaviors, negative or stressful events, and what resources are available for the student to overcome those challenges. Countermeasures In 2015 Southwestern High School in Shelbyville, Indiana, was portrayed as possibly the "safest school in America". The school has been used as a "Safe School Flagship" of possible countermeasures to an active shooter. All teachers have lanyards with a panic button that alerts police. Classrooms have automatically locking "hardened doors", and windows have "hardened exterior glass" to deflect bullets and physical attack. Cameras, described as "military-grade", that feed video directly to Shelby County Sheriff's Office are mounted throughout the school. Smoke canisters mounted in the roof of corridors can be remotely discharged to slow a shooter's movement. Other countermeasures include tools like doorjambs, rapidly-deployable tourniquets, and ballistic protection systems like the CoverMe-Seat. In 2019, Fruitport High School in Michigan became the first school in the U.S. to be rebuilt with concrete barriers in hallways for students to hide from bullets. The BBC also reports the “hallways are curved to prevent a shooter from having a clear line of sight during any potential attack.” Classrooms have been redesigned so students can hide more easily. Costing $48 million to rebuild, Bob Szymoniak, Fruitport High School's superintendent, believes these alterations will become part of the structure of all U.S. schools. "These are design elements that are naturally part of buildings going into the future." The STOP School Violence Act is pending legislation to provide funding grants to schools to be used for implementing security measures. See also List of school massacres by death toll List of school-related attacks List of unsuccessful attacks related to schools Threat assessment Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives Campus carry in the United States Counter-terrorism Federal Bureau of Investigation Gun culture Gun politics in the United States Incendiary device Mass murder Mass shooting School bullying School violence Shoot (Hellblazer) Social rejection Soft target Suicide attack Suicide bombing Suicide by cop SWAT Terrorism References Sources Muschert, Glen – Sumiala, Johanna (eds.): School Shootings: Mediatized Violence in a Global Age. Studies in Media and Communications, 7. Bingley: Emerald, 2012. External links BBC timeline of US school shootings Student Threat Assessment and Management System Guide Horrific School Shootings – slideshow by Life magazine School Shooters.info – database of information and documents relating to school shooters Crimes against children Terrorism by method Education issues

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Ulster%20Constabulary

Royal Ulster Constabulary

The Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) was the police force in Northern Ireland from 1922 to 2001. It was founded on 1 June 1922 as a successor to the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) following the partition of Ireland. At its peak the force had around 8,500 officers, with a further 4,500 who were members of the RUC Reserve. The RUC policed Northern Ireland from the aftermath of the Irish War of Independence until after the turn of the 21st century, and played a major role in the Troubles between the 1960s and the 1990s. Due to the threat from the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA), who saw the RUC as enforcing British rule, the force was heavily armed and militarised. Officers routinely carried submachine guns and assault rifles, travelled in armoured vehicles, and were based in heavily-fortified police stations. It was the first police force to use rubber and plastic bullets for riot control. The RUC's membership was overwhelmingly Protestant, leading to accusations by sections of the Catholic and Irish nationalist minority of one-sided policing and sectarianism. Officers were also accused of police brutality as well as collusion with loyalist paramilitaries. Conversely, it was praised as one of the most professional police forces in the world by British security forces. During the Troubles, 319 RUC officers were killed and almost 9,000 injured in paramilitary assassinations or attacks, mostly by the IRA, which made the RUC the most dangerous police force in the world in which to serve by 1983. In the same period, the RUC killed 55 people, 28 of whom were civilians. In 2000, the RUC was awarded the George Cross for bravery. The RUC was superseded by the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) in 2001, as mandated by the final version of the Police (Northern Ireland) Act 2000. Allegations regarding collusion prompted several inquiries, the most recent of which was authored by Police Ombudsman Nuala O'Loan in 2007. The report identified police, CID and Special Branch collusion with loyalist terrorists, but no member of the RUC has been charged or convicted of any criminal acts as a result of these inquiries. O'Loan stated in her conclusions that there was no reason to believe the findings of the investigation were isolated incidents. History Establishment Under section 60 of the Government of Ireland Act 1920, Northern Ireland was placed under the jurisdiction of the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC). On 31 January 1921, Richard Dawson Bates, the first Minister of Home Affairs for Northern Ireland, appointed a committee of inquiry on police organisation in the region. It was asked to advise on any alterations to the existing police necessary for the formation of a new force (i.e. recruitment and conditions of service, composition, strength and cost). An interim report was published on 28 March 1922, the first official report of the new Parliament of Northern Ireland, and was subsequently accepted by the Northern Ireland Government. On 29 April 1922, King George V granted to the force the name Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC). In May, the Parliament of Northern Ireland passed the Constabulary Act 1922, and the RUC officially came into existence on 1 June. The headquarters of the force was established at Atlantic Buildings, Waring Street, Belfast. The uniform remained essentially the same as that of the RIC – a dark green, as opposed to the dark blue worn by the other British police forces and the Garda Síochána. A new badge of the Red Hand of Ulster on a St George's Cross surrounded by a chain was designed but proved unpopular and was never uniformly adopted. Eventually the harp and crown insignia of the Order of St Patrick, as worn by the RIC, was adopted. From the beginning the RUC had a dual role, unique among British police forces, of providing a normal law enforcement service while enforcing the new Northern Ireland entity in the face of considerable opposition, both armed and unarmed. To this end, its members were armed, as the RIC had been. The RUC was limited by statute to a 3,000-strong force. Initially, a third of positions within the force were reserved for Catholics, a reflection of the denominational proportions of the population of Northern Ireland at that time. The first two thousand places were filled quickly and those reserved for Catholics were filled mainly by ex-RIC members fleeing north. Due to reluctance by the political establishment to employ too many Catholics (who were seen as potentially disloyal to the Protestant and unionist ethos of the new government) the force abandoned this policy. As a result, representation of Catholics in the RUC never exceeded 20%. In addition, many Catholics who joined the force, particularly during the Troubles, were targeted for murder or ostracised by their own community. By the 1960s, representation of Catholics in the RUC had fallen to 12%. The RUC were supported by the Ulster Special Constabulary, a volunteer body of part-time auxiliary police established before the Northern Ireland government was set up, who had already been given uniforms and training. The RUC's senior officer, the Inspector General, was appointed by the Governor of Northern Ireland and was responsible to the Minister of Home Affairs in the Northern Ireland government for the maintenance of law and order. Early years The polarised political climate in Northern Ireland resulted in violence from both sides of the political and sectarian divide. The lawlessness that affected the region during the early 1920s, and the problems it caused for the RUC, are indicated in a police report drawn up by District Inspector R.R. Spears in February 1923. Referring to the situation in Belfast after July 1921 he stated:For twelve months after that, the city was in a state of turmoil. The IRA (Irish Republican Army) was responsible for an enormous number of murders, bombings, shootings and incendiary fires. The work of the police against them was, however, greatly hampered by the fact that the rough element on the Protestant side entered thoroughly into the disturbances, met murder with murder and adopted in many respects the tactics of the rebel gunmen. In the endeavour to cope simultaneously with the warring factions the police efforts were practically nullified. They were quite unable to rely on the restraint of one party while they dealt with the other. About ninety police officers were killed between 1920 and 1922 in what would become Northern Ireland. The security forces were implicated in reprisal killings of Catholics but no convictions ever rendered. Most notable of these incidents were the McMahon killings on 26 March 1922, in which six Catholics were killed; and the Arnon Street killings several days later on 1 April 1922, in which six more Catholics were shot dead in retaliation for the IRA killing of a policeman. By the mid-1920s the situation had calmed down; for the next forty-five years the murder rate in Northern Ireland would be lower than in the rest of the UK and the crime detection rate higher. The 1920s and 1930s were years of economic austerity. Many of Northern Ireland's traditional industries, notably linen and shipbuilding, were in recession, which contributed to the already high level of unemployment. Serious rioting broke out in 1932 in Belfast in protest at inadequate relief for the unemployed. In response to the growth of motorised transport, the RUC Traffic Branch was formed on 1 January 1930. In 1936 the police depot at Enniskillen was formally opened and an £800,000 scheme to create a network of 196 police barracks throughout Northern Ireland by rationalizing or repairing the 224 premises inherited from the RIC was underway. In May 1937 a new white glass lamp with the RUC crest went up for the first time to replace the RIC crest still on many stations. About the same time the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) in Belfast was significantly expanded, with a detective head constable being appointed to head the CID force in each of the five Belfast police districts. There was sporadic IRA activity in the 1930s. In 1937, on the occasion of the visit of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth to the province, the IRA blew up a number of customs posts. In 1939 the IRA launched its Sabotage Campaign in England, which would end a few days before the outbreak of the Second World War. The war brought additional responsibilities for the police: the security of the land border with the Republic of Ireland, which remained neutral during the war, was one important consideration; smuggling greatly increased due to rationing, to the point where police virtually became revenue officers; and many wartime regulations had to be enforced, including "black-out" requirements on house and vehicle lights, the arrest of striking workers, port security, and restrictions on the movement of vehicles and use of petrol. The RUC was a "reserved occupation", i.e. the police force was deemed essential to the domestic war effort and its members were forbidden to leave to join the other services. The wartime situation gave a new urgency to discussions regarding the appointment of women police. The Ministry of Home Affairs finally gave approval to the enrolment of women as members of the RUC on 16 April 1943, with the first six recruits starting on 15 November. Post-war policies brought about a gradual improvement in the lot of the RUC, interrupted only by a return to hostilities by the IRA border campaign from 1957 to 1962, in which seven RUC officers were killed. The force was streamlined in the 1960s, a new headquarters was opened at Knock, Belfast and a number of rural barracks were closed. "The Troubles" The civil rights protests during the 1960s, and the reaction to them, marked the beginning of the conflict that became known as "the Troubles". The RUC found itself confronting marchers protesting against gerrymandering of local electoral wards and discrimination in local housing allocation. Many of these Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association protests were banned or truncated by the government of Northern Ireland. The Ulster Special Constabulary were controversial, with the unit seen by some nationalists as more anti-Catholic and anti-nationalist than the RUC, which, unlike the B Specials, did attract some Catholic recruits. The severe pressure on the RUC and the perceived partiality of the B-Specials led, during the Northern Ireland riots of August 1969, to the British Army being called in to support the civil administration under Operation Banner. Catholics largely turned away from the British Army, who they saw as treating Protestants differently, especially after the Falls Curfew. Reform The high level of civil unrest led to an exhaustive inquiry into the disturbances in Northern Ireland carried out by Lord Scarman, which produced a report in 1972. James Callaghan, Home Secretary in 1969, called on Brigadier John Hunt (Lord Hunt) to assess, advise and report on the policing situation. He was assisted in this task by Sir Robert Mark, who later became Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police Service, and Sir James Robertson, then-Chief Constable of Glasgow. The Hunt Report was published on 3 October 1969, and most of its recommendations were subsequently accepted and implemented. The aim was to completely reorganise the RUC, both modernizing the force and bringing it into line with the other police forces in the UK. This meant the introduction of the British rank and promotion structure, the creation of 12 Police Divisions and 39 Sub-Divisions, the disbandment of the Ulster Special Constabulary, and the creation of a Police Authority designed to be representative of all segments of the community. Callaghan, later elected Prime Minister, asked Sir Arthur Young, Commissioner of the City of London Police, to be seconded for a year. Young's appointment began the long process of turning the RUC into a British police service. The RUC Reserve was formed as an auxiliary police force, and all military-style duties were handed over to the newly formed Ulster Defence Regiment, which was under military command and replaced the B Specials. Callaghan selected Young, a career policeman, because no other British policeman could match his direct experience of policing acutely unstable societies and of reforming gendarmeries. from 1943 to 1945, he was Director of Public Safety and Director of Security in the military government of Allied-occupied Italy. Later, he had been seconded to the Federation of Malaya at the height of the Malayan Emergency (1952–53) and to the crown colony of Kenya during Mau Mau (1954). First deaths The first deaths of the Troubles occurred in July 1969. Francis McCloskey, a 67-year-old Catholic civilian had been found unconscious on 13 July near the Dungiven Orange Hall following a police baton charge against a crowd who had been throwing stones at the hall. Witnesses later said they had seen police batoning a figure in the doorway where McCloskey was found, although police claimed that he had been unconscious before the baton charge and may have been hit with a stone. He was taken to hospital and died the following day. On 11 October 1969, Constable Victor Arbuckle was shot dead by loyalists on Belfast's Shankill Road during serious rioting in protest at the recommendations of the Hunt Report. Arbuckle was the first police fatality of the Troubles. In August 1970, two young constables, Donaldson and Millar, died when an abandoned car they were examining near the strongly republican town of Crossmaglen exploded. They became the first security forces victims of the Provisional Irish Republican Army campaign. This campaign involved the targeting of police officers, and continued until the final ceasefire in 1997, as the peace process gained momentum. The last RUC officer killed, Constable Francis O'Reilly (a Catholic), was also killed by loyalists, in a September 1998 bombing during the Drumcree conflict. Later years In March 1972, the Government of Northern Ireland resigned and the parliament was prorogued. Northern Ireland subsequently came under direct rule from Westminster with its own Secretary of State, who had overall responsibility for security policy. From the mid-1970s onward, the British policy of Ulsterisation meant RUC officers taking a more prominent role in the conflict than previously, which increased their casualty rate. Starting in late 1982, a number of IRA and Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) men were shot dead by the RUC. This led to accusations of a shoot-to-kill policy by the RUC. In September 1983, four officers were charged with murder in connection with the deaths. Although all were subsequently found not guilty, the British government set up the Stalker Inquiry to investigate further. In May 1986, Sir John Hermon, then Chief Constable, publicly accused unionist politicians of "consorting with paramilitary elements". Anger over the Anglo-Irish Agreement led to loyalist assaults on more than 500 homes belonging to Catholics and RUC officers during the mid-1980s. At least 150 RUC families were forced to move as a result. In 1998 Chief Constable Ronnie Flanagan stated in an interview on television that he was unhappy with any RUC officers belonging to the Orange Order or any of the other loyal orders. While the RUC refused to give any details on how many officers were members of the Order, thirty-nine RUC officers are listed on the Order's Roll of Honour (of 'Orangemen' killed in the conflict). The size of the RUC was increased on several occasions. At its height, there were 8,500 regular police officers supported by about 5,000 full-time and part-time reserve officers, making it the second largest force in the United Kingdom after the Metropolitan Police in London. The direction and control of the RUC was in the hands in the Chief Constable, who was assisted by two Deputy Chief Constables and nine Assistant Chief Constables. For operational purposes, Northern Ireland was divided into twelve Divisions and thirty-nine Sub-Divisions. RUC ranks, duties, conditions of service and pay were generally in line with those of police forces in Great Britain. Policing in a divided society Policing Northern Ireland's divided society proved to be difficult, as each of the main religious blocs (Protestant and Roman Catholic) had different attitudes towards the institutions of the state. To most Ulster Protestants, the state had full legitimacy, as did its institutions, its parliament, its police force and the Crown. Many of Northern Ireland's Catholics, along with their political leaders, believed that partition would only be temporary. Many abstained from and/or refused to take part Northern Ireland's institutions for a variety of reasons, including the treatment of Catholic civilians by the Ulster Special Constabulary during the recent conflict and the mistaken belief that Northern Ireland would be ceded to the Free State in the not too distant future. Protestant fears of strategically important government services being infiltrated by Catholics disloyal to the new state polarised society and made most Catholics unwilling and/or unable to join either the police or the civil service. This mindset was referenced by David Trimble:Ulster Unionists, fearful of being isolated on the island, built a solid house, but it was a cold house for Catholics. And northern nationalists, although they had a roof over their heads, seemed to us as if they meant to burn the house down In August 1922, Dawson Bates gave the Orange Order special permission for an Orange Lodge to be formed in the RUC. In April 1923 he spoke at its first reunion. In 1924 John William Nixon, a District Inspector suspected of involvement in the murder of Catholic civilians, would be dismissed after widespread complaints that he had made a "fiercely Unionist" speech at an Orange Order function. An inquiry by the British National Council for Civil Liberties in 1936 concluded that:[I]t is difficult to escape the conclusion that the attitude of the government renders the police chary of interference with the activities of the Orange Order and its sympathisers. On 4 April 1922, the RIC was disbanded. Three days later, the Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act (Northern Ireland) 1922 came into force, and the Belfast government, although prohibited from raising or controlling a military force, appointed Major General Frederick Solly-Flood as a military advisor. The RUC was to be 3,000-strong, recruiting 2,000 ex-RIC and 1,000 "A Specials". It was intended that half of the RIC men recruited were to be Catholic, making up a third of positions within the force. However, fewer than half the expected number of Catholics came forward and the balance was made up with more A Specials, who continued to exist as a separate force. Throughout its existence, republican political leaders and most Roman Catholic clerics discouraged Catholics from joining the RUC. Seamus Mallon, Social Democratic and Labour Party Member of Parliament (MP) and critic of the force, who later served as Deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, stated that the RUC was "97% Protestant and 100% unionist". The RUC did attract some Roman Catholics, mostly former members of the RIC, who came north from the Irish Free State after the bitterness of the fighting during the Anglo-Irish War largely precluded them from remaining in territory now controlled by their enemies. The percentage of Catholics in the RUC dropped as these men retired over time. Notable Catholics in the RUC include RUC Chief Constable Sir James Flanagan, who survived an IRA assassination attempt; Deputy Chief Constable Michael McAtamney; Assistant Chief Constable Cathal Ramsey; Chief Superintendent Frank Lagan, and Superintendents Kevin Benedict Sheehy and Brendan McGuigan. In December 1997, The Independent (London) published a leaked internal RUC document which reported that a third of all Catholic RUC officers had reported suffering religious discrimination and/or harassment from Protestant fellow officers. Casualties According to The Thin Green Line – The History of the Royal Ulster Constabulary GC, written by RUC reservist Richard Doherty, 314 officers were killed and over 9,000 were injured during the existence of the RUC. All but 12 of the dead were killed during the Troubles (1969 to 1998), of whom 277 were killed in attacks by Irish republicans. According to the CAIN project at the University of Ulster, however, 301 RUC officers and 18 former or retired RUC officers were killed, totaling 319 fatalities. The Newry mortar attack by the Provisional IRA on an RUC station in 1985, which killed nine officers (including two Catholics), resulted in the highest number of deaths inflicted on the RUC in one incident. The two highest-ranking RUC officers to be killed during "the Troubles" were Chief Superintendent Harry Breen and Superintendent Robert Buchanan, who were ambushed by the Provisional IRA South Armagh Brigade outside Jonesborough, County Armagh, on 20 March 1989. On 4 December 2013, in a report by judge Peter Smithwick in the Smithwick Tribunal (a public inquiry), it was alleged that members of the Republic's police force (Garda Síochána) had colluded in the killing of the two policemen. The last RUC officer killed as a direct result of the conflict, Francis O'Reilly (a Catholic constable), died on 6 October 1998, a month after he had been injured in a Red Hand Defenders pipe-bomb attack in Portadown during the Drumcree conflict. Criticism Ill-treatment of children On 1 July 1992, Human Rights Watch (HRW) issued a detailed report, alleging RUC and paramilitary violations against children's rights during the Troubles. Both Catholic and Protestant children alleged regular and severe physical assault and mental harassment at the hands of RUC officers, usually conducted to force a false confession of a crime. In an accompanying statement, HRW cited allegations that:Police officers and soldiers harass young people on the street hitting, kicking and insulting them. Police officers in interrogation centres insult, trick and threaten youngsters and sometimes physically assault them. Children are locked up in adult detention centres and prisons in shameful conditions. Helsinki Watch heard dozens of stories from children, their parents, lawyers, youth workers and political leaders of children being stopped on the street and hit, kicked and abused again and again by police and soldiers. And seventeen-year-olds told Human Rights Watch Helsinki of severe beatings in detention during interrogations by police. Patten report The Good Friday Agreement (GFA) of 1998 produced a wholesale reorganisation of inter-community, governmental and policing systems, including a power-sharing executive. The bias, and the under-representation of Catholics and nationalists in the RUC led to, as part of the Good Friday Agreement, a fundamental policing review, headed by Chris Patten, a former British Governor of Hong Kong and Conservative Minister under Margaret Thatcher. The review was published in September 1999. It recommended a wholesale reorganisation of policing, with the Royal Ulster Constabulary being replaced by the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI), and a drive to recruit Catholics and the adoption of a new crest and cap badge. The PSNI was introduced in November 2001. As part of the change, the police service dropped the word "Royal" from and adopted a new badge that included the crown, harp, and shamrock, an attempt at representation of the major ideologies. Loyalist collusion Special Patrol Group Elements of the RUC colluded with loyalist paramilitaries throughout the 30-year conflict. The Special Patrol Group was formed in the late 1960s as the Police Reserve Force. The name was changed to avoid confusion with the newly formed part-time Police Reserve in 1970, and was renamed "Headquarters Mobile Support Unit" in 1980 after two of its members were convicted of kidnap and murder. The two, John Weir and Billy McCaughey, implicated some of their colleagues in a range of crimes including giving weapons, information and transport to loyalist paramilitaries as well as carrying out shooting and bombing attacks of their own. Weir alleged that senior officers, including Chief Superintendent Harry Breen, were aware of and approved of their activity. The Stevens Inquiries On 18 April 2003 as part of the third report into collusion between Ulster loyalist paramilitaries, RUC, and British Army, Sir John Stevens published an Overview and Recommendations document (Stevens 3). Stevens' intention was to make recommendations which arose from serious shortcomings he had identified in all three Inquiries. In his autobiography, Stevens was at pains to point out the high regard in which he held many RUC officers, including Detective Superintendent Maurice Neilly, who was killed in the 1994 Chinook air crash. The third Stevens Inquiry began in 1999, and