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64035

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Long%20Walk

The Long Walk

The Long Walk is a dystopian horror novel by American writer Stephen King, published in 1979, under the pseudonym Richard Bachman. It was collected in 1985 in the hardcover omnibus The Bachman Books, and has seen several reprints since, as both paperback and hardback. Set in a future dystopian America, ruled by a totalitarian and militaristic dictator, the plot revolves around the contestants of a grueling, annual walking contest. In 2000, the American Library Association listed The Long Walk as one of the 100 best books for teenage readers published between 1966 and 2000. While not the first of King's novels to be published, The Long Walk was the first novel he wrote, having begun it in 1966–67 during his freshman year at the University of Maine some eight years before his first published novel Carrie was released in 1974. Plot In a dystopian America, a major source of entertainment is the Long Walk, in which one hundred teenage boys walk without rest. If they fall below a pace of , they receive three warnings and are subsequently shot by a group of soldiers on an accompanying half-track. The last boy left walking receives a large sum of money and a "Prize" of their choice. Ray Garraty from Androscoggin County, Maine arrives at the start of the Walk on the Canada-Maine border, where he meets several other Walkers such as the sardonic McVries, the friendly Baker, the cocky Olson and the enigmatic Stebbins. The Major, the leader of the secret police force known as the Squads, starts the Walk. Throughout the first day, Garraty befriends Baker, Olson, and several other Walkers such as Abraham and Pearson, growing particularly close to McVries and becoming particularly intrigued by Stebbins. A Walker named Barkovitch reveals to a reporter that he's in the Long Walk to 'dance on the graves' of other participants, and later provokes another Walker into attacking him, resulting in the Walker's death and Barkovitch being ostracized. Garraty succeeds in surviving the night. Scramm, the odds-on favorite in Vegas, tells Garraty that he has a pregnant wife and so will have sufficient motivation to keep going. Garraty decides that his motivation will be surviving until Freeport as this will allow him to see his girlfriend Jan in the crowd. The Walkers begin to resent the Major, and McVries stops walking in an attempt to fight the soldiers, but is saved by Garraty. In return, McVries saves Garraty's life after Garraty experiences hysterics when the spectators increase in number. This camaraderie infuriates Olson, who is now severely fatigued and wants Garraty to die. Garraty reveals to the others that his father was Squaded, and a fight almost breaks out between McVries and another Walker, Collie Parker, when Parker claims that only 'damn fools' are Squaded. Stebbins tells Garraty both that he believes he's going to win, and that the Walkers are all participating because they want to die. McVries and Baker both seem to be examples of this, due to McVries seeking pain and Baker's fascination with death; McVries also tells Garraty that he will sit down when he can't walk any further. Stebbins also advises Garraty to watch Olson, who keeps walking despite being unresponsive. After Garraty brings Olson out of this state, Olson attacks the soldiers and is killed slowly and brutally. Scramm catches pneumonia and becomes unable to finish the Walk, and the other Walkers agree that the winner should provide financial security for Scramm's wife. Garraty asks Barkovitch to join the agreement, and Barkovitch agrees as he has become lonely and manic in his isolation from the others. Garraty also asks Stebbins, who tells Garraty that there was nothing special about Olson and that he was lying; Garraty, however, believes that Stebbins came to a realization that scared him. Scramm thanks the others and is killed in an act of defiance against the soldiers. After developing a charley horse, Garraty is given three warnings and has to walk for an hour to lose one. To distract himself, he tells McVries about how he felt a compulsion to join the Walk and that his mother was blinded by the thought of financial security. McVries reveals that he joined the Walk against the wishes of his family, and Abraham tells Garraty that he didn't withdraw after being accepted due to the amusement it provided his town. Garraty begins to suffer from doubts about his sexuality and masculinity due to suppressed memories re-emerging, especially after McVries hints that he is sexually attracted to Garraty. This causes Garraty to lash out at a deteriorating Barkovitch, and Barkovitch commits suicide when the rest of the Walkers begin taunting him. Garraty wakes the next morning to find that many Walkers (including Pearson) have died overnight, as Barkovitch predicted. When the Walkers arrive in Freeport, Garraty attempts to die in Jan's arms but is saved by McVries. As a response, Abraham convinces the Walkers to make a promise to stop helping each other, which Garraty does reluctantly. This has disastrous consequences: Parker starts a revolution against the soldiers but is killed when nobody joins in; Abraham removes his shirt and catches pneumonia overnight because nobody can offer him a replacement, resulting in his death; Baker falls over and gains a severe nosebleed, and is given three warnings as nobody can help him up. On the morning of the fifth day, Stebbins reveals to Garraty and McVries that he is the Major's son, and that his Prize would be acceptance into the Major's household. However, Stebbins has become aware that the Major is using him as a 'rabbit' to cause the Walk to last longer, which has worked, as seven Walkers make it into Massachusetts. Baker, now somewhat delirious and described as a 'raw-blood machine', tells Garraty that he can't walk any further and thanks Garraty for being his friend. Garraty unsuccessfully tries to talk him out of suicide. With Baker dead, the only remaining Walkers are Garraty, Stebbins and McVries. As Garraty tells him a fairy tale, McVries falls asleep and begins walking at the crowd, and Garraty breaks his promise and saves him; however, McVries chooses to sit down and die peacefully. A distraught Garraty is beckoned by a dark figure further ahead, and decides that he will give up because Stebbins cannot be beaten. When he tries to tell Stebbins, Stebbins clutches at him in horror and falls over dead. His corpse is shot when the Major arrives. This leaves Garraty the uncomprehending winner. He ignores the Major and approaches the dark figure (who he believes to be another Walker), declaring that there is 'still so far to walk'. Characters Raymond Davis 'Ray' Garraty (#47) The novel's main character and narrator, a sixteen-year-old boy from Pownal, Maine (for which he is called a 'hick'). He is described as tall and well built with a 'heavy shock' of 'straw-thatch' hair and a faded army fatigue jacket. Garraty is bitter, naive and thoughtful, which makes him a good confidant for the other Walkers, and felt a compulsion to join the Walk that he struggles to understand. Although he has done farmwork, he is not an experienced athlete. His hobbies include dancing, reading, knitting and constellations; conversely, he dislikes beer and cities. Peter 'Pete' McVries (#61) Garraty's closest companion, a sixteen-year-old boy from Passaic, New Jersey. He is described as 'awesomely fit' with black hair, a knapsack and a white scar across his cheek, which he received from his ex-girlfriend. McVries is sardonic and has a masochistic streak, often goading others into pushing him away even during the pains of the Walk. He saves Garraty multiple times in the game, also giving him advice. He carries a strong hatred towards Barkovitch, stating his only desire is to outlast him. Stebbins (#88) A loner who walks at the rear of the group, a seventeen-year-old boy and the illegitimate son of the Major. He is described as a 'lean Buddha' with pale blue eyes and a 'sickly halo' of blond hair, and wears an old green sweater, a blue chambray shirt, purple pants and tennis shoes (which he later swaps for moccasins). Stebbins is calm, playful and mocking, and often talks to Garraty in riddles. He is convinced that the Walk is rigged, and is scared at the prospect of it being a straight game. Arthur 'Art' Baker (#3) Another boy who is close with Garraty and McVries. He is a boy from a large, lower-class family in Louisiana (for which he is called a 'cracker'). He is described as appearing 'young and beautiful' and 'almost ethereal', as moving with 'deceptive leisure', and as wearing a red-striped shirt. Baker is sweet and sincere, but is a con artist and a former night rider, and he has a fascination with his own death. Henry 'Hank' Olson (#70) One of Garraty's earliest companions, a boy of unknown background. He is described as an experienced smoker wearing his foodbelt slung low 'like a gunslinger'. Olson is cocky and arrogant and humorous ('raring to rip'), but quickly becomes withdrawn and unresponsive, with Garraty believing that he has become a 'human Flying Dutchman'. Gary Barkovitch (#5) A boy from Washington DC. He is described as small and olive-skinned with a sharp nose and hooded eyes, and he sometimes wears a vinyl yellow rainhat; Garraty considers him to look like a 'destructive child's teddy bear'. Barkovitch is intense and adheres to a mysterious 'Plan', and threatens to 'dance on the graves' of the other Walkers, but becomes paranoid and insane when they ostracize him. He and McVries have a heated hatred towards each other throughout the walk. Abraham 'Abe' (#2) One of Garraty's companions, a seventeen-year-old boy called a 'rube'. He is described as disjointed and shambling, with reddish hair, Oxford shoes and a jacket tied around his waist. Abraham is droll and somber and short-tempered, particularly when jibes are made at his intelligence, and entered the Walk partially as a joke. Collie Parker (#71-79) A boy from Joliet, Illinois. He is described as a big-muscled blond with a polo shirt and an insolent look; Garraty further describes him as a 'leather jacket hero' and a 'Saturday night tough guy'. Parker despises Maine and uses excessive profanity, and often attempts to flirt with the spectators despite considering them to be 'pigs'. Pearson (#73-81) One of Garraty's companions. He is described as a tall boy with glasses and pants that are too big for him. Pearson is morose and enjoys poetry, game theory and chess, and views the Walk as a competition that can be solved logically. For luck, Pearson has ninety-nine pennies in his pocket, and moves one to his other pocket whenever someone dies. Scramm (#85) The predicted winner of the current Long Walk, a boy from Arizona with a pregnant wife. He is described as a shaggy young man with a crew cut, few remaining teeth, and a 'moose-like' physique. Although dim-witted, Scramm is friendly and possesses a 'simple dignity'. He has dropped out of school and works in a bedsheet factory. Adaptations In 1988, George A. Romero was approached to direct the film adaptation, but it never happened. By 2007, Frank Darabont had secured the rights to the film adaptation of the novel. He said that he would "get to it one day". He planned to make it low-budget, "weird, existential, and very self contained". Kirby Heyborne narrated an audiobook adaptation of the novel in 2010 for Blackstone Audio. In April 2018, it was announced that New Line Cinema would develop a film adaptation of the novel. Darabont's rights to the film had lapsed, and filmmaker James Vanderbilt stepped in to write and produce the film with Bradley Fischer and William Sherak of the Mythology Entertainment production company. On May 21, 2019, New Line announced that André Øvredal would direct the adaptation. See also Death march Delta Force Selection Battle Royale (novel) References External links The Long Walk at Stephen King's official site 1979 science fiction novels 1979 American novels American speculative fiction novels Psychological novels Death games in fiction Dystopian novels Novels set in Maine Novels by Richard Bachman Novels about World War II alternate histories

64719

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Gauguin

Paul Gauguin

Eugène Henri Paul Gauguin (, ; ; 7 June 1848 – 8 May 1903) was a French Post-Impressionist artist. Unappreciated until after his death, Gauguin is now recognized for his experimental use of color and Synthetist style that were distinct from Impressionism. Toward the end of his life, he spent ten years in French Polynesia. The paintings from this time depict people or landscapes from that region. His work was influential on the French avant-garde and many modern artists, such as Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse, and he is well known for his relationship with Vincent and Theo van Gogh. Gauguin's art became popular after his death, partially from the efforts of dealer Ambroise Vollard, who organized exhibitions of his work late in his career and assisted in organizing two important posthumous exhibitions in Paris. Gauguin was an important figure in the Symbolist movement as a painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramist, and writer. His expression of the inherent meaning of the subjects in his paintings, under the influence of the cloisonnist style, paved the way for Primitivism and the return to the pastoral. He was also an influential practitioner of wood engraving and woodcuts as art forms. Biography Family history and early life Gauguin was born in Paris to Clovis Gauguin and Aline Chazal on 7 June 1848, the year of revolutionary upheavals throughout Europe. His father, a 34-year-old liberal journalist from a family of entrepreneurs in Orléans, was compelled to flee France when the newspaper for which he wrote was suppressed by French authorities. Gauguin's mother was the 22-year-old daughter of André Chazal, an engraver, and Flora Tristan, an author and activist in early socialist movements. Their union ended when André assaulted his wife Flora and was sentenced to prison for attempted murder. Paul Gauguin's maternal grandmother, Flora Tristan, was the illegitimate daughter of Thérèse Laisnay and Don Mariano de Tristan Moscoso. Details of Thérèse's family background are not known; Don Mariano came from an aristocratic Spanish family from the Peruvian city of Arequipa. He was an officer of the Dragoons. Members of the wealthy Tristan Moscoso family held powerful positions in Peru. Nonetheless, Don Mariano's unexpected death plunged his mistress and daughter Flora into poverty. When Flora's marriage with André failed, she petitioned for and obtained a small monetary settlement from her father's Peruvian relatives. She sailed to Peru in hopes of enlarging her share of the Tristan Moscoso family fortune. This never materialized; but she successfully published a popular travelogue of her experiences in Peru which launched her literary career in 1838. An active supporter of early socialist societies, Gauguin's maternal grandmother helped to lay the foundations for the 1848 revolutionary movements. Placed under surveillance by French police and suffering from overwork, she died in 1844. Her grandson Paul "idolized his grandmother, and kept copies of her books with him to the end of his life". In 1850, Clovis Gauguin departed for Peru with his wife Aline and young children in hopes of continuing his journalistic career under the auspices of his wife's South American relations. He died of a heart attack en route, and Aline arrived in Peru as a widow with the 18-month-old Paul and his 2 year-old sister, Marie. Gauguin's mother was welcomed by her paternal granduncle, whose son-in-law, José Rufino Echenique, would shortly assume the presidency of Peru. To the age of six, Paul enjoyed a privileged upbringing, attended by nursemaids and servants. He retained a vivid memory of that period of his childhood which instilled "indelible impressions of Peru that haunted him the rest of his life". Gauguin's idyllic childhood ended abruptly when his family mentors fell from political power during Peruvian civil conflicts in 1854. Aline returned to France with her children, leaving Paul with his paternal grandfather, Guillaume Gauguin, in Orléans. Deprived by the Peruvian Tristan Moscoso clan of a generous annuity arranged by her granduncle, Aline settled in Paris to work as a dressmaker. Education and first job After attending a couple of local schools, Gauguin was sent to the prestigious Catholic boarding school Petit Séminaire de La Chapelle-Saint-Mesmin. He spent three years at the school. At age fourteen, he entered the Loriol Institute in Paris, a naval preparatory school, before returning to Orléans to take his final year at the Lycée Jeanne D'Arc. Gauguin signed on as a pilot's assistant in the merchant marine. Three years later, he joined the French navy in which he served for two years. His mother died on 7 July 1867, but he did not learn of it for several months until a letter from his sister Marie caught up with him in India. In 1871, Gauguin returned to Paris where he secured a job as a stockbroker. A close family friend, Gustave Arosa, got him a job at the Paris Bourse; Gauguin was 23. He became a successful Parisian businessman and remained one for the next 11 years. In 1879 he was earning 30,000 francs a year (about $145,000 in 2019 US dollars) as a stockbroker, and as much again in his dealings in the art market. But in 1882 the Paris stock market crashed and the art market contracted. Gauguin's earnings deteriorated sharply and he eventually decided to pursue painting full-time. Marriage In 1873, he married a Danish woman, Mette-Sophie Gad (1850–1920). Over the next ten years, they had five children: Émile (1874–1955); Aline (1877–1897); Clovis (1879–1900); Jean René (1881–1961); and Paul Rollon (1883–1961). By 1884, Gauguin had moved with his family to Copenhagen, Denmark, where he pursued a business career as a tarpaulin salesman. It was not a success: He could not speak Danish, and the Danes did not want French tarpaulins. Mette became the chief breadwinner, giving French lessons to trainee diplomats. His middle-class family and marriage fell apart after 11 years when Gauguin was driven to paint full-time. He returned to Paris in 1885, after his wife and her family asked him to leave because he had renounced the values they shared. Gauguin's last physical contact with them was in 1891, and Mette eventually broke with him decisively in 1894. First paintings In 1873, around the time he became a stockbroker, Gauguin began painting in his free time. His Parisian life centered on the 9th arrondissement of Paris. Gauguin lived at 15, rue la Bruyère. Nearby were the cafés frequented by the Impressionists. Gauguin also visited galleries frequently and purchased work by emerging artists. He formed a friendship with Camille Pissarro and visited him on Sundays to paint in his garden. Pissarro introduced him to various other artists. In 1877 Gauguin "moved downmarket and across the river to the poorer, newer, urban sprawls" of Vaugirard. Here, on the third floor at 8 rue Carcel, he had his first home with a studio. His close friend Émile Schuffenecker, a former stockbroker who also aspired to become an artist, lived close by. Gauguin showed paintings in Impressionist exhibitions held in 1881 and 1882 (earlier, a sculpture of his son Émile had been the only sculpture in the 4th Impressionist Exhibition of 1879). His paintings received dismissive reviews, although several of them, such as The Market Gardens of Vaugirard, are now highly regarded. In 1882, the stock market crashed and the art market contracted. Paul Durand-Ruel, the Impressionists' primary art dealer, was especially affected by the crash, and for a period of time stopped buying pictures from painters such as Gauguin. Gauguin's earnings contracted sharply, and over the next two years he slowly formulated his plans to become a full-time artist. The following two summers, he painted with Pissarro and occasionally Paul Cézanne. In October 1883, he wrote to Pissarro saying that he had decided to make his living from painting at all costs and asked for his help, which Pissarro at first readily provided. The following January, Gauguin moved with his family to Rouen, where they could live more cheaply and where he thought he had discerned opportunities when visiting Pissarro there the previous summer. However, the venture proved unsuccessful, and by the end of the year Mette and the children moved to Copenhagen, Gauguin following shortly after in November 1884, bringing with him his art collection, which subsequently remained in Copenhagen. Life in Copenhagen proved equally difficult, and their marriage grew strained. At Mette's urging, supported by her family, Gauguin returned to Paris the following year. France 1885–1886 Gauguin returned to Paris in June 1885, accompanied by his six-year-old son Clovis. The other children remained with Mette in Copenhagen, where they had the support of family and friends while Mette herself was able to get work as a translator and French teacher. Gauguin initially found it difficult to re-enter the art world in Paris and spent his first winter back in real poverty, obliged to take a series of menial jobs. Clovis eventually fell ill and was sent to a boarding school, Gauguin's sister Marie providing the funds. During this first year, Gauguin produced very little art. He exhibited nineteen paintings and a wood relief at the eighth (and last) Impressionist exhibition in May 1886. Most of these paintings were earlier work from Rouen or Copenhagen and there was nothing really novel in the few new ones, although his Baigneuses à Dieppe ("Women Bathing") introduced what was to become a recurring motif, the woman in the waves. Nevertheless, Félix Bracquemond did purchase one of his paintings. This exhibition also established Georges Seurat as leader of the avant-garde movement in Paris. Gauguin contemptuously rejected Seurat's Neo-Impressionist Pointillist technique and later in the year broke decisively with Pissarro, who from that point on was rather antagonistic towards Gauguin. Gauguin spent the summer of 1886 in the artist's colony of Pont-Aven in Brittany. He was attracted in the first place because it was cheap to live there. However, he found himself an unexpected success with the young art students who flocked there in the summer. His naturally pugilistic temperament (he was both an accomplished boxer and fencer) was no impediment in the socially relaxed seaside resort. He was remembered during that period as much for his outlandish appearance as for his art. Amongst these new associates was Charles Laval, who would accompany Gauguin the following year to Panama and Martinique. That summer, he executed some pastel drawings of nude figures in the manner of Pissarro and those by Degas exhibited at the 1886 eighth Impressionist exhibition. He mainly painted landscapes such as La Bergère Bretonne ("The Breton Shepherdess"), in which the figure plays a subordinate role. His Jeunes Bretons au bain ("Young Breton Boys Bathing"), introducing a theme he returned to each time he visited Pont-Aven, is clearly indebted to Degas in its design and bold use of pure color. The naive drawings of the English illustrator Randolph Caldecott, used to illustrate a popular guide-book on Brittany, had caught the imagination of the avant-garde student artists at Pont-Aven, anxious to free themselves from the conservatism of their academies, and Gauguin consciously imitated them in his sketches of Breton girls. These sketches were later worked up into paintings back in his Paris studio. The most important of these is Four Breton Women, which shows a marked departure from his earlier Impressionist style as well as incorporating something of the naive quality of Caldecott's illustration, exaggerating features to the point of caricature. Gauguin, along with Émile Bernard, Charles Laval, Émile Schuffenecker and many others, re-visited Pont-Aven after his travels in Panama and Martinique. The bold use of pure color and Symbolist choice of subject matter distinguish what is now called the Pont-Aven School. Disappointed with Impressionism, Gauguin felt that traditional European painting had become too imitative and lacked symbolic depth. By contrast, the art of Africa and Asia seemed to him full of mystic symbolism and vigour. There was a vogue in Europe at the time for the art of other cultures, especially that of Japan (Japonism). He was invited to participate in the 1889 exhibition organized by Les XX. Cloisonnism and synthetism Under the influence of folk art and Japanese prints, Gauguin's work evolved towards Cloisonnism, a style given its name by the critic Édouard Dujardin to describe Émile Bernard's method of painting with flat areas of color and bold outlines, which reminded Dujardin of the Medieval cloisonné enameling technique. Gauguin was very appreciative of Bernard's art and of his daring with the employment of a style which suited Gauguin in his quest to express the essence of the objects in his art. In Gauguin's The Yellow Christ (1889), often cited as a quintessential Cloisonnist work, the image was reduced to areas of pure color separated by heavy black outlines. In such works Gauguin paid little attention to classical perspective and boldly eliminated subtle gradations of color, thereby dispensing with the two most characteristic principles of post-Renaissance painting. His painting later evolved towards Synthetism in which neither form nor color predominate but each has an equal role. Martinique In 1887, after having visited Panama, Gauguin spent the time from June to November near Saint Pierre on the Caribbean island of Martinique, accompanied by his friend the artist Charles Laval. His thoughts and experiences during this time are recorded in his letters to his wife Mette and his artist friend Emile Schuffenecker. He arrived in Martinique by way of Panama where he had found himself broke and without a job. At the time France had a policy of repatriation where if a citizen became broke or stranded on a French colony, the state would pay for the boat ride back. Upon leaving Panama, protected by the repatriation policy, Gauguin and Laval decided to get off the boat at the Martinique port of St Pierre. Scholars disagree on whether Gauguin intentionally or spontaneously decided to stay on the island. At first, the 'negro hut' in which they lived suited him, and he enjoyed watching people in their daily activities. However, the weather in the summer was hot and the hut leaked in the rain. Gauguin also suffered dysentery and marsh fever. While in Martinique, he produced between 10 and 20 works (12 being the most common estimate), traveled widely and apparently came into contact with a small community of Indian immigrants; a contact that would later influence his art through the incorporation of Indian symbols. During his stay, the writer Lafcadio Hearn was also on the island. His account provides an historical comparison to accompany Gauguin's images. Gauguin finished 11 known paintings during his stay in Martinique, many of which seem to be derived from his hut. His letters to Schuffenecker express an excitement about the exotic location and natives represented in his paintings. Gauguin asserted that four of his paintings on the island were better than the rest. The works as a whole are brightly colored, loosely painted, outdoor figural scenes. Even though his time on the island was short, it surely was influential. He recycled some of his figures and sketches in later paintings, like the motif in Among the Mangoes which is replicated on his fans. Rural and indigenous populations remained a popular subject in Gauguin's work after he left the island. Vincent and Theo van Gogh Gauguin's Martinique paintings were exhibited at his color merchant Arsène Poitier's gallery. There they were seen and admired by Vincent van Gogh and his art dealer brother Theo, whose firm Goupil & Cie had dealings with Portier. Theo purchased three of Gauguin's paintings for 900 francs and arranged to have them hung at Goupil's, thus introducing Gauguin to wealthy clients. This arrangement with Goupil's continued past Theo's death in 1891. At the same time, Vincent and Gauguin became close friends (on Vincent's part it amounted to something akin to adulation) and they corresponded together on art, a correspondence that was instrumental in Gauguin formulating his philosophy of art. In 1888, at Theo's instigation, Gauguin and Vincent spent nine weeks painting together at Vincent's Yellow House in Arles in the South of France. Gauguin's relationship with Vincent proved fraught. Their relationship deteriorated and eventually Gauguin decided to leave. On the evening of 23 December 1888, according to a much later account of Gauguin's, Vincent confronted Gauguin with a straight razor. Later the same evening, he cut off his own left ear. He wrapped the severed tissue in newspaper and handed it to a woman who worked at a brothel Gauguin and Vincent had both visited, and asked her to "keep this object carefully, in remembrance of me". Vincent was hospitalized the following day and Gauguin left Arles. They never saw each other again, but they continued to correspond, and in 1890 Gauguin went so far as to propose they form an artist studio in Antwerp. An 1889 sculptural self-portrait Jug in the Form of a Head appears to reference Gauguin's traumatic relationship with Vincent. Gauguin later claimed to have been instrumental in influencing Vincent van Gogh's development as a painter at Arles. While Vincent did briefly experiment with Gauguin's theory of "painting from the imagination" in paintings such as Memory of the Garden at Etten, it did not suit him and he quickly returned to painting from nature. Edgar Degas Although Gauguin made some of his early strides in the world of art under Pissarro, Edgar Degas was Gauguin's most admired contemporary artist and a great influence on his work from the beginning, with his figures and interiors as well as a carved and painted medallion of singer Valérie Roumi. He had a deep reverence for Degas' artistic dignity and tact. It was Gauguin's healthiest, longest-lasting friendship, spanning his entire artistic career until his death. In addition to being one of his earliest supporters, including buying Gauguin's work and persuading dealer Paul Durand-Ruel to do the same, there was never a public support for Gauguin more unwavering than from Degas. Gauguin also purchased work from Degas in the early to mid-1870s and his own monotyping predilection was probably influenced by Degas' advancements in the medium. Gauguin's Durand-Ruel exhibition in November 1893, which Degas chiefly organized, received mixed reviews. Among the mocking were Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and former friend Pissarro. Degas, however, praised his work, purchasing and admiring the exotic sumptuousness of Gauguin's conjured folklore. In appreciation, Gauguin presented Degas with The Moon and the Earth, one of the exhibited paintings that had attracted the most hostile criticism. Gauguin's late canvas Riders on the Beach (two versions) recalls Degas' horse pictures which he started in the 1860s, specifically Racetrack and Before the Race, testifying to his enduring effect on Gauguin. Degas later purchased two paintings at Gauguin's 1895 auction to raise funds for his final trip to Tahiti. These were Vahine no te vi (Woman with a Mango) and the version Gauguin painted of Manet's Olympia. First visit to Tahiti By 1890, Gauguin had conceived the project of making Tahiti his next artistic destination. A successful auction of paintings in Paris at the Hôtel Drouot in February 1891, along with other events such as a banquet and a benefit concert, provided the necessary funds. The auction had been greatly helped by a flattering review from Octave Mirbeau, courted by Gauguin through Camille Pissarro. After visiting his wife and children in Copenhagen, for what turned out to be the last time, Gauguin set sail for Tahiti on 1 April 1891, promising to return a rich man and make a fresh start. His avowed intent was to escape European civilization and "everything that is artificial and conventional". Nevertheless, he took care to take with him a collection of visual stimuli in the form of photographs, drawings and prints. He spent the first three months in Papeete, the capital of the colony and already much influenced by French and European culture. His biographer Belinda Thomson observes that he must have been disappointed in his vision of a primitive idyll. He was unable to afford the pleasure-seeking life-style in Papeete, and an early attempt at a portrait, Suzanne Bambridge, was not well liked. He decided to set up his studio in Mataiea, Papeari, some from Papeete, installing himself in a native-style bamboo hut. Here he executed paintings depicting Tahitian life such as Fatata te Miti (By the Sea) and Ia Orana Maria (Ave Maria), the latter to become his most prized Tahitian painting. Many of his finest paintings date from this period. His first portrait of a Tahitian model is thought to be Vahine no te tiare (Woman with a Flower). The painting is notable for the care with which it delineates Polynesian features. He sent the painting to his patron George-Daniel de Monfreid, a friend of Schuffenecker, who was to become Gauguin's devoted champion in Tahiti. By late summer 1892 this painting was being displayed at Goupil's gallery in Paris. Art historian Nancy Mowll Mathews believes that Gauguin's encounter with exotic sensuality in Tahiti, so evident in the painting, was by far the most important aspect of his sojourn there. Gauguin was lent copies of 1837 Voyage aux îles du Grand Océan and 1855 État de la société tahitienne à l'arrivée des Européens, containing full accounts of Tahiti's forgotten culture and religion. Gauguin was fascinated by the accounts of Arioi society and their god 'Oro. Because these accounts contained no illustrations and the Tahitian models had in any case long disappeared, he could give free rein to his imagination. He executed some twenty paintings and a dozen woodcarvings over the next year. The first of these was Te aa no areois (The Seed of the Areoi), representing Oro's terrestrial wife Vairaumati, now held by the Metropolitan Museum of Art. His illustrated notebook of the time, , is preserved in the Louvre and was published in facsimile form in 1951. In all, Gauguin sent nine of his paintings to Monfreid in Paris. These were eventually exhibited in Copenhagen in a joint exhibition with the late Vincent van Gogh. Reports that they had been well received (though in fact only two of the Tahitian paintings were sold and his earlier paintings were unfavourably compared with van Gogh's) were sufficiently encouraging for Gauguin to contemplate returning with some seventy others he had completed. He had in any case largely run out of funds, depending on a state grant for a free passage home. In addition he had some health problems diagnosed as heart problems by the local doctor, which Mathews suggests may have been the early signs of cardiovascular syphilis. Gauguin later wrote a travelogue (first published 1901) titled , originally conceived as commentary on his paintings and describing his experiences in Tahiti. Modern critics have suggested that the contents of the book were in part fantasized and plagiarized. In it he revealed that he had at this time taken a thirteen-year-old girl as native wife or vahine (the Tahitian word for "woman"), a marriage contracted in the course of a single afternoon. This was Teha'amana, called Tehura in the travelogue, who was pregnant by him by the end of summer 1892. Teha'amana was the subject of several of Gauguin's paintings, including Merahi metua no Tehamana and the celebrated Spirit of the Dead Watching, as well as a notable woodcarving Tehura now in the Musée d'Orsay. By the end of July 1893, Gauguin had decided to leave Tahiti and he would never see Teha'amana or her child again even after returning to the island several years later. Return to France In August 1893, Gauguin returned to France, where he continued to execute paintings on Tahitian subjects such as Mahana no atua (Day of the God) and Nave nave moe (Sacred spring, sweet dreams). An exhibition at the Durand-Ruel gallery in November 1894 was a moderate success, selling at quite elevated prices eleven of the forty paintings exhibited. He set up an apartment at 6 rue Vercingétorix on the edge of the Montparnasse district frequented by artists, and began to conduct a weekly salon. He affected an exotic persona, dressing in Polynesian costume, and conducted a public affair with a young woman still in her teens, "half Indian, half Malayan", known as . Despite the moderate success of his November exhibition, he subsequently lost Durand-Ruel's patronage in circumstances that are not clear. Mathews characterises this as a tragedy for Gauguin's career. Amongst other things he lost the chance of an introduction to the American market. The start of 1894 found him preparing woodcuts using an experimental technique for his proposed travelogue Noa Noa. He returned to Pont-Aven for the summer. In February 1895 he attempted an auction of his paintings at Hôtel Drouot in Paris, similar to the one of 1891, but this was not a success. The dealer Ambroise Vollard, however, showed his paintings at his gallery in March 1895, but they unfortunately did not come to terms at that date. He submitted a large ceramic sculpture he called Oviri he had fired the previous winter to the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts 1895 salon opening in April. There are conflicting versions of how it was received: his biographer and Noa Noa collaborator, the Symbolist poet , contended (1920) that the work was "literally expelled" from the exhibition, while Vollard said (1937) that the work was admitted only when Chaplet threatened to withdraw all his own work. In any case, Gauguin took the opportunity to increase his public exposure by writing an outraged letter on the state of modern ceramics to Le Soir. By this time it had become clear that he and his wife Mette were irrevocably separated. Although there had been hopes of a reconciliation, they had quickly quarrelled over money matters and neither visited the other. Gauguin initially refused to share any part of a 13,000-franc inheritance from his uncle Isidore which he had come into shortly after returning. Mette was eventually gifted 1,500 francs, but she was outraged and from that point on kept in contact with him only through Schuffeneckerdoubly galling for Gauguin, as his friend thus knew the true extent of his betrayal. By mid 1895 attempts to raise funds for Gauguin's return to Tahiti had failed, and he began accepting charity from friends. In June 1895 Eugène Carrière arranged a cheap passage back to Tahiti, and Gauguin never saw Europe again. Residence in Tahiti Gauguin set out for Tahiti again on 28 June 1895. His return is characterised by Thomson as an essentially negative one, his disillusionment with the Paris art scene compounded by two attacks on him in the same issue of Mercure de France; one by Emile Bernard, the other by Camille Mauclair. Mathews remarks that his isolation in Paris had become so bitter that he had no choice but to try to reclaim his place in Tahiti society. He arrived in September 1895 and was to spend the next six years living, for the most part, an apparently comfortable life as an artist-colon near, or at times in, Papeete. During this time he was able to support himself with an increasingly steady stream of sales and the support of friends and well-wishers, though there was a period of time 1898–1899 when he felt compelled to take a desk job in Papeete, of which there is not much record. He built a spacious reed and thatch house at Puna'auia in an affluent area ten miles east of Papeete, settled by wealthy families, in which he installed a large studio, sparing no expense. Jules Agostini, an acquaintance of Gauguin's and an accomplished amateur photographer, photographed the house in 1896. Later a sale of land obliged him to build a new one in the same neighbourhood. He maintained a horse and trap, so was in a position to travel daily to Papeete to participate in the social life of the colony should he wish. He subscribed to the Mercure de France (indeed was a shareholder), by then France's foremost critical journal, and kept up an active correspondence with fellow artists, dealers, critics, and patrons in Paris. During his year in Papeete and thereafter, he played an increasing role in local politics, contributing abrasively to a local journal opposed to the colonial government, Les Guêpes (The Wasps), that had recently been formed, and eventually edited his own monthly publication Le Sourire: Journal sérieux (The Smile: A Serious Newspaper), later titled simply Journal méchant (A Wicked Newspaper). A certain amount of artwork and woodcuts from his newspaper survive. In February 1900 he became the editor of Les Guêpes itself, for which he drew a salary, and he continued as editor until he left Tahiti in September 1901. The paper under his editorship was noted for its scurrilous attacks on the governor and officialdom in general, but was not in fact a champion of native causes, although perceived as such nevertheless. For the first year at least he produced no paintings, informing Monfreid that he proposed henceforth to concentrate on sculpture. Few of his wooden carvings from this period survive, most of them collected by Monfreid. Thomson cites Oyez Hui Iesu (Christ on the Cross), a wooden cylinder half a metre (20") tall featuring a curious hybrid of religious motifs. The cylinder may have been inspired by similar symbolic carvings in Brittany, such as at Pleumeur-Bodou, where ancient menhirs have been Christianised by local craftsmen. When he resumed painting, it was to continue his long-standing series of sexually charged nudes in paintings such as Te tamari no atua (Son of God) and O Taiti (Nevermore). Thomson observes a progression in complexity. Mathews notes a return to Christian symbolism that would have endeared him to the colonists of the time, now anxious to preserve what was left of native culture by stressing the universality of religious principles. In these paintings, Gauguin was addressing an audience amongst his fellow colonists in Papeete, not his former avant-garde audience in Paris. His health took a decided turn for the worse and he was hospitalised several times for a variety of ailments. While he was in France, he had his ankle shattered in a drunken brawl on a seaside visit to Concarneau. The injury, an open fracture, never healed properly. Then painful and debilitating sores that restricted his movement began erupting up and down his legs. These were treated with arsenic. Gauguin blamed the tropical climate and described the sores as "eczema", but his biographers agree this must have been the progress of syphilis. In April 1897, he received word that his favorite daughter Aline had died from pneumonia. This was also the month he learned he had to vacate his house because its land had been sold. He took out a bank loan to build a much more extravagant wooden house with beautiful views of the mountains and sea. But he overextended himself in so doing, and by the end of the year faced the real prospect of his bank foreclosing on him. Failing health and pressing debts brought him to the brink of despair. At the end of the year he completed his monumental Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?, which he regarded as his masterpiece and final artistic testament (in a letter to Monfreid he explained that he tried to kill himself after finishing it). The painting was exhibited at Vollard's gallery in November the following year, along with eight thematically related paintings he had completed by July. This was his first major exhibition in Paris since his Durand-Ruel show in 1893 and it was a decided success, critics praising his new serenity. Where do we come from?, however, received mixed reviews and Vollard had difficulty selling it. He eventually sold it in 1901 for 2,500 francs (about $10,000 in year 2000 US dollars) to , of which Vollard's commission was perhaps as much as 500 francs. Georges Chaudet, Gauguin's Paris dealer, died in the fall of 1899. Vollard had been buying Gauguin's paintings through Chaudet and now made an agreement with Gauguin directly. The agreement provided Gauguin a regular monthly advance of 300 francs against a guaranteed purchase of at least 25 unseen paintings a year at 200 francs each, and in addition Vollard undertook to provide him with his art materials. There were some initial problems on both sides, but Gauguin was finally able to realise his long cherished plan of resettling in the Marquesas Islands in search of a yet more primitive society. He spent his final months in Tahiti living in considerable comfort, as attested by the liberality with which he entertained his friends at that time. Gauguin was unable to continue his work in ceramics in the islands for the simple reason that suitable clay was not available. Similarly, without access to a printing press (Le Sourire was hectographed), he was obliged to turn to the monotype process in his graphic work. Surviving examples of these prints are rather rare and command very high prices in the saleroom. During this time Gauguin maintained a relationship with Pahura (Pau'ura) a Tai, the daughter of neighbours in Puna'auia. Gauguin began this relationship when Pau'ura was fourteen and a half years old. He fathered two children with her, of which a daughter died in infancy. The other, a boy, she raised herself. His descendants still inhabited Tahiti at the time of Mathews' biography. Pahura refused to accompany Gauguin to the Marquesas away from her family in Puna'auia (earlier she had left him when he took work in Papeete just 10 miles away). When the English writer Willam Somerset Maugham visited her in 1917, she could offer him no useful memory of Gauguin and chided him for visiting her without bringing money from Gauguin's family. Marquesas Islands Gauguin had nurtured his plan of settling in the Marquesas ever since seeing a collection of intricately carved Marquesan bowls and weapons in Papeete during his first months in Tahiti. However, he found a society that, as in Tahiti, had lost its cultural identity. Of all the Pacific island groups, the Marquesas were the most affected by the import of Western diseases (especially tuberculosis). An eighteenth century population of some 80,000 had declined to just 4,000. Catholic missionaries held sway and, in their effort to control drunkenness and promiscuity, obliged all native children to attend missionary schools into their teens. French colonial rule was enforced by a gendarmerie noted for its malevolence and stupidity, while traders, both Western and Chinese, exploited the natives appallingly. Gauguin settled in Atuona on the island of Hiva-Oa, arriving 16 September 1901. This was the administrative capital of the island group, but considerably less developed than Papeete although there was an efficient and regular steamer service between the two. There was a military doctor but no hospital. The doctor was relocated to Papeete the following February and thereafter Gauguin had to rely on the island's two health care workers, the Vietnamese exile Nguyen Van Cam (Ky Dong), who had settled on the island but had no formal medical training, and the Protestant pastor Paul Vernier, who had studied medicine in addition to theology. Both of these were to become close friends. He bought a plot of land in the center of the town from the Catholic mission, having first ingratiated himself with the local bishop by attending mass regularly. This bishop was Monseigneur Joseph Martin, initially well disposed to Gauguin because he was aware that Gauguin had sided with the Catholic party in Tahiti in his journalism. Gauguin built a two-floor house on his plot, sturdy enough to survive a later cyclone which washed away most other dwellings in the town. He was helped in the task by the two best Marquesan carpenters on the island, one of them called Tioka, tattooed from head to toe in the traditional Marquesan way (a tradition suppressed by the missionaries). Tioka was a deacon in Vernier's congregation and became Gauguin's neighbour after the cyclone when Gauguin gifted him a corner of his plot. The ground floor was open-air and used for dining and living, while the top floor was used for sleeping and as his studio. The door to the top floor was decorated with a polychrome wood-carved lintel and jambs that still survive in museums. The lintel named the house as Maison du Jouir (i.e. House of Pleasure), while the jambs echoed his earlier 1889 wood-carving Soyez amoureuses vous serez heureuses (i.e. Be in Love, You Will Be Happy). The walls were decorated with, amongst other things, his prized collection of forty-five pornographic photographs he had purchased in Port Said on his way out from France. In the early days at least, until Gauguin found a vahine, the house drew appreciative crowds in the evenings from the natives, who came to stare at the pictures and party half the night away. Needless to say, all this did not endear Gauguin to the bishop, still less when Gauguin erected two sculptures he placed at the foot of his steps lampooning the bishop and a servant reputed to be the bishop's mistress, and yet still less when Gauguin later attacked the unpopular missionary school system. The sculpture of the bishop, Père Paillard, is to be found at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, while its pendant piece Thérèse realized a record $30,965,000 for a Gauguin sculpture at a Christie's New York 2015 sale. These were among at least eight sculptures that adorned the house according to a posthumous inventory, most of which are lost today. Together they represented a very public attack on the hypocrisy of the church in sexual matters. State funding for the missionary schools had ceased as a result of the 1901 Associations Bill promulgated throughout the French empire. The schools continued with difficulty as private institutions, but these difficulties were compounded when Gauguin established that attendance at any given school was only compulsory within a catchment area of some two and a half miles radius. This led to numerous teenage daughters being withdrawn from the schools (Gauguin called this process "rescuing"). He took as vahine one such girl, Vaeoho (also called Marie-Rose), the fourteen-year-old daughter of a native couple who lived in an adjoining valley six miles distant. This can scarcely have been a pleasant task for her as Gauguin's sores were by then extremely noxious and required daily dressing. Nevertheless, she lived willingly with him and the following year gave birth to a healthy daughter whose descendants continue to live on the island. By November he had settled into his new home with Vaeoho, a cook (Kahui), two other servants (nephews of Tioka), his dog, Pegau (a play on his initials PG), and a cat. The house itself, although in the center of the town, was set amongst trees and secluded from view. The partying ceased and he began a period of productive work, sending twenty canvases to Vollard the following April. He had thought he would find new motifs in the Marquesas, writing to Monfreid: In fact, his Marquesas work for the most part can only be distinguished from his Tahiti work by experts or by their dates, paintings such as Two Women remaining uncertain in their location. For Anna Szech, what distinguishes them is their repose and melancholy, albeit containing elements of disquiet. Thus, in the second of two versions of Cavaliers sur la Plage (Riders on the Beach), gathering clouds and foamy breakers suggest an impending storm while the two distant figures on grey horses echo similar figures in other paintings that are taken to symbolise death. Gauguin chose to paint landscapes, still lifes, and figure studies at this time, with an eye to Vollard's clientele, avoiding the primitive and lost paradise themes of his Tahiti paintings. But there is a significant trio of pictures from this last period that suggest deeper concerns. The first two of these are Jeune fille à l'éventail (Young Girl with Fan) and Le Sorcier d'Hiva Oa (Marquesan Man in a Red Cape). The model for Jeune fille was the red-headed Tohotaua, the daughter of a chieftain on a neighbouring island. The portrait appears to have been taken from a photograph that Vernier later sent to Vollard. The model for Le sorcier may have been Haapuani, an accomplished dancer as well as a feared magician, who was a close friend of Gauguin's and, according to Danielsson, married to Tohotau. Szech notes that the white color of Tohotau's dress is a symbol of power and death in Polynesian culture, the sitter doing duty for a Maohi culture as a whole threatened with extinction. Le Sorcier appears to have been executed at the same time and depicts a long-haired young man wearing an exotic red cape. The androgynous nature of the image has attracted critical attention, giving rise to speculation that Gauguin intended to depict a māhū (i.e. a third gender person) rather than a taua or priest. The third picture of the trio is the mysterious and beautiful Contes barbares (Primitive Tales) featuring Tohotau again at the right. The left figure is Jacob Meyer de Haan, a painter friend of Gauguin's from their Pont-Aven days who had died a few years previously, while the middle figure is again androgynous, identified by some as Haapuani. The Buddha-like pose and the lotus blossoms suggests to Elizabeth Childs that the picture is a meditation on the perpetual cycle of life and the possibility of rebirth. As these paintings reached Vollard after Gauguin's sudden death, nothing is known about Gauguin's intentions in their execution. In March 1902, the governor of French Polynesia, , arrived in the Marquesas to make an inspection. He was accompanied by Édouard Charlier as head of the judicial system. Charlier was an amateur painter who had been befriended by Gauguin when he first arrived as magistrate at Papeete in 1895. However their relationship had turned to enmity when Charlier refused to prosecute Gauguin's then vahine Pau'ura for a number of trivial offences, allegedly housebreaking and theft, she had committed at Puna'auia while Gauguin was away working in Papeete. Gauguin had gone so far as to publish an open letter attacking Charlier about the affair in Les Guêpes. Petit, presumably suitably forewarned, refused to see Gauguin to deliver the settlers' protests (Gauguin their spokesman) about the invidious taxation system, which saw most revenue from the Marquesas spent in Papeete. Gauguin responded in April by refusing to pay his taxes and encouraging the settlers, traders and planters, to do likewise. At around the same time, Gauguin's health began to deteriorate again, revisited by the same familiar constellation of symptoms involving pain in the legs, heart palpitations, and general debility. The pain in his injured ankle grew insupportable and in July he was obliged to order a trap from Papeete so that he could get about town. By September the pain was so extreme that he resorted to morphine injections. However he was sufficiently concerned by the habit he was developing to turn his syringe set over to a neighbour, relying instead on laudanum. His sight was also beginning to fail him, as attested by the spectacles he wears in his last known self-portrait. This was actually a portrait commenced by his friend Ky Dong that he completed himself, thus accounting for its uncharacteristic style. It shows a man tired and aged, yet not entirely defeated. For a while he considered returning to Europe, to Spain, to get treatment. Monfreid advised him: In July 1902, Vaeoho, by then seven months pregnant, left Gauguin to return home to her neighbouring valley of Hekeani to have her baby amongst family and friends. She gave birth in September but did not return. Gauguin did not subsequently take another vahine. It was at this time that his quarrel with Bishop Martin over missionary schools reached its height. The local gendarme, Désiré Charpillet, at first friendly to Gauguin, wrote a report to the administrator of the island group, who resided on the neighbouring island of Nuku Hiva, criticizing Gauguin for encouraging natives to withdraw their children from school as well as encouraging settlers to withhold payment of their taxes. As luck would have it, the post of administrator had recently been filled by François Picquenot, an old friend of Gauguin's from Tahiti and essentially sympathetic to him. Picquenot advised Charpillet not to take any action over the schools issue, since Gauguin had the law on his side, but authorised Charpillet to seize goods from Gauguin in lieu of payment of taxes if all else failed. Possibly prompted by loneliness, and at times unable to paint, Gauguin took to writing. In 1901, the manuscript of Noa Noa that Gauguin had prepared along with woodcuts during his interlude in France was finally published with Morice's poems in book form in the La Plume edition (the manuscript itself is now lodged in the Louvre museum). Sections of it (including his account of Teha'amana) had previously been published without woodcuts in 1897 in La Revue Blanche, while he himself had published extracts in Les Guêpes while he was editor. The La Plume edition was planned to include his woodcuts, but he withheld permission to print them on smooth paper as the publishers wished. In truth he had grown uninterested in the venture with Morice and never saw a copy, declining an offer of one hundred complimentary copies. Nevertheless, its publication inspired him to consider writing other books. At the beginning of the year (1902), he had revised an old 1896–97 manuscript, L'Esprit Moderne et le Catholicisme (The Modern Spirit and Catholicism), on the Roman Catholic Church, adding some twenty pages containing insights gleaned from his dealings with Bishop Martin. He sent this text to Bishop Martin, who responded by sending him an illustrated history of the Church. Gauguin returned the book with critical remarks he later published in his autobiographical reminisces. He next prepared a witty and well-documented essay, Racontars de Rapin (Tales of a Dabbler) on critics and art criticism, which he sent for publication to André Fontainas, art critic at the Mercure de France whose favourable review of Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? had done much to restore his reputation. Fontainas, however, replied that he dared not publish it. It was not subsequently published until 1951. On 27 May that year, the steamer service, Croix du Sud, was shipwrecked off the Apataki atoll, and for a period of three months the island was left without mail or supplies. When mail service resumed, Gauguin penned an angry attack on Governor Petit in an open letter, complaining amongst other things about the way they had been abandoned following the shipwreck. The letter was published by L'Indepéndant, the successor newspaper to Les Guêpes, that November in Papeete. Petit had in fact followed an independent and pro-native policy, to the disappointment of the Roman Catholic Party, and the newspaper was preparing an attack on him. Gauguin also sent the letter to the Mercure de France, which published a redacted version of it after his death. He followed this with a private letter to the head of the gendarmerie in Papeete, complaining about his own local gendarme Charpillet's excesses in making prisoners labor for him. Danielsson notes that, while these and similar complaints were well-founded, the motivation for them all was wounded vanity and simple animosity. As it happened, the relatively supportive Charpillet was replaced that December by another gendarme, Jean-Paul Claverie, from Tahiti, much less well disposed to Gauguin and who in fact had fined him in his earliest Mataiea days for public indecency, having caught him bathing naked in a local stream following complaints from the missionaries there. His health further deteriorated in December to the extent that he was scarcely able to paint. He began an autobiographical memoir he called Avant et après (Before and After) (published in translation in the US as Intimate Journals), which he completed over the next two months. The title was supposed to reflect his experiences before and after coming to Tahiti and as tribute to his own grandmother's unpublished memoir Past and Future. His memoir proved to be a fragmented collection of observations about life in Polynesia, his own life, and comments on literature and paintings. He included in it attacks on subjects as diverse as the local gendarmerie, Bishop Martin, his wife Mette and the Danes in general, and concluded with a description of his personal philosophy conceiving life as an existential struggle to reconcile opposing binaries. Mathews notes two closing remarks as a distillation of his philosophy: He sent the manuscript to Fontainas for editing, but the rights reverted to Mette after Gauguin's death, and it was not published until 1918 (in a facsimile edition); the American translation appearing in 1921. Death At the beginning of 1903, Gauguin engaged in a campaign designed to expose the incompetence of the island's gendarmes, in particular Jean-Paul Claverie, for taking the side of the natives directly in a case involving the alleged drunkenness of a group of them. Claverie, however, escaped censure. At the beginning of February, Gauguin wrote to the administrator, François Picquenot, alleging corruption by one of Claverie's subordinates. Picquenot investigated the allegations but could not substantiate them. Claverie responded by filing a charge against Gauguin of libeling a gendarme. He was subsequently fined 500 francs and sentenced to three months' imprisonment by the local magistrate on 27 March 1903. Gauguin immediately filed an appeal in Papeete and set about raising the funds to travel to Papeete to hear his appeal. At this time Gauguin was very weak and in great pain and resorted once again to using morphine. He died suddenly on the morning of 8 May 1903. Earlier, he had sent for his pastor, Paul Vernier, complaining of fainting fits. They had chatted together, and Vernier had left, believing him in a stable condition. However, Gauguin's neighbor, Tioka, found him dead at 11 o'clock, confirming the fact in the traditional Marquesan way by chewing his head in an attempt to revive him. By his bedside was an empty bottle of laudanum, which has given rise to speculation that he was the victim of an overdose. Vernier believed he died of a heart attack. Gauguin was buried in the Catholic Calvary Cemetery (Cimetière Calvaire), Atuona, Hiva 'Oa, at 2 p.m. the next day. In 1973, a bronze cast of his Oviri figure was placed on his grave, as he had indicated was his wish. Ironically, his nearest neighbor in the cemetery is Bishop Martin, his grave surmounted by a large white cross. Vernier wrote an account of Gauguin's last days and burial, reproduced in O'Brien's edition of Gauguin's letters to Monfreid. Word of Gauguin's death did not reach France (to Monfreid) until 23 August 1903. In the absence of a will, his less valuable effects were auctioned in Atuona while his letters, manuscripts, and paintings were auctioned in Papeete on 5 September 1903. Mathews notes that this speedy dispersal of his effects led to the loss of much valuable information about his later years. Thomson notes that the auction inventory of his effects (some of which were burned as pornography) revealed a life that was not as impoverished or primitive as he had liked to maintain. Mette Gauguin in due course received the proceeds of the auction, some 4,000 francs. One of the paintings auctioned in Papeete was Maternité II, a smaller version of Maternité I in the Hermitage Museum. The original was painted at the time his then vahine, Pau'ura, in Puna'auia, gave birth to their son Emile. It is not known why he painted the smaller copy. It was sold for 150 francs to a French naval officer, Commandant Cochin, who said that Governor Petit himself had bid up to 135 francs for the painting. It was sold at Sotheby's for US$39,208,000 in 2004. The Paul Gauguin Cultural Center at Atuona has a reconstruction of the Maison du Jouir. The original house stood empty for a few years, the door still carrying Gauguin's carved lintel. This was eventually recovered, four of the five pieces held at the Musée D'Orsay and the fifth at the Paul Gauguin Museum in Tahiti. In 2014, forensic examination of four teeth found in a glass jar in a well near Gauguin's house threw into question the conventional belief that Gauguin had suffered from syphilis. DNA examination established that the teeth were almost certainly Gauguin's, but no traces were found of the mercury that was used to treat syphilis at the time, suggesting either that Gauguin did not suffer from syphilis or that he was not being treated for it. In 2007, four rotten molars, which may have been Gauguin's, were found by archaeologists at the bottom of a well that he built on the island of Hiva Oa, on the Marquese Islands. Children Gauguin outlived three of his children; his favorite daughter Aline died of pneumonia, his son Clovis died of a blood infection following a hip operation, and a daughter, whose birth was portrayed in Gauguin's painting of 1896 Te tamari no atua, the child of Gauguin's young Tahitian mistress, Pau'ura, died only a few days after her birth on Christmas Day 1896. His son, Émile Gauguin, worked as a construction engineer in the U.S. and is buried in Lemon Bay Historical Cemetery, in Florida. Another son, Jean René, became a well-known sculptor and a staunch socialist. He died on 21 April 1961 in Copenhagen. Pola (Paul Rollon) became an artist and art critic and wrote a memoir, My Father, Paul Gauguin (1937). Gauguin had several other children by his mistresses: Germaine (born 1891) with Juliette Huais (1866–1955); Émile Marae a Tai (born 1899) with Pau'ura; and a daughter (born 1902) with Vaeoho (Marie-Rose). There is some speculation that the Belgian artist, Germaine Chardon, was Gauguin's daughter. Emile Marae a Tai, illiterate and raised in Tahiti by Pau'ura, was brought to Chicago in 1963 by the French journalist Josette Giraud and was an artist in his own right, his descendants still living in Tahiti as of 2001. Historical significance Primitivism was an art movement of late 19th-century painting and sculpture, characterized by exaggerated body proportions, animal totems, geometric designs, and stark contrasts. The first artist to systematically use these effects and achieve broad public success was Paul Gauguin. The European cultural elite, discovering the art of Africa, Micronesia, and Native Americans for the first time, were fascinated, intrigued, and educated by the newness, wildness, and the stark power embodied in the art of those faraway places. Like Pablo Picasso in the early days of the 20th century, Gauguin was inspired and motivated by the raw power and simplicity of the so-called Primitive Art of those foreign cultures. Gauguin is also considered a Post-Impressionist painter. His bold, colorful, and design oriented paintings significantly influenced Modern art. Artists and movements in the early 20th century inspired by him include Vincent van Gogh, Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, André Derain, Fauvism, Cubism, and Orphism, among others. Later, he influenced Arthur Frank Mathews and the American Arts and Crafts movement. John Rewald, recognized as a foremost authority on late 19th-century art, wrote a series of books about the Post-Impressionist period, including Post-Impressionism: From Van Gogh to Gauguin (1956) and an essay, Paul Gauguin: Letters to Ambroise Vollard and André Fontainas (included in Rewald's Studies in Post-Impressionism, 1986), discusses Gauguin's years in Tahiti and the struggles of his survival as seen through correspondence with the art dealer Vollard and others. Influence on Picasso Gauguin's posthumous retrospective exhibitions at the Salon d'Automne in Paris in 1903, and an even larger one in 1906, had a stunning and powerful influence on the French avant-garde and in particular Pablo Picasso's paintings. In the autumn of 1906, Picasso made paintings of oversized nude women and monumental sculptural figures that recalled the work of Paul Gauguin and showed his interest in primitive art. Picasso's paintings of massive figures from 1906 were directly influenced by Gauguin's sculpture, painting, and his writing as well. The power evoked by Gauguin's work led directly to Les Demoiselles d'Avignon in 1907. According to Gauguin biographer, David Sweetman, Picasso, as early as 1902, became a fan of Gauguin's work when he met and befriended the expatriate Spanish sculptor and ceramist Paco Durrio, in Paris. Durrio had several of Gauguin's works on hand because he was a friend of Gauguin's and an unpaid agent of his work. Durrio tried to help his poverty-stricken friend in Tahiti by promoting his oeuvre in Paris. After they met, Durrio introduced Picasso to Gauguin's stoneware, helped Picasso make some ceramic pieces, and gave Picasso a first La Plume edition of Noa Noa: The Tahiti Journal of Paul Gauguin. In addition to seeing Gauguin's work at Durrio's, Picasso also saw the work at Ambroise Vollard's gallery where both he and Gauguin were represented. Concerning Gauguin's impact on Picasso, John Richardson wrote: The 1906 exhibition of Gauguin's work left Picasso more than ever in this artist's thrall. Gauguin demonstrated the most disparate types of art—not to speak of elements from metaphysics, ethnology, symbolism, the Bible, classical myths, and much else besides—could be combined into a synthesis that was of its time yet timeless. An artist could also confound conventional notions of beauty, he demonstrated, by harnessing his demons to the dark gods (not necessarily Tahitian ones) and tapping a new source of divine energy. If in later years Picasso played down his debt to Gauguin, there is no doubt that between 1905 and 1907 he felt a very close kinship with this other Paul, who prided himself on Spanish genes inherited from his Peruvian grandmother. Had not Picasso signed himself 'Paul' in Gauguin's honor. Both David Sweetman and John Richardson point to the Gauguin sculpture called Oviri (literally meaning 'savage'), the gruesome phallic figure of the Tahitian goddess of life and death that was intended for Gauguin's grave, exhibited in the 1906 retrospective exhibition that even more directly led to Les Demoiselles. Sweetman writes, "Gauguin's statue Oviri, which was prominently displayed in 1906, was to stimulate Picasso's interest in both sculpture and ceramics, while the woodcuts would reinforce his interest in print-making, though it was the element of the primitive in all of them which most conditioned the direction that Picasso's art would take. This interest would culminate in the seminal Les Demoiselles d'Avignon." According to Richardson, Picasso's interest in stoneware was further stimulated by the examples he saw at the 1906 Gauguin retrospective at the Salon d'Automne. The most disturbing of those ceramics (one that Picasso might have already seen at Vollard's) was the gruesome Oviri. Until 1987, when the Musée d'Orsay acquired this little-known work (exhibited only once since 1906) it had never been recognized as the masterpiece it is, let alone recognized for its relevance to the works leading up to the Demoiselles. Although just under 30 inches high, Oviri has an awesome presence, as befits a monument intended for Gauguin's grave. Picasso was very struck by Oviri. 50 years later he was delighted when [Douglas] Cooper and I told him that we had come upon this sculpture in a collection that also included the original plaster of his cubist head. Has it been a revelation, like Iberian sculpture? Picasso's shrug was grudgingly affirmative. He was always loath to admit Gauguin's role in setting him on the road to Primitivism. Technique and style Gauguin's initial artistic guidance was from Pissarro, but the relationship left more of a mark personally than stylistically. Gauguin's masters were Giotto, Raphael, Ingres, Eugène Delacroix, Manet, Degas, and Cézanne. His own beliefs, and in some cases the psychology behind his work, were also influenced by philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer and poet Stéphane Mallarmé. Gauguin, like some of his contemporaries such as Degas and Toulouse-Lautrec, employed a technique for painting on canvas known as peinture à l'essence. For this, the oil (binder) is drained from the paint and the remaining sludge of pigment is mixed with turpentine. He may have used a similar technique in preparing his monotypes, using paper instead of metal, as it would absorb oil giving the final images a matte appearance he desired. He also proofed some of his existing drawings with the aid of glass, copying an underneath image onto the glass surface with watercolor or gouache for printing. Gauguin's woodcuts were no less innovative, even to the avant-garde artists responsible for the woodcut revival happening at that time. Instead of incising his blocks with the intent of making a detailed illustration, Gauguin initially chiseled his blocks in a manner similar to wood sculpture, followed by finer tools to create detail and tonality within his bold contours. Many of his tools and techniques were considered experimental. This methodology and use of space ran parallel to his painting of flat, decorative reliefs. Starting in Martinique, Gauguin began using analogous colours in close proximity to achieve a muted effect. Shortly after this, he also made his breakthroughs in non-representational color, creating canvases that had an independent existence and vitality all their own. This gap between surface reality and himself displeased Pissarro and quickly led to the end of their relationship. His human figures at this time are also a reminder of his love affair with Japanese prints, particularly gravitating to the naivety of their figures and compositional austerity as an influence on his primitive manifesto. For that very reason, Gauguin was also inspired by folk art. He sought out a bare emotional purity of his subjects conveyed in a straightforward way, emphasizing major forms and upright lines to clearly define shape and contour. Gauguin also used elaborate formal decoration and coloring in patterns of abstraction, attempting to harmonize man and nature. His depictions of the natives in their natural environment are frequently evident of serenity and a self-contained sustainability. This complimented one of Gauguin's favorite themes, which was the intrusion of the supernatural into day-to-day life, in one instance going so far as to recall ancient Egyptian tomb reliefs with Her Name is Vairaumati and Ta Matete. In an interview with L'Écho de Paris published on 15 March 1895, Gauguin explains that his developing tactical approach is reaching for synesthesia. He states: Every feature in my paintings is carefully considered and calculated in advance. Just as in a musical composition, if you like. My simple object, which I take from daily life or from nature, is merely a pretext, which helps me by the means of a definite arrangement of lines and colours to create symphonies and harmonies. They have no counterparts at all in reality, in the vulgar sense of that word; they do not give direct expression to any idea, their only purpose is to stimulate the imagination—just as music does without the aid of ideas or pictures—simply by that mysterious affinity which exists between certain arrangements of colours and lines and our minds. In an 1888 letter to Schuffenecker, Gauguin explains the enormous step he had taken away from Impressionism and that he was now intent on capturing the soul of nature, the ancient truths and character of its scenery and inhabitants. Gauguin wrote: Don't copy nature too literally. Art is an abstraction. Derive it from nature as you dream in nature's presence, and think more about the act of creation than the outcome. Other media Gauguin began making prints in 1889, highlighted by a series of zincographs commissioned by Theo van Gogh known as the Volpini Suite, which also appeared in the Cafe des Arts show of 1889. Gauguin was not hindered by his printing inexperience, and made a number of provocative and unorthodox choices, such as a zinc plate instead of limestone (lithography), wide margins and large sheets of yellow poster paper. The result was vivid to the point of garish, but foreshadows his more elaborate experiments with colour printing and intent to elevate monochromatic images. His first masterpieces of printing were from the Noa Noa Suite of 1893–94 where he was one of a number of artists reinventing the technique of the woodcut, bringing it into the modern era. He started the series shortly after returning from Tahiti, eager to reclaim a leadership position within the avant-garde and share pictures based on his French Polynesia excursion. These woodcuts were shown at his unsuccessful 1893 show at Paul Durand-Ruel's, and most were directly related to paintings of his in which he had revised the original composition. They were shown again at a small show in his studio in 1894, where he garnered rare critical praise for his exceptional painterly and sculptural effects. Gauguin's emerging preference for the woodcut was not only a natural extension of his wood reliefs and sculpture, but may have also been provoked by its historical significance to medieval artisans and the Japanese. Gauguin started making watercolour monotypes in 1894, likely overlapping his Noa Noa woodcuts, perhaps even serving as a source of inspiration for them. His techniques remained innovative and it was an apt technique for him as it didn't require elaborate equipment, such as a printing press. Despite often being a source of practice for related paintings, sculptures or woodcuts, his monotype innovation offers a distinctly ethereal aesthetic; ghostly afterimages that may express his desire to convey the immemorial truths of nature. His next major woodcut and monotype project was not until 1898–99, known as the Vollard Suite. He completed this enterprising series of 475 prints from some twenty different compositions and sent them to the dealer Ambroise Vollard, despite not compromising to his request for salable, conformed work. Vollard was unsatisfied and made no effort to sell them. Gauguin's series is starkly unified with black and white aesthetic and may have intended the prints to be similar to a set of myriorama cards, in which they may be laid out in any order to create multiple panoramic landscapes. This activity of arranging and rearranging was similar to his own process of repurposing his images and motifs, as well as a symbolism tendency. He printed the work on tissue-thin Japanese paper and the multiple proofs of gray and black could be arranged on top of one another, each transparency of colour showing through to produce a rich, chiaroscuro effect. In 1899 he started his radical experiment: oil transfer drawings. Much like his watercolour monotype technique, it was a hybrid of drawing and printmaking. The transfers were the grand culmination of his quest for an aesthetic of primordial suggestion, which seems to be relayed in his results that echo ancient rubbings, worn frescos and cave paintings. Gauguin's technical progress from monotyping to the oil transfers is quite noticeable, advancing from small sketches to ambitiously large, highly finished sheets. With these transfers he created depth and texture by printing multiple layers onto the same sheet, beginning with graphite pencil and black ink for delineation, before moving to blue crayon to reinforce line and add shading. He would often complete the image with a wash of oiled-down olive or brown ink. The practice consumed Gauguin until his death, fueling his imagination and conception of new subjects and themes for his paintings. This collection was also sent to Vollard who remained unimpressed. Gauguin prized oil transfers for the way they transformed the quality of drawn line. His process, nearly alchemical in nature, had elements of chance by which unexpected marks and textures regularly arose, something that fascinated him. In metamorphosing a drawing into a print, Gauguin made a calculated decision of relinquishing legibility in order to gain mystery and abstraction. He worked in wood throughout his career, particularly during his most prolific periods, and is known for having achieved radical carving results before doing so with painting. Even in his earliest shows, Gauguin often included wood sculpture in his display, from which he built his reputation as a connoisseur of the so-called primitive. A number of his early carvings appear to be influenced by Gothic and Egyptian art. In correspondence, he also asserts a passion for Cambodian art and the masterful colouring of Persian carpet and Oriental rug. Legacy The vogue for Gauguin's work started soon after his death. Many of his later paintings were acquired by the Russian collector Sergei Shchukin. A substantial part of his collection is displayed in the Pushkin Museum and the Hermitage. Gauguin paintings are rarely offered for sale, their prices reaching tens of millions of US dollars in the saleroom when they are offered. His 1892 Nafea Faa Ipoipo (When Will You Marry?) became the world's third-most expensive artwork when its owner, the family of Rudolf Staechelin, sold it privately for US$210 million in September 2014. The buyer is believed to be the Qatar Museums. Gauguin's life inspired W. Somerset Maugham's novel The Moon and Sixpence. Mario Vargas Llosa based his 2003 novel The Way to Paradise on Gauguin's life, and that of his grandmother Flora Tristan. Actor Anthony Quinn portrayed Gauguin in the 1956 Van Gogh biopic Lust for Life and won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance. Oscar Isaac played Gauguin in the later Van Gogh biopic At Eternity's Gate. Wladimir Yordanoff played Gauguin in the 1990 film Vincent & Theo. Gauguin is also the subject of at least two operas: Federico Elizalde's Paul Gauguin (1943); and Gauguin (a synthetic life) by Michael Smetanin and Alison Croggon. Déodat de Séverac wrote his Elegy for piano in memory of Gauguin. The Danish-produced film Oviri (1986) is a biographical film. With Gauguin portrayed by Donald Sutherland, the film follows the painter from the time he returns to Paris in 1893 after a two-year stay in Tahiti and must confront his wife, his children and his former lover. It ends when he returns to Tahiti two years later. Coincidentally, Sutherland's son Kiefer Sutherland portrayed a younger Gauguin in a less focused and much less historically accurate film Paradise Found (2003). Several other independent films have explored different aspects of Gauguin's eventful life. His biography is depicted in the 2017 French film Gauguin: Voyage to Tahiti portraying his life during his years in Tahiti. The Japanese styled Gauguin Museum, opposite the Botanical Gardens of Papeari in Papeari, Tahiti, contains some exhibits, documents, photographs, reproductions and original sketches and block prints of Gauguin and Tahitians. In 2003, the Paul Gauguin Cultural Center opened in Atuona in the Marquesas Islands. In 2014 the painting Fruits on a Table (1889), with an estimated value of between €10m and €30m (£8.3m to £24.8m), which had been stolen in London in 1970, was discovered in Italy. The painting, together with a work by Pierre Bonnard, had been bought by a Fiat employee in 1975, at a railway lost property sale, for 45,000 lira (about £32). Gallery For a comprehensive list of paintings by Gauguin, see List of paintings by Paul Gauguin. Self-portraits: See also Frederick Delius (client and friend) Paul Gauguin's exhibit at Les XX, 1889 Notes References and sources References Sources C. Childs, Elizabeth; Figura, Starr; Foster, Hal; Mosier, Erika (2014). Gauguin: Metamorphosis. Museum of Modern Art. . Eisenman, Stephen F., (1999). Gauguin's Skirt. London: Thames and Hudson. . Eisenman, Stephen F., (2008). Paul Gauguin: Artist of Myth and Dream. Milan: Skira. Gauguin, Paul; Morice, Charles (1901). Noa Noa: The Tahiti Journal of Paul Gauguin. Gauguin, Paul. The letters of Paul Gauguin to Georges Daniel de Monfreid, translated by Ruth Pielkovo; foreword by Frederick O'Brien. archive.org Huntington Wright, Willard (1915). Modern Painting: Its Tendency and Meaning New York: John Lane Company. Rewald, John (1986). Studies in Post-Impressionism. Harry N. Abrams Inc. Richardson, John (1991). A Life of Picasso: The Cubist Rebel: 1907–1916. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. . Solomon-Godeau, Abigail. "Going Native: Paul Gauguin and the Invention of Primitivist Modernist," in The Expanding Discourse: Feminism and Art History. 1st ed. Boulder, CO: WestView, 1992. 313–329 Sweetman, David (1995). Paul Gauguin: A Life. New York City: Simon & Schuster. . Further reading Morice, Charles (1901). Noa Noa: The Tahiti Journal of Paul Gauguin, Paris: H. Floury. Gauguin, Paul (Brooks, Van Wyck, translator; 1997). Gauguin's Intimate Journals. Preface by Emil Gauguin, New York, Crown Publishers, 1936. Pichon, Yann le; translated by I. Mark Paris (1987). Gauguin: Life, Art, Inspiration. New York: Harry N Abrams. . Rewald, John (1956; revised 1978). History of Post-Impressionism: From Van Gogh to Gauguin, London: Secker & Warburg. Rewald, John. (1946) History of Impressionism. External links Gauguin it's not just Genius or Monster, NY Times exhibition review Gauguin Paintings, Sculpture, and Graphic Works at the Art Institute of Chicago Gauguin's Cats in Art The Private Collection of Edgar Degas, fully digitized text from the Metropolitan Museum of Art libraries (see essay: Degas and Gauguin p. 221–234) Gauguin's Intimate Journals, 1936 - on Archive Gauguin - A Dangerous Life - documentary broadcast by BBC Four in December 2019 www.Gauguin.org 1848 births 1903 deaths 19th-century French painters French male painters 19th-century French sculptors French male sculptors 19th-century French writers 20th-century ceramists 20th-century French painters 20th-century male artists 20th-century French sculptors 20th-century French writers Artists from Paris Deaths from syphilis Death in French Polynesia Fauvism French ceramists French people of Peruvian descent French printmakers French sailors Post-impressionist painters Pont-Aven painters French stockbrokers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound%20film