referred to his previous reports when making his recommendations. Stevens' third inquiry focused in detail on only two of the killings in which collusion was alleged; that of Brian Adam Lambert in 1987 and of Pat Finucane in 1989. Stevens used the following criteria as a definition of collusion while conducting his investigation: The failure to keep records or the existence of contradictory accounts which could limit the opportunity to rebut serious allegations. The absence of accountability which could allow acts or omissions by individuals to go undetected. The withholding of information which could impede the prevention of crime and the arrest of suspects. The unlawful involvement of agents in murder which could imply that the security forces sanction killings. On 12 December 2012 the British Prime minister David Cameron admitted a statement to the House of Commons that "shocking levels of collusion occurred in the murder of Finucane." Police Ombudsman In a report released on 22 January 2007, the Police Ombudsman Dame Nuala O'Loan stated Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) informers committed serious crimes, including murder, with the full knowledge of their handlers. The report stated that RUC Special Branch officers created false statements, blocked evidence searches and "baby-sat" suspects during interviews. Awards Awards for gallantry for individual officers since 1969 included 16 George Medals, 103 Queen's Gallantry Medals, 111 Queen's Commendations for Bravery and 69 Queen's Police Medals. On 12 April 2000, the RUC was awarded the George Cross for bravery, a rare honour which had only been awarded collectively once before, to the island nation of Malta. The Award stated:For the past 30 years, the Royal Ulster Constabulary has been the bulwark against, and the main target of, a sustained and brutal terrorism campaign. The Force has suffered heavily in protecting both sides of the community from danger – 302 officers have been killed in the line of duty and thousands more injured, many seriously. Many officers have been ostracised by their own community and others have been forced to leave their homes in the face of threats to them and their families. As Northern Ireland reaches a turning point in its political development this award is made to recognise the collective courage and dedication to duty of all of those who have served in the Royal Ulster Constabulary and who have accepted the danger and stress this has brought to them and to their families. Chief officers The chief officer of the Royal Irish Constabulary was its Inspector-General (the last of whom, Sir Thomas J. Smith served from 11 March 1920 until partition in 1922). Between 1922 and 1969 the position of Inspector-General of the RUC was held by five officers, the last being Sir Arthur Young, who was seconded for a year from the City of London Police to implement the Hunt Report. Under Young, the title was changed to Chief Constable in line with the recommendations of the Hunt Report. Young and six others held the job until the RUC was incorporated to the PSNI. The final incumbent, Sir Ronnie Flanagan, became the first Chief Constable of the PSNI. Inspector-General Sir Charles Wickham, from June 1922. Inspector-General Sir Richard Pim, from August 1945. Inspector-General Sir Albert Kennedy, from January 1961. Inspector-General Sir Anthony Peacocke, from February 1969. Inspector-General Sir Arthur Young, from November 1969. Chief Constable Sir Graham Shillington, from November 1970. Chief Constable Sir James Flanagan, from November 1973. Chief Constable Sir Kenneth Newman, from May 1976. Chief Constable Sir John Hermon, from January 1980. Chief Constable Sir Hugh Annesley, from June 1989. Chief Constable Sir Ronnie Flanagan, from October 1996 – November 2001, continuing as Chief Constable of the PSNI until April 2002 Ranks Equipment Vehicles Hotspur, Tangi Land Rover Shorland armoured car Weapons Sidearms Ruger Speed-Six .357 Magnum Webley Revolver Walther PP 9MM short Ruger Security-Six .38 Submachine guns Sten submachine gun Heckler & Koch MP5 Heckler & Koch MP5K Ingram MAC-10 9mm Sterling submachine gun Carbines and rifles M1 Carbine Ruger AC-556 Heckler & Koch HK33 Heckler & Koch G3 L1A1 Lee-Enfield SMLE .303 Lee-Enfield no. 4 Accuracy International 7.62 Accuracy International .338 Machine guns Bren light machine gun .303 Lewis machinegun .303 Browning 1919A4 .30-06 machine gun Vickers machine gun .303 References Footnotes Citations Bibliography Weitzer, Ronald, 1985. "Policing a Divided Society: Obstacles to Normalization in Northern Ireland", Social Problems, v. 33 (October), pp. 41–55. Weitzer, Ronald, 1995. Policing Under Fire: Ethnic Conflict and Police-Community Relations in Northern Ireland (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press) Ryder, Chris (1989, 1992, 1997), The RUC: A Force under Fire. London: Mandarin; . Ellison, Graham & Jim Smyth (2000), The Crowned Harp: Policing Northern Ireland. London: Pluto Press; . Orr, David R. (2013), RUC Spearhead: The RUC Reserve Force 1950–1970 Redcoat Publishing; . External links Policing – Details of Source Material, CAIN, University of Ulster RUC George Cross Foundation RUC Roll of Honour 1922 establishments in Northern Ireland 2001 disestablishments in Northern Ireland Collective recipients of the George Cross Defunct gendarmeries Defunct law enforcement agencies of Ireland Defunct police forces of Northern Ireland Government agencies disestablished in 2001 History of Northern Ireland Government agencies established in 1922 Police forces of Northern Ireland

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston%2C%20South%20Carolina

Charleston, South Carolina

Charleston is the largest city in the U.S. state of South Carolina, the county seat of Charleston County, and the principal city in the Charleston–North Charleston metropolitan area. The city lies just south of the geographical midpoint of South Carolina's coastline on Charleston Harbor, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean formed by the confluence of the Ashley, Cooper, and Wando rivers. Charleston had a population of 150,277 as of the 2020 U.S. Census. The 2020 population of the Charleston metropolitan area, comprising Berkeley, Charleston, and Dorchester counties, was 799,636 residents, the third-largest in the state and the 74th-largest metropolitan statistical area in the United States. Charleston was founded in 1670 as Charles Town, honoring King CharlesII, at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley River (now Charles Towne Landing) but relocated in 1680 to its present site, which became the fifth-largest city in North America within ten years. It remained unincorporated throughout the colonial period; its government was handled directly by a colonial legislature and a governor sent by Parliament. Election districts were organized according to Anglican parishes, and some social services were managed by Anglican wardens and vestries. Charleston adopted its present spelling with its incorporation as a city in 1783. Population growth in the interior of South Carolina influenced the removal of the state government to Columbia in 1788, but Charleston remained among the ten largest cities in the United States through the 1840 census. Charleston's significance in American history is tied to its role as a major slave trading port. Charleston slave traders like Joseph Wragg were the first to break through the monopoly of the Royal African Company and pioneered the large-scale slave trade of the 18th century; almost one half of slaves imported to the United States arrived in Charleston. In 2018, the city formally apologized for its role in the American Slave trade after CNN noted that slavery "riddles the history" of Charleston. Known for its strong tourism industry, in 2016 Travel + Leisure Magazine ranked Charleston as the best city in the world. Geography The city proper consists of six distinct districts. Downtown, or sometimes referred to as "The Peninsula", is Charleston's center city separated by the Ashley River to the west and the Cooper River to the east. West Ashley, residential area to the west of Downtown bordered by the Ashley River to the east and the Stono River to the west. Johns Island, far western limits of Charleston home to the Angel Oak, bordered by the Stono River to the east, Kiawah River to the south and Wadmalaw Island to the west. James Island, popular residential area between Downtown and the town of Folly Beach where the McLeod Plantation is located. A portion of James Island incorporated into its own town in 2012 on its fourth attempt. Cainhoy Peninsula, far eastern limits of Charleston bordered by the Wando River to the west and Nowell Creek to the east. Daniel Island, residential area to the north of downtown, east of the Cooper River and west of the Wando River. Topography The incorporated city fitted into as late as the First World War, but has since greatly expanded, crossing the Ashley River and encompassing James Island and some of Johns Island. The city limits also have expanded across the Cooper River, encompassing Daniel Island and the Cainhoy area. The present city has a total area of , of which is land and is covered by water. North Charleston blocks any expansion up the peninsula, and Mount Pleasant occupies the land directly east of the Cooper River. Charleston Harbor runs about southeast to the Atlantic with an average width of about , surrounded on all sides except its entrance. Sullivan's Island lies to the north of the entrance and Morris Island to the south. The entrance itself is about wide; it was originally only deep but began to be enlarged in the 1870s. The tidal rivers (Wando, Cooper, Stono, and Ashley) are evidence of a submergent or drowned coastline. There is a submerged river delta off the mouth of the harbor, and the Cooper River is deep. Climate Charleston has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), with mild winters, hot humid summers, and significant rainfall all year long. Summer is the wettest season; almost half of the annual rainfall occurs from June to September in the form of thundershowers. Fall remains relatively warm through the middle of November. Winter is short and mild, and is characterized by occasional rain. Measurable snow (≥) occurs only several times per decade at the most, however freezing rain is more common; a snowfall/freezing rain event on January 3, 2018, was the first such event in Charleston since December 26, 2010. However, fell at the airport on December 23, 1989 during the December 1989 United States cold wave, the largest single-day fall on record, contributing to a single-storm and seasonal record of snowfall. The highest temperature recorded within city limits was on June 2, 1985, and June 24, 1944; the lowest was on February 14, 1899. At the airport, where official records are kept, the historical range is on August 1, 1999, down to on January 21, 1985. Hurricanes are a major threat to the area during the summer and early fall, with several severe hurricanes hitting the area—most notably Hurricane Hugo on September 21, 1989 (a category 4 storm). The dewpoint from June to August ranges from . Metropolitan Statistical Area As defined by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget, for use by the U.S. Census Bureau and other U.S. Government agencies for statistical purposes only, Charleston is included within the Charleston–North Charleston, SC Metropolitan Statistical Area and the smaller Charleston-North Charleston urban area. The Charleston–North Charleston metropolitan area consists of three counties: Charleston, Berkeley, and Dorchester. As of the 2020 U.S. Census, the metropolitan statistical area had a total population of 799,636 people. North Charleston is the second-largest city in the metro area and ranks as the third-largest city in the state; Mount Pleasant and Summerville are the next-largest cities. These cities combined with other incorporated and unincorporated areas along with the city of Charleston form the Charleston-North Charleston urban area with a population of 548,404 . The metropolitan statistical area also includes a separate and much smaller urban area within Berkeley County, Moncks Corner (with a 2000 population of 9,123). The traditional parish system persisted until the Reconstruction Era, when counties were imposed. Nevertheless, traditional parishes still exist in various capacities, mainly as public service districts. When the city of Charleston was formed, it was defined by the limits of the Parish of St. Philip and St. Michael, now also includes parts of St. James' Parish, St. George's Parish, St. Andrew's Parish, and St. John's Parish, although the last two are mostly still incorporated rural parishes. History Colonial era (1670–1786) King Charles II granted the chartered Province of Carolina to eight of his loyal friends, known as the Lords Proprietors, on March 24, 1663. In 1670, Governor William Sayle arranged for several shiploads of settlers from Bermuda and Barbados. These settlers established what was then called Charles Town at Albemarle Point, on the west bank of the Ashley River, a few miles northwest of the present-day city center. Charles Town became the first comprehensively planned town in the Thirteen Colonies. Its governance, settlement, and development was to follow a visionary plan known as the Grand Model prepared for the Lords Proprietors by John Locke. Because the Carolina's Fundamental Constitutions was never ratified, however, Charles Town was never incorporated during the colonial period. Instead, local ordinances were passed by the provincial government, with day-to-day administration handled by the wardens and vestries of StPhilip's and StMichael's Anglican parishes. At the time of European colonization, the area was inhabited by the indigenous Cusabo, whom the settlers declared war on in October 1671. The settlers initially allied with the Westo, a northern indigenous tribe that traded in enslaved Indians. The settlers abandoned their alliance with the Westo in 1679 and allied with the Cusabo instead. The initial settlement quickly dwindled away and disappeared while another village—established by the settlers on Oyster Point at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper rivers around 1672—thrived. This second settlement formally replaced the original Charles Town in 1680. (The original site is now commemorated as Charles Towne Landing.) The second location was more defensible and had access to a fine natural harbor. The new town had become the fifth largest in North America by 1690. A smallpox outbreak erupted in 1698, followed by an earthquake in February 1699. The latter caused a fire that destroyed about a third of the town. During rebuilding, a yellow fever outbreak killed about 15% of the remaining inhabitants. Charles Town suffered between five and eight major yellow fever outbreaks over the first half of the 18th century. It developed a reputation as one of the least healthy locations in the Thirteen Colonies for ethnic Europeans. Malaria was endemic. Although malaria did not have such high mortality as yellow fever, it caused much illness. It was a major health problem through most of the city's history before dying out in the 1950s after use of pesticides cut down on the mosquitoes that transmitted it. Charles Town was fortified according to a plan developed in 1704 under Governor Nathaniel Johnson. Both Spain and France contested Britain's claims to the region. Various bands of Native Americans and independent pirates also raided it. On September 5–6, 1713 (O.S.) a violent hurricane passed over Charles Town. The Circular Congregational Church manse was damaged during the storm, in which church records were lost. Much of Charles Town was flooded as "the Ashley and Cooper rivers became one." At least seventy people died in the disaster. From the 1670s Charleston attracted pirates. The combination of a weak government and corruption made the city popular with pirates, who frequently visited and raided the city. Charles Town was besieged by the pirate Blackbeard for several days in May 1718. Blackbeard released his hostages and left in exchange for a chest of medicine from Governor Robert Johnson. Around 1719, the town's name began to be generally written as Charlestown and, excepting those fronting the Cooper River, the old walls were largely removed over the next decade. Charlestown was a center for the inland colonization of South Carolina. It remained the southernmost point of the Southern Colonies until the Province of Georgia was established in 1732. As noted, the first settlers primarily came from Europe, Barbados and Bermuda. The Barbadian and Bermudan immigrants were planters who brought enslaved Africans with them, having purchased them in the West Indies. Early immigrant groups to the city included the Huguenots, Scottish, Irish, and Germans, as well as hundreds of Jews, predominately Sephardi from London and major cities of the Dutch Republic, where they had been given refuge. As late as 1830, Charleston's Jewish community was the largest and wealthiest in North America. By 1708, the majority of the colony's population were Black Africans. They had been brought to Charlestown via the Atlantic slave trade, first as indentured servants and then as slaves. In the early 1700s, Charleston's largest slave trader, Joseph Wragg, pioneered the settlement's involvement in the slave trade. Of the estimated 400,000 captive Africans transported to North America to be sold into slavery, 40% are thought to have landed at Sullivan's Island off Charlestown. Free people of color also migrated from the West Indies, being descendants of white planters and their Black consorts, and unions among the working classes. In 1767 Gadsden's Wharf was constructed at the city port on the Cooper River; it ultimately extended 840 feet and was able to accommodate six ships at a time. Many slaves were sold from here. Devoted to plantation agriculture that depended on enslaved labor, South Carolina became a slave society: it had a majority-Black population from the colonial period until after the Great Migration of the early 20th century, when many rural Blacks moved to northern and midwestern industrial cities to escape Jim Crow laws. At the foundation of the town, the principal items of commerce were pine timber and pitch for ships and tobacco. The early economy developed around the deerskin trade, in which colonists used alliances with the Cherokee and Creek peoples to secure the raw material. At the same time, Indians took each other as captives and slaves in warfare. From 1680 to 1720, approximately 40,000 native men, women, and children were sold through the port, principally to the West Indies such as (Bermuda and the Bahamas), but also to Georgia and other Southern colonies. The Lowcountry planters did not keep Indian slaves, considering them too prone to escape or revolt. They used the proceeds of their sale to purchase enslaved Black Africans for their own plantations. The slave raiding—and the European firearms it introduced—helped destabilize Spanish Florida and French Louisiana in the 1700s during the War of the Spanish Succession. But it also provoked the Yamasee War of the 1710s that nearly destroyed the colony. After that, South Carolina largely abandoned the Indian slave trade. The area's unsuitability for growing tobacco prompted the Lowcountry planters to experiment with other cash crops. The profitability of growing rice led the planters to pay premiums for slaves from the "Rice Coast" who knew its cultivation; their descendants make up the ethnic Gullah who created their own culture and language in this area. Slaves imported from the Caribbean showed the planter George Lucas's daughter Eliza how to raise and use indigo for dyeing in 1747. Throughout this period, the slaves were sold aboard the arriving ships or at ad hoc gatherings in town's taverns. Runaways and minor slave rebellions prompted the 1739 Security Act, which required all white men to carry weapons at all times (even to church on Sundays). Before it had fully taken effect, the Cato or Stono Rebellion broke out. The white community had recently been decimated by a malaria outbreak, and the rebels killed about 25 white people before being stopped by the colonial militia. As a result of their fears of rebellion, whites killed a total of 35 to 50 Black people. The planters attributed the violence to recently imported Africans and agreed to a 10-year moratorium on slave importation through Charlestown. They relied for labor upon the slave communities they already held. The 1740 Negro Act also tightened controls, requiring a ratio of one white for every ten Blacks on any plantation (which was often not achieved), and banning slaves from assembling together, growing their own food, earning money, or learning to read. Drums were banned because Africans used them for signaling; slaves were allowed to use string and other instruments. When the moratorium expired and Charlestown reopened to the slave trade in 1750, the memory of the Stono Rebellion resulted in traders avoiding buying slaves from the Congo and Angola, whose populations had a reputation for independence. By the mid-18th century, Charlestown was the hub of the Atlantic slave trade in the Southern Colonies. Even with the decade-long moratorium, its customs processed around 40% of the enslaved Africans brought to North America between 1700 and 1775, and about half up until the end of the African trade. The plantations and the economy based on them made this the wealthiest city in the Thirteen Colonies and the largest in population south of Philadelphia. In 1770, the city had 11,000 inhabitants—half slaves—and was the 4th-largest port in the colonies, after Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. The elite began to use their wealth to encourage cultural and social development. America's first theater building was constructed here in 1736; it was later replaced by today's Dock Street Theater. StMichael's was erected in 1753. Benevolent societies were formed by the Huguenots, free people of color, Germans, and Jews. The Library Society was established in 1748 by well-born young men who wanted to share the financial cost to keep up with the scientific and philosophical issues of the day. American Revolution (1776–1783) Delegates for the Continental Congress were elected in 1774, and South Carolina declared its independence from Britain on the steps of the Exchange. Slavery was again an important factor in the city's role during the Revolutionary War. The British attacked the settlement three times, assuming that the settlement had a large base of Loyalists who would rally to their cause once given some military support. The loyalty of white Southerners towards the Crown had largely been forfeited, however, by British legal cases (such as the 1772 Somersett case which marked the prohibition of slavery in England and Wales; a significant milestone in the abolitionist struggle) and military tactics (such as Dunmore's Proclamation in 1775) that promised the emancipation of slaves owned by Patriot planters; these efforts did, however, unsurprisingly win the allegiance of thousands of Black Loyalists. The Battle of Sullivan's Island saw the British fail to capture a partially constructed palmetto palisade from Col. Moultrie's militia regiment on June 28, 1776. The Liberty Flag used by Moultrie's men formed the basis of the later South Carolina flag, and the victory's anniversary continues to be commemorated as Carolina Day. Making the capture of Charlestown their chief priority, the British sent Sir Henry Clinton, who laid siege to Charleston on April 1, 1780, with about 14,000 troops and 90 ships. Bombardment began on March 11, 1780. The Patriots, led by Benjamin Lincoln, had about 5,500 men and inadequate fortifications to repel the forces against them. After the British cut his supply lines and lines of retreat at the battles of Monck's Corner and Lenud's Ferry, Lincoln's surrender on May 12, 1780 became the greatest American defeat of the war. The British continued to hold Charlestown for over a year following their defeat at Yorktown in 1781, although they alienated local planters by refusing to restore full civil government. Nathanael Greene had entered the state after Cornwallis's pyrrhic victory at Guilford Courthouse and kept the area under a kind of siege. British Army officer Alexander Leslie, commanding Charlestown, requested a truce in March 1782 to purchase food for his garrison and the town's inhabitants. Greene refused and formed a brigade under Mordecai Gist to counter British forays. Charlestown was finally evacuated by the British in December 1782. Greene presented the British leaders of the town with the Moultrie Flag. Antebellum era (1783–1861) Between the Revolutionary War and the Civil War, Charleston experienced an economic boom, at least for the top strata of society. The expansion of cotton as a cash crop in the South both led to huge wealth for a small segment of society and funded impressive architecture and culture but also escalated the importance of slaves and led to greater and greater restrictions on Black Charlestonians. Although Columbia had replaced it as the state capital in 1788, Charleston became even more prosperous as Eli Whitney's 1793 invention of the cotton gin sped the processing of the crop over 50 times. Britain's Industrial Revolution—initially built upon its textile industry—took up the extra production ravenously and cotton became Charleston's major export commodity in the 19th century. The Bank of South Carolina, the second-oldest building in the nation to be constructed as a bank, was established in 1798; branches of the First and Second Bank of the United States were also located in Charleston in 1800 and 1817. Throughout the Antebellum Period, Charleston continued to be the only major American city with a majority-slave population. The city widespread use of slaves as workers was a frequent subject of writers and visitors: a merchant from Liverpool noted in 1834 that "almost all the working population are Negroes, all the servants, the carmen & porters, all the people who see at the stalls in Market, and most of the Journeymen in trades". American traders had been prohibited from equipping the Atlantic slave trade in 1794 and all importation of slaves was banned in 1808, but American merchantmen frequently refused to permit British inspection for enslaved cargo, and smuggling remained common. Much more important was the domestic slave trade, which boomed as the Deep South was developed in new cotton plantations. As a result of the trade, there was a forced migration of more than one million slaves from the Upper South to the Lower South in the antebellum years. During the early 19th century, the first dedicated slave markets were founded in Charleston, mostly near Chalmers and State streets. Many domestic slavers used Charleston as a port in what was called the coastwise trade, traveling to such ports as Mobile and New Orleans. Slave ownership was the primary marker of class and even the town's freedmen and free people of color typically kept slaves if they had the wealth to do so. Visitors commonly remarked on the sheer number of Blacks in Charleston and their seeming freedom of movement, though in fact—mindful of the Stono Rebellion and the slave revolution that established Haiti—the whites closely regulated the behavior of both slaves and free people of color. Wages and hiring practices were fixed, identifying badges were sometimes required, and even work songs were sometimes censored. Punishment was handled out of sight by the city's workhouse, whose fees provided the municipal government with thousands a year. In 1820, a state law mandated that each act of manumission (freeing a slave) required legislative approval, effectively halting the practice. The effects of slavery were pronounced on white society as well. The high cost of 19th-century slaves and their high rate of return combined to institute an oligarchic society controlled by about ninety interrelated families, where 4% of the free population controlled half of the wealth, and the lower half of the free population—unable to compete with owned or rented slaves—held no wealth at all. The white middle class was minimal: Charlestonians generally disparaged hard work as the lot of slaves. All the slaveholders taken together held 82% of the city's wealth and almost all non-slaveholders were poor. Olmsted considered their civic elections "entirely contests of money and personal influence" and the oligarchs dominated civic planning: the lack of public parks and amenities was noted, as was the abundance of private gardens in the wealthy's walled estates. In the 1810s, the town's churches intensified their discrimination against their Black parishioners, culminating in Bethel Methodist's 1817 construction of a hearse house over its Black burial ground. 