Sound film

A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image, as opposed to a silent film. The first known public exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900, but decades passed before sound motion pictures were made commercially practical. Reliable synchronization was difficult to achieve with the early sound-on-disc systems, and amplification and recording quality were also inadequate. Innovations in sound-on-film led to the first commercial screening of short motion pictures using the technology, which took place in 1923. The primary steps in the commercialization of sound cinema were taken in the mid-to-late 1920s. At first, the sound films which included synchronized dialogue, known as "talking pictures", or "talkies", were exclusively shorts. The earliest feature-length movies with recorded sound included only music and effects. The first feature film originally presented as a talkie (even though it only had some sound sequences) was The Jazz Singer, which premiered on October 6, 1927. A major hit, it was made with Vitaphone, which was at the time the leading brand of sound-on-disc technology. Sound-on-film, however, would soon become the standard for talking pictures. By the early 1930s, the talkies were a global phenomenon. In the United States, they helped secure Hollywood's position as one of the world's most powerful cultural/commercial centers of influence (see Cinema of the United States). In Europe (and, to a lesser degree, elsewhere), the new development was treated with suspicion by many filmmakers and critics, who worried that a focus on dialogue would subvert the unique aesthetic virtues of soundless cinema. In Japan, where the popular film tradition integrated silent movie and live vocal performance, talking pictures were slow to take root. Conversely, in India, sound was the transformative element that led to the rapid expansion of the nation's film industry. History Early steps The idea of combining motion pictures with recorded sound is nearly as old as the concept of cinema itself. On February 27, 1888, a couple of days after photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge gave a lecture not far from the laboratory of Thomas Edison, the two inventors met privately. Muybridge later claimed that on this occasion, six years before the first commercial motion picture exhibition, he proposed a scheme for sound cinema that would combine his image-casting zoopraxiscope with Edison's recorded-sound technology. No agreement was reached, but within a year Edison commissioned the development of the Kinetoscope, essentially a "peep-show" system, as a visual complement to his cylinder phonograph. The two devices were brought together as the Kinetophone in 1895, but individual, cabinet viewing of motion pictures was soon to be outmoded by successes in film projection. In 1899, a projected sound-film system known as Cinemacrophonograph or Phonorama, based primarily on the work of Swiss-born inventor François Dussaud, was exhibited in Paris; similar to the Kinetophone, the system required individual use of earphones. An improved cylinder-based system, Phono-Cinéma-Théâtre, was developed by Clément-Maurice Gratioulet and Henri Lioret of France, allowing short films of theater, opera, and ballet excerpts to be presented at the Paris Exposition in 1900. These appear to be the first publicly exhibited films with projection of both image and recorded sound. Phonorama and yet another sound-film system—Théâtroscope—were also presented at the Exposition. Three major problems persisted, leading to motion pictures and sound recording largely taking separate paths for a generation. The primary issue was synchronization: pictures and sound were recorded and played back by separate devices, which were difficult to start and maintain in tandem. Sufficient playback volume was also hard to achieve. While motion picture projectors soon allowed film to be shown to large theater audiences, audio technology before the development of electric amplification could not project satisfactorily to fill large spaces. Finally, there was the challenge of recording fidelity. The primitive systems of the era produced sound of very low quality unless the performers were stationed directly in front of the cumbersome recording devices (acoustical horns, for the most part), imposing severe limits on the sort of films that could be created with live-recorded sound. Cinematic innovators attempted to cope with the fundamental synchronization problem in a variety of ways. An increasing number of motion picture systems relied on gramophone records—known as sound-on-disc technology. The records themselves were often referred to as "Berliner discs", after one of the primary inventors in the field, German-American Emile Berliner. In 1902, Léon Gaumont demonstrated his sound-on-disc Chronophone, involving an electrical connection he had recently patented, to the French Photographic Society. Four years later, Gaumont introduced the Elgéphone, a compressed-air amplification system based on the Auxetophone, developed by British inventors Horace Short and Charles Parsons. Despite high expectations, Gaumont's sound innovations had only limited commercial success. Despite some improvements, they still did not satisfactorily address the three basic issues with sound film and were expensive as well. For some years, American inventor E. E. Norton's Cameraphone was the primary competitor to the Gaumont system (sources differ on whether the Cameraphone was disc- or cylinder-based); it ultimately failed for many of the same reasons that held back the Chronophone. In 1913, Edison introduced a new cylinder-based synch-sound apparatus known, just like his 1895 system, as the Kinetophone. Instead of films being shown to individual viewers in the Kinetoscope cabinet, they were now projected onto a screen. The phonograph was connected by an intricate arrangement of pulleys to the film projector, allowing—under ideal conditions—for synchronization. However, conditions were rarely ideal, and the new, improved Kinetophone was retired after little more than a year. By the mid-1910s, the groundswell in commercial sound motion picture exhibition had subsided. Beginning in 1914, The Photo-Drama of Creation, promoting Jehovah's Witnesses' conception of humankind's genesis, was screened around the United States: eight hours worth of projected visuals involving both slides and live action, synchronized with separately recorded lectures and musical performances played back on phonograph. Meanwhile, innovations continued on another significant front. In 1900, as part of the research he was conducting on the photophone, the German physicist Ernst Ruhmer recorded the fluctuations of the transmitting arc-light as varying shades of light and dark bands onto a continuous roll of photographic film. He then determined that he could reverse the process and reproduce the recorded sound from this photographic strip by shining a bright light through the running filmstrip, with the resulting varying light illuminating a selenium cell. The changes in brightness caused a corresponding change to the selenium's resistance to electrical currents, which was used to modulate the sound produced in a telephone receiver. He called this invention the photographophone, which he summarized as: "It is truly a wonderful process: sound becomes electricity, becomes light, causes chemical actions, becomes light and electricity again, and finally sound." Ruhmer began a correspondence with the French-born, London-based Eugene Lauste, who had worked at Edison's lab between 1886 and 1892. In 1907, Lauste was awarded the first patent for sound-on-film technology, involving the transformation of sound into light waves that are photographically recorded direct onto celluloid. As described by historian Scott Eyman, It was a double system, that is, the sound was on a different piece of film from the picture.... In essence, the sound was captured by a microphone and translated into light waves via a light valve, a thin ribbon of sensitive metal over a tiny slit. The sound reaching this ribbon would be converted into light by the shivering of the diaphragm, focusing the resulting light waves through the slit, where it would be photographed on the side of the film, on a strip about a tenth of an inch wide. In 1908, Lauste purchased a photographophone from Ruhmer, with the intention of perfecting the device into a commercial product. Though sound-on-film would eventually become the universal standard for synchronized sound cinema. Lauste never successfully exploited his innovations, which came to an effective dead end. In 1914, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt was granted German patent 309,536 for his sound-on-film work; that same year, he apparently demonstrated a film made with the process to an audience of scientists in Berlin. Hungarian engineer Denes Mihaly submitted his sound-on-film Projectofon concept to the Royal Hungarian Patent Court in 1918; the patent award was published four years later. Whether sound was captured on cylinder, disc, or film, none of the available technology was adequate for big-league commercial purposes, and for many years the heads of the major Hollywood film studios saw little benefit in producing sound motion pictures. Crucial innovations A number of technological developments contributed to making sound cinema commercially viable by the late 1920s. Two involved contrasting approaches to synchronized sound reproduction, or playback: Advanced sound-on-film In 1919, American inventor Lee De Forest was awarded several patents that would lead to the first optical sound-on-film technology with commercial application. In De Forest's system, the sound track was photographically recorded onto the side of the strip of motion picture film to create a composite, or "married", print. If proper synchronization of sound and picture was achieved in recording, it could be absolutely counted on in playback. Over the next four years, he improved his system with the help of equipment and patents licensed from another American inventor in the field, Theodore Case. At the University of Illinois, Polish-born research engineer Joseph Tykociński-Tykociner was working independently on a similar process. On June 9, 1922, he gave the first reported U.S. demonstration of a sound-on-film motion picture to members of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. As with Lauste and Tigerstedt, Tykociner's system would never be taken advantage of commercially; however, De Forest's soon would. On April 15, 1923, at the New York City's Rivoli Theater, the first commercial screening of motion pictures with sound-on-film took place. This would become the future standard. It consisted of a set of short films varying in length and featuring some of the most popular stars of the 1920s (including Eddie Cantor, Harry Richman, Sophie Tucker, and George Jessel among others) doing stage performances such as vaudevilles, musical acts, and speeches which accompanied the screening of the silent feature film Bella Donna. All of them were presented under the banner of De Forest Phonofilms. The set included the 11-minute short film From far Seville starring Concha Piquer. In 2010, a copy of the tape was found in the U.S. Library of Congress, where it is currently preserved. Critics attending the event praised the novelty but not the sound quality which received negative reviews in general. That June, De Forest entered into an extended legal battle with an employee, Freeman Harrison Owens, for title to one of the crucial Phonofilm patents. Although De Forest ultimately won the case in the courts, Owens is today recognized as a central innovator in the field. The following year, De Forest's studio released the first commercial dramatic film shot as a talking picture—the two-reeler Love's Old Sweet Song, directed by J. Searle Dawley and featuring Una Merkel. However, phonofilm's stock in trade was not original dramas but celebrity documentaries, popular music acts, and comedy performances. President Calvin Coolidge, opera singer Abbie Mitchell, and vaudeville stars such as Phil Baker, Ben Bernie, Eddie Cantor and Oscar Levant appeared in the firm's pictures. Hollywood remained suspicious, even fearful, of the new technology. As Photoplay editor James Quirk put it in March 1924, "Talking pictures are perfected, says Dr. Lee De Forest. So is castor oil." De Forest's process continued to be used through 1927 in the United States for dozens of short Phonofilms; in the UK it was employed a few years longer for both shorts and features by British Sound Film Productions, a subsidiary of British Talking Pictures, which purchased the primary Phonofilm assets. By the end of 1930, the Phonofilm business would be liquidated. In Europe, others were also working on the development of sound-on-film. In 1919, the same year that DeForest received his first patents in the field, three German inventors, Josef Engl (1893–1942), Hans Vogt (1890–1979), and Joseph Massolle (1889–1957), patented the Tri-Ergon sound system. On September 17, 1922, the Tri-Ergon group gave a public screening of sound-on-film productions—including a dramatic talkie, Der Brandstifter (The Arsonist) —before an invited audience at the Alhambra Kino in Berlin. By the end of the decade, Tri-Ergon would be the dominant European sound system. In 1923, two Danish engineers, Axel Petersen and Arnold Poulsen, patented a system that recorded sound on a separate filmstrip running parallel with the image reel. Gaumont licensed the technology and briefly put it to commercial use under the name Cinéphone. Domestic competition, however, eclipsed Phonofilm. By September 1925, De Forest and Case's working arrangement had fallen through. The following July, Case joined Fox Film, Hollywood's third largest studio, to found the Fox-Case Corporation. The system developed by Case and his assistant, Earl Sponable, given the name Movietone, thus became the first viable sound-on-film technology controlled by a Hollywood movie studio. The following year, Fox purchased the North American rights to the Tri-Ergon system, though the company found it inferior to Movietone and virtually impossible to integrate the two different systems to advantage. In 1927, as well, Fox retained the services of Freeman Owens, who had particular expertise in constructing cameras for synch-sound film. Advanced sound-on-disc Parallel with improvements in sound-on-film technology, a number of companies were making progress with systems that recorded movie sound on phonograph discs. In sound-on-disc technology from the era, a phonograph turntable is connected by a mechanical interlock to a specially modified film projector, allowing for synchronization. In 1921, the Photokinema sound-on-disc system developed by Orlando Kellum was employed to add synchronized sound sequences to D. W. Griffith's failed silent film Dream Street. A love song, performed by star Ralph Graves, was recorded, as was a sequence of live vocal effects. Apparently, dialogue scenes were also recorded, but the results were unsatisfactory and the film was never publicly screened incorporating them. On May 1, 1921, Dream Street was re-released, with love song added, at New York City's Town Hall theater, qualifying it—however haphazardly—as the first feature-length film with a live-recorded vocal sequence. However, the sound quality was very poor and no other theaters could show the sound version of the film as no one had the Photokinema sound system installed. On Sunday, May 29, Dream Street opened at the Shubert Crescent Theater in Brooklyn with a program of short films made in Phonokinema. However, business was poor, and the program soon closed. In 1925, Sam Warner of Warner Bros., then a small Hollywood studio with big ambitions, saw a demonstration of the Western Electric sound-on-disc system and was sufficiently impressed to persuade his brothers to agree to experiment with using this system at New York City's Vitagraph Studios, which they had recently purchased. The tests were convincing to the Warner Brothers, if not to the executives of some other picture companies who witnessed them. Consequently, in April 1926 the Western Electric Company entered into a contract with Warner Brothers and W. J. Rich, a financier, giving them an exclusive license for recording and reproducing sound pictures under the Western Electric system. To exploit this license the Vitaphone Corporation was organized with Samuel L. Warner as its president. Vitaphone, as this system was now called, was publicly introduced on August 6, 1926, with the premiere of Don Juan; the first feature-length movie to employ a synchronized sound system of any type throughout, its soundtrack contained a musical score and added sound effects, but no recorded dialogue—in other words, it had been staged and shot as a silent film. Accompanying Don Juan, however, were eight shorts of musical performances, mostly classical, as well as a four-minute filmed introduction by Will H. Hays, president of the Motion Picture Association of America, all with live-recorded sound. These were the first true sound films exhibited by a Hollywood studio. Warner Bros.' The Better 'Ole, technically similar to Don Juan, followed in October. Sound-on-film would ultimately win out over sound-on-disc because of a number of fundamental technical advantages: Synchronization: no interlock system was completely reliable, and a projectionist's error, or an inexactly repaired film break, or a defect in the soundtrack disc could result in the sound becoming seriously and irrecoverably out of sync with the picture Editing: discs could not be directly edited, severely limiting the ability to make alterations in their accompanying films after the original release cut Distribution: phonograph discs added expense and complication to film distribution Wear and tear: the physical process of playing the discs degraded them, requiring their replacement after approximately twenty screenings Nonetheless, in the early years, sound-on-disc had the edge over sound-on-film in two substantial ways: Production and capital cost: it was generally less expensive to record sound onto disc than onto film and the exhibition systems—turntable/interlock/projector—were cheaper to manufacture than the complex image-and-audio-pattern-reading projectors required by sound-on-film Audio quality: phonograph discs, Vitaphone's in particular, had superior dynamic range to most sound-on-film processes of the day, at least during the first few playings; while sound-on-film tended to have better frequency response, this was outweighed by greater distortion and noise As sound-on-film technology improved, both of these disadvantages were overcome. The third crucial set of innovations marked a major step forward in both the live recording of sound and its effective playback: Fidelity electronic recording and amplification In 1913, Western Electric, the manufacturing division of AT&T, acquired the rights to the de Forest audion, the forerunner of the triode vacuum tube. Over the next few years they developed it into a predictable and reliable device that made electronic amplification possible for the first time. Western Electric then branched-out into developing uses for the vacuum tube including public address systems and an electrical recording system for the recording industry. Beginning in 1922, the research branch of Western Electric began working intensively on recording technology for both sound-on-disc and sound-on film synchronised sound systems for motion-pictures. The engineers working on the sound-on-disc system were able to draw on expertise that Western Electric already had in electrical disc recording and were thus able to make faster initial progress. The main change required was to increase the playing time of the disc so that it could match that of a standard reel of 35 mm film. The chosen design used a disc nearly 16 inches (about 40 cm) in diameter rotating at 33 1/3 rpm. This could play for 11 minutes, the running time of 1000 ft of film at 90 ft/min (24 frames/s). Because of the larger diameter the minimum groove velocity of 70 ft/min (14 inches or 356 mm/s) was only slightly less than that of a standard 10-inch 78 rpm commercial disc. In 1925, the company publicly introduced a greatly improved system of electronic audio, including sensitive condenser microphones and rubber-line recorders (named after the use of a rubber damping band for recording with better frequency response onto a wax master disc). That May, the company licensed entrepreneur Walter J. Rich to exploit the system for commercial motion pictures; he founded Vitagraph, in which Warner Bros. acquired a half interest, just one month later. In April 1926, Warners signed a contract with AT&T for exclusive use of its film sound technology for the redubbed Vitaphone operation, leading to the production of Don Juan and its accompanying shorts over the following months. During the period when Vitaphone had exclusive access to the patents, the fidelity of recordings made for Warners films was markedly superior to those made for the company's sound-on-film competitors. Meanwhile, Bell Labs—the new name for the AT&T research operation—was working at a furious pace on sophisticated sound amplification technology that would allow recordings to be played back over loudspeakers at theater-filling volume. The new moving-coil speaker system was installed in New York's Warners Theatre at the end of July and its patent submission, for what Western Electric called the No. 555 Receiver, was filed on August 4, just two days before the premiere of Don Juan. Late in the year, AT&T/Western Electric created a licensing division, Electrical Research Products Inc. (ERPI), to handle rights to the company's film-related audio technology. Vitaphone still had legal exclusivity, but having lapsed in its royalty payments, effective control of the rights was in ERPI's hands. On December 31, 1926, Warners granted Fox-Case a sublicense for the use of the Western Electric system; in exchange for the sublicense, both Warners and ERPI received a share of Fox's related revenues. The patents of all three concerns were cross-licensed. Superior recording and amplification technology was now available to two Hollywood studios, pursuing two very different methods of sound reproduction. The new year would finally see the emergence of sound cinema as a significant commercial medium. Travel In 1929 a "new RCA Photophone portable sound and picture reproducing system" was described in the industry journal Projection Engineering. In Australia, Hoyts and Gilby Talkies Pty., Ltd were touring talking pictures to country towns. The same year the White Star Line installed talking picture equipment on the s.s. Majestic. The features shown on the first voyage were Show Boat and Broadway. Triumph of the "talkies" In February 1927, an agreement was signed by five leading Hollywood movie companies: Famous Players-Lasky (soon to be part of Paramount), Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Universal, First National, and Cecil B. DeMille's small but prestigious Producers Distributing Corporation (PDC). The five studios agreed to collectively select just one provider for sound conversion, and then waited to see what sort of results the front-runners came up with. In May, Warner Bros. sold back its exclusivity rights to ERPI (along with the Fox-Case sublicense) and signed a new royalty contract similar to Fox's for use of Western Electric technology. Fox and Warners pressed forward with sound cinema, moving in different directions both technologically and commercially: Fox moved into newsreels and then scored dramas, while Warners concentrated on talking features. Meanwhile, ERPI sought to corner the market by signing up the five allied studios. The big sound film sensations of the year all took advantage of preexisting celebrity. On May 20, 1927, at New York City's Roxy Theater, Fox Movietone presented a sound film of the takeoff of Charles Lindbergh's celebrated flight to Paris, recorded earlier that day. In June, a Fox sound newsreel depicting his return welcomes in New York City and Washington, D.C., was shown. These were the two most acclaimed sound motion pictures to date. In May, as well, Fox had released the first Hollywood fiction film with synchronized dialogue: the short They're Coming to Get Me, starring comedian Chic Sale. After rereleasing a few silent feature hits, such as Seventh Heaven, with recorded music, Fox came out with its first original Movietone feature on September 23: Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans, by acclaimed German director F. W. Murnau. As with Don Juan, the film's soundtrack consisted of a musical score and sound effects (including, in a couple of crowd scenes, "wild", nonspecific vocals). Then, on October 6, 1927, Warner Bros.' The Jazz Singer premiered. It was a smash box office success for the mid-level studio, earning a total of $2.625 million in the United States and abroad, almost a million dollars more than the previous record for a Warner Bros. film. Produced with the Vitaphone system, most of the film does not contain live-recorded audio, relying, like Sunrise and Don Juan, on a score and effects. When the movie's star, Al Jolson, sings, however, the film shifts to sound recorded on the set, including both his musical performances and two scenes with ad-libbed speech—one of Jolson's character, Jakie Rabinowitz (Jack Robin), addressing a cabaret audience; the other an exchange between him and his mother. The "natural" sounds of the settings were also audible. Though the success of The Jazz Singer was due largely to Jolson, already established as one of U.S. biggest music stars, and its limited use of synchronized sound hardly qualified it as an innovative sound film (let alone the "first"), the movie's profits were proof enough to the industry that the technology was worth investing in. The development of commercial sound cinema had proceeded in fits and starts before The Jazz Singer, and the film's success did not change things overnight. Influential gossip columnist Louella Parsons' reaction to The Jazz Singer was badly off the mark: "I have no fear that the screeching sound film will ever disturb our theaters," while MGM head of production Irving Thalberg called the film "a good gimmick, but that's all it was." Not until May 1928 did the group of four big studios (PDC had dropped out of the alliance), along with United Artists and others, sign with ERPI for conversion of production facilities and theaters for sound film. It was a daunting commitment; revamping a single theater cost as much as $15,000 (the equivalent of $220,000 in 2019), and there were more than 20,000 movie theaters in the United States. By 1930, only half of the theaters had been wired for sound. Initially, all ERPI-wired theaters were made Vitaphone-compatible; most were equipped to project Movietone reels as well. However, even with access to both technologies, most of the Hollywood companies remained slow to produce talking features of their own. No studio besides Warner Bros. released even a part-talking feature until the low-budget-oriented Film Booking Offices of America (FBO) premiered The Perfect Crime on June 17, 1928, eight months after The Jazz Singer. FBO had come under the effective control of a Western Electric competitor, General Electric's RCA division, which was looking to market its new sound-on-film system, Photophone. Unlike Fox-Case's Movietone and De Forest's Phonofilm, which were variable-density systems, Photophone was a variable-area system—a refinement in the way the audio signal was inscribed on film that would ultimately become the standard. (In both sorts of systems, a specially-designed lamp, whose exposure to the film is determined by the audio input, is used to record sound photographically as a series of minuscule lines. In a variable-density process, the lines are of varying darkness; in a variable-area process, the lines are of varying width.) By October, the FBO-RCA alliance would lead to the creation of Hollywood's newest major studio, RKO Pictures. Meanwhile, Warner Bros. had released three more talkies, all profitable, if not at the level of The Jazz Singer: In March, Tenderloin appeared; it was billed by Warners as the first feature in which characters spoke their parts, though only 15 of its 88 minutes had dialogue. Glorious Betsy followed in April, and The Lion and the Mouse (31 minutes of dialogue) in May. On July 6, 1928, the first all-talking feature, Lights of New York, premiered. The film cost Warner Bros. only $23,000 to produce, but grossed $1,252,000, a record rate of return surpassing 5,000%. In September, the studio released another Al Jolson part-talking picture, The Singing Fool, which more than doubled The Jazz Singer'''s earnings record for a Warner Bros. movie. This second Jolson screen smash demonstrated the movie musical's ability to turn a song into a national hit: inside of nine months, the Jolson number "Sonny Boy" had racked up 2 million record and 1.25 million sheet music sales. September 1928 also saw the release of Paul Terry's Dinner Time, among the first animated cartoons produced with synchronized sound. Soon after he saw it, Walt Disney released his first sound picture, the Mickey Mouse short Steamboat Willie. Over the course of 1928, as Warner Bros. began to rake in huge profits due to the popularity of its sound films, the other studios quickened the pace of their conversion to the new technology. Paramount, the industry leader, put out its first talkie in late September, Beggars of Life; though it had just a few lines of dialogue, it demonstrated the studio's recognition of the new medium's power. Interference, Paramount's first all-talker, debuted in November. The process known as "goat glanding" briefly became widespread: soundtracks, sometimes including a smatter of post-dubbed dialogue or song, were added to movies that had been shot, and in some cases released, as silents. A few minutes of singing could qualify such a newly endowed film as a "musical." (Griffith's Dream Street had essentially been a "goat gland.") Expectations swiftly changed, and the sound "fad" of 1927 became standard procedure by 1929. In February 1929, sixteen months after The Jazz Singers debut, Columbia Pictures became the last of the eight studios that would be known as "majors" during Hollywood's Golden Age to release its first part-talking feature, The Lone Wolf's Daughter. In late May, the first all-color, all-talking feature, Warner Bros.' On with the Show!, premiered. Yet most American movie theaters, especially outside of urban areas, were still not equipped for sound: while the number of sound cinemas grew from 100 to 800 between 1928 and 1929, they were still vastly outnumbered by silent theaters, which had actually grown in number as well, from 22,204 to 22,544. The studios, in parallel, were still not entirely convinced of the talkies' universal appeal—until mid-1930, the majority of Hollywood movies were produced in dual versions, silent as well as talking. Though few in the industry predicted it, silent film as a viable commercial medium in the United States would soon be little more than a memory. Points West, a Hoot Gibson Western released by Universal Pictures in August 1929, was the last purely silent mainstream feature put out by a major Hollywood studio. Transition: Europe The Jazz Singer had its European sound premiere at the Piccadilly Theatre in London on September 27, 1928. According to film historian Rachael Low, "Many in the industry realized at once that a change to sound production was inevitable." On January 16, 1929, the first European feature film with a synchronized vocal performance and recorded score premiered: the German production Ich küsse Ihre Hand, Madame (I Kiss Your Hand, Madame). Dialogueless, it contains only a few songs performed by Richard Tauber. The movie was made with the sound-on-film system controlled by the German-Dutch firm Tobis, corporate heirs to the Tri-Ergon concern. With an eye toward commanding the emerging European market for sound film, Tobis entered into a compact with its chief competitor, Klangfilm, a joint subsidiary of Germany's two leading electrical manufacturers. Early in 1929, Tobis and Klangfilm began comarketing their recording and playback technologies. As ERPI began to wire theaters around Europe, Tobis-Klangfilm claimed that the Western Electric system infringed on the Tri-Ergon patents, stalling the introduction of American technology in many places. Just as RCA had entered the movie business to maximize its recording system's value, Tobis also established its own production operations. During 1929, most of the major European filmmaking countries began joining Hollywood in the changeover to sound. Many of the trend-setting European talkies were shot abroad as production companies leased studios while their own were being converted or as they deliberately targeted markets speaking different languages. One of Europe's first two feature-length dramatic talkies was created in still a different sort of twist on multinational moviemaking: The Crimson Circle was a coproduction between director Friedrich Zelnik's Efzet-Film company and British Sound Film Productions (BSFP). In 1928, the film had been released as the silent Der Rote Kreis in Germany, where it was shot; English dialogue was apparently dubbed in much later using the De Forest Phonofilm process controlled by BSFP's corporate parent. It was given a British trade screening in March 1929, as was a part-talking film made entirely in the UK: The Clue of the New Pin, a British Lion production using the sound-on-disc British Photophone system. In May, Black Waters, which British and Dominions Film Corporation promoted as the first UK all-talker, received its initial trade screening; it had been shot completely in Hollywood with a Western Electric sound-on-film system. None of these pictures made much impact. The first successful European dramatic talkie was the all-British Blackmail. Directed by twenty-nine-year-old Alfred Hitchcock, the movie had its London debut June 21, 1929. Originally shot as a silent, Blackmail was restaged to include dialogue sequences, along with a score and sound effects, before its premiere. A British International Pictures (BIP) production, it was recorded on RCA Photophone, General Electric having bought a share of AEG so they could access the Tobis-Klangfilm markets. Blackmail was a substantial hit; critical response was also positive—notorious curmudgeon Hugh Castle, for example, called it "perhaps the most intelligent mixture of sound and silence we have yet seen." On August 23, the modest-sized Austrian film industry came out with a talkie: G'schichten aus der Steiermark (Stories from Styria), an Eagle Film–Ottoton Film production. On September 30, the first entirely German-made feature-length dramatic talkie, Das Land ohne Frauen (Land Without Women), premiered. A Tobis Filmkunst production, about one-quarter of the movie contained dialogue, which was strictly segregated from the special effects and music. The response was underwhelming. Sweden's first talkie, Konstgjorda Svensson (Artificial Svensson), premiered on October 14. Eight days later, Aubert Franco-Film came out with Le Collier de la reine (The Queen's Necklace), shot at the Épinay studio near Paris. Conceived as a silent film, it was given a Tobis-recorded score and a single talking sequence—the first dialogue scene in a French feature. On October 31, Les Trois masques (The Three Masks) debuted; a Pathé-Natan film, it is generally regarded as the initial French feature talkie, though it was shot, like Blackmail, at the Elstree studio, just outside London. The production company had contracted with RCA Photophone and Britain then had the nearest facility with the system. The Braunberger-Richebé talkie La Route est belle (The Road Is Fine), also shot at Elstree, followed a few weeks later. Before the Paris studios were fully sound-equipped—a process that stretched well into 1930—a number of other early French talkies were shot in Germany. The first all-talking German feature, Atlantik, had premiered in Berlin on October 28. Yet another Elstree-made movie, it was rather less German at heart than Les Trois masques and La Route est belle were French; a BIP production with a British scenarist and German director, it was also shot in English as Atlantic. The entirely German Aafa-Film production It's You I Have Loved (Dich hab ich geliebt) opened three-and-a-half weeks later. It was not "Germany's First Talking Film", as the marketing had it, but it was the first to be released in the United States. In 1930, the first Polish talkies premiered, using sound-on-disc systems: Moralność pani Dulskiej (The Morality of Mrs. Dulska) in March and the all-talking Niebezpieczny romans (Dangerous Love Affair) in October. In Italy, whose once vibrant film industry had become moribund by the late 1920s, the first talkie, La Canzone dell'amore (The Song of Love), also came out in October; within two years, Italian cinema would be enjoying a revival. The first movie spoken in Czech debuted in 1930 as well, Tonka Šibenice (Tonka of the Gallows). Several European nations with minor positions in the field also produced their first talking pictures—Belgium (in French), Denmark, Greece, and Romania. The Soviet Union's robust film industry came out with its first sound features in December 1930: Dziga Vertov's nonfiction Enthusiasm had an experimental, dialogueless soundtrack; Abram Room's documentary Plan velikikh rabot (The Plan of the Great Works) had music and spoken voiceovers. Both were made with locally developed sound-on-film systems, two of the two hundred or so movie sound systems then available somewhere in the world. In June 1931, the Nikolai Ekk drama Putevka v zhizn (The Road to Life or A Start in Life), premiered as the Soviet Union's first true talking picture. Throughout much of Europe, conversion of exhibition venues lagged well behind production capacity, requiring talkies to be produced in parallel silent versions or simply shown without sound in many places. While the pace of conversion was relatively swift in Britain—with over 60 percent of theaters equipped for sound by the end of 1930, similar to the U.S. figure—in France, by contrast, more than half of theaters nationwide were still projecting in silence by late 1932. According to scholar Colin G. Crisp, "Anxiety about resuscitating the flow of silent films was frequently expressed in the [French] industrial press, and a large section of the industry still saw the silent as a viable artistic and commercial prospect till about 1935." The situation was particularly acute in the Soviet Union; as of May 1933, fewer than one out of every hundred film projectors in the country was as yet equipped for sound. Transition: Asia During the 1920s and 1930s, Japan was one of the world's two largest producers of motion pictures, along with the United States. Though the country's film industry was among the first to produce both sound and talking features, the full changeover to sound proceeded much more slowly than in the West. It appears that the first Japanese sound film, Reimai (Dawn), was made in 1926 with the De Forest Phonofilm system. Using the sound-on-disc Minatoki system, the leading Nikkatsu studio produced a pair of talkies in 1929: Taii no musume (The Captain's Daughter) and Furusato (Hometown), the latter directed by Kenji Mizoguchi. The rival Shochiku studio began the successful production of sound-on-film talkies in 1931 using a variable-density process called Tsuchibashi. Two years later, however, more than 80 percent of movies made in the country were still silents. Two of the country's leading directors, Mikio Naruse and Yasujirō Ozu, did not make their first sound films until 1935 and 1936, respectively. As late as 1938, over a third of all movies produced in Japan were shot without dialogue. The enduring popularity of the silent medium in Japanese cinema owed in great part to the tradition of the benshi, a live narrator who performed as accompaniment to a film screening. As director Akira Kurosawa later described, the benshi "not only recounted the plot of the films, they enhanced the emotional content by performing the voices and sound effects and providing evocative descriptions of events and images on the screen.... The most popular narrators were stars in their own right, solely responsible for the patronage of a particular theatre." Film historian Mariann Lewinsky argues, The end of silent film in the West and in Japan was imposed by the industry and the market, not by any inner need or natural evolution.... Silent cinema was a highly pleasurable and fully mature form. It didn't lack anything, least in Japan, where there was always the human voice doing the dialogues and the commentary. Sound films were not better, just more economical. As a cinema owner you didn't have to pay the wages of musicians and benshi any more. And a good benshi was a star demanding star payment. By the same token, the viability of the benshi system facilitated a gradual transition to sound—allowing the studios to spread out the capital costs of conversion and their directors and technical crews time to become familiar with the new technology. The Mandarin-language Gēnǚ hóng mǔdān (, Singsong Girl Red Peony), starring Butterfly Wu, premiered as China's first feature talkie in 1930. By February of that year, production was apparently completed on a sound version of The Devil's Playground, arguably qualifying it as the first Australian talking motion picture; however, the May press screening of Commonwealth Film Contest prizewinner Fellers is the first verifiable public exhibition of an Australian talkie. In September 1930, a song performed by Indian star Sulochana, excerpted from the silent feature Madhuri (1928), was released as a synchronized-sound short, the country's first. The following year, Ardeshir Irani directed the first Indian talking feature, the Hindi-Urdu Alam Ara, and produced Kalidas, primarily in Tamil with some Telugu. Nineteen-thirty-one also saw the first Bengali-language film, Jamai Sasthi, and the first movie fully spoken in Telugu, Bhakta Prahlada. In 1932, Ayodhyecha Raja became the first movie in which Marathi was spoken to be released (though Sant Tukaram was the first to go through the official censorship process); the first Gujarati-language film, Narsimha Mehta, and all-Tamil talkie, Kalava, debuted as well. The next year, Ardeshir Irani produced the first Persian-language talkie, Dukhtar-e-loor. Also in 1933, the first Cantonese-language films were produced in Hong Kong—Sha zai dongfang (The Idiot's Wedding Night) and Liang xing (Conscience); within two years, the local film industry had fully converted to sound. Korea, where pyonsa (or byun-sa) held a role and status similar to that of the Japanese benshi, in 1935 became the last country with a significant film industry to produce its first talking picture: Chunhyangjeon (/) is based on the seventeenth-century pansori folktale "Chunhyangga", of which as many as fifteen film versions have been made through 2009. Consequences Technology In the short term, the introduction of live sound recording caused major difficulties in production. Cameras were noisy, so a soundproofed cabinet was used in many of the earliest talkies to isolate the loud equipment from the actors, at the expense of a drastic reduction in the ability to move the camera. For a time, multiple-camera shooting was used to compensate for the loss of mobility and innovative studio technicians could often find ways to liberate the camera for particular shots. The necessity of staying within range of still microphones meant that actors also often had to limit their movements unnaturally. Show Girl in Hollywood (1930), from First National Pictures (which Warner Bros. had taken control of thanks to its profitable adventure into sound), gives a behind-the-scenes look at some of the techniques involved in shooting early talkies. Several of the fundamental problems caused by the transition to sound were soon solved with new camera casings, known as "blimps", designed to suppress noise and boom microphones that could be held just out of frame and moved with the actors. In 1931, a major improvement in playback fidelity was introduced: three-way speaker systems in which sound was separated into low, medium, and high frequencies and sent respectively to a large bass "woofer", a midrange driver, and a treble "tweeter." There were consequences, as well, for other technological aspects of the cinema. Proper recording and playback of sound required exact standardization of camera and projector speed. Before sound, 16 frames per second (fps) was the supposed norm, but practice varied widely. Cameras were often undercranked or overcranked to improve exposures or for dramatic effect. Projectors were commonly run too fast to shorten running time and squeeze in extra shows. Variable frame rate, however, made sound unlistenable, and a new, strict standard of 24 fps was soon established. Sound also forced the abandonment of the noisy arc lights used for filming in studio interiors. The switch to quiet incandescent illumination in turn required a switch to more expensive film stock. The sensitivity of the new panchromatic film delivered superior image tonal quality and gave directors the freedom to shoot scenes at lower light levels than was previously practical. As David Bordwell describes, technological improvements continued at a swift pace: "Between 1932 and 1935, [Western Electric and RCA] created directional microphones, increased the frequency range of film recording, reduced ground noise ... and extended the volume range." These technical advances often meant new aesthetic opportunities: "Increasing the fidelity of recording ... heightened the dramatic possibilities of vocal timbre, pitch, and loudness." Another basic problem—famously spoofed in the 1952 film Singin' in the Rain—was that some silent-era actors simply did not have attractive voices; though this issue was frequently overstated, there were related concerns about general vocal quality and the casting of performers for their dramatic skills in roles also requiring singing talent beyond their own. By 1935, rerecording of vocals by the original or different actors in postproduction, a process known as "looping", had become practical. The ultraviolet recording system introduced by RCA in 1936 improved the reproduction of sibilants and high notes. With Hollywood's wholesale adoption of the talkies, the competition between the two fundamental approaches to sound-film production was soon resolved. Over the course of 1930–31, the only major players using sound-on-disc, Warner Bros. and First National, changed over to sound-on-film recording. Vitaphone's dominating presence in sound-equipped theaters, however, meant that for years to come all of the Hollywood studios pressed and distributed sound-on-disc versions of their films alongside the sound-on-film prints. Fox Movietone soon followed Vitaphone into disuse as a recording and reproduction method, leaving two major American systems: the variable-area RCA Photophone and Western Electric's own variable-density process, a substantial improvement on the cross-licensed Movietone. Under RCA's instigation, the two parent companies made their projection equipment compatible, meaning films shot with one system could be screened in theaters equipped for the other. This left one big issue—the Tobis-Klangfilm challenge. In May 1930, Western Electric won an Austrian lawsuit that voided protection for certain Tri-Ergon patents, helping bring Tobis-Klangfilm to the negotiating table. The following month an accord was reached on patent cross-licensing, full playback compatibility, and the division of the world into three parts for the provision of equipment. As a contemporary report describes: Tobis-Klangfilm has the exclusive rights to provide equipment for: Germany, Danzig, Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, Holland, the Dutch Indies, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, and Finland. The Americans have the exclusive rights for the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and Russia. All other countries, among them Italy, France, and England, are open to both parties. The agreement did not resolve all the patent disputes, and further negotiations were undertaken and concords signed over the course of the 1930s. During these years, as well, the American studios began abandoning the Western Electric system for RCA Photophone's variable-area approach—by the end of 1936, only Paramount, MGM, and United Artists still had contracts with ERPI. Labor While the introduction of sound led to a boom in the motion picture industry, it had an adverse effect on the employability of a host of Hollywood actors of the time. Suddenly those without stage experience were regarded as suspect by the studios; as suggested above, those whose heavy accents or otherwise discordant voices had previously been concealed were particularly at risk. The career of major silent star Norma Talmadge effectively came to an end in this way. The celebrated German actor Emil Jannings returned to Europe. Moviegoers found John Gilbert's voice an awkward match with his swashbuckling persona, and his star also faded. Audiences now seemed to perceive certain silent-era stars as old-fashioned, even those who had the talent to succeed in the sound era. The career of Harold Lloyd, one of the top screen comedians of the 1920s, declined precipitously. Lillian Gish departed, back to the stage, and other leading figures soon left acting entirely: Colleen Moore, Gloria Swanson, and Hollywood's most famous performing couple, Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford. After his acting career collapsed due to his Danish accent, Karl Dane committed suicide. However, the impact of sound on the careers of film actors should not be exaggerated. One statistical analysis of silent actress career length showed that the five-year ‘survival-rate’ of actresses active in 1922 was only 10% greater than those active after 1927. As actress Louise Brooks suggested, there were other issues as well: Studio heads, now forced into unprecedented decisions, decided to begin with the actors, the least palatable, the most vulnerable part of movie production. It was such a splendid opportunity, anyhow, for breaking contracts, cutting salaries, and taming the stars.... Me, they gave the salary treatment. I could stay on without the raise my contract called for, or quit, [Paramount studio chief B. P.] Schulberg said, using the questionable dodge of whether I'd be good for the talkies. Questionable, I say, because I spoke decent English in a decent voice and came from the theater. So without hesitation I quit. Buster Keaton was eager to explore the new medium, but when his studio, MGM, made the changeover to sound, he was quickly stripped of creative control. Though a number of Keaton's early talkies made impressive profits, they were artistically dismal. Several of the new medium's biggest attractions came from vaudeville and the musical theater, where performers such as Al Jolson, Eddie Cantor, Jeanette MacDonald, and the Marx Brothers were accustomed to the demands of both dialogue and song. James Cagney and Joan Blondell, who had teamed on Broadway, were brought west together by Warner Bros. in 1930. A few actors were major stars during both the silent and the sound eras: John Barrymore, Ronald Colman, Myrna Loy, William Powell, Norma Shearer, the comedy team of Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy, and Charlie Chaplin, whose City Lights (1931) and Modern Times (1936) employed sound almost exclusively for music and effects. Janet Gaynor became a top star with the synch-sound but dialogueless Seventh Heaven and Sunrise, as did Joan Crawford with the technologically similar Our Dancing Daughters (1928). Greta Garbo was the one non–native English speaker to retain Hollywood stardom on both sides of the great sound divide. Silent film extra Clark Gable, who had received extensive voice training during his earlier stage career, went on to dominate the new medium for decades; similarly, English actor Boris Karloff, having appeared in dozens of silent films since 1919, found his star ascend in the sound era (though, ironically, it was a non-speaking role in 1931's Frankenstein that made this happen, but despite having a lisp, he found himself much in demand after). The new emphasis on speech also caused producers to hire many novelists, journalists, and playwrights with experience writing good dialogue. Among those who became Hollywood scriptwriters during the 1930s were Nathanael West, William Faulkner, Robert Sherwood, Aldous Huxley, and Dorothy Parker. As talking pictures emerged, with their prerecorded musical tracks, an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found themselves out of work. More than just their position as film accompanists was usurped; according to historian Preston J. Hubbard, "During the 1920s live musical performances at first-run theaters became an exceedingly important aspect of the American cinema." With the coming of the talkies, those featured performances—usually staged as preludes—were largely eliminated as well. The American Federation of Musicians took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices. One 1929 ad that appeared in the Pittsburgh Press features an image of a can labeled "Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever" and reads in part: Canned Music on Trial This is the case of Art vs. Mechanical Music in theatres. The defendant stands accused in front of the American people of attempted corruption of musical appreciation and discouragement of musical education. Theatres in many cities are offering synchronised mechanical music as a substitute for Real Music. If the theatre-going public accepts this vitiation of its entertainment program a deplorable decline in the Art of Music is inevitable. Musical authorities know that the soul of the Art is lost in mechanization. It cannot be otherwise because the quality of music is dependent on the mood of the artist, upon the human contact, without which the essence of intellectual stimulation and emotional rapture is lost. By the following year, a reported 22,000 U.S. moviehouse musicians had lost their jobs. Commerce In September 1926, Jack L. Warner, head of Warner Bros., was quoted to the effect that talking pictures would never be viable: "They fail to take into account the international language of the silent pictures, and the unconscious share of each onlooker in creating the play, the action, the plot, and the imagined dialogue for himself." Much to his company's benefit, he would be proven very wrong—between the 1927–28 and 1928–29 fiscal years, Warners' profits surged from $2 million to $14 million. Sound film, in fact, was a clear boon to all the major players in the industry. During that same twelve-month span, Paramount's profits rose by $7 million, Fox's by $3.5 million, and Loew's/MGM's by $3 million. RKO, which did not even exist in September 1928 and whose parent production company, FBO, was in the Hollywood minor leagues, by the end of 1929 was established as one of America's leading entertainment businesses. Fueling the boom was the emergence of an important new cinematic genre made possible by sound: the musical. Over sixty Hollywood musicals were released in 1929, and more than eighty the following year. Even as the Wall Street crash of October 1929 helped plunge the United States and ultimately the global economy into depression, the popularity of the talkies at first seemed to keep Hollywood immune. The 1929–30 exhibition season was even better for the motion picture industry than the previous, with ticket sales and overall profits hitting new highs. Reality finally struck later in 1930, but sound had clearly secured Hollywood's position as one of the most important industrial fields, both commercially and culturally, in the United States. In 1929, film box-office receipts comprised 16.6 percent of total spending by Americans on recreation; by 1931, the figure had reached 21.8 percent. The motion picture business would command similar figures for the next decade and a half. Hollywood ruled on the larger stage, as well. The American movie industry—already the world's most powerful—set an export record in 1929 that, by the applied measure of total feet of exposed film, was 27 percent higher than the year before. Concerns that language differences would hamper U.S. film exports turned out to be largely unfounded. In fact, the expense of sound conversion was a major obstacle to many overseas producers, relatively undercapitalized by Hollywood standards. The production of multiple versions of export-bound talkies in different languages (known as "Foreign Language Version"), as well as the production of the cheaper "International Sound Version", a common approach at first, largely ceased by mid-1931, replaced by post-dubbing and subtitling. Despite trade restrictions imposed in most foreign markets, by 1937, American films commanded about 70 percent of screen time around the globe. Just as the leading Hollywood studios gained from sound in relation to their foreign competitors, they did the same at home. As historian Richard B. Jewell describes, "The sound revolution crushed many small film companies and producers who were unable to meet the financial demands of sound conversion." The combination of sound and the Great Depression led to a wholesale shakeout in the business, resulting in the hierarchy of the Big Five integrated companies (MGM, Paramount, Fox, Warner Bros., RKO) and the three smaller studios also called "majors" (Columbia, Universal, United Artists) that would predominate through the 1950s. Historian Thomas Schatz describes the ancillary effects: Because the studios were forced to streamline operations and rely on their own resources, their individual house styles and corporate personalities came into much sharper focus. Thus the watershed period from the coming of sound into the early Depression saw the studio system finally coalesce, with the individual studios coming to terms with their own identities and their respective positions within the industry. The other country in which sound cinema had an immediate major commercial impact was India. As one distributor of the period said, "With the coming of the talkies, the Indian motion picture came into its own as a definite and distinctive piece of creation. This was achieved by music." From its earliest days, Indian sound cinema has been defined by the musical—Alam Ara featured seven songs; a year later, Indrasabha would feature seventy. While the European film industries fought an endless battle against the popularity and economic muscle of Hollywood, ten years after the debut of Alam Ara, over 90 percent of the films showing on Indian screens were made within the country. Most of India's early talkies were shot in Bombay, which remains the leading production center, but sound filmmaking soon spread across the multilingual nation. Within just a few weeks of Alam Ara'''s March 1931 premiere, the Calcutta-based Madan Pictures had released both the Hindi Shirin Farhad and the Bengali Jamai Sasthi. The Hindustani Heer Ranjha was produced in Lahore, Punjab, the following year. In 1934, Sati Sulochana, the first Kannada talking picture to be released, was shot in Kolhapur, Maharashtra; Srinivasa Kalyanam became the first Tamil talkie actually shot in Tamil Nadu.Guy (2004). Once the first talkie features appeared, the conversion to full sound production happened as rapidly in India as it did in the United States. Already by 1932, the majority of feature productions were in sound; two years later, 164 of the 172 Indian feature films were talking pictures. Since 1934, with the sole exception of 1952, India has been among the top three movie-producing countries in the world every single year. Aesthetic quality In the first, 1930 edition of his global survey The Film Till Now, British cinema pundit Paul Rotha declared, "A film in which the speech and sound effects are perfectly synchronised and coincide with their visual image on the screen is absolutely contrary to the aims of cinema. It is a degenerate and misguided attempt to destroy the real use of the film and cannot be accepted as coming within the true boundaries of the cinema." Such opinions were not rare among those who cared about cinema as an art form; Alfred Hitchcock, though he directed the first commercially successful talkie produced in Europe, held that "the silent pictures were the purest form of cinema" and scoffed at many early sound films as delivering little beside "photographs of people talking". In Germany, Max Reinhardt, stage producer and movie director, expressed the belief that the talkies, "bringing to the screen stage plays ... tend to make this independent art a subsidiary of the theater and really make it only a substitute for the theater instead of an art in itself ... like reproductions of paintings." In the opinion of many film historians and aficionados, both at the time and subsequently, silent film had reached an aesthetic peak by the late 1920s and the early years of sound cinema delivered little that was comparable to the best of the silents. For instance, despite fading into relative obscurity once its era had passed, silent cinema is represented by eleven films in Time Outs Centenary of Cinema Top One Hundred poll, held in 1995. The first year in which sound film production predominated over silent film—not only in the United States, but also in the West as a whole—was 1929; yet the years 1929 through 1933 are represented by three dialogueless pictures (Pandora's Box [1929], Zemlya [1930], City Lights [1931]) and zero talkies in the Time Out poll. (City Lights, like Sunrise, was released with a recorded score and sound effects, but is now customarily referred to by historians and industry professionals as a "silent"—spoken dialogue regarded as the crucial distinguishing factor between silent and sound dramatic cinema.) The earliest sound film to place is the French L'Atalante (1934), directed by Jean Vigo; the earliest Hollywood sound film to qualify is Bringing Up Baby (1938), directed by Howard Hawks. The first sound feature film to receive near-universal critical approbation was Der Blaue Engel (The Blue Angel); premiering on April 1, 1930, it was directed by Josef von Sternberg in both German and English versions for Berlin's UFA studio. The first American talkie to be widely honored was All Quiet on the Western Front, directed by Lewis Milestone, which premiered April 21. The other internationally acclaimed sound drama of the year was Westfront 1918, directed by G. W. Pabst for Nero-Film of Berlin. Historian Anton Kaes points to it as an example of "the new verisimilitude [that] rendered silent cinema's former emphasis on the hypnotic gaze and the symbolism of light and shadow, as well as its preference for allegorical characters, anachronistic." Cultural historians consider the French L'Âge d'Or, directed by Luis Buñuel, which appeared late in 1930, to be of great aesthetic import; at the time, its erotic, blasphemous, anti-bourgeois content caused a scandal. Swiftly banned by Paris police chief Jean Chiappe, it was unavailable for fifty years. The earliest sound movie now acknowledged by most film historians as a masterpiece is Nero-Film's M, directed by Fritz Lang, which premiered May 11, 1931. As described by Roger Ebert, "Many early talkies felt they had to talk all the time, but Lang allows his camera to prowl through the streets and dives, providing a rat's-eye view." Cinematic form "Talking film is as little needed as a singing book." Such was the blunt proclamation of critic Viktor Shklovsky, one of the leaders of the Russian formalist movement, in 1927. While some regarded sound as irreconcilable with film art, others saw it as opening a new field of creative opportunity. The following year, a group of Soviet filmmakers, including Sergei Eisenstein, proclaimed that the use of image and sound in juxtaposition, the so-called contrapuntal method, would raise the cinema to "...unprecedented power and cultural height. Such a method for constructing the sound-film will not confine it to a national market, as must happen with the photographing of plays, but will give a greater possibility than ever before for the circulation throughout the world of a filmically expressed idea." So far as one segment of the audience was concerned, however, the introduction of sound brought a virtual end to such circulation: Elizabeth C. Hamilton writes, "Silent films offered people who were deaf a rare opportunity to participate in a public discourse, cinema, on equal terms with hearing people. The emergence of sound film effectively separated deaf from hearing audience members once again." On March 12, 1929, the first feature-length talking picture made in Germany had its premiere. The inaugural Tobis Filmkunst production, it was not a drama, but a documentary sponsored by a shipping line: Melodie der Welt (Melody of the World), directed by Walter Ruttmann. This was also perhaps the first feature film anywhere to significantly explore the artistic possibilities of joining the motion picture with recorded sound. As described by scholar William Moritz, the movie is "intricate, dynamic, fast-paced ... juxtapos[ing] similar cultural habits from countries around the world, with a superb orchestral score ... and many synchronized sound effects." Composer Lou Lichtveld was among a number of contemporary artists struck by the film: "Melodie der Welt became the first important sound documentary, the first in which musical and unmusical sounds were composed into a single unit and in which image and sound are controlled by one and the same impulse." Melodie der Welt was a direct influence on the industrial film Philips Radio (1931), directed by Dutch avant-garde filmmaker Joris Ivens and scored by Lichtveld, who described its audiovisual aims: To render the half-musical impressions of factory sounds in a complex audio world that moved from absolute music to the purely documentary noises of nature. In this film every intermediate stage can be found: such as the movement of the machine interpreted by the music, the noises of the machine dominating the musical background, the music itself is the documentary, and those scenes where the pure sound of the machine goes solo. Many similar experiments were pursued by Dziga Vertov in his 1931 Entuziazm and by Chaplin in Modern Times, a half-decade later. A few innovative commercial directors immediately saw the ways in which sound could be employed as an integral part of cinematic storytelling, beyond the obvious function of recording speech. In Blackmail, Hitchcock manipulated the reproduction of a character's monologue so the word "knife" would leap out from a blurry stream of sound, reflecting the subjective impression of the protagonist, who is desperate to conceal her involvement in a fatal stabbing. In his first film, the Paramount Applause (1929), Rouben Mamoulian created the illusion of acoustic depth by varying the volume of ambient sound in proportion to the distance of shots. At a certain point, Mamoulian wanted the audience to hear one character singing at the same time as another prays; according to the director, "They said we couldn't record the two things—the song and the prayer—on one mike and one channel. So I said to the sound man, 'Why not use two mikes and two channels and combine the two tracks in printing?'" Such methods would eventually become standard procedure in popular filmmaking. One of the first commercial films to take full advantage of the new opportunities provided by recorded sound was Le Million, directed by René Clair and produced by Tobis's French division. Premiering in Paris in April 1931 and New York a month later, the picture was both a critical and popular success. A musical comedy with a barebones plot, it is memorable for its formal accomplishments, in particular, its emphatically artificial treatment of sound. As described by scholar Donald Crafton, Le Million never lets us forget that the acoustic component is as much a construction as the whitewashed sets. [It] replaced dialogue with actors singing and talking in rhyming couplets. Clair created teasing confusions between on- and off-screen sound. He also experimented with asynchronous audio tricks, as in the famous scene in which a chase after a coat is synched to the cheers of an invisible football (or rugby) crowd. These and similar techniques became part of the vocabulary of the sound comedy film, though as special effects and "color", not as the basis for the kind of comprehensive, non-naturalistic design achieved by Clair. Outside of the comedic field, the sort of bold play with sound exemplified by Melodie der Welt and Le Million would be pursued very rarely in commercial production. Hollywood, in particular, incorporated sound into a reliable system of genre-based moviemaking, in which the formal possibilities of the new medium were subordinated to the traditional goals of star affirmation and straightforward storytelling. As accurately predicted in 1928 by Frank Woods, secretary of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, "The talking pictures of the future will follow the general line of treatment heretofore developed by the silent drama.... The talking scenes will require different handling, but the general construction of the story will be much the same." See also :Category:Film sound production for articles concerning the development of cinematic sound recording Dubbing (filmmaking) Foley (filmmaking) History of film List of film sound systems Musical film Sound stage The American Fotoplayer Notes Sources Altman, Rick (1995). "The Sound of Sound", Cineaste, vol. 21, January 1 (archived online). Altman, Rick (2005). 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Wlaschin, Ken (1979). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the World's Greatest Movie Stars and Their Films. New York and London: Salamander/Harmony. External links Film Sound History well-organized bibliography of online articles and resources; part of the FilmSound website Hollywood Goes for Sound charts showing transition to sound production by Hollywood studios, 1928–1929; part of the Terra Media website Progressive Silent Film List (PSFL)/Early Sound Films comprehensive and detailed listing of first generation of sound films from around the world; part of the Silent Era website Recording Technology History extensive chronology of developments, including subsites, by Steven E. Schoenherr; see, in particular, Motion Picture Sound A Selected Bibliography of Sound and Music for Moving Pictures compiled by Miguel Mera, Royal College of Music, London; part of the School of Sound website The Silent Film Bookshelf links to crucial primary and secondary source documents, a number of which cover the era of transition to sound Sound Stage—The History of Motion Picture Sound informative illustrated survey; part of the American WideScreen Museum website J. Domański "Mathematical synchronization of image and sound in an animated film" 1913 add for Vivaphone Historical writings "Asynchronism as a Principle of Sound Film" 1934 essay by filmmaker and theorist Vsevolod Pudovkin "Dialogue and Sound" essay by film historian and critic Siegfried Kracauer; first published in his book Theory of Film: The Redemption of Physical Reality (1960) "The Film to Come" essay by producer and composer Guido Bagier; first published in Film-Kurier, January 7, 1928 Handbook for Projectionists technical manual covering all major U.S. systems; issued by RCA Photophone, 1930 "Historical Development of Sound Films" chronology by sound-film pioneer E. I. Sponable; first published in Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, April/May 1947 "Madam, Will You Talk?" article on the history of Bell Laboratories' early research into sound film, by Stanley Watkins, Western Electric engineer; first published in Bell Laboratories Record, August 1946 "Merger of the Sound Film Industry—The Founding Agenda of Tobis" corporate manifesto first published in Film-Kurier, July 20, 1928 "The Official Communiqué: Foundations of the Sound-Film Accord Sales Prospects for the German Electronics Industry" article first published in Film-Kurier, July 23, 1930 Operating Instructions for Synchronous Reproducing Equipment technical manual for Western Electric theatrical sound projector system; issued by ERPI, December 1928 "Outcome of Paris: Accord Signed/Total Interchangeability—Globe Divided into Three Patent Zones—Patent Exchange" article first published in Film-Kurier, July 22, 1930 "The Singing Fool" review by film theorist and critic Rudolf Arnheim, ca. 1929 "Sound-Film Confusion" 1929 essay by Rudolf Arnheim "Sound Here and There" essay by composer Paul Dessau; first published in Der Film, August 1, 1929 "Sound in Films" essay by director Alberto Cavalcanti; first published in Films, November 1939 "Theory of the Film: Sound" 1945 essay by film theorist and critic Béla Balázs "What Radio Has Meant to Talking Movies" prescient essay by Universal sound engineer Charles Feldstead; first published in Radio News, April 1931 Historical films Ben Bernie and All the Lads excerpts from ca. 1924 Phonofilm sound film; on The Red Hot Jazz Archive website A Few Minutes with Eddie Cantor 1924 Phonofilm sound film; on Archive.org Gus Visser and His Singing Duck 1925 Theodore Case sound film; on YouTube President Coolidge, Taken on the White House Lawn 1924 Phonofilm sound film; on Archive.org Audiovisual introductions in 1900 Exposition Universelle (1900) History of film Film and video technology Film sound production Finnish inventions

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercenary

Mercenary

A mercenary, sometimes known as a soldier of fortune or hired gun, is a private individual, particularly a soldier, who takes part in military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any other official military. Mercenaries fight for money or other forms of payment rather than for political interests. Beginning in the 20th century, mercenaries have increasingly come to be seen as less entitled to protections by rules of war than non-mercenaries. The Geneva Conventions declare that mercenaries are not recognized as legitimate combatants and do not have to be granted the same legal protections as captured service personnel of a regular army. In practice, whether or not a person is a mercenary may be a matter of degree, as financial and political interests may overlap. Laws of war Protocol Additional GC 1977 (APGC77) is a 1977 amendment protocol to the Geneva Conventions. Article 47 of the protocol provides the most widely accepted international definition of a mercenary, though not endorsed by some countries, including the United States. The Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, (Protocol I), 8 June 1977 states: All the criteria (a–f) must be met, according to the Geneva Convention, for a combatant to be described as a mercenary. According to the GC III, a captured soldier must be treated as a lawful combatant and, therefore, as a protected person with prisoner-of-war status until facing a competent tribunal (GC III Art 5). That tribunal, using criteria in APGC77 or some equivalent domestic law, may decide that the soldier is a mercenary. At that juncture, the mercenary soldier becomes an unlawful combatant but still must be "treated with humanity and, in case of trial, shall not be deprived of the rights of fair and regular trial", being still covered by GC IV Art 5. The only possible exception to GC IV Art 5 is when he is a national of the authority imprisoning him, in which case he would not be a mercenary soldier as defined in APGC77 Art 47.d. If, after a regular trial, a captured soldier is found to be a mercenary, then he can expect treatment as a common criminal and may face execution. As mercenary soldiers may not qualify as PoWs, they cannot expect repatriation at war's end. The best known post-World War II example of this was on 28 June 1976 when, at the end of the Luanda Trial, an Angolan court sentenced three Britons and an American to death and nine other mercenaries to prison terms ranging from 16 to 30 years. The four mercenaries sentenced to death were shot by a firing squad on 10 July 1976. The legal status of civilian contractors depends upon the nature of their work and their nationalities with respect to that of the combatants. If they have not "in fact, taken a direct part in the hostilities" (APGC77 Art 47.b), they are not mercenaries but civilians who have non-combat support roles and are entitled to protection under the Third Geneva Convention (GCIII 4.1.4). On 4 December 1989, the United Nations passed resolution 44/34, the International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries. It entered into force on 20 October 2001 and is usually known as the UN Mercenary Convention. Article 1 contains the definition of a mercenary. Article 1.1 is similar to Article 47 of Protocol I, however Article 1.2 broadens the definition to include a non-national recruited to overthrow a "Government or otherwise undermining the constitutional order of a State; or Undermin[e] the territorial integrity of a State"; and "Is motivated to take part therein essentially by the desire for significant private gain and is prompted by the promise or payment of material compensation"—under Article 1.2 a person does not have to take a direct part in the hostilities in a planned coup d'état to be a mercenary. Critics have argued that the convention and APGC77 Art. 47 are designed to cover the activities of mercenaries in post-colonial Africa and do not address adequately the use of private military companies (PMCs) by sovereign states. The situation during the Iraq War and the continuing occupation of Iraq after the United Nations Security Council-sanctioned hand-over of power to the Iraqi government shows the difficulty of defining a mercenary soldier. While the United States governed Iraq, no U.S. citizen working as an armed guard could be classified as a mercenary because he was "a national of a Party to the conflict" (APGC77 Art 47.d). With the hand-over of power to the Iraqi government, if one does not consider the coalition forces to be continuing parties to the conflict in Iraq, but that their soldiers are "sent by a State which is not a Party to the conflict on official duty as a member of its armed forces" (APGC77 Art 47.f), then, unless U.S. citizens working as armed guards are lawfully certified residents of Iraq, i.e., "a resident of territory controlled by a Party to the conflict" (APGC77 Art 47.d), and they are involved with a fire-fight in the continuing conflict, they are mercenary soldiers. However, those who acknowledge the United States and other coalition forces as continuing parties to the conflict might insist that U.S. armed guards cannot be called mercenaries (APGC77 Art 47.d). National laws The laws of some countries forbid their citizens to fight in foreign wars unless they are under the control of their own national armed forces. Austria If a person is proven to have worked as a mercenary for any other country while retaining Austrian citizenship, his or her Austrian citizenship will be revoked. France In 2003, France criminalized mercenary activities, as defined by the protocol to the Geneva convention for French citizens, permanent residents and legal entities (Penal Code, L436-1, L436-2, L436-3, L436-4, L436-5). This law does not prevent French citizens from serving as volunteers in foreign forces. The law applies to military activities with a specifically mercenary motive or with a mercenary level of remuneration. However, due to juridical loopholes several French companies provide mercenary services. The French state also owns 50% of Défense conseil international, which it founded, a PMC which does not supply any fighters but is used to export military training services. It also realised a profit of €222 million in 2019. Germany It is an offence "to recruit" German citizens "for military duty in a military or military-like facility in support of a foreign power" (§ 109h StGB). Furthermore, a German who enlists in the armed forces of a state they are also a citizen of risks the loss of their citizenship (§ 28 StAG). South Africa In 1998, South Africa passed the Foreign Military Assistance Act that banned citizens and residents from any involvement in foreign wars, except in humanitarian operations, unless a government committee approved its deployment. In 2005, the legislation was reviewed by the government because of South African citizens working as security guards in Iraq during the American occupation of Iraq and the consequences of the mercenary soldier sponsorship case against Mark Thatcher for the "possible funding and logistical assistance in relation to an alleged attempted coup in Equatorial Guinea" organized by Simon Mann. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the Foreign Enlistment Act 1819 and the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870 make it unlawful for British subjects to join the armed forces of any state warring with another state at peace with Britain. In the Greek War of Independence, British volunteers fought with the Greek rebels, which could have been unlawful per the Foreign Enlistment Act. It was unclear whether or not the Greek rebels were a 'state', but the law was clarified to state that the rebels were a state. The British government considered using the Act against British subjects fighting for the International Brigade in the Spanish Civil War and the FNLA in the Angolan Civil War, but in the end, it chose on both occasions not to do so. United States The Anti-Pinkerton Act of 1893 () forbade the U.S. government from using Pinkerton National Detective Agency employees, or similar private police companies. In 1977, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit interpreted this statute as forbidding the U.S. government from employing companies offering "mercenary, quasi-military forces" for hire (United States ex rel. Weinberger v. Equifax, 557 F.2d 456, 462 (5th Cir. 1977), cert. denied, 434 U.S. 1035 (1978)). There is a disagreement over whether or not this proscription is limited to the use of such forces as strikebreakers, because it is stated thus: In the 7 June 1978 Letter to the Heads of Federal Departments and Agencies, the Comptroller General interpreted this decision in a way that carved out an exemption for "Guard and Protective Services". A U.S. Department of Defense interim rule (effective 16 June 2006) revises DoD Instruction 3020.41 to authorize contractors, other than private security contractors, to use deadly force against enemy armed forces only in self-defense (71 Fed. Reg. 34826). Per that interim rule, private security contractors are authorized to use deadly force when protecting their client's assets and persons, consistent with their contract's mission statement. One interpretation is that this authorizes contractors to engage in combat on behalf of the U.S. government. It is the combatant commander's responsibility to ensure that private security contract mission statements do not authorize performance of inherently governmental military functions, i.e. preemptive attacks or assaults or raids, etc. Otherwise, civilians with U.S. Armed Forces lose their law of war protection from direct attack if and for such time as they directly participate in hostilities. On 18 August 2006, the U.S. Comptroller General rejected bid protest arguments that U.S. Army contracts violated the Anti-Pinkerton Act by requiring that contractors provide armed convoy escort vehicles and labor, weapons, and equipment for internal security operations at Victory Base Complex, Iraq. The Comptroller General reasoned the act was unviolated, because the contracts did not require contractors to provide quasi-military forces as strikebreakers. In 2007, the US military was temporarily barred from awarding the largest security contract in Iraq because of a lawsuit filed by a US citizen alleging violation of the Anti-Pinkerton Act. However, the case was later dismissed. Foreign national servicemen The better-known combat units in which foreign nationals serve in another country's armed forces are the Gurkha regiments of the British Army and the Indian Army, and the French Foreign Legion. Recruits from countries of the Commonwealth of Nations in the British Army swear allegiance to the British monarch and are liable to operate in any unit. Gurkhas, however, operate in dedicated Gurkha units of the British Army (specifically units that are administered by the Brigade of Gurkhas) and the Indian Army. Although they are nationals of Nepal, a country that is not part of the Commonwealth, they still swear allegiance (either to the Crown or the Constitution of India) and abide by the rules and regulations under which all British or Indian soldiers serve. French Foreign Legionnaires serve in the French Foreign Legion, which deploys and fights as an organized unit of the French Army. This means that as members of the armed forces of Britain, India, and France these soldiers are not classed as mercenary soldiers per APGC77 Art 47.e and 47.f. Private military companies The private military company (PMC) is the contemporary strand of the mercenary trade, providing logistics, soldiers, military training, and other services. Thus, PMC contractors are civilians (in governmental, international, and civil organizations) authorized to accompany an army to the field; hence, the term civilian contractor. Nevertheless, PMCs may use armed force, hence defined as: "legally established enterprises that make a profit, by either providing services involving the potential exercise of [armed] force in a systematic way and by military means, and/or by the transfer of that potential to clients through training and other practices, such as logistics support, equipment procurement, and intelligence gathering". Private paramilitary forces are functionally mercenary armies, though they may serve as security guards or military advisors; however, national governments reserve the right to control the number, nature, and armaments of such private armies, arguing that, provided they are not pro-actively employed in front-line combat, they are not mercenaries. That said, PMC "civilian contractors" have poor repute among professional government soldiers and officers—the U.S. Military Command have questioned their war zone behavior. In September 2005, Brigadier General Karl Horst, deputy commander of the Third Infantry Division charged with Baghdad security after the 2003 invasion, said of DynCorp and other PMCs in Iraq: "These guys run loose in this country and do stupid stuff. There's no authority over them, so you can't come down on them hard when they escalate force ... They shoot people, and someone else has to deal with the aftermath. It happens all over the place." Speaking of the use of American PMCs in Colombia, the former U.S. Ambassador to Colombia Myles Frechette has said: "Congress and the American people don't want any servicemen killed overseas. So it makes sense that if contractors want to risk their lives, they get the job". In Afghanistan, the United States has made extensive use of the PMCs since 2001, mostly in a defensive role. PMC teams have been used to guard bases and to protect VIPs from Taliban assassins, but almost never in offensive operations. One mercenary stated about his work in Afghanistan: "We are there purely to protect the principals and get them out, we're not there to get into huge firefights with the bad guys". One team from the DynCorp International provided the bodyguards to President Hamid Karzai. If PMC employees participate in proactive combat, the press calls them 'mercenaries', and the PMCs 'mercenary companies'. In the 1990s, the media identified four mercenary companies: Executive Outcomes – Angola, Sierra Leone, and other locations worldwide (closed 31 December 1998) Sandline International – Papua New Guinea, Sierra Leone (closed 16 April 2004) Gurkha Security Guards, Ltd – Sierra Leone DynCorp International – Bosnia, Somalia, Angola, Haiti, Colombia, Kosovo, Kuwait, Afghanistan (active) In 2004 the PMC business was boosted when the U.S. and Coalition governments hired them for security in Iraq. In March 2004, four Blackwater USA employees escorting food supplies and other equipment were attacked and killed in Fallujah, in a videotaped attack; the killings and subsequent dismemberments were a cause for the First Battle of Fallujah. Afghan war operations also boosted the business. In 2006, a U.S. congressional report listed a number of PMCs and other enterprises that have signed contracts to carry out anti-narcotics operations and related activities as part of Plan Colombia. DynCorp was among those contracted by the State Department, while others signed contracts with the Defense Department. Other companies from different countries, including Israel, have also signed contracts with the Colombian Defense Ministry to carry out security or military activities. A disproportionate number of the mercenaries with the PMCs today are Colombian, as Colombia's long history of civil war has led to a surplus of experienced soldiers while Colombians are much cheaper than soldiers from the First World. The United Nations disapproves of PMCs. The question is whether or not PMC soldiers are as accountable for their war zone actions. A common argument for using PMCs (used by the PMCs themselves), is that PMCs may be able to help combat genocide and civilian slaughter where the UN or other countries are unwilling or unable to intervene. In February 2002, a British Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) report about PMCs noted that the demands of the military service from the UN and international civil organizations might mean that it is cheaper to pay PMCs than use soldiers. Yet, after considering using PMCs to support UN operations, the UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan, decided against it. In October 2007, the United Nations released a two-year study that stated, that although hired as "security guards", private contractors were performing military duties. The report found that the use of contractors such as Blackwater was a "new form of mercenary activity" and illegal under international law. Many countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, are not signatories to the 1989 United Nations Mercenary Convention banning the use of mercenaries. A spokesman for the U.S. Mission to U.N. denied that Blackwater security guards were mercenaries, saying "Accusations that U.S. government-contracted security guards, of whatever nationality, are mercenaries is inaccurate and demeaning to men and women who put their lives on the line to protect people and facilities every day." History Europe Classical era Greek mercenaries in Persian Empire Xerxes I, king of Persia, who invaded Greece in 484 BC employed Greek mercenaries. In Anabasis, Xenophon recounts how Cyrus the Younger hired a large army of Greek mercenaries (the "Ten Thousand") in 401 BC to seize the throne of Persia from his brother, Artaxerxes II. Though Cyrus' army was victorious at the Battle of Cunaxa, Cyrus himself was killed in battle and the expedition rendered moot. Stranded deep in enemy territory, the Spartan general Clearchus and most of the other Greek generals were subsequently killed by treachery. Xenophon played an instrumental role in encouraging "The Ten Thousand" Greek army to march north to the Black Sea in an epic fighting retreat. The Sileraioi were a group of ancient mercenaries most likely employed by the tyrant Dionysius I of Syracuse. In 378 BC the Persian Empire hired the Athenian general Iphicrates with his mercenaries in the Egyptian campaign. The Mania, who was a sub-satrap, used Greek mercenaries in order to capture other cities in the region. Memnon of Rhodes (380–333 BC) was the commander of the Greek mercenaries working for the Persian King Darius III when Alexander the Great of Macedonia invaded Persia in 334 BC and won the Battle of the Granicus River. Alexander also employed Greek mercenaries during his campaigns. These were men who fought for him directly and not those who fought in city-state units attached to his army. Greek mercenaries in ancient India Tamil poems described the Greek soldiers who served as mercenaries for Indian kings as: "The valiant-eyed Yavanas (Greeks), whose bodies were strong and of terrible aspect". Alfred Charles Auguste Foucher said that some of the troops of Mara in the Gandhara sculptures may represent Greek mercenaries. Stephanus of Byzantium wrote about a city called Daedala or Daidala () in India, which he called Indo-Cretan, most probably because it was a settlement of Cretan mercenaries. Carthage Carthage contracted Balearic Islands shepherds as slingers during the Punic Wars against Rome. The vast majority of the Carthaginian military – except the highest officers, the navy, and the home guard – were mercenaries. Xanthippus of Carthage was a Spartan mercenary general employed by Carthage. Greek mercenaries were hired by Carthage to fight against the Dionysius I of Syracuse. Dionysius made Carthage pay a very high ransom for the Carthaginian prisoners, but he left the Greek mercenaries prisoners free without any ransom. This made the Carthaginians suspicious of their Greek mercenaries and discharged them all from their service. With this trick Dionysius did not have to fight again against the Greek mercenaries of Carthage who were very dangerous enemies. Byzantine Empire In the late Roman Empire, it became increasingly difficult for Emperors and generals to raise military units from the citizenry for various reasons: lack of manpower, lack of time available for training, lack of materials, and, inevitably, political considerations. Therefore, beginning in the late 4th century, the empire often contracted whole bands of barbarians either within the legions or as autonomous foederati. The barbarians were Romanized and surviving veterans were established in areas requiring population. The Varangian Guard of the Byzantine Empire is the best known formation made up of barbarian mercenaries (see next section). Other Members of independent Thracian tribes such as the Bessi and Dii often joined the ranks of large organized armies as mercenaries. The Sons of Mars were Italian mercenaries used by the Greek kings of Syracuse until after the Punic Wars. A figure in oral legend, Milesius was given the princess Scota after conducting a successful campaign for Ancient Egypt. Mithridates VI Eupator recruited a large number of Iranians along with the Galatians into the Pontic army during the Mithridatic Wars against Rome, using the Leucosyri, Persians and Scythians. Illyrians were hired across the Balkans and further. They were known for their unreliability. Medieval warfare Byzantine Emperors followed the Roman practice and contracted foreigners especially for their personal corps guard called the Varangian Guard. They were chosen among war-prone peoples, of whom the Varangians (Norsemen) were preferred. Their mission was to protect the Emperor and Empire and since they did not have links to the Greeks, they were expected to be ready to suppress rebellions. One of the most famous guards was the future king Harald III of Norway, also known as Harald Hardrada ("Hard-counsel"), who arrived in Constantinople in 1035 and was employed as a Varangian Guard. He participated in eighteen battles and was promoted to , the commander of the Guard, before returning home in 1043. He was killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066 when his army was defeated by an English army commanded by King Harold Godwinson. In England at the time of the Norman Conquest, Flemings (natives of Flanders) formed a substantial mercenary element in the forces of William the Conqueror with many remaining in England as settlers under the Normans. Contingents of mercenary Flemish soldiers were to form significant forces in England throughout the time of the Norman and early Plantagenet dynasties (11th and 12th centuries). A prominent example of these were the Flemings who fought during the English civil wars, known as the Anarchy or the Nineteen-Year Winter (AD 1135 to 1154), under the command of William of Ypres, who was King Stephen's chief lieutenant from 1139 to 1154 and who was made Earl of Kent by Stephen. In Italy, the was a military chief offering his troops, the , to Italian city-states. The were extensively used by the Italian city-states in their wars against one another. At times, the seized control of the state, as one , Francesco Sforza, made himself the Duke of Milan in 1450. During the ages of the Taifa kingdoms of the Iberian peninsula, Christian knights like El Cid could fight for a Muslim ruler against his Christian or Muslim enemies. The Almogavars originally fought for the counts of Barcelona and kings of Aragon, but as the Catalan Company, they followed Roger de Flor in the service of the Byzantine Empire. In 1311, the Catalan Great Company defeated at the Battle of Halmyros their former employer, Walter V, Count of Brienne, after he refused to pay them, and took over the Duchy of Athens. The Great Company ruled much of central and southern Greece until 1388–1390 when a rival mercenary company, the Navarrese Company were hired to oust them. Catalan and German mercenaries also had prominent role in the Serbian victory over Bulgarians in the Battle of Velbuzd in 1330. During the later Middle Ages, Free Companies (or Free Lances) were formed, consisting of companies of mercenary troops. Nation-states lacked the funds needed to maintain standing forces, so they tended to hire free companies to serve in their armies during wartime. Such companies typically formed at the ends of periods of conflict, when men-at-arms were no longer needed by their respective governments. The veteran soldiers thus looked for other forms of employment, often becoming mercenaries. Free Companies would often specialize in forms of combat that required longer periods of training that was not available in the form of a mobilized militia. The formed a distinctive subculture in medieval France who alternated between serving as mercenaries in wartime and bandits in peacetime. The were very destructive and became a significant social problem. After the Treaty of Brétigny ended the war between England and France in 1360, the French countryside was overrun by Free Companies of while the French Crown lacked the necessary military and economic strength to put an end to their activities. To rid France of the rampaging mercenaries and to overthrow the pro-English King Pedro the Cruel of Castile, Marshal Bertrand du Guesclin was directed by King Charles V of France to take the Free Companies into Castile with the orders to put the pro-French Enrique de Trastámara on the Castilian throne. Guesclin's mercanaries were organized into the Big Companies and French Companies and placed a decisive role in putting Enrique on the Castilian throne in 1369, who styled himself King Enrique II, the first Castilian monarch of the House of Trastámara. The White Company commanded by Sir John Hawkwood is the best known English Free Company of the 14th century. Between the 13th and 17th centuries the Gallowglass fought within the Islands of Britain and also mainland Europe. A Welshman Owain Lawgoch (Owain of the Red Hand) formed a free company and fought for the French against the English during the Hundred Years' War, before being assassinated by a Scot named Jon Lamb, under the orders of the English Crown, during the siege of Mortagne in 1378. 15th and 16th centuries Swiss mercenaries were sought during the late 15th and early 16th centuries as being an effective fighting force, until their somewhat rigid battle formations became vulnerable to arquebuses and artillery being developed at the same time. The Swiss Guard in particular were employed by the Papal States from 1506 (continuing to serve today as the military of Vatican City). It was then that the German landsknechts, colourful mercenaries with a redoubtable reputation, took over the Swiss forces' legacy and became the most formidable force of the late 15th and throughout the 16th century, being hired by all the powers in Europe and often fighting at opposite sides. Sir Thomas More in his Utopia advocated the use of mercenaries in preference to citizens. The barbarian mercenaries employed by the Utopians are thought to be inspired by the Swiss mercenaries. A class of mercenaries known as the Gallowglass dominated warfare in Ireland and Scotland between the 13th and 16th centuries. They were a heavily armed and armored elite force that often doubled as a chieftain's bodyguard. At approximately the same period, Niccolò Machiavelli argued against the use of mercenary armies in his book of political advice The Prince. His rationale was that since the sole motivation of mercenaries is their pay, they will not be inclined to take the kind of risks that can turn the tide of a battle, but may cost them their lives. He also noted that a mercenary who failed was obviously no good, but one who succeeded may be even more dangerous. He astutely pointed out that a successful mercenary army no longer needs its employer if it is more militarily powerful than its supposed superior. This explained the frequent, violent betrayals that characterized mercenary/client relations in Italy, because neither side trusted the other. He believed that citizens with a real attachment to their home country will be more motivated to defend it and thus make much better soldiers. The Stratioti or Stradioti (Italian: Stradioti or Stradiotti; Greek: Στρατιώτες, Stratiotes) were mercenary units from the Balkans recruited mainly by states of southern and central Europe from the 15th until the middle of the 18th century. The stradioti were recruited in Albania, Greece, Dalmatia, Serbia and later Cyprus. Most modern historians have indicated that the Stratioti were mostly Albanians. According to a study by a Greek author, around 80% of the listed names attributed to the stradioti were of Albanian origin while most of the remaining ones, especially those of officers, were of Greek origin; a small minority were of South Slavic origin. Among their leaders there were also members of some old Byzantine Greek noble families such as the Palaiologoi and Comneni. The stratioti were pioneers of light cavalry tactics during this era. In the early 16th century heavy cavalry in the European armies was principally remodeled after Albanian stradioti of the Venetian army, Hungarian hussars and German mercenary cavalry units (Schwarzreitern). They employed hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, feigned retreats and other complex maneuvers. In some ways, these tactics echoed those of the Ottoman sipahis and akinci. They had some notable successes also against French heavy cavalry during the Italian Wars. They were known for cutting off the heads of dead or captured enemies, and according to Commines they were paid by their leaders one ducat per head. In Italy, during inter-family conflicts such as the Wars of Castro, mercenaries were widely used to supplement the much smaller forces loyal to particular families. Often these were further supplemented by troops loyal to particular duchies which had sided with one or more of the belligerents. 17th and 18th centuries During the 17th and 18th century extensive use was made of foreign recruits in the now regimented and highly drilled armies of Europe, beginning in a systematized way with the Thirty Years' War. Historian Geoffrey Parker notes that 40,000 Scotsmen (about fifteen percent of the adult male population) served as soldiers in Continental Europe from 1618 to 1640. After the signing of the Treaty of Limerick (1691) the soldiers of the Irish Army who left Ireland for France took part in what is known as the Flight of the Wild Geese. Subsequently, many made a living from fighting in continental armies, the most famous of whom was Patrick Sarsfield, who, having fallen mortally wounded at the Battle of Landen fighting for the French, said "If this was only for Ireland". The brutality of the Thirty Years' War, in which several parts of Germany were ransacked by the mercenary troops, and left almost unpopulated, led to the formation of standing armies of professional soldiers, recruited locally or abroad. These armies were active also in peacetime. The formation of these armies in the late 18th century led to professionalization and standardization of clothing (uniforms), equipment, drill, weapons, etc. Since smaller states like the Dutch Republic could afford a large standing army, but could not find enough recruits among its own citizens, recruiting foreigners was common. Prussia had developed a form of conscription, but relied in wartime also on foreign recruits, although the regulations stated that no more than one third of the recruits were to be foreign. Prussian recruiting methods were often aggressive, and resulted more than once in conflicts with neighbouring states. The term mercenary gained its notoriety during this development, since mercenaries were—and now are—often seen as soldiers who fight for no noble cause, but only for money, and who have no loyalty than to the highest bidder, as opposed to the professional soldiers who takes an oath of loyalty and who is seen as the defender of the nation. The mercenary soldiers thus fell out of favour and was replaced by the professional soldier. To augment the army, major European powers like France, Britain, the Dutch Republic and Spain contracted regiments from Switzerland, the Southern Netherlands (modern day Belgium), and several smaller German states. About a third of the infantry regiments of the French Royal Army prior to the French Revolution were recruited from outside France. The largest single group were the twelve Swiss regiments (including the Swiss Guard). Other units were German and one Irish Brigade (the "Wild Geese") had originally been made up of Irish volunteers. By 1789 difficulties in obtaining genuinely Irish recruits had led to German and other foreigners making up the bulk of the rank and file. The officers however continued to be drawn from long established Franco-Irish families. During the reign of Louis XV there was also a Scottish (), a Swedish (), an Italian () and a Walloon () regiment recruited outside the borders of France. The foreign infantry regiments comprised about 20,000 men in 1733, rising to 48,000 at the time of the Seven Years' War and being reduced in numbers thereafter. The Dutch Republic had contracted several Scots, Swiss and German regiments in the early 18th century, and kept three Scots, one Walloon, and six Swiss regiments (including a Guard regiment raised in 1749) throughout the 18th century. The Scots regiments were contracted from Great Britain, but as relations between Britain and the Republic deteriorated, the regiments could no longer recruit in Scotland, leading to the regiments being Scots in name only until they were nationalized in 1784. Patrick Gordon, a Scottish mercenary fought at various times for Poland and Sweden, constantly changing his loyalty based on who could pay him the best, until he took up Russian service in 1661. In August 1689, during a coup d'état attempt in Moscow against co-tsar Peter the Great led by the Sophia Alekseyevna in the name of the other co-tsar, the intellectually disabled Ivan V, Gordon played the decisive role in defeating the coup and ensuring Peter's triumph. Gordon remained one of Peter's favorite advisers until his death. The Spanish Army also made use of permanently established foreign regiments. These were three Irish regiments (Irlanda, Hiberni and Ultonia); one Italian (Naples) and five Swiss (Wimpssen, Reding, Betschart, Traxer and Preux). In addition one regiment of the Royal Guard including Irishmen as Patten, McDonnell and Neiven, was recruited from Walloons. The last of these foreign regiments was disbanded in 1815, following recruiting difficulties during the Napoleonic Wars. One complication arising from the use of non-national troops occurred at the Battle of Bailén in 1808 when the "red Swiss" (so-called from their uniforms) of the invading French Army clashed bloodily with "blue Swiss" in the Spanish service. During the American Revolution, the British government hired several regiments of the German principalities to supplement the Army. Although the German troops came from a number of states, the majority came from the German state of Hesse-Kassel. This resulted in their American opponents referring to all of the German troops as "Hessians", whether the Germans were actually from Hesse-Kassel or not. Especially during the 19th and 20th centuries, the Hessians were increasingly dubbed mercenaries. This was done to present the struggle between the Americans and the British as free citizens fighting for their independence opposed to the armies of the 'tyrant' King George III, composed of British troops who were mere 'slaves' being whipped into obedience, and ruthless Hessian mercenaries fighting for money. 19th–21st centuries During the South American wars of independence from Spain, the British Legions from 1817 onward fought for General Simón Bolívar. Some of the British Legionaries were liberal idealists who went to South America to fight in a war for freedom, but others were the more classic mercenaries, mostly unemployed veterans of the Napoleonic wars, who fought for money. In South America, especially in Colombia, the men of the British Legions are remembered as heroes for their crucial role in helping end Spanish rule. During the First Carlist War, the British government suspended the Foreign Enlistment Act to allow the recruitment of a quasi-official British Auxiliary Legion under George de Lacy Evans, which went to Spain to fight for Queen Isabel II against the followers of Don Carlos, the pretender to the Spanish throne. The Atholl Highlanders, a private Scottish infantry regiment of the Duke of Atholl, was formed in 1839 purely for ceremonial purposes. It was granted official regimental status by Queen Victoria in 1845 and is the only remaining legal private army in Europe. Turkey and Azerbaijan have deployed Syrian mercenaries during the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war. East Asia Warring States Mercenaries were regularly used by the kingdoms of the Warring States period of China. Military advisers and generals trained through the works of Mozi and Sun Tzu would regularly offer their services to kings and dukes. After the Qin conquest of the Warring States, the Qin and later Han Empires would also employ mercenaries – ranging from nomadic horse archers in the Northern steppes or soldiers from the Yue kingdoms of the South. The 7th century Tang Dynasty was also prominent for its use of mercenaries, when they hired Tibetan and Uyghur soldiers against invasion from the Göktürks and other steppe civilizations. 15th to 18th centuries The Saika mercenary group of the Kii Province, Japan, played a significant role during the Siege of Ishiyama Hongan-ji that took place between August 1570 to August 1580. The Saikashuu were famed for the support of Ikkō Buddhist sect movements and greatly impeded the advance of Oda Nobunaga's forces. Ninja were peasant farmers who learned the art of war to combat the daimyōs samurai. They were hired out by many as mercenaries to perform capture, infiltration and retrieval, and, most famously, assassinations. Ninja possibly originated around the 14th century, but were not widely known or used till the 15th century and carried on being hired till the mid 18th century. In the 16th-17th centuries, the Spanish in the Philippines employed samurai mercenaries from Japan to help control the archipelago. Abroad the wreck of one Spanish galleon, the San Diego, that sunk in Filipino waters on 14 December 1600 were found numerous tsubas, the handguards of the katanas, the distinctive swords used by the samurai. In 1615, the Dutch invaded the Ai Island with Japanese mercenaries. 19th century Between 1850 and 1864, the Taiping Rebellion raged as the Taiping (Heavenly Peace) Army led by Hong Xiuquan, the deranged self-proclaimed younger brother of Jesus Christ, engaged in a bloody civil war against the forces loyal to the Qing emperor. As Hong and his followers, who numbered in the millions, were hostile to Western business interests, a group of Western merchants based in Shanghai created a mercenary army known as the Ever Victorious Army. During the Taiping Rebellion, the Qing came close to losing control of China. It was common for the financially hard-pressed Qing emperors to subcontract out the business of raising armies to fight the Taiping to the loyalist provincial gentry, which formed the origins of the warlords who were to dominate China after the overthrow of the Qing in 1912. The rank and file of the Ever-Victorious Army were Chinese, but the senior officers were Westerners. The first commander was an American adventurer, Colonel Frederick Townsend Ward. After Ward was killed in action in 1862, command was assumed by another American adventurer, Henry Andres Burgevine, but the Chinese disliked him on the account of his racism and his alcoholism. Burgevine was replaced with a British Army officer seconded to Chinese service, Colonel Charles "Chinese" Gordon. The mercenaries of the Ever Victorious Army, comprising some of the worse social elements of the nations it recruited from, were notorious for their practice whenever they marched into a new district of stealing everything while raping all of the women, which led Gordon to impose harsh discipline, with those soldiers accused of looting and/or rape being arrested and executed. A highly successful commander, Gordon won thirty-three battles in succession against the Taipings in 1863-1864 as he led the Ever Victorious Army down the Yangtze river valley and played a decisive role in defeating the Taipings. Through technically not a mercenary as Gordon had been assigned by the British government to lead the Ever Victorious Army, the Times of London in a leader (editorial) in August 1864 declared: "the part of the soldier of fortune is in these days very difficult to play with honour...but if ever the actions of a soldier fighting in foreign service ought to be viewed with indulgence, and even with admiration, this exceptional tribute is due to Colonel Gordon". During the French conquest of Vietnam, their most persistent and stubborn opponents were not the Vietnamese, but rather the Chinese mercenaries of the Black Flag Army commanded by Liu Yongfu, who been hired by the Emperor Tự Đức. In 1873, the Black Flags killed the French commander, Francis Garnier, attracting much attention in France. In 1883, Captain Henri Rivière, leading another French expedition into Vietnam was also killed by the Black Flags. When the French conquest of Vietnam was finally completed in 1885, one of the peace terms were the disbandment of the Black Flag Army. 20th century In the warlord period of China, many American and British mercenaries thrived such as Homer Lea, Philo Norton McGriffin, Morris "Two Gun" Cohen, and Francis Arthur "One Armed" Sutton. Easily the largest group of mercenaries in China were the Russian emigres who arrived after 1917 and who hired themselves out to various Chinese warlords in the 1920s. Unlike the Anglo-American mercenaries, the Russians had no home to return to nor were any foreign nations willing to accept them as refugees, causing them to have a grim, fatalistic outlook as they were trapped in what they regarded as a strange land that was as far from home as imaginable. One group of Russian mercenaries led by General Konstantin Petrovich Nechaev were dressed in the uniform of Imperial Russian Army and fought for General Zhang Zongchang, the "Dogmeat General" who ruled Shangdong province. Nechaev and his men were infamous for their ruthlessness, and on one occasion in 1926, rode three armored trains through the Chinese countryside, killing everybody they met. When the Chinese peasants tore up the rails to stop Nechaev's rampage, he and his men vented their fury by sacking in an especially brutal manner the nearest town. Another group of Russians wore Tartar hats and the traditional dark greycoats, and fought for Marshal Zhang Zuolin, the "Old Marshal" who ruled Manchuria. The Russian mercenaries had considerable effectiveness against the ill-trained armies of the Chinese warlords; one contemporary mentioned that how Marshal Zhang's Russians "went through the Chinese troops like a knife through butter". During the early stages of the Second Sino-Japanese War, a number of foreign pilots served in the Chinese Air Force, most famously in the 14th Squadron, a light bombardment unit often called the International Squadron, which was briefly active in February and March 1938. India 18th to 19th centuries In the medieval period, Purbiya mercenaries from Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh were a common feature in Kingdoms in Western and Northern India.They were also later recruited by the Marathas and the British.In southern India, there is a caste/community of mercenaries in the state of Karnataka which is called Bunt. The word "bunt" itself translates to Warrior/Mercenary, this community later elevated itself as the rulers of the land, several powerful dynasties emerged from this community, The most notable dynasty being the Alupas of Dakshina kannada, which reigned for 1300 years straight, This community still survives and has adopted the surnames shetty, Rai, Alva, chowta etc. In down south Tamilnadu the three crowned empires used Kongar pastro-peasantry tribes of Kongunad region and Kongar peasant tribes of Erumainad region as their sword man mercenaries or as cavalry mercenaries or as chariot soldier mercenaries and also recruited as Personal gaurds.Kongars worked along with the three empires warrior tribes such as Kallar, Maravar, Aghamudaiyar, Parkavar, Valaiya-Mutharaiyar, and Mazhavar tribes. But during the time of action these kongar tribes were lead only by the chiefs of their own tribe and would not come under the command of the emperor or his military general. Though these Kongar tribes of Kongunad were feudatories to the three crowned empires, Kongunad was divided into 24 sub divisions and was only ruled by Kongars. But the Kongars (Gangars) of Erumainad established their own empire, the Western Ganga dynasty, and ruled over it for centuries. Kongar tribes still exist in modern days; they are referred as Kongu Vellala Gounder (Kongunadu) and Gangadhikar Vokkaliga Gowda (Erumainad). The Mukkuvar clan of Malabar Coast and Sri Lankan coast did the role of soldiers in Kalinga Magha's invasion to Sri Lanka and in Nair's battle with the Dutch in the Battle of Colachel. In 18th and early 19th centuries, the imperial Mughal power was crumbling and other powers, including the Sikh Misls and Maratha chiefs, were emerging. At this time, a number of mercenaries, arriving from several countries found employment in India. Some of the mercenaries emerged to become independent rulers. The Sikh Maharaja, Ranjit Singh, known as the "Lion of the Punjab", employed Euro-American mercenaries such as the Neapolitan Paolo Avitabile; the Frenchmen Claude Auguste Court and Jean-François Allard; and the Americans Josiah Harlan and Alexander Gardner. The Sikh army, Dal Khalsa, was trained by Singh's French mercenaries to fight alone the lines used by the French in the Napoleonic era, and following French practice, Dal Khalsa had excellent artillery. Singh had a low opinion of his Euro-American mercenaries, once saying "German, French or English, all these European bastards are alike". Until 1858, India was a proprietary colony that belonged to the East India Company, not the British Crown. The East India Company became the world's most influential corporation, having exclusive monopolies on trade with India and China. By the early 19th century, the East India Company in its proprietary colony of India ruled over 90 million Indians and controlled of land under its own flag, issued its own currency and maintained its own civil service and its own army of 200,000 men led by officers trained at its officer school, giving the company an army larger than that possessed by most European states. In the 17th century, the East India Company recruited Indian mercenaries to guard its warehouses and police the cities under its rule. However, these forces were ad hoc and disbanded as quickly as they were recruited. Starting in 1746, the Company recruited Indian mercenaries into its own army. By 1765, the board of directors of the Company had come to accept it was necessary to rule its conquests to maintain a standing army, voting to maintain three presidency armies to be funded by taxes on Indian land. The number of Indians working for the Company's armies outnumbered the Europeans ten to one. When recruiting, the East India Company tended to follow Indian prejudices in believing the pale-skinned men from northern India made for better soldiers than the dark-skinned peoples of southern India, and that high-caste Hindus were superior to the low-caste Hindus. Despite these prejudices, the men of the Madras Army were from south India. The Bengal Army were largely high-cast Hindus from northern India while the Bombay Army prided itself on being a "melting pot". Because the East India Company ultimately by the end of the 18th century came to offer higher pay than the Maharajahs did, and offered the novelty in India of paying a pension to veterans and their families, it came to attract the best of the Indian mercenaries. Initially, the mercenaries serving in the company's armies brought along their own weapons, which was the normal practice in India, but after the 1760s the company began to them arm with the standard British weapons. The East India Company, generally known in both Britain and in India as "the Company", had sufficient lobbying power in London to ensure that several British Army regiments were also stationed to work alongside the Company army, whose troops were mostly "Sepoys" (Indians). The Company never entirely trusted the loyalty of its sepoys. The company had its own officer training school at the Addiscombe Military Seminary. The company's armies were trained in the Western style and by the end of 18th century its troops were ranked as the equal of any European army. Latin America Nicaragua In 1855, during a civil war in Nicaragua between the Conservatives and Liberals, the latter recruited an American adventurer named William Walker who promised to bring 300 mercenaries to fight for the Liberals. Through Walker only brought 60 mercenaries with him, to be joined by another 100 Americans together with the Belgian mercenary Charles Frederick Henningsen who were already in Nicaragua, he was able to defeat the Conservatives at the Battle of Le Virgen on 4 September 1855 and by 13 October, Walker had taken Grenada, the Conservative capital. After his victories, Walker became the de facto dictator of Nicaragua, which many both inside and outside of the country soon started to call "Walkeragua". At the time, Nicaragua was an extremely important transit point between the western and eastern United States as in the days before the Panama Canal and transcontinental railroad, ships from eastern United States would sail up the San Juan river to Lake Nicaragua, where passengers and goods were unloaded at the port of Rivas and then made the short journey via stagecoach to the Pacific coast, to be loaded onto ships that would take them to the west coast of the United States. One of the most important companies of the Nicaraguan stagecoach business was the Accessory Transit Company owned by Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt of New York. Walker confiscated the Accessory Transit Company's assets in Nicaragua, which he handed over to the Morgan & Garrison company, owned by rivals of Vanderbilt. As Vanderbilt happened to be the richest man in the United States, he launched a lobbying campaign against Walker in Washington D.C. and was able to pressure President Franklin Pierce into withdrawing American recognition of Walker's regime. Once it was understood that the U.S. government was no longer supporting Walker, Costa Rica invaded Nicaragua with the aim of deposing Walker, whose ambitions were felt to be a threat to all of Central America. The Costa Ricans defeated Walker at the Battle of Santa Rosa and the Second Battle of Rivas. The beleaguered Walker sought to appeal to support in his native South by restoring slavery in Nicaragua, making English the official language, changing the immigration law to favor Americans, and declaring his ultimate intention was to bring Nicaragua into the United States as a slave state. By this point, Walker had thoroughly alienated public opinion in Nicaragua while he was besieged in Grenada by a coalition of Guatemalan, Salvadorian and Costa Rican troops. The decision by Henningsen to burn down Grenada enraged Nicaraguan people and in March 1857, Walker, with his dreams of an empire in tatters, fled Nicaragua. In the 1980s, one of the Reagan administration's foreign policy was to overthrow the left-wing Sandinista government by arming guerrillas known as the Contras. Between 1982 and 1984, Congress passed the three Boland amendments which limited the extent of American aid to the Contra rebels. By the late 1970s, the popularity of magazines such as Soldier of Fortune, which glorified the mercenary subculture, led to the opening of numerous camps in the United States designed to train men to be mercenaries and also to serve as guerrillas in case of a Soviet conquest of the United States. The vast majority of the men who trained in these camps were white men who saw para-military training as a "reverse the previous twenty years of American history and take back all the symbolic territory that has been lost" as the possibility of becoming mercenaries gave them "the fantastic possibility of escaping their present lives, being reborn as warrior and remaking the world". Owing to the legal problems posed by the Boland amendments, the Reagan administration turned to the self-proclaimed mercenaries to arm and train the Contra guerrillas. In 1984, the CIA created the Civilian Military Assistance (CMA) group to aid the Contras. The CMA were led by a white supremacist from Alabama named Tom Posey, who like all of the other members of the CMA were graduates of the mercenary training camps. John Negroponte, the American ambassador to Honduras, arranged for permission to be given for the CMA to operate from Honduran territory. However, the operation collapsed later in 1984 when the Nicaraguans shot down a CMA plane carrying arms to the Contras, killing two Americans.Sam Hall, a self proclaimed mercenary hero and "counter-terrorist" who joined the CMA entered Nicaragua with the aim of performing sabotage operations. In 1986, Hall was captured by the Sandinistas, who held him for four months before releasing him under the grounds that he was not a mercenary, but rather a mercenary imposer. John K. Singlaub who worked alongside Hall described him as suffering from a "Walter Mitty type complex". Colombia In 1994, President César Gaviria of Colombia signed Decree 356, which allowed wealthy landowners to recruit private armies of their own and liberalised the law on settling up PMCs in order to fight the Communist FARC (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia-Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) guerrillas. As a result of Decree 356, by 2014 Colombia had 740 PMCs operating, more than anywhere else in the world. Increasingly Colombian mercenaries have been hired by American PMCs as being cheaper than American mercenaries. The government of the United Arab Emirates has hired Colombian mercenaries to fight its war in Yemen. Africa Ancient Africa An early recorded use of foreign auxiliaries dates back to Ancient Egypt, the thirteenth century BC, when Pharaoh Ramesses II used 11,000 mercenaries during his battles. A long established foreign corps in the Egyptian forces were the Medjay—a generic term given to tribal scouts and light infantry recruited from Nubia serving from the late period of the Old Kingdom through that of the New Kingdom. Other warriors recruited from outside the borders of Egypt included Libyan, Syrian and Canaanite contingents under the New Kingdom and Sherdens from Sardinia who appear in their distinctive horned helmets on wall paintings as body guards for Ramesses II. Celtic mercenaries were greatly employed in the Greek world (leading to the sack of Delphi and the Celtic settlement of Galatia). The Greek rulers of Ptolemaic Egypt, too, used Celtic mercenaries. Carthage was unique for relying primarily on mercenaries to fight its wars, particularly Gaul and Spanish mercenaries. 19th and 20th centuries In the 20th century, mercenaries in conflicts on the continent of Africa have in several cases brought about a swift end to bloody civil war by comprehensively defeating the rebel forces. There have been a number of unsavory incidents in the brushfire wars of Africa, some involving recruitment of European and American men "looking for adventure". Many of the adventurers in Africa who have been described as mercenaries were in fact ideologically motivated to support particular governments, and would not fight "for the highest bidder". An example of this was the British South Africa Police (BSAP), a paramilitary, mounted infantry force formed by the British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes in 1889–1890 that evolved and continued until 1980. Famous mercenaries in Africa include: Frederick Russell Burnham was an American scout for the British South Africa Company who served in both the First Matabele War (1893–94) and the Second Matabele War (1896–97). He effectively ended the Second Matabele War by assassinating the Ndebele religious leader, Mlimo, but Burnham is best known in this war for teaching American Frontier scouting to Robert Baden-Powell and inspiring him to found the boy scouts. In the Second Boer War (1900–1904), Burnham served as Chief of Scouts to the British Army. He was presented the Cross of the Distinguished Service Order for his heroism and given a commission as Major in the British Army by King Edward VII personally even though he declined to renounce his American citizenship. Burnham's real-life adventures also heavily influenced H. Rider Haggard who created the fictional Allan Quatermain adventurer, a character who later was transformed by George Lucas into Indiana Jones. Mike Hoare was a British career soldier who served with distinction in the London Irish Rifles during World War II. He later emigrated to South Africa, and was contracted by the State of Katanga in the early 1960s to form "4 Commando (Force Katangaise)", a unit of foreign military advisers in the local gendarmerie. Most of Hoare's recruits were Belgians or South Africans. After Katanga's integration in 1963, Hoare remained active in Congo affairs. He was solicited by General Joseph-Desiré Mobutu in 1964 to form "5 Commando" – a second mercenary force raised to crush the Simba Rebellion, which included European adventurers of at least twenty nationalities. Hoare later resurfaced in 1981, shortly after France-Albert René's ascension in the Seychelles, attempting to carry out a coup d'état on behalf of former president James Mancham. His troops were intercepted shortly after debarking on Mahé and only escaped by hijacking an Air India Boeing, which they flew to Durban. Bob Denard was a former French intelligence operative, policeman, and dedicated anti-communist who saw action during the First Indochina War and Algerian War of Independence. After a brief inroad into civilian life, Denard returned to military service with the Katangese gendarmerie in 1961. Refusing to surrender when secessionist forces collapsed in January 1963, he disappeared into Angola with a nucleus of other die-hards and sought work training North Yemen royalists before returning to the Congo at the request of then-Prime Minister Moise Tshombe. Denard formed his own unit to fight the Simba Rebellion, les affreux, who were also instrumental in suppressing an attempted coup d'état in 1966. Dismissed by Congolese president Joseph Kasa Vubu, the French mercenary joined the Kisangani Mutinies and was wounded in action. He later went on to serve as a military adviser to several African governments, including Gabon and Rhodesia. Denard has since carried out five attempted coup d'etats in Benin and the Comoros Islands, three of them successful. Neall Ellis was a South African aviator who achieved prominence for his extensive action in Sierra Leone's long-running civil war. Ellis was raised in Bulawayo, Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), but after an unsuccessful career in the Rhodesian Army, emigrated to join the South African Air Force. During the South African Border War, he flew improvised Aérospatiale Alouette III and Atlas Oryx gunships over Angola and Mozambique in support of South African expeditionary forces conducting external raids. He retired a colonel upon the end of apartheid, piloting Yugoslav Mil Mi-8s as an operational freelancer. In 1998, Ellis returned to participate in the Angolan Civil War with private military firm Executive Outcomes, which eventually dispatched him to Sierra Leone. During the Battle for Freetown, he was instrumental in fighting off Revolutionary United Front insurgents from a Mil Mi-24 Hind and providing air support for British forces executing Operation Barras. He has founded his own paramilitary company, Jesa Air West Africa, and continues to fly helicopters for Iraq and Somalia. Simon Mann was found guilty in Zimbabwe of "attempting to buy weapons" (BBC 27 August) allegedly for a coup in Equatorial Guinea in 2004 (see below). Congo Crisis The Congo Crisis (1960–1965) was a period of turmoil in the First Republic of the Congo that began with national independence from Belgium and ended with the seizing of power by Joseph Mobutu. During the crisis, mercenaries were employed by various factions, and also at times helped the United Nations and other peace keepers. In 1960 and 1961, Mike Hoare worked as a mercenary commanding an English-speaking unit called "4 Commando" supporting a faction in Katanga, a province trying to break away from the newly independent Congo under the leadership of Moïse Tshombe. Hoare chronicled his exploits in his book the Road to Kalamata. In 1964 Tshombe (then Prime Minister of Congo) hired Major Hoare to lead a military unit called "5 Commando" made up of about 300 men, most of whom were from South Africa. The unit's mission was to fight a rebel group called Simbas, who already had captured almost two-thirds of the country. In Operation Dragon Rouge, "5 Commando" worked in close cooperation with Belgian paratroopers, Cuban exile pilots, and CIA hired mercenaries. The objective of Operation Dragon Rouge was to capture Stanleyville and save several hundred civilians (mostly Europeans and missionaries) who were hostages of the Simba rebels. The operation saved many lives; however, the Operation damaged the reputation of Moïse Tshombe as it saw the return of white mercenaries to the Congo soon after independence and was a factor in Tshombe's loss of support from president of Congo Joseph Kasa-Vubu who dismissed him from his position At the same time Bob Denard commanded the French-speaking "6 Commando", "Black Jack" Schramme commanded "10 Commando" and William "Rip" Robertson commanded a company of anti-Castro Cuban exiles. Later, in 1966 and 1967, some former Tshombe mercenaries and Katangese gendarmes staged the Mercenaries' Mutinies. Biafra Mercenaries fought for the Biafrans in the Fourth Commando Brigade led by Rolf Steiner during the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970). Other mercenaries flew aircraft for the Biafrans. In October 1967, for example, a Royal Air Burundi DC-4M Argonaut, flown by mercenary Heinrich Wartski, also known as Henry Wharton, crash-landed in Cameroon with military supplies destined for Biafra. It was hoped that employing mercenaries in Nigeria would have similar impact to the Congo, but the mercenaries proved largely ineffective. The British historian Philip Baxter wrote the principle difference was that the Congolese militias commanded by leaders with almost no military experience were no match for the mercenaries, and by contrast the Sandhurst-trained Nigerian Army officers were of an "altogether higher caliber" than Congolese militia leaders. Through much of the leadership of the Nigerian Army had been killed in two coups in 1966, there were still just enough Sandhust graduates left in 1967 to hold the Nigerian Army together and provide enough of a modicum of military professionalism to defeat the mercenaries. By October 1967, most of the mercenaries who had been expecting easy victories like those won in the Congo had already left Biafra, complaining that the Nigerians were a much tougher opponent who were defeating them in battle. When asked about the impact of the white mercenaries, General Philip Effiong, the chief of the Biafran general staff replied: "They had not helped. It would had made no difference if not a single one of them came to work for the secessionist forces. Rolf Steiner stayed the longest. He was more of a bad influence than anything else. We were happy to get rid of him." One Biafran officer, Fola Oyewole, wrote about the sacking of Steiner in late 1968: "Steiner's departure from Biafra removed the shine from the white mercenaries, the myth of the white man's superiority in the art of soldering". Oyewole wrote that the white mercenaries were hated by the ordinary people of Biafra due to their high-handed behavior; a tendency to retreat when it appeared possible the Nigerians were about to cut them off instead of holding their ground; and a fondness for looting, noting that the European mercenaries seemed more interested in stealing as much as possible instead of helping Biafra." In May 1969, Count Carl Gustaf von Rosen formed a squadron of five light aircraft known as the Babies of Biafra, which attacked and destroyed Nigerian jet aircraft on the ground and delivered food aid. Count von Rosen was assisted by ex-RCAF fighter pilot Lynn Garrison. Angola In 1975, John Banks, an Englishman, recruited mercenaries to fight for the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) against the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) in the civil war that broke out when Angola gained independence from Portugal in 1975. In the United States, David Bufkin, a self-proclaimed mercenary hero started a recruiting campaign in Soldier of Fortune magazine calling for anti-Communist volunteers, especially Vietnam veterans, to fight in Angola as mercenaries, claiming to be funded to the tune of $80,000 by the Central Intelligence Agency. Bufkin was in fact a former U.S. Army soldier "who has gone AWOL several times, has been tried for rape, and been in and out of jail several times", did not have $80,000, was not supported by the CIA, instead being a con-man who had stolen most of the money paid to him. Bufkin managed to get a dozen or so American mercenaries to Angola, where several of them were killed in action with the rest being captured. One of the leaders of the mercenaries was Costas Georgiou (the self-styled "Colonel Callan"), who was described by the British journalist Patrick Brogan as a psychopathic killer who personally executed fourteen of his fellow mercenaries for cowardice, and who was extremely brutal to black people. Within 48 hours of his arrival in Angola, Georgiou had already led his men in disarming and massacring a group of FNLA fighters (his supposed allies), who he killed just for the "fun" of it all. At his trial, it was established that Georgiou had personally murdered at least 170 Angolans. Inept as a military leader as he was brutal, Georgiou notably failed as a commander. It was believed in 1975–76 that recruiting white mercenaries to fight in Angola would have a similar impact that the mercenaries had in the Congo in the 1960s, but in Angola the mercenaries failed completely as Brogan described their efforts as a "debacle". If anything, the white mercanaries with their disdain for blacks, or in the case of Georgiou murderous hatred seemed to have depressed morale on the FNLA side. Many of the mercenaries in Angola were not former professional soldiers as they claimed to have been, but instead merely fantasists who had invented heroic war records for themselves. The fantasist mercenaries did not know how to use their weapons properly, and often injured themselves and others when they attempted to use weaponry that they did not fully understand, leading to some of them being executed by the psychopathic killer Georgiou who did not tolerate failure. On 27 January 1976, a group of 96 British mercenaries arrived in Angola and within a week about dozen had accidentally maimed themselves by trying to use weapons that they falsely claimed to be proficient with. The MLPA forces were better organized and led, and the dispatch of 35, 000 Cuban Army troops in November 1975 decided the war for the MLPA. Cuban accounts of the Angolan war speak of the efforts of the mercenaries in a tone of contempt as Cuban veterans contend that the mercenaries were poor soldiers who they had no trouble defeating. When captured, John Derek Barker's role as a leader of mercenaries in Northern Angola led the judges to send him to face the firing squad. Nine others were imprisoned. Three more were executed: American Daniel Gearhart was sentenced to death for advertising himself as a mercenary in an American newspaper; Andrew McKenzie and Costas Georgiou, who had both served in the British army, were sentenced to death for murder. Georgiou was shot by firing squad in 1976. Costas' cousin Charlie Christodoulou was killed in an ambush. Executive Outcomes employees, Captains Daniele Zanata and Raif St Clair (who was also involved in the aborted Seychelles Coup of 1981), fought on behalf of the MPLA against the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) in the 1990s in violation of the Lusaka Protocol. The Comoros coup A major aim of French foreign policy was and still is to maintain the French sphere of influence in what is called Françafrique. In 1975, Ali Soilih took power in the Comoros via a coup, and proved unwilling to accept the French viewpoint that his nation was part of Françafrique. Unhappy with Soilih, the French secret service, the Service de Documentation Extérieure et de Contre-Espionnage in 1978 hired the French mercenary Bob Denard to invade the Comoros to overthrow Soilih. Making the Comoros a tempting target for Denard were its small size, consisting of only three islands in the Indian Ocean. Moreover, Soilih had abolished the Comorian Army, replacing the Army with a militia known as the Moissy, made up mostly of teenage boys with only the most rudimentary military training. The Moissy, which was modeled after the Red Guard in China, existed mainly to terrorize Soilih's opponents and was commanded by a 15-year-old boy, appointed solely because of his blind devotion to Soilih. On the night of 13 May 1978, Denard and 42 other mercenaries landed on Grande Comore island, annihilated the poorly trained and badly commanded Moissy, none of who had any military experience, and by the morning the Comoros was theirs. President Soilih was high on marijuana and naked in his bed together with three nude teenage schoolgirls watching a pornographic film, when Denard kicked in the door to his room to inform him that he was no longer president. Soilih was later taken out and shot with the official excuse being that he was "shot while trying to escape". The new president of the Comoros, Ahmed Abdallah, was a puppet leader and the real ruler of the Comoros was Colonel Denard, who brought the Comoros back into Françafrique. As a ruler, Denard proved himself to be extremely greedy as he rapaciously plundered the Comorian economy to make himself into a very rich man. Denard served as the commander of the Comorian Presidential Guard and became the largest single landowner in the Comoros, developing the best land by the sea into luxury resorts catering to tourists who wanted to enjoy the tropics. Denard converted to Islam (the prevailing religion in the Comoros), and took advantage of the Islamic rules on polygamy to maintain for himself a harem of Comorian women. Officially, France was committed to the United Nations sanctions against the apartheid government of South Africa, which French and South African businesses circumvented via the Comoros, a form of sanctions-busting that was tolerated by Denard as long as he received his cut of the profits. Ultimately, Denard's antics as the "great white conqueror" of the Comoros and his lavish lifestyle made him into embarrassment for the French government, as there were charges that France was engaged in neo-colonialism in the Comoros. At the same time there were alternatives to Denard in the form of black Comorian politicians who wanted Denard out, but were willing to keep the Comoros in Françafrique, which would allowed Paris to achieve its aims without the embarrassment of a white European exploiting a country inhabited by black Africans. When Abdallah tried to dismiss Denard as commander of the Presidential Guard, Denard had him assassinated on 26 November 1989. At that point, the French government, which had an alternative leadership in place, intervened by sending paratroopers to remove Denard and the other mercenaries from the Comoros while installing Said Mohamed Djohar as president. On 28 September 1995, Denard again invaded the Comoros, but this time, Paris was against the invasion, and 600 paratroops were dispatched to the Comoros to usher Denard and his mercenaries out. Denard was charged in France with the murder of President Abdallah, but was acquitted owing to a lack of evidence. In 2006, he was found guilty of conspiracy to overthrow the government of the Comoros in 1995, but this point Denard was suffering from Alzheimer's disease and he did not serve a day in prison, instead dying in a Paris hospital on 13 October 2007. The Seychelles invasion In 1981, "Mad Mike" Hoare was hired by the government of South Africa to lead an invasion of the Seychelles with the aim of deposing the left-wing President France-Albert René, who had roundly criticized apartheid, and replacing him with a more apartheid-friendly leader. Disguised as a drinking club, Ye Ancient Order of Froth-Blowers, and as rugby players, Hoare led a force of 53 men into the airport at Port Larue on 25 November 1981. Hoare's men failed to make it past the customs at the airport as an alert customs officer noticed one of the "rugby players" had an AK-47 assault rifle hidden in his luggage. What followed was a shoot-out at the airport between Hoare's men and Seychellois customs officers. Realizing the invasion was doomed, Hoare and his men escaped by hijacking an Air India jet which flew them back to South Africa. The fiasco of the Seychelles invasion marked the beginning of the decline of the traditional soldier of fortune, centered around a charismatic figure like Hoare or Denard, and a change over to the corporatized private military company, run by men who shunned the limelight. The White Mercenary archetype Starting in the 1960s, white mercenaries such as Colonel "Mad Mike" Hoare, Taffy Williams, Bob Denard, Siegfried "Kongo Killer" Müller, Jean Schramme, Rolf Steiner, and Roger Faulques played a prominent role in various wars in Africa, attracting much media attention in the West. During the Congo crisis of 1960–65, the poorly trained and led Congolese Army had almost disintegrated, allowing a situation where a relatively small number of mercenaries had an over-sized impact on the fighting, which was widely misunderstood in the West as proving the innate superiority of white soldiers over black. The exploits of these men led to the glorification of the mercenary lifestyle in magazines such as Soldier of Fortune together with countless pulp novels and a number of films. The American scholar Kyle Burke argued the popularity of such books and films featuring tough white mercenaries in Africa as their heroes was due to a male backlash against the feminist movement, noting the most noteworthy aspect of such works is a celebration of an ultra-macho, militaristic masculinity that refuses to compromise in any way with a symbolically castrating feminism that reduces men down to powerlessness. The glorification of machismo in these works suggests that the mercenaries are the best sort of men, and that women should defer to them, all the more so because such works also promote the image of black men as savage brutes who are all too willing to engage in sexual violence. Burke also argued that there was a strong racial backlash to the celebration of mercenaries in Africa with the message that a dozen white soldiers could defeat thousands of blacks in battle. A recurring theme of the books, magazines and films celebrating the mercenary lifestyle in Africa was a barely veiled racism that depicted post-independence Africa as a "hell" with the implication that Africa without European rule was reverting to its natural state of savagery that was alleged to have existed prior to the European conquests of Africa in the 19th century. The white mercenaries were portrayed as a heroic adventurers who almost effortlessly defeated vast hordes of black Africans and as a force for order, saving Africa from the Africans. Burke further noted the works celebrating the white mercenaries in Africa tended to be most popular with white working-class men, precisely the social element most threatened by economic turmoil, the rise of the gay rights movement, the rise of feminism, and the rise of the civil rights movement. Though the number of men who actually went to Africa to fight as mercenaries were very small, Burke wrote the popularity of the works celebrating white mercenaries reflected the status anxieties of many white men who felt threatened by social changes in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. The publisher of Soldier of Fortune, Robert Brown, himself admitted that the largest buyers of his magazine were what he called "the Walter Mitty market", men who merely fantasized about being mercenaries, of which by judging the sales there were a great many. By 1976, one year after it started publishing, Soldier of Fortune was selling 125000 issues per month. In the 1970s, Soldier of Fortune was highly supportive of the white supremacist government of Rhodesia, which was portrayed as a paradise on earth for whites, and in its articles urged white American men to volunteer to fight for "civilization" in Rhodesia against the black guerrillas. The popular image of mercenaries fighting in Africa from the 1960s to the present is that of macho adventurers defiantly living life on their own terms together with much drinking and womanizing mixed in with hair-raising adventures. Eritrea and Ethiopia Both sides hired mercenaries in the Eritrean–Ethiopian War from 1998 to 2000. Russian mercenaries were believed to be flying in the air forces of both sides. Sierra Leone American Robert C. MacKenzie was killed in the Malal Hills in February 1995, while commanding Gurkha Security Guards (GSG) in Sierra Leone. GSG pulled out soon afterwards and was replaced by Executive Outcomes. Both were employed by the Sierra Leone government as military advisers and to train the government soldiers. It has been alleged that the firms provided soldiers who took an active part in the fighting against the Revolutionary United Front (RUF). In 2000, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's (ABC-TV) international affairs program Foreign Correspondent broadcast a special report "Sierra Leone: Soldiers of Fortune", focusing on former 32BN and Recce members who operated in Sierra Leone while serving for SANDF. Officers like De Jesus Antonio, TT D Abreu Capt Ndume and Da Costa were the forefront because of their combat and language skills and also the exploits of South African pilot Neall Ellis and his MI-24 Hind gunship. The report also investigated the failures of the UN Peacekeeping Force, and the involvement of mercenaries and private military contractors in providing vital support to UN operations and British military Special Operations in Sierra Leone in 1999–2000. Equatorial Guinea In August 2004 there was a plot, which later became known as the "Wonga Coup", to overthrow the government of Equatorial Guinea in Malabo. Currently eight South African apartheid-era soldiers, organised by Neves Matias (former Recce major and De Jesus Antonio former Captain in 2sai BN) with (the leader of whom is Nick du Toit) and five local men are in Black Beach prison on the island. They are accused of being an advanced guard for a coup to place Severo Moto in power. Six Armenian aircrew, also convicted of involvement in the plot, were released in 2004 after receiving a presidential pardon. CNN reported on 25 August, that: It was planned, allegedly, by Simon Mann, a former SAS officer. On 27 August 2004 he was found guilty in Zimbabwe of purchasing arms, allegedly for use in the plot (he admitted trying to procure dangerous weapons, but said that they were to guard a diamond mine in DR Congo). It is alleged that there is a paper trail from him which implicates Sir Mark Thatcher, Lord Archer and Ely Calil (a Lebanese-British oil trader). The BBC reported in an article entitled "Q&A: Equatorial Guinea coup plot": The BBC reported on 10 September 2004 that in Zimbabwe: Libya Muammar Gaddafi in Libya was alleged to have been using mercenary soldiers during the 2011 Libyan civil war, including Tuaregs from various nations in Africa. Many of them had been part of his Islamic Legion created in 1972. Reports say around 800 had been recruited from Niger, Mali, Algeria, Ghana and Burkina Faso. In addition, small numbers of Eastern European mercenaries have also turned up supporting the Gaddafi regime. Most sources have described these troops as professional Serbian veterans of the Yugoslavia conflict, including snipers, pilots and helicopter experts. Certain observers, however, speculate that they may be from Poland or Belarus. The latter has denied the claims outright; the former is investigating them. Although the Serbian government has denied that any of their nationals are currently serving as mercenary soldiers in North Africa, five such men have been captured by anti-Gaddafi rebels in Tripoli and several others have also allegedly fought during the Second Battle of Benghazi. Most recently, a number of unidentified white South African mercenaries were hired to smuggle Gaddafi and his sons to exile in Niger. Their attempts were thwarted by NATO air activity shortly before the death of Libya's ousted strongman. Numerous reports have indicated that the team was still protecting Saif al-Islam Gaddafi shortly before his recent apprehension. Amnesty International has claimed that such allegations against Gaddafi and the Libyan state turned out to either be false or lacking any evidence. Human Rights Watch has indicated that while many foreign migrants were erroneously accused of fighting with Gaddafi, there were also genuine mercenaries from several nations who participated in the conflict. More recently in 2020 at least several hundred mercenaries from the Russian Wagner Group have been fighting on the side of the warlord, General Khalifa Haftar, whom the government of Russia supports. The Wagner Group mercenaries arrived in Libya in late 2019. The Wagner Group have excelled as snipers, and one result of their arrival was a rapid increase in the number of sniper deaths on the opposing side that holds Tripoli. In response, the government of Turkey has hired 2, 000 Syrian mercenaries to fight for the opposing faction that it is supporting in the Libyan civil war. Since 2019, Turkey deployed Syrian mercenaries in the Libya (See: Turkish military intervention in the Second Libyan Civil War). In addition, in 2020 the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights reported that Turkey sent many Tunisian mercenaries to Libya. Furthermore, in July 2020 Al Arabiyah reported that Turkey sent Syrian, Tunisian, Egyptian and Sudanese mercenaries into Libya. A November 2020 report by human rights advocacy group Human Rights Watch claimed that approximately hundreds of Sudanese men were hired by an Emirati security firm Black Shield Security Services as security guards for malls and hotels in the UAE, but were subsequently tricked into fighting in the Libyan Civil War. Reportedly 390 men were recruited from Khartoum, out of which 12 spoke to HRW and told that they were made to live alongside Libyan fighters aligned with UAE-backed General Khalifa Haftar. The recruits were hired to safeguard the oil facilities controlled by the Haftar forces. Middle East Egypt By 1807, Muhammad Ali the Great, the Albanian tobacco merchant turned de facto independent Ottoman vali (governor) of Egypt had imported about 400 French mercenaries to train his army. After the end of the Napoleonic wars, Muhammad Ali recruited more mercenaries from all over Europe and the United States to train his army, through French and Italian veterans of the Napoleonic wars were much preferred and formed the largest two groups of mercenaries in Egypt. The most famous of Muhammad Ali's mercenaries was the Frenchman Joseph-Anthelme Sève who set up the first staff school in Egypt and served as the chief of staff to Ibrahim Pasha, the son of the vali and his favorite general. By the 1820s, Muhammad Ali's mercenaries had created a mass conscript army trained to fight in the Western style together with schools for training Egyptian officers and factories for manufacturing Western style weapons as the vali did not wish to be dependent upon imported arms. Muhammad Ali's grandson, Ismail the Magnificent, who ruled as the Khedive of Egypt between 1863 and 79 recruited mercenaries on large scale. After Napoleon III made an unfavorable arbitration ruling in 1869 about the share of royalties from the newly opened Suez canal, which cost Ismail 3, 000, 000 Egyptian pounds per year, Ismail came to distrust his French mercenaries, and began to look elsewhere. A number of Italian mercenaries such as Romolo Gessi, Gaetamo Casati, Andreanni Somani, and Giacomo Messedaglia played prominent roles in the Egyptian campaigns in the Sudan. Ismail also recruited British mercenaries such as Samuel Baker and the Swiss mercenaries such as Werner Munzinger. After 1869, Ismail recruited 48 American mercenaries to command his army. General Charles Pomeroy Stone, formerly of the United States Army, served as the chief of the Egyptian general staff between 1870 and 1883. Ismail's Americans went to Egypt largely because of the high pay he offered, through several were Confederate veterans who were barred from serving in post-1865 United States Army. The fact that the Americans in Egyptian service had fought on opposing sides in the Civil War was a source of recurring tension as the antagonism between North and South continued in Egypt. Syrian Civil War The Free Syrian Army claimed the Bashar al-Assad regime recruited mercenaries from Iran, Hezbollah militia and the Iraqi Mahdi Army militia during the Syrian Civil War. The Russian government had approved of the deployment in 2016 of the Wagner Group mercenaries to fight for the Syrian government. The Wagner Group is reported to have played an important role in helping to turn the tide of the Syrian civil war in favor of the government, which in 2015 appeared to be close to collapse. On 7 February 2018, the Wagner Group mercenaries were reported to have attacked an American base in Syria together with a pro-Assad militia in what is known as the Battle of Khasham. Turkey used Syrian mercenaries against the Kurds in Syria. Yemen Civil War Multiple mercenary groups, called Popular Committees, which consists of Yemeni tribes loyal to different factions, were formed by both the Hadi government as well as the Houthi Supreme Political Council in the Yemeni Civil War. Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen During operation Decisive Storm, multiple sources reported that Latin American military contractors from Academi headed by Erik Prince were hired by UAE Armed Forces to assist in the fight against Houthis. Notable mercenaries See also Dutch Blue Guards Filibuster (military) Freelancer Independent contractor International Stability Operations Association Law of war Mercenaries in popular culture Mercenary Soldiers' Revolt in Brazil Mercenary War ( BC) – also called the Libyan War and the Truceless War Montreux Document Personal Security Detachment Private defense agency Private intelligence agency Privateer Rōnin Special forces Special operations References Sources Bernales-Ballesteros, Enrique; UNHCHR: Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights on use of mercenaries Bodin J; Les Suisses au Service de la France; Editions Albion Michael, 1988. Chartrand, Rene; Louis XV's Army – Foreign Infantry; Osprey 1997. Chartrand, Rene; Spanish Army of the Napoleonic Wars 1793–1808; Osprey 1998. Milliard, Todd S.; Overcoming post-colonial myopia: A call to recognize and regulate private military companies (PDF), in Military Law Review Vol 173, June 2003. At the time of publication Major Milliard was a Judge Advocate in the United States Army Judge Advocate General's Corps Anthony Mockler, Storia dei mercenari: Da Senofonte all'Iraq. Odoya, 2012. . Further reading Historical Atwood, Rodney. The Hessians: Mercenaries from Hessen-Kassel in the American Revolution (Cambridge University Press, 1980). Avant, Deborah. "From mercenary to citizen armies: Explaining change in the practice of war." International Organization (2000): 41–72. online Fetter, Frank Whitson. “Who Were the Foreign Mercenaries of the Declaration of Independence?” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 104, no. 4, 1980, pp. 508–513. online Ingrao, Charles. "" Barbarous Strangers": Hessian State and Society during the American Revolution." American Historical Review 87.4 (1982): 954–976 online Ingrao, Charles W. The Hessian mercenary state: ideas, institutions, and reform under Frederick II, 1760–1785 (Cambridge University Press, 2003). Niccolò Machiavelli. The Prince. 1532. Ch. 12. "Military science in western Europe in the sixteenth century." Prologue: The nature of armies in the 16th century A given army often included numerous nationalities and languages. The normal Landsknecht regiment included one interpreter per 400 men, and interpreters were commonly budgeted for in the staffs of the field armies of the French, and of German reiter regiments as well. Fluency in multiple languages was a valuable skill for a captain, given that it was not uncommon for armies to consist of a majority of foreign nationals." Mockler, Anthony. The Mercenaries: The Men Who Fight for Profit – from the Free Companies of Feudal France to the White Adventurers in the Congo. Macmillan, 1969. Percy, Sarah. Mercenaries: The history of a norm in international relations (Oxford University Press, 2007). Schmidt, H. D. "The Hessian Mercenaries: The Career of a Political Cliché." History 43.149 (1958): 207–212 online Thomson, Janice E. Mercenaries, pirates, and sovereigns: state-building and extraterritorial violence in early modern Europe. Princeton University Press, 1994. Describes the building of the modern state system through the states' "monopolization of extraterritorial violence." Underwood, Matthew. "Jealousies of a standing army: the use of mercenaries in the American revolution and its implications for Congress's role in regulating private military firms." Northwestern University Law Review106 (2012): 317+. online Since 1970s Guy Arnold. Mercenaries: The Scourge of the Third World. Palgrave Macmillan, 1999. Doug Brooks & Shawn Lee Rathgeber. "The Industry Role in Regulating Private Security Companies", Canadian Consortium on Human Security – Security Privatization: Challenges and Opportunities, Vol. 6.3, University of British Columbia, March 2008. Anthony Mockler. Hired Guns and Coups d'Etat: Mercenaries: Thirty Years 1976–2006. Hunter Mackay, 2007. Anthony Mockler. The New Mercenaries: The History of the Mercenary from the Congo to the Seychelles. Paragon House, 1987. Robert Young Pelton. Hunter Hammer and Heaven, Journeys to Three World's Gone Mad, Jeremy Scahill. Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army, Nation Books, 2007. Peter J. Woolley. "Soldiers of Fortune," The Common Review, v. 5, no. 4(2007), pp. 46–48. Review essay. Status in international law Marina Mancini; Private Military and Security Company Employees: Are They the Mercenaries of the Twenty-first Century?, EUI Working Paper AEL 2010/5, European University Institute, San Domenico di Fiesole, 2010, . Katherine Fallah; Corporate Actors: the Legal Status of Mercenaries in Armed Conflict, International Review of the Red Cross, (2006) Eliav Lieblich; "The Status of mercenaries in International Armed Conflict as a case of politicization of International Humanitarian Law", Bucerius Law Journal, (2009) PMCs Monitor: An international organization which advocates for tighter rules United Nations Working Group on the use of mercenaries as a means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the rights of peoples to self-determination Private military companies (PMCs) Robert Young Pelton; Licensed to Kill: Hired Guns in the War on Terror, Crown, (2006), Mercenary / Private Military Companies (PMCs): Links for mercenary related articles Corporate Mercenaries: War on Want's report on the threat of private military companies, November 2006 José Alvear Restrepo Lawyers' Collective; Private Security Transnational Enterprises in Colombia February 2008 The Security Contracting Network is resource and community of security contracting professionals. Irregular military Private military contractors Protective service occupations Types of military forces Warfare of the Middle Ages