4,376 Black Methodists joined Morris Brown in establishing Hampstead Church, the African Methodist Episcopal church now known as Mother Emanuel. State and city laws prohibited Black literacy, limited Black worship to daylight hours, and required a majority of any church's parishioners be white. In June 1818, 140 Black church members at Hampstead Church were arrested and eight of its leaders given fines and ten lashes; police raided the church again in 1820 and pressured it in 1821. In 1822, members of the church, led by Denmark Vesey, a lay preacher and carpenter who had bought his freedom after winning a lottery, planned an uprising and escape to Haiti—initially for Bastille Day—that failed when one slave revealed the plot to his master. Over the next month, the city's intendant (mayor) James Hamilton Jr. organized a militia for regular patrols, initiated a secret and extrajudicial tribunal to investigate, and hanged 35 and exiled 35 or 37 slaves to Spanish Cuba for their involvement. Hamilton imposed more restrictions on both free and enslaved Blacks: South Carolina required free Black sailors to be imprisoned while their ships were in Charleston Harbor though international treaties eventually required the United States to quash the practice; free Blacks were banned from returning to the state if they left for any reason; slaves were given a 9:15 pm curfew; the city razed Hampstead Church to the ground and erected a new arsenal. This structure later was the basis of the Citadel's first campus. The AME congregation built a new church but in 1834 the city banned it and all Black worship services, following Nat Turner's 1831 rebellion in Virginia. The estimated 10% of slaves who came to America as Muslims never had a separate mosque. Slaveholders sometimes provided them with beef rations in place of pork in recognition of religious traditions. The registered tonnage of Charleston shipping in 1829 was 12,410. In 1832, South Carolina passed an ordinance of nullification, a procedure by which a state could, in effect, repeal a federal law; it was directed against the most recent tariff acts. Soon, federal soldiers were dispensed to Charleston's forts, and five United States Coast Guard cutters were detached to Charleston Harbor "to take possession of any vessel arriving from a foreign port, and defend her against any attempt to dispossess the Customs Officers of her custody until all the requirements of law have been complied with." This federal action became known as the Charleston incident. The state's politicians worked on a compromise law in Washington to gradually reduce the tariffs. Charleston's embrace of classical architecture began after a devastating fire leveled much of the city. On April 27, 1838, Charleston suffered a catastrophic fire that burned more than 1000 buildings and caused about $3 million in damage at the time. The damaged buildings amounted to about one-fourth of all the businesses in the main part of the city. When the many homes and business were rebuilt or repaired, a great cultural awakening occurred. Previous to the fire, only a few homes were styled as Greek Revival; many residents decided to construct new buildings in that style after the conflagration. This tradition continued and made Charleston one of the foremost places to view Greek Revival architecture. The Gothic Revival also made a significant appearance in the construction of many churches after the fire that exhibited picturesque forms and reminders of devout European religion. By 1840, the Market Hall and Sheds, where fresh meat and produce were brought daily, became a hub of commercial activity. The slave trade also depended on the port of Charleston, where ships could be unloaded and the slaves bought and sold. The legal importation of African slaves had ended in 1808, although smuggling was significant. However, the domestic trade was booming. More than one million slaves were transported from the Upper South to the Deep South in the antebellum years, as cotton plantations were widely developed through what became known as the Black Belt. Many slaves were transported in the coastwise slave trade, with slave ships stopping at ports such as Charleston. Civil War (1861–1865) Charleston played a major part in the Civil War. As a pivotal city, both the Union and Confederate Armies vied for power. The war ended mere months after the Union forces took control of Charleston. Not only did the Civil War end not long after Charleston's surrender, but the Civil War began there. Following the election of Abraham Lincoln, the South Carolina General Assembly voted on December 20, 1860, to secede from the Union. South Carolina was the first state to secede. On December 27, Castle Pinckney was surrendered by its garrison to the state militia and, on January 9, 1861, Citadel cadets opened fire on the USSStar of the West as it entered Charleston Harbor. The first full battle of the American Civil War occurred on April 12, 1861, when shore batteries under the command of General Beauregard opened fire on the held Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. After a 34-hour bombardment, Major Robert Anderson surrendered the fort. On December 11, 1861, an enormous fire burned over of the city. Union control of the sea permitted the repeated bombardment of the city, causing vast damage. Although Admiral Du Pont's naval assault on the town's forts in April 1863 failed, the Union navy's blockade shut down most commercial traffic. Over the course of the war, some blockade runners got through but not a single one made it into or out of the Charleston Harbor between August 1863 and March 1864. The early submarine H.L. Hunley made a night attack on the on February 17, 1864. General Gillmore's land assault in July 1864 was unsuccessful but the fall of Columbia and advance of General William T. Sherman's army through the state prompted the Confederates to evacuate the town on February 17, 1865, burning the public buildings, cotton warehouses, and other sources of supply before their departure. Union troops moved into the city within the month. The War Department recovered what federal property remained and also confiscated the campus of the Citadel Military Academy and used it as a federal garrison for the next 17 years. The facilities were finally returned to the state and reopened as a military college in 1882 under the direction of Lawrence E. Marichak. Postbellum (1865–1945) Reconstruction After the defeat of the Confederacy, federal forces remained in Charleston during Reconstruction. The war had shattered the city's prosperity, but the African-American population surged (from 17,000 in 1860 to over 27,000 in 1880) as freedmen moved from the countryside to the major city. Blacks quickly left the Southern Baptist Church and resumed open meetings of the African Methodist Episcopal and AME Zion churches. They purchased dogs, guns, liquor, and better clothes—all previously banned—and ceased yielding the sidewalks to whites. Despite the efforts of the state legislature to halt manumissions, Charleston had already had a large class of free people of color as well. At the onset of the war, the city had 3,785 free people of color, many of mixed race, making up about 18% of the city's black population and 8% of its total population. Many were educated and practiced skilled crafts; they quickly became leaders of South Carolina's Republican Party and its legislators. Men who had been free people of color before the war comprised 26% of those elected to state and federal office in South Carolina from 1868 to 1876. By the late 1870s, industry was bringing the city and its inhabitants back to a renewed vitality; new jobs attracted new residents. As the city's commerce improved, residents worked to restore or create community institutions. In 1865, the Avery Normal Institute was established by the American Missionary Association as the first free secondary school for Charleston's African American population. Gen. Sherman lent his support to the conversion of the United States Arsenal into the Porter Military Academy, an educational facility for former soldiers and boys left orphaned or destitute by the war. Porter Military Academy later joined with Gaud School and is now a university-preparatory school, Porter-Gaud School. In 1875, blacks made up 57% of the city's and 73% of the county's population. With leadership by members of the antebellum free black community, historian Melinda Meeks Hennessy described the community as "unique" in being able to defend themselves without provoking "massive white retaliation", as occurred in numerous other areas during Reconstruction. In the 1876 election cycle, two major riots between black Republicans and white Democrats occurred in the city, in September and the day after the election in November, as well as a violent incident in Cainhoy at an October joint discussion meeting. Violent incidents occurred throughout the Piedmont of the state as white insurgents struggled to maintain white supremacy in the face of social changes after the war and granting of citizenship to freedmen by federal constitutional amendments. After former Confederates were allowed to vote again, election campaigns from 1872 on were marked by violent intimidation of blacks and Republicans by conservative Democratic paramilitary groups, known as the Red Shirts. Violent incidents took place in Charleston on King Street on September 6 and in nearby Cainhoy on October 15, both in association with political meetings before the 1876 election. The Cainhoy incident was the only one statewide in which more whites were killed than blacks. The Red Shirts were instrumental in suppressing the black Republican vote in some areas in 1876 and narrowly electing Wade Hampton as governor, and taking back control of the state legislature. Another riot occurred in Charleston the day after the election, when a prominent Republican leader was mistakenly reported killed. Politics In the early 20th century strong political machines emerged in the city reflecting economic, class, racial, and ethnic tensions. The factions nearly all opposed U.S. Senator Ben Tillman who repeatedly attacked and ridiculed the city in the name of upstate poor farmers. Well organized factions within the Democratic Party in Charleston gave the voters clear choices and played a large role in state politics. 1886 earthquake On August 31, 1886, Charleston was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. The shock was estimated to have a moment magnitude of 7.0 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). It was felt as far away as Boston to the north, Chicago and Milwaukee to the northwest, as far west as New Orleans, as far south as Cuba, and as far east as Bermuda. It damaged 2,000 buildings in Charleston and caused $6 million worth of damage ($ million in dollars), at a time when all the city's buildings were valued around $24 million ($ million in dollars). Charleston race riots The Charleston race riot of 1919 took place on the night of Saturday, May 10, between members of the US Navy and the local black population. They attacked black individuals, businesses, and homes killing six and injuring dozens. Contemporary era (1945–present) Charleston languished economically for several decades in the 20th century, though the large federal military presence in the region helped to shore up the city's economy. Charleston's tourism boom began in earnest following the publication of Albert Simons and Samuel Lapham's Architecture of Charleston in the 1920s. The Charleston Hospital Strike of 1969, in which mostly black workers protested discrimination and low wages, was one of the last major events of the civil rights movement. It attracted Ralph Abernathy, Coretta Scott King, Andrew Young, and other prominent figures to march with the local leader, Mary Moultrie. Joseph P. Riley Jr. was elected mayor in the 1970s, and helped advance several cultural aspects of the city. Between 1989 and 1996, Charleston saw two significant economic hits. First, the eye of Hurricane Hugo came ashore at Charleston Harbor in 1989, and though the worst damage was in nearby McClellanville, three-quarters of the homes in Charleston's historic district sustained damage of varying degrees. The hurricane caused over $2.8 billion in damage. The city was able to rebound fairly quickly after the hurricane and has grown in population, reaching an estimated 124,593 residents in 2009. Second, in 1993, the Base Realignment and Closure Commission (BRAC) directed that Naval Base Charleston be closed. Pursuant to BRAC action, Naval Base Charleston was closed on April 1, 1996, although some activities remain under the cognizance of Naval Support Activity Charleston, now part of Joint Base Charleston. After having been a majority-minority city for most of its history, in the late 20th century many whites began returning to the urban core of Charleston and the area gentrified with rising prices and rents. From 1980 to 2010, the peninsula's population shifted from two-thirds black to two-thirds white; in 2010 residents numbered 20,668 whites to 10,455 blacks. Many African Americans moved to the less-expensive suburbs in these decades. On June 17, 2015, 21-year-old white supremacist Dylann Roof entered the historic Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church and sat in on part of a Bible study before shooting and killing nine people, all African Americans. Senior pastor Clementa Pinckney, who also served as a state senator, was among those killed during the attack. The deceased also included congregation members Susie Jackson, 87; Rev. Daniel Simmons Sr., 74; Ethel Lance, 70; Myra Thompson, 59; Cynthia Hurd, 54; Rev. Depayne Middleton-Doctor, 49; Rev. Sharonda Coleman-Singleton, 45; and Tywanza Sanders, 26. The attack garnered national attention, and sparked a debate on historical racism, Confederate symbolism in Southern states, and gun violence, in part based on Roof's online postings. A memorial service on the campus of the College of Charleston was attended by President Barack Obama, Michelle Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, Jill Biden, and Speaker of the House John Boehner. Condemnation of role in the slave trade On June 17, 2018, the Charleston City Council apologized for its role in the slave trade and condemned its "inhumane" history. It also acknowledged wrongs committed against African Americans by slavery and Jim Crow laws. Demographics 2020 census As of the 2020 United States census, there were 150,227 people, 58,902 households, and 31,780 families residing in the city. 2010 census In 2010, the racial makeup of Charleston was 70.2% White, 25.4% African American, 1.6% Asian, and 1.5% of two or more races; in addition, 2.9% of the population was Hispanic or Latino, of any race. Language Given Charleston's high concentration of African Americans who spoke the Gullah language, a creole language that developed on the Sea Islands and in the Low Country, the local speech patterns were also influenced by this community. Today, Gullah is still spoken by many African American residents. However, rapid development since 1980, especially on the surrounding Sea Islands, has attracted residents from outside the area and led to a decline in Gullah's prominence. The traditional educated Charleston accent has long been noted in the state and throughout the South. It is typically heard in wealthy European American older people who trace their families back generations in the city. It has ingliding or monophthongal long mid-vowels, raises ay and aw in certain environments, and is nonrhotic. Sylvester Primer of the College of Charleston wrote about aspects of the local dialect in his late 19th-century works: "Charleston Provincialisms" (1887) and "The Huguenot Element in Charleston's Provincialisms", published in a German journal. He believed the accent was based on the English as it was spoken by the earliest settlers, therefore derived from Elizabethan England and preserved with modifications by Charleston speakers. The disappearing "Charleston accent" spoken mainly by older natives is still noted in the local pronunciation of the city's name. Many Charleston natives ignore the 'r' and elongate the first vowel, pronouncing the name as "Chalston". Religion Charleston is known as "The Holy City". Despite beliefs that the term dates to the city's earliest days and refers to its religiously tolerant culture, the term was coined in the 20th century, likely as a mockery of Charlestonians' self-satisfied attitude about their city. Regardless of the nickname's origination, residents have embraced the term and explained it in more flattering terms. The Anglican church was dominant in the colonial era, and the Cathedral of St. Luke and St. Paul is today the seat of the Anglican Diocese of South Carolina. Many French Huguenot refugees settled in Charleston in the early 18th century. The Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church is the oldest African Methodist Episcopal church in the Southern United States and houses the oldest black congregation south of Baltimore, Maryland. South Carolina has long allowed Jews to practice their faith without restriction. Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim, founded in 1749 by Sephardic Jews from London, is the fourth-oldest Jewish congregation in the continental United States and was an important site for the development of Reform Judaism. Brith Sholom Beth Israel is the oldest Orthodox synagogue in the South, founded by Sam Berlin and other Ashkenazi German and Central European Jews in the mid-19th century. The city's oldest Roman Catholic parish, Saint Mary of the Annunciation Roman Catholic Church, is the mother church of Roman Catholicism in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. In 1820, Charleston was established as the see city of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston, which at the time comprised the Carolinas and Georgia, and presently encompasses the state of South Carolina. The Supreme Council of the Scottish Rite, established in Charleston in 1801, is considered the mother council of the world by Scottish Rite Freemasons. Culture Charleston's culture blends traditional Southern U.S., English, French, and West African elements. The downtown peninsula has a number of art, music, local cuisine, and fashion venues. Spoleto Festival USA, held annually in late spring, was founded in 1977 by Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Gian Carlo Menotti, who sought to establish a counterpart to the Festival dei Due Mondi (the Festival of Two Worlds) in Spoleto, Italy. Charleston's oldest community theater group, the Footlight Players, has provided theatrical productions since 1931. A variety of performing arts venues includes the historic Dock Street Theatre. The annual Charleston Fashion Week held each spring in Marion Square brings in designers, journalists, and clients from across the nation. Charleston is known for its local seafood, which plays a key role in the city's renowned cuisine, comprising staple dishes such as gumbo, she-crab soup, fried oysters, Lowcountry boil, deviled crab cakes, red rice, and shrimp and grits. Rice is the staple in many dishes, reflecting the rice culture of the Low Country. The cuisine in Charleston is also strongly influenced by British and French elements. Annual cultural events and fairs Charleston annually hosts Spoleto Festival USA founded by Gian Carlo Menotti, a 17-day art festival featuring over 100 performances by individual artists in a variety of disciplines. The Spoleto Festival is internationally recognized as America's premier performing arts festival. The annual Piccolo Spoleto festival takes place at the same time and features local performers and artists, with hundreds of performances throughout the city. Other festivals and events include Historic Charleston Foundation's Festival of Houses and Gardens and Charleston Antiques Show, the Taste of Charleston, The Lowcountry Oyster Festival, the Cooper River Bridge Run, The Charleston Marathon, Southeastern Wildlife Exposition (SEWE), Charleston Food and Wine Festival, Charleston Fashion Week, the MOJA Arts Festival, and the Holiday Festival of Lights (at James Island County Park), and the Charleston International Film Festival. The Charleston Conference is a major library industry event, held in the city center since 1980. Music The Gullah community has had a tremendous influence on music in Charleston, especially when it comes to the early development of jazz music. In turn, the music of Charleston has had an influence on that of the rest of the country. The geechee dances that accompanied the music of the dock workers in Charleston followed a rhythm that inspired Eubie Blake's "Charleston Rag" and later James P. Johnson's "Charleston", as well as the dance craze that defined a nation in the 1920s. "Ballin' the Jack", which was a popular dance in the years before "Charleston", was written by native Charlestonian Chris Smith. The Jenkins Orphanage was established in 1891 by the Rev. Daniel J. Jenkins in Charleston. The orphanage accepted donations of musical instruments and Rev. Jenkins hired local Charleston musicians and Avery Institute Graduates to tutor the boys in music. As a result, Charleston musicians became proficient on a variety of instruments and were able to read music expertly. These traits set Jenkins musicians apart and helped land some of them positions in big bands with Duke Ellington and Count Basie. William "Cat" Anderson, Jabbo Smith, and Freddie Green are but a few of the alumni who became professional musicians. Orphanages around the country began to develop brass bands in the wake of the Jenkins Orphanage Band's success. As many as five bands were on tour during the 1920s. The Jenkins Orphanage Band played in the inaugural parades of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Taft and toured the US and Europe. The band also played on Broadway for the play "Porgy" by DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, a stage version of their novel of the same title. The story was based in Charleston and featured the Gullah community. The Heywards insisted on hiring the real Jenkins Orphanage Band to portray themselves on stage. Only a few years later, DuBose Heyward collaborated with George and Ira Gershwin to turn his novel into the now famous opera, Porgy and Bess (so named so as to distinguish it from the play). George Gershwin and Heyward spent the summer of 1934 at Folly Beach outside of Charleston writing this "folk opera", as Gershwin called it. Porgy and Bess is considered the Great American Opera and is widely performed. To this day, Charleston is home to many musicians in all genres. Live theater Charleston has a vibrant theater scene and is home to America's first theater. In 2010, Charleston was listed as one of the country's top 10 cities for theater, and one of the top two in the South. Most of the theaters are part of the League of Charleston Theatres, better known as Theatre Charleston. Some of the city's theaters include: The Dock Street Theatre, opened in the 1930s on the site of America's first purpose-built theater building, is home of the Charleston Stage Company, South Carolina's largest professional theater company. Sottile Theater is on the campus of The College of Charleston. Museums, historical sites, and other attractions Charleston has many historic buildings, art and historical museums, public parks, and other attractions, including: Halsey Institute of Contemporary Art at the College of Charleston is free a non-collecting contemporary arts organization. The Calhoun Mansion, a 24,000-square-foot, 1876 Victorian home at 16 Meeting Street, is named for a grandson of John C. Calhoun who lived there with his wife, the builder's daughter. The private house is periodically open for tours. The Charleston Museum, America's first museum, was founded in 1773. The Exchange and Provost was built in 1767. It is operated as a museum by the Daughters of the American Revolution. The Powder Magazine is a 1713 gunpowder magazine and museum. It is the oldest surviving public building in South Carolina. The Gibbes Museum of Art, opened in 1905, houses principally American works with a Charleston or Southern connection. The Fireproof Building houses the South Carolina Historical Society which has a rotating series of historical displays. The Nathaniel Russell House is an important federal-style house open to the public as a house museum. The Gov. William Aiken House, also known as the Aiken-Rhett House, is a house museum built in 1820. The Heyward-Washington House is a historic house museum owned and operated by the Charleston Museum. Furnished for the late 18th century, the house includes a collection of Charleston-made furniture. The Joseph Manigault House is a historic house museum owned and operated by the Charleston Museum. The house was designed by Gabriel Manigault and is significant for its Adam style architecture. The Market Hall and Sheds, also known as the City Market or simply the Market, stretch several blocks behind 188 Meeting Street. Market Hall was built in the 1841 and houses the Daughters of the Confederacy Museum. The sheds house some permanent stores, but are mainly occupied by open-air vendors. The Avery Research Center for African American History and Culture was established to collect, preserve, and make public the unique historical and cultural heritage of African Americans in Charleston and the South Carolina Low Country. Avery's archival collections, museum exhibitions, and public programming reflect these diverse populations, as well as the wider African Diaspora. Fort Sumter, site of the first shots fired in the Civil War, is located in Charleston Harbor. The National Park Service maintains a visitor center for Fort Sumter at Liberty Square (near the South Carolina Aquarium), and boat tours including the fort depart nearby. The Battery is an historic defensive seawall and promenade located at the tip of the peninsula along with White Point Garden, a park featuring several memorials and Civil War-era artillery pieces. Rainbow Row is an iconic strip of homes along the harbor that date back to the mid-18th century. Though the homes are not open to the public, they are one of the most photographed attractions in the city and are featured heavily in local art. The South Carolina Aquarium includes revolving exhibits while its permanent focus is on the aquatic life of South Carolina. Waterfront Park located on the Cooper River. Old Slave Mart museum – Located at 6 Chalmers St in the historic district is the first African American Museum. It has operated since 1938. Sports Charleston is home to a number of professional, minor league, and amateur