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rear%20Window

Rear Window

Rear Window is a 1954 American mystery thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock and written by John Michael Hayes based on Cornell Woolrich's 1942 short story "It Had to Be Murder". Originally released by Paramount Pictures, the film stars James Stewart, Grace Kelly, Wendell Corey, Thelma Ritter, and Raymond Burr. It was screened at the 1954 Venice Film Festival. The film is considered by many filmgoers, critics, and scholars to be one of Hitchcock's best and one of the greatest films ever made. It received four Academy Award nominations and was ranked number 42 on AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies list and number 48 on the 10th-anniversary edition, and in 1997 was added to the United States National Film Registry in the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Plot Recuperating from a broken leg, professional photographer L. B. "Jeff" Jefferies is confined to a wheelchair in his apartment in Greenwich Village, Manhattan. His rear window looks out onto a courtyard and other apartments. During an intense heat wave, he watches his neighbors, who keep their windows open to stay cool. They are a lonely woman whom Jeff nicknames 'Miss Lonelyhearts', a newlywed couple, a pianist, a pretty dancer nicknamed 'Miss Torso', a middle-aged couple whose small dog likes digging in the flower garden, and Lars Thorwald, a traveling costume jewelry salesman with a bedridden wife. Jeff is visited regularly by his socialite girlfriend, Lisa Fremont, and a nurse named Stella. One night after an argument with Lisa, Jeff is alone in his apartment and hears a woman scream, "Don't!" and the sound of breaking glass. Later that night, during a thunderstorm, he observes Thorwald making repeated late-night trips carrying a suitcase. The next morning, Jeff notices that Thorwald's wife is gone, and sees him cleaning a large knife and handsaw. Thorwald also has moving men haul away a large trunk. Jeff becomes convinced that Thorwald has murdered his wife, and shares this with Lisa and Stella, who believe him when they observe Thorwald acting suspiciously. Jeff calls his friend Tom Doyle, a New York City Police detective, and asks him to investigate Thorwald. Doyle finds nothing suspicious—apparently, Mrs. Thorwald is upstate. Soon after, the neighbor's dog is found dead. The distraught owner yells and everyone runs to their windows except Thorwald, who sits quietly in his dark apartment. Certain that Thorwald killed the dog, Jeff telephones him to lure him away so that Stella and Lisa can investigate. He believes Thorwald buried something in the flower bed and killed the dog because it was digging there. When Thorwald leaves, Lisa and Stella dig up the flowers but find nothing. Much to Jeff's amazement and admiration, Lisa climbs up the fire escape to Thorwald's apartment and clambers in through an open window. Jeff and Stella get distracted when they see Miss Lonelyhearts take out some pills and write a note, realizing she is going to attempt suicide. They call the police but before they can report it Miss Lonelyhearts stops, opening the window to listen to the pianist's music. Thorwald returns and confronts Lisa, and Jeff realizes that Thorwald is going to kill her. He calls the police and reports an assault in progress. The police arrive and arrest Lisa when Thorwald indicates that she broke in to his apartment. Jeff sees Lisa coyly pointing to her finger with Mrs. Thorwald's wedding ring on it. Thorwald sees this also and, realizing that she is signaling someone, spots Jeff across the courtyard. Jeff phones Doyle and leaves an urgent message while Stella goes to bail Lisa out of jail. When his phone rings, Jeff assumes it is Doyle, and blurts out that the suspect has left. When no one answers, he realizes that it was Thorwald calling. Thorwald enters Jeff's dark apartment and Jeff sets off a series of camera flashbulbs to temporarily blind him. Thorwald pushes Jeff out the window and Jeff, hanging on, yells for help. Police enter the apartment, Jeff falls, and officers on the ground break his fall. Thorwald confesses to the police that he murdered his wife. A few days later, Jeff rests in his wheelchair, now with casts on both legs, and watches the neighbors again. The couple whose dog was killed have a new puppy, the newlyweds are having their first argument, Miss Torso's true love comes back from the war, Miss Lonelyhearts starts seeing the pianist and Thorwald's apartment is being refurbished. Lisa is with Jeff, reading a book titled Beyond the High Himalayas. After seeing that he is sleeping, she happily opens a fashion magazine. Cast James Stewart as L. B. "Jeff" Jefferies Grace Kelly as Lisa Carol Fremont Wendell Corey as NYPD Det. Lt. Thomas "Tom" J. Doyle Thelma Ritter as Stella Raymond Burr as Lars Thorwald Judith Evelyn as Miss Lonelyhearts Ross Bagdasarian as the songwriter Georgine Darcy as Miss Torso Sara Berner and Frank Cady as the couple living above the Thorwalds, with their dog Jesslyn Fax as "Miss Hearing Aid" Rand Harper and Havis Davenport as newlyweds Irene Winston as Mrs. Anna Thorwald Uncredited Harry Landers as young man guest of Miss Lonelyhearts Ralph Smiles as Carl, the waiter Fred Graham as detective Eddie Parker as detective Anthony Warde as detective Kathryn Grant as Girl at Songwriter's Party Marla English as Girl at Songwriter's Party Bess Flowers as Woman at Songwriter's Party with Poodle Benny Bartlett as Stanley, Miss Torso's returning boyfriend Dick Simmons as Man with Miss Torso Cast notes Director Alfred Hitchcock makes his traditional cameo appearance in the songwriter's apartment, where he is seen winding a clock. Production The film was shot entirely at Paramount Studios, which included an enormous indoor set to replicate a Greenwich Village courtyard. Set designers Hal Pereira and Joseph MacMillan Johnson spent six weeks building the extremely detailed and complex set, which ended up being the largest of its kind at Paramount. One of the unique features of the set was its massive drainage system, constructed to accommodate the rain sequence in the film. They also built the set around a highly nuanced lighting system which was able to create natural-looking lighting effects for both the day and night scenes. Though the address given in the film is 125 W. Ninth Street in New York's Greenwich Village, the set was actually based on a real courtyard located at 125 Christopher Street. In addition to the meticulous care and detail put into the set, careful attention was also given to sound, including the use of natural sounds and music that would drift across the courtyard and into Jefferies' apartment. At one point, the voice of Bing Crosby can be heard singing "To See You Is to Love You", originally from the 1952 Paramount film Road to Bali. Also heard on the soundtrack are versions of songs popularized earlier in the decade by Nat King Cole ("Mona Lisa", 1950) and Dean Martin ("That's Amore", 1952), along with segments from Leonard Bernstein's score for Jerome Robbins' ballet Fancy Free (1944), Richard Rodgers' song "Lover" (1932), and "M'appari tutt'amor" from Friedrich von Flotow's opera Martha (1844), most borrowed from Paramount's music publisher, Famous Music. Hitchcock used costume designer Edith Head on all of his Paramount films. Although veteran Hollywood composer Franz Waxman is credited with the score for the film, his contributions were limited to the opening and closing titles and the piano tune ("Lisa"). This was Waxman's final score for Hitchcock. The director used primarily "diegetic" sounds—sounds arising from the normal life of the characters—throughout the film. Release Theatrical On August 4, 1954, a "benefit world premiere" was held for the film, with United Nations officials and "prominent members of the social and entertainment worlds" at the Rivoli Theatre in New York City, with proceeds going to the American–Korean Foundation (an aid organization founded soon after the end of the Korean War. and headed by Milton S. Eisenhower, brother of President Eisenhower). The movie had a wide release on September 1, 1954. Home media On September 25, 2012, Universal Studios Home Entertainment released Rear Window for the first time on Blu-ray as part of the "Alfred Hitchcock: The Masterpiece Collection". This edition included numerous supplemental features such as an audio commentary from John Fawell, excerpts from Hitchcock's interview with François Truffaut, two theatrical trailers, and an interview with the film's screenwriter John Michael Hayes. On May 6, 2014, Universal Pictures Home Entertainment re-released Rear Window on Blu-ray with the same supplemental features. Reception Box office During its initial theatrical run, Rear Window earned $5.3 million in North American box office rentals. Critical response Bosley Crowther of The New York Times called the film a "tense and exciting exercise" and deemed Hitchcock as a director whose work has a "maximum of build-up to the punch, a maximum of carefully tricked deception and incidents to divert and amuse." Crowther also noted that "Mr. Hitchcock's film is not 'significant.' What it has to say about people and human nature is superficial and glib, but it does expose many facets of the loneliness of city life, and it tacitly demonstrates the impulse of morbid curiosity. The purpose of it is sensation, and that it generally provides in the colorfulness of its detail and in the flood of menace toward the end." Variety called the film "one of Alfred Hitchcock's better thrillers" which "combines technical and artistic skills in a manner that makes this an unusually good piece of murder mystery entertainment." The film ranked 5th on Cahiers du Cinéma's Top 10 Films of the Year List in 1955. Time called it "just possibly the second-most entertaining picture (after The 39 Steps) ever made by Alfred Hitchcock" and a film in which there is "never an instant ... when Director Hitchcock is not in minute and masterly control of his material." The reviewer also noted the "occasional studied lapses of taste and, more important, the eerie sense a Hitchcock audience has of reacting in a manner so carefully foreseen as to seem practically foreordained." Harrison's Reports named the film as a "first-rate thriller" that is "strictly an adult entertainment, but it should prove to be a popular one." They further added, "What helps to make the story highly entertaining is the fact that is enhanced by clever dialogue and by delightful touches of comedy and romance that relieve the tension." Nearly 30 years after the film's initial release, Roger Ebert reviewed the re-release by Universal Pictures in October 1983, after Hitchcock's estate was settled. He said the film "develops such a clean, uncluttered line from beginning to end that we're drawn through it (and into it) effortlessly. The experience is not so much like watching a movie, as like ... well, like spying on your neighbors. Hitchcock traps us right from the first ... And because Hitchcock makes us accomplices in Stewart's voyeurism, we're along for the ride. When an enraged man comes bursting through the door to kill Stewart, we can't detach ourselves, because we looked too, and so we share the guilt and in a way we deserve what's coming to him." The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 98% based on 121 reviews, with an average rating of 9.20/10. The critics' consensus states that "Hitchcock exerted full potential of suspense in this masterpiece." At Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 100 out of 100 based on 18 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". In his 2012 review of the film Killian Fox of The Guardian wrote "Hitchcock made a career out of indulging our voyeuristic tendencies, and he never excited them more skilfully, or with more gleeful self-awareness, than in Rear Window". Awards and honors Analysis In Laura Mulvey's essay "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema," she identifies what she sees as voyeurism and scopophilia in Hitchcock's movies, with Rear Window used as an example of how she sees cinema as incorporating the patriarchy into the way that pleasure is constructed and signaled to the audience. Additionally, she sees the "male gaze" as especially evident in Rear Window in characters such as the dancer "Miss Torso;" she is both a spectacle for Jeff to enjoy, as well as for the audience (through his substitution). In his book, Alfred Hitchcock's "Rear Window", John Belton further addresses the underlying issues of voyeurism which he asserts are evident in the film. He says "Rear Window's story is 'about' spectacle; it explores the fascination with looking and the attraction of that which is being looked at." In his 1954 review of the film, François Truffaut suggested "this parable: The courtyard is the world, the reporter/photographer is the filmmaker, the binoculars stand for the camera and its lenses." Voyeurism John Fawell notes in Dennis Perry's book, Hitchcock and Poe: The Legacy of Delight and Terror, that Hitchcock "recognized that the darkest aspect of voyeurism . . . is our desire for awful things to happen to people . . . to make ourselves feel better, and to relieve ourselves of the burden of examining our own lives." Hitchcock challenges the audience, forcing them to peer through his rear window and become exposed to, as Donald Spoto calls it in his 1976 book The Art of Alfred Hitchcock: Fifty Years of His Motion Pictures, the "social contagion" of acting as voyeur. In an explicit example of a condemnation of voyeurism, Stella expresses her outrage at Jeffries' voyeuristic habits, saying, "In the old days, they'd put your eyes out with a red hot poker" and "What people ought to do is get outside and look in for a change." One climactic scene in the film portrays both the positive and negative effects of voyeurism. Driven by curiosity and incessant watching, with Jeff watching from his window, Lisa sneaks into Thorwald's second-floor apartment, looking for clues, and is apprehended by him. Jeff is in obvious anxiety and is overcome with panic as he sees Thorwald walk into the apartment and notice the irregular placement of the purse on the bed. Jeff anxiously jitters in his wheelchair, and grabs his telephoto camera to watch the situation unfold, eventually calling the police because Miss Lonelyhearts is contemplating suicide in the neighboring apartment. Chillingly, Jeff watches Lisa in Thorwald's apartment rather than keeping an eye on the woman about to commit suicide. Thorwald turns off the lights, shutting off Jeff's sole means of communication with and protection of Lisa; Jeff still pays attention to the pitch-black apartment instead of Miss Lonelyhearts. The tension Jeff feels is unbearable and acutely distressing as he realizes that he is responsible for Lisa now that he cannot see her. The police go to the Thorwald apartment, the lights flicker on, and any danger coming toward Lisa is temporarily dismissed. Although Lisa is taken to jail, Jeff is utterly mesmerized by her dauntless actions. With further analysis, Jeff's positive evolution understandably would be impossible without voyeurism—or as Robin Wood puts it in his 1989 book Hitchcock's Films Revisited, "the indulging of morbid curiosity and the consequences of that indulgence." Legacy Ownership of the copyright in Woolrich's original story was eventually litigated before the Supreme Court of the United States in Stewart v. Abend. The film was copyrighted in 1954 by Patron Inc., a production company set up by Hitchcock and Stewart. As a result, Stewart and Hitchcock's estate became involved in the Supreme Court case, and Sheldon Abend became a producer of the 1998 remake of Rear Window. In 1997, Rear Window was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". By this time, the film interested other directors with its theme of voyeurism, and other reworkings of the film soon followed, which included Brian De Palma's 1984 film Body Double and Phillip Noyce's 1993 film Sliver. In 1998 Time Out magazine conducted a poll and Rear Window was voted the 21st greatest film of all time. In the British Film Institute's 2012 Sight & Sound polls of the greatest films ever made, Rear Window was ranked 53rd among critics and 48th among directors. In 2017 Empire magazine's readers' poll ranked Rear Window at No. 72 on its list of The 100 Greatest Movies. Rear Window was restored by the team of Robert A. Harris and James C. Katz for its 1999 limited theatrical re-release (using Technicolor dye-transfer prints for the first time in this title's history) and the Collector's Edition DVD release in 2000. American Film Institute included the film as number 42 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies, number 14 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills, number 48 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) and number three in AFI's 10 Top 10 (Mysteries). Rear Window was remade as a TV movie of the same name in 1998, with an updated storyline in which the lead character is paralyzed and lives in a high-tech home filled with assistive technology. Actor Christopher Reeve, himself paralyzed as a result of a 1995 horse-riding accident, was cast in the lead role. The telefilm also starred Daryl Hannah, Robert Forster, Ruben Santiago-Hudson, and Anne Twomey. Disturbia (2007) is a modern-day retelling, with the protagonist (Shia LaBeouf) under house arrest instead of laid up with a broken leg, and who believes that his neighbor is a serial killer rather than having committed a single murder. On September 5, 2008, the Sheldon Abend Trust sued Steven Spielberg, DreamWorks, Viacom, and Universal Studios, alleging that the producers of Disturbia violated the copyright to the original Woolrich story owned by Abend. On September 21, 2010, the U.S. District Court in Abend v. Spielberg, 748 F.Supp.2d 200 (S.D.N.Y. 2010), ruled that Disturbia did not infringe the original Woolrich story. See also List of films featuring surveillance References Informational notes Citations Further reading Orpen treats Hitchcock's and Tomasini's editing of Rear Window at length in a chapter of her monograph. External links John Belton (ndg) "Rear Window" at National Film Registry Detailed review at Filmsite.org Rear Window essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 , pages 490-491 1954 films 1950s mystery thriller films 1950s psychological thriller films American films American mystery thriller films American psychological thriller films Edgar Award-winning works English-language films Films about murderers Films about photographers Films about security and surveillance Films based on short fiction Films based on works by Cornell Woolrich Films directed by Alfred Hitchcock Films produced by Alfred Hitchcock Films scored by Franz Waxman Films set in apartment buildings Films set in Manhattan Films with screenplays by John Michael Hayes Paramount Pictures films United States National Film Registry films Uxoricide in fiction Works involved in a lawsuit

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge%20%28firearms%29

Cartridge (firearms)

A cartridge or a round is a type of pre-assembled firearm ammunition packaging a projectile (bullet, shot, or slug), a propellant substance (usually either smokeless powder or black powder) and an ignition device (primer) within a metallic, paper, or plastic case that is precisely made to fit within the barrel chamber of a breechloading gun, for the practical purpose of convenient transportation and handling during shooting. Although in popular usage the term "bullet" is often informally used to refer to a complete cartridge, it is correctly used only to refer to the projectile. Cartridges can be categorized by the type of their primers – a small charge of an impact- or electric-sensitive chemical mixture that is located: at the center of the case head (centerfire); inside the rim (rimfire); inside the walls on the fold of the case base that is shaped like a cup (cupfire, now obsolete); in a sideways projection that is shaped like a pin (pinfire, now obsolete); or a lip (lipfire, now obsolete); or in a small nipple-like bulge at the case base (teat-fire, now obsolete). Only the centerfire and rimfire survived mainstream usage today. Military and commercial producers continue to pursue the goal of caseless ammunition. Some artillery ammunition uses the same cartridge concept as found in small arms. In other cases, the artillery shell is separate from the propellant charge. A cartridge without a projectile is called a blank; one that is completely inert (contains no active primer and no propellant) is called a dummy; one that failed to ignite and shoot off the projectile is called a dud; and one that ignited but failed to sufficiently push the projectile out of the barrel is called a squib. Design Purpose The cartridge was invented specifically for breechloading firearms. Prior to its invention, the projectiles and propellant are carried separately and had to be individually loaded via the muzzle into the gun barrel before firing, then have a separate ignitor compound (from a slow match, a small charge of gunpowder in a flash pan, or a percussion cap) to set off the shot. Such loading procedures often necessitates adding paper/cloth wadding and ramming down repeatedly with a rod to optimize the gas seal, and are thus clumsy and inconvenient, severely restricting the practical rate of fire of the weapon, as well as complicating the logistics of ammunition. The primary purpose of a cartridge is to offer a handy pre-assembled "all-in-one" package that is convenient to handle and transport, easily inserted into the breech (rear end) of the barrel, as well as preventing potential propellant loss, contamination or degradation from moisture and the elements. In modern self-loading firearms, the round also enables the action mechanism to use part of the propellant energy (carried by the cartridge itself) and cyclically load new rounds of ammunition to allow quick repeated firing. To perform a firing, the round is first inserted into a "ready" position within the chamber aligned with the bore axis (i.e. "in battery"). While in the chamber, the cartridge case obturates all other directions except the bore to the front, reinforced by a breechblock or a locked bolt from behind, designating the forward direction as the path of least resistance. When the trigger is pulled, the sear disengages and releases the hammer/striker, causing the firing pin to impact the primer embedded in the base of the cartridge. The shock-sensitive chemical in the primer then creates a jet of sparks that travels into the case and ignites the main propellant charge within, causing the powders to deflagrate (but not detonate). This rapid exothermic combustion yields a mixture of highly energetic gases and generates a very high pressure inside the case, often fire-forming it against the chamber wall. When the pressure builds up sufficiently to overcome the fastening friction between the projectile (e.g. bullet) and the case neck, the projectile will detach from the case and, pushed by the expanding high-pressure gases behind it, move down the bore and out the muzzle at extremely high speed. After the bullet exits the barrel, the gases are released to the surrounding as ejectae and the chamber pressure drops back down to atmospheric level. The case, which had been elastically expanded by high pressure, contracts slightly, which eases its removal from the chamber when pulled by the extractor. The spent cartridge, with its projectile and propellant gone but the case still containing a used-up primer, then gets ejected from the gun to clear room for a subsequent new round. Components A typical modern cartridge consists of four components: the case, the projectile, the propellant, and the primer. Case The main defining component of the cartridge is the case, which gives the cartridge its shape and serves as the integrating housing for other functional components – it acts as a container for the propellant powders and also serve as a protective shell against the elements; it attaches the projectile either at the front end of the cartridge (bullets for pistols, submachine guns, rifles, and machine guns) or inside of the cartridge (wadding/sabot containing either a number of shot or an individual slug for shotguns), and align it with the barrel bore to the front; it holds the primer at the back end, which receives impact from a firing pin and is responsible for igniting the main propellant charge inside the case. While historically paper had been used in the earliest cartridges, almost all modern cartridges use metallic casing. The modern metallic case can either be a "bottleneck" one, whose frontal portion near the end opening (known as the "case neck") has a noticeably reduced diameter than the main part of the case ("case body"), with a noticeably angled slope ("case shoulder") in between; or a "straight-walled" one, where there is no narrowed neck and the whole case looks cylindrical. The case shape is meant to match exactly to the chamber of the gun that fires it, and the "neck", "shoulder" and "body" of a bottleneck cartridge have corresponding counterparts in the chamber known as the "chamber neck", "chamber shoulder" and "chamber body". The front opening of the case neck, which receives and fastens the bullet via crimping, is known as the case mouth. The closed-off rear end of the case body, which holds the primer and technically is the case base, is ironically called the case head as it is the most prominent and frequently the widest part of the case. There is a circumferential flange at the case head called a rim, which provides a lip for the extractor to engage. Depending on whether and how the rim protrudes beyond the maximum case body diameter, the case can be classified as either "rimmed", "semi-rimmed", "rimless", "rebated" or "belted". The shape of a bottleneck cartridge case (e.g. body diameter, shoulder slant angle and position, neck length) also affects the pressure generable inside the case, which in turn influences the accelerative capacity of the projectile. Wildcat cartridges are often made by reshaping the case of an existing cartridge. In addition to case shape, rifle cartridges can also be grouped according to the case dimensions, which in turn dictates the minimal receiver size and operating space (bolt travel) needed by the action, into either "mini-action", "short-action", "long-action" or "magnum" categories. Mini-action cartridges generally refer to intermediate cartridges, typically with a cartridge overall length (COL) below , exemplified by the .223 Remington and 7.62×39mm; Short-action cartridges include all full-powered cartridges with a COL between , most commonly exemplified by the .308 Winchester; Long-action cartridges, also known as the "standard length" cartridges, are traditional full-powered cartridges with a COL between , exemplified by the .30-06 Springfield; Magnum cartridges include all cartridges with a COL above , as well as some long-action cartridges with a case head larger than diameter, exemplified by the .300 Winchester Magnum and 7mm Remington Magnum. The most popular material used to make cartridge cases is brass due to its good corrosion resistance. The head of a brass case can be work-hardened to withstand the high pressures, and allow for manipulation via extraction and ejection without rupturing. The neck and body portion of a brass case is easily annealed to make the case ductile enough to allow reshaping so that it can be reloaded many times, and fire forming can help accurize the shooting. Steel casing is used in some plinking ammunition, as well as in some military ammunition (mainly from the former Soviet Union and China). Steel is less expensive to make than brass, but it is far less corrosion-resistant and not feasible to reuse and reload. Military forces typically consider service small arms cartridge cases to be disposable, single-use devices. However, the mass of the cartridges can affect how much ammunition a soldier can carry, so the lighter steel cases do have a logistic advantage. Conversely, steel is more susceptible to contamination and damage so all such cases are varnished or otherwise sealed against the elements. One downside caused by the increased strength of steel in the neck of these cases (compared to the annealed neck of a brass case) is that propellant gas can blow back past the neck and leak into the chamber. Constituents of these gases condense on the (relatively cold) chamber wall, and this solid propellant residue can make extraction of fired cases difficult. This is less of a problem for small arms of the former Warsaw Pact nations, which were designed with much looser chamber tolerances than NATO weapons. Aluminum-cased cartridges are available commercially. These are generally not reloaded, as aluminum fatigues easily during firing and resizing. Some calibers also have non-standard primer sizes to discourage reloaders from attempting to reuse these cases. Plastic cases are commonly used in shotgun shells, and some manufacturers have now started offering polymer-cased centerfire rifle cartridges. Projectile As firearms are projectile weapons, the projectile is the effector component of the cartridge, and is actually responsible for reaching, impacting and exerting damage onto a target. The word "projectile" is an umbrella term that describes any type of kinetic objects launched into ballistic flight, but due to the ubiquity of rifled firearms shooting bullets, the term has become somewhat a technical synonym for bullets among the handloading crowds. The projectile's motion in flight is known as its external ballistics; and its behavior upon impacting an object is known as its terminal ballistics. A bullet can be made of virtually anything (see below), but lead is the traditional material of choice because of its high density, malleability, ductility and low cost of production. However, at speeds of greater than , pure lead will deposit fouling in rifled bores at an ever-increasing rate. Alloying the lead with a small percentage of tin and/or antimony can reduce such fouling, but grows less effective as velocities are increased. A cup made of harder metal (e.g. copper), called a gas check, is often placed at the base of a lead bullet to decrease lead deposits by protecting the rear of the bullet against melting when fired at higher pressures, but this too does not work at higher velocities. A modern solution is to cover bare lead in a protective powder coat, as seen in some rimfire ammunitions. Another solution is to encase a lead core within a thin exterior layer of harder metal (e.g. gilding metal, cupronickel, copper alloys or steel), known as a jacketing. In modern days, steel, bismuth, tungsten and other exotic alloys are sometimes used to replace lead and prevent release of toxicity into the environment. In armor-piercing bullets, very hard and high-density materials such as hardened steel, tungsten, tungsten carbide, or even depleted uranium are used for the penetrator core. Non-lethal projectiles with very limited penetrative and stopping powers are sometimes used in riot control or training situations, where killing or severely wounding a target would be undesirable. Such projectiles are usually made from softer and lower density materials, such as plastic or rubber bullets. Wax bullets are occasionally used for force-on-force tactical trainings, and pistol dueling with wax bullets used to be a competitive Olympic sport prior to the First World War. For smoothbore weapons such as shotguns, small metallic balls known as shots are typically used, which is usually contained inside a semi-flexible, cup-like sabot called "wadding". When fired, the wadding is launched from the gun as a payload-carrying projectile, loosens and opens itself up after exiting the barrel, and then inertially releases the contained shots as a hail of sub-projectiles. Shotgun shots are usually made from bare lead, though copper/zinc–coated steel balls (such as those used by BB guns) can also be used. Lead pollution of wetlands has led to the BASC and other organisations campaigning for the phasing out of traditional lead shot. There are also unconventional projectile fillings such as bundled flechettes, rubber balls, rock salt and magnesium shards, as well as non-lethal specialty projectiles such as rubber slugs and bean bag rounds. Solid projectiles (e.g. slugs, baton rounds, etc.) are also shot while contained within a wadding, as the wadding obturates the bore better and typically slides less frictionally within the barrel. Propellant The propellant is what actually fuels the main function of any firearm (i.e. shooting out the projectile). When a propellant deflagrates (subsonic combustion), the redox reaction breaks its molecular bonds and releases the chemical energy stored within. At the same time, the combustion yields significant amount of gaseous products, which is highly energetic due to the exothermic nature of the reaction. These combustion gases become highly pressurized when confined in a rigid space – such as the cartridge casing (reinforced by the chamber wall) occluded from the front by the projectile (bullet, or wadding containing shots/slug) and from behind by the primer (supported by the bolt/breechblock). When the pressure builds up high enough to overcome the crimp friction between the projectile and the case, the projectile separates from the case and gets propelled down the gun barrel by further expansion of the gases like a piston engine, receiving kinetic energy from the propellant gases and accelerating to a very high muzzle velocity within a short distance (i.e. the barrel length). The projectile motion driven by the propellant inside the gun is known as the internal ballistics. The oldest gun propellant was black gunpowder, a low explosive made from a mixture of sulfur, carbon and potassium nitrate, invented in China during the 9th century as one of Four Great Inventions, and still remains in occasional use as a solid propellant (mostly for antique firearms and pyrotechnics). Modern firearm propellants however are smokeless powders based on nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin, first invented during the late 19th century as a cleaner and better-performing replacement of the black powder. Modern smokeless powder may be corned into small spherical balls, or extruded into cylinders or strips with many cross-sectional shapes using solvents such as ether, which can be cut into short ("flakes") or long pieces ("cords"). The performance characteristics of a propellant are greatly influenced by its grain size and shape, because the specific surface area influences the burn rate, which in turn influences the rate of pressurization. Short-barrel firearms such as handguns necessitates faster-burning propellants to obtain sufficient muzzle energy, while long guns typically use slower-burning propellants. Due to the relatively short distance a gun barrel can offer, the sealed acceleration time is very limited and only a small proportion of the total energy generated by the propellant combustion will get transferred to the projectile. The residual energy in the propellant gases gets dissipated to the surrounding in the form of heat, vibration/deformation, light (in the form of muzzle flash) and a prominent muzzle blast (which is responsible for the loud sound/concussive shock perceivable to bystanders and most of the recoil felt by the shooter, as well as potentially deflecting the bullet), or as unusable kinetic energy transferred to other ejecta byproducts (e.g. unburnt powders, dislodged foulings). Primer Because the main propellant charge are located deep inside the gun barrel and thus impractical to be directly lighted from the outside, an intermediate is needed to relay the ignition. In the earliest black powder muzzleloaders, a fuse was used to direct a small flame through a touch hole into the barrel, which was slow and subjected to disturbance from environmental conditions. The next evolution was to have a small separate charge of finer gunpowder poured into a flash pan, where it could start a "priming" ignition by an external source such as a slow match (matchlock), or a pyrite (wheellock) or a flint striking a steel frizzen (snaplock and flintlock) to create sparks. When the primer powder starts combusting, the flame is transferred through an internal touch hole called a flash hole to provide activation energy for the main powder charge in the barrel. The disadvantage was that the flash pan could still be exposed to the outside, making it difficult (or even impossible) to fire the gun in rainy or humid conditions as wet gunpowder burns poorly. After Edward Charles Howard discovered fulminates in 1800 and the patent by Reverend Alexander John Forsyth expired in 1807, Joseph Manton invented the precursor percussion cap in 1814, which was further developed in 1822 by the English-born American artist Joshua Shaw, and caplock fowling pieces appeared in Regency era England. These guns used a spring-loaded hammer to strike a percussion cap placed over a conical nipple, which served as both an "anvil" against the hammer strike and a transfer port for the sparks created by impactfully crushing the cap, and was easier and quicker to load, more resilient to weather conditions, and more reliable than the preceding flintlocks. Modern primers are basically improved percussion caps with shock-sensitive chemicals (e.g. lead styphnate) enclosed in a small button-shaped capsule. In the early paper cartridges, invented not long after the percussion cap, the primer was located deep inside the cartridge just behind the bullet, requiring a very thin and elongated firing pin to pierce the paper casing. Such guns were known as needle guns, the most famous of which was decisive in the Prussian victory over the Austrians at Königgrätz in 1866. After the metallic cartridge was invented, the primer was relocated backwards to base of the case, either at the center of the case head (centerfire), inside the rim (rimfire, inside a cup-like concavity of the case base (cupfire), in a pin-shaped sideways projection (pinfire), in a lip-like flange (lipfire), or in a small nipple-like bulge at the case base (teat-fire). Today, only the centerfire and rimfire have survived the test of time as the mainstream primer designs, while the pinfire also still exists but only in rare novelty miniature guns and a few very small blank cartridges designed as noisemakers. In rimfire ammunitions, the primer compound is moulded integrally into the interior of the protruding case rim, which is crushed between the firing pin and the edge of the barrel breech (serving as the "anvil"). These ammunitions are thus not reloadable, and are usually on the lower end of the power spectrum, although due to the low manufacturing cost some of them (e.g. .22 Long Rifle) are among the most popular and prolific ammunitions currently being used. Centerfire primers are a separately manufactured component, seated into a central recess at the case base known as the primer pocket, and have two types: Berdan and Boxer. Berdan primers, patent by American inventor Hiram Berdan in 1866, are a simple capsule, and the corresponding case has two small flash holes with a bulged bar in between, which serves as the "anvil" for the primer. Boxer primers, patented by Royal Artillery colonel Edward Mounier Boxer also in 1866, are more complex and have an internal tripedal "anvil" built into the primer itself, and the corresponding case has only a single large central flash hole. Commercially, Boxer primers dominate the handloader market due to the ease of depriming and the ability to transfer sparks more efficiently. Due to their small size and charge load, primers lack the power to shoot out the projectile by themselves, but can still put out enough energy to separate the bullet from the casing and push it partway into the barrel – a dangerous condition called a squib load. Firing a fresh cartridge behind a squib load obstructing the barrel will generate dangerously high pressure, leading to a catastrophic failure and potentially causing severe injuries when the gun blows apart in the shooter's hands. Actor Brandon Lee's infamous accidental death in 1993 was believed to be caused by an undetected squib that was dislodged and shot out by a blank. Manufacturing To manufacture cases for cartridges, a sheet of brass is punched into disks. These disks go through a series of drawing dies. The disks are annealed and washed before moving to the next series of dies. The brass needs to be annealed to remove the work-hardening in the material and make the brass malleable again ready for the next series of dies. Manufacturing bullet jackets is similar to making brass cases: there is a series of drawing steps with annealing and washing. Specifications Critical cartridge specifications include neck size, bullet weight and caliber, maximum pressure, headspace, overall length, case body diameter and taper, shoulder design, rim type, etc. Generally, every characteristic of a specific cartridge type is tightly controlled and few types are interchangeable in any way. Exceptions do exist but generally, these are only where a shorter cylindrical rimmed cartridge can be used in a longer chamber, (e.g., .22 Short in .22 Long Rifle chamber, and .38 Special in a .357 Magnum chamber). Centerfire primer type (Boxer or Berdan, see below) is interchangeable, although not in the same case. Deviation in any of these specifications can result in firearm damage and, in some instances, injury or death. Similarly, use of the wrong type of cartridge in any given gun can damage the gun, or cause bodily injury. Cartridge specifications are determined by several standards organizations, including SAAMI in the United States, and C.I.P. in many European states. NATO also performs its own tests for military cartridges for its member nations; due to differences in testing methods, NATO cartridges (headstamped with the NATO cross) may present an unsafe combination when loaded into a weapon chambered for a cartridge certified by one of the other testing bodies. Bullet diameter is measured either as a fraction of an inch (usually in 1/100 or in 1/1000) or in millimeters. Cartridge case length can also be designated in inches or millimeters. History Paper cartridges have been in use for centuries, with a number of sources dating their usage as far back as the late 14th and early 15th century. Historians note their use by soldiers of Christian I, Elector of Saxony and his son in the late 16th century, while the Dresden Armoury has evidence dating their use to 1591. Capo Bianco wrote in 1597 that paper cartridges had long been in use by Neapolitan soldiers. Their use became widespread by the 17th century. The 1586 round consisted of a charge of powder and a bullet in a paper cartridge. Thick paper is still known as "cartridge paper" from its use in these cartridges. Another source states the cartridge appeared in 1590. King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden had his troops use cartridges in the 1600s. The paper formed a cylinder with twisted ends; the ball was at one end, and the measured powder filled the rest. This cartridge was used with muzzle-loading military firearms, probably more often than for sporting shooting, the base of the cartridge being ripped or bitten off by the soldier, the powder poured into the barrel, and the paper and bullet rammed down the barrel. In the Civil War era cartridge, the paper was supposed to be discarded, but soldiers often used it as a wad. To ignite the charge an additional step was required where a finer-grained powder called priming powder was poured into the pan of the gun to be ignited by the firing mechanism. The evolving nature of warfare required a firearm that could load and fire more rapidly, resulting in the flintlock musket (and later the Baker rifle), in which the pan was covered by furrowed steel. This was struck by the flint and fired the gun. In the course of loading a pinch of powder from the cartridge would be placed into the pan as priming, before the rest of the cartridge was rammed down the barrel, providing charge and wadding. Later developments rendered this method of priming unnecessary, as, in loading, a portion of the charge of powder passed from the barrel through the vent into the pan, where it was held by the cover and hammer. The next important advance in the method of ignition was the introduction of the copper percussion cap. This was only generally applied to the British military musket (the Brown Bess) in 1842, a quarter of a century after the invention of percussion powder and after an elaborate government test at Woolwich in 1834. The invention that made the percussion cap possible was patented by the Rev. A. J. Forsyth in 1807 and consisted of priming with a fulminating powder made of potassium chlorate, sulfur, and charcoal, which ignited by concussion. This invention was gradually developed, and used, first in a steel cap, and then in a copper cap, by various gunmakers and private individuals before coming into general military use nearly thirty years later. The alteration of the military flint-lock to the percussion musket was easily accomplished by replacing the powder pan with a perforated nipple and by replacing the cock or hammer that held the flint with a smaller hammer that had a hollow to fit on the nipple when released by the trigger. The shooter placed a percussion cap (now made of three parts of potassium chlorate, two of fulminate of mercury and powdered glass) on the nipple. The detonating cap thus invented and adopted brought about the invention of the modern cartridge case, and rendered possible the general adoption of the breech-loading principle for all varieties of rifles, shotguns and pistols. This greatly streamlined the reloading procedure and paved the way for semi- and full-automatic firearms. However, this big leap forward came at a price: it introduced an extra component into each round – the cartridge case – which had to be removed before the gun could be reloaded. While a flintlock, for example, is immediately ready to reload once it has been fired, adopting brass cartridge cases brought in the problems of extraction and ejection. The mechanism of a modern gun must not only load and fire the piece but also provide a method of removing the spent case, which might require just as many added moving parts. Many malfunctions occur during this process, either through a failure to extract a case properly from the chamber or by allowing the extracted case to jam the action. Nineteenth-century inventors were reluctant to accept this added complication and experimented with a variety of caseless or self-consuming cartridges before finally accepting that the advantages of brass cases far outweighed this one drawback. Integrated cartridges The first integrated cartridge was developed in Paris in 1808 by the Swiss gunsmith Jean Samuel Pauly in association with French gunsmith François Prélat. Pauly created the first fully self-contained cartridges: the cartridges incorporated a copper base with integrated mercury fulminate primer powder (the major innovation of Pauly), a round bullet and either brass or paper casing. The cartridge was loaded through the breech and fired with a needle. The needle-activated centerfire breech-loading gun would become a major feature of firearms thereafter. Pauly made an improved version, protected by a patent, on 29 September 1812. Probably no invention connected with firearms has wrought such changes in the principle of gun construction as those effected by the "expansive cartridge case". This invention has completely revolutionized the art of gun making, has been successfully applied to all descriptions of firearms, and has produced a new and important industry: that of cartridge manufacture. Its essential feature is preventing gas escaping the breech when the gun is fired, by means of an expansive cartridge case containing its own means of ignition. Previous to this invention shotguns and sporting rifles were loaded by means of powder flasks and shot bags or flasks, bullets, wads and copper caps, all carried separately. One of the earliest efficient modern cartridge cases was the pinfire cartridge, developed by French gunsmith Casimir Lefaucheux in 1836. It consisted of a thin weak shell made of brass and paper that expanded from the force of the explosion. This fit perfectly in the barrel, and thus formed an efficient gas check. A small percussion cap was placed in the middle of the base of the cartridge and was ignited by means of a brass pin projecting from the side and struck by the hammer. This pin also afforded the means of extracting the cartridge case. This cartridge was introduced in England by Lang, of Cockspur Street, London, about 1845. In the American Civil War (1861–65) a breech-loading rifle, the Sharps, was introduced and produced in large numbers. It could be loaded with either a ball or a paper cartridge. After that war many were converted to the use of metal cartridges. The development by Smith & Wesson (among many others) of revolver handguns that used metal cartridges helped establish cartridge firearms as the standard in the US by the late 1860s and early 1870s, although many continue to use percussion revolvers well after that. Modern metallic cartridges Most of the early all-metallic cartridges were of the pinfire and rimfire types. The first centerfire metallic cartridge was invented by Jean Samuel Pauly in the first decades of the 19th century. However, although it was the first cartridge to use a form of obturation, a feature integral to a successful breech-loading cartridge, Pauly died before it was converted to percussion cap ignition. Frenchman Louis-Nicolas Flobert invented the first rimfire metallic cartridge in 1845. His cartridge consisted of a percussion cap with a bullet attached to the top. Flobert then made what he called "parlor guns" for this cartridge, as these rifles and pistols were designed to be shot in indoor shooting parlors in large homes. These 6mm Flobert cartridges do not contain any powder. The only propellant substance contained in the cartridge is the percussion cap. In English-speaking countries, the 6mm Flobert cartridge corresponds to .22 BB Cap and .22 CB Cap ammunition. These cartridges have a relatively low muzzle velocity of around 700 ft/s (210 m/s). French gunsmith Benjamin Houllier improved the Lefaucheux pinfire cardboard cartridge and patented in Paris in 1846, the first fully metallic pinfire cartridge containing powder (and a pinfire), in a metallic cartridge. He also included in his patent claims rim and centerfire primed cartridges using brass or copper casings. Houllier commercialised his weapons in association with the gunsmiths Blanchard or Charles Robert. In the United States, in 1857, the Flobert cartridge inspired the .22 Short (another rimfire), especially conceived for the first American revolver using rimfire cartridges, the Smith & Wesson Model 1. A year before, in 1856, the LeMat revolver was the first American (French-designed) breech-loading firearm, but it used pinfire cartridges, not rimfire. Formerly, an employee of the Colt's Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company, Rollin White, had been the first in America to conceive the idea of having the revolver cylinder bored through to accept metallic cartridges (circa 1852), with the first in the world to use bored-through cylinders probably having been Lefaucheux in 1845, who invented a pepperbox-revolver loaded from the rear using bored-through cylinders. Another possible claimant for the bored-through cylinder is a Frenchman by the name of Perrin, who allegedly produced in 1839 a pepperbox revolver with a bored-through cylinder to order. Other possible claimants include Devisme of France in 1834 or 1842 who claimed to have produced a breech-loading revolver in that period though his claim was later judged as lacking in evidence by French courts and Hertog & Devos and Malherbe & Rissack of Belgium who both filed patents for breech-loading revolvers in 1853. However, Samuel Colt refused this innovation. White left Colt, went to Smith & Wesson to rent a licence for his patent, and this is how the S&W Model 1 saw light of day in 1857. The patent didn't definitely expire until 1870, allowing Smith & Wesson competitors to design and commercialise their own revolving breech-loaders using metallic cartridges. Famous models of that time are the Colts Open Top (1871–1872) and Single Action Army "Peacemaker" (1873). But in rifles, the lever-action mechanism patents were not obstructed by Rollin White's patent infringement because White only held a patent concerning drilled cylinders and revolving mechanisms. Thus, larger caliber rimfire cartridges were soon introduced after 1857, when the Smith & Wesson .22 Short ammunition was introduced for the first time. Some of these rifle cartridges were used in the American Civil War, including the .44 Henry and 56-56 Spencer (both in 1860). However, the large rimfire cartridges were soon replaced by centerfire cartridges, which could safely handle higher pressures. In 1867 the British war office adopted the Eley–Boxer metallic centerfire cartridge case in the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifles, which were converted to Snider-Enfield breech-loaders on the Snider principle. This consisted of a block opening on a hinge, thus forming a false breech against which the cartridge rested. The priming cap was in the base of the cartridge and was discharged by a striker passing through the breech block. Other European powers adopted breech-loading military rifles from 1866 to 1868, with paper instead of metallic cartridge cases. The original Eley-Boxer cartridge case was made of thin-coiled brass—occasionally these cartridges could break apart and jam the breech with the unwound remains of the case upon firing. Later the solid-drawn, centerfire cartridge case, made of one entire solid piece of tough hard metal, an alloy of copper, with a solid head of thicker metal, has been generally substituted. Centerfire cartridges with solid-drawn metallic cases containing their own means of ignition are almost universally used in all modern varieties of military and sporting rifles and pistols. Around 1870, machined tolerances had improved to the point that the cartridge case was no longer necessary to seal a firing chamber. Precision-faced bolts would seal as well, and could be economically manufactured. However, normal wear and tear proved this system to be generally infeasible. Nomenclature The name of any given cartridge does not necessarily reflect any cartridge or gun dimension. The name is merely the standardized and accepted moniker. SAAMI (Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute) and the European counterpart (CIP) and members of those organizations specify correct cartridge names. It is a common misconception to refer to a cartridge as a certain "caliber" (e.g., "30-06 caliber"), as the word caliber only describes the bullet diameter. The correct full name for this round is .30–'06 Springfield. The "-'06" means it was introduced in 1906. In sporting arms, the only consistent definition of "caliber" is bore diameter, and dozens of unique .30-caliber round types exist. There is considerable variation in cartridge nomenclature. Names sometimes reflect various characteristics of the cartridge. For example, the .308 Winchester uses a bullet of 308/1000-inch diameter and was standardized by Winchester. Conversely, cartridge names often reflect nothing related to the cartridge in any obvious way. For example, the .218 Bee uses a bullet of 224/1000-inch diameter, fired through a .22-in bore, etc. The 218 and Bee portions of this cartridge name reflect nothing other than the desires of those who standardized that cartridge. Many similar examples exist, for example: .219 Zipper, .221 Fireball, .222 Remington, .256 Winchester, .280 Remington, .307 Winchester, .356 Winchester. Where two numbers are used in a cartridge name, the second number may reflect a variety of things. Frequently the first number reflects bore diameter (inches or millimeters). The second number reflects case length (in inches or mm). For example, the 7.62×51mm NATO refers to a bore diameter of 7.62 mm and has an overall case length of 51 mm, with a total length of 71.1 mm. The commercial version is the .308 Winchester. In older black powder cartridges, the second number typically refers to powder charge, in grains. For example, the .50-90 Sharps has a .50-inch bore and used a nominal charge of of black powder. Many such cartridges were designated by a three-number system (e.g., 45–120–3 Sharps: 45-caliber bore, 120 grains of (black) powder, 3-inch long case). Other times, a similar three-number system indicated bore (caliber), charge (grains), and bullet weight (grains). The 45-70-500 Government is an example. Often, the name reflects the company or individual who standardized it, such as the .30 Newton, or some characteristic important to that person. The .38 Special actually has a nominal bullet diameter of (jacketed) or (lead) while the case has a nominal diameter of , hence the name. This is historically logical: the hole drilled through the chambers of .36-caliber cap-and-ball revolvers when converting those to work with cartridges was , and the cartridge made to work in those revolvers was logically named the .38 Colt. The original cartridges used a heeled bullet like a .22 rimfire where the bullet was the same diameter as the case. Early Colt Army .38s have a bore diameter that will allow a .357" diameter bullet to slide through the barrel. The cylinder is bored straight through with no step. Later versions used an inside the case lubricated bullet of .357" diameter instead of the original .38" with a reduction in bore diameter. The difference in .38 Special bullet diameter and case diameter reflects the thickness of the case mouth (approximately 11/1000-inch per side). The .357 Magnum evolved from the .38 Special. The .357 was named to reflect bullet diameter (in thousandths inch), not case diameter. "Magnum" was used to indicate its longer case and higher operating pressure. Classification Cartridges are classified by some major characteristics. One classification is the location of the primer. Early cartridges began with the pinfire, then the rimfire, and finally the centerfire. Another classification describes how cartridges are located in the chamber (headspace). Rimmed cartridges are located with the rim near the cartridge head; the rim is also used to extract the cartridge from the chamber. Examples are the .22 long rifle and .303 British. In a rimless cartridge, the cartridge head diameter is about the same as or smaller than the body diameter. The head will have a groove so the cartridge can be extracted from the chamber. Locating the cartridge in the chamber is accomplished by other means. Some rimless cartridges are necked down, and they are positioned by the cartridge's shoulder. An example is the .30-06 Springfield. Pistol cartridges may be located by the end of the brass case. An example is the .45 ACP. A belted cartridge has a larger diameter band of thick metal near the head of the cartridge. An example is the .300 Weatherby Magnum. An extreme version of the rimless cartridge is the rebated case; guns employing advanced primer ignition need such a case because the case moves during firing (i.e., it is not located at a fixed position). An example is the 20mm×110RB. Centerfire A centerfire cartridge has a centrally located primer held within a recess in the case head. Most centerfire brass cases used worldwide for sporting ammunition use Boxer primers. It is easy to remove and replace Boxer primers using standard reloading tools, facilitating reuse. Some European- and Asian-manufactured military and sporting ammunition uses Berdan primers. Removing the spent primer from (decapping) these cases requires use of a special tool because the primer anvil (on which the primer compound is crushed) is an integral part of the case and the case therefore does not have a central hole through which a decapping tool can push the primer out from the inside, as is done with Boxer primers. In Berdan cases, the flash holes are located to the sides of the anvil. With the right tool and components, reloading Berdan-primed cases is perfectly feasible. However, Berdan primers are not readily available in the U.S. Rimfire Rimfire priming was a popular solution before centerfire priming was perfected. In a rimfire case, centrifugal force pushes a liquid priming compound into the internal recess of the folded rim as the manufacturer spins the case at a high rate and heats the spinning case to dry the priming compound mixture in place within the hollow cavity formed within the rim fold at the perimeter of the case interior. In the mid- to late-1800s, many rimfire cartridge designs existed. Today only a few, mostly for use in small-caliber guns, remain in general and widespread use. These include the .17 Mach II, .17 Hornady Magnum Rimfire (HMR), 5mm Remington Magnum (Rem Mag), .22 (BB, CB, Short, Long, Long Rifle), and .22 Winchester Magnum Rimfire (WMR). Compared to modern centerfire cases used in the strongest types of modern guns, existing rimfire cartridge designs use loads that generate relatively low pressure because of limitations of feasible gun design – the rim has little or no lateral support from the gun. Such support would require very close tolerances in design of the chamber, bolt, and firing pin. Because that is not cost-effective, it is necessary to keep rimfire load pressure low enough so that the stress generated by chamber pressure that would push the case rim outward cannot expand the rim significantly. Also, the wall of the folded rim must be thin and ductile enough to easily deform, as necessary to allow the blow from the firing pin to crush and thereby ignite the primer compound, and it must do so without rupturing, If it is too thick, it will be too resistant to deformation. If it is too hard, it will crack rather than deform. These two limitations – that the rim is self-supporting laterally and that the rim is thin and ductile enough to easily crush in response to the firing pin impact – limit rimfire pressures. Modern centerfire cartridges are often loaded to about maximum chamber pressure. Conversely, no commercialized rimfire has ever been loaded above about maximum chamber pressure. However, with careful gun design and production, no fundamental reason exists that higher pressures could not be used. Despite the relative pressure disadvantage, modern rimfire magnums in .17-caliber/4.5mm, .20-caliber/5mm, and .22-caliber/5.6mm can generate muzzle energies comparable to smaller centerfire cartridges. Today, .22 LR (Long Rifle) accounts for the vast majority of all rimfire ammunition used. Standard .22 LR rounds use an essentially pure lead bullet plated with a typical 95% copper, 5% zinc combination. These are offered in supersonic and subsonic types, as well as target, plinking, and hunting versions. These cartridges are usually coated with a hard wax for fouling control. The .22 LR and related rimfire .22 cartridges use a heeled bullet, where external diameter of the case is the same as diameter of the forward portion of the bullet and where the rearward portion of the bullet, which extends into the case, is necessarily smaller in diameter than the main body of the bullet. Semi-automatic vs. revolver cartridges Most revolver cartridges are rimmed at the base of the case, which seats against the edge of cylinder chamber to provide headspace control (to keep the cartridge from moving too far forward into the chamber) and to facilitate easy extraction. Nearly every centerfire semi-automatic pistol cartridge is "rimless", where the rim is of the same diameter as the case body but separated by a circumferential groove in between, into which the extractor engages the rim by hooking. A "semi-rimmed" cartridge is essentially a rimless one but the rim diameter is slightly larger than the case body, and a "rebated rimless" cartridge is one with the rim smaller in diameter. All such cartridges headspace on the case mouth (although some, such as .38 Super, at one time seated on the rim, this was changed for accuracy reasons), which prevents the round from entering too far into the chamber. Some cartridges have a rim that is significantly smaller than case body diameter. These are known as rebated-rim designs and almost always allow a handgun to fire multiple caliber cartridges with only a barrel and magazine change. Projectile design types A shotgun shell loaded with multiple metallic "shot", which are small, generally spherical projectiles. Shotgun slug: A single solid projectile designed to be fired from a shotgun. Baton round: a generally non-lethal projectile fired from a riot gun. Bullets Armor-piercing (AP): A hard bullet made from steel or tungsten alloys in a pointed shape typically covered by a thin layer of lead and or a copper or brass jacket. The lead and jacket are intended to prevent barrel wear from the hard core materials. AP bullets are sometimes less effective on unarmored targets than FMJ bullets are. This has to do with the reduced tendency of AP projectiles to yaw (turn sideways after impact). Flat Nose Lead (FNL): Similar to the above, with a flattened nose. Common in Cowboy Action Shooting and plinking ammunition loads. Full Metal Jacket (FMJ): Made with a lead core surrounded by a full covering of brass, copper, or mild steel. These usually offer very little deformation or terminal performance expansion, but will occasionally yaw (turn sideways). Despite the name, a FMJ bullet typically has an exposed lead base, which is not visible in an intact cartridge. Glaser Safety Slug: copper jackets filled with bird shot and covered by a crimped polymer endcap. Upon impact with flesh, the projectile is supposed to fragment, with the birdshot spreading like a miniature shotgun pattern. Jacketed Hollow Point (JHP): Soon after the invention of the JSP, Woolwich Arsenal in Great Britain experimented with this design even further by forming a hole or cavity in the nose of the bullet while keeping most of the exterior profile intact. These bullets could theoretically deform even faster and expand to a larger diameter than the JSP. In personal defense use, concerns have arisen over whether clothing, especially heavy materials like denim, can clog the cavity of JHP bullets and cause expansion failures. Jacketed Soft Point (JSP): In the late 19th century, the Indian Army at Dum-Dum Arsenal, near Kolkata, developed a variation of the FMJ design where the jacket did not cover the nose of the bullet. The soft lead nose was found to expand in flesh while the remaining jacket still prevented lead fouling in the barrel. The JSP roughly splits the difference between FMJ and JHP. It gives more penetration than JHP but has better terminal ballistic characteristics than the FMJ. Round Nose Lead (RNL): An unjacketed lead bullet. Although largely supplanted by jacketed ammunition, this is still common for older revolver cartridges. Some hunters prefer roundnose ammunition for hunting in brush because they erroneously believe that such a bullet deflects less than sharp-nosed spitzer bullets, regardless of the fact that this belief has been repeatedly proven not to be true. Refer to American Rifleman magazine. Total Metal Jacket (TMJ): Featured in some Speer cartridges, the TMJ bullet has a lead core completely and seamlessly enclosed in brass, copper or other jacket metal, including the base. According to Speer literature, this prevents hot propellant gases from vaporizing lead from the base of the bullet, reducing lead emissions. Sellier & Bellot produce a similar version that they call TFMJ, with a separate end cap of jacket material. Wadcutter (WC): Similar to the FNL, but completely cylindrical, in some instances with a slight concavity in the nose. This bullet derives its name from its popularity for target shooting, because the form factor cuts neat holes in paper targets, making scoring easier and more accurate and because it typically cuts a larger hole than a round nose bullet, a hit centered at the same spot can touch the next smaller ring and therefore score higher. Semi-Wadcutter (SWC) identical to the WC with a smaller diameter flap pointed conical or radiused nose added. Has the same advantages for target shooters but is easier to load into the gun and works more reliably in semi-automatic guns. This design is also superior for some hunting applications. Truncated Cone: Also known as Round Nose Flat Point, etc. Descriptive of typical modern commercial cast bullet designs. The Hague Convention of 1899 bans the use of expanding projectiles against the military forces of other nations. Some countries accept this as a blanket ban against the use of expanding projectiles against anyone, while others use JSP and HP against non-military forces such as terrorists and criminals. Common cartridges Ammunition types are listed numerically. 22 Long Rifle (22 LR): A round that is often used for target shooting and the hunting of small game such as squirrel. Because of the small size of this round, the smallest self-defense handguns chambered in 22 rimfire (though less effective than most centerfire handguns cartridges) can be concealed in situations where a handgun chambered for a centerfire cartridge could not. The 22 LR is the most commonly fired sporting arms cartridge, primarily because, when compared to any centerfire ammunition, 22 LR ammunition is much less expensive and because recoil generated by the light 22 bullet at modest velocity is very mild. .22-250 Remington: A very popular round for medium to long range small game and varmint hunting, pest control and target shooting. The 22–250 is one of the most popular rounds for fox hunting and other pest control in Western Europe due to its flat trajectory and very good accuracy on rabbit to fox sized pests. .300 Winchester Magnum: One of the most popular big game hunting rounds of all time. Also, as a long-range sniping round, it is favored by US Navy SEALs and the German Bundeswehr. While not in the same class as the 338 Lapua, it has roughly the same power as 7 mm Remington Magnum, and easily exceeds the performance of 7.62×51mm NATO. 30-06 Springfield (7.62×63mm): The standard US Army rifle round for the first half of the 20th century. It is a full-power rifle round suitable for hunting most North American game and most big game worldwide. .303 British: the standard British Empire military rifle cartridge from 1888 to 1954. .308 Winchester: the commercial name of a centerfire cartridge based on the military 7.62×51mm NATO round. Two years prior to the NATO adoption of the 7.62×51mm NATO T65 in 1954, Winchester (a subsidiary of the Olin Corporation) branded the round and introduced it to the commercial hunting market as the 308 Winchester. The Winchester Model 70 and Model 88 rifles were subsequently chambered for this round. Since then, the 308 Winchester has become the most popular short-action big-game hunting round worldwide. It is also commonly used for civilian and military target events, military sniping and police sharpshooting. .357 Magnum: Using a lengthened version of the .38 Special case loaded to about twice the maximum chamber pressure as the 38 Spc., the 357 Magnum was rapidly accepted by hunters and law enforcement. At the time of its introduction, 357 Magnum bullets were claimed to easily pierce the body panels of automobiles and crack engine blocks (to eventually disable the vehicle). .375 Holland & Holland Magnum: designed for hunting African big game in the early 20th century and legislated as the minimum caliber for African hunters during the mid-20th century .40 S&W: A shorter-cased version of the 10mm Auto. .44 Magnum: A high-powered pistol round designed primarily for hunting. .45 ACP: The standard US pistol round for about one century. Typical 45 ACP loads are subsonic. .45 Colt: a more powerful 45-caliber round using a longer cartridge. The 45 Colt was designed for the Colt Single Action Army, circa 1873. Other 45-caliber single action revolvers also use this round. .45-70 Government: Adopted by the US Army in 1873 as their standard service rifle cartridge. Most commercial loadings of this cartridge are constrained by the possibility that someone might attempt to fire a modern loading in a vintage 1873 rifle or replica. However, current production rifles from Marlin, Ruger, and Browning can accept loads that generate nearly twice the pressure generated by the original black powder cartridges. .50 BMG (12.7×99mm NATO): Originally designed to destroy aircraft in the First World War, this round still serves an anti-materiel round against light armor. It is used in heavy machine guns and high-powered sniper rifles. Such rifles can be used, amongst other things, for destroying military matériel such as sensitive parts of grounded aircraft and armored transports. Civilian shooters use these for long-distance target shooting. 5.45×39mm Soviet: The Soviet response to the 5.56×45mm NATO round. 5.56×45mm NATO: Adopted by the US military in the 1960s, it later became the NATO standard rifle round in the early 80s, displacing the 7.62×51mm. Remington later adopted this military round as the .223 Remington, a very popular round for varminting and small game hunting. 7×64mm: One of the most popular long range varmint and medium- to big-game hunting rounds in Europe, especially in the countries such as France and (formerly) Belgium where the possession of firearms chambered for a (former) military round is forbidden or is more heavily restricted. This round is offered by European rifle makers in both bolt-action rifles and a rimmed version, the 7×65mmR is chambered in double and combination rifles. Another reason for its popularity is its flat trajectory, very good penetration and high versatility, depending on what bullet and load are used. Combined with a large choice of different 7 mm bullets available the 7×64mm is used on everything from fox and geese to red deer, Scandinavian moose and European brown bear equivalent to the North American black bear. The 7×64mm essentially duplicates performance of the 270 Winchester and 280 Remington. 7 mm Remington Magnum: A long-range hunting round. 7.62×39mm: The standard Soviet/ComBloc rifle round from the mid-1940s to the mid-1970s, this is easily one of the most widely distributed rounds in the world due to the distribution of the ubiquitous Kalashnikov AK-47 series. 7.62×51mm NATO: This was the standard NATO rifle round until its replacement by the 5.56×45mm. It is currently the standard NATO sniper rifle and medium machinegun chambering. In the 1950s it was the standard NATO round for rifles, but recoil and weight proved problematic for the new battle rifle designs such as the FN FAL. Standardized commercially as the 308 Winchester. 7.62×54mmR: The standard Russian rifle round from the 1890s to the mid-1940s. The "R" stands for rimmed. The 7.62×54mmR rifle round is a Russian design dating back to 1891. Originally designed for the Mosin-Nagant rifle, it was used during the late Tsarist era and throughout the Soviet period, in machine guns and rifles such as the SVT-40. The Winchester Model 1895 was also chambered for this cartridge per a contract with the Russian government. It is still in use by the Russian military in the Dragunov and other sniper rifles and some machine guns. The round is colloquially known as the "7.62 Russian". This name sometimes causes people to confusion this round with the "7.62 Soviet" round, which refers to the 7.62 × 39 round used in the SKS and AK-47 rifles. 7.65×17mm Browning SR (32 ACP): A very small pistol round. However, this was the predominant Police Service round in Europe until the mid-1970s. The "SR" stands for semi-rimmed, meaning the case rim is slightly larger than case body diameter. 8×57mm IS: The standard German service rifle round from 1888 to 1945, the 8×57mmIS (aka 8 mm Mauser) has seen wide distribution around the globe through commercial, surplus, and military sales, and is still a popular and commonly used hunting round in most of Europe, partly because of the abundance of affordable hunting rifles in this chambering as well as a broad availability of different hunting, target, and military surplus ammunition available. 9×19mm Parabellum: Invented for the German military at the turn of the 20th century, the wide distribution of the 9×19mm Parabellum round made it the logical choice for the NATO standard pistol and Submachine gun round. 9.3×62mm: Very common big game hunting round in Scandinavia along with the 6.5×55mm, where it is used as a very versatile hunting round on anything from small and medium game with lightweight cast lead bullets to the largest European big game with heavy soft point hunting bullets. The 9.3×62mm is also very popular in the rest of Europe for Big game, especially driven Big game hunts due to its effective stopping power on running game. And, it is the single round smaller than the 375 H&H Magnum that has routinely been allowed for legal hunting of dangerous African species. 12.7×108mm: The 12.7×108mm round is a heavy machine gun and anti-materiel rifle round used by the Soviet Union, the former Warsaw Pact, modern Russia, and other countries. It is the approximate Russian equivalent of the NATO .50 BMG (12.7×99mm NATO) round. The differences between the two are the bullet shape, the types of powder used, and that the case of the 12.7×108mm is 9 mm longer and marginally more powerful. 14.5×114mm: The 14.5×114 mm is a heavy machine gun and anti-materiel rifle round used by the Soviet Union, the former Warsaw Pact, modern Russia, and other countries. Its most common use is in the KPV heavy machine gun found on several Russian Military vehicles. Snake shot Snake shot (AKA: bird shot, rat shot and dust shot) refers to handgun and rifle rounds loaded with small lead shot. Snake shot is generally used for shooting at snakes, rodents, birds, and other pests at very close range. The most common snake shot cartridge is .22 Long Rifle loaded with No. 12 shot. From a standard rifle these can produce effective patterns only to a distance of about – but in a smoothbore shotgun this can extend as far as . Caseless ammunition Many governments and companies continue to develop caseless ammunition (where the entire case assembly is either consumed when the round fires or whatever remains is ejected with the bullet). So far, none of these have been successful enough to reach the civilian market and gain commercial success. Even within the military market, use is limited. Around 1848, Sharps introduced a rifle and paper cartridge (containing everything but the primer) system. When new these guns had significant gas leaks at the chamber end, and with use these leaks progressively worsened. This problem plagues caseless cartridge and gun systems to this day. The Daisy Heddon VL Single Shot Rifle, which used a caseless round in .22 caliber, was produced by the air gun company, beginning in 1968. Apparently Daisy never considered the gun an actual firearm. In 1969, the ATF ruled it was in fact a firearm, which Daisy was not licensed to produce. Production of the guns and the ammo was discontinued in 1969. They are still available on the secondary market, mainly as collector items, as most owners report that accuracy is not very good. In 1989, Heckler & Koch, a prominent German firearms manufacturer, began advertising the G11 assault rifle, which shot a 4.73×33 square caseless round. The round was mechanically fired, with an integral primer. In 1993 Voere of Austria began selling a gun and caseless ammunition. Their system used a primer, electronically fired at 17.5 ± 2 volts. The upper and lower limits prevent fire from either stray currents or static electricity. The direct electrical firing eliminates the mechanical delays associated with a striker, reducing lock time and allowing for easier adjustment of the rifle trigger. In both instances, the "case" was molded directly from solid nitrocellulose, which is itself relatively strong and inert. The bullet and primer were glued into the propellant block. Trounds The "Tround" ("Triangular Round") was a unique type of cartridge designed in 1958 by David Dardick, for use in specially designed Dardick 1100 and Dardick 1500 open-chamber firearms. As their name suggests, Trounds were triangular in cross-section, and were made of plastic or aluminum, with the cartridge completely encasing the powder and projectile. The Tround design was also produced as a cartridge adaptor, to allow conventional .38 Special and 22 Long Rifle cartridges to be used with the Dardick firearms. Blank ammunition A blank is a charged cartridge that does not contain a projectile or alternatively uses a non-metallic (for instance, wooden) projectile that pulverizes when hitting a blank firing adapter. To contain the propellant, the opening where the projectile would normally be located is crimped shut and or it is sealed with some material that disperses rapidly upon leaving the barrel. This sealing material can still potentially cause harm at extremely close range. Actor Jon-Erik Hexum died when he shot himself in the head with a blank, and actor Brandon Lee was famously killed during filming of The Crow when a blank fired behind a bullet that was stuck in the bore drove that bullet through his abdomen and into his spine. The gun had not been properly deactivated and a primed case with a bullet instead of a dummy had been used previously. Someone pulled the trigger and the primer drove the bullet silently into the bore. Blanks are used in training, but do not always cause a gun to behave the same as live ammunition does; recoil is always far weaker, and some automatic guns only cycle correctly when the gun is fitted with a blank-firing adaptor to confine gas pressure within the barrel to operate the gas system. Blanks can also be used to launch a rifle grenade, although later systems used a "bullet trap" design that captures a bullet from a conventional round, speeding deployment. This also negates the risk of mistakenly firing a live bullet into the rifle grenade, causing it to instantly explode instead of propelling it forward. Blanks are also used as dedicated launchers for propelling a grappling hook, rope line or flare, or for a training lure for training gun dogs. The power loads used in a variety of nail guns are essentially rimfire blanks. Dummy rounds Drill rounds are inert versions of cartridges used for education and practice during military training. Other than the lack of propellant and primer, these are the same size as normal cartridges and will fit into the mechanism of a gun in the same way as a live cartridge does. Because dry-firing (releasing the firing pin with an empty chamber) a gun can sometimes lead to firing pin (striker) damage, dummy rounds termed snap caps are designed to protect centerfire guns from possible damage during "dry-fire" trigger control practices. To distinguish drill rounds and snap-caps from live rounds these are marked distinctively. Several forms of markings are used; e.g. setting colored flutes in the case, drilling holes through the case, coloring the bullet or cartridge, or a combination of these. In the case of centerfire drill rounds the primer will often be absent, its mounting hole in the base is left open. Because these are mechanically identical to live rounds, which are intended to be loaded once, fired and then discarded, drill rounds have a tendency to become significantly worn and damaged with repeated passage through magazines and firing mechanisms, and must be frequently inspected to ensure that these are not so degraded as to be unusable—for example the cases can become torn or misshapen and snag on moving parts, or the bullet can become separated and stay in the breech when the case is ejected. Mek-Porek The bright-colored Mek-Porek is an inert cartridge base designed to prevent a live round from being unintentionally chambered, to reduce the chances of an accidental discharge from mechanical or operator failure. An L-shaped flag is visible from the outside, so that the shooter and other people concerned are instantly aware about the situation of the weapon. The Mek-Porek is usually tethered to its weapon by a short string, and can be quickly ejected to make way for a live round if the situation suddenly warrants. This safety device is standard-issue in the Israel Defense Forces. Snap cap A snap cap is a device which is shaped like a standard cartridge but contains no primer, propellant or projectile. It is used to ensure that dry firing firearms of certain designs does not cause damage. A small number of rimfire and centerfire firearms of older design should not be test-fired with the chamber empty, as this can lead to weakening or breakage of the firing pin and increased wear to other components in those firearms. In the instance of a rimfire weapon of primitive design, dry firing can also cause deformation of the chamber edge. For this reason some shooters use a snap cap in an attempt to cushion the weapon's firing pin as it moves forward. Some snap caps contain a spring-dampened fake primer, or one made of plastic, or none at all; the springs or plastic absorb force from the firing pin, allowing the user to safely test the function of the firearm action without damaging its components. Snap caps and action-proving dummy rounds also work as a training tool to replace live rounds for loading and unloading drills, as well as training for misfires or other malfunctions, as they function identically to a live "dud" round that has not ignited. Usually one snap-cap is usable for 300 to 400 clicks. After that, due to the hole at the false primer, the firing pin does not reach it. Eco Friendly cartridges They are meant to prevent pollution and are mostly biodegradable (metals being the exception) or fully. They are also meant to be used on older guns. Cartridges themselves may have also norms on all type of ammo about pollution yet polluting. See also Ammunition Ammunition box Antique guns Handloading List of handgun cartridges List of Magnum pistol cartridges List of rifle cartridges Nitrocellulose Percussion cap Shotgun shell Snake shot Table of handgun and rifle cartridges Notes References External links Cartridge Collectors European Ammunition Box Translations Ammunition