sports teams: The Charleston Battery, a professional soccer team, play in the USL Championship. The Battery play at Patriots Point Soccer Complex. The South Carolina Stingrays, a professional hockey team, plays in the ECHL. The Stingrays play in North Charleston at the North Charleston Coliseum. The Stingrays are an affiliate of the Washington Capitals and Hershey Bears. The Charleston RiverDogs, a Minor League Baseball team, plays in the Low-A East and are an affiliate of the Tampa Bay Rays. The RiverDogs play at Joseph P. Riley Jr. Park. The Charleston Outlaws RFC is a rugby union club in the Palmetto Rugby Union, USA Rugby South, and USA Rugby. It competes in Men's Division II against the Cape Fear, Columbia, Greenville, and Charlotte "B" clubs. The club also hosts a rugby sevens tournament during Memorial Day weekend. The Charleston Gaelic Athletic Association is a Gaelic athletic club focusing on the sports of hurling and Gaelic football. The club competes in the Southeastern Division of the North American County Board of the GAA. The club hosts other division clubs in the Holy City Cup each spring. The Lowcountry Highrollers is a women's flat-track roller derby league in the Charleston area. The league is a local member of the Women's Flat Track Derby Association. The Family Circle Tennis Center hosts the Volvo Car Open, a major Women's Tennis Association Event. The facility is located on Daniel Island. Other notable sports venues in Charleston include Johnson Hagood Stadium (home of The Citadel Bulldogs football team), McAlister Field House (home of The Citadel Bulldogs basketball team), and Toronto Dominion Bank Arena at the College of Charleston, which seats 5,100 people who view the school's basketball and volleyball teams. Books and films Various books and films have been set in Charleston; some of the best known works are listed below. In addition, Charleston is a popular filming location for movies and television, both in its own right and as a stand-in for Southern and/or historic settings. Porgy (1925), by DuBose Heyward, adapted into the play in 1927. George Gershwin's folk opera Porgy and Bess (1935), based on the novel Porgy, is set in Charleston and was partially written at Folly Beach, near Charleston. A film version was released in 1959. North and South series of books by John Jakes, was partially set in Charleston. The North and South miniseries was partially set and filmed in Charleston. Part of the 1989 film Glory, starring Matthew Broderick, Denzel Washington, and Morgan Freeman, features the 1863 Second Battle of Fort Wagner on Morris Island. The movies Swamp Thing (1982) and The Lords of Discipline (1983) (based on the novel by Pat Conroy) were partly filmed in Charleston. Economy Charleston is a popular tourist destination and a notable art destination, named a top-25 arts destination by AmericanStyle magazine. It has been named "America's Most Friendly [City]" by Travel + Leisure in 2011, 2013, and 2014 by Condé Nast Traveler, and also "the most polite and hospitable city in America" by Southern Living magazine. In 2016, Charleston was ranked the "World's Best City" by Travel + Leisure. Commercial shipping is important to the economy. The city has two shipping terminals, of a total of five terminals owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority in the Charleston metropolitan area, which are part of the fourth-largest container seaport on the East Coast and the seventh-largest container seaport in the United States. The port is also used to transfer cars and car parts for Charleston's auto manufacturing business, such as Mercedes and Volvo. Charleston is becoming a popular location for information technology jobs and corporations, and this sector has had the highest rate of growth between 2011 and 2012, due in large part to the Charleston Digital Corridor. In 2013, the Milken Institute ranked the Charleston region as the ninth-best performing economy in the US because of its growing IT sector. Notable companies include Blackbaud, Greystar Real Estate Partners, Evening Post Industries, Le Creuset, SPARC a Booz Allen Hamilton subsidiary, BoomTown, CSS, and Benefitfocus. In June 2017, the mean sales price for a home in Charleston was $351,186 and the median price was $260,000. Government Charleston has a strong mayor-council government, with the mayor acting as the chief administrator and the executive officer of the municipality. The mayor also presides over city council meetings and has a vote, the same as other council members. The current mayor, since 2016, is John Tecklenburg The council has 12 members who are each elected from single-member districts. Fire department The City of Charleston Fire Department consists over 300 full-time firefighters. These firefighters operate out of 21 companies located throughout the city: 16 engine companies, two tower companies, two ladder companies, a heavy rescue company, a HAZ-MAT unit and several special units. Training, Fire Marshall, Operations, and Administration are the divisions of the department. The department operates on a 24/48 schedule and is a Class 1 ISO rating. Russell (Rusty) Thomas served as Fire Chief until June 2008, and was succeeded by Chief Thomas Carr in November 2008. The department is presently led by Chief Daniel Curia. Police department The City of Charleston Police Department, with a total of 458 sworn officers, 117 civilians, and 27 reserve police officers, is South Carolina's largest police department. Their procedures on cracking down on drug use and gang violence in the city are used as models to other cities to do the same. Luther Reynolds serves as the current Chief of Police. He follows Greg Mullen and Reuben Greenberg. Chief Reynolds is credited with continuing successful community outreach programs such as The Illumination Project and fostering a culture of mutual respect. Under Chief Reynolds, the agency has successfully withstood challenges such as the Coronavirus and downtown disturbances. Additionally, the agency continues to recruit police candidates in a competitive market. EMS and medical centers Emergency medical services (EMS) for the city are provided by Charleston County Emergency Medical Services (CCEMS) & Berkeley County Emergency Medical Services (BCEMS). The city is served by the EMS and 911 services of both Charleston and Berkeley counties since the city is part of both counties. Charleston is the primary medical center for the eastern portion of the state. The city has several major hospitals located in the downtown area: Medical University of South Carolina Medical Center (MUSC), Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, and Roper Hospital. MUSC is the state's first school of medicine, the largest medical university in the state, and the sixth-oldest continually operating school of medicine in the United States. The downtown medical district is experiencing rapid growth of biotechnology and medical research industries coupled with substantial expansions of all the major hospitals. Additionally, more expansions are planned or underway at another major hospital located in the West Ashley portion of the city: Bon Secours-St Francis Xavier Hospital. The Trident Regional Medical Center located in the City of North Charleston and East Cooper Regional Medical Center located in Mount Pleasant also serve the needs of residents of the city of Charleston. Coast Guard Station Charleston Coast Guard Station Charleston responds to search and rescue emergencies, conducts maritime law enforcement activities, and Ports, Waterways, and Coastal Security (PWCS) missions. Personnel from Station Charleston are highly trained professionals, composed of federal law enforcement officers, boat crewmen, and coxswains who are capable of completing a wide range of missions. Coast Guard Sector Charleston (District 7) Coast Guard Station Charleston Coast Guard Helicopter Air Facility, Johns Island, Charleston Coast Guard Reserves, Charleston USCGC Yellowfin, Marine Protector-class coastal patrol boat, Charleston USCGC Anvil, 75-foot inland construction tender, Charleston USCGC Willow, (WLB-202), Charleston Military Army Corps of Engineers, Charleston District Headquarters Crime The following table shows Charleston's crime rate for six crimes that Morgan Quitno uses to calculate the ranking of "America's most dangerous cities", in comparison to the national average. The statistics shown are for the number of crimes committed per 100,000 people. Since 1999, the overall crime rate of Charleston has declined markedly. The total crime index rate for Charleston in 1999 was 597.1 crimes committed per 100,000 people, while in 2011, the total crime index rate was 236.4 per 100,000. The national average is 320.9 per 100,000. Transportation Airport and rail The City of Charleston is served by the Charleston International Airport. It is located in the City of North Charleston and is about northwest of downtown Charleston. It is the busiest passenger airport in South Carolina . The airport shares runways with the adjacent Charleston Air Force Base. Charleston Executive Airport is a smaller airport located in the John's Island section of the city of Charleston and is used by noncommercial aircraft. Both airports are owned and operated by the Charleston County Aviation Authority. As of April 2019, British Airways does seasonal non-stop flights from Charleston to London-Heathrow. Charleston is served by two daily Amtrak trains: The Palmetto and Silver Meteor at the Amtrak station located at 4565 Gaynor Avenue in the City of North Charleston located around 7.5 miles from downtown Charleston. Interstates and highways Interstate 26 (I-26) begins in downtown Charleston, with exits to the Septima Clark Expressway, the Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge and Meeting Street. Heading northwest, it connects the city to North Charleston, the Charleston International Airport, I-95, and Columbia. The Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge and Septima Clark Expressway are part of U.S. Route 17 (US 17), which travels east–west through the cities of Charleston and Mount Pleasant. The Mark Clark Expressway, or I-526, is the bypass around the city and begins and ends at US 17. US 52 is Meeting Street and its spur is East Bay Street, which becomes Morrison Drive after leaving the east side. This highway merges with King Street in the city's Neck area (industrial district). US 78 is King Street in the downtown area, eventually merging with Meeting Street. Major highways Interstate 26 (eastern terminus is in Charleston) Interstate 526 U.S. Route 17 U.S. Route 52 (eastern terminus is in Charleston) U.S. Route 78 (eastern terminus is in Charleston) State Highway 7 (Sam Rittenberg Boulevard) State Highway 30 (James Island Expressway) State Highway 61 (St. Andrews Boulevard/Ashley River Road) State Highway 171 (Old Towne Road/Folly Road) State Highway 461 (Paul Cantrell Boulevard/Glenn McConnell Parkway) South Carolina Highway 700 (Maybank Highway) Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge The Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge across the Cooper River opened on July 16, 2005, and was the longest cable-stayed bridge in the Americas at the time of its construction. The bridge links downtown Charleston with Mount Pleasant, and has eight lanes plus a 12-foot lane shared by pedestrians and bicycles. The height of the bridge varies, but it is estimated that it has a height of 573 feet. It replaced the Grace Memorial Bridge (built in 1929) and the Silas N. Pearman Bridge (built in 1966). They were considered two of the more dangerous bridges in America and were demolished after the Ravenel Bridge opened. City bus service The city is also served by a bus system, operated by the Charleston Area Regional Transportation Authority (CARTA). Most of the urban area is served by regional fixed route buses, which are equipped with bike racks as part of the system's Rack and Ride program. CARTA offers connectivity to historic downtown attractions and accommodations with the Downtown Area Shuttle trolley buses, and it offers curbside pickup for disabled passengers with its Tel-A-Ride buses. A bus rapid transit system is in development, called Lowcountry Rapid Transit that will connect Charleston to Summerville through North Charleston. Rural parts of the city and metropolitan area are served by a different bus system, operated by Berkeley-Charleston-Dorchester Rural Transportation Management Association. The system is also commonly called the TriCounty Link. Port The Port of Charleston, owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority, is one of the largest ports in the United States, ranked seventh in the top 25 by containerized cargo volume in 2018. It consists of six terminals, with the sixth having opened in April 2021. Despite occasional labor disputes, the port is ranked number one in customer satisfaction across North America by supply chain executives. Port activity at the two terminals located in the city of Charleston is one of the city's leading sources of revenue, behind tourism. Today, the Port of Charleston boasts the deepest water in the southeast region and regularly handles ships too big to transit through the Panama Canal. A harbor-deepening project is currently underway to take the Port of Charleston's entrance channel to 54 feet and harbor channel to 52 feet at mean low tide. With an average high tide of 6 feet, the depth clearances will become 60 feet and 58 feet, respectively. Part of Union Pier Treminal, in the city of Charleston, is a cruise ship passenger terminal which hosted numerous cruise departures annually through 2019. Beginning in May 2019, until cruise operations were interrupted in April 2020, the Carnival Sunshine was permanently stationed in Charleston, offering 4, 5, and 7-day cruises to the Caribbean. With the closure of the Naval Base and the Charleston Naval Shipyard in 1996, Detyens, Inc. signed a long-term lease. With three dry docks, one floating dock, and six piers, Detyens Shipyard, Inc. is one of the largest commercial marine repair facilities on the East Coast. Projects include military, commercial, and cruise ships. Schools, colleges, and universities Because most of the city of Charleston is located in Charleston County, it is served by the Charleston County School District. Part of the city, however, is served by the Berkeley County School District in northern portions of the city, such as the Cainhoy Industrial District, Cainhoy Historical District and Daniel Island. Charleston is also served by a large number of independent schools, including Porter-Gaud School (K-12), Charleston Collegiate School (K-12), Ashley Hall (Pre K-12), Charleston Day School (K-8), First Baptist Church School (K-12), Palmetto Christian Academy (K-12), Coastal Christian Preparatory School (K-12), Mason Preparatory School (K-8), and Addlestone Hebrew Academy (K-8). The Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston Office of Education also operates out of the city and oversees several K-8 parochial schools, such as Blessed Sacrament School, Christ Our King School, Charleston Catholic School, Nativity School, and Divine Redeemer School, all of which are "feeder" schools into Bishop England High School, a diocesan high school within the city. Bishop England, Porter-Gaud School, and Ashley Hall are the city's oldest and most prominent private schools, and are a significant part of Charleston history, dating back some 150 years. Public institutions of higher education in Charleston include the College of Charleston, The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, and the Medical University of South Carolina. The city is also home to private schools including the Charleston School of Law. Charleston is also home to the Roper Hospital School of Practical Nursing, and the city has a downtown satellite campus for the region's technical school, Trident Technical College. Charleston has the only college in the country that offers bachelor's degrees in the building arts, The American College of the Building Arts. Media Broadcast television Charleston is the nation's 89th-largest Designated market area (DMA), with 332,770 households and 0.27% of the U.S. TV population. These stations are licensed in Charleston and have significant operations or viewers in the city: WCBD-TV (2, NBC) and (14, CW) WGWG (4, Heroes & Icons) WCSC-TV (5, CBS, Bounce TV, Grit) WITV (7, PBS) WLCN-CD (18, CTN) WTAT-TV (24, Fox) WAZS-CD (29, Azteca America Independent) WJNI-CD (31, America One Independent) WCIV (36, MyNetworkTV, ABC, MeTV) Notable people As a population and wealth center with colleges and cultural outlets, Charleston has produced many notable people in all fields. Among the most notable historical and contemporary figures are: Stephen Colbert, comedian and host of The Late Show Wesley Donehue, political strategist, Internet consultant, CEO Shepard Fairey, graffiti artist Robert F. Furchgott, recipient of Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1998) Thomas Gibson, actor and star of Criminal Minds Fritz Hollings, former US Senator and Governor of South Carolina Lauren Hutton, model and actress, starring in American Gigolo and The Gambler (1974) Robert Jordan (James Oliver Rigney Jr.), fantasy author, notable for Wheel of Time series John Laurens, American revolutionary lieutenant colonel in the continental army Peter Manigault, wealthiest person in British North America in 1770 Denmark Vesey, revolutionary Robert Smalls, African American civil war hero, businessman, politician, and civil rights activist Joseph Wragg, a pioneer of the large-scale slave trade Richard Worley, pirate Sister cities Charleston's sister cities are: Doha, Qatar Freetown, Sierra Leone Panama City, Panama Speightstown, Barbados Spoleto, Italy The relationship with Spoleto began when Pulitzer Prize-winning Italian composer Gian Carlo Menotti selected Charleston as the city to host the American version of Spoleto's annual Festival of Two Worlds. "Looking for a city that would provide the charm of Spoleto, as well as its wealth of theaters, churches, and other performance spaces, they selected Charleston, South Carolina, as the ideal location. The historic city provided a perfect fit: intimate enough that the Festival would captivate the entire city, yet cosmopolitan enough to provide an enthusiastic audience and robust infrastructure." Sister city relation with Panama City was described as follows: Charleston is also twinned with Speightstown. The first colonists to settle in the region designed the original parts of Charlestown based on the plans of Barbados's capital city, Bridgetown. Many indigo, tobacco, and cotton planters relocated their slaves and plantation operations from Speightstown to Charleston after the sugarcane industry came to dominate agricultural production in Barbados. Notes References . Further reading General Borick, Carl P. A Gallant Defense: The Siege of Charleston, 1780. U. of South Carolina Press, 2003. 332 pp. Bull, Kinloch Jr. The Oligarchs in Colonial and Revolutionary Charleston: Lieutenant Governor William Bull II and His Family. U. of South Carolina Press, 1991. 415 pp. Clarke, Peter. A Free Church in a Free Society. The Ecclesiology of John England, Bishop of Charleston, 1820–1842, a Nineteenth Century Missionary Bishop in the Southern United States. Charleston, South Carolina: Bagpipe, 1982. 561 pp. Coker, P. C., III. Charleston's Maritime Heritage, 1670–1865: An Illustrated History. Charleston, South Carolina: Coker-Craft, 1987. 314 pp. Doyle, Don H. New Men, New Cities, New South: Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860–1910. U. of North Carolina Press, 1990. 369 pp. Fraser, Walter J. Jr. Charleston! Charleston! The History of a Southern City. U. of South Carolina, 1990. 542 pp. the standard scholarly history Gillespie, Joanna Bowen. The Life and Times of Martha Laurens Ramsay, 1759–1811. U. of South Carolina Press, 2001. Goloboy, Jennifer L. Charleston and the Emergence of Middle-Class Culture in the Revolutionary Era. Athens, GA; University of Georgia Press, 2016. Hagy, James William. This Happy Land: The Jews of Colonial and Antebellum Charleston. U. of Alabama Press, 1993. Hart, Emma. Building Charleston: Town and Society in the Eighteenth Century British Atlantic World (University of Virginia Press, 2010, University of South Carolina Press 2015) Jaher, Frederic Cople. The Urban Establishment: Upper Strata in Boston, New York, Charleston, Chicago, and Los Angeles. U. of Illinois Press, 1982. 777 pp. Pease, William H. and Pease, Jane H. The Web of Progress: Private Values and Public Styles in Boston and Charleston, 1828–1843. Oxford U. Press, 1985. 352 pp. Pease, Jane H. and Pease, William H. A Family of Women: The Carolina Petigrus in Peace and War. U. of North Carolina Press, 1999. 328 pp. Pease, Jane H. and Pease, William H. Ladies, Women, and Wenches: Choice and Constraint in Antebellum Charleston and Boston. U. of North Carolina Press, 1990. 218 pp. Phelps, W. Chris. The Bombardment of Charleston, 1863–1865. Gretna, La.: Pelican, 2002. 175 pp. Rosen, Robert N. Confederate Charleston: An Illustrated History of the City and the People during the Civil War. U. of South Carolina Press, 1994. 181 pp. Rosen, Robert. A Short History of Charleston. University of South Carolina Press, (1997). , scholarly survey Spence, E. Lee. Spence's Guide to South Carolina: diving, 639 shipwrecks (1520–1813), saltwater sport fishing, recreational shrimping, crabbing, oystering, clamming, saltwater aquarium, 136 campgrounds, 281 boat landings (Nelson Southern Printing, Sullivan's Island, South Carolina: Spence, ©1976) OCLC: 2846435 Spence, E. Lee. Treasures of the Confederate Coast: the "real Rhett Butler" & Other Revelations (Narwhal Press, Charleston/Miami, ©1995) , Art, architecture, city planning, literature, science Cothran, James R. Gardens of Historic Charleston. U. of South Carolina Press, 1995. 177 pp. Greene, Harlan. Mr. Skylark: John Bennett and the Charleston Renaissance. U. of Georgia Press, 2001. 372 pp. Hutchisson, James M. and Greene, Harlan, ed. Renaissance in Charleston: Art and Life in the Carolina Low Country, 1900–1940. U. of Georgia Press, 2003. 259 pp. Hutchisson, James M. DuBose Heyward: A Charleston Gentleman and the World of Porgy and Bess. U. Press of Mississippi, 2000. 225 pp. . McNeil, Jim. Charleston's Navy Yard: A Picture History. Charleston, South Carolina: Coker Craft, 1985. 217 pp. O'Brien, Michael and Moltke-Hansen, David, ed. Intellectual Life in Antebellum Charleston. U. of Tennessee Press, 1986. 468 pp. Poston, Jonathan H. The Buildings of Charleston: A Guide to the City's Architecture. U. of South Carolina Press, 1997. 717 pp. Stephens, Lester D. Science, Race, and Religion in the American South: John Bachman and the Charleston Circle of Naturalists, 1815–1895. U. of North Carolina Press, 2000. 338 pp. . Yuhl, Stephanie E. A Golden Haze of Memory: The Making of Historic Charleston. U. of North Carolina Press, 2005. 285 pp. Zola, Gary Phillip. Isaac Harby of Charleston, 1788–1828: Jewish Reformer and Intellectual. U. of Alabama Press, 1994. 284 pp. Susan Harbage Page and Juan Logan. "Prop Master at Charleston's Gibbes Museum of Art", Southern Spaces, September 21, 2009. Nelson, Emily The Locket, 2010, 207 pp. The Angel Oak tree at Johns Island near Charleston is featured prominently in the book, The Locket by Emily Nelson. Wilson, Thomas D. The Ashley Cooper Plan: The Founding of Carolina and the Origins of Southern Political Culture. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2016. Race Bellows, Barbara L. Benevolence among Slaveholders: Assisting the Poor in Charleston, 1670–1860. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State U. Press, 1993. Drago, Edmund L. Initiative, Paternalism, and Race Relations: Charleston's Avery Normal Institute. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1990. Egerton, Douglas R. He Shall Go Out Free: The Lives of Denmark Vesey. Madison House, 1999. Greene, Harlan; Hutchins, Harry S. Jr.; and Hutchins, Brian E. Slave Badges and the Slave-Hire System in Charleston, South Carolina, 1783–1865. McFarland, 2004. 194 pp. Jenkins, Wilbert L. Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1998. 256 pp. Johnson, Michael P. and Roark, James L. No Chariot Let Down: Charleston's Free People of Color on the Eve of the Civil War. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1984. Kennedy, Cynthia M. Braided Relations, Entwined Lives: The Women of Charleston's Urban Slave Society. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2005. Powers, Bernard E. Jr. Black Charlestonians: A Social History, 1822–1885. U. of Arkansas Press, 1994. Strickland, Jeff. Unequal Freedoms: Ethnicity, Race, and White Supremacy in Civil War-Era Charleston. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2015. Wilson, Thomas D. The Ashley Cooper Plan: The Founding of Carolina and the Origins of Southern Political Culture. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2016. External links Charleston Tourism Guide Charleston–North Charleston–Summerville metropolitan area Cities in Berkeley County, South Carolina Cities in Charleston County, South Carolina Cities in South Carolina County seats in South Carolina Former colonial and territorial capitals in the United States South Carolina Populated coastal places in South Carolina Populated places established in 1670 Port cities and towns of the United States Atlantic coast Regions of South Carolina

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%20Am%20a%20Fugitive%20from%20a%20Chain%20Gang

I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang