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Gotti

John Gotti

John Joseph Gotti Jr. (, ; October 27, 1940 – June 10, 2002) was an American gangster and boss of the Gambino crime family in New York City. He ordered and helped to orchestrate the murder of Gambino boss Paul Castellano in December 1985 and took over the family shortly thereafter, becoming boss of what has been described as America's most powerful crime syndicate. Gotti and his brothers grew up in poverty and turned to a life of crime at an early age. Gotti quickly became one of the crime family's biggest earners and a protégé of Gambino family underboss Aniello Dellacroce, operating out of the Ozone Park neighborhood of Queens. Following the FBI's indictment of members of Gotti's crew for selling narcotics, Gotti began to fear that he and his brother would be killed by Castellano for dealing drugs. As this fear continued to grow, and amidst growing dissent over the leadership of the crime family, Gotti organized the murder of Castellano. At his peak, Gotti was one of the most powerful and dangerous crime bosses in the United States. During his era he became widely known for his outspoken personality and flamboyant style, which gained him favor with some of the general public. While his peers avoided attracting attention, especially from the media, Gotti became known as "The Dapper Don", for his expensive clothes and personality in front of news cameras. He was later given the nickname "The Teflon Don" after three high-profile trials in the 1980s resulted in his acquittal, though it was later revealed that the trials had been tainted by jury tampering, juror misconduct and witness intimidation. Law enforcement authorities continued gathering evidence against Gotti that helped lead to his downfall. Gotti reportedly earned between $5–20 million per year during his tenure as Gambino boss. Gotti's underboss, Salvatore "Sammy the Bull" Gravano, aided the FBI in finally convicting Gotti. In 1991, Gravano agreed to turn state's evidence and testify for the prosecution against Gotti after hearing the boss making several disparaging remarks about him on a wiretap that implicated them both in several murders. In 1992, Gotti was convicted of five murders, conspiracy to commit murder, racketeering, obstruction of justice, tax evasion, illegal gambling, extortion, and loansharking. He was sentenced to life in prison without parole and was transferred to United States Penitentiary, Marion in southern Illinois. While in prison, Gotti died of throat cancer on June 10, 2002, at the United States Medical Center for Federal Prisoners in Springfield, Missouri. According to former Lucchese crime family boss Anthony "Gaspipe" Casso, "What John Gotti did was the beginning of the end of Cosa Nostra". Early life Gotti was born in the Bronx borough of New York City, on October 27, 1940. He was the fifth of the 13 children (two had died at birth) of John Joseph Gotti Sr. and Philomena "Fannie" DeCarlo. His parents were born in New York City, but it is presumed that his grandparents were from San Giuseppe Vesuviano, in the province of Naples, Italy, because his parents were married and lived there for some time. Gotti was one of five brothers who became made men in the Gambino crime family: Eugene "Gene" Gotti was initiated before John due to his incarceration, Peter Gotti was initiated under John's leadership in 1988, and Richard V. Gotti was identified as a caporegime (made member who heads a "crew" of soldiers and has major social status) by 2002. The fifth, Vincent, was initiated in 2002. By the age of 12, the Gottis settled in East New York, Brooklyn, where he grew up in poverty alongside his brothers. His father worked irregularly as a day laborer. As an adult, Gotti came to resent his father for being unable to provide for his family. In school, he had a history of truancy and bullying other students, and ultimately dropped out of Franklin K. Lane High School at the age of 16. Gotti was involved in street gangs associated with New York City mafiosi from the age of 12. When he was 14, he was attempting to steal a cement mixer from a construction site when it fell, crushing his toes; this injury left him with a permanent limp. After leaving school, he devoted himself to working with the Mafia-associated Fulton-Rockaway Boys gang, where he met and befriended fellow future Gambino mobsters Angelo Ruggiero and Wilfred "Willie Boy" Johnson. Gotti met his future wife, Victoria DiGiorgio, who was of half-Italian and half-Russian descent, at a bar in 1958. The couple were married on March 6, 1962. According to FBI documents, DiGiorgio was married previously and had one child by the previous marriage. They had five children: Angela, Victoria, John Jr., Frank (d. 1980) and Peter. Gotti attempted to work legitimately in 1962 as a presser in a coat factory and as an assistant truck driver. However, he could not stay crime-free and, by 1966, had been jailed twice. Gambino crime family Associate As early as his teens, Gotti was running errands for Carmine Fatico, a capo in the Gambino family, then known as the Anastasia family under the leadership of boss Albert Anastasia. Gotti carried out truck hijackings at Idlewild Airport (subsequently renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport) together with his brother Gene and friend Ruggiero. During this time, Gotti befriended fellow mob hijacker and future Bonanno family boss Joseph Massino, and he was given the nicknames "Black John" and "Crazy Horse". It was around this time that Gotti met his mentor and Gambino underboss Aniello "Neil" Dellacroce. In February 1968, United Airlines employees identified Gotti as the man who had signed for stolen merchandise; the FBI arrested him for that hijacking soon after. Gotti was arrested a third time for hijacking while out on bail two months later, this time for stealing a load of cigarettes worth $50,000 on the New Jersey Turnpike. Later that year, Gotti pleaded guilty to the Northwest Airlines hijacking and was sentenced to three years at Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary. Gotti and Ruggiero were paroled in 1972 and returned to their old crew at the Bergin Hunt and Fish Club, still working under Fatico. Gotti was transferred to management of the Bergin crew's illegal gambling, where he proved himself to be an effective enforcer. Fatico was indicted on loansharking charges in 1972. As a condition of his release, he could not associate with known felons. Gotti was not yet a made man in the Mafia due to the membership books' having been closed since 1957 due to the Apalachin meeting, but Fatico named him acting capo of the Bergin crew soon after he was paroled. In this new role, Gotti frequently traveled to Dellacroce's headquarters at the Ravenite Social Club to brief the underboss on the crew's activities. Dellacroce had already taken a liking to Gotti, and the two became even closer during this time. The two were very similar—both had strong violent streaks, cursed a lot, and were heavy gamblers. After Emanuel Gambino, nephew to boss Carlo Gambino, was kidnapped and murdered in 1973, Gotti was assigned to the hit team alongside Ruggiero and Ralph Galione in search for the main suspect, gangster James McBratney. The team botched their attempt to abduct McBratney at a Staten Island bar when they attempted to arrest him while posing as detectives, and Galione shot McBratney dead when his accomplices managed to restrain him. Gotti was identified by eyewitnesses and by a police insider, and was arrested for the killing in June 1974. He was able to strike a plea bargain, however, with the help of attorney Roy Cohn, and was sentenced to four years in prison for attempted manslaughter for his part in the hit. After Gotti's death, he was also identified by Massino as the killer of Vito Borelli, a Gambino associate killed in 1975 for insulting then-acting boss Paul Castellano. Captain On October 15, 1976, Carlo Gambino died at home of natural causes. Against expectations, he had appointed Castellano to succeed him over his underboss Dellacroce. Gambino appeared to believe that his crime family would benefit from Castellano's focus on white-collar businesses. Dellacroce, at the time, was imprisoned for tax evasion and was unable to contest Castellano's succession. Castellano's succession was confirmed at a meeting on November 24, with Dellacroce present. Castellano arranged for Dellacroce to remain as underboss while directly running traditional Cosa Nostra activities such as extortion, robbery, and loansharking. While Dellacroce accepted Castellano's succession, the deal effectively split the Gambino family into two rival factions. In 1976, the membership books were reportedly reopened. Gotti was released in July 1977, after two years' imprisonment; he was subsequently initiated as a made man into the Gambino family, now under the command of Castellano, and immediately promoted to replace Fatico as capo of the Bergin crew. He and his crew reported directly to Dellacroce as part of the concessions given by Castellano to keep Dellacroce as underboss, and Gotti was regarded as Dellacroce's protégé. Under Gotti, the crew were Dellacroce's biggest earners. Besides his cut of his subordinates' earnings, Gotti ran his own loansharking operation and held a no-show job as a plumbing supply salesman. Unconfirmed allegations by FBI informants in the Bergin Hunt and Fish Club claimed that Gotti also financed drug deals. Gotti tried to keep most of his family uninvolved with his life of crime, with the exception of his son John Angelo Gotti, who was a mob associate by 1982. In December 1978, Gotti assisted in the largest unrecovered cash robbery in history, the infamous Lufthansa Heist at Kennedy Airport. Gotti had made arrangements for the getaway van to be crushed and baled at a scrapyard in Brooklyn. Gotti's cut of the heist was a reported $200,000. The driver of the van, Parnell "Stacks" Edwards, failed to follow orders; rather than driving the vehicle to the scrapyard, he parked it near a fire hydrant and went to sleep at his girlfriend's apartment. The NYPD recovered the van and lifted the fingerprints of several perpetrators of the robbery, helping to unravel the heist. On March 18, 1980, Gotti's youngest son, 12-year-old Frank Gotti, was run over and killed on a family friend's minibike by a neighbor named John Favara. Frank's death was ruled an accident, but Favara subsequently received death threats and was attacked by Victoria with a baseball bat when he visited the Gottis to apologize. On July 28, 1980, Favara was abducted and disappeared, presumed murdered. Gotti is widely assumed to have ordered the murder despite him and his family leaving on vacation for Florida three days before the murder. Gotti was indicted on two occasions in his last two years as the Bergin capo, with both cases coming to trial after his ascension to boss of the Gambinos. In September 1984, Gotti had an altercation with refrigerator mechanic Romual Piecyk, and was subsequently charged with assault and robbery. In 1985, he was indicted alongside Dellacroce and several Bergin crew members in a racketeering case by Assistant U.S. Attorney Diane Giacalone. The indictment revealed that Gotti's friend and codefendant Wilfred "Willie Boy" Johnson had been an FBI informant. Taking over the Gambino family Gotti rapidly became dissatisfied with Castellano's leadership, regarding the new boss as being too isolated and greedy. Like other members of the family, Gotti also personally disliked Castellano. The boss lacked street credibility, and those who had paid their dues running street-level jobs did not respect him. Gotti also had an economic interest: he had a running dispute with Castellano on the split Gotti took from hijackings at Kennedy Airport. Gotti was also rumored to be expanding into drug dealing, a lucrative trade Castellano had banned. In August 1983, Ruggiero and Gene Gotti were arrested for dealing heroin, based primarily on recordings from a bug in Ruggiero's house. Castellano, who had banned made men from his family from dealing drugs under threat of death, demanded transcripts of the tapes, and, when Ruggiero refused, he threatened to demote Gotti. In 1984, Castellano was arrested and indicted in a RICO case for the crimes of Gambino hitman Roy DeMeo's crew. The following year, he received a second indictment for his role in the Mafia's Commission. Facing life imprisonment for either case, Castellano arranged for Gotti to serve as an acting boss alongside Thomas Bilotti, Castellano's favorite capo, and Thomas Gambino in his absence. Gotti, meanwhile, began conspiring with fellow disgruntled capos Frank DeCicco and Joseph "Joe Piney" Armone and soldiers Sammy Gravano and Robert "DiB" DiBernardo (collectively dubbed "the Fist" by themselves) to overthrow Castellano, insisting, despite the boss' inaction, that Castellano would eventually try to kill him. Armone's support was critical; as a respected old-timer who dated back to the family's founder, Vincent Mangano, he would lend needed credibility to the conspirators' cause. It has long been a rule in the Mafia that a boss could only be killed with the approval of a majority of the Commission. Indeed, Gotti's planned hit would have been the first unsanctioned hit on a boss since Frank Costello was nearly killed in 1957. Gotti knew that it would be too risky to solicit support from the other four bosses, since they had longstanding ties to Castellano. To get around this, he got the support of several important figures of his generation in the Lucchese, Colombo and Bonanno families. He did not consider approaching the Genovese family; Castellano's ties with Genovese boss Vincent "Chin" Gigante were so close that any overture to a Genovese soldier would have been a tipoff. However, Gotti could also count on the complicity of Gambino consigliere Joseph N. Gallo. After Dellacroce died of cancer on December 2, 1985, Castellano revised his succession plan: appointing Bilotti as underboss to Thomas Gambino as the sole acting boss, while making plans to break up Gotti's crew. Infuriated by this, and Castellano's refusal to attend Dellacroce's wake, Gotti resolved to kill his boss. When DeCicco tipped Gotti off that he would be having a meeting with Castellano and several other Gambino mobsters at Sparks Steak House on December 16, 1985, Gotti chose to take the opportunity. Both the boss and underboss were ambushed and shot dead by assassins under Gotti's command when they arrived at the meeting in the evening. Gotti watched the hit from his car with Gravano. Several days after the murder, Gotti was named to a three-man committee to temporarily run the family pending the election of a new boss, along with Gallo and DeCicco. It was also announced that an internal investigation into Castellano's murder was underway. However, it was an open secret that Gotti was acting boss in all but name, and nearly all of the family's capos knew he had been the one behind the hit. He was formally acclaimed as the new boss of the Gambino family at a meeting of 20 capos held on January 15, 1986. He appointed DeCicco as the new underboss while retaining Gallo as consigliere. Crime boss Identified as both Castellano's likely murderer and his successor, Gotti rose to fame throughout 1986. At the time of his takeover, the Gambino family was regarded as the most powerful American mafia family, with an annual income of $500 million. In the book Underboss, Gravano estimated that Gotti himself had an annual income of no less than $5 million during his years as boss, and more likely between $10 and $12 million. To protect himself legally, Gotti banned members of the Gambino family from accepting plea bargains that acknowledged the existence of the organization. "The Teflon Don" Gotti often smiled and waved at television cameras at his trials, which gained him favor with some of the general public. Gotti's newfound fame had at least one positive effect; upon the revelation of his attacker's occupation, and amid reports of intimidation by the Gambinos, Romual Piecyk decided not to testify against Gotti thanks to Boško "The Yugo" Radonjić, the head of the Westies in Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan. When the trial began in March 1986, Piecyk testified he was unable to remember who attacked him. The case was promptly dismissed, with the New York Post summarizing the proceedings with the headline "I Forgotti!" It was later revealed that Gambino thugs had severed Piecyk's brake lines, made threatening phone calls and stalked him before the trial. On April 13, 1986, DeCicco was killed when his car was bombed following a visit to Castellano loyalist James Failla. The bombing was carried out by Victor Amuso and Anthony Casso of the Lucchese family, under orders of Gigante and Lucchese boss Anthony Corallo, to avenge Castellano and Bilotti by killing their successors; Gotti also planned to visit Failla that day, but canceled, and the bomb was detonated after a soldier who rode with DeCicco was mistaken for the boss. Bombs had long been banned by the Mafia out of concern that it would put innocent people in harm's way, leading the Gambinos to initially suspect that "zips"—Sicilian mafiosi working in the U.S.—were behind it; zips were well known for using bombs. Following the bombing, Judge Eugene Nickerson, presiding over Gotti's racketeering trial, rescheduled to avoid a jury tainted by the resulting publicity, while Giacalone had Gotti's bail revoked due to evidence of witness intimidation in the Piecyk case. From jail, Gotti ordered the murder of Robert DiBernardo by Gravano; both DiBernardo and Ruggiero had been vying to succeed DeCicco until Ruggiero accused DiBernardo of challenging Gotti's leadership. When Ruggiero, also under indictment, had his bail revoked for his abrasive behavior in preliminary hearings, a frustrated Gotti instead promoted Armone to underboss. Jury selection for the racketeering case began again in August 1986, with Gotti standing trial alongside his ex-companion William "Willie Boy" Johnson (who, despite being exposed as an informant, refused to turn state's evidence), Leonard DiMaria, Tony Rampino, Nicholas Corozzo and John Carneglia. At this point, the Gambinos were able to compromise the case when George Pape hid his friendship with Radonjić and was empaneled as juror No. 11. Through Radonjić, Pape contacted Gravano and agreed to sell his vote on the jury for $60,000. In the trial's opening statements on September 25, Gotti's defense attorney Bruce Cutler denied the existence of the Gambino family and framed the government's entire effort as a personal vendetta. His main defense strategy during the prosecution was to attack the credibility of prosecutor Diane Giacalone's witnesses by discussing their crimes committed before their turning state's evidence. During Gotti's defense, Cutler called bank robber Matthew Traynor, a would-be prosecution witness dropped for unreliability, who testified that Giacalone offered him drugs and her underwear as a masturbation aid in exchange for his testimony; Traynor's allegations would be dismissed by Judge Nickerson as "wholly unbelievable" after the trial, and he was subsequently convicted of perjury. Despite Cutler's defense and critiques about the prosecution's performance, according to mob writers Jerry Capeci and Gene Mustain, when the jury's deliberations began, a majority were in favor of convicting Gotti. However, due to Pape's misconduct, Gotti knew from the beginning of the trial that he could do no worse than a hung jury. During deliberations, Pape held out for acquittal until the rest of the jury began to fear their own safety would be compromised. On March 13, 1987, they acquitted Gotti and his codefendants of all charges including loansharking, illegal gambling, murder and armed hijackings. Five years later, Pape was convicted of obstruction of justice for his part in the fix and sentenced to three years in prison. In the face of previous Mafia convictions, particularly the success of the Mafia Commission Trial, Gotti's acquittal was a major upset that further added to his reputation. The American media dubbed Gotti "The Teflon Don" in reference to the failure of any charges to "stick". Reorganization While Gotti himself had escaped conviction, his associates were not as fortunate. The other two men in the Gambino administration, underboss Armone and consigliere Gallo, had been indicted on racketeering charges in 1986 and were both convicted in December 1987. The heroin trial of Gotti's former fellow Bergin crewmembers Ruggiero and Gene Gotti also commenced in June of that year. Prior to their convictions, Gotti allowed Gallo to retire and promoted Gravano in his place while slating Frank Locascio to serve as acting underboss in the event of Armone's imprisonment. The Gambinos also worked to compromise the heroin trial's jury, resulting in two mistrials. When the terminally ill Ruggiero was severed and released in 1989, Gotti refused to contact him, blaming him for the Gambinos' misfortunes. According to Gravano, Gotti also considered murdering Ruggiero and when he finally died, "I literally had to drag him to the funeral." Beginning in January 1988, Gotti, against Gravano's advice, required his capos to meet with him at the Ravenite Social Club once a week. Regarded by Gene as an unnecessary vanity-inspired risk, and by FBI Gambino squad leader Bruce Mouw as antithetical to the "secret society", this move allowed FBI surveillance to record and identify much of the Gambino hierarchy. It also provided strong circumstantial evidence that Gotti was a boss; long-standing protocol in the Mafia requires public demonstrations of loyalty to the boss. The FBI also bugged the Ravenite, but failed to produce any high-quality incriminating recordings. Later in 1988, Gotti, Gigante and new Lucchese boss Victor Amuso attended the first Commission meeting at the LaBar Bat Club in Manhattan since the Commission trial. In 1986, future Lucchese underboss Anthony Casso had been injured in an unauthorized hit by Gambino capo Mickey Paradiso. The following year, the FBI warned Gotti they had recorded Genovese consigliere Louis Manna discussing another hit on Gotti and his brother. In order to avoid a war, the leaders of the three families met, denied knowledge of their violence against one another, and agreed to "communicate better". The bosses also agreed to allow Colombo acting boss Victor Orena to join the Commission, but Gigante, wary of giving Gotti a majority by admitting another ally, blocked the reentry of Massino and the Bonannos. Gotti was also able to influence the New Jersey-based DeCavalcante crime family in 1988. According to the DeCavalcante capo-turned-informant Anthony Rotondo, Gotti attended his father's wake with numerous other Gambino mobsters in a "show of force" and forced boss John Riggi to agree to run his family on the Gambinos' behalf. The DeCavalcantes remained in the Gambinos' sphere of influence until Gotti's imprisonment. Gotti's son, John Gotti Jr., was initiated into the Gambino family on Christmas Eve 1988. According to fellow mobster Michael DiLeonardo, initiated on the same night, Gravano held the ceremony to keep Gotti from being accused of nepotism. John Jr. was promptly promoted to capo. Assault acquittal On the evening of January 23, 1989, Gotti was arrested outside the Ravenite and charged with ordering the 1986 assault of labor union official John O'Connor. In the back of the police car, Gotti remarked, "Three to one I beat this charge". O'Connor, a leader in the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America Local 608 who was later convicted of racketeering himself, was believed to have ordered an attack on a Gambino-associated restaurant that had snubbed the union and was subsequently shot and wounded by the Westies. After one night in prison, Gotti was released on $100,000 bail. Gotti had his occupation listed as a salesman for a plumbing contracting company. By this time, the FBI had cultivated new informants and learned part of the reason the Ravenite bug failed was that Gotti would hold sensitive conversations in a rear hallway in the building the club occupied or in an apartment in its upper floors where a friendly widow of a Gambino soldier lived, and by November 1989, both locations were bugged. The apartment bug was particularly fruitful due to Gotti's frankness as he discussed his position as family boss in meetings there. In a December 12 conversation with Frank Locascio, Gotti plainly acknowledged ordering the murders of DiBernardo and Liborio Milito — the latter being one of Gravano's partners killed for insubordination. He also announced his intention to kill soldier Louis DiBono, who had ignored a summons to meet with Gotti to discuss his mismanagement of a drywall business he held with Gotti and Gravano. The FBI, however, misheard the namedrop and failed to warn DiBono, who was killed on October 4, 1990. In another taped meeting on January 4, 1990, Gotti promoted Gravano to underboss, preferring Gravano to lead the family if he was convicted in the assault case. State prosecutors linked Gotti to the case with a recording of him discussing O'Connor and announcing his intention to "bust him up," and the testimony of Westies gangster James McElroy, however Gotti was acquitted of all six assault and conspiracy charges at trial on February 9, 1990. After the trial, there were firework displays by locals. Jules J. Bonavolonta, director of the FBI's organized-crime division in New York stated, "With all this media coverage he's beginning to look like a folk hero... What the public should realize is that he is the boss of the largest Cosa Nostra family, that he surrounds himself with ruthless killers and that he is flat out a criminal." It later emerged, however, that FBI bugs had apparently caught Gotti discussing plans to fix the jury as he had in the 1986–87 racketeering case. However, to the outrage of Manhattan district attorney Robert Morgenthau and state-organized crime taskforce chief Ronald Goldstock, the FBI and federal prosecutors chose not to reveal this information to them. Morgenthau later said that had he known about these bugged conversations, he would have asked for a mistrial. 1992 conviction Gotti, Gravano and Locascio, were often recorded by the bugs placed throughout the Ravenite (concealed in the main room, the first-floor hallway and the upstairs apartment of the building) discussing incriminating events. On December 11, 1990, FBI agents and NYPD detectives raided the Ravenite, arresting Gotti, Gravano and Frank Locascio. Federal prosecutors charged Gotti, in this new racketeering case, with five murders (Castellano, Bilotti, DiBernardo, Liborio Milito and, after review of the apartment tapes, Louis Dibono), conspiracy to murder Gaetano "Corky" Vastola, loansharking, illegal gambling, obstruction of justice, bribery and tax evasion. Based on tapes from FBI bugs played at pretrial hearings, the Gambino administration was denied bail. At the same time, attorneys Cutler and Gerald Shargel were disqualified from defending Gotti and Gravano after prosecutors successfully contended they were "part of the evidence" and thus liable to be called as witnesses. Prosecutors argued that Cutler and Shargel not only knew about potential criminal activity, but had worked as "in-house counsel" for the Gambino family. Gotti subsequently hired Albert Krieger, a Miami attorney who had worked with Joseph Bonanno, to replace Cutler. The tapes also created a rift between Gotti and Gravano, where the Gambino boss described his newly appointed underboss as too greedy and attempted to frame Gravano as the main force behind the murders of DiBernardo, Milito and Dibono. Gotti's attempt at reconciliation failed, leaving Gravano disillusioned with the mob and doubtful on his chances of winning his case without Shargel, his former attorney. Gravano ultimately opted to turn state's evidence, formally agreeing to testify on November 13, 1991. He was the highest-ranking member of a New York crime family to turn informer, until Joseph Massino in 2003. Gotti and Locascio were tried in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of New York before District Judge I. Leo Glasser. Jury selection began in January 1992 with an anonymous jury and, for the first time in a Brooklyn federal case, fully sequestered during the trial due to Gotti's reputation for jury tampering. The trial commenced with the prosecution's opening statements on February 12; prosecutors Andrew Maloney and John Gleeson began their case by playing tapes showing Gotti discussing Gambino family business, including murders he approved, and confirming the animosity between Gotti and Castellano to establish the former's motive to kill his boss. After calling an eyewitness of the Sparks hit who identified Carneglia as one of the men who shot Bilotti, they then brought Gravano to testify on March 2. On the stand, Gravano confirmed Gotti's place in the structure of the Gambino family and described in detail the conspiracy to assassinate Castellano, giving a full description of the hit and its aftermath. Gravano confessed to 19 murders, implicating Gotti in four of them. Krieger, and Locascio's attorney, Anthony Cardinale, proved unable to shake Gravano during cross-examination. After additional testimony and tapes, the government rested its case on March 24. Five of Krieger and Cardinale's intended six witnesses were ruled irrelevant or extraneous, leaving only Gotti's tax attorney Murray Appleman to testify on his behalf. The defense also attempted unsuccessfully to have a mistrial declared based on Maloney's closing remarks. Gotti himself became increasingly hostile during the trial, and at one point, Glasser threatened to remove him from the courtroom. Among other outbursts, Gotti called Gravano a junkie while his attorneys sought to discuss his past steroid use, and equated the dismissal of a juror to the fixing of the 1919 World Series. On April 2, 1992, after only 14 hours of deliberation, the jury found Gotti guilty on all charges of the indictment (Locascio was found guilty on all but one). James Fox, Assistant Director in Charge or "ADIC" of the FBI's New York Field Office, announced at a press conference, "The Teflon is gone. The don is covered with Velcro, and all the charges stuck." On June 23, 1992, Glasser sentenced both defendants to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole and a $250,000 fine. Incarceration and death Gotti was incarcerated at the United States Penitentiary at Marion, Illinois. He spent the majority of his sentence in effective solitary confinement, allowed out of his cell for only one hour a day. His final appeal was rejected by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1994. On July 18, 1996, a fellow inmate named Walter Johnson punched Gotti in the prison recreation room, leaving him bruised and bleeding, because according to New York's Daily News, Gotti had disrespected him with a racial slur. Gotti, desiring revenge, offered Aryan Brotherhood chieftains David Sahakian and Michael McElhiney somewhere between US$40,000 and $400,000 to have Johnson killed. In August, McElhiney told two Brotherhood underlings to kill Johnson "if given the opportunity," according to a federal indictment charging him and 39 other gang members with murder, attempted murder and racketeering. Johnson, however, was transferred to Supermax prison in Florence, Colorado. Despite his imprisonment and pressure from the Commission to stand down, Gotti asserted his prerogative to retain his title as boss until his death or retirement, with his brother Peter and his son John Jr. relaying orders on his behalf. By 1998, when he was indicted on racketeering, John Jr. was believed to be the acting boss of the family. Against his father's wishes, John Jr. pleaded guilty and was sentenced to six years and five months' imprisonment in 1999. He maintains he has since left the Gambino family. Peter Gotti subsequently became acting boss and is believed to have formally succeeded his brother shortly before Gotti's death. John Jr.'s indictment brought further stress to Gotti's marriage. Victoria DiGiorgio Gotti, up to that point unaware of her son's involvement in the Mafia, blamed her husband for ruining her son's life and threatened to leave him unless he allowed John Jr. to leave the mob. In 1998, Gotti was diagnosed with throat cancer and sent to the United States Medical Center for Federal Prisoners in Springfield, Missouri, for surgery. Though the tumor was removed, the cancer was discovered to have returned two years later and Gotti was transferred back to Springfield, where he spent the rest of his life. Gotti's condition rapidly declined and he died on June 10, 2002, at the age of 61. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn announced that Gotti's family would not be permitted to have a Requiem Mass, but allowed a memorial Mass after the burial. Gotti's funeral was held in a non-church facility. After the funeral, an estimated 300 onlookers followed the procession, which passed Gotti's Bergin Hunt and Fish Club, to the gravesite. Gotti's body was interred in a crypt next to his son, Frank, who was struck and killed by a car when he was 12 years old in 1980. Gotti's brother, Peter, was unable to attend because of his incarceration. In an apparent repudiation of Gotti's leadership and legacy, the other New York City families sent no representatives to the funeral. Numerous prosecutions triggered by Gotti's tactics left the Gambinos decimated. By the turn of the century, half of the family's made men were in prison. In popular culture Since his conviction, Gotti has been portrayed in five TV movies, two documentary series, three theatrical films and been subject in music: Getting Gotti – 1994 CBS TV movie, portrayed by Anthony John Denison Gotti – 1996 HBO TV movie, portrayed by Armand Assante Witness to the Mob – 1998 NBC miniseries, portrayed by Tom Sizemore Gotti is mentioned in the song "Everybody Get Up", by British boy band Five, released in 1998. The Big Heist – 2001 Canadian-American TV movie which aired on A&E, portrayed by Steven Randazzo Boss of Bosses – 2001 TNT TV movie adapted from the book of the same name, portrayed by Sonny Marinelli Sinatra Club – 2010 theatrical film, portrayed by Danny Nucci. The Wannabe – 2015 film, portrayed by Joseph Siravo Gotti – 2018 theatrical film, portrayed by John Travolta A 1999 episode of the documentary series The FBI Files narrated the story of the investigation and conviction of Gotti. Mugshots, a crime documentary series aired an episode, "John Gotti: End of the Sicilians", filmed in Sicily and Brooklyn, featuring court wiretaps and undercover footage of Gotti's mob. Notes References Sources Blum, Howard. Gangland : How The FBI Broke the Mob. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. Capeci, Jerry and Gene Mustain. Mob Star: The Story of John Gotti. New York: Penguin, 1988. Capeci, Jerry and Gene Mustain. Gotti: Rise and Fall. New York: Onyx, 1996. Davis, John H. Mafia Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Gambino Crime Family. New York: HarperCollins, 1993. Maas, Peter. Underboss: Sammy the Bull Gravano's Story of Life in the Mafia. New York, N.Y.: HarperPaperbacks, 1997. . Raab, Selwyn. Five Families: The Rise, Decline, and Resurgence of America's Most Powerful Mafia Empires. London: Robson Books, 2006. External links John Gotti – Biography.com John Gotti: How We Made the Charges Stick – Federal Bureau of Investigation 1940 births 2002 deaths American crime bosses American gangsters of Italian descent American people convicted of murder American people convicted of tax crimes American people who died in prison custody Bosses of the Gambino crime family Burials at St. John's Cemetery (Queens) Capo dei capi Catholics from New York (state) Criminals from Queens, New York Deaths from cancer in Missouri Deaths from throat cancer Gambino crime family Gangsters from New York City Gangsters sentenced to life imprisonment People acquitted of assault People acquitted of racketeering People convicted of obstruction of justice People convicted of racketeering People from East New York, Brooklyn People from Howard Beach, Queens People from Ozone Park, Queens People of Campanian descent Prisoners who died in United States federal government detention Gotti family

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sting%20%28musician%29

Sting (musician)

Gordon Matthew Thomas Sumner (born 2 October 1951), known as Sting, is an English musician, singer, songwriter and actor. He was the frontman, songwriter and bassist for new wave rock band the Police from 1977 to 1984. He launched a solo career in 1985 and has included elements of rock, jazz, reggae, classical, new-age and worldbeat in his music. As a solo musician and a member of the Police, Sting has received 17 Grammy Awards: he won Song of the Year for "Every Breath You Take", three Brit Awards, including Best British Male Artist in 1994 and Outstanding Contribution in 2002, a Golden Globe, an Emmy and four nominations for the Academy Award for Best Original Song. In 2019, he received a BMI Award for "Every Breath You Take" becoming the most-played song in radio history. In 2002, Sting received the Ivor Novello Award for Lifetime Achievement from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors and was also inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Police in 2003. In 2000, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for recording. In 2003, Sting received a CBE from Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace for services to music. He was made a Kennedy Center Honoree at the White House in 2014 and was awarded the Polar Music Prize in 2017. With the Police, Sting became one of the world's best-selling music artists. Solo and with the Police combined, he has sold over 100 million records. In 2006, Paste ranked him 62nd of the 100 best living songwriters. He was 63rd of VH1's 100 greatest artists of rock, and 80th of Q magazine's 100 greatest musical stars of the 20th century. He has collaborated with other musicians on songs such as "Money for Nothing" with Dire Straits, "Rise & Fall" with Craig David, "All for Love" with Bryan Adams and Rod Stewart, "You Will Be My Ain True Love" with Alison Krauss, and introduced the North African music genre raï to Western audiences through the hit song "Desert Rose" with Cheb Mami. In 2018, he released the album 44/876, a collaboration with Jamaican musician Shaggy, which won the Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album in 2019. Early life Gordon Matthew Thomas Sumner was born at Sir G B Hunter Memorial Hospital in Wallsend, Northumberland, England on 2 October 1951, the eldest of four children of Audrey (née Cowell), a hairdresser, and Ernest Matthew Sumner, a milkman and engineer. He grew up near Wallsend's shipyards, which made an impression on him. As a child, he was inspired by the Queen Mother waving at him from a Rolls-Royce to divert from the shipyard prospect towards a more glamorous life. He helped his father deliver milk and by ten was "obsessed" with an old Spanish guitar left by an emigrating friend of his father. He attended St Cuthbert's Grammar School in Newcastle upon Tyne. He visited nightclubs such as Club A'Gogo to see Cream and Manfred Mann, who influenced his music. After leaving school in 1969, he enrolled at the University of Warwick in Coventry, but left after a term. After working as a bus conductor, building labourer and tax officer, he attended the Northern Counties College of Education (now Northumbria University) from 1971 to 1974 and qualified as a teacher. He taught at St Paul's First School in Cramlington for two years. Sting performed jazz in the evening, weekends and during breaks from college and teaching, playing with the Phoenix Jazzmen, Newcastle Big Band and Last Exit. He gained his nickname after his habit of wearing a black and yellow jumper with hooped stripes with the Phoenix Jazzmen. Bandleader Gordon Solomon thought he looked like a bee (or according to Sting himself, "they thought I looked like a wasp"), which prompted the name "Sting". In the 1985 documentary Bring on the Night a journalist called him Gordon, to which he replied, "My children call me Sting, my mother calls me Sting, who is this Gordon character?" In 2011, he told Time that "I was never called Gordon. You could shout 'Gordon' in the street and I would just move out of your way". Musical career 1977–1984: The Police and early solo work In January 1977, Sting moved from Newcastle to London and joined Stewart Copeland and Henry Padovani (soon replaced by Andy Summers) to form the Police. From 1978 to 1983, they had five UK chart-topping albums, won six Grammy Awards and won two Brit Awards (for Best British Group and for Outstanding Contribution to Music). Their initial sound was punk-inspired, but they switched to reggae rock and minimalist pop. Their final album, Synchronicity, was nominated for five Grammy Awards including Album of the Year in 1983. It included their most successful song, "Every Breath You Take", written by Sting. According to Sting, appearing in the documentary Last Play at Shea, he decided to leave the Police while onstage during a concert of 18 August 1983 at Shea Stadium in New York City because he felt that playing that venue was "[Mount] Everest". While never formally breaking up, after Synchronicity, the group agreed to concentrate on solo projects. As the years went by, the band members, especially Sting, dismissed the possibility of reforming. In 2007, however, the band did reform and undertook The Police Reunion Tour. Four of the band's five studio albums appeared on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time and two of the band's songs, "Every Breath You Take" and "Roxanne", each written by Sting, appeared on Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In addition, "Every Breath You Take" and "Roxanne" were among the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. In 2003, the band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. They were also included in Rolling Stone's and VH1's lists of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time". In 1978, Sting collaborated with members of Hawkwind and Gong as the Radio Actors on the one-off single "Nuclear Waste". In September 1981, Sting made his first live solo appearance, on all four nights of the fourth Amnesty International benefit The Secret Policeman's Other Ball in London's Drury Lane theatre at the invitation of producer Martin Lewis. He performed solo versions of "Roxanne" and "Message in a Bottle". He also led an all-star band (dubbed "the Secret Police") on his own arrangement of Bob Dylan's "I Shall Be Released". The band and chorus included Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, Phil Collins, Bob Geldof and Midge Ure, all of whom (except Beck) later worked on Live Aid. His performances were in the album and movie of the show. The Secret Policeman's Other Ball began his growing involvement in political and social causes. In 1982 he released a solo single, "Spread a Little Happiness" from the film of the Dennis Potter television play Brimstone and Treacle. The song was a reinterpretation of the 1920s musical Mr. Cinders by Vivian Ellis and a Top 20 hit in the UK. 1985–1989: Solo debut His first solo album, 1985's The Dream of the Blue Turtles, featured jazz musicians including Kenny Kirkland, Darryl Jones, Omar Hakim and Branford Marsalis. It included the hit singles "If You Love Somebody Set Them Free" (backed with the non-LP song "Another Day"), "Fortress Around Your Heart", "Love Is the Seventh Wave" and "Russians", the latter of which was based on a theme from the Lieutenant Kijé Suite. Within a year, the album reached Triple Platinum. The album received Grammy nominations for Album of the Year, Best Male Pop Vocal Performance, Best Jazz Instrumental Performance and Best Engineered Recording. In November 1984, Sting was part of Band Aid's "Do They Know It's Christmas?", which raised money for famine victims in Ethiopia. Released in June 1985, Sting sang the line "I Want My MTV" on "Money for Nothing" by Dire Straits. In July 1985, Sting performed Police hits at the Live Aid concert at Wembley Stadium in London. He also joined Dire Straits in "Money for Nothing" and he sang two duets with Phil Collins. In 1985, Sting provided spoken vocals for the Miles Davis album You're Under Arrest, taking the role of a French-speaking police officer. He also sang backing vocals on Arcadia's single "The Promise", on two songs from Phil Collins' album No Jacket Required, and contributed "Mack the Knife" to the Hal Willner-produced tribute album Lost in the Stars: The Music of Kurt Weill. In September 1985, he performed "If You Love Somebody Set Them Free" at the 1985 MTV Video Music Awards at the Radio City Music Hall in New York. The 1985 film Bring on the Night, directed by Michael Apted, documented the formation of his solo band and its first concert in France. Sting released ...Nothing Like the Sun in 1987, including singles, "We'll Be Together", "Fragile", "Englishman in New York" and "Be Still My Beating Heart", dedicated to his mother, who had recently died. It went Double Platinum. "The Secret Marriage" from this album was adapted from Hanns Eisler and "Englishman in New York" was about Quentin Crisp. The album's title is from William Shakespeare's Sonnet 130. The album won Best British Album at the 1988 Brit Awards and in 1989 received three Grammy nominations including his second consecutive nomination for Album of the Year. "Be Still My Beating Heart" earned nominations for Song of the Year and Best Male Pop Vocal Performance. In 1989, ...Nothing Like the Sun was ranked number 90 and his Police album Synchronicity was ranked number 17 on Rolling Stones 100 greatest albums of the 1980s. In February 1988, he made Nada como el sol, four songs from Nothing like the Sun he sang in Spanish and Portuguese. In 1987, jazz arranger Gil Evans placed him in a big band setting for a live album of Sting's songs, and on Frank Zappa's 1988 Broadway the Hard Way he performed an arrangement of "Murder by Numbers", set to "Stolen Moments" by Oliver Nelson and dedicated to evangelist Jimmy Swaggart. In October 1988 he recorded a version of Igor Stravinsky's The Soldier's Tale with the London Sinfonietta conducted by Kent Nagano. It featured Vanessa Redgrave, Ian McKellen, Gianna Nannini and Sting as the soldier. 1990–1997: Greater solo success His 1991 album, The Soul Cages, was dedicated to his late father. It included "All This Time" and the Grammy-winning title track. The album went Platinum. The album also included an Italian version of Mad About You. The text was written by his friend Zucchero Fornaciari. The song was then included in Overdose d'amore/The Ballads (1999) and in Zu & Co. (2004) of the Italian bluesman. The following year, he married Trudie Styler and was awarded an honorary doctorate in music from Northumbria University. In 1991, he appeared on Two Rooms: Celebrating the Songs of Elton John and Bernie Taupin. He performed "Come Down in Time" for the album, which also features other popular artists and their renditions of John/Taupin songs. Sting's fourth album Ten Summoner's Tales peaked at two in the UK and US album charts in 1993 and went triple platinum in just over a year. The album was recorded at his Elizabethan country home, Lake House in Wiltshire. Ten Summoner's Tales was nominated for the Mercury Prize in 1993 and for the Grammy for Album of the Year in 1994. The title is a wordplay on his surname, Sumner and "The Summoner's Tale", one of The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer. Hit singles on the album include "Fields of Gold", a song inspired by the barley fields next to his Wiltshire home, with the music video featuring a silhouette of Sting walking through a village containing common features seen throughout the UK during that time such as a red telephone box and "If I Ever Lose My Faith in You", the latter earning his second award for best male pop singer at the 36th Grammy Awards. In May 1993, he covered his own Police song from the Ghost in the Machine album, "Demolition Man", for the Demolition Man film. With Bryan Adams and Rod Stewart, Sting performed "All for Love" for the film The Three Musketeers. The song stayed at the top of the U.S. charts for three weeks, topped multiple other charts worldwide and reached number two in the UK. In February, he won two Grammy Awards and was nominated for three more. Berklee College of Music awarded him his second honorary doctorate of music in May. In November, he released the compilation, Fields of Gold: The Best of Sting, which was certified Double Platinum. That year, he sang with Vanessa Williams on "Sister Moon" and appeared on her album The Sweetest Days. At the 1994 Brit Awards in London, he was Best British Male. Sting's 1996 album, Mercury Falling debuted strongly, with the single "Let Your Soul Be Your Pilot" reaching No. 15 in the UK Singles Chart, but the album soon dropped from the charts. He reached the UK Top 40 with two further singles the same year with "You Still Touch Me" (#27 in June) and "I Was Brought To My Senses" (#31 in December). The song "I'm So Happy I Can't Stop Crying" from this album also became a US country music hit in 1997 in a version with Toby Keith. Sting recorded music for the Disney film Kingdom of the Sun, which was reworked into The Emperor's New Groove. The film's overhauls and plot changes were documented by Sting's wife, Trudie Styler, as the changes resulted in some songs not being used. Also in 1996, he sang for the Tina Turner single "On Silent Wings" as a part of her Wildest Dreams album. In the same year, his performance with the Brazilian composer/artist Tom Jobim in "How Insensitive" was in the AIDS benefit album Red Hot + Rio produced by the Red Hot Organization. Sting cooperated with Greek singer George Dalaras in a concert in Athens. "Moonlight", a rare jazz performance by Sting for the 1995 remake of Sabrina, written by Alan Bergman, Marilyn Bergman and John Williams, was nominated for a 1997 Grammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture or Television. On 4 September 1997, Sting performed "I'll Be Missing You" with Puff Daddy at the 1997 MTV Video Music Awards in tribute to Notorious B.I.G.. On 15 September 1997, Sting appeared at the Music for Montserrat concert at the Royal Albert Hall, London, performing with fellow English artists Paul McCartney, Elton John, Eric Clapton, Phil Collins and Mark Knopfler. 1998–2005: Brand New Day and soundtrack work A period of relative musical inactivity followed from 1997, before Sting eventually re-emerged in September 1999, with a new album Brand New Day, which gave him two more UK Top 20 hits in the title track "Brand New Day" (a UK No. 13 hit featuring Stevie Wonder on harmonica) and "Desert Rose" (a UK No. 15 hit). The album went Triple Platinum by January 2001. In 2000, he won Grammy Awards for Brand New Day and the song of the same name. At the awards ceremony, he performed "Desert Rose" with his collaborator on the album version, Cheb Mami. In 2000, the soundtrack for The Emperor's New Groove was released with complete songs from the previous version of the film. The final single used to promote the film, "My Funny Friend and Me", was Sting's first nomination for an Academy Award for Best Song. In February 2001, he won another Grammy for "She Walks This Earth (Soberana Rosa)" on A Love Affair: The Music Of Ivan Lins. His "After the Rain Has Fallen" made it into the Top 40. His next project was a live album at his villa in Figline Valdarno, released as a CD and DVD as well as being broadcast on the internet. The CD and DVD were to be entitled On Such a Night and intended to feature re-workings of Sting favourites such as "Roxanne" and "If You Love Somebody Set Them Free". The concert, scheduled for 11 September 2001, was altered due to the terrorist attacks in America that day. The webcast shut after one song (a reworked version of "Fragile"), after which Sting let the audience decide whether to continue the show. They decided to go ahead and the album and DVD appeared in November as ...All This Time, dedicated "to all those who lost their lives on that day". He performed "Fragile" with Yo-Yo Ma and the Mormon Tabernacle Choir during the opening ceremonies of the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, US. In 2002, he won a Golden Globe Award for "Until..." from the film Kate & Leopold. Written and performed by him, "Until..." was his second nomination for an Academy Award for Best Song. At the 2002 Brit Awards in February, Sting received the prize for Outstanding Contribution to Music. In May 2002 he received the Ivor Novello Award for Lifetime Achievement from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors. In June he was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. In the Queen's Birthday Honours 2003 Sting was made a Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire For services to the Music Industry. At the 54th Primetime Emmy Awards in September, Sting won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Performance in a Variety Or Music Program, for his A&E special, Sting in Tuscany... All This Time. In 2003, Sting released Sacred Love, a studio album featuring collaborations with hip-hop artist Mary J. Blige and sitar performer Anoushka Shankar. He and Blige won a Grammy for their duet, "Whenever I Say Your Name". The song is based on Johann Sebastian Bach's Praeambulum 1 C-Major (BWV 924) from the Klavierbuechlein fuer Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, though Sting said little about this adaptation. The album did not have the hit singles like his previous releases. In 2004, he was nominated for the third time for an Academy Award for Best Song, for "You Will Be My Ain True Love", from Cold Mountain, sung in duet with Alison Krauss. The pair performed the song at the 76th Academy Awards. His autobiography Broken Music was published in October. He embarked on a Sacred Love tour in 2004 with performances by Annie Lennox. Sting went on the Broken Music tour, touring smaller venues, with a four-piece band, starting in Los Angeles on 28 March 2005 and ending on 14 May 2005. Sting was on the 2005 Monkey Business CD by hip-hop group the Black Eyed Peas, singing on "Union", which samples his Englishman in New York. Continuing with Live Aid, he appeared at Live 8 at Hyde Park, London in July 2005. 2006–2010: Experimental albums and the Police reunion In 2006, Sting was on the Gregg Kofi Brown album, with "Lullaby to an Anxious Child" produced and arranged by Lino Nicolosi and Pino Nicolosi of Nicolosi Productions. In October 2006, he released an album entitled Songs from the Labyrinth featuring the music of John Dowland (an Elizabethan-era composer) and accompaniment from Bosnian lute player Edin Karamazov. Sting's interpretation of this English Renaissance composer and his cooperation with Edin Karamazov brought recognition in classical music. As promotion of this album, he appeared on the fifth episode of Studio 60 to perform a segment of Dowland's "Come Again" as well as his own "Fields of Gold" in arrangement for voice and two archlutes. On 11 February 2007, he reunited with Police to open the 2007 Grammy Awards, singing "Roxanne", and announced The Police Reunion Tour, the first concert of which was in Vancouver on 28 May 2007 for 22,000 fans. The Police toured for more than a year, beginning with North America and crossing to Europe, South America, Australia, New Zealand and Japan. Tickets for the British tour sold out within 30 minutes, the band playing two nights at Twickenham Stadium, southwest London on 8 and 9 September 2007. The last concert was at Madison Square Garden on 7 August 2008, during which his three daughters appeared with him. Toronto documentary producer Vanessa Dylyn, who was producing a film called The Musical Brain, featuring neuroscientist Daniel Levitin, approached Sting about the film. Sting was interested in having his brain scanned while different music was played. "Brand New Day" was the final song of the night for the Neighborhood Ball, one of ten inaugural balls honouring President Barack Obama on Inauguration Day, 20 January 2009. Sting was joined by Stevie Wonder on harmonica. Sting entered the studio in early February 2009 to begin work on a new album, If on a Winter's Night..., released in October 2009. Initial reviews by fans that had access to early promotional copies were mixed, and some questioned Sting's artistic direction with this album. In 2009, Sting appeared at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 25th anniversary concert, playing "Higher Ground" and "Roxanne" with Stevie Wonder and "People Get Ready" with Jeff Beck. Sting himself was inducted in 2003, as a member of the Police. In October 2009, Sting played a concert in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, for an arts and cultural festival organised by the Forum of Culture and Arts of Uzbekistan Foundation. Despite claiming he thought the concert was sponsored by UNICEF, he faced criticism in the press for receiving a payment of between one and two million pounds from Uzbek president Islam Karimov for the performance. Karimov is accused by the UN and Amnesty of human rights abuses and UNICEF stated they had no connection with the event. 2010–2016: The Last Ship and joint tours with Paul Simon and Peter Gabriel In 2010–2011, Sting continued his Symphonicity Tour, touring South Korea, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, South America and Europe. In the second half of 2011, Sting began his Back to Bass Tour, which would continue (with periodic breaks) through 2013. In October 2010, Sting played two concerts in Arnhem, Netherlands, for Symphonica in Rosso. In 2011, Time magazine named Sting one of the 100 most influential people in the world. On 26 April he performed "Every Breath You Take", "Roxanne" and "Desert Rose" at the Time 100 Gala in New York City. Sting recorded a song called "Power's Out" with Nicole Scherzinger. The song, originally recorded in 2007, was to have been included on Scherzinger's shelved album Her Name is Nicole. The song was released on Scherzinger's 2011 debut album Killer Love. Sting recorded a new version of the song "Let Your Soul Be Your Pilot" as a duet with Glee actor/singer Matthew Morrison, which appears on Morrison's 2011 eponymous debut album. On 15 September 2011, Sting performed "Fragile" at the 92nd Street Y in New York City, to honour the memory of his friend, financier-philanthropist Herman Sandler, who died in the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center. For several years, Sting worked on a musical, The Last Ship, inspired by Sting's own childhood experiences and the shipbuilding industry in Wallsend. The Last Ship tells a story about the demise of the British shipbuilding industry in 1980s Newcastle and debuted in Chicago in June 2014 before transferring to Broadway in the autumn. Sting's eleventh studio album, titled The Last Ship and inspired by the play, was released on 24 September 2013. The album features guest artists with roots in northeast England, including Brian Johnson, vocalist from AC/DC. In February 2014, Sting embarked on a joint concert tour titled On Stage Together with Paul Simon, playing 21 concerts in North America. The tour continued in early 2015, with ten shows in Australia and New Zealand, and 23 concerts in Europe, ending on 18 April 2015. On 26 June 2015 in Bergen, Norway (at the Bergen Calling Festival), Sting embarked on a 21-date Summer 2015 solo tour of Europe in Trondheim, Norway (at the Olavsfestdagene), visiting Denmark, France, Germany, Spain, Portugal, Italy and Sweden. On 28 August 2015, "Stolen Car", a duet with French singer Mylène Farmer was released. It is a cover from Sting's 2003 seventh solo studio album Sacred Love and will serve as the first single from Farmer's tenth studio album, Interstellaires. On its release, the song went straight to number 1 over French iTunes music download charts, subsequently hitting number 1 on the main French singles chart and giving Sting his first number 1 in France. In 2016, Sting performed a 19-date joint concert summer tour of North America with Peter Gabriel. 2016–2020: 57th & 9th, 44/876 and My Songs On 18 July 2016, Sting's first rock album in many years was announced. 57th & 9th was released on 11 November 2016. The title is a reference to the New York City intersection he crossed every day to get to the studio where much of the album was recorded. It has contributions by long-time band members Vinnie Colaiuta and Dominic Miller, and Jerry Fuentes and Diego Navaira of the Last Bandoleros. The album was produced by Sting's manager, Martin Kierszenbaum. On 9 November 2016, Sting performed two shows at Irving Plaza, in Manhattan, New York City, playing songs from 57th & 9th for the first time live in concert: a "57th & 9th iHeartRadio Album Release Party" show and a Sting Fan Club Member Exclusive Show later that night. Named the 57th & 9th Tour, a world tour of theatres, clubs and arenas in support of 57th & 9th (with special guests Joe Sumner and the Last Bandoleros) began on 1 February 2017 in Vancouver at the Commodore Ballroom and continued into October. On 4 November 2016, management of the Bataclan theatre announced that Sting would perform an exclusive concert in Paris on 12 November 2016 for the re-opening of the Bataclan, a year after the terrorist attack at the venue. The Police's former guitar player, French native Henry Padovani, joined the band on stage for "Next to You", one of the encores. Sting was announced as the joint winner of the 2017 Polar Music Prize, a Swedish international award given in recognition of excellence in the world of music. The award committee stated: "As a composer, Sting has combined classic pop with virtuoso musicianship and an openness to all genres and sounds from around the world." In 2018, he scheduled a musical and story-telling performance at the Metropolitan Museum of Art honouring Hudson River School artist Thomas Cole. On 7 February 2018, Sting performed as special guest at the Italian Sanremo Music Festival, singing "Muoio per te", the Italian version of "Mad About You", the lyrics of which were written by his friend and colleague Zucchero Fornaciari and "Don't Make Me Wait" with Shaggy. 44/876, Sting and Shaggy's first studio album as a duo, was released in April 2018. On 21 April 2018, Sting was among the artists to perform at The Queen's Birthday Party held at the Royal Albert Hall. Sting's fourteenth album, titled My Songs, was released on 24 May 2019. The album features 14 studio (and one live) re-recorded versions of his songs released throughout his solo career and his time with the Police. In support of the album, a world tour named the My Songs Tour started on 28 May 2019 at La Seine Musicale in Paris and ended on 2 September 2019 at Kit Carson Park in Taos, New Mexico. A 16-date residency from 22 May to 2 September 2020 at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada was rescheduled due to COVID-19, with the first date taking place on 29 October 2021. His 6 nights at the London Palladium were rescheduled to April 2022. On 14 April 2020, Sting recorded a duet cover of "Message in a Bottle" with the girl group All Saints. The same year, he appeared on the song "Simple" available on the EP Pausa by Ricky Martin. 2021–present: Duets and The Bridge On 19 March 2021, Sting released Duets, a compilation album comprising 17 tracks of collaborations with various artists including Eric Clapton, Mary J. Blige, Shaggy, Annie Lennox and Sam Moore. However, several titles as "Simple" in performance with Ricky Martin, "Message in a Bottle" with All Saints, "Spirits" with Pato Banton from the film Ace Ventura: When Nature Calls and "Always on Your Side" in duet with Sheryl Crow, are not included in the album. Sting released his fifteenth studio album The Bridge on 19 November 2021. It was preceded by the release of the lead single "If It's Love" on 1 September 2021. Sting wrote the set of pop-rock songs "in a year of global pandemic, personal loss, separation, disruption, lockdown and extraordinary social and political turmoil". On November 20, 2021, Sting's single "What Could Have Been", with Ray Chen, was featured in the third act of the League of Legends animated series Arcane; this single was released the same day. Sting then opened The Game Awards 2021 with the song; Todd Marten, for the Los Angeles Times, wrote "The Game Awards began this year with an opening that might have launched the Grammy Awards". In February 2022, it was announced that Universal Music Group purchased Sting's catalog of solo works and those with The Police for an undisclosed amount. Activism Sting's involvement in human rights began in September 1981, when Martin Lewis included him in the fourth Amnesty International gala, The Secret Policeman's Other Ball, a benefit show co-founded by Monty Python member John Cleese. Sting states, "before [the Ball] I did not know about Amnesty, I did not know about its work, I did not know about torture in the world." Following the example set at the 1979 show by Pete Townshend, Sting performed "Roxanne" and "Message in a Bottle" appearing on all four nights at Theatre Royal in London. He also led other musicians (The Secret Police) including Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, Phil Collins, Donovan, Bob Geldof and Midge Ure in the finale – Sting's reggae-tinged arrangement of Bob Dylan's "I Shall Be Released". The event was the first time that Sting worked with Geldof. His association with Amnesty continued throughout the 1980s and beyond and he took part in Amnesty's human rights concerts. Sting had shown his interest in social and political issues in his 1980 song "Driven to Tears", an indictment of apathy to world hunger. In November 1984, he joined Band Aid, a charity supergroup primarily made up of the biggest British and Irish musicians of the era, and sang on "Do They Know It's Christmas?" which was recorded at Sarm West Studios in Notting Hill, London. This led to the Live Aid concert in July 1985 at Wembley Stadium, in which Sting performed with Phil Collins and Dire Straits. On 2 July 2005, Sting performed at the Live 8 concert at Hyde Park, London, the follow-up to 1985's Live Aid. In 1984, Sting sang a re-worded version of "Every Breath You Take", titled "Every Bomb You Make" for episode 12 of the first series of the British satirical puppet show Spitting Image. The video for the song shows the puppets of world leaders and political figures of the day, usually with the figure matching the altered lyrics. In June 1986, Sting reunited with the Police for the last three shows of Amnesty's six-date A Conspiracy of Hope concerts in the US. The day after the final concert, he told NBC's Today Show: "I've been a member of Amnesty and a support member for five years." In 1988, he joined musicians including Peter Gabriel and Bruce Springsteen for a six-week Human Rights Now! tour commemorating the 40th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. With his wife, Trudie Styler and Raoni Metuktire, a Kayapo Indian leader in Brazil, Sting founded the Rainforest Foundation Fund to help save the rainforests and protect indigenous peoples there. In 1989, he flew to the Altamira Gathering to offer support while promoting his charity. His support continues and includes an annual benefit concert at Carnegie Hall, which has featured Billy Joel, Elton John, James Taylor and others. A species of Colombian tree frog, Dendropsophus stingi, was named after him for his "commitment and efforts to save the rainforest". In 1988, the single "They Dance Alone (Cueca Sola)" chronicled the plight of the mothers, wives and daughters of the "disappeared", political opponents killed by the Pinochet dictatorship in Chile. On 15 September 1997, Sting joined Paul McCartney, Eric Clapton, Elton John, Phil Collins and Mark Knopfler at London's Royal Albert Hall for Music for Montserrat, a benefit for the Caribbean island devastated by a volcano. Sting and Styler were awarded the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience award in Sherborn, Massachusetts, on 30 June 2000. In September 2001, Sting took part in America: A Tribute to Heroes singing "Fragile" to raise money for families of victims of the 9/11 attacks in the US. In February 2005, Sting performed the Leeuwin Estate Concert Series in Western Australia: the concert raised $4 million for the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami relief. In 2007, Sting joined Andy Summers and Stewart Copeland for the closing set at the Live Earth concert at Giants Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey. Joined by John Mayer and Kanye West, Sting and the Police ended the show singing "Message in a Bottle" In 2008 Sting contributed to Songs for Tibet to support Tibet and the Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso. On 22 January 2010, Sting performed "Driven to Tears" during Hope for Haiti Now. On 25 April 2010, he performed on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. in the 40th anniversary celebration of Earth Day. Sting is a patron of the Elton John AIDS Foundation. In 2010, he became a Patron of the poverty alleviation and beekeeping charity Bees for Development. In 2011, Sting joined more than 30 others in an open letter to British Prime Minister David Cameron for "immediate decriminalisation of drug possession" if a policy review showed it had failed. Sting was quoted: "Giving young people criminal records for minor drug possession serves little purpose — it is time to think of more imaginative ways of addressing drug use in our society." On 4 July 2011, Sting cancelled a concert for the Astana Day Festival in Astana, Kazakhstan. Amnesty International convinced him to cancel due to concerns over the rights of Kazakh oil and gas workers and their families. On 2 November 2012, Sting appeared on Hurricane Sandy: Coming Together and sang a version of "Message in a Bottle" to raise funds for those affected by a storm on the east coast of the US that week. The show reportedly raised $23 million. Sting also participated as a co-host and musician during the day-long 2015 Norwegian TV campaign, dedicated to the preservation of the rainforest. In August 2014, Sting was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian expressing their hope that Scotland would vote to reject Scottish independence from the UK in September's referendum on the issue. Sting publicly opposed Brexit and supported remaining in the European Union. On 23 June 2016, in a non-binding referendum, the British public voted to leave. In October 2018, Sting was among a group of British musicians who signed an open letter sent to then Prime Minister Theresa May, drafted by Bob Geldof, calling for "a 2nd vote", stating that Brexit will "impact every aspect of the music industry. From touring to sales, to copyright legislation to royalty collation", the letter added: "We dominate the market and our bands, singers, musicians, writers, producers and engineers work all over Europe and the world and, in turn, Europe and the world come to us. Why? Because we are brilliant at it ... [Our music] reaches out, all inclusive, and embraces anyone and everyone. And that truly is what Britain is." In January 2018, it was reported that Sting had joined the board of advisors of an impact investing fund of JANA Partners LLC named JANA Impact Capital, aimed at serving environmental and social causes. On 6 January 2018, JANA Partners, together with the California State Teachers' Retirement System issued a public letter imploring Apple Inc. to take a more responsible approach towards smartphone addiction among children. The letter cited several pieces of evidence that show that smartphone use by children increases the risk of their having mental health problems and worsens academic performance. Personal life Sting married actress Frances Tomelty on 1 May 1976. They had two children: Joseph (born 23 November 1976) and Fuschia Katherine ("Kate", born 17 April 1982). In 1980, Sting became a tax exile in Galway in Ireland. In 1982, after the birth of his second child, he separated from Tomelty. Tomelty and Sting divorced in 1984 following Sting's affair with actress Trudie Styler. The split was controversial; as The Independent reported in 2006, Tomelty "just happened to be Trudie's best friend (Sting and Frances lived next door to Trudie in Bayswater, west London, for several years before the two of them became lovers)". Sting married Styler at Camden Registry Office on 20 August 1992, and the couple had their wedding blessed two days later in the twelfth-century parish church of St Andrew in Great Durnford, Wiltshire, south-west England. Sting and Styler have four children: Brigitte Michael ("Mickey", born 19 January 1984), Jake (24 May 1985), Eliot Paulina (nicknamed "Coco", 30 July 1990) and Giacomo Luke (17 December 1995). Coco is a singer and was the founder and lead singer of the group I Blame Coco. Giacomo Luke is the inspiration behind the name of Kentucky Derby–winning horse Giacomo. In April 2009, the Sunday Times Rich List estimated Sting's wealth at £175million and ranked him the 322nd wealthiest person in Britain. A decade later, Sting was estimated to have a fortune of £320million in the 2019 Sunday Times Rich List, making him one of the 10 wealthiest people in the British music industry. Both of Sting's parents died of cancer: his mother in 1986 and his father in 1987. He did not attend either parent's funeral, in order not to bring media attention to them. In 1995, Sting gave evidence in court against his former accountant (Keith Moore), who had misappropriated £6 million of his money. Moore was jailed for six years. Sting owns several homes worldwide, including Lake House and its sixty-acre estate near Salisbury, Wiltshire; a New York City flat (which was once owned by Billy Joel) and the Villa Il Palagio estate in Figline Valdarno, Tuscany. For many years he owned a house in Highgate, 2 The Grove which had been the former home of the violinist Yehudi Menuhin. Sting ran five miles (8 km) a day and performed aerobics. He participated in running races at Parliament Hill and charity runs. Around 1990, Danny Paradise introduced him to yoga and he began practising Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga series, though he now practises Tantra and Jivamukti Yoga as well. He wrote a foreword to Yoga Beyond Belief, written by Ganga White in 2007. In 2008, he was reported to practise Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's Transcendental Meditation technique. Sting's affinity with yoga contributed to a rumour about his sexual prowess, including a purported eight hours of sex with Styler. The story stems from an interview with Sting and Bob Geldof. A journalist asked "how do you perform in bed?" and Geldof remarked that he was a "three-minute man" but Sting could last for hours thanks to yoga. Sting played chess grandmaster Garry Kasparov in an exhibition game in 2000, along with four bandmates: Dominic Miller, Jason Rebello, Chris Botti and Russ Irwin. Kasparov beat all five simultaneously within fifty minutes. In 1969, Sting read the Gormenghast trilogy by Mervyn Peake and later bought the film rights. He named pets, a racehorse, his publishing company and one of his daughters (Fuchsia) after characters from the books. Sting supports his hometown Premier League football club Newcastle United and in 2009 backed a supporters' campaign against the plan of owner Mike Ashley to sell off naming rights of the club's home stadium St James' Park. He wrote a song in support of Newcastle, called "Black and White Army (Bringing The Pride Back Home)". In a 2011 interview in Time, Sting said that he was agnostic and that the certainties of religious faith were dangerous. In August 2013, Sting donated money to The Friends of Tynemouth Outdoor Pool to regenerate the 1920s lido at the southern end of Longsands Beach in Tynemouth, northeast England, a few miles from where he was born. Awards and nominations Discography Studio albums The Dream of the Blue Turtles (1985) ...Nothing Like the Sun (1987) The Soul Cages (1991) Ten Summoner's Tales (1993) Mercury Falling (1996) Brand New Day (1999) Sacred Love (2003) Songs from the Labyrinth (2006) If on a Winter's Night... (2009) Symphonicities (2010) The Last Ship (2013) 57th & 9th (2016) 44/876 (2018) (with Shaggy) My Songs (2019) The Bridge (2021) Filmography Sting has also ventured into acting. Film, television and radio roles include: As actor Quadrophenia (1979) – The Ace Face, the King of the Mods, a.k.a. the Bell Boy in the film adaptation of the Who album. Radio On (1979) – Just Like Eddie The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle (1980) – Leader of the Blow Waves. The footage was cut but it later reappeared in the DVD version and in the documentary The Filth and the Fury (2000). Artemis 81 (1981) – The angel Helith (BBC TV film) Brimstone and Treacle (1982) – Martin Taylor, a drifter Dune (1984) – Feyd-Rautha Harkonnen Titus Groan (1984) – Steerpike (BBC Radio 4 broadcast based on the Mervyn Peake novel) Gormenghast (1984) – Steerpike (BBC Radio 4 broadcast based on the Mervyn Peake novel) Plenty (1985) – Mick, a black-marketeer The Bride (1985) – Baron Frankenstein Walking to New Orleans (1985) – Busker, singing Moon Over Bourbon Street. The Adventures of Baron Munchausen (1988) – a "heroic officer" Stormy Monday (1988) – Finney, a nightclub owner Julia and Julia (1988) – Daniel, a British gentleman Saturday Night Live (1991) – host, various The Grotesque (1995), a/k/a Gentlemen Don't Eat Poets and Grave Indiscretion – Fledge Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (1998) – J.D., Eddie's father and owner of a bar. Kaamelott: The First Chapter (2021) – Horsa As himself Urgh! A Music War (1982) Bring on the Night (1985) The Simpsons episode "Radio Bart" (1992) The Smell of Reeves and Mortimer Episode 5 (1995) The Larry Sanders Show episode "Where Is the Love?" (1996) Ally McBeal season four episode "Cloudy Skies, Chance of Parade" (2001) Everyone Stares: The Police Inside Out (2006) Studio 60 on Sunset Strip (2006) Vicar of Dibley Comic Relief special (2007) Bee Movie (2007) Little Britain USA (2008) as Stomp, the lead singer of "the Cops" (playing "Fields of Gold") Brüno (2009) Still Bill (2009) Do It Again (2010) Life's Too Short (2011) 2012: Time for Change (2011) The Michael J. Fox Show (2013) (singing "August Wind" from The Last Ship) 20 Feet from Stardom (2013) Zoolander 2 (2016) Have a Good Trip: Adventures in Psychedelics (2020) Only Murders in the Building (2021) Sting narrated the American premiere of the musical Yanomamo (1983), by Peter Rose and Anne Conlon, outlining problems that existed in the Amazon rainforest. This was made into a film and later broadcast as Song of the Forest. He also provided the voice of Zarm on the 1990s television show Captain Planet and the Planeteers. In 1989 he starred as Macheath (Mack the Knife) in John Dexter's Broadway production of The Threepenny Opera. Sting also appeared as himself in the video game Guitar Hero World Tour. In 2018, Sting voiced the narrator of Where the Water Tastes Like Wine. Theatre Broadway Publications See also Album era List of number-one hits (United States) List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.) List of number-one dance hits (United States) List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart Mononymous persons Notes References Bibliography External links Sting's Commencement Address (1994) to the Berklee College of Music Sting radio interview about John Dowland songs, from NPR Performance Today, 6 March 2007 Sting live in Minsk (video) on the Belarus official website 1951 births 20th-century English male actors 20th-century English male singers 21st-century double-bassists 21st-century English male singers A&M Records artists Alumni of Northumbria University Annie Award winners Brit Award winners British soft rock musicians Chevaliers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Deutsche Grammophon artists English activists English agnostics English classical double-bassists English classical singers English expatriates in Italy English expatriates in the United States English lutenists English male film actors English new wave musicians English rock bass guitarists Male bass guitarists English rock singers English male singer-songwriters English tenors English yogis Golden Globe Award-winning musicians Grammy Award winners Indigenous rights activists Ivor Novello Award winners Kennedy Center honorees Living people Male double-bassists Male new wave singers Musicians from Newcastle upon Tyne People educated at St. Cuthbert's School People from Cramlington People from Wallsend The Police members Primetime Emmy Award winners Reggae rock musicians Rock double-bassists Schoolteachers from Northumberland Strontium 90 (band) members Sumner musical family Universal Music Group artists

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calais

Calais

Calais ( , , traditionally , ; ; ) is a city and major ferry port in Northern France in the Pas-de-Calais department, of which it is a subprefecture. Although Calais is by far the largest city in Pas-de-Calais, the department's prefecture is its third-largest city of Arras. The population of the city proper is 73,911; that of the urban area is 128,931 (2017). Calais overlooks the Strait of Dover, the narrowest point in the English Channel, which is only wide here, and is the closest French town to England. The White Cliffs of Dover can easily be seen on a clear day from Calais. Calais is a major port for ferries between France and England, and since 1994, the Channel Tunnel has linked nearby Coquelles to Folkestone by rail. Due to its position, Calais since the Middle Ages has been a major port and a very important centre for transport and trading with England. Calais came under English control after Edward III of England captured the city in 1347, followed by a treaty in 1360 that formally assigned Calais to English rule. Calais grew into a thriving centre for wool production, and came to be called the "brightest jewel in the English crown" owing to its great importance as the gateway for the tin, lead, lace and wool trades (or "staples"). Calais remained under English control until its capture by France in 1558. The town was virtually razed to the ground during World War II, when in May 1940, it was a strategic bombing target of the invading German forces who took the town during the siege of Calais. During World War II, the Germans built massive bunkers along the coast in preparation for launching missiles at England. The old part of the town, Calais proper (known as Calais-Nord), is situated on an artificial island surrounded by canals and harbours. The modern part of the town, St-Pierre, lies to the south and south-east. In the centre of the old town is the Place d'Armes, in which stands the Tour du Guet, or watch-tower, a structure built in the 13th century, which was used as a lighthouse until 1848 when a new lighthouse was built by the port. South east of the Place is the church of Notre-Dame, built during the English occupancy of Calais. Arguably, it is the only church built in the English perpendicular style in all of France. In this church, former French President Charles de Gaulle married his wife, Yvonne Vendroux. South of the Place and opposite the Parc St Pierre is the Hôtel-de-ville (the town hall), and the belfry from the early 20th century. Today, Calais is visited by more than 10 million annually. Aside from being a key transport hub, Calais is also a notable fishing port and a centre for fish marketing, and some 3,000 people are still employed in the lace industry for which the town is also famed. History Early history The early history of habitation in the area is limited. The Romans called the settlement Caletum. Julius Caesar mustered 800 to 1,000 sailing boats, five legions and some 2,000 horses at Calais, due to its strategic position, to attack Britannia. The English could hold on to it for so many centuries because it remained an island surrounded by marshes, and therefore almost impossible to attack from the land. At some time before the 10th century, it would have been a Dutch-speaking fishing village on a sandy beach backed by pebbles and a creek, with a natural harbour at the west edge of the early medieval estuary of the river Aa. As the pebble and sand ridge extended eastward from Calais, the haven behind it developed into fen, as the estuary progressively filled with silt and peat. Afterwards, canals were cut between Saint-Omer, the trading centre formerly at the head of the estuary, and three places to the west, centre and east on the newly formed coast: respectively Calais, Gravelines and Dunkirk. Calais was improved by the Count of Flanders in 997 and fortified by the Count of Boulogne in 1224. The first document mentioning the existence of this community is the town charter granted by Mathieu d'Alsace, Count of Boulogne, in 1181 to Gerard de Guelders; Calais thus became part of the county of Boulogne. In 1189, Richard the Lionheart is documented to have landed at Calais on his journey to the Third Crusade. 14th–15th century; the Pale of Calais English wool trade interests and King Edward III's claims to be heir to the Kingdom of France led to the Battle of Crécy between England and France in 1346, followed by Edward's siege and capture of Calais in 1347. Angered, the English king demanded reprisals against the town's citizens for holding out for so long ("obstinate defense") and ordered that the town's population be killed en masse. He agreed, however, to spare them, on condition that six of the principal citizens would come to him, bareheaded and barefooted and with ropes around their necks, and give themselves up to death. On their arrival he ordered their execution, but pardoned them when his queen, Philippa of Hainault, begged him to spare their lives. This event is commemorated in The Burghers of Calais (Les Bourgeois de Calais), one of the most famous sculptures by Auguste Rodin, erected in the city in 1895. Though sparing the lives of the delegation members, King Edward drove out most of the French inhabitants, and settled the town with English. The municipal charter of Calais, previously granted by the Countess of Artois, was reconfirmed by Edward that year (1347). In 1360 the Treaty of Brétigny assigned Guînes, Marck and Calais—collectively the "Pale of Calais"—to English rule in perpetuity, but this assignment was informally and only partially implemented. On 9 February 1363 the town was made a staple port. It remained part of the Diocese of Thérouanne from 1379, keeping an ecclesiastical tie with France. The town came to be called the "brightest jewel in the English crown" owing to its great importance as the gateway for the tin, lead, cloth and wool trades (or "staples"). Its customs revenues amounted at times to a third of the English government's revenue, with wool being the most important element by far. Of its population of about 12,000 people, as many as 5,400 were recorded as having been connected with the wool trade. The governorship or Captaincy of Calais was a lucrative and highly prized public office; the famous Dick Whittington was simultaneously Lord Mayor of the City of London and Mayor of the Staple in 1407. Calais was regarded for many years as being an integral part of the Kingdom of England, with its representatives sitting in the English Parliament. The continued English hold on Calais however depended on expensively maintained fortifications, as the town lacked any natural defences. Maintaining Calais was a costly business that was frequently tested by the forces of France and the Duchy of Burgundy, with the Franco-Burgundian border running nearby. The British historian Geoffrey Elton once remarked "Calais—expensive and useless—was better lost than kept". The duration of the English hold over Calais was, to a large extent, the result of the feud between Burgundy and France, under which both sides coveted the town, but preferred to see it in the hands of the English rather than their domestic rivals. The stalemate was broken by the victory of the French crown over Burgundy following Joan of Arc's final battle in the siege of Compiègne in 1430, and the later incorporation of the duchy into France. 16th century In 1532, the English King Henry VIII visited Calais and his men calculated that the town had about 2400 beds and stabling to keep some 2000 horses. Following the royal visit, the town's governance was reformed in 1536, aiming to strengthen ties with England. As part of this move, Calais became a parliamentary borough sending burgesses to the House of Commons of the Parliament of England. In September 1552, the English adventurer Thomas Stukley, who had been for some time in the French service, betrayed to the authorities in London some French plans for the capture of Calais, to be followed by a descent upon England. Stukley himself might have been the author of these plans. On 7 January 1558, King Henry II of France sent forces led by Francis, Duke of Guise, who laid siege to Calais. When the French attacked, they were able to surprise the English at the critical strongpoint of Fort Nieulay and the sluice gates, which could have flooded the attackers, remained unopened. The loss was regarded by Queen Mary I of England as a dreadful misfortune. When she heard the news, she reportedly said, "When I am dead and opened, you shall find 'Philip' [her husband] and 'Calais' lying in my heart." The region around Calais, then-known as the Calaisis, was renamed the Pays Reconquis ("Reconquered Country") in commemoration of its recovery by the French. Use of the term is reminiscent of the Spanish Reconquista, with which the French were certainly familiar—and, since it occurred in the context of a war with Spain (Philip II of Spain was at the time Queen Mary's consort), might have been intended as a deliberate snub. The town was captured by the Spanish on 24 April 1596 in an invasion mounted from the nearby Spanish Netherlands by Archduke Albert of Austria, but it was returned to France under the Treaty of Vervins in May 1598. 17th century to World War I Calais remained an important maritime city and smuggling centre throughout the 17th century. However, during the next century, the port of Calais began to stagnate gradually, as the nearby ports of Boulogne and Dunkirk began to rise and compete. The French revolution at the end of the 18th century did not disturb Calais and no executions took place. In 1805, Calais hosted part of Napoleon's army and invasion fleet for several months before his aborted invasion of Britain. From October to December 1818, the British army used Calais as their departing port to return home after occupying post-Waterloo France. General Murray appointed Sir Manley Power to oversee the evacuation of British troops from France. Cordial relations had been restored by that time and on 3 December the mayor of Calais wrote a letter to Power to express thanks for his "considerate treatment of the French and of the town of Calais during the embarkation." The population in 1847 was 12,580, many of whom were English. It was one of the main ports for British travellers to Europe. In World War I the British Expeditionary Force or BEF arrived in Calais on its way to the nearby frontline cutting through Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Flanders. Calais was a key port for the supply of arms and reinforcements to the Western Front. In the 1930s, the town was known for being a politically socialist stronghold. World War II Calais was virtually razed to the ground during World War II. In May 1940, it was a key objective of the invading German forces and became the scene of a last-ditch defence—the siege of Calais—which diverted a sizable amount of German forces for several days immediately prior to the Battle of Dunkirk. A total of 3,000 British and 800 French troops, assisted by Royal Navy warships, held out from 22 to 27 May 1940 against the 10th Panzer Division. The town was flattened by artillery and precision dive bombing and only 30 of the 3800-strong defending force were evacuated before the town fell. This may have helped Operation Dynamo, the evacuation of Allied forces at Dunkirk, as 10th Panzer would have been involved on the Dunkirk perimeter had it not been busy at Calais. Between 26 May and 4 June 1940, some 330,000 Allied troops escaped from the Germans at Dunkirk. During the ensuing German occupation, it became the command post for German forces in the Pas-de-Calais/Flanders region and was very heavily fortified, as it was generally believed by the Germans that the Allies would invade at that point. It was also used as a launch site for V1 flying bombs and for much of the war, the Germans used the region as the site for railway guns used to bombard the south-eastern corner of England. In 1943 they built massive bunkers along the coast in preparation for launching missiles on the southeast of England. Despite heavy preparations for defence against an amphibious assault, the Allied invasion took place well to the west in Normandy on D-Day. Calais was very heavily bombed and shelled in a successful effort to disrupt German communications and persuade them that the Allies would target the Pas-de-Calais for invasion (rather than Normandy). The town, by then largely in ruins, was laid siege to and liberated by General Daniel Spry's 3rd Canadian Infantry Division between 25 September and 1 October 1944. On 27 February 1945 Calais suffered a last bombing raid—this time by British bombers who mistook the town for Dunkirk, which was at that time still occupied by German forces. After the war there was little rebuilding of the historic city and most buildings were modern ones. 21st century – migration issues Since 1999 or earlier, an increasingly large number of illegal immigrants and asylum seekers started to arrive in the vicinity of Calais, living in the Calais jungle, the nickname given to a series of makeshift camps. The people lived there while attempting to enter the United Kingdom by stowing away on lorries, ferries, cars, or trains travelling through the Port of Calais or the Eurotunnel Calais Terminal, or while waiting for their French asylum claims to be processed. The people were a mix of asylum seekers and economic migrants from Darfur, Afghanistan, Syria, Iraq, Eritrea and other underdeveloped or conflict-stricken countries in Africa and Asia. The Calais migrant crisis led to escalating tension between the UK and France in the summer of 2015. The UK blamed France for not doing enough to stop migrants from entering the Channel Tunnel or attempting to scale fences built along the border. The British Prime Minister David Cameron released a statement saying that illegal immigrants would be removed from the UK even if they reached the island. To discourage migrants and refugees from jumping on train shuttles at Calais, the UK government supplied fencing to be installed around the Eurotunnel complex, where the vehicles are loaded onto train shuttles in Calais. On 26 October 2016, French authorities announced that the camp had been cleared. By January 2017, 500–1,000 migrants, mostly unaccompanied minors, had returned and were living rough in Calais and there has been a presence ever since. Geography and climate Calais is located on the Pas de Calais, which marks the boundary between the English Channel and North Sea and located at the opposite end of the Channel Tunnel, from Dover. On a clear day the White cliffs of Dover can be viewed across the channel. Aside from being an important port and boarding point between France and England, it is at the nucleus of many major railway and highway networks and connected by road to Arras, Lens, Béthune and St. Omer. Dunkirk is located about to the east. Calais is located north of the French capital of Paris, or around by car. The commune of Calais is bordered by the English channel to the north, Sangatte and Coquelles to the west, Coulogne to the south and Marck to the east. The core area of the city is divided into the Old Town area within the old city walls, and the younger suburbs of St. Pierre, which are connected by a boulevard. Calais is part of the Côte d'Opale (Opal Coast), a cliff-lined section of northern French coast that parallels the white cliffs on the British coast and is part of the same geological formation. It is known for its scenic cliffs such as Cape Blanc Nez and Cape Gris Nez and for its wide area of dunes. Many artists have been inspired by its landscapes, among them the composer Henri Dutilleux, the writers Victor Hugo and Charles Dickens, and the painters J. M. W. Turner, Carolus-Duran, Maurice Boitel and Eugène Boudin. It was the painter who coined the name for this area in 1911 to describe the distinctive quality of its light. Calais has a temperate oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification). Temperature ranges are moderate and the winters are cool with unstable weather. It rains on average about per year. The commune of Calais is divided into 13 quartiers : Beau Marais Cailloux Calais-nord Fontinettes Fort-Nieulay Gambetta Nouvelle-France Mi-voix Petit Courgain Plage Pont-du-Leu Saint-Pierre Demographics Changes in the number of inhabitants is known throughout the population censuses conducted since 1793 in Calais. Note the massive growth in population from 13,529 in 1881 to 58,969 in 1886, a growth of 335.9%; this is because the city of Saint-Pierre-lès-Calais merged with Calais in 1885. According to the INSEE census of 2017, Calais has 73,911 people (a decrease of 4.4% from 1999). The town's population ranked 60th nationally, down from 53rd in 1999. Economy The city's proximity to England has made it a major port for centuries. It is the principal ferry crossing point between England and France, with the vast majority of Channel crossings being made between Dover and Calais. Companies operating from Calais include SeaFrance (currently in liquidation), DFDS Seaways, and P&O Ferries. The French end of the Channel Tunnel is situated in the vicinity of Calais, in Coquelles some to the west of the town. Calais possesses direct rail links to Paris, to the south. More than 10 million people visit Calais annually. From medieval times, English companies thrived in Calais. Calais was a particularly important centre in the production and trade of wool and cloth, which outweighed the costs of maintaining the town as part of England. In 1830 some 113 manufacturers were based in Calais and the St Pierre suburbs, the majority of which were English. There are still two major lace factories in Calais with around 700 looms and 3000 employees. The town exports in the early 20th century were lace, chemicals, paper, wines, especially champagne, spirits, hay, straw, wool, potatoes, woven goods, fruit, glass-ware, lace and metal-ware. Principal imports in the early 20th century included cotton and silk goods, coal, iron and steel, petroleum, timber, raw wool, cotton yarn and cork. During the five years 1901–1905 the average annual value of exports was £8,388,000 (£6,363,000 in the years 1896–1900), of imports £4,145,000 (£3,759,000 in 1896–1900). As a fishing port, Calais has several notable fishing markets including Les Délices de la Mer and Huîtrière Calaisenne on the Boulevard La Fayette, the latter of which is noted for its oysters, lobster and crabs from Brittany. The Emile Fournier et Fils market on the Rue Mouron sells mainly smoked fish including salmon, trout, herring and halibut. Politics Calais is part of Pas-de-Calais's 7th constituency. The local MP is Republican Pierre-Henri Dumont. The mayor of Calais has been Natacha Bouchart since 2008, first for the Union for a Popular Movement and then its successor The Republicans. From 1971 to 2008, the mayor was a member of the French Communist Party (PCF): Jean-Jacques Barthe (1971–2000) and Jacky Hénin (2000–2008). Notable landmarks Place d'Armes Place d'Armes is one of the largest squares in the city of Calais. It adjoins the watchtower, and during medieval times was once the heart of the city. While Calais was a territory of England (1347–1558), it became known as Market Square (place du Marché). Only at the end of English rule did it take the name of Place d'Armes. After the reconquest of Calais in 1558 by Francis, Duke of Guise, Francis II gave Calais the right to hold a fair twice a year on the square, which still exists today, as well as a bustling Wednesday and Saturday market. Hôtel de Ville The town centre, which has seen significant regeneration over the past decade, is dominated by its distinctive town hall (Hôtel de Ville) at Place du Soldat Inconnu. It was built in the Flemish Renaissance style between 1911 and 1925 to commemorate the unification of the cities of Calais and Saint Pierre in 1885. A previous town hall had been erected in 1818. One of the most elegant landmarks in the city, its ornate 74-metre (246 ft) high clock tower and belfry can be seen from out to sea and chimes throughout the day and has been protected by UNESCO since 2005 as part of a series of belfries across the region. The building parts have also been listed as a series of historic monuments by government decree of 26 June 2003, including its roofs and belfry, main hall, glass roof, the staircase, corridor serving the first floor, the rooms on the first floor (including decoration): the wedding room, the VIP lounge, the lounge of the council and the cabinet room. The hall has stained glass windows and numerous paintings and exquisite decor. It houses police offices. Église Notre-Dame Église Notre-Dame is a cathedral which was originally built in the late 13th century and its tower was added in the late 14th or early 15th century. Like the town hall it is one of the city's most prominent landmarks. It was arguably the only church in the English perpendicular style in France. Much of the current 1400 capacity church dates to 1631–1635. It contains elements of Flemish, Gothic, Anglo-Norman and Tudor architecture. In 1691, an 1800 cubic metre cistern was added to the church under orders by Vauban. The church is dedicated to the Virgin, and built in the form of a cross, consisting of a nave and four aisles— The old grand altar dated to 1628 and was built from Carrara marble wrecked on the coast, during its transit from Genoa to Antwerp. It contained eighteen figures, the two standing on either side of the altar-piece—representing St. Louis and Charlemagne. The organ—of a deep and mellow tone, and highly ornamented by figures in relief—was built at Canterbury sometime around 1700. The pulpit and reading-desk, richly sculptured in oak, is another well-executed piece of ecclesiastical workmanship from St. Omer. The altar-piece, the Assumption, was often attributed to Anthony van Dyck, though in reality it is by Gerard Seghers; whilst the painting over the side altar, once believed to be by Peter Paul Rubens is in fact by Pieter Van Mol. A high and strongly built wall, partaking more of the fortress than a cathedral in its aspect, flanks the building, and protects it from the street where formerly ran the old river, in its course through Calais to the sea. The square, massive Norman tower has three-arched belfry windows on each face, surmounted by corner turrets, and a conically-shaped tower of octagonal proportions, topped again by a short steeple. The tower was a main viewing point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790) which linked the Paris Observatory with the Royal Greenwich Observatory using trigonometry. Cross-channel sightings were made of signal lights at Dover Castle and Fairlight, East Sussex. The church was assigned as a historic monument by decree of 10 September 1913, only to have its stained glass smashed during a Zeppelin bombardment on 15 January 1915, falling through the roof. General de Gaulle married Yvonne Vendroux on 6 April 1921 at the cathedral. The building experienced extensive damage during World War II, and was partially rebuilt, although much of the old altar and furnishings were not replaced. Towers The Tour du Guet (Watch Tower), situated in Calais Nord on the Places d'Armes, is one of the few surviving pre-war buildings. Dating from 1229, when Philip I, Count of Boulogne, built the fortifications of Calais, it is one of the oldest monuments of Calais, although the oldest remaining traces date to 1302. It has a height of 35–39 metres (sources differ). An earthquake in 1580 split the tower in two, and at one time it threatened to collapse completely. The tower was repaired in 1606, and then had the purpose of serving as a hall to accommodate the merchants of Calais. It was damaged in 1658 when a young stable boy set fire to it, while it was temporarily being used as royal stables during a visit of King Louis XIV. It was not repaired for some 30 years. In 1770, a bell identical to the original bell of 1348 was cast. Due to its height, from the late 17th century it became an important watchout post for the city for centuries until 1905; the last keeper of the tower was forced to leave in 1926. Abraham Chappe (a brother of Ignace Chappe) installed a telegraph office in the tower in 1816 and operated for 32 years. It was this office which announced the death of Napoleon I to the French public in 1821. It also had the dual function as lighthouse with a rotating beacon fuelled by oil from 1818. The lantern was finally replaced by a new lighthouse on 15 October 1848. During the First World War, it served as a military observation post and narrowly missed destruction during World War II. This tower has been classified as a historic monument since 6 November 1931. The Calais Lighthouse (Le phare de Calais) was built in 1848, replacing the old watch tower as the lighthouse of the port. The tower was electrified in 1883 and automated in 1992. The staircase has 271 steps leading up to the lantern. By day it is easily distinguishable from other coastal lighthouses by its white color and black lantern. The lighthouse was classified as a historical monument on 22 November 2010. Forts The Citadel, located on the Avenue Pierre Coubertin, was built between 1560 and 1571 on the site of a former medieval castle which was built in 1229 by Philippe de Hureprel. Its purpose of its construction was to fend off would-be invaders, but it wasn't long until the city was successfully invaded by Archduke Albert of Austria on 24 April 1596. Both Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu at one time considered expanding the citadel and Calais into a great walled city for military harbour purposes but the proposals came to nothing. Fort Risban, located on the coast on the Avenue Raymond Poincaré at the port entrance, was built by the English to prevent supplies reaching Calais by sea during the siege in November 1346 and continued to be occupied by them until 1558 when Calais was restored to France. In 1596, the fort was captured by the Spanish Netherlands until May 1598 when it was returned to the French following the Treaty of Vervins. It was rebuilt in 1640. Vauban, who visited the fort some time in the 1680s, described it as "a home for owls, and place to hold the Sabbath" rather than a fortification. During World War II it served as an air raid shelter. It contains the Lancaster Tower, a name often given to the fort itself. Fort Nieulay, located along the Avenue Roger Salengro originally dated to the 12th or 13th century. During the English invasion in 1346, sluices gates were added as water defences and a fort was built up around it in 1525 on the principle that the people of the fort could defend the town by flooding it. In April and May 1677, Louis XIV and Vauban visited Calais and ordered a complete rebuilding of Fort Nieulay. It was completed in 1679, with the purpose to protect the bridge of Nieulay crossing the Hames River. By 1815 the fort had fallen into a ruined state and it wasn't until 1903 that it was sold and improved by its farmer tenants. The fort was briefly the site of a low-key scuffle with Germans in May 1940. Museums, theatres and cultural centres Calais contains several museums. These include the Musée des Beaux-Arts et de la Dentelle de Calais, Cité internationale de la Dentelle et de la Mode de Calais and the Musée de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale (World War II museum). Cité internationale de la Dentelle et de la Mode de Calais is a lace and fashion museum located in an old Boulart factory on the canalside and contains workshops, a library and a restaurant and regularly puts on fashion shows. The World War II museum is located at Parc St Pierre opposite the town hall and south of the train station. The building is a former Nazi bunker and wartime military headquarters, built in 1941 by the Todt Organisation. The 194-metre-long structure contains twenty rooms with relics and photographs related to World War II, and one room dedicated to World War I. Theatres and cultural centres include Le théâtre municipal, Le Centre Culturel Gérard Philipe, Le Conservatoire à rayonnement départemental (CRD), L'auditorium Didier Lockwood, L'École d'Art de Calais, Le Channel, Le Cinéma Alhambra and La Médiathèque municipale. Le théâtre municipal or Calais Theatre is located on the Boulevard Lafayette and was built in 1903 on a plot of land which was used as a cemetery between 1811 and 1871. The theatre opened in 1905. On the first floor of the façade are statues which represent the performing arts subjects of Poetry, Comedy, Dance and Music. Monuments and memorials Directly in front of the town hall is a bronze cast of Les Bourgeois de Calais ("The Burghers of Calais"), a sculpture by Auguste Rodin to commemorate six men who were to have been executed by Edward III in 1347. The cast was erected in 1895, funded by a public grant of 10,000 francs. Rodin (who based his design on a fourteenth-century account by Jean Froissart) intended to evoke the viewer's sympathy by emphasizing the pained expressions of the faces of the six men about to be executed. The Monument des Sauveteurs ("Rescuers' Monument") was installed in 1899 on Boulevard des Alliés, and transferred to the Quartier of Courgain in 1960. It is a bronze sculpture, attributed to Edward Lormier. The Monument Le Pluviôse is a bronze monument built in 1912 by Émile Oscar Guillaume on the centre of the roundabout near the beach of Calais, commemorating the accidental sinking of the submarine Pluviôse in May 1910, off the beach by the steamer Pas de Calais. Armand Fallières, president of the Republic, and his government came to Calais for a state funeral for its 27 victims. One of these victims, Delpierre Auguste, (1889–1910), drowned at age 21 before the beach at Calais; a dock in the city is named for him. The monument was dedicated on 22 June 1913. Monument "Jacquard" was erected on the square in 1910, opposite the entrance to the Calais theatre. It commemorates Joseph Marie Jacquard, popular in Calais because of his contribution to the development of lace through his invention of the Jacquard loom. A tall column in the Courgain area of the city commemorates a visit by Louis XVIII. Parc Richelieu, a garden behind the war memorial, was built in 1862 on the old city ramparts and redesigned in 1956. It contains a statue designed by Yves de Coëtlogon in 1962, remembering both world wars with an allegorical figure, representing Peace, which clutches an olive branch to her breast. Another monument in the Parc Richelieu, erected on 23 April 1994, marks the approximate site of Emma, Lady Hamilton's last resting place. She died in Calais on 15 January 1815. Hotels and nightclubs For many years the most famous hotel in Calais was the Hôtel d'Angleterre, often called Dessin's or Dessein's, after the family which owned it for almost a hundred years. Its popularity increased after Laurence Sterne set the early chapters of his 1768 novel A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy there. With the arrival of the railway fewer British visitors stopped in Calais and Dessin's closed in 1860. Hôtel Meurice de Calais is a hotel, established in 1771 as Le Chariot Royal by the French postmaster, Charles-Augustin Meurice, who would later establish the five-star Hôtel Meurice, one of Paris' most famous luxury hotels. It was one of the earliest hotels on the continent of Europe to specifically cater for the British elite. The hotel was rebuilt in 1954–55. It has 41 en-suite rooms. The main centre of night activity in Calais is at the Casino Le Touquet's on the Rue Royale and at the 555 Club. Every month, Casino Le Touquet hosts a dinner and dance cabaret. The casino features slot machines, blackjack, roulette, and poker facilities. Education There are several schools in Calais. These include Groupe Scolaire Coubertin, Eglise Saint-Pierre, Universite du Littoral, Centre Universitaire, Lycée HQE Léonard de Vinci on Rue du Pasteur Martin Luther-King, École d'Art de Calais on Rue des Soupirants, and the Centre Scolaire Saint-Pierre on Rue du Four à Chaux which provides education in the primary grades, high school, and vocational school. There are at least seven colleges in the city, such as Collège Martin Luther King on Rue Martin Luther King, Collège Nationalisé Lucien Vadez on Avenue Yervant Toumaniantz, Collège Les Dentelliers on Rue Gaillard, College Jean Mace on Rue Maréchaux, Collège République on Place République, Collège Vauban on Rue Orléansville, and Collège Privé Mixte Jeanne d'Arc on Rue Champailler. Sport Calais was represented in association football by the Calais RUFC, who competed in the Championnat National. The club was founded 1902 as Racing Club de Calais and in 1974 was renamed as Calais Racing Union Football Club. Calais RUFC had a good reputation in French cup competitions and went as far as the final in the 1999/2000 season, losing out finally to Nantes. Since 2008 they played at the Stade de l'Épopée, a stadium which holds about 12,000 spectators. Calais Racing Union was liquidated in September 2017. The rugby club in Calais is Amicale Rugby Calaisien. Basketball is popular in Calais with the teams Calais Basket (male) and COB Calais (female) as is volleyball with the Lis Calais (male) and Stella Calais (female) teams. There is also the SOC club which caters in a range of sports including athletics, handball and football and Yacht Club de Calais, a yachting club. Calais also has Les Seagulls, an American football team. Transport Sea The Port of Calais was the first cable ship port in Europe and is the fourth largest port in France and the largest for passenger traffic. The port accounts for more than a third of economic activity of the town of Calais. Cargo traffic has tripled over the past two decades. In 2007 more than 41.5 million tonnes of traffic passed through Calais with some 11.52 million passengers, 1.4 million trucks and trailers, 2.249 million cars and 4,700 crossings a year. Passenger numbers for the Dover to Calais route in 2018 were 9,168,000. On average, ships sail from the port every 30 minutes. A new 400 million euro project is underway at the port to create a breakwater protecting a pool of 700 meters long, thus allowing virtually all types of ships to stop at Calais. Rail As well as the large port, the town is served by three railway stations: Gare de Calais-Fréthun, Gare de Calais-Ville, and Gare des Fontinettes, the former being the first stop on mainland Europe of the Eurostar line. Gare de Calais-Ville is the nearest station to the port with trains to Gare de Boulogne-Ville and either Gare de Lille Flandres or Gare de Lille Europe. Road Local bus services are provided by STCE. Free car parking facilities are available in front of the Calais ferry terminal and the maximum stay is three days. Air Calais is served by an airport and an airfield. Calais–Dunkerque Airport is located at Marck, east north east of Calais. Saint-Inglevert Airfield is located at Saint-Inglevert, south west of Calais. Notable people International relations Calais is twinned with: Bardejov, Slovakia (since 6 September 2002) Brăila, Romania (since 8 May 2002) Duisburg, Germany (since 25 June 1964) Dover, Kent, United Kingdom (since June 1973) Wismar, Germany (since December 1971) Xiangtan, China See also Communes of the Pas-de-Calais department France–UK border References Notes Bibliography This article incorporates public domain text from the 1911 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica and Robert Bell Calton's Annals and Legends of Calais (1852). INSEE commune file Books External links Agglomération Info about the port and city Info about the port and city Old maps of Calais, Historic Cities site Ephemeral islands Communes of Pas-de-Calais Former islands of France France–United Kingdom border crossings Port cities and towns on the French Atlantic coast Port cities and towns of the North Sea Pale of Calais Vauban fortifications in France

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Mitchum

Robert Mitchum

Robert Charles Durman Mitchum (August 6, 1917 – July 1, 1997) was an American actor, director, author, poet, composer, and singer. He rose to prominence with an Academy Award nomination for the Best Supporting Actor for The Story of G.I. Joe (1945), followed by starring in several classic film noirs. His acting is generally considered a forerunner of the antiheroes prevalent in film during the 1950s and 1960s. His best-known films include Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (1944), Out of the Past (1947), River of No Return (1954), The Night of the Hunter (1955), Thunder Road (1958), Cape Fear (1962), El Dorado (1966), Ryan's Daughter (1970) and The Friends of Eddie Coyle (1973). He is also known for his television role as U.S. Navy Captain Victor "Pug" Henry in the epic miniseries The Winds of War (1983) and sequel War and Remembrance (1988). Mitchum is rated number 23 on the American Film Institute's list of the greatest male stars of classic American cinema. Early life Mitchum was born in Bridgeport, Connecticut, on August 6, 1917, into a Scots-Irish/Norwegian Methodist family. His father, James Thomas Mitchum, was a shipyard and railroad worker of Scots-Irish descent, and his mother, Ann Harriet Gunderson, was a Norwegian immigrant and sea captain's daughter. His older sister, Annette (known as Julie Mitchum during her acting career), was born in 1914. James was crushed to death in a railyard accident in Charleston, South Carolina, in February 1919. His widow was awarded a government pension, and soon realized she was pregnant. Her third child, John, was born in September of that year. Ann married Lieutenant Hugh "The Major" Cunningham Morris, a former Royal Naval Reserve officer. They had a daughter, Carol Morris, born July 1927 on the family farm in Delaware. When all of the children were old enough to attend school, Ann found employment as a linotype operator for the Bridgeport Post. As a child, Mitchum was known as a prankster, often involved in fistfights and mischief. In 1929 his mother sent the twelve-year-old to live with her parents in Felton, Delaware; the boy was promptly expelled from middle school for scuffling with the principal. A year later he moved in with his older sister in Manhattan's Hell's Kitchen. After being expelled from Haaren High School he left his sister and traveled throughout the country, hopping freight cars and taking a number of jobs, including ditch-digging for the Civilian Conservation Corps and professional boxing. He later stated that at age 14 in Savannah, Georgia, he was arrested for vagrancy and put in a local chain gang. By Mitchum's account, he escaped and returned to his family in Delaware. During this time, while recovering from injuries that nearly cost him a leg, he met Dorothy Spence, whom he would later marry. He soon went back on the road, eventually "riding the rails" to California. Acting Getting established In the mid-1930s Julie Mitchum moved to the West Coast in the hope of acting in movies, and the rest of the Mitchum family soon followed her to Long Beach, California. Robert arrived in 1936. During this time, Mitchum worked as a ghostwriter for astrologer Carroll Righter. Julie convinced him to join the local theater guild with her. At The Players Guild of Long Beach, Mitchum worked as a stagehand and occasional bit-player in company productions. He also wrote several short pieces which were performed by the guild. According to Lee Server's biography (Robert Mitchum: Baby, I Don't Care), Mitchum put his talent for poetry to work writing song lyrics and monologues for Julie's nightclub performances. In 1940, he returned to Delaware to marry Dorothy Spence, and they moved back to California. He gave up his artistic pursuits at the birth of their first child James, nicknamed Josh, and two more children, Chris and Petrine, followed. Mitchum found steady employment as a machine operator during World War II with the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, but the noise of the machinery damaged his hearing. He also suffered a nervous breakdown (which resulted in temporary vision problems), due to job-related stress. He then sought work as a film actor, performing initially as an extra and in small speaking parts. His agent got him an interview with Harry Sherman, the producer of Paramount's Hopalong Cassidy western film series, which starred William Boyd; Mitchum was hired to play minor villainous roles in several films in the series during 1942 and 1943. He went uncredited as a soldier in the 1943 film The Human Comedy starring Mickey Rooney. His first on-screen credit came in 1943 as a Marine private in the Randolph Scott war film Gung Ho! Mitchum continued to find work as an extra and supporting actor in numerous productions for various studios. After impressing director Mervyn LeRoy during the making of Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo, Mitchum signed a seven-year contract with RKO Radio Pictures. He was groomed for B-Western stardom in a series of Zane Grey adaptations. Following the moderately successful Western Nevada, RKO lent Mitchum to United Artists for a prominent supporting actor role in The Story of G.I. Joe (1945). In the film, he portrayed war-weary officer Bill Walker (based on Captain Henry T. Waskow), who remains resolute despite the troubles he faces. The film, which followed the life of an ordinary soldier through the eyes of journalist Ernie Pyle (played by Burgess Meredith), became an instant critical and commercial success. Shortly after filming, Mitchum was drafted into the United States Army, serving at Fort MacArthur, California, as a medic. At the 1946 Academy Awards, The Story of G.I. Joe was nominated for four Oscars, including Mitchum's only nomination for an Academy Award, for Best Supporting Actor. He finished the year with a Western (West of the Pecos) and a story of returning Marine veterans (Till the End of Time), before migrating to a genre that came to define Mitchum's career and screen persona: film noir. Film noir Mitchum was initially known for his work in film noir. His first foray into the genre was a supporting role in the 1944 B-movie When Strangers Marry, about newlyweds and a New York City serial killer. Another early noir, Undercurrent, featured him as a troubled, sensitive man entangled in the affairs of his tycoon brother (Robert Taylor) and his brother's suspicious wife (Katharine Hepburn). John Brahm's The Locket (1946) featured Mitchum as a bitter ex-boyfriend to Laraine Day's femme fatale. Raoul Walsh's Pursued (1947) combined the Western and noir genres, with Mitchum's character attempting to recall his past and find those responsible for killing his family. Crossfire (also 1947) featured Mitchum as a member of a group of returned World War II soldiers embroiled in a murder investigation for an act committed by an anti-Semite in their ranks. The film, directed by Edward Dmytryk and starring Robert Ryan and Robert Young, earned five Academy Award nominations. Following Crossfire, Mitchum starred in Out of the Past (also called Build My Gallows High), directed by Jacques Tourneur and featuring the cinematography of Nicholas Musuraca. In his best-known noir role, Mitchum played Jeff Markham, a small-town gas-station owner and former investigator, whose unfinished business with gambler Whit Sterling (Kirk Douglas) and femme fatale Kathie Moffett (Jane Greer) comes back to haunt him. On September 1, 1948, after a string of successful films for RKO, Mitchum and actress Lila Leeds were arrested for possession of marijuana. The bust was the result of a sting operation designed to capture other Hollywood partiers as well, but Mitchum and Leeds did not receive the tipoff. After serving a week at the county jail (he described the experience to a reporter as being "like Palm Springs, but without the riff-raff"), Mitchum spent 43 days (February 16 to March 30) at a Castaic, California, prison farm. Life photographers were permitted to take photos of him mopping up in his prison uniform. The arrest inspired the exploitation film She Shoulda Said No! (1949), which starred Leeds. Mitchum's conviction was later overturned by the Los Angeles court and district attorney's office on January 31, 1951, after being exposed as a setup. Despite Mitchum's legal troubles and problems without his studio, his popularity was not harmed and films released immediately after his arrest were box-office hits. Rachel and the Stranger (1948) featured Mitchum in a supporting role as a mountain man competing for the hand of Loretta Young, the indentured servant and wife of William Holden. In the film adaptation of John Steinbeck's novella The Red Pony (1949), he appeared as a trusted cowhand to a ranching family. He returned to in The Big Steal (also 1949), where he reunited with Jane Greer in an early Don Siegel film. Mainstream stardom in the 1950s and 1960s In Where Danger Lives (1950), Mitchum played a doctor who comes between a mentally unbalanced Faith Domergue and cuckolded Claude Rains. The Racket was a noir remake of the early crime drama The Racket (1928), and featured Mitchum as a police captain fighting corruption in his precinct. The Josef von Sternberg film, Macao (1952), had Mitchum as a victim of mistaken identity at an exotic resort casino, playing opposite Jane Russell. Otto Preminger's Angel Face was the first of three collaborations between Mitchum and British stage actress Jean Simmons. Mitchum plays an ambulance driver who allows a murderously insane heiress to fatally seduce him. Mitchum was fired from Blood Alley (1955) over his conduct, reportedly having thrown the film's transportation manager into San Francisco Bay. According to Sam O'Steen's memoir Cut to the Chase, Mitchum showed up on-set after a night of drinking and tore apart a studio office when they did not have a car ready for him. Mitchum walked off the set of the third day of filming Blood Alley, claiming he could not work with the director. Because Mitchum was showing up late and behaving erratically, producer John Wayne, after failing to obtain Humphrey Bogart as a replacement, took over the role himself. Following a series of conventional Westerns and , as well as the Marilyn Monroe adventure vehicle River of No Return (1954), Mitchum appeared in The Night of the Hunter (1955), Charles Laughton's only film as director. Based on a novel by Davis Grubb, the thriller starred Mitchum as a monstrous criminal posing as a preacher to find money hidden by his cellmate in the man's home. His performance as Reverend Harry Powell is considered by many to be one of the best of his career. Stanley Kramer's melodrama Not as a Stranger, also released in 1955, was a box-office hit. The film starred Mitchum against type, as an idealistic young doctor, who marries an older nurse (Olivia de Havilland), only to question his morality many years later. However, the film was not well received, with most critics pointing out that Mitchum, Frank Sinatra, and Lee Marvin were all too old for their characters. Olivia de Havilland received top billing over Mitchum and Sinatra. On March 8, 1955, Mitchum formed DRM (Dorothy and Robert Mitchum) Productions to produce five films for United Artists; four films were produced. The first film was Bandido (1956). Following a succession of average Westerns and the poorly received Foreign Intrigue (1956), Mitchum starred in the first of three films with Deborah Kerr. The John Huston war drama Heaven Knows, Mr. Allison, cast Mitchum as a Marine corporal shipwrecked on a Pacific Island with a nun, Sister Angela (Deborah Kerr), as his sole companion. In this character study they struggle with the elements, the Japanese garrison, and their growing feelings for one-another. The film was nominated for two Academy Awards, including Best Actress and Best Adapted Screenplay. For his role, Mitchum was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actor. In the World War II submarine classic The Enemy Below (1956), Mitchum played the captain of a US Navy destroyer who matches wits with a wily German U-boat captain Curt Jurgens, who starred with Mitchum again in the 1962 World War II epic The Longest Day. Thunder Road (1958), the second DRM Production, was loosely based on an incident in which a driver transporting moonshine was said to have fatally crashed on Kingston Pike in Knoxville, Tennessee, somewhere between Bearden Hill and Morrell Road. According to Metro Pulse writer Jack Renfro, the incident occurred in 1952 and may have been witnessed by James Agee, who passed the story on to Mitchum. He starred, produced, co-wrote the screenplay, and is rumored to have directed much of the film. It costars his son James, as his on-screen brother, in a role originally intended for Elvis Presley. Mitchum also co-wrote (with Don Raye) the theme song, "The Ballad of Thunder Road". Mitchum returned to Mexico for The Wonderful Country (1959) with Julie London, and Ireland for A Terrible Beauty/The Night Fighters for the last of his DRM Productions. Mitchum and Kerr reunited for the Fred Zinnemann film The Sundowners (1960), playing an Australia husband and wife struggling in the sheep industry during the Depression. The film received five Oscar nominations, and Mitchum earned the year's National Board of Review award for Best Actor for his performance. The award also recognized his performance in the Vincente Minnelli Western drama Home from the Hill (also 1960). He was teamed with former leading ladies Kerr and Simmons, as well as Cary Grant, for the Stanley Donen comedy The Grass Is Greener the same year. Mitchum's performance as the menacing rapist Max Cady in Cape Fear (1962) brought him further renown for playing cold, predatory characters. The 1960s were marked by a number of lesser films, including the Shirley MacLaine comedy-musical What a Way to Go! (1964), the Howard Hawks Western El Dorado (1967), a remake of Rio Bravo (1959) (in which Mitchum took over Dean Martin's role of the drunk who comes to the aid of John Wayne's character), and another WWII epic, Anzio (1968). He teamed with Martin again for the 1968 Western 5 Card Stud, playing a homicidal preacher. Later work Mitchum made a departure from his typical screen persona with the 1970 David Lean film Ryan's Daughter, in which he starred as Charles Shaughnessy, a mild-mannered schoolmaster in World War I–era Ireland. At the time of filming Mitchum's recent films had been critical and commercial flops, and he was going through a personal crisis that had him considering suicide. Screenwriter Robert Bolt told him that he could do so after the film was finished and that he would personally pay for his burial. Though the film was nominated for four Academy Awards (winning two) and Mitchum was much publicized as a contender for a Best Actor nomination, he was not nominated. George C. Scott won the award for his powerful performance in Patton, a project Mitchum had rejected as glorifying war. The 1970s featured Mitchum in a number of well-received crime dramas. The Friends of Eddie Coyle (1973) had the actor playing an aging Boston hoodlum caught between the Feds and his criminal friends. Sydney Pollack's The Yakuza (1974) transplanted the typical story arc to the Japanese underworld. He also appeared in 1976's Midway about a crucial 1942 World War II battle. Mitchum's stint as an aging Philip Marlowe in the Raymond Chandler adaptation Farewell, My Lovely (1975) (a re-make of 1944's Murder My Sweet) was sufficiently well received by audiences and critics for him to reprise the role in 1978's The Big Sleep, a remake of the 1946 film of the same title. In 1982, Mitchum played Coach Delaney in the film adaptation of playwright/actor Jason Miller's 1973 Pulitzer Prize-winning play That Championship Season. At the premiere for That Championship Season, Mitchum, while intoxicated, assaulted a female reporter and threw a basketball that he was holding (a prop from the film) at a female photographer from Time magazine, injuring her neck and knocking out two of her teeth. She sued him for $30 million for damages. The suit eventually "cost him his salary from the film". That Championship Season may have indirectly led to another debacle for Mitchum several months later. In a February 1983 Esquire interview, he made several racist, anti-Semitic and sexist statements, including, when asked if the Holocaust occurred, responded "so the Jews say." Following the widespread negative response, he apologized a month later, saying that his statements were "prankish" and "foreign to my principle". He claimed that the problem had begun when he recited a racist monologue from his role in That Championship Season, the writer believing the words to be his own. Mitchum, who claimed that he had only reluctantly agreed to the interview, then decided to "string... along" the writer with even more incendiary statements. Mitchum expanded to television work with the 1983 miniseries The Winds of War. The big-budget Herman Wouk story aired on ABC, starring Mitchum as naval officer "Pug" Henry and Victoria Tennant as Pamela Tudsbury, and examined the events leading up to America's involvement in World War II. He returned to the role in 1988's War and Remembrance, which continued the story through the end of the war. In 1984, Mitchum entered the Betty Ford Center in Palm Springs, California for treatment of alcoholism. He played George Hazard's father-in-law in the 1985 miniseries North and South, which also aired on ABC. Mitchum starred opposite Wilford Brimley in the 1986 made-for-TV movie Thompson's Run. A hardened con (Mitchum), being transferred from a federal penitentiary to a Texas institution to finish a life sentence as a habitual criminal, is freed at gunpoint by his niece (played by Kathleen York). The cop (Brimley) who was transferring him, and has been the con's lifelong friend and adversary for over 30 years, vows to catch the twosome. In 1987, Mitchum was the guest-host on Saturday Night Live, where he played private eye Philip Marlowe for the last time in the parody sketch, "Death Be Not Deadly". The show ran a short comedy film he made (written and directed by his daughter, Trina) called Out of Gas, a mock sequel to Out of the Past. (Jane Greer reprised her role from the original film.) He also was in Bill Murray's 1988 comedy film, Scrooged. In 1991, Mitchum was given a lifetime achievement award from the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures, in the same year he received the Telegatto award and in 1992 the Cecil B. DeMille Award from the Golden Globe Awards. Mitchum continued to act in films until the mid-1990s, such as in Jim Jarmusch's Dead Man, and he narrated the Western Tombstone. He also appeared, in contrast to his role as the antagonist in the original, as a protagonist police detective in Martin Scorsese's remake of Cape Fear, but the actor gradually slowed his workload. His last film appearance was a small but pivotal role in the television biographical film, James Dean: Race with Destiny, playing Giant director George Stevens. His last starring role was in the 1995 Norwegian movie Pakten. Music One of the lesser-known aspects of Mitchum's career was his foray into music as a singer. Critic Greg Adams writes, "Unlike most celebrity vocalists, Robert Mitchum actually had musical talent." Mitchum's voice was often used instead of that of a professional singer when his character sang in his films. Notable productions featuring Mitchum's own singing voice included Rachel and the Stranger, River of No Return, and The Night of the Hunter. After hearing traditional calypso music and meeting artists such as Mighty Sparrow and Lord Invader while filming Heaven Knows, Mr. Allison in the Caribbean islands of Tobago, he recorded Calypso – is like so ... in March 1957. On the album, released through Capitol Records, he emulated the calypso sound and style, even adopting the style's unique pronunciations and slang. A year later, he recorded a song he had written for Thunder Road, titled "The Ballad of Thunder Road". The country-style song became a modest hit for Mitchum, reaching number 69 on the Billboard Pop Singles chart. The song was included as a bonus track on a successful reissue of Calypso ... and helped market the film to a wider audience. Although Mitchum continued to use his singing voice in his film work, he waited until 1967 to record his follow-up record, That Man, Robert Mitchum, Sings. The album, released by Nashville-based Monument Records, took him further into country music, and featured songs similar to "The Ballad of Thunder Road". "Little Old Wine Drinker Me", the first single, was a top-10 hit at country radio, reaching number nine there, and crossed over onto mainstream radio, where it peaked at number 96. Its follow-up, "You Deserve Each Other", also charted on the Billboard Country Singles chart. He sang the title song to the Western Young Billy Young, made in 1969. Albums Singles Personal life Mitchum's sons, James and Christopher, were actors, and his daughter, Petrine Day Mitchum, a writer. His grandchildren, Bentley Mitchum and Carrie Mitchum, are actors, as was his younger brother, John, who died in 2001. Another grandson, Kian, is a successful model. A lifelong heavy smoker, Mitchum died on July 1, 1997, in Santa Barbara, California, due to complications of lung cancer and emphysema. He was five weeks shy of his 80th birthday. His body was cremated and his ashes scattered at sea, though there is a plot marker in the Odd Fellows Cemetery in Delaware. He was survived by his wife of 57 years, Dorothy Mitchum (May 2, 1919 – April 12, 2014, Santa Barbara, California, aged 94). Reception, acting style and legacy Mitchum is regarded by some critics as one of the finest actors of the Golden Age of Hollywood. Roger Ebert called him "the soul of film noir". Mitchum, however, was self-effacing; in an interview with Barry Norman for the BBC about his contribution to cinema, Mitchum stopped Norman in mid-flow and in his typical nonchalant style, said, "Look, I have two kinds of acting. One on a horse and one off a horse. That's it." He had also succeeded in annoying some of his fellow actors by voicing his puzzlement at those who viewed the profession as challenging and hard work. He is quoted as having said in the Norman interview that acting was actually very simple and that his job was to "show up on time, know his lines, hit his marks, and go home". Mitchum had a habit of marking most of his appearances in the script with the letters "n.a.r.", which meant "no action required", and also possessed a photographic memory that allowed him to remember lines with relative ease. Mitchum's subtle and understated acting style often garnered him criticism of sleepwalking through his performances. The directors who worked with him however had nothing but praise for him. Charles Laughton, who directed him in The Night of the Hunter, considered Mitchum to be one of the best actors in the world and believed that he would have been the greatest Macbeth. John Huston felt that Mitchum was on the same pedestal of actors like Marlon Brando, Richard Burton and Laurence Olivier. Howard Hawks praised Mitchum for being a hard worker, labeling the actor a "fraud" for pretending to not care about acting. Robert De Niro, Clint Eastwood, Michael Madsen and Mark Rylance have cited Mitchum as one of their favorite actors. AFI's 100 Years...100 Stars lists Mitchum as the 23rd-greatest male star of classic Hollywood cinema. AFI also recognized his performances as the menacing rapist Max Cady and Reverend Harry Powell as the 28th and 29th greatest screen villains of all time as part of AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains. He provided the voice of the famous American Beef Council commercials that touted "Beef ... it's what's for dinner", from 1992 until his death. A "Mitchum's Steakhouse" operated in Trappe, Maryland, where Mitchum and his family lived from 1959 to 1965. Documentaries 2017 : James Stewart/Robert Mitchum: The Two Faces of America directed by Gregory Monro Filmography References Citations General sources Mitchum, John. Them Ornery Mitchum Boys: The Adventures of Robert and John Mitchum. Pacifica, California: Creatures at Large, 1989. . Olson, James and Randy Roberts. John Wayne: American. Lincoln, Nebraska: Bison Books, 1997. . O'Steen, Sam. Cut to the Chase: Forty-Five Years of Editing America's Favorite Movies. Los Angeles: Michael Wiese Productions, 2002. . Roberts, Jerry. Mitchum: In His Own Words. New York: Limelight Editions, 2000. . Server, Lee. Robert Mitchum: "Baby, I Don't Care". New York: St Martin's Press, 2001. . Sound, Owen. TCM Film Guide: Leading Men: The 50 Most Unforgettable Actors of the Studio Era. San Francisco, California: Chronicle Books, 2006. . Tomkies, Mike. The Robert Mitchum Story: "It Sure Beats Working". New York: Ballantine Books, 1972. . External links Profile at Turner Classic Movies Photographs and literature 1917 births 1997 deaths 20th Century Fox contract players 20th-century American male actors 20th-century American memoirists 20th-century American male singers 20th-century American singers American country singer-songwriters American male composers American male film actors American male poets American Methodists American baritones American people of Scotch-Irish descent American people of Norwegian descent California Republicans Capitol Records artists Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners Civilian Conservation Corps people Combat medics Connecticut Republicans Deaths from cancer in California Deaths from emphysema Deaths from lung cancer Haaren High School alumni Male actors from Bridgeport, Connecticut Male Western (genre) film actors Military personnel from Bridgeport, Connecticut Military personnel from Connecticut Mitchum family Monument Records artists Overturned convictions in the United States People from Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan RKO Pictures contract players United States Army personnel of World War II United States Army soldiers Singer-songwriters from New York (state)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhenaten

Akhenaten

Akhenaten (pronounced ), also spelled Echnaton, Akhenaton, ( ʾŪḫə-nə-yātəy, , meaning "Effective for the Aten"), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh reigning or 1351–1334 BC, the tenth ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Before the fifth year of his reign, he was known as Amenhotep IV (, meaning "Amun is satisfied", Hellenized as Amenophis IV). As a pharaoh, Akhenaten is noted for abandoning Egypt's traditional polytheism and introducing Atenism, or worship centered around Aten. The views of Egyptologists differ as to whether the religious policy was absolutely monotheistic, or whether it was monolatry, syncretistic, or henotheistic. This culture shift away from traditional religion was reversed after his death. Akhenaten's monuments were dismantled and hidden, his statues were destroyed, and his name excluded from lists of rulers compiled by later pharaohs. Traditional religious practice was gradually restored, notably under his close successor Tutankhamun, who changed his name from Tutankhaten early in his reign. When some dozen years later, rulers without clear rights of succession from the Eighteenth Dynasty founded a new dynasty, they discredited Akhenaten and his immediate successors and referred to Akhenaten as "the enemy" or "that criminal" in archival records. Akhenaten was all but lost to history until the late-19th-century discovery of Amarna, or Akhetaten, the new capital city he built for the worship of Aten. Furthermore, in 1907, a mummy that could be Akhenaten's was unearthed from the tomb KV55 in the Valley of the Kings by Edward R. Ayrton. Genetic testing has determined that the man buried in KV55 was Tutankhamun's father, but its identification as Akhenaten has since been questioned. Akhenaten's rediscovery and Flinders Petrie's early excavations at Amarna sparked great public interest in the pharaoh and his queen Nefertiti. He has been described as "enigmatic", "mysterious", "revolutionary", "the greatest idealist of the world", and "the first individual in history", but also as a "heretic", "fanatic", "possibly insane", and "mad". The interest comes from his connection with Tutankhamun, the unique style and high quality of the pictorial arts he patronized, and ongoing interest in the religion he attempted to establish. Family The future Akhenaten was born Amenhotep, a younger son of pharaoh Amenhotep III and his principal wife Tiye. Akhenaten had an elder brother, crown prince Thutmose, who was recognized as Amenhotep III's heir. Akhenaten also had four or five sisters: Sitamun, Henuttaneb, Iset, Nebetah, and possibly Beketaten. Thutmose's early death, perhaps around Amenhotep III's thirtieth regnal year, meant that Akhenaten was next in line for Egypt's throne. Akhenaten was married to Nefertiti, his Great Royal Wife. The exact timing of their marriage is unknown, but inscriptions from the pharaoh's building projects suggest that they married either shortly before or after Akhenaten took the throne. For example, Egyptologist Dimitri Laboury suggests that the marriage took place in Akhenaten's fourth regnal year. A secondary wife of Akhenaten named Kiya is also known from inscriptions. Some Egyptologists theorize that she gained her importance as the mother of Tutankhamun. William Murnane proposes that Kiya is the colloquial name of the Mitanni princess Tadukhipa, daughter of the Mitanni king Tushratta who had married Amenhotep III before becoming the wife of Akhenaten. Akhenaten's other attested consorts are the daughter of the Enišasi ruler Šatiya and another daughter of the Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II. Akhenaten could have had seven or eight children based on inscriptions. Egyptologists are fairly certain about his six daughters, who are well attested in contemporary depictions. Among his six daughters, Meritaten was born in regnal year one or five; Meketaten in year four or six; Ankhesenpaaten, later queen of Tutankhamun, before year five or eight; Neferneferuaten Tasherit in year eight or nine; Neferneferure in year nine or ten; and Setepenre in year ten or eleven. Tutankhamun, born Tutankhaten, was most likely Akhenaten's son, with Nefertiti or another wife. There is less certainty around Akhenaten's relationship with Smenkhkare, Akhenaten's coregent or successor and husband to his daughter Meritaten; he could have been Akhenaten's eldest son with an unknown wife or Akhenaten's younger brother. Some historians, such as Edward Wente and James Allen, have proposed that Akhenaten took some of his daughters as wives or sexual consorts to father a male heir. While this is debated, some historical parallels exist: Akhenaten's father Amenhotep III married his daughter Sitamun, while Ramesses II married two or more of his daughters, even though their marriages might simply have been ceremonial. In Akhenaten's case, his oldest daughter Meritaten is recorded as Great Royal Wife to Smenkhkare but is also listed on a box from Tutankhamun's tomb alongside pharaohs Akhenaten and Neferneferuaten as Great Royal Wife. Additionally, letters written to Akhenaten from foreign rulers make reference to Meritaten as "mistress of the house." Egyptologists in the early 20th century also believed that Akhenaten could have fathered a child with his second oldest daughter Meketaten. Meketaten's death, at perhaps age ten to twelve, is recorded in the royal tombs at Akhetaten from around regnal years thirteen or fourteen. Early Egyptologists attribute her death to childbirth, because of the depiction of an infant in her tomb. Because no husband is known for Meketaten, the assumption had been that Akhenaten was the father. Aidan Dodson believes this to be unlikely, as no Egyptian tomb has been found that mentions or alludes to the cause of death of the tomb owner. Further, Jacobus van Dijk proposes that the child is a portrayal of Meketaten's soul. Finally, various monuments, originally for Kiya, were reinscribed for Akhenaten's daughters Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten. The revised inscriptions list a Meritaten-tasherit ("junior") and an Ankhesenpaaten-tasherit. According to some, this indicates that Akhenaten fathered his own grandchildren. Others hold that, since these grandchildren are not attested to elsewhere, they are fictions invented to fill the space originally portraying Kiya's child. Early life Egyptologists know very little about Akhenaten's life as prince Amenhotep. Donald B. Redford dates his birth before his father Amenhotep III's 25th regnal year, , based on the birth of Akhenaten's first daughter, who was likely born fairly early in his own reign. The only mention of his name, as "the King's Son Amenhotep," was found on a wine docket at Amenhotep III's Malkata palace, where some historians suggested Akhenaten was born. Others contend that he was born at Memphis, where growing up he was influenced by the worship of the sun god Ra practiced at nearby Heliopolis. Redford and James K. Hoffmeier state, however, that Ra's cult was so widespread and established throughout Egypt that Akhenaten could have been influenced by solar worship even if he did not grow up around Heliopolis. Some historians have tried to determine who was Akhenaten's tutor during his youth, and have proposed scribes Heqareshu or Meryre II, the royal tutor Amenemotep, or the vizier Aperel. The only person we know for certain served the prince was Parennefer, whose tomb mentions this fact. Egyptologist Cyril Aldred suggests that prince Amenhotep might have been a High Priest of Ptah in Memphis, although no evidence supporting this had been found. It is known that Amenhotep's brother, crown prince Thutmose, served in this role before he died. If Amenhotep inherited all his brother's roles in preparation for his accession to the throne, he might have become a high priest in Thutmose's stead. Aldred proposes that Akhenaten's unusual artistic inclinations might have been formed during his time serving Ptah, the patron god of craftsmen, whose high priest were sometimes referred to as "The Greatest of the Directors of Craftsmanship." Reign Coregency with Amenhotep III There is much controversy around whether Amenhotep IV acceded to Egypt's throne on the death of his father Amenhotep III or whether there was a coregency, lasting perhaps as long as 12 years. Eric Cline, Nicholas Reeves, Peter Dorman, and other scholars argue strongly against the establishment of a long coregency between the two rulers and in favor of either no coregency or one lasting at most two years. Donald B. Redford, William J. Murnane, Alan Gardiner, and Lawrence Berman contest the view of any coregency whatsoever between Akhenaten and his father. Most recently, in 2014, archaeologists found both pharaohs' names inscribed on the wall of the Luxor tomb of vizier Amenhotep-Huy. The Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities called this "conclusive evidence" that Akhenaten shared power with his father for at least eight years, based on the dating of the tomb. However, this conclusion has since been called into question by other Egyptologists, according to whom the inscription only means that construction on Amenhotep-Huy's tomb started during Amenhotep III's reign and ended under Akhenaten's, and Amenhotep-Huy thus simply wanted to pay his respects to both rulers. Early reign as Amenhotep lV Akhenaten took Egypt's throne as Amenhotep IV, most likely in 1353 or 1351 BC. It is unknown how old Amenhotep IV was when he did this; estimates range from 10 to 23. He was most likely crowned in Thebes, or less likely at Memphis or Armant. The beginning of Amenhotep IV's reign followed established pharaonic traditions. He did not immediately start redirecting worship toward the Aten and distancing himself from other gods. Egyptologist Donald B. Redford believes this implied that Amenhotep IV's eventual religious policies were not conceived of before his reign, and he did not follow a pre-established plan or program. Redford points to three pieces of evidence to support this. First, surviving inscriptions show Amenhotep IV worshipping several different gods, including Atum, Osiris, Anubis, Nekhbet, Hathor, and the Eye of Ra, and texts from this era refer to "the gods" and "every god and every goddess." The High Priest of Amun was also still active in the fourth year of Amenhotep IV's reign. Second, even though he later moved his capital from Thebes to Akhetaten, his initial royal titulary honored Thebes—his nomen was "Amenhotep, god-ruler of Thebes"—and recognizing its importance, he called the city "Southern Heliopolis, the first great (seat) of Re (or) the Disc." Third, Amenhotep IV did not yet destroy temples to the other gods and he even continued his father's construction projects at Karnak's Precinct of Amun-Re. He decorated the walls of the precinct's Third Pylon with images of himself worshipping Ra-Horakhty, portrayed in the god's traditional form of a falcon-headed man. Artistic depictions continued unchanged early in Amenhotep IV's reign. Tombs built or completed in the first few years after he took the throne, such as those of Kheruef, Ramose, and Parennefer, show the pharaoh in the traditional artistic style. In Ramose's tomb, Amenhotep IV appears on the west wall, seated on a throne, with Ramose appearing before the pharaoh. On the other side of the doorway, Amenhotep IV and Nefertiti are shown in the window of appearances, with the Aten depicted as the sun disc. In Parennefer's tomb, Amenhotep IV and Nefertiti are seated on a throne with the sun disc depicted over the pharaoh and his queen. While continuing the worship of other gods, Amenhotep IV's initial building program sought to build new places of worship to the Aten. He ordered the construction of temples or shrines to the Aten in several cities across the country, such as Bubastis, Tell el-Borg, Heliopolis, Memphis, Nekhen, Kawa, and Kerma. He also ordered the construction of a large temple complex dedicated to the Aten at Karnak in Thebes, northeast of the parts of the Karnak complex dedicated to Amun. The Aten temple complex, collectively known as the Per Aten ("House of the Aten"), consisted of several temples whose names survive: the Gempaaten ("The Aten is found in the estate of the Aten"), the Hwt Benben ("House or Temple of the Benben"), the Rud-Menu ("Enduring of monuments for Aten forever"), the Teni-Menu ("Exalted are the monuments of the Aten forever"), and the Sekhen Aten ("booth of Aten"). Around regnal year two or three, Amenhotep IV organized a Sed festival. Sed festivals were ritual rejuvenations of an aging pharaoh, which usually took place for the first time around the thirtieth year of a pharaoh's reign and every three or so years thereafter. Egyptologists only speculate as to why Amenhotep IV organized a Sed festival when he was likely still in his early twenties. Some historians see it as evidence for Amenhotep III and Amenhotep IV's coregency, and believed that Amenhotep IV's Sed festival coincided with one of his father's celebrations. Others speculate that Amenhotep IV chose to hold his festival three years after his father's death, aiming to proclaim his rule a continuation of his father's reign. Yet others believe that the festival was held to honor the Aten on whose behalf the pharaoh ruled Egypt, or, as Amenhotep III was considered to have become one with the Aten following his death, the Sed festival honored both the pharaoh and the god at the same time. It is also possible that the purpose of the ceremony was to figuratively fill Amenhotep IV with strength before his great enterprise: the introduction of the Aten cult and the founding of the new capital Akhetaten. Regardless of the celebration's aim, Egyptologists believe that during the festivities Amenhotep IV only made offerings to the Aten rather than the many gods and goddesses, as was customary. Name change Among the last documents that refer to Akhenaten as Amenhotep IV are two copies of a letter to the pharaoh from Ipy, the high steward of Memphis. These letters, found in Gurob and informing the pharaoh that the royal estates in Memphis are "in good order" and the temple of Ptah is "prosperous and flourishing," are dated to regnal year five, day nineteen of the growing season's third month. About a month later, day thirteen of the growing season's fourth month, one of the boundary stela at Akhetaten already had the name Akhenaten carved on it, implying that the pharaoh changed his name between the two inscriptions. Amenhotep IV changed his royal titulary to show his devotion to the Aten. No longer would he be known as Amenhotep IV and be associated with the god Amun, but rather he would completely shift his focus to the Aten. Egyptologists debate the exact meaning of Akhenaten, his new personal name. The word "akh" () could have different translations, such as "satisfied," "effective spirit," or "serviceable to," and thus Akhenaten's name could be translated to mean "Aten is satisfied," "Effective spirit of the Aten," or "Serviceable to the Aten," respectively. Gertie Englund and Florence Friedman arrive at the translation "Effective for the Aten" by analyzing contemporary texts and inscriptions, in which Akhenaten often described himself as being "effective for" the sun disc. Englund and Friedman conclude that the frequency with which Akhenaten used this term likely means that his own name meant "Effective for the Aten." Some historians, such as William F. Albright, Edel Elmar, and Gerhard Fecht, propose that Akhenaten's name is misspelled and mispronounced. These historians believe "Aten" should rather be "Jāti," thus rendering the pharaoh's name Akhenjāti or Aḫanjāti (pronounced ), as it could have been pronounced in Ancient Egypt. Founding Amarna Around the same time he changed his royal titulary, on the thirteenth day of the growing season's fourth month, Akhenaten decreed that a new capital city be built: Akhetaten (, meaning "Horizon of the Aten"), better known today as Amarna. The event Egyptologists know the most about during Akhenaten's life are connected with founding Akhetaten, as several so-called boundary stelae were found around the city to mark its boundary. The pharaoh chose a site about halfway between Thebes, the capital at the time, and Memphis, on the east bank of the Nile, where a wadi and a natural dip in the surrounding cliffs form a silhouette similar to the "horizon" hieroglyph. Additionally, the site had previously been uninhabited. According to inscriptions on one boundary stela, the site was appropriate for Aten's city for "not being the property of a god, nor being the property of a goddess, nor being the property of a ruler, nor being the property of a female ruler, nor being the property of any people able to lay claim to it." Historians do not know for certain why Akhenaten established a new capital and left Thebes, the old capital. The boundary stelae detailing Akhetaten's founding is damaged where it likely explained the pharaoh's motives for the move. Surviving parts claim what happened to Akhenaten was "worse than those that I heard" previously in his reign and worse than those "heard by any kings who assumed the White Crown," and alludes to "offensive" speech against the Aten. Egyptologists believe that Akhenaten could be referring to conflict with the priesthood and followers of Amun, the patron god of Thebes. The great temples of Amun, such as Karnak, were all located in Thebes and the priests there achieved significant power earlier in the Eighteenth Dynasty, especially under Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, thanks to pharaohs offering large amounts of Egypt's growing wealth to the cult of Amun; historians, such as Donald B. Redford, therefore posited that by moving to a new capital, Akhenaten may have been trying to break with Amun's priests and the god. Akhetaten was a planned city with the Great Temple of the Aten, Small Aten Temple, royal residences, records office, and government buildings in the city center. Some of these buildings, such as the Aten temples, were ordered to be built by Akhenaten on the boundary stela decreeing the city's founding. The city was built quickly, thanks to a new construction method that used substantially smaller building blocks than under previous pharaohs. These blocks, called talatats, measured by by 1 ancient Egyptian cubits (), and because of the smaller weight and standardized size, using them during constructions was more efficient than using heavy building blocks of varying sizes. By regnal year eight, Akhetaten reached a state where it could be occupied by the royal family. Only his most loyal subjects followed Akhenaten and his family to the new city. While the city continued to be built, in years five through eight, construction work began to stop in Thebes. The Theban Aten temples that had begun were abandoned, and a village of those working on Valley of the Kings tombs was relocated to the workers' village at Akhetaten. However, construction work continued in the rest of the country, as larger cult centers, such as Heliopolis and Memphis, also had temples built for Aten. International relations The Amarna letters have provided important evidence about Akhenaten's reign and foreign policy. The letters are a cache of 382 diplomatic texts and literary and educational materials discovered between 1887 and 1979, and named after Amarna, the modern name for Akhenaten's capital Akhetaten. The diplomatic correspondence comprises clay tablet messages between Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun, various subjects through Egyptian military outposts, rulers of vassal states, and the foreign rulers of Babylonia, Assyria, Syria, Canaan, Alashiya, Arzawa, Mitanni, and the Hittites. The Amarna letters portray the international situation in the Eastern Mediterranean that Akhenaten inherited from his predecessors. In the 200 years preceding Akhenaten's reign, following the expulsion of the Hyksos from Lower Egypt at the end of the Second Intermediate Period, the kingdom's influence and military might increased greatly. Egypt's power reached new heights under Thutmose III, who ruled approximately 100 years before Akhenaten and led several successful military campaigns into Nubia and Syria. Egypt's expansion led to confrontation with the Mitanni, but this rivalry ended with the two nations becoming allies. Slowly, however, Egypt's power started to wane. Amenhotep III aimed to maintain the balance of power through marriages—such as his marriage to Tadukhipa, daughter of the Mitanni king Tushratta—and vassal states. Under Amenhotep III and Akhenaten, Egypt was unable or unwilling to oppose the rise of the Hittites around Syria. The pharaohs seemed to eschew military confrontation at a time when the balance of power between Egypt's neighbors and rivals was shifting, and the Hittites, a confrontational state, overtook the Mitanni in influence. Early in his reign, Akhenaten was evidently concerned about the expanding power of the Hittite Empire under Šuppiluliuma I. A successful Hittite attack on Mitanni and its ruler Tushratta would have disrupted the entire international balance of power in the Ancient Middle East at a time when Egypt had made peace with Mitanni; this would cause some of Egypt's vassals to switch their allegiances to the Hittites, as time would prove. A group of Egypt's allies who attempted to rebel against the Hittites were captured, and wrote letters begging Akhenaten for troops, but he did not respond to most of their pleas. Evidence suggests that the troubles on the northern frontier led to difficulties in Canaan, particularly in a struggle for power between Labaya of Shechem and Abdi-Heba of Jerusalem, which required the pharaoh to intervene in the area by dispatching Medjay troops northwards. Akhenaten pointedly refused to save his vassal Rib-Hadda of Byblos—whose kingdom was being besieged by the expanding state of Amurru under Abdi-Ashirta and later Aziru, son of Abdi-Ashirta—despite Rib-Hadda's numerous pleas for help from the pharaoh. Rib-Hadda wrote a total of 60 letters to Akhenaten pleading for aid from the pharaoh. Akhenaten wearied of Rib-Hadda's constant correspondences and once told Rib-Hadda: "You are the one that writes to me more than all the (other) mayors" or Egyptian vassals in EA 124. What Rib-Hadda did not comprehend was that the Egyptian king would not organize and dispatch an entire army north just to preserve the political status quo of several minor city states on the fringes of Egypt's Asiatic Empire. Rib-Hadda would pay the ultimate price; his exile from Byblos due to a coup led by his brother Ilirabih is mentioned in one letter. When Rib-Hadda appealed in vain for aid from Akhenaten and then turned to Aziru, his sworn enemy, to place him back on the throne of his city, Aziru promptly had him dispatched to the king of Sidon, where Rib-Hadda was almost certainly executed. In a view discounted by the 21st century, several Egyptologists in the late 19th and 20th centuries interpreted the Amarna letters to mean that Akhenaten was a pacifist who neglected foreign policy and Egypt's foreign territories in favor of his internal reforms. For example, Henry Hall believed Akhenaten "succeeded by his obstinate doctrinaire love of peace in causing far more misery in his world than half a dozen elderly militarists could have done," while James Henry Breasted said Akhenaten "was not fit to cope with a situation demanding an aggressive man of affairs and a skilled military leader." Others noted that the Amarna letters counter the conventional view that Akhenaten neglected Egypt's foreign territories in favour of his internal reforms. For instance, Norman de Garis Davies praised Akhenaten's emphasis on diplomacy over war, while James Baikie said that the fact "that there is no evidence of revolt within the borders of Egypt itself during the whole reign is surely ample proof that there was no such abandonment of his royal duties on the part of Akhenaten as has been assumed." Indeed, several letters from Egyptian vassals notified the pharaoh that they have followed his instructions, implying that the pharaoh sent such instructions. The Amarna letters also show that vassal states were told repeatedly to expect the arrival of the Egyptian military on their lands, and provide evidence that these troops were dispatched and arrived at their destination. Dozens of letters detail that Akhenaten—and Amenhotep III—sent Egyptian and Nubian troops, armies, archers, chariots, horses, and ships. Only one military campaign is known for certain under Akhenaten's reign. In his second or twelfth year, Akhenaten ordered his Viceroy of Kush Tuthmose to lead a military expedition to quell a rebellion and raids on settlements on the Nile by Nubian nomadic tribes. The victory was commemorated on two stelae, one discovered at Amada and another at Buhen. Egyptologists differ on the size of the campaign: Wolfgang Helck considered it a small-scale police operation, while Alan Schulman considered it a "war of major proportions." Other Egyptologists suggested that Akhenaten could have waged war in Syria or the Levant, possibly against the Hittites. Cyril Aldred, based on Amarna letters describing Egyptian troop movements, proposed that Akhenaten launched an unsuccessful war around the city of Gezer, while Marc Gabolde argued for an unsuccessful campaign around Kadesh. Either of these could be the campaign referred to on Tutankhamun's Restoration Stela: "if an army was sent to Djahy [southern Canaan and Syria] to broaden the boundaries of Egypt, no success of their cause came to pass." John Coleman Darnell and Colleen Manassa also argued that Akhenaten fought with the Hittites for control of Kadesh, but was unsuccessful; the city was not recaptured until 60–70 years later, under Seti I. Overall, archeological evidence suggests that Akhenaten paid close attention to the affairs of Egyptian vassals in Canaan and Syria, though primarily not through letters such as those found at Amarna but through reports from government officials and agents. Akhenaten managed to preserve Egypt's control over the core of its Near Eastern Empire (which consisted of present-day Israel as well as the Phoenician coast) while avoiding conflict with the increasingly powerful and aggressive Hittite Empire of Šuppiluliuma I, which overtook the Mitanni as the dominant power in the northern part of the region. Only the Egyptian border province of Amurru in Syria around the Orontes River was lost to the Hittites when its ruler Aziru defected to the Hittites; ordered by Akhenaten to come to Egypt, Aziru was released after promising to stay loyal to the pharaoh, nonetheless turning to the Hittites soon after his release. Later years Egyptologists know little about the last five years of Akhenaten's reign, beginning in These years are poorly attested and only a few pieces of contemporary evidence survive; the lack of clarity makes reconstructing the latter part of the pharaoh's reign "a daunting task" and a controversial and contested topic of discussion among Egyptologists. Among the newest pieces of evidence is an inscription discovered in 2012 at a limestone quarry in Deir el-Bersha, just north of Akhetaten, from the pharaoh's sixteenth regnal year. The text refers to a building project in Amarna and establishes that Akhenaten and Nefertiti were still a royal couple just a year before Akhenaten's death. The inscription is dated to Year 16, month 3 of Akhet, day 15 of the reign of Akhenaten. Before the 2012 discovery of the Deir el-Bersha inscription, the last known fixed-date event in Akhenaten's reign was a royal reception in regnal year twelve, in which the pharaoh and the royal family received tributes and offerings from allied countries and vassal states at Akhetaten. Inscriptions show tributes from Nubia, the Land of Punt, Syria, the Kingdom of Hattusa, the islands in the Mediterranean Sea, and Libya. Egyptologists, such as Aidan Dodson, consider this year twelve celebration to be the zenith of Akhenaten's reign. Thanks to reliefs in the tomb of courtier Meryre II, historians know that the royal family, Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and their six daughters, were present at the royal reception in full. However, historians are uncertain about the reasons for the reception. Possibilities include the celebration of the marriage of future pharaoh Ay to Tey, celebration of Akhenaten's twelve years on the throne, the summons of king Aziru of Amurru to Egypt, a military victory at Sumur in the Levant, a successful military campaign in Nubia, Nefertiti's ascendancy to the throne as coregent, or the completion of the new capital city Akhetaten. Following year twelve, Donald B. Redford and other Egyptologists proposed that Egypt was struck by an epidemic, most likely a plague. Contemporary evidence suggests that a plague ravaged through the Middle East around this time, and ambassadors and delegations arriving to Akhenaten's year twelve reception might have brought the disease to Egypt. Alternatively, letters from the Hattians might suggest that the epidemic originated in Egypt and was carried throughout the Middle East by Egyptian prisoners of war. Regardless of its origin, the epidemic might account for several deaths in the royal family that occurred in the last five years of Akhenaten's reign, including those of his daughters Meketaten, Neferneferure, and Setepenre. Coregency with Smenkhkare or Nefertiti Akhenaten could have ruled together with Smenkhkare and Nefertiti for several years before his death. Based on depictions and artifacts from the tombs of Meryre II and Tutankhamun, Smenkhkare could have been Akhenaten's coregent by regnal year thirteen or fourteen, but died a year or two later. Nefertiti might not have assumed the role of coregent until after year sixteen, when a stela still mentions her as Akhenaten's Great Royal Wife. While Nefertiti's familial relationship with Akhenaten is known, whether Akhenaten and Smenkhkare were related by blood is unclear. Smenkhkare could have been Akhenaten's son or brother, as the son of Amenhotep III with Tiye or Sitamun. Archaeological evidence makes it clear, however, that Smenkhkare was married to Meritaten, Akhenaten's eldest daughter. For another, the so-called Coregency Stela, found in a tomb at Akhetaten, might show queen Nefertiti as Akhenaten's coregent, but this is uncertain as the stela was recarved to show the names of Ankhesenpaaten and Neferneferuaten. Egyptologist Aidan Dodson proposed that both Smenkhkare and Neferiti were Akhenaten's coregents to ensure the Amarna family's continued rule when Egypt was confronted with an epidemic. Dodson suggested that the two were chosen to rule as Tutankhaten's coregent in case Akhenaten died and Tutankhaten took the throne at a young age, or rule in Tutankhaten's stead if the prince also died in the epidemic. Death and burial Akhenaten died after seventeen years of rule and was initially buried in a tomb in the Royal Wadi east of Akhetaten. The order to construct the tomb and to bury the pharaoh there was commemorated on one of the boundary stela delineating the capital's borders: "Let a tomb be made for me in the eastern mountain [of Akhetaten]. Let my burial be made in it, in the millions of jubilees which the Aten, my father, decreed for me." In the years following the burial, Akhenaten's sarcophagus was destroyed and left in the Akhetaten necropolis; reconstructed in the 20th century, it is in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo as of 2019. Despite leaving the sarcophagus behind, Akhenaten's mummy was removed from the royal tombs after Tutankhamun abandoned Akhetaten and returned to Thebes. It was most likely moved to tomb KV55 in Valley of the Kings near Thebes. This tomb was later desecrated, likely during the Ramesside period. Whether Smenkhkare also enjoyed a brief independent reign after Akhenaten is unclear. If Smenkhkare outlived Akhenaten, and became sole pharaoh, he likely ruled Egypt for less than a year. The next successor was Nefertiti or Meritaten ruling as Neferneferuaten, reigning in Egypt for about two years. She was, in turn, probably succeeded by Tutankhaten, with the country being administered by the vizier and future pharaoh Ay. While Akhenaten—along with Smenkhkare—was most likely reburied in tomb KV55, the identification of the mummy found in that tomb as Akhenaten remains controversial to this day. The mummy has repeatedly been examined since its discovery in 1907. Most recently, Egyptologist Zahi Hawass led a team of researchers to examine the mummy using medical and DNA analysis, with the results published in 2010. In releasing their test results, Hawass's team identified the mummy as the father of Tutankhamun and thus "most probably" Akhenaten. However, the study's validity has since been called into question. For instance, the discussion of the study results does not discuss that Tutankhamun's father and the father's siblings would share some genetic markers; if Tutankhamun's father was Akhenaten, the DNA results could indicate that the mummy is a brother of Akhenaten, possibly Smenkhkare. Legacy With Akhenaten's death, the Aten cult he had founded fell out of favor: at first gradually, and then with decisive finality. Tutankhaten changed his name to Tutankhamun in Year 2 of his reign () and abandoned the city of Akhetaten. Their successors then attempted to erase Akhenaten and his family from the historical record. During the reign of Horemheb, the last pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the first pharaoh after Akhenaten who was not related to Akhenaten's family, Egyptians started to destroy temples to the Aten and reuse the building blocks in new construction projects, including in temples for the newly restored god Amun. Horemheb's successor continued in this effort. Seti I restored monuments to Amun and had the god's name re-carved on inscriptions where it was removed by Akhenaten. Seti I also ordered that Akhenaten, Smenkhkare, Neferneferuaten, Tutankhamun, and Ay be excised from official lists of pharaohs to make it appear that Amenhotep III was immediately succeeded by Horemheb. Under the Ramessides, who succeeded Seti I, Akhetaten was gradually destroyed and the building material reused across the country, such as in constructions at Hermopolis. The negative attitudes toward Akhenaten were illustrated by, for example, inscriptions in the tomb of scribe Mose (or Mes), where Akhenaten's reign is referred to as "the time of the enemy of Akhet-Aten." Some Egyptologists, such as Jacobus van Dijk and Jan Assmann, believe that Akhenaten's reign and the Amarna period started a gradual decline in the Egyptian government's power and the pharaoh's standing in Egyptian's society and religious life. Akhenaten's religious reforms subverted the relationship ordinary Egyptians had with their gods and their pharaoh, as well as the role the pharaoh played in the relationship between the people and the gods. Before the Amarna period, the pharaoh was the representative of the gods on Earth, the son of the god Ra, and the living incarnation of the god Horus, and maintained the divine order through rituals and offerings and by sustaining the temples of the gods. Additionally, even though the pharaoh oversaw all religious activity, Egyptians could access their gods through regular public holidays, festivals, and processions. This led to a seemingly close connection between people and the gods, especially the patron deity of their respective towns and cities. Akhenaten, however, banned the worship of gods beside the Aten, including through festivals. He also declared himself to be the only one who could worship the Aten, and required that all religious devotion previously exhibited toward the gods be directed toward himself. After the Amarna period, during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties— following Akhenaten's death—the relationship between the people, the pharaoh, and the gods did not simply revert to pre-Amarna practices and beliefs. The worship of all gods returned, but the relationship between the gods and the worshipers became more direct and personal, circumventing the pharaoh. Rather than acting through the pharaoh, Egyptians started to believe that the gods intervened directly in their lives, protecting the pious and punishing criminals. The gods replaced the pharaoh as their own representatives on Earth. The god Amun once again became king among all gods. According to van Dijk, "the king was no longer a god, but god himself had become king. Once Amun had been recognized as the true king, the political power of the earthly rulers could be reduced to a minimum." Consequently, the influence and power of the Amun priesthood continued to grow until the Twenty-first Dynasty, , by which time the High Priests of Amun effectively became rulers over parts of Egypt. Akhenaten's reforms also had a longer-term impact on Ancient Egyptian language and hastened the spread of the spoken Late Egyptian language in official writings and speeches. Spoken and written Egyptian diverged early on in Egyptian history and stayed different over time. During the Amarna period, however, royal and religious texts and inscriptions, including the boundary stelae at Akhetaten or the Amarna letters, started to regularly include more vernacular linguistic elements, such as the definite article or a new possessive form. Even though they continued to diverge, these changes brought the spoken and written language closer to one another more systematically than under previous pharaohs of the New Kingdom. While Akhenaten's successors attempted to erase his religious, artistic, and even linguistic changes from history, the new linguistic elements remained a more common part of official texts following the Amarna years, starting with the Nineteenth Dynasty. Akehnaten is also recognized as a Prophet in the Druze faith. Atenism Egyptians worshipped a sun god under several names, and solar worship had been growing in popularity even before Akhenaten, especially during the Eighteenth Dynasty and the reign of Amenhotep III, Akhenaten's father. During the New Kingdom, the pharaoh started to be associated with the sun disc; for example, one inscription called the pharaoh Hatshepsut the "female Re shining like the Disc," while Amenhotep III was described as "he who rises over every foreign land, Nebmare, the dazzling disc." During the Eighteenth Dynasty, a religious hymn to the sun also appeared and became popular among Egyptians. However, Egyptologists question whether there is a causal relationship between the cult of the sun disc before Akhenaten and Akhenaten's religious policies. Implementation and development The implementation of Atenism can be traced through gradual changes in the Aten's iconography, and Egyptologist Donald B. Redford divided its development into three stages—earliest, intermediate, and final—in his studies of Akhenaten and Atenism. The earliest stage was associated with a growing number of depictions of the sun disc, though the disc is still seen resting on the head of the falcon-headed sun god Ra-Horakhty, as the god was traditionally represented. The god was only "unique but not exclusive." The intermediate stage was marked by the elevation of the Aten above other gods and the appearance of cartouches around his inscribed name—cartouches traditionally indicating that the enclosed text is a royal name. The final stage had the Aten represented as a sun disc with sunrays like long arms terminating in human hands and the introduction of a new epithet for the god: "the great living Disc which is in jubilee, lord of heaven and earth." In the early years of his reign, Amenhotep IV lived at Thebes, the old capital city, and permitted worship of Egypt's traditional deities to continue. However, some signs already pointed to the growing importance of the Aten. For example, inscriptions in the Theban tomb of Parennefer from the early rule of Amenhotep IV state that "one measures the payments to every (other) god with a level measure, but for the Aten one measures so that it overflows," indicating a more favorable attitude to the cult of Aten than the other gods. Additionally, near the Temple of Karnak, Amun-Ra's great cult center, Amenhotep IV erected several massive buildings including temples to the Aten. The new Aten temples had no roof and the god was thus worshipped in the sunlight, under the open sky, rather than in dark temple enclosures as had been the previous custom. The Theban buildings were later dismantled by his successors and used as infill for new constructions in the Temple of Karnak; when they were later dismantled by archaeologists, some 36,000 decorated blocks from the original Aten building here were revealed that preserve many elements of the original relief scenes and inscriptions. One of the most important turning points in the early reign of Amenhotep IV is a speech given by the pharaoh at the beginning of his second regnal year. A copy of the speech survives on one of the pylons at the Karnak Temple Complex near Thebes. Speaking to the royal court, scribes or the people, Amenhotep IV said that the gods were ineffective and had ceased their movements, and that their temples had collapsed. The pharaoh contrasted this with the only remaining god, the sun disc Aten, who continued to move and exist forever. Some Egyptologists, such as Donald B. Redford, compared this speech to a proclamation or manifesto, which foreshadowed and explained the pharaoh's later religious reforms centered around the Aten. In his speech, Akhenaten said: The temples of the gods fallen to ruin, their bodies do not endure. Since the time of the ancestors, it is the wise man that knows these things. Behold, I, the king, am speaking so that I might inform you concerning the appearances of the gods. I know their temples, and I am versed in the writings, specficially, the inventory of their primeval bodies. And I have watched as they [the gods] have ceased their appearances, one after the other. All of them have stopped, except the god who gave birth to himself. And no one knows the mystery of how he performs his tasks. This god goes where he pleases and no one else knows his going. I approach him, the things which he has made. How exalted they are. In Year Five of his reign, Amenhotep IV took decisive steps to establish the Aten as the sole god of Egypt. The pharaoh "disbanded the priesthoods of all the other gods... and diverted the income from these [other] cults to support the Aten." To emphasize his complete allegiance to the Aten, the king officially changed his name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten (, meaning "Effective for the Aten"). Meanwhile, the Aten was becoming a king itself. Artists started to depict him with the trappings of pharaohs, placing his name in cartouches—a rare, but not unique occurrence, as the names of Ra-Horakhty and Amun-Ra had also been found enclosed in cartouches—and wearing a uraeus, a symbol of kingship. The Aten may also have been the subject of Akhenaten's royal Sed festival early in the pharaoh's reign. With Aten becoming a sole deity, Akhenaten started to proclaim himself as the only intermediary between Aten and his people, and the subject of their personal worship and attention—a feature not unheard of in Egyptian history, with Fifth Dynasty pharaohs such as Nyuserre Ini proclaiming to be sole intermediaries between the people and the gods Osiris and Ra. By Year Nine of his reign, Akhenaten declared that Aten was not merely the supreme god, but the only worshipable god. He ordered the defacing of Amun's temples throughout Egypt and, in a number of instances, inscriptions of the plural 'gods' were also removed. This emphasized the changes encouraged by the new regime, which included a ban on images, with the exception of a rayed solar disc, in which the rays appear to represent the unseen spirit of Aten, who by then was evidently considered not merely a sun god, but rather a universal deity. All life on Earth depended on the Aten and the visible sunlight. Representations of the Aten were always accompanied with a sort of hieroglyphic footnote, stating that the representation of the sun as all-encompassing creator was to be taken as just that: a representation of something that, by its very nature as something transcending creation, cannot be fully or adequately represented by any one part of that creation. Aten's name was also written differently starting as early as Year Eight or as late as Year Fourteen, according to some historians. From "Living Re-Horakhty, who rejoices in the horizon in his name Shu-Re who is in Aten," the god's name changed to "Living Re, ruler of the horizon, who rejoices in his name of Re the father who has returned as Aten," removing the Aten's connection to Re-Horakhty and Shu, two other solar deities. The Aten thus became an amalgamation that incorporated the attributes and beliefs around Re-Horakhty, universal sun god, and Shu, god of the sky and manifestation of the sunlight. Akhenaten's Atenist beliefs are best distilled in the Great Hymn to the Aten. The hymn was discovered in the tomb of Ay, one of Akhenaten's successors, though Egyptologists believe that it could have been composed by Akhenaten himself. The hymn celebrates the sun and daylight and recounts the dangers that abound when the sun sets. It tells of the Aten as a sole god and the creator of all life, who recreates life every day at sunrise, and on whom everything on Earth depends, including the natural world, people's lives, and even trade and commerce. In one passage, the hymn declares: "O Sole God beside whom there is none! You made the earth as you wished, you alone." The hymn also states that Akhenaten is the only intermediary between the god and Egyptians, and the only one who can understand the Aten: "You are in my heart, and there is none who knows you except your son." Atenism and other gods Some debate has focused on the extent to which Akhenaten forced his religious reforms on his people. Certainly, as time drew on, he revised the names of the Aten, and other religious language, to increasingly exclude references to other gods; at some point, also, he embarked on the wide-scale erasure of traditional gods' names, especially those of Amun. Some of his court changed their names to remove them from the patronage of other gods and place them under that of Aten (or Ra, with whom Akhenaten equated the Aten). Yet, even at Amarna itself, some courtiers kept such names as Ahmose ("child of the moon god", the owner of tomb 3), and the sculptor's workshop where the famous Nefertiti Bust and other works of royal portraiture were found is associated with an artist known to have been called Thutmose ("child of Thoth"). An overwhelmingly large number of faience amulets at Amarna also show that talismans of the household-and-childbirth gods Bes and Taweret, the eye of Horus, and amulets of other traditional deities, were openly worn by its citizens. Indeed, a cache of royal jewelry found buried near the Amarna royal tombs (now in the National Museum of Scotland) includes a finger ring referring to Mut, the wife of Amun. Such evidence suggests that though Akhenaten shifted funding away from traditional temples, his policies were fairly tolerant until some point, perhaps a particular event as yet unknown, toward the end of the reign. Archaeological discoveries at Akhetaten show that many ordinary residents of this city chose to gouge or chisel out all references to the god Amun on even minor personal items that they owned, such as commemorative scarabs or make-up pots, perhaps for fear of being accused of having Amunist sympathies. References to Amenhotep III, Akhenaten's father, were partly erased since they contained the traditional Amun form of his name: Nebmaatre Amunhotep. After Akhenaten Following Akhenaten's death, Egypt gradually returned to its traditional polytheistic religion, partly because of how closely associated the Aten became with Akhenaten. Atenism likely stayed dominant through the reigns of Akhenaten's immediate successors, Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten, as well as early in the reign of Tutankhaten. For a period of time the worship of Aten and a resurgent worship of Amun coexisted. Over time, however, Akhenaten's successors, starting with Tutankhaten, took steps to distance themselves from Atenism. Tutankhaten and his wife Ankhesenpaaten dropped the Aten from their names and changed them to Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun, respectively. Amun was restored as the supreme deity. Tutankhamun reestablished the temples of the other gods, as the pharaoh propagated on his Restoration Stela: "He reorganized this land, restoring its customs to those of the time of Re. ... He renewed the gods' mansions and fashioned all their images. ... He raised up their temples and created their statues. ... When he had sought out the gods' precincts which were in ruins in this land, he refounded them just as they had been since the time of the first primeval age." Additionally, Tutankhamun's building projects at Thebes and Karnak used talatat's from Akhenaten's buildings, which implies that Tutankhamun might have started to demolish temples dedicated to the Aten. Aten temples continued to be torn down under Ay and Horemheb, Tutankhamun's successors and the last pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty, too. Horemheb could also have ordered that Akhetaten, Akhenaten's capital city be demolished. To further underpin the break with Aten worship, Horemheb claimed to have been chosen to rule over Egypt by the god Horus. Finally, Seti I, the second pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty, ordered that the name of Amun be restored on inscriptions on which it had been removed or replaced by the name of the Aten. Artistic depictions Styles of art that flourished during the reigns of Akhenaten and his immediate successors, known as Amarna art, are markedly different from the traditional art of ancient Egypt. Representations are more realistic, expressionistic, and naturalistic, especially in depictions of animals, plants and people, and convey more action and movement for both non-royal and royal individuals than the traditionally static representations. In traditional art, a pharaoh's divine nature was expressed by repose, even immobility. The portrayals of Akhenaten himself greatly differ from the depictions of other pharaohs. Traditionally, the portrayal of pharaohs—and the Egyptian ruling class—was idealized, and they were shown in "stereotypically 'beautiful' fashion" as youthful and athletic. However, Akhenaten's portrayals are unconventional and "unflattering" with a sagging stomach; broad hips; thin legs; thick thighs; large, "almost feminine breasts;" a thin, "exaggeratedly long face;" and thick lips. Based on Akhenaten's and his family's unusual artistic representations, including potential depictions of gynecomastia and androgyny, some have argued that the pharaoh and his family have either suffered from aromatase excess syndrome and sagittal craniosynostosis syndrome, or Antley–Bixler syndrome. In 2010, results published from genetic studies on Akhenaten's purported mummy did not find signs of gynecomastia or Antley-Bixler syndrome, although these results have since been questioned. Arguing instead for a symbolic interpretation, Dominic Montserrat in Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and Ancient Egypt states that "there is now a broad consensus among Egyptologists that the exaggerated forms of Akhenaten's physical portrayal... are not to be read literally". Because the god Aten was referred to as "the mother and father of all humankind," Montserrat and others suggest that Akhenaten was made to look androgynous in artwork as a symbol of the androgyny of the Aten. This required "a symbolic gathering of all the attributes of the creator god into the physical body of the king himself", which will "display on earth the Aten's multiple life-giving functions". Akhenaten claimed the title "The Unique One of Re", and he may have directed his artists to contrast him with the common people through a radical departure from the idealized traditional pharaoh image. Depictions of other members of the court, especially members of the royal family, are also exaggerated, stylized, and overall different from traditional art. Significantly, and for the only time in the history of Egyptian royal art, the pharaoh's family life is depicted: the royal family is shown mid-action in relaxed, casual, and intimate situations, taking part in decidedly naturalistic activities, showing affection for each other, such as holding hands and kissing. Nefertiti also appears, both beside the king and alone, or with her daughters, in actions usually reserved for a pharaoh, such as "smiting the enemy," a traditional depiction of male pharaohs. This suggests that she enjoyed unusual status for a queen. Early artistic representations of her tend to be indistinguishable from her husband's except by her regalia, but soon after the move to the new capital, Nefertiti begins to be depicted with features specific to her. Questions remain whether the beauty of Nefertiti is portraiture or idealism. Speculative theories Akhenaten's status as a religious revolutionary has led to much speculation, ranging from scholarly hypotheses to non-academic fringe theories. Although some believe the religion he introduced was mostly monotheistic, many others see Akhenaten as a practitioner of an Aten monolatry, as he did not actively deny the existence of other gods; he simply refrained from worshiping any but the Aten. Akhenaten and monotheism in Abrahamic religions The idea that Akhenaten was the pioneer of a monotheistic religion that later became Judaism has been considered by various scholars. One of the first to mention this was Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, in his book Moses and Monotheism. Basing his arguments on his belief that the Exodus story was historical, Freud argued that Moses had been an Atenist priest who was forced to leave Egypt with his followers after Akhenaten's death. Freud argued that Akhenaten was striving to promote monotheism, something that the biblical Moses was able to achieve. Following the publication of his book, the concept entered popular consciousness and serious research. Freud commented on the connection between Adonai, the Egyptian Aten and the Syrian divine name of Adonis as stemming from a common root; in this he was following the argument of Egyptologist Arthur Weigall. Jan Assmann's opinion is that 'Aten' and 'Adonai' are not linguistically related. There are strong similarities between Akhenaten's Great Hymn to the Aten and the Biblical Psalm 104, but there is debate as to relationship implied by this similarity. Others have likened some aspects of Akhenaten's relationship with the Aten to the relationship, in Christian tradition, between Jesus Christ and God, particularly interpretations that emphasize a more monotheistic interpretation of Atenism than a henotheistic one. Donald B. Redford has noted that some have viewed Akhenaten as a harbinger of Jesus. "After all, Akhenaten did call himself the son of the sole god: 'Thine only son that came forth from thy body'." James Henry Breasted likened him to Jesus, Arthur Weigall saw him as a failed precursor of Christ and Thomas Mann saw him "as right on the way and yet not the right one for the way". Although scholars like Brian Fagan (2015) and Robert Alter (2018) have re-opened the debate, in 1997, Redford concluded: Before much of the archaeological evidence from Thebes and from Tell el-Amarna became available, wishful thinking sometimes turned Akhenaten into a humane teacher of the true God, a mentor of Moses, a christlike figure, a philosopher before his time. But these imaginary creatures are now fading away as the historical reality gradually emerges. There is little or no evidence to support the notion that Akhenaten was a progenitor of the full-blown monotheism that we find in the Bible. The monotheism of the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament had its own separate development—one that began more than half a millennium after the pharaoh's death. Possible illness The unconventional portrayals of Akhenaten—different from the traditional athletic norm in the portrayal of pharaohs—have led Egyptologists in the 19th and 20th centuries to suppose that Akhenaten suffered some kind of genetic abnormality. Various illnesses have been put forward, with Frölich's syndrome or Marfan syndrome being mentioned most commonly. Cyril Aldred, following up earlier arguments of Grafton Elliot Smith and James Strachey, suggested that Akhenaten may have suffered from Frölich's syndrome on the basis of his long jaw and his feminine appearance. However, this is unlikely, because this disorder results in sterility and Akhenaten is known to have fathered numerous children. His children are repeatedly portrayed through years of archaeological and iconographic evidence. Burridge suggested that Akhenaten may have suffered from Marfan syndrome, which, unlike Frölich's, does not result in mental impairment or sterility. Marfan sufferers tend towards tallness, with a long, thin face, elongated skull, overgrown ribs, a funnel or pigeon chest, a high curved or slightly cleft palate, and larger pelvis, with enlarged thighs and spindly calves, symptoms that appear in some depictions of Akhenaten. Marfan syndrome is a dominant characteristic, which means sufferers have a 50% chance of passing it on to their children. However, DNA tests on Tutankhamun in 2010 proved negative for Marfan syndrome. By the early 21st century, most Egyptologists argued that Akhenaten's portrayals are not the results of a genetic or medical condition, but rather should be interpreted as stylized portrayals influenced by Atenism. Akhenaten was made to look androgynous in artwork as a symbol of the androgyny of the Aten. Cultural depictions Akhenaten's life, accomplishments, and legacy have been preserved and depicted in many ways, and he has figured in works of both high and popular culture since his rediscovery in the 19th century AD. Akhenaten—alongside Cleopatra and Alexander the Great—is among the most often popularized and fictionalized ancient historical figures. On page, Amarna novels most often take one of two forms. They are either a Bildungsroman, focusing on Akhenaten's psychological and moral growth as it relates to establishing Atenism and Akhetaten, as well as his struggles against the Theban Amun cult. Alternatively, his literary depictions focus on the aftermath of his reign and religion. A dividing line also exists between depictions of Akhenaten from before the 1920s and since, when more and more archeological discoveries started to provide artists with material evidence about his life and times. Thus, before the 1920s, Akhenaten had appeared as "a ghost, a spectral figure" in art, while since he has become realistic, "material and tangible." Examples of the former include the romance novels In the Tombs of the Kings (1910) by Lilian Bagnall—the first appearance by Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti in fiction—and A Wife Out of Egypt (1913) and There Was a King in Egypt (1918) by Norma Lorimer. Examples of the latter include Akhnaton King of Egypt (1924) by Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Joseph and His Brothers (1933–1943) by Thomas Mann, Akhnaton (1973) by Agatha Christie, and Akhenaten, Dweller in Truth (1985) by Naguib Mahfouz. Akhenaten also appears in The Egyptian (1945) by Mika Waltari, which was adapted into the movie The Egyptian (1953). In this movie, Akhenaten, portrayed by Michael Wilding, appears to represent Jesus Christ and his followers proto-Christians. A sexualized image of Akhenaten, building on early Western interest in the pharaoh's androgynous depictions, perceived potential homosexuality, and identification with Oedipal storytelling, also influenced works of art characterized as camp. The two most notable portrayals are Akenaten (1975), an unfilmed screenplay by Derek Jarman, and Akhnaten (1984), an opera by Philip Glass. Both were influenced by the unproven and scientifically unsupported theories of Immanuel Velikovsky, who equated Oedipus with Akhenaten. In the 21st century, Akhenaten appeared as an antagonist in comic books and video games. For example, he is the major antagonist in limited comic-book series Marvel: The End (2003). In this series, Akhenaten is abducted by an alien order in the 14th century BC and reappears on modern Earth seeking to restore his kingdom. He is opposed by essentially all of the other superheroes and supervillains in the Marvel comic book universe and is eventually defeated by Thanos. Additionally, Akhenaten appears as the enemy in the Assassin's Creed Origins The Curse of the Pharaohs downloadable content (2017), and must be defeated to remove his curse on Thebes. His afterlife takes the form of 'Aten', a location that draws heavily on the architecture of the city of Amarna. Ancestry See also Pharaoh of the Exodus Osarseph Notes and references Notes Bibliography Clayton, Peter (2006). Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson Further reading Gestoso Singer, Graciela (2008). El Intercambio de Bienes entre Egipto y Asia Anterior. Desde el reinado de Tuthmosis III hasta el de Akhenaton Free Access Ancient Near East Monographs, Volume 2. Buenos Aires, Society of Biblical Literature – CEHAO. Holland, Tom (1998). The Sleeper in the Sands (novel), Abacus – a fictionalised adventure story based closely on the mysteries of Akhenaten's reign Najovits, Simson. Egypt, Trunk of the Tree, Volume I, The Contexts, Volume II, The Consequences, Algora Publishing, New York, 2003 and 2004. On Akhenaten: Vol. II, Chapter 11, pp. 117–73 and Chapter 12, pp. 205–13 Redford, Donald B. (1984). Akhenaten: The Heretic King. Princeton University Press External links The City of Akhetaten The Great Hymn to the Aten M.A. Mansoor Amarna Collection Grim secrets of Pharaoh's city BBC Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun's Family Hawass The Long Coregency Revisited: the Tomb of Kheruef by Peter Dorman, University of Chicago Royal Relations, Tut's father is very likely Akhenaten. National Geographic 09. 2010 14th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Amarna Period 14th-century BC births 1330s BC deaths Atenism Egyptian religious leaders Founders of religions Historical negationism in ancient Egypt Children of Amenhotep III Tutankhamun 14th-century BC religious leaders