I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang is a 1932 American pre-Code crime-drama film directed by Mervyn LeRoy and starring Paul Muni as a wrongfully convicted man on a chain gang who escapes to Chicago. It was released on November 10, 1932. The film received positive reviews and three Academy Award nominations. The film was written by Howard J. Green and Brown Holmes from Robert Elliott Burns's 1932 autobiography of a similar name I Am a Fugitive from a Georgia Chain Gang! originally serialized in the True Detective magazine. The true life story was later the basis for the television movie The Man Who Broke 1,000 Chains (1987) starring Val Kilmer. In 1991, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Plot American sergeant James Allen returns to civilian life after World War I. He has served with distinction, earning a medal from Allied governments for his bravery, but his war experience has made him restless. His mother and minister brother feel that he should be grateful for a tedious job as an office clerk. When he announces that he wants to enter the construction industry and improve society as an engineer, his brother reacts with outrage, but his mother regretfully accepts his ambitions. He leaves home to find work on any sort of project, but unskilled labor is plentiful and it is hard for him to find a job. Wandering across the eastern half of the country, Allen sinks slowly into poverty. In an unnamed Southern state (the events upon which the film was based took place in Georgia), Allen visits a diner with an acquaintance, who forces him at gunpoint to participate in a robbery. The police arrive and shoot and kill his friend. Allen panics and attempts to flee, but is caught immediately. Allen is tried and sentenced to prison at hard labor. He is quickly exposed to the brutal conditions of life on a chain gang. The work is agonizingly difficult and the guards are cruel and sadistically whip prisoners for poor performance. Allen makes friends among the members of the gang, most notably Bomber Wells, an older murderer and veteran of many chain gangs. The two conspire to stage a breakout. While working on a railroad, Allen receives assistance from Sebastian T. Yale, a powerfully built black prisoner who damages Allen's shackles by hammering them with Allen's ankles still inside. The next day, while on a bathroom break, Allen slips out of his chains and runs. Armed guards and bloodhounds give chase, but Allen evades them by changing clothes and hiding at the bottom of a river. He makes it to a nearby town, where he is given money for a train ticket and a room for the night by a friend of Bomber's. Allen makes his way to Chicago, where he obtains a job as a manual laborer and uses his knowledge of engineering and construction to rise to a position of importance within a construction company. Along the way, he becomes romantically involved with his landlord, Marie Woods. Allen grows to loathe Marie, but she discovers his secret and blackmails him into an unhappy marriage within which she spends extravagantly and carelessly cheats on him. Trying to forget his troubles, he attends a high society party at the invitation of his superiors and meets and falls in love with a younger woman named Helen. When he asks his wife for a divorce, she betrays him to the authorities. Allen describes the inhumane conditions of the chain gangs to the press and his plight becomes nationwide news. Many common citizens express their disgust with the chain gangs and their sympathy for a reformed man such as Allen, while editorials written by Southerners describe his continued freedom as a violation of "state's rights." The governor of Illinois refuses to release Allen to the custody of the Southern state, so its officials offer Allen a deal: return voluntarily and receive a pardon after 90 days of easy clerical labor. Allen accepts, only to find that the state's proposals were a ruse; he is sent to a chain gang, where he languishes for another year after he is denied a pardon. Reunited with Bomber, Allen decides to escape once more. The two steal a dump truck loaded with dynamite from a work site. While leaning out of his seat to taunt pursuing guards, Bomber is shot and gravely wounded. He takes some of the dynamite, lights it, and throws it at a police car, causing a small landslide. Shortly afterwards, Bomber falls from the truck and dies, causing Allen to stop the truck. Allen then uses more of the dynamite to blow up a bridge that he has just crossed, allowing him to make a close escape from the police. Allen once again makes his way north, evading a massive and relentless manhunt. Months later, he visits Helen in the shadows of a Chicago street to wish her a permanent goodbye. Tearfully, she asks, "Can't you tell me where you're going? Will you write? Do you need any money?" Allen repeatedly shakes his head as he backs away. Finally, Helen says, "But you must, Jim. How do you live?" Allen's face is barely visible in the surrounding gloom as he replies, "I steal," disappearing into the darkness. Cast Paul Muni as James Allen Glenda Farrell as Marie Helen Vinson as Helen Noel Francis as Linda Preston Foster as Pete Allen Jenkins as Barney Sykes Berton Churchill as the Judge Edward Ellis as Bomber Wells Sally Blane as Alice Louise Carter as Mrs. Allen Hale Hamilton as Rev. Allen David Landau as the Warden Jack LaRue as Ackerman (uncredited) Walter Long as Blacksmith (uncredited) Development and production The film was based on the book I Am a Fugitive from a Georgia Chain Gang! (1932) written by Robert Elliott Burns and published by Vanguard Press. The book recounts Burns' service on a chain gang while imprisoned in Georgia in the 1920s, his subsequent escape and the furor that developed. The story was first published in January 1932, serialized in True Detective mysteries magazine. Despite Jack L. Warner's and Darryl F. Zanuck's personal interest in adapting Burns's book, the Warner Bros. story department voted against it with a report that concluded: "[T]his book might make a picture if we had no censorship, but all the strong and vivid points in the story are certain to be eliminated by the present censorship board." The story editor's reasons were mostly related to the story's violence and the uproar that was sure to explode in the Deep South. In the end, Warner and Zanuck had the final say and approved the project. Roy Del Ruth, the highest-paid director at Warner Bros., was assigned to direct, but he refused the assignment. In a lengthy memo to supervising producer Hal B. Wallis, Del Ruth explained his decision: "This subject is terribly heavy and morbid...there is not one moment of relief anywhere." Del Ruth further argued that the story "lacks box-office appeal," and that offering a depressing story to the public seemed ill-timed, given the harsh reality of the Great Depression outside the walls of the local neighborhood cinema. Mervyn LeRoy, who was at that time directing 42nd Street (released in 1933), dropped out of the shooting and left the reins to Lloyd Bacon. LeRoy cast Paul Muni in the role of James Allen after seeing him in a stage production of Counsellor at Law. Muni was not impressed with LeRoy upon first meeting him in the Warner Burbank office, but Muni and LeRoy became close friends. LeRoy was present at Muni's funeral in 1967 along with Muni's agent. To prepare for the role, Muni conducted several intensive meetings with Robert E. Burns in Burbank to learn how Burns walked and talked, in essence, to catch "the smell of fear." Muni stated to Burns: "I don't want to imitate you; I want to be you." Muni set the Warner Bros. research department on a quest to procure every available book and magazine article about the penal system. He also met with several California prison guards, even one who had worked on a Southern chain gang. Muni fancied the idea of meeting with a guard or warden still working in Georgia, but Warner studio executives quickly rejected his suggestion. The final lines in the film, "But you must, Jim. How do you live? I steal" are among the most famous closing lines in American film. Director Mervyn LeRoy later claimed that the idea for James' retreat into darkness came to him when a fuse blew on the set, but in fact it had been written into the script. Box office According to Warner Bros. records, the film earned $650,000 domestically and $949,000 foreign, making it the studio's third-highest success of 1932-33 after Gold Diggers of 1933 and Forty Second Street. Impact on American society The film is among the first examples of cinema used to garner sympathy for imprisoned convicts without divulging the actual crimes of the convicts. American audiences began to question the legitimacy of the U.S. legal system, and in January 1933, the film's protagonist Robert Elliott Burns, who was still imprisoned in New Jersey, and a number of other chain gang prisoners nationwide in the U.S., were able to appeal and were released. In January 1933, Georgia chain gang warden J. Harold Hardy, who was also made into a character in the film, sued the studio for one million dollars for displaying "vicious, brutal and false attacks" against him in the film. Awards and nominations Academy Award Nominations: Best Picture Best Actor in a Leading Role – Paul Muni Best Sound Recording – Nathan Levinson National Board Review Award: 1932 – Best Picture Other Wins: 1991 – National Film Registry References Further reading External links I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang at TV Guide (1987 write-up was originally published in The Motion Picture Guide) I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang at Virtual History I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 , pages 198-200 1932 films 1932 crime drama films 1930s prison films American films American black-and-white films American crime drama films American prison drama films English-language films Films about miscarriage of justice Films about veterans Films based on non-fiction books Films directed by Mervyn LeRoy Films set in Chicago Films set in Georgia (U.S. state) Films set in the 1920s Films set in the 1930s United States National Film Registry films Warner Bros. films

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Wayne%20Gacy

John Wayne Gacy

John Wayne Gacy (March 17, 1942 – May 10, 1994) was an American serial killer and sex offender who assaulted and murdered at least 33 young men and boys. Gacy regularly performed at children's hospitals and charitable events as "Pogo the Clown" or "Patches the Clown", personas he had devised. He became known as the Killer Clown due to his public services as a clown prior to the discovery of his crimes. According to Gacy, he committed all of his murders inside his ranch house near Norridge, a village in Norwood Park Township, metropolitan Chicago, Illinois. Typically, he would lure a victim to his home, dupe him into donning handcuffs on the pretext of demonstrating a magic trick, then rape and torture his captive before killing him by either asphyxiation or strangulation with a garrote. Twenty-six victims were buried in the crawl space of his home, and three others were buried elsewhere on his property. Four were discarded in the Des Plaines River. Gacy was convicted of the sodomy of a teenage boy in Waterloo, Iowa, in 1968 and was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, but served eighteen months. He murdered his first victim in 1972, had murdered twice more by the end of 1975, and murdered at least thirty subsequent victims after his divorce from his second wife in 1976. The investigation into the disappearance of Des Plaines teenager Robert Piest led to Gacy's arrest on December 21, 1978. His conviction for thirty-three murders (by one individual) then covered the most homicides in United States legal history. Gacy was sentenced to death on March 13, 1980. On death row at Menard Correctional Center, he spent much of his time painting. He was executed by lethal injection at Stateville Correctional Center on May 10, 1994. Early life John Wayne Gacy was born in Chicago, Illinois, on March 17, 1942, the second child and only son of John Stanley Gacy (June 20, 1900 – December 25, 1969) and Marion Elaine Robison (May 4, 1908 – December 6, 1989). His father was an auto repair machinist and World War I veteran, and his mother was a homemaker. Gacy was of Polish and Danish ancestry, and his family was Catholic. His paternal grandparents (who spelled the family name as "Gatza" or "Gaca") had immigrated to the United States from Poland (then part of the German state of Prussia). Childhood Gacy was close to his mother and two sisters, but endured a difficult relationship with his father, an alcoholic who was physically abusive to his family. His father also belittled him, calling him "dumb and stupid" and comparing him unfavorably with his sisters. One of Gacy's earliest memories was of his father beating him with a leather belt for accidentally disarranging components of a car engine he had assembled. His mother tried to shield her son from his father's abuse, which only resulted in accusations that he was a "sissy" and a "mama's boy" who would "probably grow up queer". Despite this mistreatment, however, Gacy still loved his father, but felt he was "never good enough" in his father's eyes. In 1949, Gacy's father was informed that his son and another boy had been caught sexually fondling a young girl. His father whipped him with a razor strop as punishment. The same year, a family friend and contractor would sometimes molest Gacy in his truck. Gacy never told his father about this, afraid that his father would blame him. Gacy was an overweight and unathletic child. Because of a heart condition, he was told to avoid all sports at school. During the fourth grade, Gacy began to experience blackouts. He was hospitalized on occasion because of these episodes and also, in 1957, for a burst appendix. Gacy later estimated that between the ages of 14 and 18, he had spent almost a year in hospital and attributed the decline of his grades to missing school. His father suspected these episodes were an effort to gain sympathy and attention and openly accused his son of faking the condition as Gacy lay in a hospital bed. Although his mother, sisters, and few close friends never doubted his illness, Gacy's medical condition was never conclusively diagnosed. One of Gacy's friends in high school recalled several instances when his father ridiculed or beat his son without provocation. On one occasion in 1957, he witnessed Gacy's father emerging drunk from the family basement to begin belittling, then hitting his son for no apparent reason. Gacy's mother attempted to intervene as her son simply "put up his hands to defend himself". According to the friend, Gacy never struck his father back during these altercations. Career origins In 1960, at age 18, Gacy became involved in politics, working as an assistant precinct captain for a Democratic Party candidate in his neighborhood. This led to more criticism from his father, who accused his son of being a "patsy". Gacy later speculated his decision to become involved in politics was actually to seek the acceptance from others that he never received from his father. The same year Gacy's political involvement began, his father bought him a car. He kept the vehicle's title in his own name until Gacy had finished paying for it. These monthly payments took several years for him to complete. His father would confiscate the keys to the vehicle if Gacy did not do as he said. In 1962, Gacy purchased an extra set of keys after his father confiscated the original set. In response, his father removed the distributor cap, keeping the component for three days. Gacy recalled he felt "totally sick" and "drained" after this incident. Las Vegas Hours after his father replaced the distributor cap, Gacy left home and drove to Las Vegas, Nevada. He found work within the ambulance service before he was transferred to work as an attendant at Palm Mortuary. As a mortuary attendant, Gacy slept on a cot behind the embalming room. He worked there for three months, observing morticians embalming dead bodies. Gacy later confessed that one evening, while alone, he had clambered into the coffin of a deceased teenage male, embracing and caressing the body before experiencing a sense of shock. This prompted Gacy to call his mother the next day and ask whether his father would allow him to return home. His father agreed, and the same day he drove back to Chicago. Springfield On returning home, Gacy enrolled at Northwestern Business College, despite having failed to graduate from high school. He graduated in 1963 and took a management trainee position with the Nunn-Bush Shoe Company. In 1964, the shoe company transferred him to Springfield, Illinois, to work as a salesman, and eventually promoted him to manager of his department. In March of that year, he became engaged to Marlynn Myers, a co-worker. During their courtship, Gacy joined the local Jaycees and worked tirelessly for them, being named Key Man in April 1964. That same year, he had his second homosexual experience. According to Gacy, after one of his colleagues in the Springfield Jaycees plied him with drinks and invited him to spend the evening on his sofa, he agreed; the colleague then performed oral sex on him while he was drunk. By 1965, Gacy had risen to the position of vice-president of the Springfield Jaycees. The same year, he was named the third most outstanding Jaycee in the state of Illinois. Waterloo, Iowa KFC manager After a six-month courtship, Gacy and Myers married in September 1964. Marlynn's father subsequently purchased three Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) restaurants in Waterloo, Iowa. The couple moved there so Gacy could manage the restaurants, with the understanding that they would move into Marlynn's parents' former home, which had been vacated for the couple. The offer was lucrative: Gacy would receive $15,000 per year (the equivalent of about $134,550 ), plus a share of the restaurant's profits. Following the obligatory completion of a management course, Gacy relocated to Waterloo with his wife. He opened a "club" in his basement where his employees could drink alcohol and play pool. Although Gacy employed teenagers of both sexes at his restaurants, he socialized only with the young men. Gacy gave many of them alcohol before he made sexual advances; if they rebuffed him, he would claim his advances were simply jokes or a test of morals. Gacy's wife gave birth to a son in February 1966 and a daughter in March 1967. Gacy later described this period of his life as "perfect"—he had finally earned his father's approval. When Gacy's parents visited in July 1966, his father privately apologized for the physical and emotional abuse he had inflicted throughout his son's childhood and adolescence and said, "Son, I was wrong about you," as he shook Gacy's hand. Waterloo Jaycees In Waterloo, Gacy joined the local Jaycees chapter, regularly offering extended hours to the organization in addition to the 12- and 14-hour days he worked managing the three KFC restaurants. At meetings, Gacy often provided fried chicken and insisted on being called "Colonel". He and other Waterloo Jaycees were also deeply involved in wife swapping, prostitution, pornography, and drug use. Although Gacy was considered ambitious and something of a braggart, the other Jaycees held him in high regard for his fundraising work, and in 1967 named him "outstanding vice-president" of the Waterloo Jaycees. The same year, Gacy served on the board of directors. Assault of Donald Voorhees In August 1967, Gacy sexually assaulted 15-year-old Donald Voorhees, the son of a fellow Jaycee. Gacy lured Voorhees to his house upon the promise of showing him heterosexual stag films regularly played at Jaycee events. Gacy plied Voorhees with alcohol, allowed him to watch a stag movie, then persuaded him to engage in mutual oral sex, adding, "You have to have sex with a man before you start having sex with women." Over the following months Gacy similarly abused several other youths, including one whom he encouraged to have sex with his own wife before blackmailing him into performing oral sex on him. Gacy tricked several teenagers into believing he was commissioned to conduct homosexual experiments in the interests of scientific research, and paid them up to $50 each. In March 1968, Voorhees reported to his father that Gacy had sexually assaulted him. Voorhees Sr. immediately informed the police, who arrested Gacy and subsequently charged him with performing oral sodomy on Voorhees and the attempted assault of 16-year-old Edward Lynch. Gacy vehemently denied the charges and demanded to take a polygraph test. The results indicated Gacy was nervous when he denied any wrongdoing in relation to both young men. Gacy publicly denied any wrongdoing and insisted the charges against him were politically motivated—Voorhees Sr. had opposed Gacy's nomination for appointment as president of the Iowa Jaycees. Several fellow Jaycees found Gacy's story credible and rallied to his support. However, on May 10, 1968, Gacy was indicted on the sodomy charge. Witness intimidation On August 30, 1968, Gacy persuaded one of his employees, 18-year-old Russell Schroeder, to physically assault Voorhees in an effort to discourage the boy from testifying against him in court. Gacy promised to pay Schroeder $300. Schroeder agreed, and in early September lured Voorhees to an isolated country park, sprayed Mace in his eyes, then beat him. Voorhees escaped and reported the assault to police, identifying Schroeder as his attacker. They arrested him the following day. While initially denying any involvement, Schroeder soon confessed to assaulting Voorhees, indicating he had done so at Gacy's request. Police arrested Gacy and laid an additional charge of hiring Schroeder to assault and intimidate Voorhees against him. On September 12, Gacy was ordered to undergo a psychiatric evaluation at the Psychiatric Hospital of the University of Iowa. Two doctors examined him over a period of seventeen days before concluding he had an antisocial personality disorder (the clinical term for sociopathy and/or psychopathy) and was unlikely to benefit from any therapy or medical treatment, and that his behavior pattern was likely to bring him into repeated conflict with society. The doctors concluded he was mentally competent to stand trial. Conviction and imprisonment On November 7, 1968, Gacy pleaded guilty to one count of sodomy in relation to Voorhees, but not guilty to the charges related to other youths. Gacy claimed Voorhees had offered himself to him and that he had acted out of curiosity. His story was not believed. Gacy was convicted of sodomy on December 3 and sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, to be served at the Anamosa State Penitentiary. That same day, Gacy's wife petitioned for divorce, requesting she be awarded the couple's home and property, sole custody of their two children, and alimony. The Court ruled in her favor, and the divorce was finalized on September 18, 1969. Gacy never saw his first wife or children again. During his incarceration in the Anamosa State Penitentiary, Gacy rapidly acquired a reputation as a model prisoner. Within months of his arrival, he had risen to the position of head cook. He also joined the inmate Jaycee chapter and increased its membership from 50 to 650 men in less than eighteen months. He is known to have secured an increase in the inmates' daily pay in the prison mess hall and to have supervised several projects to improve conditions for inmates in the prison. By the summer of 1969, Gacy had overseen the installation of a miniature golf course in the prison recreation yard. In June 1969, Gacy was denied parole. To prepare for a second scheduled parole hearing in May 1970, he completed sixteen high school courses, for which he obtained his diploma in November 1969. On Christmas Day 1969, Gacy's father died from cirrhosis of the liver. When informed of his father's death, Gacy collapsed to the floor, sobbing. His request for supervised compassionate leave to attend the funeral was denied. Return to Chicago Gacy was granted parole with twelve months' probation on June 18, 1970, after having served eighteen months of his ten-year sentence. Conditions of his probation included that Gacy relocate to Chicago to live with his mother, and that he must observe a 10:00 p.m. curfew. On his release, Gacy told friend and fellow Jaycee Clarence Lane—who picked him up from the prison and had remained steadfast in his belief of Gacy's innocence—that he would "never go back to jail" and that he intended to re-establish himself in Waterloo. However, within 24 hours of his release, Gacy had relocated to Chicago. He arrived there on June 19 and shortly thereafter obtained a job as a short-order cook in a restaurant. On February 12, 1971, Gacy was charged with sexually assaulting a teenage boy who claimed that he had lured him into his car at Chicago's Greyhound bus terminal and driven him to his home, where he had attempted to force the boy into sex. The court dismissed this complaint when the boy failed to appear. On June 22, Gacy was arrested and charged with aggravated sexual battery and reckless conduct. The arrest was in response to a complaint filed by a youth who claimed that Gacy had flashed a sheriff's badge, lured him into his car, and forced him to perform oral sex. These charges were dropped after the complainant attempted to blackmail Gacy. The Iowa Board of Parole did not learn of these incidents and eight months later, in October 1971, Gacy's parole ended. The following month, records of Gacy's previous criminal convictions were sealed. 8213 West Summerdale Avenue With financial assistance from his mother, Gacy bought a ranch house near the village of Norridge in Norwood Park Township, an unincorporated area of Cook County, itself a part of metropolitan Chicago. He resided at the address, 8213 West Summerdale Avenue, until his arrest in December 1978 and, according to Gacy, committed all his murders there. Gacy was active in his local community and helpful towards his neighbors; he willingly loaned his construction tools and plowed snow from neighborhood walks free of charge. Between 1974 and 1978, he hosted annual summer parties, each devoted to a particular theme. These events were attended by up to four hundred people, including politicians. Second marriage and divorce In August 1971, shortly after Gacy and his mother moved into the house, he became engaged to Carole Hoff, whom he had briefly dated in high school. They were married on July 1, 1972. Carole and her two young daughters from a previous marriage moved into Gacy's home soon after the couple announced their engagement. His mother moved out of the house shortly before the wedding. By 1975, Gacy had told his wife that he was bisexual. After the couple had sex on Mother's Day that year, he informed her this would be "the last time" they would ever have sex. He began spending most evenings away from home, only to return in the early hours of the morning with the excuse he had been working late. Carole observed Gacy bringing teenage boys into his garage in the early hours and also found gay pornography and men's wallets and identification inside the house. When she confronted Gacy about who these items belonged to, he informed her angrily that it was none of her business. Following a heated argument when she failed to balance a checkbook correctly in October 1975, Carole asked Gacy for a divorce. He agreed to his wife's request although, by mutual consent, she continued to live at the West Summerdale house until February 1976, when she and her daughters moved into their own apartment. One month later, on March 2, the Gacys' divorce—decreed upon the false grounds of Gacy's infidelity with women—was finalized. PDM Contractors In 1971, Gacy established a part-time construction business, PDM Contractors. The initials "PDM" were for "Painting, Decorating, and Maintenance". With the approval of his probation officer, Gacy worked evenings on his construction contracts while working as a cook during the day. Initially, he undertook minor repair work, such as sign-writing, pouring concrete and redecorating, but later expanded to include projects such as interior design, remodeling, installation, assembly and landscaping. In mid-1973, Gacy quit his job as a cook so he could commit fully to his construction business. By 1975, PDM was expanding rapidly, and Gacy was working up to sixteen hours per day. In March 1977, he became a supervisor for PE Systems, a firm specializing in the remodeling of drugstores. Between PE Systems and PDM, Gacy worked on up to four projects simultaneously and frequently traveled to other states. By 1978, PDM's annual revenue was over $200,000. Clown Through his membership in a local Moose Club, Gacy became aware of a "Jolly Joker" clown club, whose members regularly performed at fundraising events and parades in addition to voluntarily entertaining hospitalized children. In late 1975, Gacy joined the clown club and created his own clown characters "Pogo the Clown" and "Patches the Clown", devising his own makeup and costumes. He described Pogo as a "happy clown", whereas Patches was a "more serious" character. Gacy seldom earned money for his performances and later said that acting as a clown allowed him to "regress into childhood". He performed as both Pogo and Patches at numerous local parties, political functions, charitable events, and children's hospitals. Sometimes Gacy would remain in his clowning garb after a performance, and briefly drink at a local bar before returning home. Gacy's voluntary public service as a clown throughout the years of his murders led to him being known as the "Killer Clown". Employees Much of PDM's workforce consisted of high school students and young men. Gacy would often proposition his workers for sex, or insist on sexual favors in return for acts such as lending his vehicles, financial assistance or promotions. Gacy also claimed to own guns, once telling an employee, "Do you know how easy it would be to get one of my guns and kill you—and how easy it would be to get rid of the body?" In 1973, Gacy and a teenage employee traveled to Florida to view a property Gacy had purchased. On the first night in Florida, Gacy raped the employee in their hotel room. After returning to Chicago, this employee drove to Gacy's house and beat him in his yard. Gacy told his wife he had been attacked for refusing to pay him for poor quality painting work. In May 1975, Gacy hired 15-year-old Anthony Antonucci. Two months later, he went to Antonucci's home, knowing the youth had injured his foot in an accident the previous day. The two drank a bottle of wine, then watched a heterosexual stag film before Gacy wrestled Antonucci to the floor and cuffed his hands behind his back. One cuff was loose and Antonucci freed his arm while Gacy was out of the room. When Gacy returned, Antonucci—a high school wrestler—pounced upon him. He wrestled Gacy to the floor, obtained possession of the handcuff key, and cuffed Gacy's hands behind his back. At first, Gacy threatened Antonucci, then calmed down and promised to leave if he would remove the handcuffs. Antonucci agreed and Gacy left. Antonucci later recalled that Gacy told him: "Not only are you the only one who got out of the cuffs, you got them on me." On July 26, 1976, Gacy picked up 18-year-old David Cram as he hitchhiked on Elston Avenue. Gacy offered him a job with PDM, and he began work the same evening. On August 21, Cram moved into his house. The next day, Cram and Gacy had several drinks to celebrate his 19th birthday, with Gacy dressed as Pogo. Gacy conned Cram into donning handcuffs, his wrists cuffed in front of his body rather than behind. He swung Cram around while holding the chain linking the cuffs, then said he intended to rape him. Cram kicked Gacy in the face and freed himself from the handcuffs. A month later, Gacy appeared at Cram's bedroom door intending to rape him, saying, "Dave, you really don't know who I am. Maybe it would be good if you give me what I want." Cram resisted, straddling Gacy, who left the bedroom, stating, "You ain't no fun." Cram moved out on October 5 and left PDM, although he did periodically work for Gacy over the following two years. Shortly after Cram moved out of Gacy's house another employee, 18-year-old Michael Rossi, moved in. Rossi had worked for PDM since May 1976. He lived with Gacy until April 1977. Rossi sometimes assisted Gacy in clowning at grand openings of businesses: Gacy as Pogo and Rossi as Patches. Politics Gacy also entered local Democratic Party politics, initially offering use of his employees to clean party headquarters at no charge. He was rewarded for his community service with an appointment to serve on the Norwood Park Township street lighting committee, subsequently earning the title of precinct captain. In 1975, Gacy was appointed director of Chicago's annual Polish Constitution Day Parade, an event he would supervise until 1978. Through his work with the parade, Gacy met and was photographed with First Lady Rosalynn Carter on May 6, 1978. The event later became an embarrassment to the United States Secret Service. In the pictures, Gacy is wearing an "S" pin, indicating a person given special clearance. Murders Gacy murdered at least 33 young men and boys, and buried 26 of them in the crawl space of his house. His victims included people he knew and random individuals lured from Chicago's Greyhound Bus station, Bughouse Square, or simply off the streets with the promise of a job with PDM, an offer of drink and/or drugs, or money for sex. Some victims were grabbed by force; others conned into believing Gacy (who often carried a sheriff's badge and had spotlights on his black Oldsmobile) was a policeman. Gacy usually lured a lone victim to his house, although on more than one occasion Gacy also had what he called "doubles"—two victims killed in the same evening. Inside Gacy's home, his usual was to ply a youth with drink, drugs, or generally gain his trust. He would then produce a pair of handcuffs to "show a magic trick", sometimes as part of a clowning routine. He typically cuffed his own hands behind his back, then surreptitiously released himself with the key which he hid between his fingers. He then offered to show his intended victim how to release himself from the handcuffs. With his victim manacled and unable to free himself, Gacy then made a statement to the effect that "The trick is, you have to have the key." Gacy referred to this act of restraining his victim as the "handcuff trick". Having restrained his victim, Gacy proceeded to rape and torture his captive. He frequently began by sitting on or straddling himself above his victim's chest before forcing the victim to fellate him. Gacy then inflicted acts of torture including burning with cigars, making his captive imitate a horse as he sat on their back and pulled upon makeshift reins around their necks, and violation with foreign objects such as dildos and prescription bottles after he had sodomized his captive. To immobilize his captives' legs before engaging in acts of torture, Gacy frequently manacled their ankles to a two-by-four with handcuffs attached at each end, an act inspired by the Houston Mass Murders. He is also known to have verbally taunted many of his victims throughout their continued abuse, and to have dragged or forced several victims to crawl into his bathroom, where he partly drowned them in the bathtub before repeatedly reviving them, enabling him to continue his prolonged assault. In instances when a victim had pleaded to be killed as opposed to continuing to endure torture, Gacy would make a statement to the effect he would kill his victim when he wanted to. Gacy typically murdered his victims by placing a rope tourniquet around their neck before progressively tightening the rope with a hammer handle. He referred to this act as the "rope trick", frequently informing his captive, "This is the last trick." In at least one instance, he had read part of Psalm 23 as he tightened the rope around his victim's neck. Occasionally, the victim had convulsed for an "hour or two" before dying, although several victims died by asphyxiation from cloth gags stuffed deep into their throat. Except for his two final victims, all were murdered between 3:00 a.m. and 6:00 a.m. After death, Gacy usually stored the victims' bodies under his bed for up to 24 hours before burying his victim in the crawl space, where he periodically poured quicklime to hasten the decomposition of his victims. Some victims' bodies were taken to his garage and embalmed prior to their burial. Murder of Timothy McCoy Gacy's first known murder occurred on January 3, 1972. According to Gacy's later account, following a family party on the evening of January 2, he decided to drive to the Civic Center in the Loop to view a display of ice sculptures in the early hours of the following morning. He then lured a 16-year-old named Timothy Jack McCoy from Chicago's Greyhound Bus Terminal into his car. McCoy was traveling from Michigan to Omaha, Nebraska. Gacy took McCoy on a sightseeing tour of Chicago and then drove him to his home with the promise that he could spend the night and be driven back to the station in time to catch his bus. Prior to McCoy's identification, he was known simply as the "Greyhound Bus Boy". Gacy claimed he woke early the following morning to find McCoy standing in his bedroom doorway with a kitchen knife in his hand. He then jumped from his bed and McCoy raised both arms in a gesture of surrender, tilting the knife upwards and accidentally cutting Gacy's forearm. Gacy twisted the knife from McCoy's wrist, banged his head against the bedroom wall, kicked him against his wardrobe and walked towards him. McCoy then kicked Gacy in the stomach, doubling him over. Gacy then grabbed McCoy, shouting, "Motherfucker! I'll kill you!" He then wrestled McCoy to the floor and stabbed him repeatedly in the chest as he straddled him. As McCoy lay dying, Gacy claimed he washed the knife in his bathroom, then went to his kitchen and saw an opened carton of eggs and a slab of unsliced bacon on his kitchen table. McCoy had also set the table for two; he had walked into Gacy's room to wake him while absentmindedly carrying the kitchen knife in his hand. Gacy buried McCoy in his crawl space and later covered his grave with a layer of concrete. In an interview several years after his arrest, Gacy said that immediately after killing McCoy, he felt "totally drained", yet noted that as he stabbed McCoy and as he listened to the "gurgulations" and gasping for air that he had experienced a mind-numbing orgasm. He added: "That's when I realized that death was the ultimate thrill." Second murder Gacy said the second time he committed murder was around January 1974. This victim remains unidentified. Gacy strangled him and then placed the body in his closet before burial. He later stated that bodily fluids leaked from the victim's mouth and nose, staining his carpet. As a result, Gacy regularly stuffed cloth rags, the victim's own underwear, or a sock into the mouths of subsequent victims to prevent such a leakage from occurring. Murder of John Butkovich On July 31, 1975, John Butkovich, an 18-year-old PDM employee from Lombard, disappeared. Butkovich's car was found parked near the corner of Sheridan and Lawrence with his jacket and wallet inside and the keys still in the ignition. The day before his disappearance, Butkovich had confronted Gacy over two weeks' outstanding back pay. Butkovich's father, a Yugoslav immigrant, called Gacy, who claimed he was happy to help search for his son but was sorry Butkovich had "run away". When questioned by police, Gacy said Butkovich and two friends had arrived at his house demanding the overdue pay, but they had reached a compromise and all three had left. Over the following three years, Butkovich's parents called police more than 100 times, urging them to investigate Gacy further. Gacy later admitted to encountering Butkovich exiting his car at the corner of West Lawrence Avenue, waving to attract his attention. According to Gacy, Butkovich approached his car, stating, "I wanna talk to you." Gacy invited Butkovich into his car, then invited him back to his home, ostensibly to settle the issue of his overdue wages. At his home, Gacy offered Butkovich a drink, then conned him into allowing his wrists to be cuffed behind his back. Gacy later confessed to having "sat on the kid's chest for a while" before he strangled him. He stowed Butkovich's body in his garage, intending to bury the body later in the crawl space. When his wife and stepdaughters returned home earlier than expected, Gacy buried Butkovich's body under the concrete floor of the toolroom extension of his garage in an empty space where he had initially intended to dig a drain tile. Cruising years In addition to being the year his business expanded, Gacy freely admitted 1975 was also when he began to increase the frequency of his excursions for sex with young males. He often referred to these jaunts as "cruising". Gacy committed most of his murders between 1976 and 1978, as he largely lived alone following his divorce. He later referred to these as his "cruising years". Although Gacy remained gregarious and civic-minded, several neighbors noticed erratic changes in his behavior after his 1976 divorce. This included seeing him keeping company with young males, hearing his car arrive or depart in the early hours of the morning, or seeing lights in his home switch on and off in the early hours. One neighbor later recollected that, for several years, the sounds of muffled high-pitched screaming, shouting, and crying had repeatedly awakened her and her son in the early morning hours. She identified the sounds as emanating from a house adjacent to theirs on West Summerdale Avenue. 1976 One month after his divorce was finalized, Gacy abducted and murdered 18-year-old Darrell Samson. He was last seen alive in Chicago on April 6, 1976. Gacy buried him under the dining room, with a section of cloth lodged in his throat. Five weeks later, on the afternoon of May 14, 15-year-old Randall Reffett disappeared shortly after returning to his Uptown home from a dental appointment. He was last seen by his grandmother later that afternoon. Hours after Reffett was last seen by his family, 14-year-old Samuel Stapleton vanished as he walked home from his sister's apartment. He and Reffett were close acquaintances; both were buried together in the crawl space, and investigators believe the two were murdered the same evening. On June 3, Gacy killed a 17-year-old Lakeview teenager named Michael Bonnin. He disappeared while traveling from Chicago to Waukegan. Gacy strangled Bonnin with a ligature and buried him under the spare bedroom. Ten days later, Gacy murdered a 16-year-old Uptown youth named William Carroll and buried him in a common grave in the crawl space. Carroll seems to have been the first of four victims known to have been murdered between June 13 and August 6, 1976. Three were between 16 and 17 years old, and one unidentified murder victim appears to have been an adult. On August 5, a 16-year-old Minnesota youth named James Haakenson is last known to have phoned his family, possibly from Gacy's home. Haakenson died of suffocation. His body was buried in the crawl space beneath the body of a 17-year-old Bensenville youth named Rick Johnston, who was last seen alive on August 6. Gacy is thought to have murdered two further unidentified males between August and October 1976. On October 24, Gacy abducted and killed teenage friends Kenneth Parker and Michael Marino: the two were last seen outside a restaurant on Clark Street in Chicago. Two days later, a 19-year-old construction worker, William Bundy, disappeared after informing his family he was to attend a party. Bundy died of suffocation. Gacy buried the body beneath his master bedroom. He had apparently worked for Gacy. Between November and December 1976, Gacy murdered a 21-year-old named Francis Alexander. His last contact with his family was a phone call to his mother made sometime in November. Alexander was buried in the crawl space directly beneath the room Gacy used as his office. In December 1976, another PDM employee, 17-year-old Gregory Godzik, disappeared. His girlfriend last saw him outside her house after he had driven her home following a date. Godzik had worked for PDM for only three weeks before he disappeared. He had informed his family that Gacy had had him "dig trenches for some kind of (drain) tiles" in his crawl space. Godzik's car was later found abandoned in Niles. His parents and older sister, Eugenia, contacted Gacy about Godzik's disappearance. Gacy claimed that he had run away from home, having indicated before that he wished to do so. Gacy also claimed to have received an answering machine message from Godzik shortly after he had disappeared. When asked if he could play back the message to Godzik's parents, Gacy said he had erased it. 1977 On January 20, 1977, Gacy lured 19-year-old John Szyc to his house on the pretext of buying his Plymouth Satellite. He later confessed to strangling Szyc in his spare bedroom, claiming Rossi was asleep in the house the following morning. Gacy later sold the car to Rossi for $300. Two months later, on March 15, a 20-year-old Michigan native named Jon Prestidge disappeared. Prestidge was last seen leaving a Near North Side restaurant. He was buried in the crawl space above the body of Francis Alexander. Shortly before his disappearance, Prestidge had mentioned he had obtained work with a local contractor. Gacy murdered one additional unidentified youth and buried him in the crawl space in the spring or early summer of 1977; the exact time of this murder is unknown. On July 5, Gacy killed a 19-year-old from Crystal Lake, Matthew Bowman. Bowman's mother last saw him at a suburban train station; he had intended to travel to Harwood Heights for a scheduled court appointment regarding an unpaid parking ticket. The following month, Rossi was arrested for stealing gasoline while driving Szyc's car. The gas station attendant noted the license plate and police traced the car to Gacy's house. When questioned, Gacy told officers that Szyc had sold the car to him in February, saying he needed money to leave town. A check of the VIN confirmed the car had belonged to Szyc. The police did not pursue the matter further, although they did inform Szyc's mother that her son had sold his car. By the end of 1977, it is known Gacy had murdered six more young men between the ages of 16 and 21. The first of these victims was 18-year-old Robert Gilroy, the son of a Chicago police sergeant, last seen alive on September 15. Gilroy lived just four blocks from Gacy's house; he was murdered and buried in the crawl space. On September 12, Gacy had flown to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to supervise a remodeling project, and did not return to Chicago until September 16. Because Gacy is known to have been in another state at the time Gilroy was last seen, this is cited to support Gacy's claim of assistance from one or more accomplices in several homicides. Ten days after Gilroy was last seen, 19-year-old former U.S. Marine John Mowery disappeared after leaving his mother's house to walk to his apartment. Gacy strangled Mowery and buried his body beneath the master bedroom. On October 17, 21-year-old Minnesota native Russell Nelson disappeared; he was last seen outside a Chicago bar. Nelson was looking for contracting work. Gacy murdered him and buried him beneath the guest bedroom. Less than four weeks later, Gacy murdered a 16-year-old Kalamazoo teenager named Robert Winch and buried him in the crawl space. On November 18, 20-year-old father-of-one Tommy Boling disappeared after leaving a Chicago bar. Three weeks after the murder of Tommy Boling, on December 9, a 19-year-old U.S. Marine, David Talsma, disappeared after informing his mother he was to attend a rock concert in Hammond, Indiana. Gacy strangled Talsma with a ligature and buried him in the crawl space, close to the body of John Mowery. On December 30, Gacy abducted 19-year-old student Robert Donnelly from a Chicago bus stop at gunpoint. Gacy drove him to his home, where he raped, tortured, and repeatedly dunked Donnelly's head into a bathtub until he passed out. Gacy taunted him with statements such as, "Aren't we playing fun games tonight?" Donnelly later testified at Gacy's trial that he was in such pain that he asked Gacy to kill him. Gacy replied "I'm getting 'round to it." After several hours, Gacy drove Donnelly to his workplace and released him, warning him that if he complained to police, they would not believe him. 1978 Donnelly reported the assault, and police questioned Gacy on January 6, 1978. Gacy admitted to having had a "slave-sex" relationship with Donnelly, but insisted everything was consensual, adding that he "didn't pay the kid" the money he had promised him. The police believed him and filed no charges. The following month, Gacy killed 19-year-old William Kindred, who disappeared on February 16 after telling his fiancée, who knew Gacy, that he was to spend the evening in a bar. Kindred was the final victim Gacy buried in his crawl space. On March 21, Gacy lured 26-year-old Jeffrey Rignall into his car. Shortly after Rignall entered the car, Gacy chloroformed him and drove him to his house, where his arms and head were restrained in a pillory device affixed to the ceiling and his feet locked into another device. Gacy explained to Rignall he had complete control over him and that he intended to do whatever he wanted to him, when he wanted, and how he wanted. He then raped and tortured Rignall with various instruments including lit candles and whips and repeatedly chloroformed him into unconsciousness. Gacy then drove Rignall to Chicago's Lincoln Park, where he was dumped, unconscious but alive. Rignall managed to stagger to his girlfriend's apartment. Police were informed of the assault but did not investigate Gacy. Rignall was able to recall, through the haze of that night, the Oldsmobile, the Kennedy Expressway and particular side streets. He and two friends staked out the Cumberland exit of the Expressway and in April Rignall saw the Oldsmobile, which he and his friends followed to 8213 West Summerdale. Police obtained an arrest warrant, and Gacy was arrested on July 15. He faced trial for battery against Rignall. By 1978, the crawl space had no room for further bodies. Gacy later confessed to police that he considered stowing bodies in his attic initially, but had been worried about complications arising from "leakage". Therefore, he chose to dispose of his victims off the I-55 bridge into the Des Plaines River. Gacy stated he had thrown five bodies into this river in 1978, one of which he believed had landed on a passing barge; only four bodies were ever found. The first known victim thrown from the I-55 bridge into the Des Plaines River was 20-year-old Timothy O'Rourke. He was murdered in mid-June after leaving his Dover Street apartment to purchase cigarettes. Shortly before his disappearance, O'Rourke had told his roommate a contractor on the Northwest Side had offered him a job. On November 4, Gacy killed 19-year-old Frank Landingin. His naked body was found in the Des Plaines River in Channahon, on November 12. On November 24, a 20-year-old Elmwood Park resident, James Mazzara, disappeared after sharing Thanksgiving dinner with his family. Mazzara had informed his sister the day prior to his disappearance that he was working in the construction industry and "doing all right". He was last seen alive walking in the direction of Bughouse Square, carrying a suitcase. Murder of Robert Piest On the afternoon of December 11, 1978, Gacy visited the Nisson Pharmacy in Des Plaines, to discuss a potential remodeling deal with the store owner, Phil Torf. While he was within earshot of 15-year-old part-time employee Robert Piest, Gacy mentioned his firm often hired teenage boys at a starting wage of $5 per hour—almost double the pay Piest earned at the pharmacy. Shortly after Gacy left the pharmacy, Piest's mother arrived at the store to drive her son home so the family could celebrate her birthday together. Piest asked his mother to wait, adding that "some contractor wants to talk to me about a job". He left the store at 9:00 p.m., promising to return shortly. Piest was murdered shortly after 10:00 p.m. at Gacy's home. Gacy later stated that at his house, he asked Piest whether there was anything he "wouldn't do for the right price", to which Piest replied that he did not mind working hard. In response, Gacy stated "good money" could be earned by hustling, although Piest was dismissive. Gacy then duped Piest into donning handcuffs before saying, "I'm going to rape you, and you can't do anything about it" as Piest began weeping. He also stated that as he placed the rope around Piest's neck, the boy was "crying, scared". Gacy admitted to having received a phone call from a business acquaintance as Piest lay dying, suffocating on his bedroom floor. Investigation When Piest failed to return, his family filed a missing person report with the Des Plaines police. Torf named Gacy as the contractor Piest had most likely left the store to talk to about a job. Lieutenant Joseph Kozenczak, whose son attended Maine West High School like Piest, chose to investigate Gacy further. Having spoken with Piest's mother on the morning of December 12, Kozenczak became convinced Piest had not run away from home. A routine check of Gacy's criminal background revealed that he had an outstanding battery charge against him in Chicago and had served a prison sentence in Iowa for the sodomy of a 15-year-old boy. Kozenczak and two Des Plaines police officers visited Gacy at his home the following evening. Gacy indicated he had seen two youths working at the pharmacy and that he had asked one of them—whom he believed to be Piest—whether there were any remodeling materials behind the store. He was adamant, however, that he had not offered Piest a job, and had only returned to the pharmacy shortly after 8:00 p.m. as he had left his appointment book at the store. Gacy promised to come to the station later that evening to make a statement confirming this, indicating he was unable to do so at that moment as his uncle had just died. When questioned as to how soon he could come to the police station, he responded, "You guys are very rude. Don't you have any respect for the dead?" At 3:20 a.m., Gacy arrived at the police station covered in mud, claiming he had been involved in a car accident. On returning to the police station later that day, Gacy denied any involvement in Piest's disappearance and repeated that he had not offered him a job. When asked why he had returned to the pharmacy, Gacy reiterated that he had done so in response to a phone call from Torf informing him he had left his appointment book at the store. Detectives had already spoken with Torf, who denied calling Gacy. At the request of detectives, Gacy prepared a written statement detailing his movements on December 11. First search warrant Suspecting Gacy might be holding Piest against his will at his home, Des Plaines police obtained a warrant to search Gacy's house on December 13. This search of Gacy's property revealed several suspicious items, including several police badges and a 6mm Brevettata starter pistol inside an office drawer, and a syringe and hypodermic needle inside a cabinet in Gacy's bathroom. Investigators also found handcuffs, several books on homosexuality and pederasty with titles such as The Great White Swallow and Pretty Boys Must Die, seven pornographic films, capsules of amyl nitrite, and an dildo in Gacy's bedroom. A two-by-four with two holes drilled into each end, bottles of Valium and atropine, and several driver's licenses were found in the northwest bedroom. A blue hooded parka was found atop a tool box inside the laundry room, and underwear too small to fit Gacy was located inside a bathroom closet. In the northwest bedroom, investigators found a class of 1975 Maine West High School ring engraved with the initials J.A.S. Investigators also recovered a Nisson Pharmacy photo receipt from a trash can, alongside a section of nylon rope. Surveillance The Des Plaines police confiscated Gacy's Oldsmobile and other PDM work vehicles. Police assigned two, two-man surveillance teams to monitor Gacy on a rotational twelve-hour basis as they continued their investigation into his background and potential involvement in Piest's disappearance. These surveillance teams consisted of officers Mike Albrecht and David Hachmeister, and Ronald Robinson and Robert Schultz. The following day, investigators received a phone call from Michael Rossi, who informed the investigators of Gregory Godzik's disappearance and the fact that another PDM employee, Charles Hattula, had been found drowned in an Illinois river earlier that year. On December 15, Des Plaines investigators obtained further details of Gacy's battery charge, learning the complainant, Jeffrey Rignall, had reported that Gacy had lured him into his car, then chloroformed, raped and tortured him before dumping him, with severe chest and facial burns and rectal bleeding, in Lincoln Park the following morning. In an interview with Gacy's former wife the same day, they learned of the disappearance of John Butkovich. The same day, the Maine West High School ring was traced to a John Alan Szyc. An interview with Szyc's mother revealed that several items from her son's apartment were also missing, including a Motorola TV set. By December 16, Gacy was becoming affable with the surveillance detectives, regularly inviting