91368

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albemarle%20County%2C%20Virginia

Albemarle County, Virginia

Albemarle County is a county located in the Piedmont region of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Its county seat is Charlottesville, which is an independent city and enclave entirely surrounded by the county. Albemarle County is part of the Charlottesville Metropolitan Statistical Area. As of the 2020 census, the population was 112,395. Albemarle County was created in 1744 from the western portion of Goochland County, though portions of Albemarle were later carved out to create other counties. Albemarle County was named in honor of Willem Anne van Keppel, 2nd Earl of Albemarle. Its most famous inhabitant was Thomas Jefferson, who built his estate home, Monticello, in the county. History At the time of European encounter, the inhabitants of the area that became Albemarle County were a Siouan-speaking tribe called the Saponi. In 1744, the Virginia General Assembly created Albemarle County from the western portion of Goochland County. The county was named in honor of Willem Anne van Keppel, 2nd Earl of Albemarle and titular Governor of Virginia at the time. The large county was partitioned in 1761, forming Buckingham and Amherst counties, at which time the county seat was moved from the formerly central Scottsville to a piece of newly central land, christened Charlottesville. In 1777, Albemarle County was divided and Fluvanna County established, finalizing the boundaries of modern Albemarle County. Albemarle County is well known for its association with President and Founding Father Thomas Jefferson, who was born in the county at Shadwell, though it was then part of Goochland County. However, his home of Monticello is located in the county. When the American Revolutionary War started in 1775, Jefferson was made colonel of the Albemarle Militia. During the Civil War, the Battle of Rio Hill was a skirmish in which Union cavalry raided a Confederate camp in Albemarle County, Virginia. Until the Civil War, the majority of Albemarle County's population consisted of enslaved African Americans. Geography According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (0.7%) is water. Waterways The Rivanna River's south fork forms in Albemarle County and was historically important for transportation. The south fork flows in-between Darden Towe Park and Pen Park. Boat ramp access is available at Darden Towe Park. The James River acts as a natural border between Albemarle and Buckingham Counties. Major highways Protected areas Albemarle's western border with Augusta and Rockingham Counties is located within the Shenandoah National Park. Adjacent counties Albemarle County borders 8 other counties, more than any other county in Virginia. Charlottesville, Virginia (surrounded by Albemarle County) Greene County, Virginia (north) Orange County, Virginia (northeast) Louisa County, Virginia (east) Fluvanna County, Virginia (southeast) Buckingham County, Virginia (south) Nelson County, Virginia (southwest) Augusta County, Virginia (west) Rockingham County, Virginia (northwest) Parks and recreation Beaver Creek Lake Chris Greene Lake Darden Towe Charlotte Y. Humphris Park Ivy Creek Natural Area Mint Springs Valley Patricia Ann Byrom Forest Preserve Park Preddy Creek Trail Park Simpson Park Totier Creek Park Walnut Creek Park Demographics 2020 census Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race. 2010 Census The largest self-reported ancestry groups in Albemarle County are English 16.3%, German 16.0%, Irish 12.7%, "American" 11.4% and Italian 5.2%. As of the census of 2010, there were 98,970 people, 38,157 households, and 24,578 families residing in the county. The population density was 137 people per square mile (52.8/km2). There were 42,122 housing units at an average density of 58 per square mile (22.4/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 80.6% White, 9.7% Black or African American, 0.3% Native American, 4.7% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.3% from other races, and 2.4% from two or more races. 5.5% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 38,157 households, out of which 28.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.4% were married couples living together, 9.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.6% were non-families. 28.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 25.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.96. In the county, the population was spread out, with 21.5% under the age of 18, 12.3% from 18 to 24, 24.7% from 25 to 44, 27.2% from 45 to 64, and 14.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38.2 years. For every 100 females there were 92.69 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.59 males. 22% of Albemarle residents have a graduate or professional degree, compared with 10% nationwide. The median income for a household in the county was $63,001, and the median income for a family was $98,934. Males had a median income of $55,530 versus $52,211 for females. The per capita income for the county was $36,718. About 3.8% of families and 10.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.0% of those under age 18 and 2.4% of those age 65 or over. Economy 35% of people working in Albemarle live in the county, while 65% commute in. 19% of those commuting in live in Charlottesville, while the remainder live in the surrounding counties. 26,800 people commute out of Albemarle for work. 48% of those commute to Charlottesville, making up 51% of Charlottesville's in-commuters. In 2018, Albemarle had a 2.7% unemployment rate, compared with a national rate of 3.9%. The top 10 employers as of Q2 2019 were: University of Virginia County of Albemarle Sentara Healthcare U.S. Department of Defense State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Atlantic Coast Athletic Club Piedmont Virginia Community College Northrop Grumman Corporation Crutchfield Corporation Walmart 36% of workers in Albemarle are employed by the government, with 898 working for the federal government, 12,476 working for the state government (including the University of Virginia), and 4,127 working for the local government. Government Albemarle is governed by an elected six-member Board of Supervisors. Management of the county is vested in a Board-appointed County Executive. There are also several elected Constitutional Officers: Clerk of the Circuit Court: John Zug (D) Commonwealth's Attorney: James M. Hingeley (D) Sheriff: Chan Bryant (D) The nonpartisan School Board is also elected. Its members are: Kate Acuff (Jack Jouett Magisterial District) Katrina Callsen (Rio Magisterial District) Judy Le (Rivanna Magisterial District) Graham Paige (Chair, Samuel Miller Magisterial District) Ellen Osborne (Scottsville Magisterial District) David Oberg (White Hall Magisterial District) Jonno Alcaro (At-Large) Albemarle is represented by Republican Bryce Reeves and Democrat Creigh Deeds in the Virginia State Senate; Republicans Chris Runion, Rob Bell, and Matt Fariss and Democrat Sally L. Hudson represent the county in the Virginia House of Delegates. Republican Bob Good represents the county in the U.S. House of Representatives. For much of the second half of the 20th century, Albemarle County was heavily Republican, like most of this part of Virginia. However, the Republican edge narrowed significantly in the 1990s, in part due to the influence of the University of Virginia. In 2004, John Kerry carried it by two points, becoming the first Democrat to win the county since 1948. It swung hard to Barack Obama in 2008, and since then has become one of the few Democratic bastions in central Virginia, though it is not as overwhelmingly Democratic as Charlottesville. Emergency services Albemarle County has two branches of law enforcement, the Albemarle County Police Department, which handles criminal matters and is directed by the appointed police chief, Colonel Steve Sellers. The second branch is the Albemarle County Sheriff's Office, which handles civil service in the county and they are directed by the elected Sheriff Chip Harding. EMS services are provided by three volunteer rescue squads and Albemarle County Fire Rescue. The Charlottesville-Albemarle Rescue Squad, located in the City of Charlottesville, providing 24hr EMS services to the City of Charlottesville and on nights and weekends in particular areas of the county, the Western Albemarle Rescue Squad, located in Crozet, and the Scottsville Volunteer Rescue Squad, located in the town of Scottsville. Albemarle County Fire Rescue operates 6 Advance Life Support ambulances, Medic 4 (Earlysville), Medic 8 (Seminole), Medic 11 (Monticello), Medic 12 (Hollymead), Medic 15 (Ivy), and Medic 16 (Pantops). Albemarle County Fire/Rescue system is a combination system that consists of seven volunteer fire stations and three career fire stations (Hollymead, Ivy and Monticello). Three of the volunteer stations (stations 3, 5, and 7) are covered 24 hours a day by volunteers. The other volunteer stations (2, 4, 6, and 8) are supplemented by career staff Monday - Friday, 6AM - 6PM. Volunteers operate these stations weeknights from 6PM - 6AM as well as weekends and holidays. The three career stations are staffed 24 hours by both career and volunteer firefighters Volunteer and career firefighters are trained and work together to provide Fire and EMS services to the population of Albemarle County. Albemarle County Fire Rescue has begun building a station (Station 16) in the eastern portion of the county near Pantops slated to open in Fall of 2018. Fire stations Crozet Volunteer Fire Department (Station 5) Earlysville Volunteer Fire Company (Station 4) East Rivanna Volunteer Fire Company (Station 2) Hollymead Fire Rescue (Station 12) Ivy Fire Rescue (Station 15) Monticello Fire Rescue (Station 11) North Garden Volunteer Fire Company (Station 3) Scottsville Volunteer Fire Department (Station 7) Seminole Trail Volunteer Fire Department (Station 8) Stony Point Volunteer Fire Company (Station 6) Rescue squads Charlottesville-Albemarle Rescue Squad (Rescue 1) Albemarle County Fire and Rescue Station 17 (Scottsville) Western Albemarle Rescue Squad (Rescue 5) Education The Albemarle County Public School System operates public education in the county. It provides education to nearly 14,000 students including preschool through high school. The Albemarle County Public School System's mission is to "establish a community of learners and learning, through relationships, relevance and rigor, one student at a time." ACPS provides 25 school facilities which include Community Lab School, a charter school that is located in the City of Charlottesville, Albemarle High School, Western Albemarle High School, and Monticello High School. The School Board and the Superintendent, Dr. Matthew Haas, work closely together in operating the Albemarle County Public School System. Many private schools in Albemarle serve the county and students from surrounding areas. These include: The Covenant School (upper campus) Field School of Charlottesville Free Union Country School The Miller School of Albemarle Montessori Community School North Branch School Peabody School Charlottesville Catholic School St. Anne's-Belfield School Tandem Friends School Some students attend several private schools in the City of Charlottesville. Jefferson-Madison Regional Library is the regional library system that provides services to the citizens of Albemarle. Communities The city of Charlottesville is enclaved within Albemarle County. Under Virginia law in effect since 1871, all municipalities in the state incorporated as cities are legally and politically independent of any county. Town There is only one incorporated town in Albemarle County: Scottsville, the original county seat Census-designated places Crozet Esmont Free Union Hollymead Ivy Pantops Piney Mountain Rivanna (east county) University of Virginia Other unincorporated communities Advance Mills Afton Alberene Ardwood Arrowhead Barracks Barterbrook Batesville Bedford Hills Bellair Bentivar Berkeley Berkmar Blenheim Boiling Spring Boonesville Branchland Briarwood Brinnington Brookwood Brownsville Browntown Burnley Camelot Campbell Carrsbrook Cash Corner Cedarmere Chapel Hills Chestnut Grove Cismont Clover Hill Cobham Colthurst Commonwealth Country Green Covesville Damon Davis Shop Doylesville Earlysville Earlysville Heights Eastham Ednam Ehart Everettsville Fairgrove Farmington Flordon Franklin Freetown Gilbert Glenaire Glendower Glenmore Glenorchy Greenfields Greenwood Hatton Heards Howardsville Hunters Hall Hydraulic Inglecress Keene Keswick Key West Langford Lexington Liberty Hill Lindsay Little Clover Hill Loch Leigh Mallard Lake McCullough Meriwether Hill Midway Midway Mill Creek Mill Ridge Mill Run Millington Milton Milton Heights Milton Hills Miran Forest Montvue Mountfair Newtown Nob Hill Northfields North Garden Nortonsville Norwood Oak Hill Old Dominion Overton Owensville Patterson Store Peacock Hill The Pines Porters Proffit Queen Charlotte Raintree Redland Rio Rio Heights Rivanna (north county) Rose Hill Rosena Rugby Shadwell Simeon Solaris Springfield Squire Hill Stillfield Stonehenge Stony Point Tapscott Terrybrook Thurston Townwood Warren Watts Waverly West Leigh Westfield Westmoreland White Hall Wildwood Wilhait Willoughby Windrift Woodbrook Woodridge Yancey Mills Many of these unincorporated areas have Charlottesville addresses. Notable people Samuel Addison Bishop, born in Albemarle County, was a settler of the Owens Valley and is the namesake of Bishop Creek in Inyo County, California. Notable residents Chilton Allan (1786–1858), born in Albemarle County, United States Congressman from Kentucky Rev Samuel Black, Albemarle County's first Presbyterian minister. Built Sam Black's Tavern Dabney Smith Carr (1802–1854), born in Albemarle County, founder of newspaper Baltimore Republican and Commercial Advertiser, United States minister to Turkey Christopher Henderson Clark (1767–1828), United States Congressman from Virginia George Rogers Clark (1752–1818), surveyor, soldier, and Revolutionary War hero and older brother of William Clark born in Albemarle County William Coleman, Olympic equestrian team member 2012 Edward Coles (1786–1868), born in Albemarle County, Governor of Illinois Rita Dove (1952- ), former United States Poet Laureate and winner of the Pulitzer Prize for poetry, living in Albemarle County since 1989 Greensville Dowell (1822–1876), born in Albemarle County, noted physician, professor, and author Kathryn Erskine, National Book Award-winning novelist James T. Farley (1829–1886), born in Albemarle County, United States Senator from California James Walker Gons (1812–1870), born in Albemarle County, Baptist church clergyman, later converting to Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), editor and publisher of church's Christian Intelligencer, educator. John Grisham, author of The Whistler and A Time to Kill Claude Hall, historian who wrote definitive biography of Abel Parker Upshur John Harvie (1742–1807), born in Albemarle County, member of the Continental Congress and mayor of Richmond, Virginia from 1785 to 1786 Samuel Hopkins (1753–1819), born in Albemarle County, United States Army officer and United States Congressman from Kentucky Thomas Jefferson, third President of the United States and former Governor of Virginia Sarah Garland Boyd Jones (1866–1905), physician Jack Jouett (1754–1822), born in Albemarle County, known as the "Paul Revere of the South", influential in organizing Kentucky as a separate state, Virginia and Kentucky state legislator Fiske Kimball (1888–1955), architectural historian, founder of the University of Virginia School of Architecture Ben King (cyclist), professional cyclist Walter Leake (1769?-1825), born in Albemarle County, United States Senator from Mississippi and later governor of that state Meriwether Lewis (1774–1809), born in Albemarle County, explorer, governor of Louisiana, and one of the leaders of the Lewis and Clark Expedition Howie Long, former NFL player with the Oakland Raiders Joseph Martin (1740–1808), Revolutionary War general and explorer; namesake of Martinsville, Virginia Dave Matthews of the Dave Matthews Band David Meriwether, born in Albemarle County, Continental Army officer, member United States Congress, Speaker of the Georgia House of Representatives, Major General - Georgia Militia James Monroe, fifth President of the United States and former Governor of Virginia James Monroe (1799–1870), born in Albemarle County, United States Congressman from New York Lottie Moon (1840–1912), Southern Baptist missionary to China; Southern Baptists worldwide take up a Christmas offering every year for international missions in her name John Milbank, English Philosopher and Theologian Sissy Spacek, actress Peter Threewits (1725-1770), born in Sussex County, Virginia state legislator Bebe Williams, Xeric Award cartoonist/artist Art Comics Daily See also National Register of Historic Places listings in Albemarle County, Virginia References Further reading External links Architecture of Jefferson Country – images of historic buildings of Albemarle County (from UVA Libraries) Virginia counties 1744 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies Counties on the James River (Virginia) Community Remembrance Project

92728

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewes%2C%20Delaware

Lewes, Delaware

Lewes ( ) is an incorporated city on the Delaware Bay in eastern Sussex County, Delaware, United States. According to the 2010 census, the population is 2,747. Along with neighboring Rehoboth Beach, Lewes is one of the principal cities of Delaware's rapidly growing Cape Region. The city lies within the Salisbury, Maryland–Delaware Metropolitan Statistical Area. Lewes proudly claims to be "The First Town in The First State." History Lewes was the site of the first European settlement in Delaware, a whaling and trading post that Dutch settlers founded on June 3, 1631 and named Zwaanendael (Swan Valley). The colony had a short existence, as a local tribe of Lenape Native Americans wiped out the 32 settlers in 1632. The area remained rather neglected by the Dutch until, under the threat of annexation from the colony of Maryland, the city of Amsterdam made a grant of land at the Hoernkills (the area around Cape Henlopen, near the current town of Lewes) to a group of Mennonites for settlement in 1662. A total of 35 men were to be included in the settlement, led by a Pieter Cornelisz Plockhoy of Zierikzee and funded by a sizable loan from the city to get them established. The settlement was established in 1663, and lasted until the very next year; in 1664, the English captured New Netherland from the Dutch, and they ordered the settlement razed with reports indicating that “not even a nail” was left there. The Dutch colonists proved slow to regroup, but a new settlement gradually regrew around the Hoernkills. In late December 1673, when the area was briefly held again by the Dutch, the settlement was attacked and burned down again by a group of Maryland colonists. In 1680, under the authority of the Duke of York, who had been granted such authority by his brother, King Charles II, the village (and county) was reorganized and known for two years as New Deale, Deale County, Delaware. A log courthouse was authorized to be built at this time. An Anglican congregation was established by 1681 and a Presbyterian church was built in 1682. In 1682, the Delaware colonies were given to William Penn by King Charles II as payment for a family debt. When Penn arrived in the New World later that year, he renamed the county as Sussex and the Hoernkills settlement as Lewes, in commemoration of sites in England. Lewes became and remained the county seat of Sussex County until 1791, when it was moved to a more west-central county location, the current town of Georgetown. The town was also known as "Lewistown" or "Lewestown". On April 6 and 7, 1813, during the War of 1812, Royal Navy vessels led by HMS Poictiers under the command of Captain Sir John Beresford briefly and ineffectually bombarded the town. A cannonball from the bombardment is lodged in the foundation of Cannonball House, which now serves as the town's maritime museum. Lewes was incorporated by an act of the state assembly on Feb. 2, 1818. The act provided for five persons to be chosen as commissioners to be known as "Trustees of the Town of Lewes." Lewes Beach itself was an important stop on the Underground Railroad in the years leading up to the American Civil War. As a "border state," Delaware was not part of the Confederacy, but was still quite dangerous for fugitive slaves. Several houses in Lewes thus housed escaping slaves; these "safe houses" were identified by the residents placing a single candle in the top window of the house. In 1941, the United States built Fort Miles on Cape Henlopen, immediately south of Lewes, to defend Delaware Bay and the Delaware River and the oil refineries and factories on its shores, as well as the city of Philadelphia. Fort Miles never saw any major action; except for range practice, it fired its guns only once between its establishment and the end of World War II. Fort Miles ceased operation altogether in 1991 and was deeded to the State of Delaware. In addition to Fort Miles, the Cape Henlopen Archeological District, Coleman House, Cool Spring Presbyterian Church, De Vries Palisade, Delaware Breakwater and Lewes Harbor, Fisher Homestead, Fisher's Paradise, Col. David Hall House, Hopkins Covered Bridge Farm, Lewes Historic District, Lewes Presbyterian Church, Lightship WAL 539, Maull House, National Harbor of Refuge and Delaware Breakwater Harbor Historic District, Pagan Creek Dike, Roosevelt Inlet Shipwreck, William Russell House, St. George's Chapel, Lewes, Townsend Site, and Wolfe's Neck Site are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Mayoral history Theodore W. Becker 2014–present James Ford III 2004–2014 George H.P. Smith 1994–2004 Dr. John Adams 1992–1994 Al Stango 1968–1992 Otis H. Smith 1950–1968 H. Edward Maull 1944–1950 Thomas H. Carpenter 1940–1944 William E. Walsh 1938–1940 David W. Burbage 1936–1938 Dr. Ulysses W. Hocker 1931–1936 Dr. James T. Thompson 1927–1930 (died in office, May 20, 1930) Willard H. Collins 1926–1927 Dr. James T. Thompson 1914–1926 Thomas B. Schellenger 1913–1914 Dr. James T. Thompson 1900–1913 Alfred L. Burton 1898–1900 Home to governors Six men who served as Delaware governor were born in or made their home in Lewes. Three of those men lived on Lewes' Second Street. Brothers Daniel and Caleb Rodney, sons of John Rodney, first cousin of Caesar Rodney, each served as governor of Delaware. Each a member of the Federalist Party, Daniel served from 1814 to 1817, while Caleb served as acting governor from 1822 to 1823. Ebe Walters Tunnell moved to Lewes in 1873 to enter the drug and hardware business in part of the old Caleb Rodney House on Second Street. Tunnell worked his way up the state government hierarchy before unsuccessfully running for governor in 1892. Four years later, the Democrat won the election, and served from 1897 to 1901. City motto and name As Lewes was the earliest settlement in the state, and Delaware was the first state to ratify the Constitution, the town refers to itself as "The First Town in the First State." Lewes is named after the town of Lewes in England, which is situated in a county named Sussex (from which Sussex County, Delaware, takes its name). Lewes, Sussex, England, also has the same seal. Geography Lewes is located at (38.7745565, –75.1393498). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land, and (14.69%) is water. Climate Situated on the Atlantic Coastal Plain, Lewes's weather is moderated by the Atlantic Ocean and the Delaware Bay. Lewes has a mild humid subtropical climate (Cfa) consisting of hot, humid summers and mild winters. The average daytime high in July is 87 °F (30.6 °C) and a low of 70 °F (21 °C); in January, the average high is 45 °F (7 °C) with an average low of 30 °F (-1 °C) The month of highest average rainfall is July with 4.78 inches of rain, while February is historically the driest month, receiving an average of only 3.23 inches (80.5 mm) of rain. The highest official temperature ever recorded in Lewes was 102 °F (38.8 °C) in 1997. The lowest official temperature ever recorded in Lewes was -11 °F (-28.8 °C) in 1982. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 2,932 people, 1,338 households, and 797 families residing in the city. The population density was 801.5 people per square mile (309.3/km2). There were 2,368 housing units at an average density of 647.3 per square mile (249.8/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 87.31% White, 9.89% African American, 0.14% Native American, 1.02% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.72% from other races, and 0.89% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.67% of the population. There were 1,338 households, out of which 15.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.3% were married couples living together, 8.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.4% were non-families. 35.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.99 and the average family size was 2.53. In the city, the population was spread out, with 13.6% under the age of 18, 3.7% from 18 to 24, 18.0% from 25 to 44, 31.5% from 45 to 64, and 33.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 55 years. For every 100 females, there were 78.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 76.1 males. The median income for a household in the city was $66,387, and the median income for a family was $72,605. Males had a median income of $39,500 versus $35,227 for females. The per capita income for the city was $36,685. About 3.1% of families and 6.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.3% of those under age 18 and 5.4% of those age 65 or over. Education Lewes is served by the Cape Henlopen School District. The Lewes School District was consolidated into the Cape Henlopen district in 1969. Lewes is zoned to: Richard Shields Elementary School Cape Henlopen High School (in an unincorporated area with a Lewes address), the sole comprehensive high school of the district Sussex Consortium, a school for students with autism previously in the former Lewes School, is now in an unincorporated area with a Lewes address. The University of Delaware's Hugh R. Sharp Campus is also within the city. This is home to the University's College of Earth, Ocean, and Environment. Lewes students are also eligible to enter Sussex Academy of Arts and Sciences, which is not in the city but is in the nearby city of Georgetown. The Lewes School first opened as a multi-grade school in 1921 and became Lewes High School by 1946. It initially held Cape Henlopen High School when it opened in 1969. Lewes School will be repurposed as the new Richard A. Shields Elementary. Arts and culture Museums and other points of interest Lewes serves as a vacation and resort spot popular with residents of Washington, D.C., and the surrounding suburbs. Even though the city limits primarily sit on the lower reach of the Delaware Bay, it is nonetheless considered an ocean resort, particularly as the ocean is nearby at Cape Henlopen. Lewes is among those communities which have banned smoking in its public parks. Lewes is the home of the Zwaanendael Museum, which features exhibits about Delaware's history. Savannah, Second and Front Streets are the town's main streets and have many shops, restaurants, parks and historical venues. Fisherman's Wharf is a dock that stretches along the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal. It features multiple restaurants and bait shops, and in season the dock hosts hundreds of boats from all over. The Lewes Historical Society promotes the preservation, interpretation and cultural enrichment of the Lewes region through museum exhibits, educational programs, historical research and publications. Lewes in Bloom is an organization that promotes and maintains the beauty of Historic Lewes. Lewes in Bloom won America in Bloom's contest in 2003, 2005, 2010 and 2015 for cities with population under 5,000. In 2012 and 2015 Lewes in Bloom was honored in the AIB “Circle of Champions”. Lighthouses United States Lightship Overfalls (LV-118/WAL-539), one of nine surviving lightships at museums in the United States, is moored in Lewes along the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal Lewes is home to several iconic Lighthouses in the Delaware Bay. Just offshore lies the National Harbor of Refuge which is home to the Delaware Breakwater East End Light and the Harbor of Refuge Light. Parks and recreation Lewes is adjacent to Cape Henlopen State Park. Lewes also maintains several parks within the city limits: Blockhouse Pond Park Stango Park Zwaanendael Park & Herb Garden 1812 Memorial Park (Cannonball Park) Mary Vessels Park George H.P. Smith Park Canalfront Park & Marina Lewes Beach Great Marsh Park DNREC maintains a boat ramp just outside the city limits along the Broadkill River, adjacent to the Roosevelt Inlet. Infrastructure Law Enforcement and Emergency Services Lewes is primarily policed by the Lewes Police Department and Delaware State Police. For EMS Lewes is serviced by the Lewes Volunteer Fire Department. The town also see the occasional Delaware Natural Resource Police officer patrolling the waterways, and the state park. Lewes also has a United States Coast Guard Marine safety detachment Transportation Delaware Route 1 (DE 1) passes just outside city limits at Five Points where DE 1, U.S. Route 9 (US 9), DE 404, DE 23 and DE 1D (Plantation Road) intersect. There are three main arterial roads that connect Lewes to DE 1: New Road, Savannah Road (US 9 Business) and King's Highway (US 9). US 9 passes to the southeast of the city on the Theodore C. Freeman Memorial Highway. Parking meters are in effect for on-street parking and parking lots in the downtown area between May 1 and October 14 and at parking lots at Lewes Beach between May 1 and September 30. The southern terminus of the Cape May–Lewes Ferry is located in Lewes. The ferry provides passenger and automobile ferry service between southern Delaware and southern New Jersey, crossing the Delaware Bay to North Cape May, New Jersey, and serves as part of US 9. The ferry crossing is long and takes 85 minutes. Cape Water Tours & Taxi operates a round-trip water taxi service between Lewes and Dewey Beach via the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal on Friday evenings in the summer months, offering access to dining and nightlife in Dewey Beach. DART First State operates the Lewes Transit Center park and ride just outside Lewes along DE 1. The transit center serves local bus routes providing service across Sussex County, with expanded Beach Bus service to the Delaware Beaches in the summer months, and inter-county bus service to other part of Delaware. This park and ride serves the Route 201 bus to the Rehoboth Beach Boardwalk, the Route 203 bus to Dewey Beach, the Route 204 bus which heads along Savannah Road into Lewes to Cape Henlopen Drive and the Cape May–Lewes Ferry terminal, and the Route 206 bus to Georgetown. The Route 305 "Beach Connection" bus provides service on weekends and holidays in the summer to the Lewes Transit Center Park and Ride from Wilmington, the Christiana Mall, Middletown, Dover, and Frederica, with service continuing south to Rehoboth Beach. The Route 307 bus provides year-round service to Milford, Frederica, and Dover. The Delaware Department of Transportation built the Lewes Transit Center Park and Ride, with groundbreaking taking place on March 9, 2016 and the park and ride opening in May 2017. The Delaware River and Bay Authority operates a shuttle bus route in the summer months that connects the Cape May–Lewes Ferry to the Tanger Outlets and Rehoboth Beach. Lewes was served by a branch of the Delaware Coast Line Railroad that originated in Georgetown, whereupon transfers could be made to trains north to Dover and Wilmington. Passenger trains operated on this branch by its predecessor company, the Pennsylvania Railroad, but ended between 1936 and 1938. The Maryland, Delaware & Virginia Railway operated a passenger train route from Lewes that followed a path to the north of the DCL route. It followed a path through Milton, Ellendale, Greenwood, crossing the state border into Maryland, then continuing further west to Love Point, whereupon travelers would connect with a ferry to Baltimore. This service was replaced by bus service by early 1932. A rail with trail known as the Georgetown-Lewes Trail opened along the railroad line on October 19, 2016, with future plans to extend the trail to Georgetown. In 2017, it was announced the Delaware Coast Line Railroad would be abandoned between Cool Spring and Lewes after the swing bridge over the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal was closed due to being structurally unsound and repairs were determined to be too costly. The Junction and Breakwater Trail is a rail trail for bicyclists and hikers that connects Lewes and Rehoboth Beach, running mostly along a former Penn Central Railroad right-of-way. Utilities The Lewes Board of Public Works (BPW) provides electricity, water, and sewer service to the city. The BPW was established by an act of the Delaware General Assembly on March 15, 1901. Lewes formerly had a power plant that generated electricity for the city, but the plant's usage was reduced as the city brought in power from outside and the plant was shut down in the 1970s due to rising fuel costs. Lewes currently purchases power from Constellation which is transmitted to the city over Delmarva Power lines. The BPW is a member of the Delaware Municipal Electric Corporation. Trash collection is provided by the city while recycling collection is provided under contract by Republic Services. Natural gas service in Lewes is provided by Chesapeake Utilities. Health care Beebe Healthcare Medical Center is located in Lewes, founded in 1916 by the brothers, Drs. James Beebe and Richard C. Beebe. The hospital's name was changed to Beebe Healthcare in 2013 and 2016 marked its 100th anniversary. Notable people Eugene Bookhammer, politician and 18th lieutenant governor of Delaware. David Hall, politician and 15th governor of Delaware. Dr. Joseph Maull, physician, politician and 23rd governor of Delaware. Caleb Rodney, politician and 23rd governor of Delaware. Daniel Rodney, politician and 19th governor of Delaware. Ebe W. Tunnell, politician and 50th governor of Delaware. Notable events On August 21, 2013, a helicopter reportedly dumped $10,000 in multiple dollar bill denominations over Lewes Harbor in the fulfillment of a deceased local resident's last wish. References External links The Lewes Historical Society Lewes, DE Information City-Data.com Comprehensive Statistical Data and more about Lewes Cities in Sussex County, Delaware Populated places established in 1631 Cities in Delaware Former county seats in Delaware Beaches of Delaware Salisbury metropolitan area 1631 establishments in the Dutch Empire Populated coastal places in Delaware

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanwell

Hanwell

Hanwell () is a town in the London Borough of Ealing, in the historic County of Middlesex, England. It is about 1.5 miles west of Ealing Broadway and had a population of 28,768 as of 2011. It is the westernmost location of the London post town. Hanwell is mentioned in the Domesday Book. St Mary's Church was established in the 10th century and has been rebuilt three times since, the present church dating to 1842. Schools were established around this time in Hanwell; notably Central London District School which Charlie Chaplin attended. By the end of the 19th century there were over one thousand houses in Hanwell. The Great Western Railway came in 1838 and Hanwell railway station opened. Later the trams of London United Tramways came on the Uxbridge Road in 1904, running from Chiswick to Southall. From 1894 it was its own urban district of Middlesex until being absorbed into Ealing Urban District in 1926. To its west flows the River Brent, which marks Hanwell's boundary with Southall. There are several green spaces including Brent Valley Park, Elthorne Park and Cuckoo Park; meanwhile, the Hanwell Zoo is a popular local attraction featuring small mammals, birds and other wildlife. Its elevation is approximately . The town holds its own annual Hanwell Carnival, London's oldest carnival. History Etymology The name probably means 'spring/stream frequented with cocks'. The earliest surviving reference is AD 959 when it is recorded as Hanewelle in pledge, when Alfwyn (a Saxon) pawned his land for money to go on a pilgrimage. The origin of the name is uncertain; various suggestions have been put forward. Near to the old Rectory and close to Hanwell spring is a large stone of about a ton in weight. In Anglo-Saxon the word Han denoted a boundary stone. This juxtaposition of these two natural features could have given rise to the name Han-well, which dates back to before the Domesday Book. The original borders of the parish stretched from the bend of the River Brent at Greenford and followed the river down to the River Thames. Its geography, before the draining of the marshes, formed a natural boundary between the different tribes of the south east of England. This gives some support to the suggestion that Han came from the Saxon han for cockerel. If so, the name is derived from Han-créd-welle. Han-créd or cock-crow meant the border between night and day, and is neither one nor the other. So Hanwell would mean well upon the boundary. For more see: River Brent: Hydronymy. The only other Hanwell in Britain is a small parish in Oxfordshire on the boundary with Warwickshire. Short history of the inns and public houses The Uxbridge Road (then known as the Oxford Road) was turnpiked between Uxbridge and Tyburn in 1714. The revenue from tolls enabled an all-weather metaled road surface of compacted gravel to be laid down. This constant movement of people along the road, brought about the establishment of coaching inns along the road as it crossed the River Brent and passed through the parish of Hanwell. In these inns, travellers could stable their horses, place their carts or goods in safe storage and secure board and lodgings for themselves overnight. The first inn on crossing the River Brent is "The Viaduct", which is on the north side. Named after the Wharncliffe Viaduct, its original name was the "Coach and Horses". At the back of the pub, some of the original stable building can be seen, dating to about 1730. Early in the 20th century, The Viaduct received a new faïence façade, which Nikolaus Pevsner succinctly described as "a jolly tiled Edwardian pub". Next was the "Duke of Wellington", which lay approximately 400 m closer to London on the southern side of the road, roughly opposite the old Hanwell Police Station. However, this had been demolished by the 1920s and was not rebuilt. Further east still and back across on the north side of the Uxbridge Road at the junction of Hanwell Broadway is the "Duke of York"This became an important staging point for stagecoaches on their way between Oxford and London. Established in the 18th century, it has been subsequently rebuilt in the Tudorbethan style. The next pub occupies the site of what was probably the very first inn to be established on the Oxford Road as it ran through Hanwell; it is known today as the Kings Arms. It lies on the south side of the road. It was original called the "Spencer Arms"after Edward Spencer, who was Lord of the Manor of Boston during the Civil War. In the 18th century, the Manor Courts hearings were transferred here from Greenford, then later transferred to the Viaduct Inn. However, the present building dates back to 1930 when it was rebuilt by brewers Mann, Crossman & Paulin in the Arts & Crafts style. Though unexciting on the outside, its interior is still today, a fine example of this type of architecture, and CAMRA has placed it in its National Inventory of Pub Interiors of Outstanding Historic Interest. The lower half of the exterior walls is decorated with green faïence with brick-sized faces. These tiles extend to cover the stallriser of the shop to the immediate right. This is because, originally, this shop was built to serve as the Off-licence premises. Gradually, retail stores and shops started to fill the gaps between these inns to take advantage of the passing trade brought by this important route into and out of the city. During the Victorian period, the village to the north of the Uxbridge Road began to slowly expand to the south of the road. Toward the southern end of Green Lane (the old toll-free drovers route into the city) is The Fox public house. The Fox has been named West Middlesex Pub of the Year in 2005, 2007, 2010 and 2011. Built in 1848 it is a largely unspoiled and original mid-Victorian pub. It has received a 'local listing' from Ealing Council as a building of local interest. It is constructed out of local golden yellow brick with more expensive red bricks used for detailing on corners and chimneys. Rich brown glazed tiles are used for the ground floor exterior walls with coloured stained glass in the fan lights. The upper story has Mock Tudor detailing, including dentils on the two outward-facing gables. Most of the interior is also original, although the dividing walls between bars and off-license sales have been taken out to create one large bar area. The present day eating area retains its original wooden wall panelling. On the east of the building itself is a very sheltered beer garden, so food and drink can be enjoyed inside or out. The Fox was the meeting place for the local fox hunt until the 1920s. The hunt would set off across Hanwell Heath, much of which still existed at that time. Present-day clientele can still see foxes drinking, quite unfazed, from the dog bowls of water, put outside the Fox's saloon bar. Healthcare Lying to the west of the River Brent and so actually in the precinct of Norwood Green, the Middlesex County Lunatic Asylum was commonly referred to as the Hanwell Asylum because it was closer to the centre of Hanwell than either Norwood or Southall. The asylum was opened in 1831 to house pauper lunatics. In 1937 it was renamed St Bernard's Hospital by which it is still known today. Built on some of its former grounds to the east is Ealing Hospital. Most of the original asylum still remains, with over half having been turned into the St Bernard's Gate housing development and the rest remaining as a psychiatric hospital. The most interesting parts are the chapel and an entrance arch, visible from the Uxbridge Road. Within the grounds of Hanwell Asylum, on the west side of the main block, was a small isolation hospital. The hospital was remarkable as one of its physicians, John Conolly, 1794–1866, was progressive in the treatment of patients and avoided the use of restraints. A memorial garden dedicated to him is at the junction of Station Road with Connolly Road. The hospital did have a museum housed in its chapel, but this collection has now been broken up and relocated. It included many items ranging from patient registers, reports and a large assortment of medical equipment, including a padded cell, consisting of a wooden framework with padded door, walls and floor, but no ceiling. Within the boundary of Hanwell proper, there were three more asylums. These were all private. The first one recorded, was "Popes House", which admitted its first patient (it is thought) in 1804. Later, "Elm Grove House" in Church Road was turned into an asylum by Susan Wood. Her husband was the brother of Mrs Ellis, the wife of William Ellis, the first superintendent of Hanwell Asylum. The East India Company took over Elm Grove in 1870 and renamed it the "Royal India Asylum". It closed in 1892. Another local asylum was "Lawn House", the home and privately run asylum of Dr John Conolly, which he opened after retiring as superintendent of Hanwell Asylum. After his death in 1866, it was taken over by his son-in-law Henry Maudsley who ran it until 1874. Down Green Lane and on the west side was the old "Hanwell Cottage Hospital", which was named "The Queen Victoria and War Memorial Hospital". This was built in 1900 and paid for by public subscription and run on voluntary contributions until the creation of the NHS in 1948. In 1979 it was replaced by "Ealing District General Hospital", on the other side of the River Brent. The southern Portland stone and brick pier of the cottage hospital's entrance, bearing the inscription HANWELL was preserved as a permanent reminder of Hanwell's first hospital. The two original Edwardian street lamps outside the entrance were also preserved, but then mysteriously disappeared, causing enquiries to be made. Transport In 1901 the first electric trams began to run along the Uxbridge Road, causing the population of the village to expand faster than with the arrival of the trains half a century before. First however, the tram company had to strengthen Hanwell Bridge, as well as widen it on its north side. A balustrade, which survives to this day, lines each side. Another stipulation placed upon the company was that the standards to support the catenary also had to be able to double as street lampposts. The cars cost £1,000 each yet the ordinary fare from Shepherd's Bush to Uxbridge was only 8d. A route from Brentford to Hanwell was introduced on 26 May 1906. A tram depot (later converted into a trolleybus depot and then into a bus garage) was located on the Uxbridge Road. It was closed down in 1993 and the land has been converted into a retail park. AEC Routemaster buses were built at the AEC factory in Windmill Lane and much of the fuel injection equipment and electrical systems were manufactured by CAV Ltd who had a factory in Acton Vale. The large Routemaster tyres were moulded and cured, just to the south on the Great West Road in Brentford by the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company whose factory was opened there in 1928. Trolley buses were introduced in 1936 and ran until the early 1960s. Plans to reintroduce trams in the form of the West London Tram scheme were suggested, but then abandoned by Transport for London in 2007 in the face of local opposition. Hanwell Estate The Hanwell estate is a London County Council cottage estate built between the wars. It provides 1586 houses and flats. Places of interest and recreation The parish church St. Mary's Church is the original ancient parish church. The present church structure was built in 1841. As such, it stands as one of George Gilbert Scott's very early churches, executed in the style of Gothic Revival, and consists of masoned white limestone and gault brickwork, with flint-rubble and mortar panels. Scott himself later condemned his work of this period as "a mass of horrors". However, the famous painter William Frederick Yeames, who at one time was its churchwarden, is thought to have done the wall paintings in the chancel. Perhaps the most famous rector was Dr. George H. Glasse; he has a memorial place in his memory in St. Mary's Churchyard (Grade II). Still surviving is the home he had built for him nearby in 1809. It is executed in the style of cottage orné and named The Hermitage (Grade II). Nikolaus Pevsner described it thus: "a peach of an early c19 Gothic thatched cottage with two pointed windows, a quatrefoil, and an ogee arched door, all on a minute scale. Inside, an octagonal hall and reception room". In latter years another well-known rector was Fred Secombe (brother of Harry Secombe). After leaving and moving back to Wales, he became a prolific author. No archaeological evidence has been found so far, to show that any church existed here earlier than shown in written records. However, due to its commanding topographical position, which enables the distinctive broach spire to be seen from many miles away, it has been suggested that this may have been a pagan place of worship long before Christianity reached this part of the world. There is however, no evidence to support this theory. An early supporter of this hypothesis was Sir Montagu Sharpe KC DL, a local historian and a member of the Society of Antiquaries. (In nearby Northolt, the parish church, which is also on high ground, has had much evidence found around it of past occupation by the Beaker People.) St Thomas the Apostle St Thomas's is a Grade II* listed building. Edward Maufe won the competition for Guildford Cathedral in 1932. His reputation as a church architect had hitherto rested on restoration work at AIl Saints, Southampton and St Martin's in the Fields; and on two churches for the Royal Association for the Deaf at East Acton and Clapham, and – most notable – a well respected 'Clubland' Methodist chapel in Walworth, which was bombed in the war. Work on Guildford Cathedral did not begin until 1936. In the meantime Maufe designed St Thomas's, for which the foundation stone was laid in July 1933. Completed in 1934, the materials used were an experiment with the form of construction proposed for Guildford. They were the load-bearing silver grey Tondu brick from South Wales and particularly the reinforced concrete vault Iined with acoustic plaster. Many of the interior details are also similar to Guildford Cathedral: most notably the tall lancets and narrow aisle passages with the acutely pointed arches, but also the style of some of the fittings and the employment of Eric Gill as one of the sculptors. Exterior The large Calvary that arrests attention from the road is by Eric Gill, its cross forming the tracery of the East Window. This was carved 'in situ' from a single Weldon stone block. The carving over the north door is the work of Vernon Hill, depicting a dove with the girdle of Our Lady that was sent to St Thomas. To the left of the door, almost at ground level, the seal of Edward Maufe can be seen. The wave pattern to the brass kicking plates on the doors represents the sea. Inside the north porch is a carving of St Matthew by John Skelton (nephew of Eric Gill). The carving over the west door is also by Vernon Hill and represents two birds pecking from the same bunch of grapes symbolic of all Christians sharing the one cup at Communion. Edward Maufe's 'finest church' In her listing report to English Heritage Elain Harwood described St Thomas' as Maufe's 'finest church'. She writes: 'Inside the feeling is of a great church exquisitely miniaturised. Indeed, it has frequently been said that Maufe's distinctive and austere style was better suited to the small scale than to a cathedral. Moreover, St Thomas's substantiates Pevsner's admission that Maufe was "a man with genuine spatial gifts". The initial impression is of a nave and chancel of equal height given semblance of religious presence by narrow passage aisles cut into the thick piers of the vault, Alibi style. The east end is more complicated, however, One becomes aware of a cross axis along the front of the chancel, and another in front of the sanctuary itself On the south side there are vestries and a kitchen: on the north side another door, a Morning Chapel, now called the Lady Chapel, and between them a little Children's Corner or chapel set within the thick walls of the tower. There is a small space behind the sanctuary, reached through the arches.' Font and nave At the west end of the church is the font, which was also carved by Vernon Hill in Weldon stone. It depicts a fish and anchor and the ICQUS cypher, which are all signs for Christ. The stained glass behind the font, depicting 'Christ and the children', is by Moira Forsyth. The War Memorial came from the 'tin church', which used to stand where the Parish Hall now stands. In the Nave, the light fittings are plated with silver and bear the arms of the twelve apostles. The original foot-long candle bulbs are now unobtainable and have been replaced with a modern energy saving equivalent. The flooring is linoleum and was originally buff in colour and marked out with blue lines. The sign of St. Thomas the Apostle – a builder's square and three spears – can be seen on the churchwardens' staves and various other places in the church. The square indicates that Thomas was a builder and that spears were the instruments of his martyrdom. Sanctuary The Sanctuary is dominated by the reredos that came from St Thomas's Portman Square. It was made to the design of Cecil Greenwood Hare, Bodley's last partner and successor to his practice. The three manual organ also came from St Thomas', Portman Square and was reconditioned and electrified by Walker and Sons Ltd. St Mellitus Church Until the early years of the 20th century all of Hanwell had been one parish, St Mary's. The inadequacy of one church to serve a growing population is indicated by the rebuilding of St Mary's church in 1842 to cater for the increased number of church goers and then by the building in 1877 of St Mark's as an additional church serving the south of the parish. By the turn of the century this was no longer sufficient and it was decided to create an additional parish, St Mellitus, the first in the Anglican Communion to bear that name. The church building is an imposing Gothic style building of the Edwardian period situated on a busy cross roads in the heart of Hanwell. It was designed by the office of Sir Arthur Blomfield in 1909, built by Messrs J Dorey & Co of Brentford and consecrated by the Bishop of London, Rt Rev Arthur Winnington-Ingram in March 1910. It is a landmark building with a distinctive gable end housing three recently restored bells. The parish was formed in 1908 and lay between the railway and Elthorne Park, thus including St Mark's as a chapel of ease. While St Mark's would continue in this fashion as a subsidiary church for the parish, it was clear that a new, bigger parish church was needed and so Sir Arthur Blomfield was commissioned to design it. With a capacity of 800 people it was designated St Mellitus, the name probably derived from the legend, propagated by Sir Montagu Sharpe, the Middlesex historian, that Mellitus, Bishop of the East Saxons, was instrumental in the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons of Hanwell. Funds for the new church were raised from the sale of Holy Trinity in Gough Square in the city of London. In 1980, with the retirement of the then vicar of St Mark's, the two parishes were merged, now known as St Mellitus with St Mark's. The Wharncliffe Viaduct Brunel's first major structural design and the first contract to be let on his Great Western Railway. The viaduct carries trains across the Brent valley at an elevation of . Constructed of brick, the bridge has 8 arches, each spanning and rising . The supporting piers are hollow and tapered, rising to projecting stone cornices that held up the arch centring during construction. Originally, the piers were wide at ground level and at deck level. The deck was designed to accommodate two tracks of Brunel's broad gauge railway. However, an Act of Parliament was passed in 1846 that made Stephenson's narrower gauge standard across the country and so the viaduct was widened in 1847 by the addition of an extra row of piers and arches on the north side. The new width is . In 1892 the broad gauge track was converted to standard gauge, and this allowed enough width for four standard gauge tracks. Overhead electrification, at 25,000 volts AC, of the London to Bristol main line is in progress (2017). The viaduct is still used today for trains running from Paddington to Bristol. Lord Wharncliffe's coat of arms can be seen on the central pier on the south side. He was chairman of the Great Western Railway. Hanwell Flight of Locks The Hanwell flight of six locks raises the Grand Union Canal by just over and has been designated a Scheduled Ancient Monument by English Heritage. At the top of the flight of locks towards Norwood Green is the Three Bridges designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel. It is still often referred to on maps by the original canal crossing name of Windmill Bridge and is very close to the spot where the eponymous windmill once stood; attracting the attention of a local Brentford artist named Joseph Mallard William Turner. However, there was also a windmill on the grounds where the Hanwell asylum once stood and the original name was Watermill Lane. So the true origine of the name appears to originate with the watermill that stood near to the club house of the local golf club house. This canal and flight of locks are actually within the boundary of Southall but are named after the local village of Hanwell, which is much closer than either of the villages of Norwood or Southall. The Central London District School/Hanwell Community Centre the Central London District School at Hanwell was built between 1856 and 1861 by a group of central London poor law unions to house and educate pauper children away from the workhouse; the original site at Norwood having proved to be too small and unsuitable for extension. By far its most famous resident was Charlie Chaplin who was at the school from June 1896 until January 1898. The school was closed in 1933 but parts of it remain standing, and it is in use as the Hanwell Community Centre. The Community Centre was used as a location in the film Billy Elliot. It has been declared a Grade II listed building by English Heritage. In 2015 the London Welsh School moved into the building. Brent Lodge Park and Animal Centre This park was acquired by Ealing Borough Council as a recreation ground in 1931 from Sir Montagu Sharpe (1856–1942), who had lived in Brent Lodge since 1884. The lodge itself, by then dilapidated, was demolished. The original stable block remains and is Grade II listed. For many years the park served as a 9-hole golf course requiring no more than a small driver and a putt, which could be hired together with a ball from a kiosk. Small boys would supplement their pocket money by retrieving lost balls from the river. Another attraction was a large wired enclosure, within which unwanted pet rabbits (and tortoises, guinea pigs etc.) were given a new home. This inevitably led to it acquiring the nickname 'Bunny Park', which is still how some locals refer to it today. Later, the animal collection became more exotic as it began to receive and house imported animals that remained unclaimed after their period of compulsory quarantine had expired. Better enclosures were built and it has now become a small zoo and is a recognized member of the British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums (BIAZA). As of April 2016, the animal centre has been renamed Hanwell Zoo, and is home to such animals as Mara, Capybara, Meerkats, Caribbean Flamingo and Crested Porcupine, Emperor Tamarin monkeys and Ring-tailed Lemurs. The park has a modern and well-equipped children's playground. Clearly visible on Google Earth are the 2,000 yew trees that were planted to create the Millennium Maze. The entrance to the park is at the south-west side of St Mary's Church at the end of Church Road. The park also has a coffee shop and a children's play area. Brent River Park and Brent Valley Golf Club The Lodge Park is part of the larger Brent River Park, which follows the river from Perivale down to Hanwell. In this river valley, there is also the Brent Valley Golf Club Hanwell Clock Tower This was unveiled on Hanwell Broadway at midday on 7 May 1937, as part of Ealing's celebration of the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth (later known as the Queen Mother) by Alderman Alfred Bradford, chairman of the Highways Committee. The Mayor, Frederick Woodward, was also present, as were members of the Hanwell Chamber of Commerce and 'a large concourse of the general public'. Amongst other remarks, the Mayor said: "I consider Hanwell one of the finest gateways to the city of London, and I cannot think of a more fitting place for the clock". It had been Timothy King, a councillor from Hanwell, who had first suggested the idea and had fought for it in the Highways Committee. Alderman Bradford was proud that the Hanwell Clock had been the result of a Hanwell man's work. It was also noted that the Mayor was born in Hanwell (he also attended Hanwell National School and was married there). However, the clock tower became the centre of controversy in the early 70s. This started because a Hanwell estate agent, one Mr Parish, objected to it and wanted to raise £5,000 to demolish it and replace it with something more pleasing. According to him, the clock tower was a "dreadful concrete eyesore" and "aesthetically pleasing neither in its location nor design". He added that it was "downright ugly…built in the thirties, one of the worst periods for design". He also commented "the motive behind it was largely self-congratulatory on the part of a small village community". The latter statement was certainly open to question, since Mr Parish seemed to have had no evidence to back it up, and nor was Hanwell "a small village community" in 1937 with a population of over 20,000. This caused much annoyance to both residents of Hanwell and commuters who passed the tower on their way to work. Parish's views were seen as 'arrogant' and 'insulting'. Some thought it was a useful reminder of the time (Mr Parish later doubted the clock's accuracy) or a good meeting place. Others defended it as being in the style of the time "if the clock tower is typical of the thirties, that is how it should be". The Elthorne Ward Labour Group also defended the tower, some members feeling that its removal might herald the construction of an office block. On the whole, Parish's arguments were countered. The general thrust was that the clock tower needed restoration, not demolition. In the following year, such work was carried out and the tower properly cleaned up. Its appearance even had the effect of converting Mr Parish, who commented "I admit having said some harsh things about its architectural inadequacies", but he liked the new, clean, clock tower, "Come back, all is forgiven". The problem of cleaning and restoration was a common one over future years. Sometimes the edifice had to be boarded up. However, in 2002, as part of the celebrations of the Queen's Golden Jubilee, the clock tower was again restored. The clock put in operation again and a new plaque displayed to celebrate this renovation. Elthorne Park The name Elthorne goes back at least one thousand years. It was mentioned in the Domesday survey as being one of the six Hundreds of the shire of Middlesex along with Edmonton, Gore, Hounslow, Ossulstone and Spelthorne. The origin of the park goes back to the 1500s. The original much larger estate, called La Bromeland, was named after the wild yellow flowering Broom shrub, which still grows on the steep embankment of the river Brent. In the 16th century Thomas Gresham's widow bought the freehold of 'Broomland', which later passed down through Osterley to the Earls of Jersey. Fifteen years after the General Enclosure Act of 1801 the estate was reduced to 90 acres and then became known as Park Farm. At one time, with Cuckoo Farm it was one of the last two existing farms in Hanwell. In 1908 Lord Jersey started negotiations with the Council and Middlesex County Council about the use of the land. Whilst negotiations were going on he allowed a section of the land to be used as a temporary recreation ground. The farmland was finally broken up c1910 and some of the land is now open space and playing fields but seven and a half acres of the site were used to form Elthorne Park. Lord Villiers and his mother, the Countess of Jersey, officially opened the Park at 3 pm on 11 June 1910. The opening, which had been postponed because of the death of King Edward VII on 6 May 1910, was said to be a grand affair, held in a large marquee with tea being served in the nearby mission church of St Thomas's. In July 1910 the first event to be held in the park was a show by the Hanwell and Greenford Horticultural Society, which later became an annual event. The following year in April a two-day celebration of George V's coronation took place, which included music from the local Hanwell Band and a march by children from St Ann's school to Elthorne Park. Although toilets for men were installed in the park from the outset, a toilet for women was not installed until 1912. The Hanwell ‘Sarsen’ Stone can be seen just inside the main entrance to the park. This stone, a glacial erratic which was deposited in the Ice Age, was excavated from a gravel pit on a site now occupied by Townholm Crescent. Cemeteries There are three burial grounds in Hanwell. The one at the parish church of St Mary is full. The remaining two are for the deceased residents of other boroughs. For the local people today, the London Borough of Ealing offers interments in Hortus Cemetery, Southall, and Greenford Park Cemetery, Greenford. St. Mary's church graveyard The graveyard of St. Mary's is the oldest burial ground. To the east side of the church yard is a large square stone monument to the Glasses family, which English Heritage has given a Grade II listing, although it is in a poor state of repair. Westminster City Council Cemetery, Hanwell Built on the former common land of South Field, Westminster City Cemetery, Hanwell is an extramural cemetery run by Westminster City Council. In 1987 Shirley Porter's controlled Westminster City Council controversially sold to land developers for 15p. It possesses some fine mausoleums and family vaults. Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea Cemetery, Hanwell Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea Cemetery, Hanwell is an extramural Victorian cemetery run by Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. It is situated on the north side of the Uxbridge Road on the former common land of East Field. On the grounds stands a disused chapel. The chapel, gatehouse and entrance arch were designed by Thomas Allom and executed in Kentish ragstone. There are many Victorian and Edwardian graves here. Ancient Saxon burials Middlesex as a whole has a dearth of early Saxon archaeology. However, the nearby place names of Ealing, Yeading and Harrow are of the early Saxon period, even though there are no surviving records of their presence in the Brent valley and its tributaries at this time. In 1886, during excavation of gravel on Hanwell Common, seven Saxon graves were discovered. They were found approximately where Oaklands Primary School stands today. Of these burials, it is thought that at least three were men with iron spears. Gold-plated copper alloy brooches were also found and may be seen in the Museum of London. They have been dated to between the 5th and the mid 6th century and attest to the age of this Saxon settlement in Hanwell. However, when they were first uncovered, it led some historians to suppose that these were warriors slain in battle. Especially since some 50 iron spears were found close by. In Victorian times they only had the written records to go on, and, as no mention of Saxon occupation in Middlesex appear for this period, it was a reasonable hypothesis to consider, even though there was no evidence for this fanciful idea that any had died in battle. Archaeological evidence has since shown that Saxons were already present in small numbers along the River Thames generations earlier. Yet the colourful tale of the Battle of Bloody Croft (given as circa AD 572) circulates locally to this day. Bloody Croft alludes to a small former common field called Blood Croft. This used to lie between the present-day golf links to the west, Greenford Avenue to the east, and is partly covered by the northern half of the present-day Grove Avenue, which itself is 1.5 km to the nor-nor west of the burial site. Since ancient times, pigs were let loose into the woods that once stood upon Cuckoo Hill, to feed upon the acorns and roots therein. This practice was even recorded in the Domesday Book entry for Hanwell. Therefore, the name may just allude to the place, where they were then slaughtered during the Saxon lunar blood month, which falls around November. Blotmonað: blot blood or a sacrifice, monað month. The English Place-Name Society found in its search of the Hanwell records an earlier name for the field, which was Blood Cut Meadow. Their only comment is "possibly 'land on which veterinary phlebotomy was practised.'" Schools Schools in Hanwell include: Brentside High School, Drayton Manor High School (which later adopted as its own the motto the Hanwell Council's motto of nec aspera terrent ("Hardships do not deter us")), Elthorne Park High School, Hobbayne Primary School, Brentside Primary Academy, London Welsh School, Mayfield Primary School, Ealing Fields High School, Oaklands Primary School, Oaklands Junior School, St Josephs RC Primary School, St Mark's Primary School., Lycée Français Malraux School (part of the Lycée Français Charles de Gaulle independent French co-education schools) The Hanwell Carnival The Hanwell Carnival was established in 1898. Held on the third Saturday of each June, it was founded to raise funds for the Cottage Hospital (now Ealing Hospital). It foundered during World War II but was then resurrected in 1961 with the help of circus showman Billy Smart. Now a popular annual event, it has grown to become the second-largest carnival in London after Notting Hill. It starts with a procession of decorated floats that travel from Hanwell Community Centre to Elthorne Park, where a show arena hosts various events, which often includes dance and demonstrations put on by local groups. Local charities and organisations have stalls and a real beer tent. For further entertainment, a stage hosts live musicians and bands. On the west side of the park are children's rides. Proving very popular also is the well-attended dog show. The craft fair offers an assortment of artisan-created items. For teenagers, there is a funfair. Beating the bounds Also, to remind all those who do dwell in these parts, where the Parish of Hanwell's boundaries lay, they invite all-comers to go beating the bounds with them. This ancient ceremony is performed on the May Bank Holiday. As a bonus, it starts and finishes at a pub. Annual Easter beer festival A small beer festival is held each Easter weekend down at the far end of Green Lane at "The Fox Pub", which features about two dozen cask beers from chosen around the country. Hanwell Hootie In 2013 a plaque was unveiled near the Hanwell Clock Tower to honour Jim Marshall, the founder of Marshall Amplification, who opened his first store in Hanwell in 1962. To commemorate the unveiling the nearby pubs hosted a live music festival with local bands and musicians dubbed the Hanwell Hootie. The event was so successful that it was repeated the following year with more pubs taking part, and in 2015 every pub in Hanwell was included, with even some coffee shops and delicatessens joining in. The festival has now become an annual event, with the 2019 edition taking place on 11 May. Sport, leisure and media Hanwell is represented by Non-League football club Hanwell Town F.C., which plays at the Reynolds Field, in Perivale. Nicknamed 'The Geordies' the club was formed in 1920 by a group of natives of Newcastle-upon-Tyne who were working in the Hanwell area, who adopted the famous black and white stripes of Newcastle United as their colours. They play in the Isthmian League South Central Division. There is also an amateur rugby team, Hanwell RFC (Middlesex Merit Table Division 3), who play at Boston Manor Playing Fields. A community radio station, Westside 89.6FM serves the local area from studios based at Clocktower Mews. In popular culture Hanwell has been the filming location for a number of films and television programmes: Broken Lines (2008): From 7–14 July 2007 the Hanwell's First Choice Cafe on the corner of Hanwell Broadway was converted into the Broadway Café for this film, starring Paul Bettany and Olivia Williams. Bridget Jones's Diary (2001): Used City of Westminster Cemetery, Hanwell as one of its many London locations. Staggered (1994): Starred Martin Clunes as a man late for his own wedding. St Mary's was used for most of the church shots. Shine on Harvey Moon (1993) for ITV television: This was a period drama series set in the 1940s. The funeral sequences were also filmed at St Mary's. Peep Show: The Dolphin pub (series three, episode four, now The Green W7) and the exterior and interior of St Mary's church for Sophie and Mark's wedding (series four, episode six). Billy Elliot (2000): the top floor of the Hanwell Community Centre was used for filming the interior shots of the Everington Boys' Club, where Billy attends boxing and dance practices. Extras: The Dolphin pub (now The Green W7). Internal shots twice during an episode starring David Bowie. Brush Strokes: This 1980's TV series filmed in St Margarets Road and surrounding streets. Carry On Constable (1960): Used many locations around Ealing, with Hanwell Library serving for the exterior shots of their police station. St. Mary's was also used for exterior shots. Scenes were also filmed in York Road close to St Joseph's Primary school resulting in a cast visit to deter curious pupils from interrupting the filming schedule. A disused factory some 200 metres North of the school was the location of the crooks' hideout. Carry On Teacher (1959): The Maudlin Street School exterior scenes were shot at Drayton School, Drayton Grove, West Ealing. Birth of the Beatles (1979) The upstairs reception room in the Park Hotel in Greenford Road (now demolished) was used as the scene for The Beatles audition where they met Rory Storm and Ringo Starr. The disused Variety Theatre adjoining the pub was adapted to depict the Kaiserkeller in Hamburg. German graffiti added for the film remained until the pub was demolished in the mid-1980s. In literature "Hanwell" is often used instead of "Hanwell Asylum". Otherwise Hanwell may be referred to as a point of reference in the space. THE FLOWER GIRL [still preoccupied with her wounded feelings] He's no right to take away my character. My character is the same to me as any lady's. THE NOTE TAKER. I don't know whether you've noticed it; but the rain stopped about two minutes ago. THE BYSTANDER. So it has. Why didn't you say so before? and us losing our time listening to your silliness. [He walks off towards the Strand]. THE SARCASTIC BYSTANDER. I can tell where you come from. You come from Anwell. Go back there. THE NOTE TAKER [helpfully] Hanwell. THE SARCASTIC BYSTANDER [affecting great distinction of speech] Thenk you, teacher. Haw haw! So long [he touches his hat with mock respect and strolls off]. — Pygmalion, George Bernard Shaw, 1912 A traveller describes his passage through the Lands of Dream: Hanwell is depicted in the opening story of "An Unreliable Guide to London", published in 2016 by Influx Press: "All these goings-on in Hanwell buzz around the Clock Tower. Walk past it and you’ll hear the town giving up its secrets in a tumble that sounds like a rush of water. Careful, you know you can catch rumour like a cold." "Beating the Bounds", Aki Schilz. In video games "Welcome to Hanwell" is a 2017 survival horror game. Political representation Hanwell is divided between two parliamentary constituencies: Ealing North (which covers Hanwell north of the railway line to Paddington), represented since 1997 by Labour Member of Parliament (MP) Stephen Pound until his retirement in 2019. Stephen Pound was then succeeded by Labour James Murray (London politician) in December 2019. In addition, to the Ealing Southall (south of the railway line), represented since 2007 by Labour MP Virendra Sharma. Hanwell is made up of two electoral wards for local council elections: Hobbayne and Elthorne, which both elect councillors to Ealing Council. Hanwell is in the London Assembly constituency of Ealing and Hillingdon, which has one assembly member: Richard Barnes (Conservative), was re-elected in May 2008 but lost his seat to Dr Onkar Sahota (Labour) in May 2012. It is also part of the London region for the European Parliament elections. The London region elects eight MPs to the European Parliament. Transport Nearest railway stations Hanwell railway station, built c. 1875–77, has been declared a Grade II listed building by English Heritage. It is currently served by the twice-hourly TfL Rail Paddington to Heathrow service from Monday-Saturday. Hanwell railway station has been included on the Crossrail London train scheme and the station has undergone a refurbishment of its Grade II listed building, including a newly installed lift for step-free access from platform to station. It is expected when the full route opens, four Elizabeth line trains an hour will allow passengers to travel to Heathrow or through the tunnels to central London, including Southeast London and Essex. This is expected to cut journey times significantly, with a train journey from Hanwell to Canary Wharf taking only 31 minutes. Castle Bar Park and Drayton Green railway stations also serve the town with twice-hourly trains from Monday-Saturday. Greenford railway station First Great Western trains to Paddington known by elderly locals as the Push Pull because when steam trains were used on this line they did not turn around for the return journey but went backwards PUSH. Nearest Underground stations Boston Manor (Piccadilly line). Ealing Broadway (Central line, District line) Northfields (Piccadilly line) Perivale (Central line) Nearest Bus Services Hanwell is served by three main bus routes; London Buses route E3, London Buses route E1 and London Buses route E11. Bus stops for the London Buses route 207 and London Buses route 607 are also only a 7-minute walk away from Hanwell station. These buses have routes that run to Shepherd's Bush Interchange, which includes White City bus station and provide a direct route to Westfield London Shopping Centre. Hanwell residents past and present Steve Benbow (1931–2006), folk guitar player, singer and music director Edward Augustus Bond (1815–1898), born in Hanwell; librarian and palaeographer; co-founded the Palaeographical Society Al Bowlly, singer; buried with other WW2 bombing victims in a mass grave in the City of Westminster Cemetery, Uxbridge Road, Hanwell The Brand New Heavies, acid jazz band, members attended Drayton Manor High School Charlie Chaplin, actor; was boarded at and attended the Central London District School (Cuckoo Schools), Hanwell, June 1896 – January 1898 Derwent Coleridge, distinguished scholar, author; rector at Hanwell John Conolly, superintendent at the Hanwell Asylum, 1839–1844; ran a private asylum at Lawn House, Hanwell Henry Corby, businessman and politician; born in 1806 at Hanwell; died 25 October 1881 at Belleville, Ontario, Canada Peter Crouch, footballer; attended Drayton Manor High School Deep Purple, rock band, rehearsed for their 1970 album Deep Purple in Rock in the Hanwell Community Centre; promotional photographs for the album were taken in the grounds Declan Donnellan, theatre director and founder of Cheek by Jowl; lived in Cowper Road Ella Eyre (McMahon), singer of "Waiting all Night" by Rudimental Freddie Frinton, comedian; buried in Westminster Cemetery Jonas Hanway, writer, philanthropist and the first man to carry an umbrella in London; buried in the crypt of St Mary's Church Jimi Hendrix, owned a house in Hanwell, but never lived in it Philip Jackson, actor Anna Brownell Jameson, writer and feminist The Magic Numbers, indie-pop band Jim Marshall (1923–2012), had a small shop in Hanwell where he started manufacturing and selling his world-famous amplifiers; in an interview for Musicians Hotline, said "So many players came to my Hanwell shop, it was almost like a rock and roll labour exchange because a lot of groups were formed there." Henry Maudsley (1835–1918), pioneering English psychiatrist; ran John Conolly's private asylum at Lawn House, Hanwell, 1866–1874 Steve McQueen, artist and film director; attended Drayton Manor High School Philip "Swill" Odgers, vocalist and acoustic guitarist with British folk punk group The Men They Couldn't Hang (TMTCH); long time Hanwell resident Fred Secombe (1918–2016), one-time vicar of St. Marys church, Hanwell; born in Swansea; elder brother of the late Sir Harry Secombe; since retiring, has written seven books, in a style that has had him referred to as 'the ecclesiastical James Herriott' Sir Montagu Sharpe, lived at Brent Lodge; historian and one time president of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society; on local history he wrote the books Bygone Hanwell; The Great Ford of the lower Thames; Middlesex in Roman and Saxon Times and Middlesex in the Domesday Book Daniel Hack Tuke: distinguished mental doctor; related to the line of Tukes who founded the York Retreat Henry Scott Tuke, RA, son of Daniel Tuke; painter; both lived at Golden Manor Rick Wakeman, keyboardist for the band Yes; never lived in Hanwell, but attended Drayton Manor Grammar School on Drayton Bridge Road, leaving in 1966 Brian Whelan, painter, author and filmmaker; lived in two locations in Hanwell while growing up William Frederick Yeames RA, artist known for having painted And When Did You Last See Your Father?; lived at 8 Campbell Road, where there is a blue plaque to commemorate the fact; one-time churchwarden of St Mary's church References External links Official Hanwell Carnival website Hanwell: Introduction, A History of the County of Middlesex: Volume 3: Shepperton, Staines, Stanwell, Sunbury, Teddington, Heston and Isleworth, Twickenham, Cowley, Cranford, West Drayton, Greenford, Hanwell, Harefield and Harlington (1962), pp. 220–24. Retrieved 24 June 2006. Areas of London Districts of the London Borough of Ealing Places formerly in Middlesex