them to join him for meals in restaurants and occasionally for drinks in bars or at his home. He repeatedly denied that he had anything to do with Piest's disappearance and accused the officers of harassing him because of his political connections or because of his recreational drug use. Knowing these officers were unlikely to arrest him on anything trivial, he taunted them by flouting traffic laws and succeeded in losing his pursuers more than once. That afternoon, Cram consented to a police interview, in which he described Gacy's hard-working lifestyle, and "open-minded" attitude about sex between men. Cram also revealed that, because of his poor timekeeping, Gacy had once given him a watch, explaining he got it "from a dead person". Investigators conducted a formal interview of Rossi on December 17. He informed them Gacy had sold Szyc's vehicle to him, explaining that he had bought the car from Szyc because he needed money to move to California. A further examination of Gacy's Oldsmobile was conducted on this date. In the course of examining the trunk of the car, investigators discovered a small cluster of fibers they suspected to be human hair. That evening, officers conducted a test using three trained German shepherd search dogs to determine whether Piest had been present in any of Gacy's vehicles. One dog approached Gacy's Oldsmobile and lay on the passenger seat in what the dog's handler informed investigators was a "death reaction", indicating Piest's body had been present in the vehicle. That evening, Gacy invited detectives Albrecht and Hachmeister to a restaurant for a meal. In the early hours of December 18, he invited them into another restaurant where, over breakfast, he talked of his business, his marriages and his activities as a registered clown. At one point during the conversation, Gacy remarked: "You know ... clowns can get away with murder." Civil suit By December 18, Gacy was beginning to show signs of strain from the constant surveillance: he was unshaven, looked tired, appeared anxious and was drinking heavily. That afternoon, he drove to his lawyers' office to prepare a $750,000 civil suit against the Des Plaines police, demanding that they cease their surveillance. The same day, the serial number of the Nisson Pharmacy photo receipt found in Gacy's kitchen was traced to 17-year-old Kimberly Byers, a colleague of Piest at Nisson Pharmacy. Byers admitted, when contacted in person the following day, that she had worn the jacket on December 11 to shield herself from the cold. She had placed the receipt in the parka pocket just before she gave the coat to Piest as he left the store, claiming a contractor wanted to speak with him. This statement contradicted Gacy's previous statements that he had had no contact with Robert Piest on the evening of December 11. Second search warrant The same evening, Rossi was interviewed a second time. This time he was more cooperative. He informed detectives that in the summer of 1977, at Gacy's behest, he had spread ten bags of lime in the crawl space of Gacy's house. On December 19, investigators began compiling evidence for a second search warrant for Gacy's house. The same day, Gacy's lawyers filed the civil suit against the Des Plaines police. The hearing for the suit was scheduled for December 22. That afternoon, Gacy invited the surveillance detectives inside his house again. As officer Robinson distracted Gacy with conversation, officer Schultz walked into Gacy's bedroom in an unsuccessful attempt to write down the serial number of the Motorola TV set they suspected belonged to John Szyc. While flushing Gacy's toilet, the officer noticed a smell he suspected could be that of rotting corpses emanating from a heating duct. The officers who had searched Gacy's house previously had failed to notice this, as the house had been cold. Investigators interviewed both Cram and Rossi on December 20. Rossi had agreed to be interviewed in relation to his possible links with John Szyc as well as the disappearance of Robert Piest. When questioned by Kozenczak as to where he believed Gacy had concealed Piest's body, Rossi replied Gacy may have placed the body in the crawl space, adding that he thought Szyc's car was stolen. Rossi agreed to submit to a polygraph test. He denied any involvement in Piest's disappearance, also denying any knowledge of his whereabouts. He soon refused to continue the questioning, and Rossi's "erratic and inconsistent" responses to questions while attached to the polygraph machine rendered Kozenczak "unable to render a definite opinion" as to the truthfulness of his answers. Rossi did, however, further discuss the trench digging he did in the crawl space and remarked on Gacy's insistence that he not deviate from where he was instructed to dig. Cram informed investigators of Gacy's attempts to rape him in 1976. He stated that after he and Gacy had returned to his home after the December 13 search of his property, Gacy had turned pale after seeing a clot of mud on his carpet which he suspected had come from his crawl space. Cram said Gacy had grabbed a flashlight and immediately entered the crawl space to look for evidence of digging. When asked whether he had been to the crawl space, Cram replied he had once been asked by Gacy to spread lime down there and had also dug trenches, which Gacy had explained were for drainage pipes. Cram stated these trenches were wide, long and deep—the size of graves. Confession On the evening of December 20, Gacy drove to his lawyers' office in Park Ridge to attend a scheduled meeting, ostensibly to discuss the progress of his civil suit. On his arrival Gacy appeared disheveled and immediately asked for an alcoholic drink, whereupon Sam Amirante fetched a bottle of whiskey from his car. On his return, Amirante asked Gacy what he had to discuss with them. Gacy picked up a copy of the Daily Herald from Amirante's desk, pointed to a front-page article covering the disappearance of Robert Piest and said, "This boy is dead. He's dead. He's in a river." Gacy then proceeded to give a rambling confession that ran into the early hours of the following morning. He began by informing Amirante and Stevens he had "been the judge ... jury and executioner of many, many people", and that he now wanted to be the same for himself. He said he buried most of his victims in his crawl space, and had disposed of five other bodies in the Des Plaines River. Gacy dismissed his victims as "male prostitutes", "hustlers" and "liars" to whom he gave "the rope trick", adding he sometimes awoke to find "dead, strangled kids" on his floor, with their hands cuffed behind their back. He had buried their bodies in his crawl space as he believed they were his property. As a result of the alcohol he had consumed, Gacy fell asleep midway through his confession. Amirante immediately arranged a psychiatric appointment for Gacy at 9:00 a.m. that morning. On awakening several hours later, Gacy shook his head when informed by Amirante he had confessed to killing approximately 30 people, saying, "Well, I can't think about this right now. I've got things to do." Ignoring his lawyers' advice regarding his scheduled appointment, Gacy left their office to attend to the needs of his business. Gacy later recollected his memories of his final day of freedom as being "hazy", adding he knew his arrest was inevitable and that he intended to visit his friends and say his final farewells. After leaving his lawyers' office, Gacy drove to a gas station where, in the course of filling his rental car, he handed a small bag of cannabis to the attendant, who immediately handed the bag to the surveillance officers, adding that Gacy had told him, "The end is coming (for me). These guys are going to kill me." Gacy then drove to the home of a fellow contractor and friend, Ronald Rhode. Gacy hugged Rhode before bursting into tears and saying, "I've been a bad boy. I killed thirty people, give or take a few." Gacy left Rhode and drove to Cram's home to meet with Cram and Rossi. As he drove along the expressway, the surveillance officers noted he was holding a rosary to his chin, praying while he drove. After talking with Cram and Rossi, Gacy had Cram drive him to a scheduled meeting with lawyer Leroy Stevens on the Northwest Side. As Gacy spoke with Stevens, Cram informed the surveillance officers that Gacy had told him and Rossi that he had confessed to over 30 murders with his lawyers the previous evening. Gacy then had Cram drive him to Maryhill Cemetery, where his father was buried. As Gacy drove to various locations that morning, police outlined the formal draft of their second search warrant, specifically to search for the body of Robert Piest in the crawl space. On hearing from the surveillance detectives that, in light of his erratic behavior, Gacy might be about to commit suicide, police decided to arrest him on a charge of possession and distribution of cannabis in order to hold him in custody, as the formal request for a second search warrant was presented. At 4:30 p.m. on December 21, the eve of the hearing of Gacy's civil suit, Judge Marvin J. Peters granted the request for a second search warrant. After police informed Gacy of their intentions to search his crawl space for the body of Piest, Gacy denied the teenager was buried there, but confessed to having killed in self-defense a young man whose body was buried under his garage. Armed with the signed search warrant, police and evidence technicians drove to Gacy's home. On their arrival, officers found Gacy had unplugged his sump pump, flooding the crawl space with water; to clear it, they simply replaced the plug and waited for the water to drain. After it had done so, evidence technician Daniel Genty entered the crawl space, crawled to the southwest area and began digging. Within minutes, he had uncovered putrefied flesh and a human arm bone. Genty immediately shouted to the investigators that they could charge Gacy with murder, adding, "I think this place is full of kids." A police photographer then dug in the northeast corner of the crawl space, uncovering a patella. The two then began digging in the southeast corner, uncovering two lower leg bones. The victims were too decomposed to be Piest. As the body discovered in the northeast corner was later unearthed, a crime scene technician discovered the skull of a second victim alongside this body. Later excavations of the feet of this second victim revealed a further skull beneath the body. Because of this, technicians returned to the trench where the first body was unearthed, discovering the rib cage of a fourth victim within the crawl space, confirming the scale of the murders. Arrest After being informed that the police had found human remains in his crawl space and that he would now face murder charges, Gacy told officers he wanted to "clear the air", adding he had known his arrest was inevitable since the previous evening, which he had spent on the couch in his lawyers' office. In the early morning hours of December 22, and in the presence of his lawyers, Gacy provided a formal statement in which he confessed to murdering approximately 30 young males—all of whom he claimed had entered his house willingly. Some victims were referred to by name, but Gacy claimed not to know or remember most of the names. He claimed all were teenage male runaways or male prostitutes, the majority of whom he had buried in his crawl space. Gacy claimed to have dug only five of the victims' graves in this location and had his employees (including Gregory Godzik) dig the remaining trenches so that he would "have graves available". One victim hailed from Round Lake; another had been a Michigan native. When shown a driver's license issued to a Robert Hasten which had been found on his property, Gacy claimed not to know him but admitted that this license had been in the possession of one of his victims. In January 1979, he had planned to conceal the corpses even further by covering the entire crawl space with concrete. When questioned specifically about Piest, Gacy confessed to luring him to his house and strangling him on the evening of December 11. He also admitted to having slept alongside Piest's body that evening, before disposing of the corpse in the Des Plaines River in the early hours of December 13. On his way to the police station, he had been in a minor traffic accident after disposing of Piest. His vehicle had slid off an ice-covered road and had to be towed from its location. Accompanied by police, his lawyers, and his older sister, Gacy was driven to the I-55 bridge on December 23 to pinpoint the precise spot where he confessed to having thrown the body of Robert Piest and four other victims into the Des Plaines River. Gacy was then taken to his house and instructed to mark his garage floor with orange spray paint to show where he had buried the individual he had supposedly killed in self-defense, whom he named as John Butkovich. Search for victims Crawl space To assist officers in their search for the victims buried beneath his house, during his confession, Gacy drew a rough diagram of his basement on a phone message sheet to indicate where their bodies were buried. Twenty-six bodies were unearthed from Gacy's crawl space over the next week; three more were also unearthed elsewhere on his property. Cook County medical examiner Robert Stein supervised the exhumations. Each victim unearthed from the crawl space was placed in a body bag, which was placed near the front door awaiting transportation to the mortuary. The crawl space was marked in sections and each body was given an identifying number. The first body recovered from the crawl space was assigned a marker denoting the victim as Body 1. Gacy had buried this victim in the northeast section of the crawl space directly beneath the room he used as his office. No cause of death could be determined. The body of John Butkovich was labelled as Body 2. On December 23, investigators returned to unearth the three corpses which had been buried in the same trench as Body 1. Body 3 was buried in the crawl space directly above Body 4. Alongside them, Body 5 was buried directly beneath Body 1. This victim was buried thirty-six inches below the surface of the soil, indicating he was the first decedent to be buried in this common grave. The search for victims was postponed temporarily over Christmas. Four more bodies were unearthed on December 26. Bodies number 6 and 7 were buried in the same grave. Body 7 was found in a fetal position. A cloth gag was found in the mouth, leading investigators to conclude this victim most likely died of asphyxiation. Body 8 was found with the tourniquet used to strangle him still knotted around his neck. Body 9 was found beneath a layer of concrete and was found to have several stab wounds to the ribs and sternum, suggesting he was Gacy's first victim. On December 27, eight more bodies were discovered. Body 10 was buried face upwards, parallel to the wall of the crawl space directly beneath the entrance to Gacy's home. Both Body 11 and Body 12 were found face downwards with a ligature around their necks and both were buried beside each other in the center of the crawl space, directly beneath the hallway. Body 13 was found beneath the spare bedroom; Bodies 14 and 15 were recovered from a common grave diagonal to Body 10. Both 14 and 15 were found with their head and upper torsos inside separate plastic bags. Body 16 was found close to Body 13. This victim was found with a cloth rag lodged deep in his throat, causing him to die of suffocation. The seventeenth victim was found with a ligature around his neck. The following day, four more bodies were exhumed. Body 19 was buried directly beneath Gacy's master bedroom, perpendicular to Body 18, which was located beneath the spare bedroom, and found with a ligature around the neck. Body 20 was buried in the northwest corner of the crawl space perpendicular to Body 19. By December 29, six more bodies were unearthed. Bodies 22, 23, 24, and 26 were buried in a common grave located beneath Gacy's kitchen and laundry room, with Body 25 located beneath Gacy's bathroom. Body 22 was found directly beneath Gacy's kitchen with a section of cloth-like material lodged in his throat. Two socks were recovered from the pelvic region. This victim was buried directly beneath Body 21 (recovered the previous day). The bones of victims 23 and 24 were commingled together, and a section of cloth was found inside the mouth of Bodies 24 and 26. Body 25 was found beneath Gacy's bathroom with a section of cloth lodged in the throat. The final victim recovered from the crawl space was also found beneath the bathroom, buried ten inches below the surface of the soil. This victim was found to have a section of cloth lodged deep in his throat. Operations were suspended due to the Chicago Blizzard of 1979, but resumed in March despite Gacy's insistence that all the buried victims had been found. On March 9, Body 28 was found wrapped within several plastic bags and buried beneath the patio approximately from the barbecue pit in Gacy's backyard. On March 16, Body 29 was found beneath the dining room floor. All the victims discovered at 8213 W. Summerdale were in an advanced state of decomposition. Dental records and X-ray charts helped Stein identify the remains. Twenty-three victims were identified via dental records, with two further victims identified via skeletal trauma. These identifications were also supported with personal artifacts found in Gacy's home. The head and upper torso of several bodies unearthed beneath Gacy's property had been placed into plastic bags. Several were also found with a rope still around their necks. In some cases, bodies were found with foreign objects such as prescription bottles lodged into their pelvic region, the position of which indicated the items had been thrust into the victims' anus. Stein concluded 12 victims recovered from Gacy's property died not of strangulation, but of asphyxiation. Gacy's vacant house was demolished in April 1979. Des Plaines River The victim found downstream from the I-55 bridge on June 30 was not connected initially to Gacy. In January 1979, this victim was identified using fingerprint records and a distinctive tattoo on his left biceps reading "Tim Lee" (an homage to Bruce Lee) as Timothy O'Rourke. An autopsy was unable to rule out strangulation as the cause of death. This victim was numbered 31. Following Gacy's arrest, investigators discovered he was a further victim. Frank Landingin's cause of death was certified at autopsy as suffocation through his own underwear being lodged down his throat, plugging his airway and effectively causing him to drown in his own vomit. He was assigned victim number 32. On December 28, one further body linked to Gacy was found from the I-55 bridge. This victim was identified as James Mazzara, whom Gacy confessed to having murdered shortly after Thanksgiving. Mazzara had been strangled with a ligature. On April 9, 1979, a decomposed body was discovered entangled in exposed roots on the edge of the Des Plaines River in Grundy County. The body was identified using dental records as being that of Robert Piest. A subsequent autopsy revealed that three wads of "paper-like material" had been shoved down his throat while he was still alive, causing him to suffocate. Trial Gacy was brought to trial on February 6, 1980, charged with 33 murders. He was tried in Cook County, Illinois, before Judge Louis Garippo; the jury was selected from Rockford, because of extensive press coverage in Cook County. At the request of his defense counsel, Gacy spent over three hundred hours with doctors at the Menard Correctional Center in Chester in the year before his trial. He underwent a variety of psychological tests before a panel of psychiatrists to determine whether he was mentally competent to stand trial. Gacy attempted to convince the doctors that he had multiple personality disorder. He claimed to have four personalities: the hard-working, civic-minded contractor, the clown, the active politician, and a policeman called Jack Hanley, whom he referred to as "Bad Jack". When Gacy had confessed to police, he claimed to be relaying the crimes of Jack, who detested homosexuality and who viewed male prostitutes as "weak, stupid and degraded scum". His lawyers opted to have Gacy plead not guilty by reason of insanity to the charges against him. Presenting Gacy as a Jekyll-and-Hyde character, the defense produced several psychiatric experts who had examined Gacy. Three psychiatric experts at Gacy's trial testified they found him to be a paranoid schizophrenic with multiple personalities. The prosecutors presented the case that Gacy was sane and in full control of his actions. To support this contention, they produced several witnesses to testify to the premeditation of Gacy's actions and the efforts he took to escape detection. Those doctors refuted the defense doctors' claims of multiple personalities and insanity. Cram and Rossi testified that Gacy had made them dig drainage trenches and spread bags of lime in his crawl space. Both said Gacy looked periodically into the crawl space to ensure they and other employees they supervised did not deviate from the precise locations he had marked. On February 18, Robert Stein testified that all the bodies recovered from Gacy's property were "markedly decomposed [and] putrefied, skeletalized remains", and that of all the autopsies he performed, thirteen victims had died of asphyxiation, six of ligature strangulation, one of multiple stab wounds to the chest and ten in undetermined ways. When Gacy's defense team suggested that all 33 deaths were caused by accidental erotic asphyxia, Stein called this highly improbable. Jeffrey Rignall testified on behalf of the defense on February 21. Recounting his ordeal, Rignall wept repeatedly while describing Gacy's torture of him in March 1978. Asked whether Gacy appreciated the criminality of his actions, Rignall said he believed that Gacy was unable to conform his actions to the law's expectations because of the "beastly and animalistic ways he attacked me". During specific cross-examination relating to the torture, Rignall vomited and was excused from further testimony. On February 29, Donald Voorhees, whom Gacy sexually assaulted in 1967, testified to his ordeal at Gacy's hands and his subsequent attempts to dissuade him from testifying by paying another youth to spray Mace in his face and beat him. Voorhees felt unable to testify but did briefly attempt to do so before being asked to step down. Robert Donnelly testified the week after Voorhees, recounting his ordeal at Gacy's hands in December 1977. Donnelly was visibly distressed as he recalled the abuse he endured and came close to breaking down several times. As Donnelly testified, Gacy repeatedly laughed at him, but Donnelly finished his testimony. During Donnelly's cross-examination, one of Gacy's defense attorneys, Robert Motta, attempted to discredit his testimony, but Donnelly did not waver from his testimony of what had occurred. During the fifth week of the trial, Gacy wrote a personal letter to Judge Garippo requesting a mistrial for reasons including that he did not approve of his lawyers' insanity plea; that his lawyers had not allowed him to take the witness stand (as he had wanted to do); that his defense had not called enough medical witnesses, and that the police were lying with regard to verbal statements he had allegedly made to detectives after his arrest and that, in any event, the statements were "self-serving" for use by the prosecution. Judge Garippo addressed Gacy's letter by informing him that both counsels had not been denied the opportunity or funds to summon expert witnesses to testify, and that, under the law, he had the choice whether he wished to testify, and was free to indicate as much to the judge if he wished to do so. Closing arguments On March 11, final arguments by both prosecution and defense attorneys began; they concluded the following day. Prosecuting attorney Terry Sullivan spoke first, outlining Gacy's history of abusing youths, the testimony of his efforts to avoid detection and describing his surviving victims—Voorhees and Donnelly—as "living dead". Referring to Gacy as the "worst of all murderers", Sullivan stated, "John Gacy has accounted for more human devastation than many earthly catastrophes, but one must tremble. I tremble when thinking about just how close he came to getting away with it all." After the state's four-hour closing, counsel Sam Amirante spoke for the defense. Amirante argued against the testimony delivered by the doctors who had testified for the prosecution, repeatedly citing the testimony of the four psychiatrists and psychologists who had testified on behalf of the defense. Amirante also accused Sullivan of scarcely referring to the evidence presented throughout the trial in his own closing argument, and of arousing hatred against his client. The defense lawyer attempted to portray Gacy as a "man driven by compulsions he was unable to control", contending the State had not met their burden of proving Gacy sane beyond a reasonable doubt. In support of these arguments, the defense referred to the testimony of the doctors who had appeared for the defense, in addition to defense witnesses such as Jeffrey Rignall and a former business associate of Gacy's—both of whom had testified to their belief that Gacy had been unable to control his actions. Amirante then urged the jury to put aside any prejudice they held against his client and asked they deliver a verdict of not guilty by reason of insanity, adding that Gacy was a danger to both himself and to others, and that studying his psychology and behavior would be of benefit to science. On the morning of March 12, William Kunkle continued to argue for the prosecution. Kunkle referred to the defense's contention of insanity as "a sham", arguing that the facts of the case demonstrated Gacy's ability to think logically and control his actions. Kunkle also referred to the testimony of one of the doctors who had examined Gacy in 1968 and had concluded he was an antisocial personality, capable of committing crimes without remorse and unlikely to benefit from social or psychiatric treatment, stating that had the recommendations of this doctor been heeded, Gacy would not have been freed. At the close of his argument, Kunkle removed photos of Gacy's 22 identified victims from a display board and asked the jury not to show sympathy but to "show justice". Kunkle then asked the jury to "show the same sympathy this man showed when he took these lives and put them there!" before throwing the stack of photos into the opening of the trap door from Gacy's crawl space, which had been introduced as evidence and was on display in the courtroom. After Kunkle had finished his testimony, the jury retired to consider their verdict. The jury deliberated for less than two hours and found Gacy guilty of 33 charges of murder; he was also found guilty of sexual assault and taking indecent liberties with a child; both convictions in reference to Robert Piest. At the time, his conviction for 33 murders was the most for which any person in U.S. history had been convicted. In the sentencing phase of the trial, the jury deliberated for more than two hours before sentencing Gacy to death for each murder committed after the Illinois statute on capital punishment came into effect in June 1977. His execution was set for June 2, 1980. Death row On being sentenced, Gacy was transferred to the Menard Correctional Center, where he remained incarcerated on death row for 14 years. Before his trial, Gacy initiated contact with WLS-TV journalist Russ Ewing, to whom he granted numerous interviews between 1979 and 1981. Ewing later collaborated with author Tim Cahill to publish the book Buried Dreams. The information Gacy divulged