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southall

Southall

Southall () is a large suburban district of West London, England, part of the London Borough of Ealing and is one of its seven major towns. It is situated west of Charing Cross and had a population of 69,857 as of 2011. It is generally divided in three parts: the mostly residential area around Lady Margaret Road (Dormers Wells); the main commercial centre at High Street and Southall Broadway (part of the greater Uxbridge Road); and Old Southall/Southall Green to the south consisting of Southall railway station, industries and Norwood Green bounded by the M4. It was historically a municipal borough of Middlesex administered from Southall Town Hall until 1965. Southall is located on the Grand Union Canal (formerly the Grand Junction Canal) which first linked London with the rest of the growing canal system. It was one of the last canals to carry significant commercial traffic (through the 1950s) and is still open to traffic and is used by pleasure craft. The canal separates it from Hayes on the west, whereas to the east the River Brent separates the town from Hanwell. From the 1950s the town's local factories and proximity to Heathrow Airport attracted large numbers of Asian immigrants; the town eventually became home to the largest Punjabi community outside the Indian subcontinent and is today a major centre of South Asian culture, having gained the nickname Little India. Toponymy The name Southall derives from the Anglo-Saxon dative æt súð healum, "At the south corner (of the land or wood)" and súð heal, "South corner" and separates it from Northolt which was originally norþ heal, "North corner" which through a later association with Anglo-Saxon holt, "wood, copse" developed into Northolt. It appears as Suhaull in 1198, and Sudhale in 1204, and as Southold on the Oxfordshire Sheldon tapestry from the late 1580s. The district of Southall has many other Anglo-Saxon place-names such as Elthorne and Waxlow. Its earliest record, from ad 830, is of Warberdus bequeathing Norwood Manor and Southall Manor to the archbishops of Canterbury. History Southall formed part of the chapelry of Norwood in the ancient parish of Hayes, in the Elthorne hundred of the historic county of Middlesex. For Poor Law it was grouped into the Uxbridge Union and was within Uxbridge Rural Sanitary District from 1875. The chapelry of Norwood had functioned as a separate parish since the Middle Ages. On 16 January 1891 the parish adopted the Local Government Act 1858 and the Southall Norwood Local Government District was formed. In 1894 it became the Southall Norwood Urban District. In 1936 the urban district was granted a charter of incorporation and became a municipal borough, renamed Southall. In 1965 the former area of the borough was merged with that of the boroughs of Ealing and Acton to form the London Borough of Ealing in Greater London. The southern part of Southall (roughly south of the railway) used to be known as either Old Southall or Southall Green (and a section of the main north–south road in the area is still called The Green) and was centred on the historic Grade II* listed Tudor-styled Manor House which dates back to at least 1587. A building survey has shown much of the building is original, dating back to the days when Southall Green was becoming a quiet rural village. Minor 19th and 20th century additions exist in some areas. It is currently used as serviced offices. The extreme southernmost part of Southall is known as Norwood Green. It has few industries and is mainly a residential area, having remained for many years mainly agricultural whilst the rest of Southall developed industrially. Norwood Green borders, and part is inside, the London Borough of Hounslow. The main east west road through the town is Uxbridge Road (A4020), though the name changes in the main shopping area to The Broadway and for an even shorter section to High Street. Uxbridge Road was part of the main London to Oxford stagecoach route for many years and remained the main route to Oxford until the building of the Western Avenue highway to the north of Southall in the first half of the 20th century. First horse drawn, then electric trams (until 1936) and, then, electric trolleybuses, gave Southall residents and workers quick and convenient transport along Uxbridge Road in the first half of the 20th century before they were replaced by standard diesel-engined buses in 1960. 19th century The opening of the Grand Junction Canal (later renamed Grand Union Canal) as the major freight transport route between London and Birmingham in 1796 began a commercial boom, intensified by the arrival of Brunel's Great Western Railway in 1839, leading to the establishment and growth of brick factories, flour mills and chemical plants which formed the town's commercial base. In 1877, the Martin Brothers set up a ceramics factory in an old soap works next to the canal and until 1923, produced distinctive ceramics now known and collected as Martinware. A branch railway line from Southall railway station to the Brentford Dock on the Thames was also built by Isambard Kingdom Brunel in 1856. It features one of his (impressive for the period) engineering works, the Three Bridges (although it is still often referred to on maps by the original canal crossing name of Windmill Bridge). where Windmill Lane, the railway and the Grand Union Canal all intersect – the canal being carried over the railway line cutting below in a cast-iron trough and a new cast-iron road-bridge going over both. Brunel died shortly after its completion. Sections of his bell-section rail can still be seen on the southern side being used as both fencing posts and a rope rail directly under the road bridge itself. It is listed as a Scheduled Ancient Monument. The other notable local construction by Brunel is the Wharncliffe Viaduct which carries the Great Western Railway across the River Brent towards London and which was Brunel's first major structural design. Otto Monsted, a Danish margarine manufacturer, built a large factory at Southall in 1894. The factory was called the Maypole Dairy, and eventually grew to become one of the largest margarine manufacturing plants in the world, occupying a site at its peak. The factory also had its own railway sidings and branch canal. The Maypole Dairy Company site was later acquired by Lever Brothers who, as part of the multinational Unilever company, converted the site to a Wall's Sausages factory which produced sausages and other meat products through until the late 1980s. 20th century At the beginning of the twentieth century, the old parish church of Southall, St John's, which had been rebuilt in 1837–8, was found to be too small for its congregation and, as a result, emigrated to a new building in Church Avenue, which was completed in 1910. The original church building, in Western Road, is now a youth centre. In the 1920s and 1930s Southall was the destination of many Welsh migrants escaping from the harsh economic conditions in that part of the country. For many years, Welsh accents were very commonplace in the area. On the eastern boundary of Southall was the Hanwell Asylum, once the world's largest asylum for the mentally ill. It was considered in its day to be a progressive institution with a good success rate for treatment. As attitudes to and treatment for mental illness improved, the site was renamed St. Bernard's Hospital. In the late 1970s, the site was extensively redeveloped, with most of the area now taken up by the Ealing Hospital. St. Bernard's still operates a large facility on part of the site under the West London Mental Health (NHS) Trust. During World War II Southall was the target of enemy bombing on a number of occasions. A German V-1 flying bomb destroyed a number of houses in Regina Road, killing the occupants. Bomb shelters and bunkers were built during the war, close to or under most schools and public buildings, and in gardens of numerous private homes. The bunkers at Hamborough Primary School were expanded during the Cold War, to become the North West Group War HQ for the London area Civil Defence organisation and the London Borough of Ealing Emergency Control Centre. This facility is now disused. In 1950, the first group of South Asians arrived in Southall, reputedly recruited to work in a local factory owned by a former British Indian Army officer. This South Asian population grew, due to the closeness of expanding employment opportunities such as Heathrow Airport. The most significant cultural group to settle in Southall are Asians. According to the Commission for Racial Equality, over 55% of Southall's population of 70,000 is Indian/Pakistani. By 1976 two-thirds of children in Southall were non-white, and in 1982 it was reported 65% of Southall's 83,000 residents were of Asian origin. Accidents and racial tensions On 2 September 1958 at 7:10 am, a pilot of a Vickers VC.1 Viking V624 (G-AIJE), which had just taken off from Heathrow Airport, reported that he had engine trouble. Some minutes later it crashed into a row of houses in Kelvin Gardens. It was on a cargo flight carrying aero engines to Tel Aviv and carried no passengers; however, the three crew members and four people on the ground were killed. One of the surviving occupants, 14-year-old Brian Gibbons, was later awarded the George Medal for bravery, as well as the Carnegie Award. The accident was due to poor maintenance, and caused the company, Independent Air Travel, to fail in October 1959. The 1970s saw racial tensions in the area; in 1976 Sikh teenager Gurdip Singh Chaggar was killed in a racist attack. On 23 April 1979, Blair Peach, a teacher and anti-racist activist, was killed after being knocked unconscious during a protest against the National Front (NF). Another demonstrator, Clarence Baker – a singer of the reggae band Misty in Roots, remained in a coma for five months. More than 40 others – including 21 police – were injured, and 300 were arrested. On 4 July 1981, a race riot was sparked at the Hambrough Tavern on the Broadway. Local Asian youths mistakenly believed that a concert featuring the Oi! bands The Business, The Last Resort and The 4-Skins was a white power event. Additionally, the venue had recently been sued for barring non-white customers, and local youths had heard that skinheads arriving for the concert had harassed other youths and women. More than 200 skinheads had travelled by bus from East London, and a few of them smashed shop windows, wrote NF slogans around the area, and shouted neo-Nazi slogans while using bricks and clubs to attack Asian youths who had gathered in opposition to the gig. This was one of several high-profile riots in Britain that year. Although some of the skinheads were NF or British Movement supporters, among the 500 or so concert-goers were also left-wing skinheads, black skinheads, punk rockers, rockabillies and non-affiliated youths. Some of the approximately 400 Asians threw petrol bombs and other objects, and five hours of rioting left 120 people injured – including 60 police officers – and the tavern burnt down. The Southall rail crash occurred on 19 September 1997 when a First Great Western mainline high speed express train from Swansea to London Paddington ran a red signal, when the driver's attention was distracted, and it collided with a goods train just outside Southall railway station. Seven people died and 139 were injured. Economic history The Quaker Oats Company built a factory in Southall in 1936. Part of the operation that made pet foods was sold to Spiller's in 1994, and the remainder to Big Bear Group in 2006. The site continues to produce brands such as Honey Monster Puffs. Other engineering, paint and food processing factories prospered for many years, mostly alongside the railway and/or canal. A collection of Martinware – salt-glazed stoneware, and birds – is on display at Southall Library. Southall was the home of Southall Studios, one of the earliest British film studios. It played a historic role in film-making from its creation in 1924 to its closure in 1959. In 1936, a fire destroyed the studio but it was rebuilt and enlarged. Numerous feature films (many featuring famous or later-to-be-famous actors) and the early TV series Colonel March of Scotland Yard were made at the studios, as were TV and cinema adverts. There has been a locomotive works at the Southall Depot for nearly 150 years. Originally a Great Western Railway shed, it was possibly the last London steam depot, outlasting Old Oak Common and Stewarts Lane depots. The shed was accessible from the footbridge, spanning the whole set of lines, situated just off the Eastern end of the platforms. The depot was later used for DMU maintenance and as a base for the electrification programme. Currently the site, now referred to as the Southall Railway Centre, is used by two independent groups; Locomotive Services Limited and West Coast Railways. Bus and commercial vehicle manufacturer Associated Equipment Company (AEC) was based in Southall, on a triangular site between Windmill Lane, the Great Western Main Line and the branch to Brentford Dock. The company moved there from Walthamstow in 1926 and closed in 1979 after losing market share whilst part of the giant but inefficient British Leyland group. The site was noticeable to railway passengers and to motorists on Uxbridge Road due to large signs proclaiming "AEC – Builders of London's Buses for 50 years". A major gas works manufacturing town gas was located between the railway and the canal. In 1932 a large gasholder was built, becoming a local landmark until its demolition in 2019. Painted on the north east side of the gasholder are the large letters 'LH' and an arrow to assist pilots locate Heathrow Airport's (now closed) runway 23 when making visual approaches. The letters were painted in the mid 1960s after a number of pilots became confused between Heathrow and the nearby RAF Northolt (which has a similar, though smaller, gasholder under its approach at Harrow). Northolt has a much shorter runway and is not suitable for very large aircraft although one Boeing 707 did land at Northolt by mistake and a number of other aircraft had to be warned off by air traffic control at the last minute. Since town gas production ceased in the 1970s with the arrival of natural gas piped from the North Sea, much of the site has been vacant, due to limited road access and remaining gas infrastructure. Culture Since the end of World War II, Southall has become largely a South Asian residential district, sometimes known as "Little India". Along with its Indian and Pakistani population who mostly hail from the Punjab, the town has more recently also become home to Afghan, Sri Lankan and Somali communities. In addition, the signs on the main railway station are bilingual in English and Gurmukhi, which is one of the written scripts of Punjabi. The main street in Southall is called The Broadway, while a smaller commercial area exists in Old Southall on King Street. Southall contains one of the largest South Asian shopping area in the region, comparable to Green Street, East London or Ealing Road, Wembley. Southall is home to London's largest Sikh community There are ten Sikh Gurdwaras in Southall. The Gurdwara Sri Guru Singh Sabha, which opened in 2003, is one of the largest Sikh gurdwaras outside India, and it won the Ealing Civic Society Architectural Award in 2003. There are two large Hindu 'Mandir' temples, the Vishnu Hindu Mandir on Lady Margaret Road and the Ram Mandir in Old Southall. There are more than ten Christian churches including 5 Anglican, one Roman Catholic (St Anselm's Church), Baptist, Methodist and several Pentecostal or Independent. There are six Mosques 'Masjids' in Southall, the Abubakr Mosque situated on Southall broadway, the Central Jamia Masjid Mosque, which is the oldest, the Jamia Masjid Islamic Centre, the Red Sea Mosque on the Green, and Dar al Salam on Norwood Road and also the Baithul Mukaram mosque near Lidl. The Tudor Rose, Southall is a nightclub and venue that caters for the local British African-Caribbean community. It opened as a cinema in 1910 and was converted to its current premises in 1983. Other notable local pubs include The Three Horseshoes in Southall Broadway, by the architect Nowell Parr which closed in 2017. Media There are two local community radio stations servicing Southall; Westside 89.6 FM, licensed by Ofcom as part of their drive towards community-based radio services, broadcasts urban music and was formerly based in Southall (now in Hanwell), and Desi Radio which predominantly broadcasts in Punjabi and is available throughout West London on 1602 AM and on DAB across Greater London. Sunrise Radio, broadcasting for the wider Asian community nationally, was until recently based in Southall now having moved to nearby Hounslow. Some non-English newspapers for the community in Southall are also in circulation including Des Pardes, a Punjabi-language paper. A writer of Des Pardes, Tarsem Singh Purewal was killed in Southall in 1995. In film and TV Southall was the main location for the film Bend It Like Beckham. Southall was also the location of a Glassy Junction public house, which was the first pub in the UK to accept Indian Rupees as payment. The Glassy Junction closed down in 2011 and has since been replaced by an international South Indian restaurant chain. Southall has also appeared in other Bollywood films as well, including Patiala House and Goal!. Sport The local football club Southall F.C. has a long history, having been formed in 1871 and nurtured past players such as Les Ferdinand, who went on to play for the national team. and as of 2018–19, they currently play in the Premier Division of the Combined Counties Football League. Demography In the 2011 census, Southall was recorded as having a resident population of 28,018 across the Southall Broadway and Southall Green wards. Of these 76.1% are Asian or Asian British, 9.6% are Black or Black British and 7.5% are White or White British, with the remaining 6.8% of the population divided between Arabs, Mixed/multiple ethnic groups, and other ethnic groups. 60.1% of the population were born outside of the UK and the EU. At the 2011 Census, Southall Broadway ward had the lowest proportion of White British residents of anywhere in the UK – at 472 out of 13,439 or 3.5%. 93.7% of Southall Broadway's population was BAME (Black, Asian and minority Ethnic) and it was 91.4% in Southall Green. In terms of religion, the most common religious affiliation is Sikhism, with 35.4% of the population. This is followed by Islam at 24.9%, Hinduism at 18.6%, and Christianity at 12.9%. Only 2% of residents profess no faith, the lowest figure anywhere in London. 9.8% of the population are students and 7.8% are retired. 7% are self-employed. 53.2% are male and 46.8% are female. Notable people Musicians H Dhami, Bhangra singer Channi Singh OBE, the "godfather of bhangra" Ms Scandalous, rapper/MC, born in Southall in 1983 Juggy D, bhangra singer Cleo Laine, jazz singer and actress, born in Southall in 1927 and brought up in Clarence Street, and attended Featherstone Road School Rishi Rich, music producer Misty in Roots, reggae band, started there in the early 1970s Jay Sean or Kamaljeet Singh Jhooti (birth name), R&B singer, was raised there Kuljit Bhamra MBE, composer, record producer and musician, educated at Southall Grammar School (now Villiers High School) The Ruts, punk band from the late 1970s Ian D'Sa, guitarist of punk rock band Billy Talent Ray Dorset, singer of British rock group Mungo Jerry Panjabi Hit Squad, Dj, Producers and artists Ash King, Singer Writers Mike Ashley, author and editor Kwame Kwei-Armah, playwright and actor Rupinderpal Singh Dhillon, poet Tim Lott, author (his debut The Scent of Dried Roses is about growing up in Southall), he was born there in 1956 Harjeet Atwal, author Amarjit Chandan poet and translator Television and film Daljit Dhaliwal, newsreader and journalist Nick Knowles, television personality Joseph Marcell, American television personality ("Fresh Prince of Bel Air" and English theatre actor) Actress Hayley Mills lived at Friars Lawn, at Norwood Green, Southall, in the late 1970s to 1980 Gurinder Chadha OBE, film director, Southall area is the setting for many of her films involving the British Asian community Stewart Bevan, actor, screenwriter, lyricist and poet grew up in Southall Politicians Sir Leslie Murphy (1915–2007) was born in Southall and educated at Southall Grammar School (now Villiers High School). He became a prominent businessman, merchant banker, influential civil servant and a founder member of the Social Democratic Party. He was knighted in 1978. Syd Bidwell represented Southall in parliament from 1966 to 1992, succeeded by Piara Khabra from 1992 to 2007 and Virendra Sharma from 2007 onwards. Radio station owner Avtar Lit stood as a parliamentary candidate; his son Tony Lit followed in his footsteps, standing in the 2007 by-election. Others Les Ferdinand, England footballer, once played for Southall FC. Paul Canoville, English footballer, first black player to play for Chelsea F.C. Brett Ewins, comic book artist. Trevor Baylis OBE, the inventor of the Clockwork Radio grew up in the suburb. Carole Middleton, mother of The Duchess of Cambridge lived, as a child, on Clarence Street and was educated at Featherstone Primary and High Schools. Local landmarks Wharncliffe Viaduct. An imposing structure and high. Situated the north side of Uxbridge Road on the boundary with Hanwell. Manor House, The Green, Southall, UB2 4BJ Southall Town Hall Isambard Kingdom Brunel's Three Bridges Golf Links Estate. A 1960s housing development, at one time had the highest crime rate in the Borough of Ealing. Was hit by fire twice, in 1996 and 2008. Naval gun on the junction of Tentelow Lane with Windmill Lane. Gurdwara Sri Guru Singh Sabha. The largest Sikh gurdwara (temple) found outside Asia. Political representation Southall is part of the parliamentary constituency of Ealing Southall, represented since 2007 by Labour Member of Parliament Virendra Sharma. Southall is made up of five electoral wards for local council elections: Dormers Wells, Lady Margaret, Norwood Green, Southall Broadway and Southall Green, which all elect councillors to Ealing Council. Southall is in the London Assembly constituency of Ealing and Hillingdon which has one assembly member: Richard Barnes (Conservative), who was re-elected in May 2008. Geography and transport Nearby places include Hayes, Hanwell, Hounslow, Greenford, Northolt and Ealing The area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London. Southall is served by Southall railway station on the Great Western Main Line, providing links to and from Heathrow Airport, Reading and Oxford as well as London Paddington. The nearest London Underground to the town centre is Osterley station, on the Piccadilly line, which is located approximately to the south. Frequent bus services link Southall with all neighbouring suburbs and Heathrow Airport. There is an express coach service between Southall, Leicester and Birmingham which specialises in serving the many family connections in both areas' South Asian populations. Education Schools in Southall Villiers High School, located in the area Dormers Wells High School – located on Dormers Wells Lane. Ealing, Hammersmith and West London College, a campus is located on Beaconsfield Road in Southall. Featherstone High School, located in the area Acorn House College, located in the area Ayesha Siddiqa Girls School, located in the Abu Bakr Mosque See also Blair Peach, anti-racist campaigner was killed in a demonstration in Southall on Monday 23 April 1979. Southall rail crash References Further reading British History Online: 'Norwood, including Southall: Introduction', A History of the County of Middlesex: Volume 4 (1971) Southall Town Hall UK Polling Report Guide to the Ealing Southall constituency External links Image of the former Gas holder showing the LH directions on the side Southall in World War II (at the BBC) Southall History The Southall Story website Des Pardes (lit. Home and Abroad), a Punjabi-language weekly newspaper based in Southall Areas of London Districts of the London Borough of Ealing Food processing in London Major centres of London Places formerly in Middlesex

96987

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson%20County%2C%20Colorado

Jefferson County, Colorado

Jefferson County, is a county located in the U.S. state of Colorado. As of the 2020 census, the population was 582,910, making it the fourth-most populous county in Colorado. The county seat is Golden, and the most populous city is Lakewood. Jefferson County is included in the Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area. Located along the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains, Jefferson County is adjacent to the state capital of Denver. In 2010, the center of population of Colorado was located in Jefferson County. The county's slogan is the "Gateway to the Rocky Mountains", and it is commonly nicknamed Jeffco. The name Jeffco is incorporated in the name of the Jeffco School District, the Jeffco Business Center Metropolitan District No. 1, and several businesses located in Jefferson County. Jeffco is also incorporated in the unofficial monikers of many Jefferson County agencies. The Rocky Mountain Metropolitan Airport operated by Jefferson County was previously known as the Jeffco Airport. A major employer in Jefferson County is the large Coors Brewing Company in Golden. Also, the state-supported Colorado School of Mines is located in Jefferson County, focusing on topics such as mining, geology, chemistry, and engineering. History On August 25, 1855, the Kansas Territorial Legislature created Arapahoe County to govern the entire western portion of the territory. The county was named for the Arapaho Nation of Native Americans that lived in the region. On June 22, 1858, gold was discovered along the South Platte River in Arapahoe County (in present-day Englewood). This discovery precipitated the Pike's Peak Gold Rush. Many residents of the mining region felt disconnected from the remote territorial governments of Kansas and Nebraska, so they voted to form their own Territory of Jefferson on October 24, 1859. The following month, the Jefferson Territorial Legislature organized 12 counties for the new territory, including Jefferson County. Jefferson County was named for the namesake of the Jefferson Territory, Thomas Jefferson, the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and the nation's third president. Golden City served as the county seat of Jefferson County. Robert Williamson Steele, Governor of the Provisional Government of the Territory of Jefferson from 1859 to 1861, built his home in the county at Mount Vernon and later at Apex. The Jefferson Territory never received federal sanction, but during his last week in office, President James Buchanan signed an act which organized the Territory of Colorado on February 28, 1861. That November 1, the new Colorado General Assembly organized the 17 original counties of Colorado, including a new Jefferson County. In 1908, the southern tip of Jefferson County was transferred to Park County, reducing Jefferson County to its present length of . Several annexations by the City & County of Denver and the 2001 consolidation of the City & County of Broomfield removed the east and extreme northeastern corner of the county, respectively. Geography According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (1.3%) is water. Adjacent counties Jefferson County is one of the few counties in the United States to border as many as ten counties. Boulder County - north City and County of Broomfield - northeast Adams County - east City and County of Denver - east Arapahoe County - east Douglas County - east Teller County - south Park County - southwest Clear Creek County - west Gilpin County - northwest Major highways Interstate 70 U.S. Highway 6 U.S. Highway 40 U.S. Highway 285 State Highway 8 State Highway 58 State Highway 72 State Highway 74 State Highway 75 State Highway 93 State Highway 121 State Highway 391 State Highway 470 Chatfield Ave 44th Ave Recreational areas Alderfer/Three Sisters Park Apex Park Bear Creek Lake Park Centennial Cone Park Clear Creek Canyon Park Coal Creek Canyon Crown Hill Park Deer Creek Canyon Park Elk Meadow Park Evergreen Lake Fairmount Trail Flying J Ranch Park Hildebrand Ranch Park Hiwan Homestead Museum Lair o' the Bear Park Lewis Meadows Park Lookout Mountain Nature Center Matthews/Winters Park Meyer Ranch Park Mount Falcon Park Mount Galbraith Park Mount Glennon Mount Lindo North Table Mountain Park Pine Valley Ranch Park Ranson/Edwards Homestead Ranch Reynolds Park Sister City Park South Table Mountain Park South Valley Park Standley Lake Regional Park Van Bibber Park Welchester Tree Grant Park White Ranch Park Windy Saddle Park Urban Trails Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 527,056 people, 206,067 households, and 140,537 families residing in the county. The population density was 683 people per square mile (264 people/km²). There were 212,488 housing units at an average density of 275 people per square mile (106 people/km²). The racial makeup of the county was {| |- | || || White |- | || || Black or African American |- | || || Native American |- | || || Asian |- | || || Pacific Islander |- | || || from other races |- |colspan="3;"| |- |colspan="3;"| |} There were 206,067 households, out of which 33.40% had children under age 18 living with them, 55.10% were married couples living together, 9.10% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.80% were non-families. 24.50% of all households were made up of individuals, of those 6.30% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52, and the average family size was 3.03 persons. In the county, the population ages were spread out: {| |- | || || under age 18 |- | || || aged 18–24 |- | || || from 25–44 |- | || || from 45–64 |- | || || 65 years of age or older |- |colspan="3;"| |} For every 100 females there were 99.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.80 males. The median income for a household in the county was $57,339, and the median income for a family was $67,310. Males had a median income of $45,306 versus $32,372 for females. The per capita income for the county was $28,066. About 3.40% of families and 5.20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.80% of those under age 18, and 5.10% of those age 65 or over. According to a report in the JAMA, residents of Jefferson County had a 2014 life expectancy of 80.02 years. Education Jefferson County School District R-1. Government and infrastructure The Federal Correctional Institution, Englewood is in unincorporated Jefferson County. The Rocky Flats Plant produced nuclear weapons in Jefferson County from 1952 until 1989. The Jefferson County Public Library, established in 1952. The Jefferson County Government Center, also known as the "Taj Mahal". The Denver Federal Center, the largest concentration of federal government agencies outside of Washington, D.C., is located in Lakewood. Sheriff's office The Jefferson County Sheriff's Office responded to the 1999 Columbine High School massacre, and investigated it together with the F.B.I. The Sheriff's Office received backlash after it was revealed the agency had the perpetrators Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold in and out of custody prior to the shooting. After the shooting Sue Klebold sued the Sheriff's office for failing to prevent their son from carrying out the Columbine High shootings. According to a "notice of intent to sue" filed by Susan and Thomas Klebold, county officials were "reckless, willful and wanton" in the way they handled a 1998 police report about Eric Harris' Internet ravings. This lawsuit was dismissed along with several others pertaining to the shooting. Politics Jefferson County was a Republican stronghold for most of the 20th century. However, it has voted Democratic in every presidential election since 2008, consistent with the general trend in the Denver metropolitan area. In 2020, Joe Biden won the largest percentage for a Democratic presidential candidate since 1916. Recreation State parks Chatfield State Park Golden Gate Canyon State Park Staunton State Park National forests and wilderness Pike National Forest Roosevelt National Forest Lost Creek Wilderness National wildlife refuges Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge Two Ponds National Wildlife Refuge Historic trail South Platte Trail Recreational trails American Discovery Trail Apex National Recreation Trail Big Dry Creek National Recreation Trail Colorado Trail Platte River Greenway National Recreation Trail Two Ponds National Recreation Trail Scenic byway Lariat Loop Scenic and Historic Byway Golf course Hiwan Golf Club Communities Cities Arvada (part) Edgewater Golden Lakewood Littleton (part) Westminster (part) Wheat Ridge Towns Bow Mar (part) Lakeside Morrison Mountain View Superior (part) Census-designated places Applewood Aspen Park Coal Creek (part) Columbine Dakota Ridge East Pleasant View Evergreen Fairmount Genesee Idledale Indian Hills Ken Caryl Kittredge West Pleasant View Unincorporated communities Buffalo Creek Conifer Evergreen Foxton Idledale Pine Pine Junction Plastic See also Arapahoe County, Kansas Territory Denver-Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area Front Range Urban Corridor Index of Colorado-related articles Jefferson County, Colorado Territory Jefferson County, Jefferson Territory List of statistical areas in Colorado National Register of Historic Places listings in Jefferson County, Colorado North Central Colorado Urban Area Outline of Colorado Pike's Peak Gold Rush References External links Jefferson County Government website Colorado County Evolution by Don Stanwyck Colorado Historical Society Jefferson County Open Space Parks Colorado counties 1861 establishments in Colorado Territory Denver metropolitan area Populated places established in 1861

99464

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas%20and%20Alexandra

Nicholas and Alexandra

Nicholas and Alexandra is a 1971 British epic historical drama film directed by Franklin J. Schaffner, from a screenplay written by James Goldman and Edward Bond, based on Robert K. Massie's 1967 book of the same name, which is a partial account of the last ruling Russian monarch, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, and his wife, Tsarina Alexandra. It stars Michael Jayston and Janet Suzman in the titular roles. Nicholas and Alexandra was theatrically released on 13 December 1971 by Columbia Pictures to mixed reviews and commercial failure, grossing $7 million on a $9 million budget. Regardless, the film received six nominations at the 44th Academy Awards, including for the Best Picture, and won two awards; Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design. Plot In 1904, Tsarina Alexandra Feodorovna, wife of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, gives birth to their fifth child and first son, Alexei. Despite pleas from Grand Duke Nicholas and Count Sergei Witte, Nicholas refuses to end the Russo-Japanese War or accept demands for a constitutional monarchy, believing that doing either will make him look weak. The following year, Alexandra meets Grigori Rasputin, a Siberian peasant passing as a holy man, at a gala celebrating the birthday of Dowager Empress Marie and turns to him for guidance after court physician Dr. Botkin diagnoses Alexei with haemophilia. Father Georgy Gapon organizes a workers' procession, hoping to present Nicholas with a petition calling for political representation. Armed soldiers open fire on the crowd as they approach the Winter Palace, killing hundreds. The events of Bloody Sunday, coupled with the subsequent end of the disastrous Russo-Japanese War, prompt Nicholas to create the Duma. Eight years later, Nicholas meets with Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin while holidaying at the Livadia Palace with the rest of the family. Stolypin presents Nicholas with police reports about Rasputin's dissolute behavior, which is damaging the Tsar's reputation; Nicholas dismisses Rasputin from the court. Alexandra demands his return, as she believes only Rasputin can stop Alexei's bleeding attacks, but Nicholas stands firm. The 1913 Romanov Tercentenary celebrations occur and a lavish Royal Tour across Imperial Russia ensues, but crowds are thin. Other national festivities and Church celebrations go ahead, but at an event at the Kiev Opera House, Stolypin is assassinated. Nicholas responds by executing the assassins, but also by permitting the police to terrorize the peasants and dissolving the Duma. Alexei falls at the Spała Hunting Lodge, which leads to a bleeding attack so severe that it is presumed he will die. The Tsarina writes to Rasputin, who responds with words of comfort. Alexei recovers and Rasputin returns. When World War I begins, Nicholas orders a full mobilization of the Imperial Russian Army on the German border, prompting Germany to declare war and activate a series of its alliances that escalates the war. A year later, with the war going badly for Russia, Alexandra persuades him to take personal command of the troops; he leaves for the front, taking over from his experienced cousin, Grand Duke Nicholas. Alexandra is left in charge at home and, under Rasputin's influence, makes poor decisions. Nicholas is visited by his mother Dowager Empress Feodorovna, who scolds him about neglecting domestic issues and implores him to eliminate Rasputin and send Alexandra to Livadia. Concerned about Rasputin's influence, Grand Duke Dmitri and Prince Felix Yusupov invite Rasputin to a party in December 1916. They assassinate Rasputin, albeit after several clumsy murder attempts. Even with Rasputin dead Alexandra continues her misrule. The army is ill supplied, and starving and freezing workers revolt in St. Petersburg in March 1917. Nicholas decides to return to Tsarskoye Selo too late and is forced to abdicate in his train. The family with Dr. Botkin and attendants leave Tsarskoye Selo and are exiled by Kerensky to Tobolsk in Siberia in August 1917 after Nicholas is told that none of Russia's Allies, who he applied to for political asylum, including Nicholas' own cousin George V of the United Kingdom, will grant them sanctuary because of Nicholas' past abuses of power over his people. They live in a spartan house in the tundra but with decent guards. In October 1917, Russia falls to the Bolsheviks, who intend to take the royal family to Moscow to stand trial. However, when Moscow is captured by the White Army during the Russian Civil War, the royals are diverted to Ipatiev House in Yekaterinburg. Under harsher conditions they are guarded by the cold-blooded Yakov Yurovsky. When a Soviet soldier grabs Alexei's gold chain and strikes the child, his bodyguard Nagorny leaps to his defense. Nagorny is taken away and shot, although Yurovsky promises punishment for the thief. The family receives a batch of withheld letters from friends and relatives and laugh together as they read through them. In the early hours of 17 July 1918, the Bolsheviks awaken the family and Dr. Botkin, telling them they must be transferred again. As they are waiting in the cellar, Yurovsky and his assistants enter the room and open fire. Cast Credits adapted from the American Film Institute. The Imperial Family Michael Jayston as Nicholas II, the Tsar Janet Suzman as Alexandra, his wife, the Tsarina Roderic Noble as Alexei, their son, the Tsesarevich Ania Marson as Olga, the eldest child Lynne Frederick as Tatiana, the second child Candace Glendenning as Marie, the third child. Fiona Fullerton as Anastasia, the youngest daughter. Harry Andrews as Nikolasha, Nicholas's cousin Irene Worth as Marie Fedorovna, The Queen Mother The Imperial Household Tom Baker as Grigori Rasputin Jack Hawkins as Vladimir, the Minister of the Imperial Court Timothy West as Dr. Botkin, the court physician Jean-Claude Drouot as Gilliard, the children's Swiss tutor John Hallam as Nagorny, a young sailor who is Alexis's faithful personal bodyguard Guy Rolfe as Dr. Fedorov, the Imperial Court Surgeon John Wood as Col. Kobylinsky, the Romanovs' captor Katharine Schofield as Alexandra Tegleva, the nursemaid The Statesmen Laurence Olivier as Count Witte, the Prime Minister Michael Redgrave as Sazonov, the Foreign Minister Eric Porter as Stolypin, the Prime Minister after Witte Maurice Denham as Kokovtsov, the Prime Minister after Stolypin John McEnery as Kerensky, leader of the Russian Provisional Government Gordon Gostelow as Guchkov, War Minister of the Russian Provisional Government Ralph Truman as Rodzianko, chairman of the Duma The Revolutionaries Michael Bryant as Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks Vivian Pickles as Krupskaya, Lenin's wife Brian Cox as Trotsky James Hazeldine as Stalin Ian Holm as Yakovlev Alan Webb as Yurovsky Stephen Greif as Martov Steven Berkoff as Pankratov (ru) Leon Lissek as Avadeyev David Giles as Goloshchyokin Other characters Roy Dotrice as General Alexeiev Richard Warwick as Grand Duke Dmitry, the Tsar's cousin Martin Potter as Prince Yusupov, one of Rasputin's assassins Vernon Dobtcheff as Dr. Stanislaus de Lazovert, one of Rasputin's assassins Curt Jürgens as Georg Sklarz, the German Consul to Switzerland Julian Glover as Georgy Gapon, priest and protest leader Alexander Knox as Elihu Root, the American Ambassador Ralph Neville as George Buchanan, the British Ambassador George Rigaud as Maurice Paléologue, the French Ambassador John Shrapnel as Petya, a Bolshevik proletarian Diana Quick as Sonya, Petya's wife John Forbes-Robertson as Colonel Voikov Production Development Producer Spiegel tackled Nicholas and Alexandra when he was shut out from working with director David Lean on Doctor Zhivago, which was also set against the backdrop of revolutionary Russia. Spiegel had alienated Lean when the two worked together on the film Lawrence of Arabia, pressing the perfectionist director in order to get the movie finished on time. Spiegel initially tried to make Nicholas and Alexandra without buying the rights to the book by Robert K. Massie, claiming that the historical account was in public domain but, eventually, Spiegel purchased the rights and hired writer James Goldman to adapt Massie's book as a screenplay. Goldman, who had written the popular play and film The Lion in Winter, labored on draft after draft as directors came and went (George Stevens, Anthony Harvey, Joseph Mankiewicz, Charles Jarrot, Jack Gold, Ken Russell, Lindsay Anderson, and John Boorman were all attached to the project at one point). After seeing Patton, Goldman recommended Franklin J. Schaffner. Filming Spiegel turned to former collaborators John Box for production design, and cinematographer Freddie Young (Lawrence of Arabia) to give the production the epic touch he felt it needed. Principal photography took place in Spain and Yugoslavia. Spiegel had to work with stricter budget constraints from Columbia Studios than before. He had wanted Peter O'Toole as Rasputin and Vanessa Redgrave as Alexandra but was constrained. Notable actors such as Laurence Olivier, Irene Worth, Michael Redgrave and Jack Hawkins appeared in the film, but actor Rex Harrison turned down a supporting role as too small. Tom Baker, a member of the Royal National Theatre, was recommended for the role of Rasputin by Laurence Olivier, then the director of the company. Reception Despite the detailed production design, photography, and strong performances from the cast, Nicholas and Alexandra failed to find the large audience it needed to be a financial success. However, it was chosen by the National Board of Review as one of the Top 10 Films of 1971. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 67% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 15 reviews, with an average rating of 6.20/10. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times gave it two-and-a-half stars out of four, writing "If the movie isn't exactly stirring, however, it is undeniably interesting, especially after the intermission." Halliwell's Film and Video Guide described Nicholas and Alexandra as an "inflated epic of occasional interest, mainly for its sets" and "generally heavy going", awarding it one star from a possible four. In 2013, Alex von Tunzelmann wrote for The Guardian, "Nicholas and Alexandra boasts terrific performances and gorgeous production design, but it's bloated and unwieldy. There is more history here than the film-makers know what to do with." For Radio Times, Tom Hutchinson awarded the film three stars out of five, describing it as a "sumptuous, if overlong, epic" which "shows the stretchmarks of too much padding" and "overwhelms us with its detail, though Tom Baker is a lot of fun as the leering mystic Rasputin". Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic described the film as 'flabby'. Historical accuracy There is at least one anachronism; Peter Stolypin had been assassinated in 1911, two years before the Romanov dynasty tercentenary in which he is portrayed as being alive before being assassinated. Awards and nominations Academy Awards At the 44th Academy Awards (1972), Nicholas and Alexandra won two awards of six nominations: John Box, Ernest Archer, Jack Maxsted, Gil Parrondo, Vernon Dixon won Best Art Direction. Yvonne Blake and Antonio Castillo won Best Costume Design. The film was nominated for Best Picture (Sam Spiegel), Best Actress (Janet Suzman), Best Cinematography (Freddie Young), and Best Music, Original Dramatic Score (Richard Rodney Bennett). BAFTA Awards At the 25th British Academy Film Awards (1972), Nicholas and Alexandra received three nominations: Janet Suzman was nominated for Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles. John Box was nominated for Best Art Direction. Yvonne Blake and Antonio Castillo for Best Costume Design. Golden Globe Awards At the 29th Golden Globe Awards (1972), Nicholas and Alexandra received three nominations: Tom Baker was nominated for Best Supporting Actor and New Star of the Year – Actor. Janet Suzman was nominated for New Star of the Year – Actress. Grammy Awards At the 15th Annual Grammy Awards (1973), Richard Rodney Bennett was nominated for Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or a Television Special. Home media Nicholas and Alexandra received a home video release on VHS in 1987 by RCA/Columbia Pictures Home Video and reissued in the 1990s by Columbia Tristar Home Video. Its DVD release was on 27 July 1999 from Sony Pictures Home Entertainment. The DVD featured a vintage 14-minute featurette on the production of the film and six more minutes of scenes and dialogue not found on previous VHS tapes. The film received a Blu-ray release in February 2013 from Twilight Time. The Blu-ray featured three featurettes on the production of the film covering the makeup, costume designs and actresses playing the Tsar's daughters in the film. It also contained the original theatrical trailer as well as an isolated music score. The latter was presented in stereo even though the sound on the Blu-ray was presented in mono. The Blu-ray release was limited to only 3,000 copies. This film is also available for sale or rent as a video online download through both Amazon and Apple's iTunes Store, with Amazon's online file containing the six more minutes of scenes and dialogue that Apple's iTunes file doesn't. Soundtrack This soundtrack was written by Richard Rodney Bennett. References External links 1971 films British films English-language films 1970s biographical drama films 1970s historical drama films British biographical drama films British epic films British historical drama films Biographical films about Russian royalty Cultural depictions of Nicholas II of Russia Cultural depictions of Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia Films about Grigori Rasputin Cultural depictions of Vladimir Lenin Cultural depictions of Joseph Stalin Films about capital punishment Films directed by Franklin J. Schaffner Films produced by Sam Spiegel Films scored by Richard Rodney Bennett Films set in Poland Films set in the 1900s Films set in the 1910s Cultural depictions of Leon Trotsky Films that won the Best Costume Design Academy Award Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award Russian Revolution films World War I films Horizon Pictures films Columbia Pictures films Films shot in Spain Films based on works by American writers Films based on non-fiction books Films with screenplays by James Goldman 1971 drama films Films shot in Yugoslavia Films set in 1904 Films set in 1905 Films set in 1913 Films set in 1914 Films set in 1916 Films set in 1917 Films set in 1918 Films set in Saint Petersburg Films about the Russian Empire Films set in Siberia

101827

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joschka%20Fischer

Joschka Fischer

Joseph Martin "Joschka" Fischer (born 12 April 1948) is a German retired politician of the Alliance 90/The Greens. He served as the foreign minister and as the vice-chancellor of Germany in the cabinet of Gerhard Schröder from 1998 to 2005. Fischer has been a leading figure in the German Greens since the 1970s, and according to opinion polls, he was the most popular politician in Germany for most of the Schröder government's duration. Following the September 2005 election, in which the Schröder government was defeated, he left office on 22 November 2005. In September 2010 he supported the creation of the Spinelli Group, a europarliamentarian initiative founded with a view to reinvigorate efforts to federalise the European Union. Early life Fischer was born in Gerabronn in Württemberg-Baden, the third child of a butcher, whose family had lived in Budakeszi, Hungary, for several generations. Fischer's family had to leave Hungary in 1946 after it was occupied by the Soviet Union, and ethnic Germans were persecuted and expelled by the authorities. His nickname Joschka is derived from the Hungarian Jóska, diminutive of Joseph (Hungarian József). He was brought up Catholic and served in his childhood as an altar boy in his parish in Oeffingen. Fischer dropped out of high school in 1965, and started an apprenticeship as a photographer, which he quit in 1966. Because Fischer never gained a school-leaving certificate, he never attended a university or a college. He neither did compulsory military service nor the alternative civilian service for conscientious objectors, because he failed his physical examination due to poor eyesight. Left-wing militant In 1967, he became active in the German student movement and left-wing movement (post-) 1968 (the so-called Spontis), first in Stuttgart and after 1968 in Frankfurt am Main. For his regular income, Fischer took several low-wage jobs, such as working in a left-wing bookstore in Frankfurt. During this period, he began attending university events, including lectures organized by left-wing revolutionary students by Theodor W. Adorno, Jürgen Habermas and Oskar Negt. He studied the works of Marx, Mao and Hegel and became a member of the militant group, Revolutionärer Kampf (Revolutionary Struggle). Fischer was a leader in several street battles involving the radical Putzgruppe (literally "cleaning squad", with the first syllable being an acronym for Proletarische Union für Terror und Zerstörung, "Proletarian Union for Terror and Destruction"), which attacked a number of police officers. Photos of one such brawl in March 1973, which were later to haunt Fischer, show him clubbing policeman Rainer Marx, to whom he later publicly apologized. Fischer is a close friend of Daniel Cohn-Bendit, whom he met during that time. In 1971, he began working for the car manufacturer Opel and attempted to organise his fellow workers for the coming communist revolution. (This was not organising on behalf of a regular labour union: the vast majority of Opel's workers had already been organised for decades by IG Metall, the German metalworkers' union.) This resulted in his dismissal from the company after six months. Fischer then continued making a living with unskilled work while continuing his activism. He worked as a taxi driver from 1976 to 1981 and later in a bookstore in Frankfurt. In the Deutscher Herbst (German autumn) of 1977, Germany was rattled by a series of left-wing terrorist attacks by the Red Army Faction (RAF) and Revolutionary Cells (RZ). According to Fischer's own account, witnessing these events, particularly the kidnapping and murder of Hanns-Martin Schleyer and the Entebbe hijacking, made him renounce violence as a means for political change. Instead, he became involved in the new social movements and later in the newly founded Green Party, mainly in the state of Hesse. Nevertheless, in 1978 he said he did not mourn the killings of Schleyer, Siegfried Buback and Jürgen Ponto by the RAF. In May 1981, the Hessian Secretary of Commerce Heinz-Herbert Karry was murdered with a firearm that in 1973 had been transported in Fischer's car, along with other weapons stolen from an American army base. Fischer maintained he had given the car to the later terrorist Hans-Joachim Klein solely for the purpose of having Klein fit it with a new engine. Only later had Fischer learned that his car had been used to transport stolen weapons. As Foreign Minister, Fischer apologised for the violence of his Putzgruppe days, without disassociating himself from the radical movement. Some critics continue to charge that Fischer was the leading figure of a 1976 discussion that led to the use of Molotov cocktails in an upcoming demonstration in support of RAF member Ulrike Meinhof. Fischer was arrested on 14 May 1976 as a suspect in the Molotov cocktail attacks on police, but was released after two days. Fischer stated that he never used Molotov cocktails against the police. The firebombing of policeman Jürgen Weber's police car left Weber with burns over 60% of his body. Green politician From 1983 to 1985, Fischer was a member of the Bundestag for the Green party. His stint in federal parliament saw him frequently engage in a frank and confrontational debating style, exemplified by an incident on 18 October 1984, when he addressed Richard Stücklen, then vice president of the parliament, with the words: "If I may say so, Mr. President, you are an asshole" (German: "Mit Verlaub, Herr Präsident, Sie sind ein Arschloch."). In 1985, Fischer became Minister for the Environment in the Landtag of Hesse in the first governmental Red-Green coalition between the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and the Greens. Fischer caused a stir when he appeared at his oath of office ceremony wearing trainers. These trainers are now part of the shoe collection at the German Leather and Shoe Museum in Offenbach, Hesse. Fischer also expressed his thoughts very frankly in the periodical of the Hessian Green party "Stichwort Grün". In an interview with Bunte magazine published on 27 July 1989, he rejected German reunification and demanded that the reunification clause be deleted from the preamble to the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany. Even after the growth of the wave of the refugees from East Germany, Fischer on 20 September 1989 demanded that the Federal Republic renounce reunification. In a column for Die Tageszeitung published on 17 November 1989, eight days after the fall of the Berlin Wall, he predicted that reunification would not happen. On 1 October 1990, Fischer said he refused to celebrate reunification. Fischer was again environment minister in Hessen from 1991 to 1994 and then became co-chairman of the Greens' parliamentary faction in the Bundestag. Fischer was respected for his oratory skills, as well as for his charisma on the political stage. For a large part of the 1990s, with the social democrats languishing in the opinion polls, Fischer's admirers referred to him as the "real" leader of the opposition. He parlayed his clout into political success, as he moved the Greens to the centre ground of German politics, paving the way for their first participation in the nation's federal government. Foreign Minister In September 1998, the Social Democratic Party of Germany, led by Gerhard Schröder, defeated the Christian Democratic Union government of Helmut Kohl. The SPD's 41% and the Greens' 7% of the vote set the two parties on a possible path to government through a coalition. Schröder stated his preference for a red-green coalition, as did an overwhelming majority of SPD members. After several weeks of negotiations, a SPD-Green government took power on 27 October 1998, with Fischer appointed as Minister of Foreign Affairs. By 2005, he was the second longest-serving foreign minister in German postwar history (after Hans-Dietrich Genscher). In mid-April 1999, Germany came up with the first peace plan, when Fischer produced a proposal, notably including Russia, that would have rewarded the beginning of a Yugoslav pullout from Kosovo with a bombing pause. In May 1999, however, an antiwar protester flung a bag of red paint at Fischer during a party convention debating NATO's airstrikes on Yugoslavia in the war over Kosovo; Fischer suffered a perforated eardrum. In an effort to make it easier for antiwar critics to back Schröder's decision to send German Bundeswehr troops to Afghanistan in 2001, Fischer and Development Minister Heidemarie Wieczorek-Zeul announced a 256 million marks ($115 million) humanitarian-aid package for Afghan refugees. In late 2001, Fischer hosted – under the auspices of the United Nations – a ten-day conference at the German government guesthouse above the Rhine River, where delegates from four Afghan factions signed the Bonn Agreement establishing a transitional government for the country to replace the deposed Taliban regime. At the time, Germany's longstanding links to Afghanistan and its 2001 chairmanship of the Afghanistan Support Group of countries pledging humanitarian and reconstruction aid for the country, were the reasons it was picked to host the meeting. In September 2001, Fischer summoned Ahmad Azizi, the Iranian ambassador to Germany, for urgent talks after several reformist intellectuals – including Akbar Ganji, Mehrangiz Kar and Ezzatollah Sahabi – were given prison sentences of between four and 10 years for participating in a 2000 academic and cultural conference sponsored by the Heinrich Böll Foundation in Berlin in late 2000. In 2005, critics charged that Fischer's relaxing of controls on visa regulations for Ukraine, would allow illegal immigrants to enter Germany with fake identities. A parliamentary committee was established to examine the case, and unlike in other such committee hearings, Fischer's statement (and that of other top officials) was shown live on public television. Fischer's appearance before the committee lasted twelve hours. (See German Visa Affair 2005). Fischer represented the German government at the funeral services for Foreign Minister Anna Lindh of Sweden on 19 September 2003 in Stockholm; Pope John Paul II on 8 April 2005 in Rome; and former UK Foreign Secretary Robin Cook on 12 August 2005 in Edinburgh. After the defeat of the coalition government in the 2005 election, Fischer announced that he would retire to the backbench. "After 20 years of power, now I want my freedom back", Fischer said. On 13 October 2005, it was announced that Frank-Walter Steinmeier of the SPD would succeed Fischer as foreign minister. Western Balkans policy In 1999, Fischer supported German military participation in the Kosovo War. This proved to be a highly controversial position since Fischer's plan not only clashed with the largely pacifist philosophy of The Greens, but because it also supported for the first time since World War II active participation of German soldiers in combat. Fischer justified this military involvement with allegations that Serbia was planning to commit genocide against the Kosovo Albanians. Fischer represented the German government at the funeral services for Prime Minister Zoran Đinđić of Serbia on 16 March 2003 (alongside Development Minister Heidemarie Wieczorek-Zeul) and President Boris Trajkovski of Macedonia on 5 March 2004 in Skopje. Transatlantic relations On fundamental issues like the International Criminal Court, the Kyoto Protocol, and the crisis in the Middle East, Fischer was openly differing with the Bush administration. In 1999, both Fischer and Justice Minister Herta Däubler-Gmelin appealed for clemency for the LaGrand brothers, two German citizens sentenced to death in Arizona. According to the German government, the LaGrands had been denied their rights as German citizens because prosecutors did not inform the German consulate of the brothers' arrest in 1982 until a decade later. However, both were put to death, one in a cloud of cyanide gas. In response, the European Union submitted an anti-death-penalty resolution to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. Although Fischer was in favour of stationing German troops in Afghanistan, he advised chancellor Schröder not to join the war in Iraq. Fischer famously confronted United States Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld at the 39th Munich Security Conference in 2003 on the secretary's purported evidence for Iraq's possession of weapons of mass destruction ("Excuse me, I am not convinced"). Middle East policy Fischer has been criticized for attending a 1969 conference of the Palestine Liberation Organization, where Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat called for an all-out war on Israel "until the end". During their time in government, both Fischer and Chancellor Gerhard Schröder were widely considered sincerely, if not uncritically, pro-Israeli. In 1999, Fischer led a delegation including European Commissioner Manuel Marín and the European Union's Special Envoy to the Middle East Miguel Ángel Moratinos on a visit to Jerusalem and the Palestinian territories, but also to a range of other countries which have a crucial role in the peace process, including Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Egypt. By 2001, he emerged as a pivotal figure in the hopes for the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, in part because he helped bring about a lull in the violence after the Dolphinarium discotheque massacre in June 2001. His intervention led to an announced cease-fire arranged by George Tenet, the United States Director of Central Intelligence; Fischer had been in Tel Aviv at the time of the blast. Fischer later brokered a meeting between Arafat and the Israeli foreign minister, Shimon Peres, to discuss how to implement the cease-fire. In July 2002, Fischer presented a proposal that calls for Arafat to appoint an interim prime minister. After the vote, the proposal said, elected officials could continue democratic reforms leading to a provisional Palestinian state by the end of 2003 and to final borders by 2005. He represented the German government at the funeral services for Arafat on 12 November 2004 in Cairo and at the inauguration of the new Holocaust Memorial Museum at Yad Vashem in March 2005. European integration In May 2000, Fischer proposed the creation of a European federation with a directly elected president and parliament sharing real executive and legislative powers. Fischer proposed the eventual enactment of a constitutional treaty that would set out which powers were to be shifted to the new European executive and parliament, and those that remained at national level. In response, President Jacques Chirac of France urged Germany in June 2000 to join France in spearheading a core group of European Union countries that would move faster than others toward political and economic union. In October 2002, Fischer was appointed by the German government to the Convention on the Future of Europe, replacing Peter Glotz. Fischer had expressed a keen interest in taking part in the convention during the coalition talks with Chancellor Gerhard Schröder following the 2002 elections. In a paper jointly signed by Fischer and French Foreign Minister Dominique de Villepin, in November 2002, Germany and France pushed for a mutual defence commitment to be part of the constitution. In 2004, he was one of the signatories to the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. Relations with Russia Fischer has long been critical of Russia, especially on human rights. However, during his time as foreign minister, Germany's relations with Russia were primarily guided by Chancellor Gerhard Schröder. In 2004, Fischer called on Ukraine to hold a recount of the presidential elections after Putin-backed candidate Viktor Yanukovich was the first to declare his victory despite mass protests in Kyiv. Life after politics Non-profit work From September 2006 until 2007, Fischer was a senior fellow at the Liechtenstein Institute on Self-Determination, and as a visiting professor co-taught with Wolfgang F. Danspeckgruber at Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, both at Princeton University. He has also spoken at other American universities on various topics in foreign affairs and international relations. In addition, Fischer joined various non-governmental organizations, including: Arab Democracy Foundation, Founding Member of the Board of Trustees (since 2007) Council on Foreign Relations, Member European Council on Foreign Relations (ECFR), Founding Co-chairman of the Board (alongside Martti Ahtisaari and Mabel van Oranje) United Nations Association of Germany (DGVN), Member of the Presidium Institute for Human Sciences (IWM), Member of the Board of Patrons Roland Berger Human Dignity Award, Member of the Awards Committee On 15 September 2010 Fischer supported the new initiative Spinelli Group, which was founded to reinvigorate efforts towards federalisation of the European Union (EU). Other prominent supporters are: Jacques Delors, Daniel Cohn-Bendit, Guy Verhofstadt, Andrew Duff, Elmar Brok. Business activities Since 2008, Fischer has been Senior Strategic Counsel at Albright Stonebridge Group, Washington, DC, consulting firm led by Madeleine Albright. In this capacity, he advised Siemens, BMW and Deutsche Börse. In 2009, Fischer took a post as adviser to the Nabucco pipeline project, which involved the German RWE company. According to media reports, the "six-digit salary" consultancy contract has already been signed. Other for-profit activities include: Meridiam, Member of the supervisory board (since 2012) Tilray, Member of the Advisory Board Recognition 2002 – Honorary doctorate of the University of Haifa 2003 – Buber Rosenzweig Medal (awarded by Paul Spiegel) 2004 – Gottlieb Duttweiler Prize (awarded by Micheline Calmy-Rey and Jean-Claude Juncker) 2006 – Honorary doctorate of Tel Aviv University 2009 – Leo Baeck Medal (awarded by James Wolfensohn and Henry Kissinger) 2012 – Honorary doctorate, University of Michigan 2016 – Medal for Extraordinary Merits for Bavaria in a United Europe Personal life Prior to the German Visa Affair 2005, Fischer was a popular politician, "loved by an entire nation." Writing in Der Spiegel, journalist Charles Hawley opined that since 1998, "Joschka Fischer's popularity has been virtually unassailable: The icon of the environmentally minded Green Party could, it seemed, do no wrong. Indeed, Fischer was so popular in 2002 that Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder largely based his early election campaign on the fact that Fischer would remain at his side at the helm of Germany's political leadership." As Germany's Foreign Minister, Fischer's popularity soared when he opposed the Iraq War, and his very public struggle with his weight endeared him to many Germans. Up until 1996, Fischer was a bon vivant, and often spoke openly about his love for good wines and food despite his "chunky" figure. As he ascended to the Foreign Ministry, Fischer decided to lose weight, transforming his body almost overnight by refraining from alcohol and becoming a vegetarian. In 2000, he covered the topic of his weight loss by writing the book My Long Race Towards Myself on his experience, which became an immediate bestseller in Germany. Half a year before becoming foreign minister, he had his marathon debut at the 1998 Hamburg Marathon (clocking 3:41) As minister, he finished New York in 1999 (3:55) and Berlin in 2000 (3:55) Afterwards, he reduced training and during the months preceding the Iraq War, Fischer began putting on weight again. Fischer was married to German-Iranian film producer and screenwriter Minu Barati in 2005. It is his fifth marriage. His two children with his previous partner and eventual wife, Inge Vogel (to whom he was married from 1984 to 1987), were born in 1979 and 1983, respectively. At the time of his wedding with Barati in 2005, she was mother to a six-year-old daughter from a previous relationship, while Fischer's children were 23 and 26 of age at the time. The couple lives with Barati's daughter. In 2004, he commissioned German heraldist Dieter Krieger to produce a coat of arms, which was registered to the Rhein-Main Wappenrolle ( http://RMWR.dieter-krieger.de ). The arms are a type of a "Canting arms"; party per fesse silver and gules, in chief crossed axes with red blades and black handles, in base, a fish in the first. Crest of the red eagle's wings, mantling red doubled silver. He describes himself as Catholic, but not very religious. Further reading Paul Berman: Idealisten an der Macht. Die Passion des Joschka Fischer. Siedler, München 2006, . Jürgen Schreiber: Meine Jahre mit Joschka. Nachrichten von fetten und mageren Zeiten. Econ, Berlin 2007, . Christian Y. Schmidt: Wir sind die Wahnsinnigen. Joschka Fischer und seine Frankfurter Gang. Verbrecher Verlag, Berlin 2013. Interviews Gero von Boehm: Joschka Fischer. 31. August 2010. Interview in: Begegnungen. Menschenbilder aus drei Jahrzehnten. Collection Rolf Heyne, München 2012, , S. 678–692 References External links Boston Review article reviewing Fischer's biography Biography at the German Historic Museum Photographs of Joschka Fischer 1991 - 1998 at the German Historic Museum Joschka Fischer, la retraite ou pas ? Joscka Fischer : les discours d’un Vert aux affaires étrangères Interview with Joschka Fischer After moving to Princeton University, Fischer gives an in-depth interview about security and globalization for Princeton Report on Knowledge. Joschka Fischer's monthly syndicated commentary series, "The Rebel Realist", from Project Syndicate The following sources reflect the views of U.S. adversaries of Fischer and his policies, especially Germany's decision not to participate in the 2003 U.S.-led invasion of Iraq. Why Germany Isn't Convinced by Paul Berman in Slate Power and the Idealists : Or, The Passion of Joschka Fischer, and Its Aftermath by Paul Berman. (Originally appeared as a 25,000 word essay in The New Republic, 3 September 2001) The last rock 'n' roller of German politics In an interview with the taz given in September 2005, Fischer reflects on what his coming retirement means for his party, his country and himself. At signandsight.com Joschka Fischer writes a monthly commentary series for Project Syndicate "The Rebel Realist – Joschka Fischer". Project Syndicate. Archived from the original on 2012-02-05. "Joschka Fischer" (columnist page). Project Syndicate. Joschka Fisher speaks to Leadel.NET, an online Jewish media portal, in a video interview |- |- 1948 births Alliance 90/The Greens politicians Foreign Ministers of Germany German Roman Catholics Living people Members of the Bundestag for Hesse People from Gerabronn People of Hungarian German descent Princeton University faculty Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, 1st Class Vice-Chancellors of Germany Members of the Landtag of Hesse Members of the Bundestag 2005–2009 Members of the Bundestag 2002–2005 Members of the Bundestag 1998–2002 Members of the Bundestag 1994–1998 Members of the Bundestag 1983–1987 Members of the Bundestag for Alliance 90/The Greens

103741

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piedmont%2C%20Alabama

Piedmont, Alabama

Piedmont is a city in Calhoun and Cherokee counties in the U.S. state of Alabama. The population was 4,878 at the 2010 census. It is included in the Anniston-Oxford, Alabama Metropolitan Statistical Area. The city is approximately one and a half hours west of Atlanta, Georgia via US Hwy 278, one and a half hours northeast of Birmingham, 20 minutes north of Anniston, Alabama via AL-21, and 25 minutes east of Gadsden, Alabama via US Hwy 278. The campus of Jacksonville State University in Jacksonville, Alabama is approximately ten miles south of Piedmont via AL-21. The city is located in the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains chain and is surrounded by mountains on the city's southern and eastern sides. The area is home to Duggar Mountain, which is Alabama's second highest point, only trailing Mt. Cheaha by a small margin. Piedmont is a tourist destination for outdoor enthusiasts due to its close proximity to many nearby hiking trails, streams and rivers, mountains, the Duggar Mountain Wilderness, the Talladega National Forest and Coleman Lake. Weiss Lake is fourteen miles north of Piedmont via AL-9 and is known as "the Crappie Capital of the World." Piedmont is home to Terrapin Creek, which is a destination for kayaking, canoeing, camping, swimming and fishing. Each year, particularly in the summer, thousands of people visit Piedmont and the surrounding areas due to the recreational opportunities and natural environment of the area. Piedmont is also home to the Chief Ladiga Trail, which is a paved trail for walking, jogging and bicycling. The trail runs through downtown Piedmont and runs all the way to Atlanta to the east, and to Anniston, Alabama to the south and west. Two state highways, AL-9 and AL-21, run through the city limits of Piedmont, as well as US Highway 278. The city and surrounding area is served by the Centre-Piedmont-Cherokee County Regional Airport, which was constructed in 2010. Many surrounding communities are served by the 36272 ZIP code, including Spring Garden, Rock Run, Vigo, Knighten's Crossroads, Ballplay, Pleasant Valley and Nance's Creek. An abundance of people from the surrounding designated census areas and communities make the short commute to the city of Piedmont regularly for employment, commerce, dining, recreation and general shopping. Portions of the nearby communities of Nances Creek, Spring Garden, Piedmont Springs and Vigo rely on police and fire coverage from the city of Piedmont. The current mayor is Bill Baker, who was chosen by the city council to lead after elected mayor Rick Freeman resigned due to medical issues. History Founding and early growth The area now known as Piedmont is a community that began in the early 1840s, located at the crossroads of two early post roads. Major Jacob Forney Dailey of North Carolina came to Alabama in 1848 and bought land in present-day Piedmont. Major Dailey named the area Cross Plains, and an official post office with that name was established on September 22, 1851. The Standard Coosa-Thatcher Cotton Mill was established in Piedmont in the late 1800s and was the main source of employment in and around the city for nearly a century. After being named "Hollow Stump" and "Cross Plains" local residents settled for the name Piedmont in 1888. The word Piedmont means "Foot of the mountains" which was more appealing to local residents since the city is surrounded by mountainous scenery. Recent history The Standard Coosa-Thatcher Company was a textile corporation founded in Piedmont in 1891. It was publicly traded beginning in 1922. The firm is important because of its endurance for nearly a century and its expansion throughout the southeast United States and into the western United States. Also known in Piedmont as the "Cotton Mill", it began operating in 1892 and closed in 1995. In 2016, demolition of the building began. Over the next two years or so, workers tore down the mill and reclaimed more than 100-year-old lumber and other material for resale. Transportation AL Hwy 21 US Hwy 278 AL Hwy 9 Vigo Rd (Vital East/West route from the end of East Ladiga St in downtown Piedmont, leading to Borden Springs Alabama and Polk County/Cedartown Georgia to the East) Centre/Piedmont/Cherokee County Regional Airport Elderly residents of the city have access to public transportation via the City of Piedmont's public transportation buses. Geography Piedmont is located at According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and , or 0.67%, is water. The city is located less than an hour and forty five minutes from large cities such as Atlanta Georgia, Birmingham Alabama, Chattanooga Tennessee and Huntsville Alabama. Piedmont lies on the eastern border of the state of Alabama, near the border of Georgia. Piedmont is located between Gadsden Alabama and Cedartown Georgia via US highway 278 (West/East) and between Centre Alabama and Jacksonville Alabama/Jacksonville State University via Alabama highway 21 and Alabama highway 9 (North/South). The nearest interstates are I-59 via US highway 278 (Gadsden) and I-20 via Alabama highway 21 or Alabama highway 9 (Anniston/Oxford). Attractions Chief Ladiga Trail Piedmont is home to the Chief Ladiga Trail. The Seaboard/CSX Railroad was converted into a recreational bike and walking trail as a non-motorized way to travel, exercise, and relax while enjoying the outdoors. The Chief Ladiga Trail and the Silver Comet Trail stretch nearly from Anniston to Atlanta, making it the second-longest paved trail in the United States (the longest being the Paul Bunyan in Minnesota).. Duggar Mountain Wilderness Dugger Mountain, the second highest peak in Alabama with an elevation of 2,140 feet (650 m), is located just outside the city limits of Piedmont, which is the closest city to the peak and wilderness area. The wilderness encompasses some of the most rugged and mountainous terrain in Alabama, as well as numerous endangered and threatened plant communities. It is one of the last intact roadless areas in Alabama's National Forests. Most of the mountain's 16,000 acres (6,500 ha) were too steep to profitably timber harvest. The Pinhoti National Recreation Trail winds through the wilderness area. Duggar Mountain Standing at 2,140 feet, Duggar Mountain is Alabama's second highest point, only trailing nearby Mt. Cheaha. Duggar Mountain is known for its hiking trails and scenery. Piedmont lies at the foot of Duggar Mountain, making it visible from most points in and around the city. Terrapin Creek There are several canoe and kayak rental services near Terrapin Creek, as well as areas to camp and fish. Thousands of people access this area annually to "float the creek" and enjoy the natural environment of the area. Cheaha Challenge Hundreds of cyclists from more than 20 states participate in the Cheaha Challenge every year. The "Toughest Ride in the South" is a recreational bicycle ride that has been moved to Anniston, AL from Piedmont's Civic Center. The ride follows the Appalachian Highlands Scenic Byway then ends at the top of Cheaha Mountain, Alabama's highest point. The Cheaha Challenge was selected as a Top 10 Event in the State of Alabama by the Alabama Bureau of Tourism & Travel. Night in the Museum Hotel This historic home has been relocated from its original location in Piedmont to a location downtown, near the Old Railroad Depot and Museum. Constructed in the late 1800s, this home is believed to be one of the first homes constructed in the Piedmont area. This home is utilized as a two bedroom hotel, as well as a museum. Bedrooms are for rent in the historic Roberts House and include a tour of the museum. The new location of the home is ideal since it is near Piedmont's downtown business district that includes dining, coffee shops, a bar and a variety of stores. The Night in the Museum Hotel is just two blocks from the Chief Ladiga Trail. This exhibit is new to the area and the Roberts House was recently renovated by the city. The Piedmont Historical Society, an IRS qualified 501(c)3 non-profit educational organization that operates the Southern Train Depot Museum, began a preservation project by raising funds and support to first relocate the home to its present site (75 Southern Boulevard) with the purchase of old railroad bed land from Norfolk Southern Railroad Company and second to renovate the home to its original Victorian state, as a safe public museum facility to display artifacts of Piedmont’s history and as a unique “Night In the Museum” Hotel for bikers and hikers of the Chief Ladiga Trail and visitors traveling through the Appalachian Mountains. Piedmont Aquatic Center The Piedmont Aquatic Center is owned and operated by the City of Piedmont. The Aquatic Center offers season passes and day passes and is open through the late spring and summer months. The Aquatic Center features water slides, a large outdoor swimming pool and splash pads. The Aquatic Center is located next to the Piedmont Sports Complex. The annual polar plunge is held at the Aquatic Center and all proceeds go to charity. The polar plunge features residents from the local community and surrounding communities who jump into the cold water in January for purposes of giving to charity. Chief Ladiga Marching Festival This annual event is held in October of each year and features marching bands from all over the state of Alabama competing for a trophy at the end of the ceremony. The event has grown to include marching bands from neighboring Georgia. The Chief Ladiga Marching Festival is held on the campus of Piedmont High School. Southern Railroad Depot Museum The Piedmont Historical Society's Southern Railroad Depot Museum, is an 1867 historic facility registered on the National and Alabama preservation registry. The history of Piedmont, Alabama, a community in northeast Calhoun County, is told by art, cultural and historic displays, exhibits, artifacts and iMovies. A Southern Railroad caboose is displayed adjacent to the original loading dock and cargo cart. Foothills Motocross and Park Located at 132 Greenwood Rd, Foothills Motocross and Park opened to the public in early September 2020. The property contains a dirt track with man made hills to perform stunts. Food and beverages are sometimes offered and the events is typically held on weekends. The venue is gaining popularity with local residents, as well as motocross enthusiasts from other areas. Indian Mountain ATV Park Located just outside Piedmont in neighboring Cherokee County at 11620 County Rd 8 Piedmont, AL 36272, Indian Mountain ATV Park is a destination for ATV and OHV courses, camping, hiking and other outdoor activities. The park contains dirt trails for ATVs and ATV racing competitions and sits on 4,700 acres of land. The park began to see a major increase in visitors in 2020, not long after being open to the public. The park is located on the Indian Mountain Tract. Media AM radio WPID 1280 AM FM radio WJCK 88.3 FM (Christian) WCKA Alabama 810 AM 94.3 and 97.1 FM broadcasts Piedmont High School football games. Demographics 2020 census As of the 2020 United States census, there were 4,787 people, 2,040 households, and 1,308 families residing in the city. 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 4,878 people, 2,053 households, and 1,351 families residing in the city. The population density was 497 people per square mile (191.9/km). There were 2,404 housing units at an average density of 242.8 per square mile (93.9/km). The racial makeup of the city was 87.0% White, 10.0% Black or African American, 0.5% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.5% from other races, and 1.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 1.3% of the population. In the city, the population was spread out, with 24.0% under the age of 18, 8.2% from 18 to 24, 23.5% from 25 to 44, 27.8% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.5 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $31,589, and the median income for a family was $39,417. Males had a median income of $36,332 versus $28,355 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,573. About 21.1% of families and 24.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 39.0% of those under age 18 and 9.8% of those age 65 or over. Education Schools The Piedmont City School District consists of three schools: Piedmont Elementary School, Piedmont Middle School, and Piedmont High School. The Piedmont City School system has been recognized on a state and national level for its outstanding graduation rates, overall grades, quality of education, and emphasis on the use of modern technology. The school system is led by Superintendent Mike Hayes, PHS Principal Dr. Adam Clemons, PMS Principal Chris Hanson, and PES Principal Brigett Stewart. School Sports The athletic teams are known as the Bulldogs and the marching band is known as the Piedmont Blue Knights. Piedmont High School competes in the Alabama High School Athletic Association in Class 3A. It has won a total of four state championships in football (2009, 2015, 2016, 2019), one state championship in wrestling (2009), and one state championship in track and field/cross country. Piedmont High School sports teams also hold multiple area/division championships, as well as several trophies for state runner-up. School sports The Piedmont City Schools athletic teams are known as the Bulldogs. Piedmont High School is a member of the Alabama High School Athletic Association and participates in Class 3A Football, Basketball, Baseball, Wrestling (1A-4A), Golf (Boys 3A, Girls 1A-5A), Volleyball, and Track. They also have a band: the Piedmont Blue Knights Marching Band, class 1A. Wrestling On February 6, 2009, under Head Coach Harley Lamey, the Piedmont High School wrestling team won the first state championship in school history in any sport. At the AHSAA 1A-4A State Wrestling Championship, the Bulldogs had two individual champions, two runners-up, and nine wrestlers who placed. The Bulldogs were 14-0 in dual meets. Football On December 3, 2009, at Bryant–Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Head Coach Steve Smith led Piedmont to a 35-28 overtime win over the Cordova Blue Devils in the AHSAA 3A State Championship Game. Luke Smith tied the state record for most tackles in 3A state championship game (according to the AHSAA 15) and recovered Ryan Smith's fumble to secure the Bulldogs' win. Christian Cantrell was responsible for four of the Bulldogs' touchdowns and one two-point conversion totaling 26 points, but Chase Childers' performance as QB named him the MVP of the Championship Game. The team finished with a 13-2 record. The state championship in 2009 was followed by state championship victories over Bayside Academy in 2015, Mobile Christian in 2016, Mobile Christian again in 2019 and Montgomery Academy in 2021 bringing the number of state football championships for Piedmont High School to five in the sport of football. Arts Piedmont High-school has a wonderful theatre department called Piedmont Centerstage society that is run by Jason Wright, every year twice a year they have some sort of production Notable people Willie Dee Bowles, educator and historian Rick Bragg, writer, 1996 Pulitzer Prize winner Desmond Doss, first conscientious objector to receive the Medal of Honor William E. Harbour, civil rights activist Kenneth A. Roberts, U.S. Representative, 1951–1965 References External links Cities in Alabama Populated places established in 1888 Cities in Calhoun County, Alabama Cities in Cherokee County, Alabama 1888 establishments in Alabama