to Ewing regarding the circumstances of his first murder would prove instrumental in establishing the identity of his first victim. On February 15, 1983, Henry Brisbon, a fellow death row inmate known as the I-57 killer, stabbed Gacy in the upper arm with a sharpened wire as Gacy was participating in a voluntary work program. A second death row inmate injured in the attack, William Jones, received a superficial stab wound to the head. Both received treatment in the prison hospital for their wounds. Appeals After his incarceration, Gacy read numerous law books and filed voluminous motions and appeals, although he did not prevail in any of them. His appeals related to issues such as the validity of the first search warrant granted to the Des Plaines police on December 13, 1978, and his objection to his lawyers' insanity plea defense at his trial. Gacy also contended that, although he had "some knowledge" of five of the murders (those of McCoy, Butkovich, Godzik, Szyc and Piest), the other 28 murders had been committed by employees who had keys to his house while he was away on business trips. In mid-1984, the Supreme Court of Illinois upheld Gacy's conviction and ordered his execution by lethal injection on November 14. Gacy filed an appeal against this decision, which was denied by the Supreme Court of the United States on March 4, 1985. The following year, Gacy filed a further post-conviction petition, seeking a new trial. His then-defense lawyer, Richard Kling, argued that Gacy had been provided with ineffective legal counsel at his 1980 trial. This post-conviction petition was dismissed on September 11, 1986. Gacy appealed the 1985 decision that he be executed. The Illinois Supreme Court upheld his conviction on September 29, 1988, setting a new execution date of January 11, 1989. After the U.S. Supreme Court denied Gacy's final appeal in October 1993, the Illinois Supreme Court formally set an execution date for May 10, 1994. Execution On the morning of May 9, 1994, Gacy was transferred from the Menard Correctional Center to Stateville Correctional Center in Crest Hill, to be executed. That afternoon, he was allowed a private picnic on the prison grounds with his family. For his last meal, Gacy ordered a bucket of KFC, a dozen fried shrimp, french fries, fresh strawberries and a Diet Coke. That evening, he observed prayer with a Catholic priest before being escorted to the Stateville execution chamber to receive a lethal injection. Before the execution began, the chemicals used to effect the execution solidified unexpectedly, clogging the IV tube used to administer the chemicals into Gacy's arm, complicating the procedure. Blinds covering the window through which witnesses observed the execution were drawn. The execution team replaced the clogged tube. After ten minutes, the blinds were reopened, and the execution resumed. The entire procedure took 18 minutes. Anesthesiologists blamed the problem on the prison officials' inexperience at conducting an execution, saying that had correct execution procedures been followed, the complications would never have occurred. This error apparently led to Illinois' adopting an alternative method of lethal injection. On this subject, one prosecutor at Gacy's trial, William Kunkle, said, "He got a much easier death than any of his victims." According to published reports, Gacy was a diagnosed psychopath who did not express any remorse for his crimes. His final statement to his lawyer before his execution was that killing him would not compensate for the loss of others, and that the state was murdering him. His final spoken words were reported to be "Kiss my ass". In the hours leading up to Gacy's execution, a crowd estimated at over 1,000 gathered outside the correctional center; a vocal majority were in favor of the execution, although a small number of anti-death penalty protesters were also present. Some of those in favor of the execution wore T-shirts hearkening to Gacy's previous community services as a clown and bearing satirical slogans such as "No tears for the clown". The anti-death penalty protesters present observed a silent candlelight vigil. After Gacy's death was confirmed at 12:58 a.m. on May 10, 1994, his brain was removed. It is in the possession of Helen Morrison, a witness for the defense at Gacy's trial, who has interviewed Gacy and other serial killers in an attempt to isolate common personality traits of violent sociopaths. His body was cremated. Victims Identified victims Only 28 of Gacy's victims were conclusively identified. Of these, the youngest were Samuel Stapleton and Michael Marino, both 14; the eldest were Francis Alexander and Russell Nelson, both 21. Five victims have never been identified. The first victims to be identified were John Butkovich (Body 2), John Szyc (Body 3), and Gregory Godzik (Body 4). Dental records confirmed their identities on December 29, 1978. The thirty-third victim linked to Gacy, James Mazzara, was identified the following day. The twenty-third victim exhumed from Gacy's property was identified as Rick Johnston on January 1, 1979. Four further victims were identified on January 6, 1979. Body 18 was identified as Michael Bonnin and Body 25 as Robert Gilroy. The first victim exhumed from the crawl space was identified as Jon Prestidge, and the victim labelled Body 16 as Russell Nelson. A fishing license issued to Bonnin had been found previously in Gacy's home. Three days later, the victim recovered from the Des Plaines River on June 30, 1978, was identified as Timothy O'Rourke. On January 27, dental charts were used to identify Body 20 as John Mowery. Two days later, Body 8 was identified as Matthew Bowman. Two months later, on March 17, 1979, the twenty-second victim recovered from Gacy's property was identified using dental records as William Carroll. The following month, the identity of the seventh victim was confirmed using X-ray records as Randall Reffett, and on May 21, dental records confirmed that Body 27 was William Kindred. On September 11, 1979, Bodies 11 and 12 were identified as Robert Winch and Tommy Boling, respectively. Winch was identified via X-ray records of a distinctive healed bone fracture. A distinctive brown "tiger's eye" metal buckle with black striping belonging to Winch was also found alongside his body. Using dental records, the sixth victim exhumed from Gacy's property was identified on November 14, 1979, as Samuel Stapleton. On November 16, Body 17 was identified as David Talsma using radiology images of a healed fracture of the left scapula. Two days later, the final victim recovered from Gacy's property, Body 29, was identified as Darrell Samson. In March 1980, Bodies 14 and 15 were identified using dental records and radiology images as those of Michael Marino and Kenneth Parker. Their identities were confirmed too late to include among the victims identified before Gacy's trial. In May 1986, the ninth victim exhumed from Gacy's property was identified as Timothy Jack McCoy, Gacy's first victim. Dental records and a distinctive belt buckle assisted with his identification. Renewed efforts In October 2011, Cook County sheriff Thomas Dart announced that investigators, having obtained full DNA profiles from each of the unidentified victims, were to renew their efforts to identify them. At a press conference held to announce this, Sheriff Dart stated investigators are actively seeking DNA samples from individuals across the United States related to any male missing between 1970 and 1979. Results of tests conducted thus far have confirmed the identification of three victims, ruled out the possibility of numerous other missing youths as being victims of Gacy, and solved four unrelated cold cases dating between 1972 and 1979. In November 2011, the victim previously known as Body 19 was identified through DNA testing as William Bundy. Shortly after Gacy's arrest, Bundy's family had contacted his dentist in the hope of submitting his dental records for comparison with the unidentified bodies, but the records had been destroyed after his dentist had retired. In July 2017, 16-year-old James Haakenson, previously known as Body 24, was also identified as a victim using DNA testing. The most recent victim to be identified is 21-year-old Francis Wayne Alexander, previously known as Body 5. Alexander was identified via forensic genealogy in October 2021. He had not been reported missing by his family, who believed he had relocated from Chicago to California shortly after his final contact with his mother in November 1976. Summary Unidentified victims Five victims remain unidentified, four of whom had been buried beneath Gacy's crawl space, and one buried approximately from the barbecue pit in his backyard. In the fall of 1979, forensic expert Betty Pat Gatliff used the skulls of the remaining unidentified victims to create facial reconstructions. Based on Gacy's confession, the location of the victims buried in the crawl space, and forensic analysis, police determined the most likely dates for when his unidentified victims were killed. January 3, 1972 – July 31, 1975. Body 28. Backyard. Male aged 14–18. June 13 – August 5, 1976. Body 26. Crawl space. Male aged 23–30. August 6 – October 5, 1976. Body 13. Crawl space. Male aged 17–22. August 6 – October 24, 1976. Body 21. Crawl space. Male aged 15–24. March 15 – July 5, 1977. Body 10. Crawl space. Male aged 17–21. Gacy's likely second murder victim, Body 28, had brown hair, stood approximately () in height, and is estimated to be aged between 14 and 18. He was buried near Gacy's barbecue pit, possibly in 1975. He wore a silver ring on his left ring finger, suggesting he may have been married. Body 26 was a man with medium dark brown hair estimated to have been aged between 23 and 30 years old and approximately () in height. This man had two missing upper front teeth, leading investigators to believe he likely wore a denture. He was almost certainly murdered between June 13 and August 5, 1976. Body 13 was a man likely to have been murdered between August and October 1976. He was between and () in height. He had long, dark brown, wavy hair and was between 17 and 22 years old. This victim is known to have suffered from an abscessed tooth, and may have injured his left third rib months or years before his disappearance. While Rossi also claimed to have dug this grave in the late summer of 1977, Cram claimed that during his time living at 8213 W. Summerdale, Gacy had him dig a trench in the southwest corner of the crawl space where this victim was recovered. In 2018, an updated facial reconstruction was released to the media. Body 21 is estimated to have been aged between 15 and 24 years old and approximately () in height. He had light brown hair. This victim was buried directly above the body of William Carroll, indicating his murder had occurred on or after June 13, 1976. It is theorized Cram may not have lived with Gacy at the time of this victim's death, so a possible date for this murder is between August 6 and 20, 1976, although investigators have not discounted the possibility he may have been murdered later in 1976. Body 10 is estimated to have been aged between 17 and 21 years old and between and (). He had suffered a fractured left collarbone months or years before his disappearance. The two victims murdered on the same day in May 1976 were buried alongside him, yet sequential burial patterns of three victims murdered in 1977 leave an equal possibility he may have been murdered in the spring or summer of 1977. Statements made by Gacy following his arrest also suggest this unidentified victim may have been murdered as early as 1974. In 2018, an updated facial reconstruction was released to the media. Possible additional victims At the time of Gacy's arrest, he had claimed to both Des Plaines and Chicago investigators that the total number of murder victims could be as high as 45. However, only 33 victims were ever linked to Gacy. Investigators excavated the grounds of his property until they had exposed the substratum of clay beneath the foundations, finding 29 bodies. Gacy said that after he had assaulted and then released Jeffrey Rignall in March 1978, he began to throw his murder victims into the Des Plaines River. He confessed to having disposed of five bodies in this manner; however, only four bodies recovered from the Des Plaines River were linked to him. When asked whether there were more victims, Gacy stated, "That's for you guys to find out." Identification dispute of Michael Marino Disputed DNA and dental tests conducted between 2012 and 2016 indicate that neither body found in the common grave in Gacy's crawl space and identified as those of Kenneth Parker and Michael Marino in 1980 was actually Marino. Marino's mother had always doubted her son's identification because the clothing found on Body 14 was inconsistent with what he had worn when she last saw him. DNA testing conducted upon the exhumed body of Parker has proven that Marino's body had not been mistaken for his. In addition, the dental X-ray conducted on the victim identified as Michael Marino had revealed they had all of their second molars; a dental X-ray conducted on Marino in March 1976 revealed one molar had not erupted. The original identification of the body identified as Michael Marino has been disputed because the exhumed body had neither an upper nor lower jaw bone. Nonetheless, the orthodontist who had identified Marino's remains has stated his conviction in the accuracy of his findings, adding he had "compared 32 teeth, probably half a dozen of them had very distinct fillings and every one of them was consistent with Michael Marino". Death of Charles Hattula On May 23, 1978, 25-year-old Charles Antonio Hattula was found drowned in the Pecatonica River near Freeport, Illinois. He had been missing since May 13. Hattula was an employee of PDM and had been linked to the initial investigation of Gacy after Michael Rossi informed investigators of both Godzik's disappearance and Hattula's death. Moreover, Rossi had stated that Hattula was known to have conflicts with Gacy, and when he had "failed to show up at work", Gacy had informed him and several other employees that he had drowned. At the time of Hattula's death, no more bodies could be stored in Gacy's crawl space, which leaves a possibility he had disposed of Hattula's body in the Pecatonica River. However, Des Plaines authorities had contacted Freeport during their investigation into Gacy, and were told Hattula had fallen to his death from a bridge. Hattula's death has been officially ruled as asphyxia by drowning. West Miami Avenue Retired Chicago police officer Bill Dorsch stated he had reason to believe there might be more victims buried in the grounds of the apartment building located at the 6100 block of West Miami Avenue in Chicago—a property where Gacy is known to have been the caretaker for several years before his 1978 arrest. In 1975, Dorsch—then a Chicago police officer—observed Gacy (whom he knew on a casual basis), holding a shovel in the early hours of the morning. When Dorsch confronted him, Gacy said he was doing work that he was too busy to do during the day. Dorsch also said that several other residents of West Miami Avenue stated they had seen Gacy digging trenches in the grounds of the property in the early to mid-1970s; one of these residents also said that Gacy later placed plants in the elongated trenches he had dug. At the time these actions were observed, Gacy was still married to Carole Hoff. In March 2012, Cook County Sheriff's officials submitted a request to excavate the grounds of this property. The Cook County State's Attorney denied the request, citing a lack of probable cause as the reason, including the results of a 1998 search of the property. However, the sheriff's office noted that in 1998, a radar survey suggested 14 areas of interest within the property grounds, yet only two of these 14 anomalies had been excavated. Of the 12 remaining anomalies, four were described as being "staggeringly suggestive" of human skeletons. Moreover, Bill Dorsch had provided police with a letter from the radar company which confirmed the 1998 search of the grounds was incomplete. A second request to excavate the grounds of West Miami Avenue was submitted to the Cook County State's Attorney by Sheriff Tom Dart in October 2012. This request was granted in January 2013, and a search of the property was conducted in the spring. Both FBI sniffer dogs and ground-penetrating radar equipment were used in the second search of West Miami Avenue; however, the search yielded no human remains. Potential accomplices One of the first things Gacy told investigators after his arrest was that he had not acted alone in several of the murders: he asked whether "my associates" had been arrested. When questioned whether these associates had participated directly or indirectly in the killings, Gacy replied, "Directly". He later claimed Cram and Rossi were involved in several of the murders. Some criminal defense attorneys and investigators researching the possibility Gacy had not acted alone in several of the murders have said there is "overwhelming evidence Gacy worked with an accomplice". In the 1980s, Gacy informed FBI profiler Robert Ressler that "two or three" PDM employees had assisted in several murders. Ressler believed there were unexplained avenues to the case and that Gacy had killed more than 33 victims in multiple states. Gacy neither confirmed nor denied Ressler's suspicions. Jeffrey Rignall, who had been assaulted and tortured by Gacy in March 1978, was adamant that at one point during his abuse and torture, a young man with brown hair had knelt before him and watched his abuse. Rignall also said that he saw a light come on in another part of the house. On one occasion, three days before his arrest, during their surveillance of Gacy, two officers followed him to a bar where he met two employees—Michael Rossi and Ed Hefner. An anxious Gacy was observed walking with the two out of earshot of the surveillance officers to talk privately before returning closer to the officers. Gacy said to both young men: "You'd better not let me down, you fuckers. You owe it to me." The officers then overheard sections of a hushed conversation between Gacy and the two during which Rossi asked Gacy, "And what? Buried like the other five?" In interviews from death row, Gacy said that at the time of his arrest, three PDM employees were also considered suspects in the murders—all of whom he said were in possession of keys to his house. In addition to Cram and Rossi, Gacy named his former employee Philip Paske, who was known to have been a close associate of John Norman and an acquaintance of David Cram. In the late 1970s, Norman operated a nationwide sex trafficking ring based in Chicago known as the Delta Project. At least two victims believed to have been murdered by Gacy, Kenneth Parker and Michael Marino, are known to have last been seen alive close to where Norman lived. This led to the theory that Gacy had been connected to this trafficking ring. Later investigations Gacy claimed that he was not in Chicago when sixteen of the identified victims had disappeared. In 2012, two Chicago lawyers said travel records show that he had been in another state at the time of three of the murders, implying he was assisted by one or more accomplices. For example, Gacy had flown to Pittsburgh via Allegheny Airlines three days before the disappearance of Robert Gilroy, and returned to Chicago only the day after he disappeared. Investigators note that Robert Young, the traveling companion with whom victim Russell Nelson was visiting Chicago at the time of his October 1977 disappearance, gave differing accounts of his disappearance to Nelson's family and investigators. Young told Nelson's family he failed to arrive at a bar at a prearranged time, but had told investigators he had last seen Nelson standing in a crowd that had gathered outside a Chicago bar, and when his attention was diverted for a few moments, Nelson had simply disappeared. Investigators contend this could not have happened without Young noticing. Young is known to have filed a missing person's report with Chicago police, before unsuccessfully requesting money from Nelson's parents to finance a search for their son. When Nelson's two brothers arrived in Chicago to search for him, Young offered them a job with PDM. Young was never summoned to testify at Gacy's trial. In a third case, travel records indicate Gacy was at a scheduled job site in Michigan at 6:00 a.m. on September 26, 1977 — the day following the disappearance of 19-year-old John Mowery, who was last seen leaving his mother's house at 10:00 p.m. on September 25. Mowery's roommate was a PDM employee who formerly lived with Gacy and had moved into Mowery's apartment less than one week before Mowery's disappearance. Two witnesses have stated that this roommate had suggested to Mowery that he meet "a man who is going out of town" two days before Mowery disappeared. Notoriety Amber Alert In 1984, Sam Amirante, one of Gacy's two defense attorneys at his 1980 trial, authored procedures that were incorporated by the Illinois General Assembly into the Missing Child Recovery Act of 1984. Amirante has since said the primary inspiration for this legislation was that at the time of the Gacy murders, Illinois police had to wait 72 hours before initiating a search for a missing child or adolescent. The Illinois Missing Child Recovery Act of 1984 removed the 72-hour waiting period. Other states across America subsequently adopted similar procedures. As a result, a national network aimed at locating missing children was gradually formed. This has since developed into the Child Abduction Emergency—commonly known today as an Amber Alert. Paintings Isolated in his prison cell, Gacy began to paint. He drew inspiration from a wide range of sources for his artwork, with his paintings depicting subjects as diverse as Christ, birds, skulls, his own home, and John Dillinger. Many paintings were of clowns, including himself as Pogo or Patches. His "Hi Ho" series featured scenes of Walt Disney's versions of the Seven Dwarfs. Although Gacy was permitted to earn money from the sale of his paintings until 1985, he claimed his artwork was intended "to bring joy into people's lives". Many of Gacy's paintings have been displayed at exhibitions; others have been sold at various auctions, with individual prices ranging between $200 to $20,000. Following Gacy's execution, family members of his victims publicly burned several of his paintings. Films and documentary Film The made-for-TV film To Catch a Killer, starring Brian Dennehy as Gacy, was released in 1992. The film is based largely on the investigation of Gacy, following the disappearance of Robert Piest, by Des Plaines Police and their efforts to arrest him before the scheduled civil suit hearing on December 22. A feature film, Gacy, was released in 2003. This film cast Mark Holton in the role of Gacy and depicts his life after he moved to Norwood Park in 1971 until his arrest in 1978. The made-for-TV film Dear Mr. Gacy, released in 2010, stars William Forsythe as Gacy. The film is based upon the book The Last Victim, written by Jason Moss. The film focuses upon the correspondence between Moss and Gacy before Gacy invited Moss to visit him on death row in 1994. The horror film 8213: Gacy House was released in 2010 and is based on paranormal investigators spending a night in the house built on the former site of 8213 W. Summerdale. Documentary The Discovery Channel broadcast an episode relating to Gacy's crimes in the true crime series The New Detectives: Case Studies in Forensic Science. This documentary features an interview between Gacy and FBI profiler Robert Ressler. The Investigation Discovery channel has broadcast two documentaries about the Gacy murders. The first documentary focusing on Gacy's crimes was commissioned for the Most Evil series, a forensics program in which forensic psychiatrist Michael Stone analyzes murderers and psychopaths. The second Investigation Discovery program on Gacy is featured in the Evil Lives Here series. This program explores how Gacy's actions affected his family. Gacy's sister and niece are among those interviewed. The Biography Channel has broadcast a 45-minute documentary on the crimes of John Wayne Gacy. The television program, Psychic Investigators, broadcast an episode entitled "What Lies Below". This program focuses on the consultation between Detective Joseph Kozenczak and psychic Carol Broman, whom Kozenczak had met on December 17, 1978, to discuss the whereabouts of the body of Robert Piest. The Lifetime Movies network series Monster in My Family broadcast a 42-minute episode focusing on the murders committed by Gacy. This episode, titled "Killer Clown: John Wayne Gacy", was initially broadcast in August 2015. The episode features Karen Kuzma, Gacy's sister, and her daughter, and focuses on formative events in Gacy's life that may have initiated his later crimes. The documentary series John Wayne Gacy: Devil in Disguise. Commissioned by Peacock, the first episode of this series was broadcast in March 2021. This six-part series includes interviews with Gacy, investigators responsible for his apprehension, and Cook County Sheriff Thomas Dart. Podcast The Clown and the Candyman (2020–2021). An eight-part podcast series narrated by Jacqueline Bynon, investigating the murders committed by John Gacy, Dean Corll, their respective potential links to a nationwide sex trafficking network, and ongoing efforts to identify their victims. See also List of murderers by number of victims List of people executed in Illinois List of serial killers in the United States List of unidentified murder victims in the United States Notes References Books and journals Cited works Further reading Killer Clown: The True Story of John Wayne Gacy, by Aimee Baxter. John Wayne Gacy: Hunting a Predator, by John Borowski. Johnny and Me: The True Story of John Wayne Gacy, by Barry Boschelli. A Question of Doubt: The John Wayne Gacy Story, by John Wayne Gacy. The Chicago Killer: The Hunt for Serial Killer John Wayne Gacy, by Joseph R. and Karen M. Kozenczak. Unfinished Nightmare: The Search for More Victims of Serial Killer John Wayne Gacy, by Chris Maloney. The Last Victim: A True-Life Journey into the Mind of the Serial Killer, by Jason Moss. 29 Below, by Jeffrey Rignall and Ron Wilder. Destination Gacy: A Cross-Country Journey to Shake the Devil's Hand, by Nancy Rommelmann. External links Archived FBI files relating to John Gacy People v. John Wayne Gacy "Cook County Clerk of Court" records and archives 1993 Decision of Gacy's case by the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, rejecting his federal appeal John Wayne Gacy's Other Victims: A website detailing the ongoing investigation by Detective Bill Dorsch into the possibility Gacy had committed other murders Examples of artwork produced by Gacy 1942 births 1972 murders in the United States 1994 deaths 20th-century American criminals 20th-century executions by Illinois American clowns American male criminals American male painters American murderers of children American people convicted of murder American people convicted of sodomy American people of Danish descent American people of Polish descent American rapists American sex offenders Bisexual men Catholics from Illinois Catholics from Iowa Crimes in Chicago Criminals from Chicago Executed American serial killers Executed people from Illinois Illinois Democrats Iowa Democrats LGBT people from Illinois LGBT Roman Catholics Male serial killers Necrophiles People convicted of murder by Illinois People executed by Illinois by lethal injection People from Waterloo, Iowa People with antisocial personality disorder Torture in the United States Violence against men in North America