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntsville%2C%20Alabama

Huntsville, Alabama

Huntsville is a city in the Appalachian region of northern Alabama and is the county seat of Madison County. Extending west into neighboring Limestone County and south into Morgan County, Huntsville has become the largest city in the state. Located within the Mississippi Territory, Huntsville was founded by European Americans in 1805 and became an incorporated town in 1811. When Alabama was admitted as a state in 1819, Huntsville was designated for a year as the first capital, before that was moved to more central settlements. The city developed across nearby hills north of the Tennessee River, adding textile mills in the late nineteenth century. Its major growth has taken place since World War II. During the war, the Army established Redstone Arsenal near here with a chemical weapons plant, and nearby related facilities. After the war, additional research was conducted at Redstone Arsenal on rockets, followed by adaptations to use them for space exploration. NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, the United States Army Aviation and Missile Command, and most recently the FBI’s operational support headquarters all came to be located at nearby Redstone Arsenal. The National Trust for Historic Preservation named Huntsville to its "America's Dozen Distinctive Destinations for 2010" list. The city's population is 215,006 as of the 2020 census, making it Alabama's most populous city. Birmingham had been the largest since the growth of its coal and steel industries earlier in the 20th century. Huntsville is the largest city in the five-county Huntsville-Decatur-Albertville, AL Combined Statistical Area. The Huntsville metropolitan area's population was 491,723 as of 2020, making it the second most populous metropolitan area in the state after the Birmingham metropolitan area. History First settlers For thousands of years, cultures of indigenous peoples lived in this area, particularly along the river. The historic Muskogee-speaking peoples were the tribes who encountered early European explorers and traders. The Chickasaw traditionally claim to have settled in this area around 1300 after coming east across the Mississippi. They were bordered on the west by the Choctaw, another Muskogee-speaking tribe. To the east was territory of the Cherokee, who spoke an Iroquoian language and may have migrated in ancient times from south of the Great Lakes, where several Iroquoian tribes are based, such as the Five Nations of the Iroquois League. European settlers and traders carried new infectious diseases, which caused high mortality in the tribes. In addition, the three tribes competed over land and resources. Together with settlement pressures after the United States gained independence, this area had become largely empty of indigenous peoples by the turn of the 19th century. Revolutionary War veteran John Hunt was a pioneer in 1805 on land around the Big Spring. The US negotiated an 1805 Treaty with the Chickasaw and the 1806 treaty with the Cherokee who ceded their claims to land to the federal government. The area was subsequently purchased by LeRoy Pope, who named it Twickenham after the home village of his distant kinsman Alexander Pope. Twickenham was carefully planned, with streets laid out on the northeast to southwest direction based on the flow of Big Spring. Given anti-British sentiment during this period after the Revolution and with tensions leading to the War of 1812, in 1811 the town name was changed to "Huntsville" to honor pioneer John Hunt. Both John Hunt and LeRoy Pope were Freemasons and charter members of Helion Lodge #1, the oldest lodge in Alabama. Incorporation In 1811, Huntsville became the first incorporated town in what is now Alabama. However, the recognized "founding" year of the city is 1805, the year of John Hunt's arrival. David Wade settled in Huntsville in 1817. He built the David Wade House on the north side of what is now Bob Wade Lane (Robert B. Wade was David's grandson), just east of Mt. Lebanon Road. It had six rough Doric columns on the portico. During the Great Depression, the Wade House was measured as part of the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) for preservation of historic buildings in the government's Archive. It was photographed by Frances Benjamin Johnston for the project, which was part of the Roosevelt administration's programs to hire workers during this critical period. The HABS project put architects, draftsmen, and photographers to work to create an inventory of documentation and photographs of significant properties across the country. The Wade house had already been abandoned for years and was considerably deteriorated. It was torn down in 1952. Today only the antebellum smokehouse survives at the property. Emerging industries Huntsville's initial growth was based on wealth generated by sale of cotton from plantations, for which there was international demand, and trade associated with railroad industries. Many wealthy planters moved into the area from Virginia, Georgia, and the Carolinas to develop new cotton plantations. The invention of the cotton gin in the late eighteenth century meant that uplands areas could be profitably cultivated with short-staple cotton, which could be grown in a much larger area than the long-staple cotton of the Sea Islands and Low Country. In 1819, Huntsville hosted a constitutional convention in Walker Allen's large cabinet-making shop. The 44 delegates wrote a constitution for the new state of Alabama. In accordance with the new state constitution, Huntsville became Alabama's first capital when the state was admitted to the Union. This was a temporary designation for one legislative session only. The capital was moved to more central cities in the state; to Cahawba, then to Tuscaloosa, and finally to Montgomery. In 1855, the Memphis and Charleston Railroad was constructed through Huntsville, becoming the first railway to link the Atlantic seacoast with the lower Mississippi River. Civil War Huntsville initially opposed secession from the Union in 1861, but provided many men for the Confederacy's efforts. The 4th Alabama Infantry Regiment, led by Col. Egbert J. Jones of Huntsville, distinguished itself at the Battle of Manassas/Bull Run, the first major encounter of the American Civil War. The Fourth Alabama Infantry, which contained two Huntsville companies, were the first Alabama troops to fight in the war. They were also present when General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House in April 1865. Nine generals of the war were born in or near Huntsville; five fought for the Confederacy and four for the Union. Other Huntsville residents joined the Union Army and helped establish the Union Army's 1st Alabama Cavalry Regiment. On the morning of April 11, 1862, Union troops led by General Ormsby M. Mitchel seized Huntsville in order to sever the Confederacy's rail communications and gain access to the Memphis & Charleston Railroad. Huntsville was the control point for the Western Division of the Memphis & Charleston. By controlling this railroad, the Union had struck a major blow to the Confederacy. During the first occupation, Union officers took over many of the larger homes in the city while the enlisted soldiers camped in tents mainly on the outskirts. In the initial occupation, the Union troops searched for both Confederate troops hiding in the town and weapons. There was not a lot of resistance and they treated Huntsville residents in a relatively civil manner. However, residents of nearby towns reported harsher treatment. Union troops were forced to retreat a few months later. In the fall of 1863, they returned to Huntsville, using it as a base of operations for the war in the South until the last months of 1864. According to the journal of a nearby resident, Union troops burned many homes and villages in the surrounding countryside in retaliation for the active guerrilla warfare in the area. Huntsville was kept intact as it housed both Union officers and troops. After the Civil War During the Reconstruction era, three delegates from Huntsville attended the 1867 Constitutional Convention including Andrew J. Applegate, originally from Ohio, who went on to serve as Alabama's first Lieutenant Governor. Councill Training School, which eventually became William Hooper Councill High School, was established for African American students. It was named for educator and school founder William Hooper Councill. Huntsville became a center for cotton textile mills, such as Lincoln, Dallas, and Merrimack. Each mill company constructed worker housing outside the city, creating communities that eventually included schools, churches, grocery stores, theaters, and hardware stores, all within walking distance of the mill. In many such company towns, workers were required to buy goods at the company stores, which sometimes overcharged them. The mill owners also established rules for behavior and could throw out workers from housing if they violated these policies. Initially only whites were allowed to work in the mills, which offered better wages than farm work. In 1892 a local dairy cow called Lily Flagg broke the world record for butter production. Her Huntsville owner, General Samuel H. Moore, painted his house butter yellow and organized a party to celebrate, arranging for electric lights for the dance floor. Before 1906 an area south of Huntsville was named Lily Flagg in the cow's honor. This area was later annexed by the city. Great Depression 1930s During the 1930s, industry declined in Huntsville due to the Great Depression. Huntsville became known as the Watercress Capital of the World because of its abundant harvest in the area. Madison County led Alabama in cotton production during this time. World War II By 1940, Huntsville was still relatively small, with a population of about 13,000 inhabitants. This quickly changed in early 1941 when the U.S. Army selected of land adjoining the southwest area of the city for building three chemical munitions facilities: the Huntsville Arsenal, the Redstone Ordnance Plant (soon redesignated Redstone Arsenal), and the Gulf Chemical Warfare Depot. These operated throughout World War II, with combined personnel approaching 20,000. Resources in the area were strained as new workers flocked to the area, and the construction of housing could not keep up. Missile development At the end of the war in 1945, the munitions facilities were no longer needed. They were combined with the designation Redstone Arsenal (RSA), and a considerable political and business effort was made in attempts to attract new tenants. One significant start involved manufacturing the Keller automobile, but this closed after 18 vehicles were built. With the encouragement of US Senator John Sparkman (D-AL), the U.S. Army Air Force considered this for a major testing facility, but selected another site. Redstone Arsenal was prepared for disposal, but Sparkman used his considerable Southern Democratic influence (the Solid South controlled numerous powerful chairmanships of congressional committees) to persuade the Army to choose it as a site for rocket and missile development. As the Korean War started, the OGMC was given the mission to develop what eventually became the Redstone Rocket. This rocket set the stage for the United States' space program, as well as major Army missile programs, to be centered in Huntsville. Brigadier General Holger Toftoy commanded OGMC and the overall Redstone Arsenal. In early 1956, the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) under Major General John Medaris was formed. Resettlement of German scientists In 1950, about 1,000 personnel were transferred from Fort Bliss, Texas, to Redstone Arsenal to form the Ordnance Guided Missile Center (OGMC). Central to this was a group of about 200 German scientists and engineers, led by Wernher von Braun; they had been brought from Nazi Germany to the United States by Colonel Holger Toftoy under Operation Paperclip following World War II. Assigned to the center at Huntsville, they settled and raised families. Early American space flight The city is nicknamed "The Rocket City" for its close association with U.S. space missions. On January 31, 1958, ABMA placed America's first satellite, Explorer 1, into orbit using a Jupiter-C launch vehicle, a descendant of the Redstone. This brought national attention to Redstone Arsenal and Huntsville, with widespread recognition of this being a major center for high technology. On July 1, 1960, 4,670 civilian employees, associated buildings and equipment, and of land, transferred from ABMA to form NASA's George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). Wernher von Braun was MSFC's initial director. On September 8, President Dwight D. Eisenhower formally dedicated the MSFC. During the 1960s, the major mission of MSFC was in developing the Saturn boosters used by NASA in the Apollo Lunar Landing Program. For this, MSFC greatly increased its employees, and many new companies joined the Huntsville industrial community. The Cummings Research Park was developed just north of Redstone Arsenal to partially accommodate this industrial growth, and has now become the second-largest research park of this type in America. Huntsville's economy was nearly crippled and growth almost came to a standstill in the 1970s following the closure of the Apollo program. However, the emergence of the Space Shuttle, the International Space Station, and a wide variety of advanced research in space sciences led to a resurgence in NASA-related activities that has continued into the 21st century. In addition, new Army organizations have emerged at Redstone Arsenal, particularly in the ever-expanding field of missile defense. Since 2000, Huntsville has become the second-largest technology and research park in the nation, and ranks among the top 25 most educated cities in the nation. It is considered in the top of the nation's high-tech hotspots, and one of the best Southern cities for defense jobs. It is the number one United States location for engineers most satisfied with the recognition they receive, with high average salary and low median gross rent. Biotechnology More than 25 biotechnology firms have developed in Huntsville due to the Huntsville Biotech Initiative. The HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology is the centerpiece of the 150-acre Cummings Research Park Biotech Campus, part of the 4,000-acre Cummings Research Park, which is second only to North Carolina's Research Triangle Park in land area. The non-profit HudsonAlpha Institute has contributed genomics and genetics work to the Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE). For-profit business ventures within the Biotech Campus focus on subjects such as infectious disease diagnostics, immune responses to disease and cancer, protein crystallization, lab-on-a-chip technologies, and improved agricultural technologies. The University of Alabama in Huntsville (UAH) created a doctoral program in biotechnology to help develop scientists to support HudsonAlpha in addition to the emerging biotechnology economy in Huntsville. The university's strategic plan has biotechnology as one of its emerging fields for future education and research. Geography Huntsville is located at (34.7, -86.6). The city has a total area of . Huntsville has grown through recent annexations west into Limestone County, a total of , or . Situated in the Tennessee River valley, Huntsville is partially surrounded by several plateaus and large hills. These plateaus are associated with the Cumberland Plateau, and are locally called "mountains". Monte Sano Mountain (Spanish for "Mountain of Health") is the most notable, and is east of the city along with Round Top (Burritt), Chapman, Huntsville, and Green mountains. Others are Wade Mountain to the north, Rainbow Mountain to the west, and Weeden and Madkin mountains on the Redstone Arsenal property in the south. Brindley Mountain is visible in the south across the Tennessee River. As with other areas along the Cumberland Plateau, the land around Huntsville is karst in nature. The city was founded around the Big Spring, which is a typical karst spring. Many caves perforate the limestone bedrock underneath the surface, as is common in karst areas. The National Speleological Society is headquartered in Huntsville. Boundaries Huntsville is primarily surrounded by unincorporated land. The following incorporated communities border parts of the city: Athens (far northwestern tip of Huntsville) Decatur (southwest) Madison (90% of the city borders Huntsville) Owens Cross Roads (southeast) Triana (south) Huntsville also has several unincorporated communities and census-designated places that also border it such as Harvest (northwest), Meridianville (north), Moores Mill (northeast), New Market (northeast – oldest Alabama settlement), and Redstone Arsenal (U.S. Army base, south). Climate Huntsville has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa). It experiences hot, humid summers and generally mild winters, with average high temperatures ranging from near in the summer to during winter. Huntsville is near the center of a large area of the U.S. mid-South that has maximum precipitation in the winter and spring, not summer. Average yearly precipitation is more than 54 inches. On average, the wettest single month is December, but Huntsville has a prolonged wetter season from November to May, with (on average) nearly or over 5 or more inches of precipitation most of those months. On average, August to October represent slightly drier months (see climate chart, showing less than 3.6 inches of precipitation these months). Droughts can occur, primarily August through October, but usually there is enough rainfall to keep soils moist and vegetation lush. Much of Huntsville's precipitation is delivered by thunderstorms. Thunderstorms are most frequent during the spring, and the most severe storms occur during the spring and late fall. These storms can deliver large hail, damaging straight-line winds, and tornadoes. Huntsville lies in a region colloquially known as Dixie Alley, an area more prone to violent, long-track tornadoes than most other parts of the US. On April 27, 2011, the largest tornado outbreak on record, the 2011 Super Outbreak, affected northern Alabama. During this event, an EF5 tornado that tracked near the Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant destroyed many transmission towers and caused a multi-day power outage for the majority of North Alabama. That same tornado also resulted in considerable damage to the Anderson Hills subdivision and in Harvest, Alabama. In total, nine people were killed in Madison County, and many others were injured. Other significant tornado events include the Super Outbreak in April 1974, the November 1989 tornado that killed 21 and injured over 460, and the 1995 Anderson Hills tornado that killed one person and caused extensive damage. On January 21, 2010, an EF2 tornado struck Huntsville, resulting in moderate damage. Because it was not rain-wrapped and was easily photographed, it received extensive media coverage. Since Huntsville is nearly inland, hurricanes rarely arrive with their full force; however, many weakened tropical storms cross the area after a U.S. Gulf Coast landfall. While most winters have some measurable snow, heavy snow is rare in Huntsville. However, there have been some unusually heavy snowstorms, like the New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm, when fell within 24 hours. Likewise, the Blizzard of 1993 and the Groundhog Day snowstorm in February 1996 were substantial winter events for Huntsville. On Christmas Day 2010, Huntsville recorded over of snow, and on January 9–10, 2011 it received at the airport and up to in the suburbs. Demographics 2020 census As of the 2020 United States census, there were 215,006 people, 88,930 households, and 52,166 families residing in the city. 2010 census As of the 2010 census, there were 180,105 people, 77,033 households, and 45,416 families residing in the city. The population density was 861.5 people per square mile (332.7/km2). There were 84,949 housing units at an average housing density of 405.3 per square mile (156.9/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 61.3% White, 30.7% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 2.6% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.9% from other races, and 2.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.2% of the population. There were 77,033 households, out of which 24.9% had children living with them, 40.1% were married couples living together, 14.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.0% were non-families. 34.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.91. 2000 census As of the 2000 census, there were 158,216 people, 66,742 households, and 41,713 families residing in the city. The population density was 909.0 people per square mile (351.0/km2). There were 73,670 housing units at an average density of 423.3 per square mile (163.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 64.47% White, 30.21% Black or African American, 0.54% Native American, 2.22% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.66% from other races, and 1.84% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.04% of the population. Non-Hispanic Whites were 58% of the population in 2010, compared to 86.9% in 1970. There were 66,742 households, out of which 27.6% had children living with them, 45.5% were married couples living together, 13.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.5% were non-families. 32.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.91. Same-sex couple households comprised 0.5% of all households. Politics and government The current mayor of Huntsville is Tommy Battle, who was first elected in 2008 and then re-elected in 2012, 2016, and 2020. The City Administrator is John Hamilton, who replaced Rex Reynolds on January 1, 2014, when Reynolds retired. The city has a five-member/district City Council. Council elections are staggered, meaning that Districts 2, 3, and 4 had elections in August 2018, while Districts 1 and 5 had elections simultaneously with mayoral elections in 2020. The city has boards and commissions which control everything from schools and planning to museums and downtown development. In July 2007, then Senator Barack Obama held the first fundraiser in Alabama for his presidential campaign in Huntsville. Obama ended up winning the Alabama Democratic Primary in Madison County by large margins in 2008. In the general election, John McCain carried Madison County with 57% of the vote. In the 2016 general election, Donald Trump (R) carried Madison County with 55% of the vote. With Hillary Clinton (D) receiving 38%, and Gary Johnson (I) receiving 4%. Huntsville is represented in Congress by Rep. Mo Brooks (R-5th Congressional District, AL) who won re-election in 2016 with 60% of the vote. Public safety and health In 2007, Mayor Loretta Spencer combined the police, fire, and animal services departments to create the Department of Public Safety. The former chief of police was appointed as its director. The new department has nearly 900 employees and an annual budget of $106.5 million. Fire The Huntsville Fire and Rescue provides fire protection for the city. On a daily basis the department staffs and coordinates twenty-one engine companies, five ladder trucks, four rescue trucks, along with a Special Operations Division that includes Hazardous Materials Units, Technical Rescue Units, and several specialized support units. Huntsville Fire & Rescue also has Fire Investigations, emergency response dispatch, logistics, and training divisions, all of which are diverse, innovative and efficient. Many Huntsville firefighters are members of the regional Hazardous Materials and Heavy Rescue response teams. The day-to-day operations of the department are currently carried out by the department's Fire Chief. Volunteer organizations Huntsville has two volunteer public safety organizations in their city. The Huntsville-Madison County Rescue Squad is the county wide volunteer rescue organization with tasks ranging from vehicle extrication to water rescues. The other is the Huntsville Cave Rescue Unit which is the region's only all-volunteer cave rescue organization. It is tasked with cave, cliff and high angle rope rescues. These organizations are located in Huntsville but operate both in the city and outside with HCRU responding to many cave rescue calls coming from caves well outside the city limits. Emergency medical services Huntsville Emergency Medical Services, Inc. (HEMSI) provides emergency medical services to Huntsville and surrounding Madison county. HEMSI operates from 12 stations with a fleet of 36 ambulances. Police The Huntsville Police Department has 3 precincts and 1 downtown headquarters, over 500 sworn officers, 200 civilian personnel, and patrols an area of approximately 220 square miles. The department also boasts its own academy, which has been in operation since 1965. Huntsville spent $1.2 million in 2015 to buy body cameras to be used by the Huntsville Police Department. Mayor Tommy Battle pushed for the purchase of the body cameras, saying: "We can provide a trust situation with police and our general public." He also said: "Having that body cam there, having the police video there record what actually happens, and when people come in with complaints against Huntsville police officers, they get to see the action that actually happened." Following the conviction of a former Huntsville police officer for murder, after he was originally cleared of any wrongdoing by the Police department, the City of Huntsville voted to change the way police shootings are reviewed. Beginning in August 2021, all shootings that result in death that occur by Huntsville Police are to be investigated by the Alabama Law Enforcement Agency instead. The first investigation following the policy change started in January 2022 after an off-duty Huntsville police officer allegedly killed his girlfriend. The officer had initially reported the death as a suicide, however it is being investigated as a homicide. An advisory council created by the city described actions by Huntsville Police department (HPD) as being "in a manner that was, at a minimum, unprofessional and on multiple occasions in violation of HPD policy." Hospitals Huntsville Hospital in the downtown area is the largest hospital and trauma center. In 2021, Huntsville Hospital opened the Orthopedic & Spine Tower, a seven-story building with 24 surgical orthopedic suites, which brings the total bed count to 881 for Huntsville Hospital. Located further south, Crestwood Medical Center is a smaller, 180-bed teaching hospital that is ranked nationally in two specialties. Economy Huntsville's main economic influence is derived from aerospace and military technology. Redstone Arsenal, Cummings Research Park (CRP), and NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center comprise the main hubs for the area's technology-driven economy. CRP is the second largest research park in the United States and the fourth largest in the world. University of Alabama in Huntsville is a center for technology and engineering research in the area. There are commercial technology companies such as the network access company ADTRAN, computer graphics company Intergraph and designer and manufacturer of IT infrastructure Avocent. Cinram manufactures and distributes 20th Century Fox DVDs and Blu-ray Discs out of their Huntsville plant. Sanmina-SCI has a presence in the area. Fifty-seven Fortune 500 companies have operations in Huntsville. In 2005, Forbes magazine named the Huntsville-Decatur Combined Statistical Area as 6th best in the nation for doing business, and number one in terms of the number of engineers per total employment. In 2006, Huntsville dropped to 14th; the prevalence of engineers was not considered in the 2006 ranking. In 2015, Forbes ranked Huntsville as the top city for engineers in the United States. Retail There are several strip malls and shopping malls throughout the city. Huntsville has one enclosed mall, Parkway Place, built in 2002 on the site of the former Parkway City Mall. A larger mall built in 1984, Madison Square Mall, was closed in 2017 and the site is being redeveloped into a lifestyle center, named Mid City. There is also a lifestyle center named Bridge Street Town Centre, completed in 2007, in Cummings Research Park. Space and defense Huntsville remains the center for rocket-propulsion research in NASA and the Army. The Marshall Space Flight Center has been designated to develop NASA's future Space Launch System (SLS), and the U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command (AMCOM) is responsible for developing a variety of rocket-based tactical weapons. Automobiles Toyota Motor Manufacturing Alabama, located in North Huntsville Industrial Park and is separate from the Mazda Toyota Manufacturing USA facility, which is located in Greenbrier. The plant has 1,350 employees as of 2019. The plant has plans to expand, and to employ 1,800 individuals by 2021. The plant manufactures engines for Toyota vehicles. The Mazda Toyota Manufacturing USA recently opened in mid 2021, and is planning to hire 4,000 employees. The facility produces Toyota and Mazda SUV's, and Pickup trucks. The majority of the plant is located in Huntsville, however the southern third is located in the unincorporated community of Greenbrier. Infrastructure Transportation Huntsville is served by several U.S. Highways, including 72, 231, 431 and an Interstate highway spur, I-565, that links Huntsville and Decatur to I-65. Alabama Highway 53 also connects the city with I-65 in Ardmore, Tennessee. Major roadways include University Drive, Governors Drive, Airport Road, Memorial Parkway and Research Park Blvd. Cited as "Restore Our Roads", the city of Huntsville, between 2014 and 2019, will perform about $383 million worth of road construction to improve the transportation infrastructure. Some of the funds for the road work comes from an increase in sales tax, while others come from various sources including the Alabama Transportation Rehabilitation and Improvement Program. Major road projects include: Memorial Parkway overpasses at Martin Road, Lily Flagg, and Mastin Lake Road Widening US 72 over Chapman Mountain Widening US 72/University Drive from Providence Main Street to County Line Road from 4 lanes to 6 lanes Access and intersection improvements along Memorial Parkway Extending the Northern Bypass from Pulaski Pike to US-231/431 Widening Cecil Ashburn Drive over Huntsville Mountain from 2 to 4 lanes Additional road projects include reconstructing Holmes Avenue over Pinhook Creek, widening Zierdt, Martin and Winchester Roads, widening Old Madison Pike from Cummings Research Park to the city of Madison, relocating and widening Church Street north of Downtown, relocating Wynn Drive to allow an extension of the Calhoun Community College campus, various improvements along US 431 north of Hampton Cove, creating a new Downtown Gateway with the extension of Harvard Road from Governors Drive to Williams Avenue for a direct connection to Downtown, and extending Weatherly Road to the new Grissom High School. Public transit Public transit in Huntsville is run by the city's Department of Parking and Public Transit. The Huntsville Orbit runs 11 fixed routes throughout the city, mainly around downtown and major shopping areas like Memorial Parkway and University Drive and has recently expanded some of the buses to include bike racks on the front for a trial program. A trolley makes stops at tourist attractions and shopping centers. The city runs HandiRide, a demand-response transit system for the handicapped, and RideShare, a county-wide carpooling program. Railroads Huntsville has two active commercial rail lines. The mainline is run by Norfolk Southern, which runs from Memphis to Chattanooga, Tennessee. The original depot for this rail line, the Huntsville Depot, still exists as a railroad museum, though it no longer offers passenger service. Another rail line, formerly part of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad (L&N), successor to the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railway (NC&StL), is being operated by the Huntsville and Madison County Railroad Authority (HMCRA). The line connects to the Norfolk Southern line downtown and runs south, passing near Ditto Landing on the Tennessee River, and terminating at Norton Switch, near Hobbs Island. This service, in continuous operation since 1894, presently hauls freight and provides transloading facilities at its downtown depot location. Until the mid-1950s, the L&N provided freight and passenger service to Guntersville and points South. The rail cars were loaded onto barges at Hobbs Island. The barge tows were taken upstream through the Guntersville Dam & Locks and discharged at Port Guntersville. Remnants of the track supporting piers still remain in the river just upstream from Hobbs Island. The service ran twice daily. L&N abandoned the line in 1984, at which time it was acquired by the newly created HMCRA, a state agency. A third line, the Mercury and Chase Railroad, runs weekend tourist rides on part of another former NC&StL and L&N line from the North Alabama Railroad Museum's Chase Depot, located in the community of Chase, Alabama. Their collection includes one of the oldest diesel locomotives in existence (1926). The rail line originally connected Huntsville to NC&StL's Nashville-to-Chattanooga mainline in Decherd, Tennessee. The depot was once the smallest union station in the United States when it served the NC&StL and Memphis and Charleston Railroad, the predecessor to the Norfolk Southern. Air service Huntsville International Airport is served by several regional and national carriers, including Delta Air Lines, United Airlines, Frontier Airlines, Silver Airways and American Airlines. Delivery companies have hubs in Huntsville, making flights to Europe, Asia, and Mexico. The airport was reported to having the highest fares in the United States in 2014. Huntsville is also served by the Meridianville–located Madison County Executive Airport, sometimes denoted as Huntsville Executive Airport due to its proximity to the city. The airport is a general aviation airport and does not have any regularly-scheduled commercial services. Ports The inland Port of Huntsville combines the Huntsville International Airport, International Intermodal Center, and Jetplex Industrial Park for truck, train and air transport. The intermodal terminal transfers truck and train cargo to aircraft. The port has on-site U.S. Customs and USDA inspectors. The port is Foreign Trade Zone No. 83. Bicycle routes There are several bicycle routes in the city. In 2015, Alabama and Huntsville were not considered bicycle friendly. There are bike paths for exercise available. Huntsville's government is working to improve bicycle network within the city limits. In 2020, Huntsville released a master plan for a 70-mile bicycling and walking trail, named Singing River Trail of North Alabama to connect downtown Huntsville to the cities of Madison, Decatur, and Athens. Utilities Electricity, water, and natural gas are all provided in Huntsville by Huntsville Utilities (HU). HU purchases and resells power from the Tennessee Valley Authority. TVA has two plants that provide electricity to the Huntsville area- Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant in Limestone County and Guntersville Dam in Marshall County. A third, Bellefonte Nuclear Power Plant in Jackson County, was built in the 1980s but was never activated. TVA plans to eventually activate the plant. Telephone service in Huntsville is provided by AT&T, EarthLink, WOW!, and Comcast. Comcast and WOW! are the two cable providers in the Huntsville city limits. Mediacom operates in rural outlying areas. AT&T announced the start of its DSL U-verse service in the Huntsville-Decatur metro area in November 2010. AT&T and Google offer fiber internet service across the city. Media and communications Newspapers The Huntsville Times has been Huntsville's only daily newspaper since 1996, when the Huntsville News closed. Before then, the News was the morning paper, and the Times was the afternoon paper until 2004. The Times has a weekday circulation of 60,000, which rises to 80,000 on Sundays. Both papers were owned by the Newhouse chain. In May 2012, Advance Publications, owner of the Times, announced that the Times would become part of a new company called the Alabama Media Group, along with the other three newspapers and two websites owned by Advance. As part of the change, the newspapers moved to a three-day publication schedule, with print editions available only on Wednesday, Friday and Sunday. The Huntsville Times and its sister papers publish news and information 7 days a week on AL.com. A few alternative newspapers are available in Huntsville. The Valley Planet covers arts and entertainment in the Tennessee Valley area. The Redstone Rocket is a newspaper distributed throughout Redstone Arsenal's housing area covering activities on Redstone. Speakin' Out News is a weekly newspaper focused on African Americans. El Reportero is a Spanish-language newspaper for North Alabama. Magazines Huntsville Life Magazine is a lifestyle magazine, which is published six times annually. No'Ala Huntsville is a lifestyle magazine, which is published six times annually. Radio Huntsville is the 106th largest radio market in the United States. Station KIH20 broadcasts the National Weather Service's forecasts and warnings for the Huntsville area. Television The Huntsville DMA serves 15 counties in North Alabama and 6 counties in Southern Middle Tennessee. TV Stations WTZT 11.1 Cozi TV (Athens) WHDF 15.1 CW Network Florence 15.2 Court TV WHNT 19.1 CBS 19.2 The CW 19.3 Antenna TV WHIQ 25.1 PBS/Alabama Public Television 25.2 APT Kids 25.3 APT Create 25.5 APT World 25.5 Huntsville ETV WMJN-LD 29.1 Heartland 29.2 Retro TV 29.3 Blank 29.4 Rev'n WAAY 31.1 ABC 31.2 Ion Television 31.3 Dabl 31.4 QVC W34EY-D 38 Court TV 38.1 Court TV 38.2 Infomercials 38.3 Get TV 38.4 Buzzr 38.5 Shop LC 38.6 3ABN 38.7 Blank WAFF 48.1 NBC 48.2 Bounce TV 48.3 Circle 48.4 Laff 48.5 Grit WZDX 54.1 FOX 54.2 WAMY My Network TV 54.3 Me-TV 54.4 Court TV Mystery Film A few feature films have been shot in Huntsville, including 20 Years After (2008, originally released as Like Moles, Like Rats), Air Band (2005), and Constellation (2005). Parts of the film SpaceCamp (1986) were shot at Huntsville's U.S. Space and Rocket Center at the eponymous facility. The U.S. Space and Rocket Center stood in for NASA in the 1989 movie Beyond the Stars. Columbia Pictures filmed Ravagers (1979) in The Land Trust's Historic Three Caves Quarry, at the U.S. Space and Rocket Center, and at an antebellum home next door to Lee High School. The city was also referenced in Captain Marvel. Huntsville's legacy in the space program continues to draw film producers looking for background material for space-themed films. During the pre-production of Apollo 13 (1995), the cast and crew spent time at Space Camp and Marshall Space Flight Center preparing for their roles. Space Camp was mentioned in the film Stranger than Fiction and was featured in a 2008 episode of Penn & Teller: B.S.! on NASA. Huntsville has six movie theaters: AMC Valley Bend 18 and IMAX AMC Classic Huntsville 10 Cinemark Bridge Street and XD Touchstar Cinemas Luxury Madison Square 12 National Geographic Theater Education K–12 education Most K–12 students in Huntsville attend Huntsville City Schools. In the 2007–2008 school year 22,839 students attended Huntsville City Schools, 77% of all students scored at or above state and national ACT averages, and of the 1,279 members of the graduating class, "approximately 92% of the students indicated that they planned to enter a post-secondary institution for further study, 43% obtained scholarship & monetary awards", and "received 2,988 scholarships totaling $33,619,040, had forty-one National Merit Scholars, three National Achievement Scholars, and two perfect ACT scores." Of the 53 schools in the Huntsville City Schools system in 2007–2008, there were: 25 elementary, and Two K–8, which serve 10,836 students. For grades 6–12, there are 11,696 students enrolled in the following schools: Eleven middle schools (grades 6–8) Seven high schools Three special centers (two Schools of Choice and one Program of Choice [1B]) Four magnet schools (two with grades K–8 and two with grades 9–12) The two magnet elementary schools are the Academy for Academics and Arts and the Academy for Science and Foreign Language. The three magnet middle schools are Williams Technology, The Academy for Academics and Arts, and the Academy for Science and Foreign Language, and the two magnet high schools are Lee High School and New Century Technology High School. Approximately 21 private, parochial, and religious schools serve grades pre-K–12. The city has several accredited private Christian schools, including Saint John Paul II Catholic High School, Faith Christian Academy, Oakwood Adventist Academy, Whitesburg Christian Academy, Grace Lutheran School, and Westminster Christian Academy. Randolph School is Huntsville's only independent, private K-12 school. In 2007, 60% of HCS teachers had at least a master's degree. Higher education Huntsville's higher education institutions are: Alabama A&M University J.F. Drake State Community and Technical College Oakwood University University of Alabama in Huntsville The University of Alabama in Huntsville is the largest university serving the greater Huntsville area, with more than 7,700 students. About half of its graduates earn a degree in engineering or science, making it one of the larger producers of engineers and physical scientists in Alabama. The Carnegie Foundation ranks the school very highly as a research institution, placing it among the top 75 public research universities in the nation. UAHuntsville is also ranked a Tier 1 national university by U.S. News & World Report. Alabama A&M University is the oldest university in the Huntsville area, dating to 1875. With over 6,000 students, it is home to the AAMU Historic District with 28 buildings and four structures listed in the United States National Register of Historic Places. Oakwood University, founded in 1896, is a Seventh-day Adventist university with over 1,800 students and a member institution of the United Negro College Fund. It is one of the nation's leading producers of black applicants to medical schools. Various colleges and universities have satellite locations or extensions in Huntsville: Athens State University Calhoun Community College Calhoun Community College at Cummings Research Park Calhoun Community College at Redstone Arsenal Columbia College Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University Faulkner University Florida Institute of Technology Georgia Institute of Technology Huntsville Regional Medical Campus of the University of Alabama at Birmingham School of Medicine Ross Medical Education Center Virginia College (closed 2018) Huntsville Hospital and Crestwood Medical Center has an accredited school of radiologic technology Culture Historic districts Twickenham Historic District was chosen as the name of the first of three of the city's historic districts. It features homes in the Federal and Greek Revival architectural styles introduced to the city by Virginia-born architect George Steele about 1818, and contains the most dense concentration of antebellum homes in Alabama. The 1819 Weeden House Museum was home to female artist and poet Howard Weeden whose watercolors include portraits of African Americans. Old Town Historic District contains a variety of styles (Federal, Greek Revival, Queen Anne, and even California cottages), with homes dating from the late 1820s through the early 1900s. Five Points Historic District, consists predominantly of bungalows built around the beginning of the 20th century, by which time Huntsville was becoming a mill town. Merrimack Mill Village Historic District is a historic district developed around the Merrimack Cotton Mill in 1900. The district features homes following several basic plans: Type A, a one-story, duplex shotgun house; Type B, a rectangular duplex with double central entry doors and a shed roof porch; Type J, a two-story I-house, usually with a shed roof rear addition; Type L, a two-story, cross-gable duplex with side entrances covered by shallow-pitched gable porches; and Type M, a one-story, hipped roof duplex with a shed-roof front porch. The 96 Type L houses, most of which were constructed in the first wave of construction before 1910, represent the largest collection of the type in the South. Lowe Mill Village & Lincoln Mill and Mill Village Historic District were born during the textile boom of the 1890s and were recognized for their historical importance in 2011 along with Dallas Mill Village. Museums Alabama Constitution Village features eight reconstructed Federal style buildings, with living-museum displays downtown. Burritt on the Mountain, located on Monte Sano Mountain, is a regional history museum and regional event venue featuring a 1950s mansion, interpretive historic park, nature trails, scenic overlooks and more. Clay House Museum is an antebellum home built c. 1853 which showcases decorative styles up to 1950 and has an outstanding collection of Noritake porcelain. Early Works Museum is a child friendly interactive museum in downtown Huntsville. Harrison Brothers Hardware Store, established in 1879, is the oldest operating hardware store in Alabama. Though now owned and operated by the Historic Huntsville Foundation, it is still a working store, and part museum featuring skilled craftsmen who volunteer to run the store and answer questions. The Historic Huntsville Depot, completed in 1860, is the oldest surviving railroad depot in Alabama and one of the oldest surviving depots in the United States. Huntsville Museum of Art in Big Spring International Park offers permanent displays, traveling exhibitions, and educational programs for children and adults. North Alabama Railroad Museum is a railroad museum with over 30 pieces of rolling stock. US Space & Rocket Center is home to the US Space Camp and Aviation Challenge programs as well as the only Saturn V rocket designated a National Historic Landmark. U.S. Veterans Memorial Museum displays more than 30 historical military vehicles from World War I to the present, including the world's oldest jeep. Also on display are many artifacts, memorabilia, and small arms dating back to the Revolutionary War. Parks There are more than 60 parks within the city limits of Huntsville. In 2013, for the fifth time in seven years, Huntsville was named a 'Playful City USA' by KaBOOM! (non-profit organization) for their efforts to provide a variety of play opportunities for children that included after school programs and parks within walking distance of home. Big Spring International Park is a park in downtown Huntsville centered on a natural water body (Big Spring). The park contains the Huntsville Museum of Art. Festivals are held there, such as the Panoply Arts Festival and the Big Spring Jam. There are fish in the spring's niche. There is a waterfall and a constantly lit gas torch. Burritt on the Mountain features an eccentric, mid-century mansion and museum, an interpretive historic park depicting rural life in the 19th century, educational programs for children and adults, accessible nature trails, panoramic views of the city below and functions as a venue for popular regional events throughout the year. Creekwood Park is a park with a full-scale children's playground and dog park that connects to the Indian Creek Greenway. Huntsville Botanical Garden features educational programs, woodland paths, broad grassy meadows and stunning floral collections. John Hunt Park is the city's largest park with over of open space, tennis courts, soccer fields and walking trails. Jones Farm Park is a park set in Jones Valley. The park encompasses 33 acres, and offers 2 ponds, a paved trail, and a pavilion. Land Trust of North Alabama is a member supported, non-profit organization dedicated to the conservation of the natural heritage of the area, and has preserved more than of open space, wildflower areas, wetlands, working farms, and scenic vistas in North Alabama, including of the Monte Sano Nature Preserve (Monte Sano Mountain), of the Blevins Gap and Green Mountain Nature Preserves (Huntsville & Green Mountains), and of the Wade Mountain Nature Preserve. Volunteers have created and maintain of public trails – all of which are within the Huntsville city limits. Lydia Gold Skatepark, located behind the Historic Huntsville Depot, is open to the public. In 2003, it was dedicated to the late Lydia Leigh Gold (1953–1993), an area skateboarding activist in the 1980s and the former owner of "Tattooed Lady Comics and Skateboards". Helmets are the only pad requirement. No bikes, scooters, or other wheeled vehicles are allowed – only skateboards and rollerblades are permitted. Monte Sano State Park has over and features hiking and bicycling trails, rustic cabins built by the Civilian Conservation Corps, campsites, full RV hook-ups, and a recently reconstructed lodge. Festivals February/March: Annual Maslenitsa "Spring Festival" is held in late winter (February or March) in Madison County. A goodbye to Winter and welcome to Spring, it is associated with ancient pagan traditions, the Orthodox Church, and the fifteen East-European, Baltic, Central Asian, Russian, and Southern Caucasus nations represented. This annual, family-friendly event includes a menu with crêpe-like blini as its centerpiece; the festival is also called "Pancake Week". It is brought together by a partnership between Madison County, sponsoring 501(c)(3) organizations, and Kazakh, Moldovan, Ukrainian, Russian, Georgian, and other community representatives. Traditional dance, authentic regional folk-songs and instrumentals, fashions, children's activities, and wonderful foods are part and parcel of the celebration. April: Panoply Arts Festival is an annual arts festival that began on May 14, 1982. It is presented by The Arts Council and is held on the last full weekend of each April in Big Spring International Park and the Von Braun Center. The festival includes performance stages featuring presentations, demonstrations, performances, competitions, and workshops to promote the arts. There are children's activities, a Global Village, strolling performers, and nightly fireworks displays. The Southeast Tourism Society consistently ranks the festival among their "Top Twenty Events" and Governor Bob Riley has announced it as one of Alabama's top ten tourism events. May: Rocket City Brewfest is an annual craft beer festival that began in 2009 by the local Free the Hops organization. Brewfest was initially held at the historical Huntsville Depot Roundhouse, then once at Campus 805 until it moved to the Activity Field on Redstone Arsenal for a Saturday afternoon filled with craft beer, cider, and music. June: The annual Cigar Box Guitar Festival is held the first week of June at Lowe Mill Arts and Entertainment. It is the world's longest running Cigar Box Guitar festival and features live music using home made instruments in the tradition, makers from across the region, and includes workshops and demonstrations. September: Big Spring Jam (1993–2011) was an annual three-day music festival held on the last full weekend of September in and around Big Spring International Park in downtown Huntsville. It featured a diversity of music including rock, country, Christian, kid-friendly, and oldies. September: The Annual International Festival of North Alabama (iFest) is held each Fall on the UAHuntsville Campus. This free family event offers displays from many nations, presentations, travel/historic literature, hosts in native apparel, children's activities, and other audio-visuals emblematic of the wide diversity of participating countries. In addition, there are live performances and demos by local and touring artists, as well as international food vendors, an Open Air Market, and a colorful "Parade of Nations." October: Con†Stellation is an annual general-interest science fiction convention. Con†Stellation (also written as Con* Stellation) has been generally held over a Friday-Sunday weekend in October each year (as of 2012). Golf courses Hampton Cove is one of the eleven courses making up the Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail; named after Hampton Cove, it features two championship 18-hole courses and one par-three course. Huntsville Country Club, an 18-hole course with dining and banquet facilities The Ledges: 18 holes, dining and banquet facilities The Links on Redstone Arsenal is available for Military, NASA, and others that have base access. The Links has four separate 9-hole courses, a driving range, a putting and chipping green, and even play foot golf – a soccer version of golf. Sunset Landing Golf Club (located next to the airport) Valley Hill Country Club features 27 holes in South Huntsville's Jones Valley. Libraries The Huntsville-Madison County Public Library, founded in late October 1818, is Alabama's oldest continually operating library system. It has 13 branches throughout the county including one bookmobile. The Huntsville branches are the Bailey Cove Branch Library, Bessie K. Russell Branch Library, Downtown Huntsville Library, Eleanor E. Murphy Branch Library, Oscar Mason Branch Library, and Showers Center Library. The Downtown Huntsville Library Archives contains a wealth of historical resources, including displays of photographic collections and artifacts, has Alabama's highest materials circulation rate, and features daily public programs. The library system provides free public access Internet computers and wireless Internet access in all facilities. Arts associations Several arts groups have passed the 50-year mark: Huntsville Community Chorus Association; Huntsville Art League; Theatre Huntsville (through its parent company); Broadway Theatre League; Fantasy Playhouse Children's Theatre; Rocket City Chorus; Huntsville Symphony Orchestra; and Huntsville Photographic Society among them. Arts Huntsville Founded in October 1962 as a non-profit, 501(c)(3) organization, the Arts Huntsville (TAC) includes over 100 local arts organizations and advocates. Arts Huntsville sponsors the arts through five core programs: Arts Education — including the "Meet the Artist" interactive, "distance learning" program at Educational Television and ArtVentures summer arts camp; Member services; the annual Panoply Arts Festival Concerts in the Park, a series of "summer serenades under the stars" held at Big Spring International Park in partnership with the City Community Information Services, featuring "Boost Your Buzz", an annual publicity workshop. Arts Huntsville promotes the visual arts with two galleries: art@TAC, using the walls near the company's Von Braun Center offices and the JavaGalleria. TAC supports The Bench Project and the strategic planning effort to support Huntsville-Madison County's economic development goals through expanded arts and cultural opportunities known as Create Huntsville. Performing arts Twickenham Fest is Alabama's Premiere Summer Chamber Music Festival. Founded in 2010, this festival brings world class musicians into Huntsville to perform chamber music repertory over a week-long. This festival is free to the public due to philanthropic support from the Huntsville community. The Huntsville Community Chorus Association (HCCA) is one of Alabama's oldest performing arts organizations, with its first performance dating to December 1946 (per its website, the Mobile Opera Guild — the state's oldest — first performed in April of that year). HCCA produces chorale concerts and musical theater productions. In addition, the company features its madrigal singers; "Glitz!" (a show choir); a chamber chorale; an annual summer melodrama/fundraiser; and three children's groups: the Huntsville Community Chorus (HCC) Children's Chorale (ages 3−5); the HCC Treble Chorale (ages 6−8); and the HCC Youth Chorale (ages 9−12). Broadway Theatre League was founded in 1959. BTL presents a season of national touring Broadway productions each year, a family-fun show, and additional season specials. Shows are presented in the Von Braun Center's Mark C. Smith Concert Hall. Recent productions include Mamma Mia!, A Chorus Line, The Color Purple, and An Evening with Patti LuPone and Mandy Patinkin. The Flying Monkey Arts Center is in the historic Lowe Mill under the auspices of Lowe Mill ARTS and Entertainment and hosts events such as the traditional Cigar Box Guitar festival, the Sex Workers' Art Show, concerts, and many presentations of the Film Co-op. Huntsville Symphony Orchestra is Alabama's oldest continuously operating professional symphony orchestra, featuring performances of classical, pops and family concerts, and music education programs in public schools. Fantasy Playhouse Children's Theatre, Huntsville's oldest children's theater, was founded in 1960. An all-volunteer organization, Fantasy Playhouse performs for the children of north Alabama on stage and off. Fantasy Playhouse Theater Academy, the organization's dance, music, and art school, teaches children and adults each year. Fantasy Playhouse regularly produces three plays a year with an additional play, A Christmas Carol, produced early each December. Theatre Huntsville, the result of a merger between the Twickenham Repertory Company (1979–1997) and Huntsville Little Theatre (1950–1997), is a 501(c)(3), non-profit, all-volunteer arts organization that presents six plays each season in the Von Braun Center Playhouse. It produces the annual "Shakespeare on the Mountain" in an outdoor venue, such as Burritt on the Mountain. Presentations range from The Foreigner and Noises Off to the occasional musical (Little Shop of Horrors and Nunsense). In addition, TH presents drama-related workshops (stage management, stage makeup, etc.), as announced. Independent Musical Productions, was founded in 1993 and presents at least one annual main production such as Ragtime, Civil War, 1776, Into the Woods, Rent, and Sweeney Todd. Standard and original musicals for children as well as outreach programs complete the season. Plays are performed at Renaissance Theatre, with two stages, the MainStage (upstairs) and the Alpha Stage (downstairs), each seating about 85. The theaters are housed in the former Commissary Building for the historic Lincoln Mill Village. In addition to well-known and mainstream titles, Renaissance produces original, controversial, and offbeat plays. It was the site for the East Coast premiere of "The Maltese Falcon." Merrimack Hall Performing Arts Center is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization that opened in 2007, after nearly $3 million in renovations to the historic building. It was once the social center of the Merrimack Mill Village in the early 1900s. The Company Store, gymnasium, and bowling alley were all there and provided a place for socialization and recreation to all of the village's residents. Merrimack Hall now includes a 302-seat performance hall, a dance studio, and rehearsal and instructional spaces for musicians. Productions and performers include Menopause The Musical, Dixie's Tupperware Party, Billy Bob Thornton and The Boxmasters, Dionne Warwick, Lisa Loeb, Claire Lynch, and the Second City Comedy Troupe. Ars Nova School of the Arts is a conservatory for music and performing arts. Ars Nova produces musical theatre, opera, and operetta for the local stage. The Huntsville Youth Orchestra was founded by Russell Gerhart, founding conductor of the Huntsville Symphony Orchestra, in 1961. The HYO is a non-profit corporation whose purpose is to "foster, promote, and provide the support necessary for students from North Alabama to experience musical education in an orchestral setting." The organization has six ensembles: the Huntsville Youth Symphony, Sinfonia, Philharmonia, Concert Orchestra, Intermezzo Orchestra, and Novice Strings. Huntsville Chamber Music Guild was organized in 1952 to promote and present chamber music programs; the group seeks to present recitals in which artists are presented in works of the classical masters. The Huntsville Ballet Company is under the non-profit Community Ballet Association, Inc. The Huntsville Ballet Company performs ballets each year such as The Nutcracker, Romeo and Juliet, The Firebird, and Swan Lake. Visual arts The Huntsville Museum of Art opened in 1970. It purchased the largest privately owned, permanent collection of art by American women in the U.S., featuring Anna Elizabeth Klumpke, among others. The Huntsville Photographic Society started in 1956. A non-profit organization, the HPS is dedicated to furthering the art and science of photography in North Alabama. The Huntsville Art League started in 1957, adopting the name "The Huntsville Art League and Museum Association" (HALMA). In addition to their Visiting Artists and "Limelight Artists" series, which highlight both nonresident and member artists at the home office, HAL features its members' works at galleries located in the Jane Grote Roberts Auditorium of the Huntsville-Madison County Public Library – Main, the Heritage Club, and the halls of the Huntsville Times. Convention center and arena The Von Braun Center, which originally opened in 1975 as the Von Braun Civic Center, has an arena capable of seating 10,000, a 2,000-seat concert hall, a 500-seat playhouse (330 seats with proscenium staging), and of convention space. Both the arena and concert hall have undergone major renovations; as a result, they have been rechristened the Propst Arena and the Mark C. Smith Concert Hall, respectively. Local breweries Straight to Ale Brewery opened in 2010 in North Huntsville, later relocated to South Huntsville, and then moved to Campus 805 in West Huntsville. Yellowhammer Brewing opened in 2010 in West Huntsville. It later moved to a new facility at Campus 805 in West Huntsville. Below the Radar Brewpub opened in 2012 just a few blocks off the square in downtown Huntsville. Salty Nut Brewery opened in 2013 in North Huntsville and moved to West Huntsville on brewery row. Mad Malts Brewing opened in late 2013 just north of downtown Huntsville under the name 'The Brew Stooges' until Fall 2015. Green Bus Brewing in downtown Huntsville opened in late 2015. InnerSpace Brewing Company opened in 2018 in West Huntsville, between Salty Nut Brewery and Yellowhammer Brewing. Fractal Brewing Project opened in 2019 in South Huntsville near the Municipal Ice Complex. Chandlers Ford Brewing in downtown Huntsville opened in 2020. Comedy Huntsville is home to a number of comedy shows, including: Awesome Comedy Hour at The Open Bottle Comedy Open Mic at Copper Top Dine N Dive Don't Fear the Weasel Improv at Somerville Playhouse Epic Comedy Hour at Flying Monkey Arts / Barking Dog Theater Laughs and Drafts at Yellowhammer Brewing / Lost Highway Cocktail Lounge Shenanigans Comedy Theatre at Somerville Playhouse TGIM Comedy at Maggie Meyers Irish Pub Various Comedy Shows at Stand Up Live Comedy Club Various Comedy Shows at Von Braun Center / Fantasy Playhouse Other The National Speleological Society is headquartered in Huntsville on Cave Street. The Von Braun Astronomical Society has two observatories and a planetarium on 10 acres (40,000 m2) in Monte Sano State Park. The Three Caves is a former rock quarry located on Kennamer Dr. which now has concerts during the summer. Sports Current sports franchises Alabama A&M Bulldogs (NCAA D-I FCS, SWAC) athletics Alabama–Huntsville Chargers (University of Alabama in Huntsville) (NCAA D-II, GSC) athletics (Men's and Women's Basketball, Softball, Baseball, Men's Soccer, and Crew) Huntsville Adult Soccer League – Adult Amateur Soccer League Huntsville Havoc – Southern Professional Hockey League (SPHL) Huntsville hosts the annual AHSAA State Soccer Championship tournament finals in mid-May at the Huntsville Soccer Complex Huntsville Rockets part of Gridiron Development Football League Huntsville Rugby Club – USA Rugby South Div. II Huntsville Speedway – stock car racing North Alabama SC Gravity - Women’s Premier Soccer League Oakwood College Ambassadors Men's College Basketball (USCAA Div. 1) Rocket City Roller Derby - charter member of the Women's Flat Track Derby Association (WFTDA) Rocket City Titans – 2010 Inaugural Semi Pro football season. Part of the Premier South Football League. Tennessee Valley Tigers – Independent Women's Football League Rocket City Trash Pandas - AA minor league baseball team in suburb of Madison. Affiliated with the Los Angeles Angels. Past sports franchises Alabama Hawks (1968–69) (Continental Football League) Huntsville Stars (1985–2014) – Southern League (Class AA) baseball for Milwaukee Brewers, formerly affiliated with the Oakland A's Huntsville Lasers (1991–92) (Global Basketball Association) Huntsville Blast (1993–94) (East Coast Hockey League) Huntsville Fire (1997–98) (Eastern Indoor Soccer League) Huntsville Channel Cats/Huntsville Tornado (1995–2001, 2003–04) (Southern Hockey League 1995–96; Central Hockey League 1996–2001; South East Hockey League 2003–04) Huntsville Flight (2001–05) (NBA Development League) Tennessee Valley Raptors (2005) (United Indoor Football league)* Alabama Hammers (2010–2015) (Professional Indoor Football League) Rocket City United – National Premier Soccer League (NPSL) Hunstville Rockets (1962–67) (Continental Football League) Stadiums Joe Davis Stadium Goldsmith-Schiffman Field Huntsville Speedway Louis Crews Stadium Milton Frank Stadium T.M. Elmore Gymnasium Von Braun Center Notable people Sister cities Huntsville's sister cities include: Tainan, Taiwan References Bibliography Further reading External links Huntsville/Madison County Convention & Visitors Bureau Huntsville Housing Authority Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections Huntsville History Collection Cities in Alabama Cities in Limestone County, Alabama Cities in Madison County, Alabama County seats in Alabama Alabama Huntsville-Decatur-Albertville, AL Combined Statistical Area Populated places established in 1805 Alabama populated places on the Tennessee River Special economic zones of the United States 1809 establishments in the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20McClellan%20%28disambiguation%29

George McClellan (disambiguation)

George B. McClellan (1826–1885) was an American Civil War military leader, presidential candidate and Governor of New Jersey. George McClellan may also refer to: George McClellan (physician) (1796–1847), American physician and founder of Jefferson Medical College and the Medical Department of Pennsylvania College George McClellan (New York politician) (1856–1927), American Democratic legislator and lawyer George B. McClellan Jr. (1865–1940), American Democratic legislator and academic; mayor of New York City; Princeton lecturer and professor George McClellan (police officer) (1908–1982), Canadian police official; Canada's first provincial Ombudsman George McClellan (anatomy professor) (1849–1913), American medical doctor George B. McClellan (fireboat), a fireboat operated by the FDNY General George B. McClellan (Ellicott), an equestrian bronze sculpture by Henry Jackson Ellicott See also McClellan (disambiguation)

106991

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot%20Springs%2C%20Arkansas

Hot Springs, Arkansas

Hot Springs is a resort city in the state of Arkansas and the county seat of Garland County. The city is located in the Ouachita Mountains among the U.S. Interior Highlands, and is set among several natural hot springs for which the city is named. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city had a population of 35,193. In 2019 the estimated population was 38,797. The center of Hot Springs is the oldest federal reserve in the United States, today preserved as Hot Springs National Park. The hot spring water has been popularly believed for centuries to possess healing properties, and was a subject of legend among several Native American tribes. Following federal protection in 1832, the city developed into a successful spa town. Incorporated January 10, 1851, the city has been home to Major League Baseball spring training, illegal gambling, speakeasies and gangsters such as Al Capone, horse racing at Oaklawn Park, the Army and Navy Hospital, and 42nd President Bill Clinton. One of the largest Pentecostal denominations in the United States, the Assemblies of God, traces its beginnings to Hot Springs. Today, much of Hot Springs's history is preserved by various government entities. Hot Springs National Park is maintained by the National Park Service, including Bathhouse Row, which preserves the eight historic bathhouse buildings and gardens along Central Avenue. Downtown Hot Springs is preserved as the Central Avenue Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The city also contains dozens of historic hotels and motor courts, built during the Great Depression in the Art Deco style. Due to the popularity of the thermal waters, Hot Springs benefited from rapid growth during a period when many cities saw a sharp decline in building; much like Miami's art deco districts. As a result, Hot Springs's architecture is a key part of the city's blend of cultures, including a reputation as a tourist town and a Southern city. Also a destination for the arts, Hot Springs features the Hot Springs Music Festival, Hot Springs Documentary Film Festival, and the Valley of the Vapors Independent Music Festival annually. History Discovery and settlement Members of many Native American tribes had been gathering in the valley for untold numbers of years to enjoy the healing properties of the thermal springs. In 1673, Father Marquette and Jolliet explored the area and claimed it for France. The 1763 Treaty of Paris ceded the land to Spain; however, in 1800 control was returned to France until the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In December 1804, Dr. George Hunter and William Dunbar made an expedition to the springs, finding a lone log cabin and a few rudimentary shelters used by people visiting the springs for their healing properties. In 1807, a man named Prudhomme became the first settler of modern Hot Springs, and he was soon joined by John Perciful and Isaac Cates. On August 24, 1818, the Quapaw Native Americans ceded the land around the hot springs to the United States in a treaty. After Arkansas became its own territory in 1819, the Arkansas Territorial Legislature requested in 1820 that the springs and adjoining mountains be set aside as a federal reservation. Twelve years later, in 1832, the Hot Springs Reservation was created by the United States Congress, granting federal protection of the thermal waters. The reservation was renamed Hot Springs National Park in 1921. Civil War The outbreak of the American Civil War left Hot Springs with a declining bathing population. After the Confederate forces suffered defeat in the Battle of Pea Ridge in March 1862, the Union troops advanced toward the Confederate city of Little Rock. Confederate Governor Henry M. Rector moved his staff and state records to Hot Springs. Union forces did not attack Little Rock, and the government returned to the capital city on July 14, 1862. Many residents of Hot Springs fled to Texas or Louisiana and remained there until the end of the war. In September 1863, Union forces occupied Little Rock. During this period, Hot Springs became the prey of guerrilla bands loosely associated with either Union or Confederate forces. They pillaged and burned the near-deserted town, leaving only a few buildings standing at the end of the Civil War. Rebuilding After the Civil War, extensive rebuilding of bathhouses and hotels took place at Hot Springs. The year-round population soared to 1,200 inhabitants by 1870. By 1873 six bathhouses and 24 hotels and boardinghouses stood near the springs. In 1874, Joseph Reynolds announced his decision to construct a narrow-gauge railroad from Malvern to Hot Springs; completion in 1875 resulted in the growth of visitation to the springs. Samuel W. Fordyce and two other entrepreneurs financed the construction of the first luxury hotel in the area, the first Arlington Hotel, which opened in 1875. During the Reconstruction Era, several conflicting land claims reached the U.S. Congress and resulted on April 24, 1876, Supreme Court ruling that the land title of Hot Springs belonged to the federal government. Protests ensued. To deal with the situation, Congress formed the Hot Springs Commission to lay out streets in the town of Hot Springs, deal with land claims, define property lines, condemn buildings illegally on the permanent reservation (now the national park), and define a process for claimants to purchase land. The commission surveyed and set aside encompassing the hot springs and Hot Springs Mountain to be a permanent government reservation. Another became the Hot Springs townsite, with awarded to claimants. The townsite consisted of 196 blocks and of streets and alleys. The remaining portion of the original four sections of government land consisted of hills and mountains which were mostly unoccupied, and Congress acted on the commission's recommendation in June 1880 by adding those lands to the permanent reservation. Baseball in Hot Springs Hot Springs has a rich baseball history. During the early 20th century, Hot Springs was known for baseball training camps. Often called the "birthplace" of Spring Training baseball, Hot Springs first welcomed Major League Baseball in 1886, when the Chicago White Stockings (now the Chicago Cubs), brought their coaches and players to the city in preparation for the upcoming season. Chicago White Stockings' President Albert Spalding, the founder of A.G Spalding, and player/manager Cap Anson introduced the concept of players having training and fitness before the start of the regular season, This move gave credit to Hot Springs being called the "birthplace of spring training baseball". Both Spalding and Anson, liked the city and the natural springs for their players. They first played in an area behind what is now the Garland County Courthouse on Ouachita Avenue at was called the Hot Springs Baseball Grounds. Many other teams followed Chicago and soon began training in Hot Springs Needing additional venues for teams to play, Whittington Park was built in 1894, followed by Majestic Park (1908) and Fogel Field (1912). 134 members of the Baseball Hall of Fame are documented to have trained or played, in Hot Springs. The Cleveland Spiders, Pittsburgh Pirates, Brooklyn Dodgers, Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds, Detroit Tigers, New York Yankees, St. Louis Cardinals and Boston Red Sox were among the teams that made Hot Springs their home base. Negro league baseball teams also utilized Hot Springs for Spring Training. The Pittsburgh Crawfords utilized Fogel Field for spring training from 1932 to 1935. Their roster contained Baseball Hall of Fame Inductees Cool Papa Bell, Josh Gibson, Oscar Charleston and Judy Johnson. The Homestead Grays, held spring training at Fogel Field in 1930 and 1931. On their roster were numerous Hall of Fame players: Cool Papa Bell, Josh Gibson, Oscar Charleston, Jud Wilson, Bill Foster, Judy Johnson, Smokey Joe Williams, Willie Wells and Cum Posey. St. Patrick's Day, 1918, is nicknamed the "Day that changed Baseball Forever."Boston Red Sox' pitcher Babe Ruth hit a long Home Run into the Arkansas Alligator Farm and Petting Zoo that altered the course of baseball history. In the opening exhibition game against Brooklyn at Whittington Park, Ruth (coming off a 24–13 season) was a last minute replacement at first base, his first time at a position other than pitcher. Ruth hit two long home runs that day while playing the field for the first time. His first home run was a long blast that landed in a wood pile. However, his second Home run is legendary in its record setting length and eventual effect on Ruth. It was a shot that traveled an astonishing estimated 573 feet. After that day Ruth became a hitter, switching from being just a pitcher. In Hot Springs, Ruth could be seen walking the streets, visiting the bath spas, and gambling at the nearby horse track. There is a Ruth plaque both inside and outside the Alligator Farm, as well as a home plate marker at the former Whittington Park across the street. The Pittsburgh Pirates trained for over a decade at Whittington Park. Hall of Fame shortstop Honus Wagner became a fixture in the city. As evidence of this Wagner purchased and donated basketball uniforms and equipment to Hot Springs High School in 1912. The uniforms were in the Pittsburgh Pirates colors of black and gold and subsequently the high school switched permanently to those colors. Wagner also refereed a basketball game for the school that season, something he would later repeat. In 1952, an 18-year old Hank Aaron played in the Negro American League championship for the Indianapolis Clowns against the Birmingham Black Barons at Jaycee Park. On October 22, 1953, Jackie Robinson played in an exhibition game at Jaycee Park. Having broken Major League Baseball's color barrier in 1947, Robinson's squad played the Negro American League All-Stars that day, losing 14–9. The First Boys of Spring is a 2015 documentary on the history of Hot Springs Baseball Spring Training. The film features many Hot Springs historical items and references. Produced by Arkansas filmmaker Larry Foley, it is narrated by Hot Springs area native, actor Billy Bob Thornton. The Foley documentary is aired nationally on the MLB Network, first airing in February, 2016. Today, as part of the Hot Springs Baseball Historic Trail, there are 26 green plaques/markers posted throughout Hot Springs that identify the key people and locations, with an app available to provide live information. 1913 fire On September 5, 1913, a fire broke out on Church Street a few blocks southeast of Bathhouse Row, near the Army and Navy Hospital. The fire burned southeast, away from the hospital, until the wind reversed an hour later. Racing toward the business section, it destroyed the Ozark Sanitarium and Hot Springs High School on its way across Malvern Avenue. Along the way it consumed the Public Utilities plant, which destroyed the firefighters' water supply. A wide front then was blown toward Ouachita Avenue which destroyed the Garland County Court House. The Hot Springs Fire Department fought alongside the Little Rock Fire Department, which had rushed over on a special train. Despite their efforts, numerous homes, at least a hundred businesses, four hotels, the Iron Mountain Railroad facilities, and the Crystal Theater were destroyed. A rainstorm finally quenched the blaze at Hazel Street. Although Central Avenue was ultimately protected (primarily by desperate use of dynamite), much of the southern part of the city was destroyed. Damage was estimated at $10,000,000 across 60 blocks. Formation of the Assemblies of God From April 2–12, 1914 several Pentecostal Christian leaders gathered in Hot Springs to form what became known as the Assemblies of God. It has since grown to become one of the largest Pentecostal denominations in the United States, with 3,146,741 adherents, 12,849 churches, and 36,884 ministers (). Gangsters and illegal gambling Illegal gambling became firmly established in Hot Springs during the decades following the Civil War, with two factions, the Flynns and the Dorans, fighting one another throughout the 1880s for control of the town. Frank Flynn, leader of the Flynn Faction, had effectively begun paying local law enforcement officers employed by both the Hot Springs Police Department and the Garland County Sheriff's Office to collect unpaid debts, as well as to intimidate gambling rivals. This contributed to the March 16, 1899, Hot Springs Gunfight. Of the seven Hot Springs police officers who have been killed while in service of the department, three died during that gunfight, killed by deputies of the Garland County Sheriff's Office. One part-time deputy sheriff was killed also, by the Hot Springs officers. Along with Bathhouse Row, one of downtown Hot Springs' most noted landmarks is the Arlington Hotel, a favored retreat for Al Capone. Hot Springs eventually became a national gambling mecca, led by Owney Madden and his Hotel Arkansas casino. The period 1927–1947 was its wagering pinnacle, with no fewer than ten major casinos and numerous smaller houses running wide open, the largest such operation in the United States at the time. Hotels advertised the availability of prostitutes, and off-track booking was available for virtually any horse race in North America. Local law enforcement was controlled by a political machine run by long-serving mayor Leo P. McLaughlin. The McLaughlin organization purchased hundreds of poll tax receipts, many in the names of deceased or fictitious persons, which would sometimes be voted in different precincts. A former sheriff, who attempted to have the state's anti-gambling laws enforced and to secure honest elections, was murdered in 1937. No one was ever charged with his killing. Machine domination of city and county government was abruptly ended in 1946 with the election of a "Government Improvement" slate of returning World War II veterans led by Marine Lt. Col. Sid McMath, who was elected prosecuting attorney. A 1947 grand jury indicted several owners and promoters, as well as McLaughlin, for public servant bribery. Although the former mayor and most of the others were acquitted, the machine's power was broken and gambling came to a halt, as McMath led a statewide "GI Revolt" into the governor's office in 1948. Illegal casino gambling resumed, however, with the election of Orval Faubus as governor in 1954. Buoyed into 12 years in office by his popular defiance of federal court desegregation orders, Faubus turned a blind eye to gambling in Hot Springs. Variety explained the status of the casinos in 1959 as follows: "How do these places operate when gambling and mixed drinks are supposedly against the law? Simple. Every week the management appears in local court, pays its fine according to the amount of biz [business] done and goes back to open up." Gambling was finally closed down permanently in 1967 by two Republican officeholders, Governor Winthrop Rockefeller and Circuit Judge Henry M. Britt. Rockefeller sent in a company of state troopers to shutter the casinos and burn their gaming equipment. Until other forms of gambling became legal in Arkansas four decades later, Oaklawn Park, a thoroughbred horse racing track south of downtown, was the only legal gambling establishment in Hot Springs and one of only two in the state of Arkansas; the other was the Southland Greyhound Park dog track in West Memphis. Both Oaklawn and Southland remain in operation. Army-Navy Hospital After the Civil War, the idea of establishing an Army-Navy hospital in Hot Springs was advocated by A.S. Garnett, a former Navy surgeon with a local practice, and John A. Logan, a retired Union general turned politician who was a former patient of Garnett's. In 1884, Logan persuaded Congress to allocate $100,000 for the purpose. Erected under the supervision of Captain J.W. Jacobs, the 100-bed hospital was built of wood and brick in the "pavilion style" that required patients and clinicians to traverse long distances. After World War I, Congress granted $1.5 million to build a new facility. Built under Captain Edward George, it could hold 500 patients and contained such cutting-edge technology as an X-ray wing and temperature-controlled morgue. The operating rooms and equipment was thought to be the finest in the country. Yet after the United States entered World War II, the hospital was once again overwhelmed. The Army and Navy arranged to send some overflow to the nearby Arlington and Majestic hotels. The hospital also trained dentists, surgeons, and pharmacists, and housed the first enlisted medical technician school for the Women's Army Corps.The grounds contained a kitchen, living quarters for nurses and physicians. Among the famous people treated at the hospital were Helen Keller and Joe DiMaggio. The hospital was closed on April 1, 1960, likely because local demand dropped. The grounds were sold to the state of Arkansas for one dollar. World War II The military took over the enormous Eastman Hotel across the street from the Army and Navy Hospital in 1942 because the hospital was not nearly large enough to hold the sick and wounded coming in. In 1944, the Army began redeploying returning overseas soldiers; officials inspected hotels in 20 cities before selecting Hot Springs as a redistribution center for returning soldiers. In August 1944 the Army took over most of the hotels in Hot Springs. The soldiers from the west-central states received a 21-day furlough before reporting to the redistribution station. They spent 14 days updating their military records and obtaining physical and dental treatment. The soldiers had time to enjoy the baths at a reduced rate and other recreational activities. The redistribution center closed down in December 1945 after processing more than 32,000 members of the military. In 1946, after the war, the Eastman was demolished when the federal government no longer needed it. 21st century In 2013, the metro was ranked by Forbes as one of the top "small places for business and careers", citing a low cost of doing business, high job growth and an educated workforce. The first cannabis dispensary in the state opened in May 2019 in the city. Geography Hot Springs is located in southeastern Garland County at . It sits at the southeastern edge of the Ouachita Mountains and is southwest of Little Rock. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city of Hot Springs has a total area of , of which is land and , or 0.35%, is water. Natural springs The city takes its name from the natural thermal water that flows from 47 springs on the western slope of Hot Springs Mountain in the historic downtown district of the city. About of water flow from the springs each day. The flow rate is not affected by fluctuations in the rainfall in the area. Studies by National Park Service scientists have determined through radiocarbon dating that the water that reaches the surface in Hot Springs fell as rainfall 4,400 years earlier. The water percolates very slowly down through the earth's surface until it reaches superheated areas deep in the crust and then rushes rapidly to the surface to emerge from the 47 hot springs. Hot Springs Creek flows from Whittington Avenue, then is underground in a tunnel beneath Bathhouse Row (Central Ave). It emerges from the tunnel south of Bathhouse Row then flows through the southern part of the city before emptying into Lake Hamilton, a reservoir on the Ouachita River. Climate Hot Springs lies in the humid subtropical climate zone (Köppen Cfa). The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. July is the hottest month of the year, with an average high of and an average low of . The city's highest temperature was , recorded in 1936 and 1986. The lowest temperature recorded was in 1930. Precipitation is weakly seasonal, with a bimodal pattern: wet seasons in the spring and fall, and relatively drier summers and winters, but plentiful rain in all months. The spring wet season is more pronounced than fall, with the highest rainfall in May. Hot Springs' precipitation is affected by the orographic effect of the Ouachita Mountains. Demographics Hot Springs is the principal city of the Hot Springs metropolitan area, which includes all of Garland County, registering a population of 96,024 in 2010 according to the United States Census Bureau. 2020 census As of the 2020 United States census, there were 37,930 people, 16,163 households, and 8,363 families residing in the city. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 35,750 people, 16,096 households, and 9,062 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 18,813 housing units at an average density of 572.0 per square mile (220.8/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 78.86% White, 16.87% Black or African American, 0.55% Native American, 0.79% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 1.02% from other races, and 1.86% from two or more races. 3.80% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 16,096 households, out of which 22.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.2% were married couples living together, 12.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.7% are classified as non-families by the United States Census Bureau. Of 16,096 households, 690 are unmarried partner households: 580 heterosexual, 78 same-sex male, and 32 same-sex female. 38.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.80. In the city, the population was spread out, with 20.2% under the age of 18, 8.2% from 18 to 24, 25.4% from 25 to 44, 23.0% from 45 to 64, and 23.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.6 males. The median income for a household in the city was $26,040, and the median income for a family was $32,819. Males had a median income of $25,861 versus $20,155 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,961. About 13.7% of families and 19.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30.7% of those under age 18 and 11.7% of those age 65 or over. Arts and culture The city has been a tourist mecca for generations due to the thermal waters and attractions such as Oaklawn Park, a thoroughbred racing facility; Magic Springs and Crystal Falls theme parks; a fine arts community that has earned the city the No. 4 position among "America's Top 100 Small Arts Towns"; the Hot Springs Music Festival; and the Hot Springs Documentary Film Festival, held each October at the historic Malco Theater, attracting numerous Academy Award-winning films and producers. Annual cultural events Other annual events in town include the Valley of the Vapors Music Festival, the free Hot Springs Jazz Festival in September, the free Hot Springs Blues Festival in September, the downtown Bathtub Races in the spring, the Big Barbecue Cookoff in spring and fall, the World's Shortest St. Patrick's Day Parade every March 17, and the outdoor skating rink November through January. Venues for live music are Low Key Arts, Maxine's, The Ohio Club, The Big Chill, and the Arlington Hotel among many others. Superlift Offroad Vehicle Park hosts the annual Ouachita Jeep Jamboree, an off-road adventure weekend that draws people and their 4x4's from a dozen states. Educational institutes and conventions are important events in the spa city. Perhaps the most popular of these events is the Hot Springs Technology Institute (HSTI), drawing over 1,300 participants each June. Hot Springs is also home to the annual alternate reality game Midnight Madness, based on the movie from which it gets its name. Teams race throughout the city at night, solving clues based on difficult puzzle and physical challenges. Games last 12 hours or more, with the winning team designing the following year's game. Tourism Arkansas Alligator Farm and Petting Zoo Founded on Whittington Avenue in 1902, the Arkansas Alligator Farm and Petting Zoo features approximately 200 alligators. The zoo also contains cougars, turkeys, chickens, wild boars, turtles, bobcats, and ring-tailed lemurs. A petting zoo with goats, emus, llamas, white-tailed deer, pigs, baby alligators, and other animals allows visitors to touch and feed the animals. An alligator feeding show includes educational material about the animals. Bathhouse Row, Hot Springs National Park Bathhouse Row, consisting of eight turn-of-the century historic buildings, lies within Hot Springs National Park and is managed by the National Park Service. Fordyce Bathhouse was restored in 1989 as the park's visitor center and the beginning of restoring all properties on Bathhouse Row. The series of renovations and leasing public spaces to commercial owners became a model for similar projects across the nation. Buckstaff Bathhouse has been in continuous operation since 1912 and is one of the best-preserved structures on Bathhouse Row. The Buckstaff Bathhouse Company has completed the majority of maintenance and renovation that has occurred without outside funding. The Quapaw was restored by the NPS in 2004, and the renovated structure was leased to Quapaw Baths, LLC, which now operates a modern spa with pools and hot tubs. The Lamar was renovated into offices for park staff and Bathhouse Row Emporium, the park's official store. The Superior Bathhouse Brewery and Distillery has occupied Superior Bathhouse since 2012, using hot spring water in its beers and spirits. As of February 2014, the Maurice, Ozark, and Hale bathhouses are all available for rent from the NPS. Atop Hot Springs Mountain in the park is the Hot Springs Mountain Tower, a observation tower built in 1982. Central Avenue Along Bathhouse Row is Central Avenue, Highway 7, lined with historic buildings, businesses and tourist attractions. Today preserved by NRHP as Hot Springs Central Avenue Historic District, the district includes 77 contributing properties to the district between Prospect Street and Park Avenue. Included within this district are the 1924 Arlington Hotel, the Medical Arts Building, a 1929 Art Deco high-rise, and the Wade Building, built in 1927 in the neoclassical style. Garvan Woodland Gardens Founded by the daughter of a lumber and brick magnate in 1985, the botanical garden on Arkridge Road features native Ouachita Mountains flora among rocky streams and waterfalls. Garvan also has a Japanese-themed section with several species native to Japan throughout. The garden is situated on a peninsula jutting into Lake Hamilton and began as Verna Garvan's personal garden for decades before being donated to the University of Arkansas landscape architecture department. Historic hotels and districts Thirteen of Hot Springs's hotels are individually listed by the NRHP within the city, with more being listed as contributing properties within other districts. Four of Hot Springs' neighborhoods are preserved as historic districts by the National Register of Historic Places, and the city also contains five historically important commercial districts in addition to the aforementioned Bathhouse Row and Central Avenue Historic District. The city contains several historic hotels, including the Arlington Hotel, Jack Tar Hotel and Bathhouse, Mountainaire Hotel Historic District, Park Hotel, and the Riviera Hotel. During Hot Springs' heyday, several tourists visiting the city stayed at motor courts, the precursor to today's hotels. The NRHP recognizes seven of these motels as culturally and historically significant: Bellaire Court Historic District, Cottage Courts Historic District, Cove Tourist Court, George Klein Tourist Court Historic District, Lynwood Tourist Court Historic District, Parkway Courts Historic District, Perry Plaza Court Historic District, and the Taylor Rosamond Motel Historic District. The Fordyce-Ricks House Historic District at 1501 Park Avenue includes three buildings on formerly owned by Samuel W. Fordyce, a prominent businessman and railroad executive who moved to Hot Springs in 1876. The house and outbuildings are built as log cabins in the Adirondack style. The Pleasant Street Historic District along Malvern Avenue (colloquially "Black Broadway") contains 93 contiguous buildings associated with the city's African American community. Included within the district are the Visitors Chapel AME church and the Woodmen of Union Building, along with 69 other contributing structures. A variety of architectural styles are used, with many of the structures using brick facades. The Quapaw-Prospect Historic District contains 233 structures near downtown Hot Springs, with 139 residential houses contributing to the character of the district built between 1890 and 1950 in several architectural styles. The Whittington Park Historic District is a residential district lining Whittington Park, a long, narrow park between two one-way streets created by the National Park Service in 1897. The 1896–1960 district contains 60 single-family houses and ten other structures. Predominantly Craftsman, ranch and Queen Anne-style buildings, the district is northwest of downtown Hot Springs. Seven districts in Hot Springs have special historical significance to the city's past economy. In addition to the aforementioned Bathhouse Row and Central Avenue Historic District, the Army and Navy General Hospital Historic District includes 31 buildings surrounding and supporting the former Army-Navy Hospital. Built in 1933, the six-story brick building built in the Spanish Colonial Revival style with Art Deco detailing is the centerpiece of the district, and remains the most imposing figure on the Hot Springs skyline. The Forest Service Headquarters Historic District encompasses six structures on Winona and Indiana Streets built by the Civilian Conservation Corps as the headquarters of the Jessieville Ranger District of the Ouachita National Forest. The Hot Springs Railroad Warehouse Historic District preserves three brick buildings between the Missouri Pacific Railroad tracks and Broadway. Almost entirely unaltered, the 1920s structures are associated with the railroad industry, which was extremely important to Hot Springs in the early 20th century. As the city grew during the early 20th century, commercial activity developed along Ouachita Avenue south of Bathhouse Row, today preserved as the Ouachita Avenue Historic District. Mostly consisting of brick commercial and multifamily buildings, the district maintains the character of an historic commercial area. The 1905 Peter Joplin Commercial Block building was the only building to survive the 1913 "Black Friday" fire, making it a remnant of early commercial activity on Ouachita Avenue when all contemporary structures have been destroyed. Lake Catherine and Lake Hamilton Lake Hamilton and Lake Catherine are two reservoirs of the Ouachita River south of Hot Springs created for hydroelectric power generation and recreational uses. Both created by Arkansas Power & Light (AP&L), Lake Catherine formed following the construction of Remmel Dam in the 1920s. Following a donation of over , the state created Lake Catherine State Park in 1935. Today, the park features fishing and water recreation as well as camping to visitors. Lake Hamilton was created following the construction of Carpenter Dam in the 1930s. Built during the Great Depression, the power produced by the dam is credited with allowing AP&L to survive the difficult economic times. Following construction, resorts, businesses, and homes have been built along the lake, in contrast to Lake Catherine. Due to the economic importance of the dam to Hot Springs, Carpenter Dam was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992. Fishing is popular on Lake Hamilton, and the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission operates a fish hatchery to stock the lake with bass and other species. Oaklawn Park Oaklawn Park has been operating since 1904. (A second horse racing park was once within the city limits, but was eventually closed.) Former U.S. President Bill Clinton, his half-brother Roger, and Billy Bob Thornton, all Hot Springs natives, have frequented Oaklawn Park. The meet, held from January through mid-April each year, is sometimes called the "Fifth Season". In mid-April, its final week sees the "Racing Festival of the South", concluding with the Arkansas Derby, which has drawn many Triple Crown contenders. In 2015, American Pharoah won the Derby and another race at Oaklawn before going on to win the first Triple Crown in three decades. In 2018, the track commemorated the horse's victories by installing a life-sized bronze sculpture by James Peniston. Sister city Hanamaki, Iwate, Japan (established in 1993) Government Hot Springs operates under the council-manager form of city government, one of the two most common forms of local government in the United States, and common in smaller municipalities. The city is divided into six districts, which elect a city director to the seven-member board of directors. As a body, the board is the prime executive branch of Hot Springs government whose duties include making policy, creating a budget, and passing resolutions and ordinances. The seventh member is a mayor elected at-large by Hot Springs. The mayor presides over city functions in an official capacity and manages the municipal government, without legislative authority. City director elections are held every four years, but are staggered such that elections for three districts coincide with the election of the President of the United States and four occur in November of "off years". Education Hot Springs public secondary education includes five school districts, ultimately leading to graduation from five different high schools. The vast majority of Hot Springs is included in the Hot Springs School District, which leads to graduation from Hot Springs High School. Sections of southeastern Hot Springs are within the Lakeside School District, leading to graduation from Lakeside High School, located southeast of town Some eastern sections of Hot Springs are in the Cutter–Morning Star School District, leading to graduation from Cutter–Morning Star High School. The a few pieces to the north are within the Fountain Lake School District, leading to graduation from Fountain Lake High School. In small pieces in the west, students are to be enrolled in Lake Hamilton School District, which leads to graduation from Lake Hamilton High School. The Arkansas School for Mathematics, Sciences, and the Arts (ASMSA), an advanced statewide program within the University of Arkansas System and National Consortium for Specialized Secondary Schools of Mathematics, Science and Technology, is also located in Hot Springs. A two-year residential program, ASMSA was established in 1993 and is available to students from across the state following acceptance. Hot Springs Christian School is the only private provider of K–12 education in Hot Springs. The only accredited post-secondary educational opportunity in Hot Springs is at National Park College. Created from a merger between Garland County Community College and Quapaw Technical Institute, the college enrolls approximately 3,000 students annually in credit programs. Champion Baptist College, an unaccredited four-year Christian vocational college associated with Gospel Light Baptist Church, is also located in Hot Springs. Champion Baptist College was issued a Letter of Exemption from Certification by the Arkansas Department of Higher Education to offer church-related courses and grant church-related degrees. Hot Springs previously had a Catholic grade school for black children, St. Gabriel School; it closed in 1968. Media The Hot Springs newspaper is the Sentinel-Record, originally part of the Clyde E. Palmer chain, since renamed WEHCO Media. It is published daily. The Thrifty Nickel, a classified advertising publication, is published from offices at 670 Ouachita Avenue. The Little Rock edition is also published from this office. Seven AM radio stations and fifteen FM stations broadcast from the area. In addition, most of the Little Rock radio stations provide at least secondary coverage of the city. Hot Springs is part of the Little Rock television market. Infrastructure Transportation Major highways U.S. Route 70 and U.S. Route 270 bypass the downtown to the south on the four-lane Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Expressway. U.S. Route 70 Business passes through the center of Hot Springs as Grand Avenue, Summer Street, Albert Pike Road, and Airport Road, while U.S. Route 270 Business enters from the east as Malvern Avenue, joins US 70 Business along Grand Avenue and Summer Street, and exits to the west as Albert Pike Road. US-70 leads east to Benton and west-southwest to Glenwood, while US-270 leads southeast to Malvern and west-northwest to Mount Ida. Arkansas Highway 7 passes through the center of Hot Springs as Central Avenue and Park Avenue. It leads north across the Ouachita Mountains to Russellville on the Arkansas River, and south to Arkadelphia. Arkansas Highway 128 (Carpenter Dam Road) branches off US-270 Business in southeastern Hot Springs, leading south to Red Oak. Interstate 30 passes to the southeast of Hot Springs, with the closest access to the southeast via US-270. I-30 can also be reached to the east via US-70. Aviation Hot Springs is served by Memorial Field Airport. Major air transport is available through Little Rock National Airport, approximately from Hot Springs. Public transportation Within Hot Springs, three fixed-route buses are operated by the city's Intracity Transit. Primary service includes the Central Avenue corridor (Route 1- blue line), Albert Pike corridor (Route 2 - red line), and Hot Springs National Park and the northeast part of the city (Route 3 - green line). All routes are based at the city's Transportation Depot in downtown Hot Springs, and operate six days a week; Sundays and six annual holidays are excluded. Notable people Steve Barton, actor, singer, dancer, choreographer, stage director and teacher Bobby Bones, radio personality born in Hot Springs Ruth Coker Burks, AIDS activist, humanitarian, and caregiver Alan Clark, state senator from Garland, Hot Spring, Saline, and Grant counties, businessman in Hot Springs Bill Clinton, governor of Arkansas and 42nd President of the United States, boyhood home Roger Clinton Jr., musician, actor and half-brother of former US President Bill Clinton, born in Hot Springs on July 25, 1956 Donald L. Corbin, Arkansas Supreme Court justice and state representative, born in Hot Springs Timothy C. Evans Chief Judge of the Cook County Circuit Court. Gauge, pornographic actress born in Hot Springs Henry Glover, songwriter Cliff Harris, NFL Dallas Cowboys free safety, played quarterback at Hot Springs High School until his senior year, when he moved to Des Arc Flora Harrod Hawes, youngest woman postmaster in Hot Springs V. E. Howard, Church of Christ minister who founded the International Gospel Hour in Texarkana, Texas; pastor in Hot Springs early in his career Alan Ladd, actor born in Hot Springs in 1913 Marjorie Lawrence, Metropolitan Opera diva, resident for many years Haven for gangsters in the 1930s, including longtime residents Lucky Luciano and Owney Madden The Countess Leon (Elisa Heuser Leon), the widow of Bernhard Müller, a leader of a small 19th century utopian group, spent her last years in Hot Springs, where she died in 1881 Arch McDonald, baseball broadcaster born in Hot Springs Sid McMath, progressive reform governor of Arkansas 1949–1953, trial lawyer, and decorated U.S. Marine general Joan Meredith, actress born in Hot Springs Bobby Mitchell, NFL Hall of Fame running back born in Hot Springs James Rector, born in Hot Springs, won a silver medal at the Olympics and was the first Olympian from Arkansas Earl T. Ricks and I. G. Brown, decorated World War II aviators, Hot Springs natives who served as reform mayor and sheriff, respectively (1947–49), before resuming Air Force careers Paul Runyan, golfer born in Hot Springs; went on to win two PGA championships and is a member of the World Golf Hall of Fame Laurie Rushing, Republican member of the Arkansas House of Representatives from District 26 since 2015; real estate broker Bill Sample, Republican member of both houses of the Arkansas General Assembly since 2005; businessman in Hot Springs George Luke Smith, who served in the U.S. House from Louisiana's 4th congressional district, relocated to Hot Springs, where he engaged in the real estate business and died in 1884 Billy Bob Thornton, actor, director and Academy Award-winning screenwriter, born in Hot Springs See also National Register of Historic Places listings in Garland County, Arkansas Excelsior Springs, Missouri, a similar 19th-century town that grew up around mineral springs. References External links Greater Hot Springs Chamber of Commerce History of Hot Springs' Jewish community (from the Institute of Southern Jewish Life) Hot Springs Convention and Visitor's Bureau, tourism and vacation information 1851 establishments in Arkansas Cities in Arkansas Cities in Garland County, Arkansas County seats in Arkansas Hot springs of Arkansas Populated places established in 1851 Arkansas populated places on the Ouachita River Spa towns in the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downey%2C%20California

Downey, California

Downey is a city located in southeast Los Angeles County, California, United States, southeast of downtown Los Angeles. It is considered part of the Gateway Cities. The city is the birthplace of the Apollo space program. It is also the home of the oldest operating McDonald's restaurant in the world. As of the 2010 census, the city had a total population of 111,779. History 18th century to World War II Mission San Gabriel Arcángel was initially founded on September 8, 1771, near settlements of the Tongva people. It was located in the Whittier Narrows on a bluff overlooking the Rio Hondo, near the intersection of today's San Gabriel Blvd and Lincoln Avenue. After five years, flooding forced the relocation of the mission to its present site in San Gabriel. In 1784, Governor Pedro Fages granted to former soldier Manuel Nieto (1734–1804) the largest of the land concessions made in what was then Alta California, a province of New Spain. Its stretched from the Santa Ana River on the east to the Old San Gabriel River (now the Rio Hondo and Los Angeles River) on the west, and from the mission highway (approximately Whittier Boulevard) on the north to the ocean on the south. Its acreage was slightly reduced later at the insistence of Mission San Gabriel on whose lands it infringed. The Spanish concessions, of which 25 were made in California, were unlike the later Mexican land grants in that title was not transferred, but were similar to grazing permits, with the title remaining with the Spanish crown. The Rancho Los Nietos passed to Manuel Nieto's four children upon his death and remained intact until, in 1833, his heirs petitioned Mexican Governor José Figueroa to partition the property. The northwestern portion of the original rancho, comprising the Downey-Norwalk area, was granted as Rancho Santa Gertrudes to Josefa Cota, the widow of Manuel's son, Antonio Nieto. At approximately , Santa Gertrudes was itself a sizable rancho and contained the old Nietos homestead, which was a center of social life east of the pueblo of Los Angeles. After the Mexican–American War concluded in 1848, many of the Californio ranchos were obtained by affluent Anglo-Americans who were immigrating west under the United States manifest destiny doctrine, and marrying into established Californio Spanish families. This migration was distinct from that prompted by the California Gold Rush farther north. Dairy was a major industry in Downey. The Central Milk Agency marketed the milk for "seven hundred dairymen whose dairy herds range from thirty to two thousand head" with the value of the products marketed in excess of $1,000,000 per month. Some of Downey's settlers came from Ireland. Downey was founded by and named for the former and youngest ever governor of California, John Gately Downey, who was born in Ireland. Although he was an Irish Democrat, he supported the Republican Lincoln in his efforts to keep the Union intact during the American Civil War. He pioneered the modern subdivision with land he acquired between the Rio Hondo and the San Gabriel River, in about 1865. Downey was convinced that oranges would flourish in Southern California, so he imported several varieties, and therefore set in motion what became one of the state's biggest cash crops. In conjunction with the construction of the Tehachapi Loop, the Southern Pacific Railroad arrived in 1873. Gallatin Two small settlements were established along the Rio Hondo River - College Settlement and Gallatin, the latter near where today, Paramount Boulevard and Florence Avenue cross. In the late 1860s the Gallatin residents built a small school known as the "Little Red Gallatin School House". By 1871, it wasn't large enough and a two-story school was built (Gallatin School moved in 1893 to its present site.) Later, Alameda School and Downey School were built. By 1883, College Settlement, Gallatin and Downey (a third, separate settlement), joined together and with the help of Governor Downey, convinced the Southern Pacific Railroad to route through and stop in Downey. The new center of activity migrated to the depot area and this became the center of a new larger Downey, uniting the three previous settlements. After World War II Farmers in the area grew grain, corn, castor beans and fruit, and by 1935, Downey was characterized as an "orange-grove town". Downey was incorporated in 1956, and instituted a charter form of government in 1964. Suburban homes and factories replaced the farms after World War II. Aerospace Vultee Aircraft was Downey's largest employer during World War II, producing 15% of all of America's military aircraft by 1941. The company was a pioneer in the use of women in manufacturing positions, and was the first aircraft company to build airplanes on a powered assembly line. Vultee became a part of North American Aviation, (later North American Rockwell, then Rockwell International which was then bought by the Boeing company) whose facilities were the birthplace of the systems for the Apollo Space Program as well as the Space Shuttle. For over 70 years, Downey's Rockwell NASA plant produced and tested many of the 20th century's greatest aviation, missile, and space endeavors. By the early 1970s, the facilities encompassed some of enclosed area over more than . But, by the post-Cold War 1990s, Downey was severely hit by cutbacks in the defense budget. Rockwell International, which once had more than 30,000 employees, had fewer than 5,000 in 1992. The seventy-year history of airplane and space vehicle manufacturing in Downey came to an end when the Rockwell plant closed in 1999. The former North American Rockwell plant was demolished, and the site now features the Columbia Memorial Space Center, Downey Landing shopping center, Promenade at Downey shopping center (the former movie studio site of Downey Studios), a Kaiser Permanente hospital, and a city recreation fields park. Other landmarks Near the center of the city lies what was in the 1960s one of the busiest intersections in California, the intersection of Lakewood Boulevard (State Route 19) and Firestone Boulevard (former State Route 42). Route 19 was a major thoroughfare between Pasadena and the port at Long Beach, and Route 42 was along part of the old Spanish El Camino Real trail that connected Pueblo de Los Angeles to San Diego. In the 1960s, the town's Downey Records achieved some notoriety with recordings such as The Chantays' surfing instrumental "Pipeline"; nearly two decades later, Downey local music scene led to the founding of The Blasters and Dark Angel. Downey is home to Rancho Los Amigos National Rehabilitation Center, which is the main public rehabilitation hospital for Los Angeles County. Rancho Los Amigos is renowned worldwide for its innovative contributions to the care of spinal cord injuries and post-polio syndrome. Downey was featured in the 2008 American action comedy film Pineapple Express. Many of the buildings along Florence Avenue are seen in a driving sequence early in the film. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . of it is land and of it (1.27%) is water. The cities of South Gate and Bell Gardens are adjacent to the west and northwest, Pico Rivera lies to the northeast, Santa Fe Springs and Norwalk to the east, and Paramount and Bellflower are to the south. Climate According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Downey has a semi-arid climate, abbreviated "BSk" on climate maps. Demographics 2010 The 2010 United States Census reported that Downey had a population of 111,772. The population density was 8893.3 people per square mile (3,433.7/km2). The racial makeup of Downey was 63,255 (56.6%) White (17.7% Non-Hispanic White), 7,804 (7.0%) Asian (2.2% Korean, 2.2% Filipino, 0.6% Indian, 0.5% Chinese, 0.3% Vietnamese, 0.3% Japanese, 0.2% Thai, 0.1% Cambodian, 0.1% Pakistani), 4,329 (3.9%) African American, 820 (0.7%) Native American, 221 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 30,797 (27.6%) from other races, and 4,546 (4.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 78,996 persons (70.7%); 54.0% of Downey residents are of Mexican ancestry, 3.9% Salvadoran, 2.0% Cuban, 2.0% Guatemalan, 1.1% Peruvian, and 1.0% Nicaraguan ancestry. The Census reported that 111,089 people (99.4% of the population) lived in households, 122 (0.1%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 561 (0.5%) were institutionalized. There were 33,936 households, out of which 15,697 (46.3%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 17,405 (51.3%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 6,289 (18.5%) had a female householder with no husband present, 2,796 (8.2%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 2,357 (6.9%) POSSLQ, and 225 (0.7%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 5,721 households (16.9%) were made up of individuals, and 2,211 (6.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.27. There were 26,490 families (78.1% of all households); the average family size was 3.68. The population was spread out, with 29,972 people (26.8%) under the age of 18, 12,108 people (10.8%) aged 18 to 24, 33,056 people (29.6%) aged 25 to 44, 25,057 people (22.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 11,579 people (10.4%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.4 males. There were 35,601 housing units at an average density of 2,832.7 per square mile (1,093.7/km2), of which 17,135 (50.5%) were owner-occupied, and 16,801 (49.5%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.4%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.9%. 59,555 people (53.3% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 51,534 people (46.1%) lived in rental housing units. Approximately 30–40 homeless reside in the area. According to the 2010 United States Census, Downey had a median household income of $60,939, with 11.8% of the population living below the federal poverty line. 2000 As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 107,323 people, 33,989 households, and 26,001 families residing in the city. The population density was 8,641.7 inhabitants per square mile (3,336.4/km2). There were 34,759 housing units at an average density of 2,798.8 per square mile (1,080.6/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 53.48% White, 7.74% Asian, 3.75% Black or African American, 0.87% Native American, 0.22% Pacific Islander, 29.05% from other races, and 4.89% from two or more races. 57.85% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 33,989 households, out of which 41.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.1% were married couples living together, 15.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.5% were non-families. 19.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.11 and the average family size was 3.55. In the city, the population was spread out, with 29.2% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 31.2% from 25 to 44, 18.8% from 45 to 64, and 11.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.8 males. The median income for a household in the city was $46,000 and the median income for a family was $50,017. Males had a median income of $35,991 versus $28,768 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,197. About 9.3% of families and 11.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.4% of those under age 18 and 7.6% of those age 65 or over. Crime While reports of robberies, aggravated assaults, and petty thefts in Downey dropped in 2008, auto thefts reached a 10-year high. In 2008, 1,231 vehicles were reported stolen in Downey. Other crimes recorded by the FBI Crime Index for the year 2008 include 252 robberies, 172 aggravated assaults, 24 rapes, 711 burglaries, and 2,038 acts of larceny/thefts. Anti-gang activities In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Downey saw an increase in gang activity. Today there is still gang activity going in the south area of Downey. In response, Downey formed GOOD (Gangs Out Of Downey), a community-based organization that helps encourage young people between the ages of 10–20 to stay away from gangs. GOOD is also responsible for organizing many community events and programs such as various sports, after-school care, scholarship programs for at-risk students looking to attend college, and counseling for both young people and their parents. GOOD has kept a close partnership with the Downey Police Department. Economy Most Business-Friendly Award In 2017, the City of Downey was recognized as L.A. County's "Most Business-Friendly City" by the Los Angeles County Economic Development Corporation for cities with a population greater than 68,000. Largest employers According to the city's 2011 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are: Government In the California State Legislature, Downey is in , and in . In the United States House of Representatives, Downey is in . Culture The author Tom Wolfe wrote about Downey. His article "The Hair Boys" was about Harvey's Drive-in and the fashions that the hair boys wore. He claimed that Harvey's was one of the great unacknowledged centers of fashion in the world. The essay appears in his 1968 book, "The Pump House Gang." His drawing of one of the hair boys appears in his book "In Our Time." In 1955 Downey was featured in newspapers worldwide when truck driver George Di Peso lived at 7739 Alderdale Street and had a gopher problem. He tried to solve it by putting a hose down a gopher hole and turning on the water to drown it, but he couldn't get the hose out afterwards. He then noticed that the hose was slowly being pulled down the hole. Wire services found out about this, and the mysterious phenomenon was reported in newspapers worldwide. According to a July 3, 1955 front-page article in the Los Angeles Times ("Tokyo Awaits Arrival of Downey Hose") "A message received from Tokyo at the United Press office here read 'Tell Di Peso in Downey the other end of his hose has not turned up here, but we're all still looking.'" There was a great deal of speculation about the cause of the disappearing hose. Eventually the hose vanished completely. The most likely explanation was that there was an underground river that pulled at the hose. In the early 1960s it was widely reported that the Downey City Library had banned Edgar Rice Burroughs' "Tarzan" books because Tarzan was not married to Jane when they conceived Boy. Evidence for the rumor's staying power is in articles in the Los Angeles Times that were published in the 1970s (for example, "Downey Sends L.A. Back to the Bush League," Jack Smith, May 8, 1970). The rumor about Tarzan was, however, a wild exaggeration. According to "Zane Grey Also Safe: Tarzan’s Marital Status No Issue as Downey School Ban Is Denied" (Los Angeles Times December 28, 1961), a rumor spread that one of Downey's elementary schools had removed Edgar Rice Burroughs and Zane Grey books from its library because "1—There was no indication that Tarzan and his mate, Jane, were ever married before they took up housekeeping in the treetops," and "2—Grey was known to put such expletives as 'damn!’ and 'hell' in the mouths of his western cowhands." It turns out that there was no "ban." What happened was that in one elementary school, a parent had put two Zane Grey books "out of site in a desk drawer." No Tarzan books were involved. The Zane Grey books were subsequently put back on the shelves. Education Primary and secondary schools Most of Downey is within the Downey Unified School District. Downey's two main public high schools are named for Governor John G. Downey and Governor and US Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren. Downey has three public high schools: Downey, Warren, and Columbus High School. Other public schools include: Stauffer Middle School (formerly West Middle School) Doty Middle School (formerly East Middle School) Griffiths Middle School (formerly North Middle School) It was named after a revered principal, Gordon Griffiths. Sussman Middle School (formerly South Middle School) Alameda Elementary School Carpenter Elementary School Gallatin Elementary School Gauldin Elementary School Imperial Elementary School Lewis Elementary School Old River Elementary School Price Elementary School Rio Hondo Elementary School Rio San Gabriel Elementary School Unsworth Elementary School Ward Elementary School Williams Elementary School Roger Casier Elementary School was named after a beloved janitor who worked at the school. This school is no longer in operation. It was closed and the land sold when there were no longer enough elementary school-age children in Downey to support its continued operation. Small sections are within the Montebello Unified School District. Private schools include: Calvary Chapel Christian School: pre-K–12 St. Pius X-Matthias Academy: 9–12 Our Lady of Perpetual Help School: TK-K–8 Saint Raymond's Catholic School: pre-K–8 Saint Mark's Episcopal School: pre-K–8 Public libraries The Downey City Library serves the city. The first library in Downey was established in 1901 by a women's social club that was founded in 1898. The County of Los Angeles Public Library opened a branch in Downey in September 1915. The county branch moved several times; its final location was in the County Civic Center. In 1958 the Downey City Council voted to establish its own library and withdraw from the county system. The city library services were originally provided out of the back of a bookstore. The city library opened in the former cafeteria of the former Downey Elementary School, then being used as the city hall and police station, on July 1, 1958. A permanent library building was built on December 7, 1959. It had almost and it was built for $186,200, costing $11.97 per square foot. It was dedicated on December 17 and opened on December 18. In February 1984 an addition of almost was completed and dedicated. In addition the headquarters of the County of Los Angeles Public Library are located in Downey. Infrastructure Health care The Los Angeles County Department of Public Health operates the Whittier Health Center in Whittier, serving Downey. Post office The United States Postal Service operates the Downey Post Office at 8111 Firestone Boulevard, the North Downey Post Office at 10409 Lakewood Boulevard, and the South Downey Post Office at 7911 Imperial Highway. Transportation The city can be conveniently reached by any of four freeways: Interstate 105 with its Metro rail line passes through the southern part of the city, Interstate 5 passes through the northern part, Interstate 605 passes along the eastern side, and Interstate 710 passes just west of the city. Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Metro) provides bus services to the city, and is served by the Lakewood Boulevard station of the Green Line (Los Angeles Metro). The city also operates a local bus service called DowneyLINK. Notable people Dave Alvin, musician, founder of Downey-based rockabilly band The Blasters with brother Phil Bob Bennett, contemporary Christian musician, singer-songwriter, recording artist, was born in Downey Paul Bigsby, father of the modern electric solid-body guitar, built in 1948, and creator of the Bigsby vibrato William Bonin, serial killer; was Downey resident during his crime spree The Carpenters (singer-musicians Karen and Richard) moved to Downey in 1963, originally to an apartment complex called the Shoji on 12020 Downey Ave, later moving to a house that still stands on Newville Avenue which can be seen on the cover of their album, Now & Then; after the duo's success, they built two apartment buildings still located on 5th St. Miranda Cosgrove, actress and singer, star of iCarly Art Cruz, musician and songwriter, current drummer of Lamb of God Rosario DeSimone (1873–1946), Downey-based crime boss Walt Faulkner, Indy car driver, first rookie to win pole position at Indianapolis 500 Ed Fiori, professional golfer Donavon Frankenreiter, surfer and musician Kevin Gross, former Major League Baseball pitcher for Los Angeles Dodgers and Anaheim Angels Dan Henderson, mixed martial artist Demos Shakarian, businessman and founder of Full Gospel Business Men's Fellowship International Brian Haner, Musician/Comedian Guitarist (Rose Royce, Avenged Sevenfold) - Also known as "Guitar Guy" from the Jeff Dunham Show James Hetfield, Metallica frontman Leon Hooten, former baseball player for Oakland Athletics Robert Illes, Emmy-winning TV writer and producer Allison Iraheta, musician, American Idol Season 8 contestant Kerry King, Slayer guitarist Evan Longoria, an All-Star third baseman for the Tampa Bay Rays and the San Francisco Giants, was born in Downey Ira J. McDonald, Los Angeles City Council member, 1941–43, Downey civic leader Ron McGovney, original Metallica bassist, spent school years in Downey Bob Meusel, baseball star for New York Yankees who played with Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig, lived and died in Downey Riki R. Nelson, oil painter Tom Nieto, professional baseball player George Pajon, Jr., Grammy Award-winning recording and performing artist Lena Park, South Korean singer Wayne Rainey, former American Grand Prix motorcycle racer, was born in Downey Kimmy Robertson, actress best known for her role as Lucy Moran in Twin Peaks Rich Rodriguez, Major League Baseball pitcher 1990–2003 Paul Ruffner, pro basketball player Kenneth Shelley, figure skater, U.S. champion and Olympian, was born in Downey Dennis Sproul, NFL player JoJo Starbuck, figure skater, U.S. champion and Olympian, grew up in Downey Aimee Teegarden, actress (Friday Night Lights) and fashion model Alanna Ubach, actress Joan Weston, queen of Roller Derby, grew up in Downey "Weird Al" Yankovic, musician and parody artist, was born in Downey Joslyn Davis, host of Clevver TV and YouTube personality, was raised in Downey. Andrew Robert Young, U.S. Ambassador to Burkina Faso (appointed 2016), was born in Downey. Darren McCaughan, professional baseball player for the Seattle Mariners, was raised in Downey. Sister cities Downey's sister cities are: Alajuela, Costa Rica Efrat, Israel Fresnillo, Mexico Guadalajara, Mexico San Quintín, Mexico Taghmaconnell, Ireland Media The Downey Patriot is a weekly community newspaper serving the Downey community. The Los Angeles Times and the Press-Telegram are the daily newspapers that provide daily local coverage in Los Angeles County and the Gateway Cities region. References External links 1956 establishments in California Cities in Los Angeles County, California Incorporated cities and towns in California Gateway Cities Irish-American neighborhoods Chicano and Mexican neighborhoods in California

107659

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maywood%2C%20California

Maywood, California

Maywood is a small Gateway city in Los Angeles County. At , Maywood is the third-smallest incorporated city in Los Angeles County. It is bordered by the cities of Bell on the south, Vernon on the north and west, Huntington Park on the southwest, and Commerce on the east. It is the most densely-populated city in California, and has the highest proportion of Latinos, immigrants, and undocumented immigrants in the county. As of July 1, 2010, Maywood became the first municipality in California to outsource all of its city services, dismantling its police department, laying off all city employees except for the city manager, city attorney and elected officials, and contracting with outside agencies for the provision of all municipal services. The population was 27,395 at the 2010 census. History The land on which Maywood now stands had been populated by Native American tribes for centuries. The area that would later become Maywood was deeded in 1781 by the Spanish monarchy to Spanish War veteran Manuel Nieto. When the settlement of Pueblo de Nuestra Senora de Los Angeles was recorded, it included the cow pasture (now Maywood) that eventually turned into a rancho. In 1919, May Wood, a popular young woman who worked for the real estate corporation developing the ranch into home tracts, agreed to lend her name to the property. The development of Maywood later survived a bitter challenge to dissolve the prospective city in early 1924. On September 2, 1924, Maywood's citizens voted to incorporate and about 300 people turned out for the dedication, including Miss May Wood. By 1924, the population of Maywood had reached 1,000. The city featured homes, stores and a movie theater. In the 1930s, gamblers were successfully removed from the city. Maywood Parks and Recreation built Maywood Park, had its beginnings in the 1930s, when a large meadow was turned into the present day baseball field. The Golden State Baseball Association made Maywood Park its home in the early 1950s. The Chrysler Corporation had an auto assembly plant in Maywood from the 1920s until its closing in July 1971. It was located at 5800 Eastern Avenue at Slauson, and was generally referred to as the "Los Angeles" Plant. When the city of Commerce was incorporated in 1961, that corner was annexed as were several in the surrounding area. Maywood Assembly was a Ford Motor Company assembly plant also located in Maywood, that operated from 1948 until 1957. The address was 5801 S. Eastern Avenue, and it was across the street from the Chrysler Assembly factory, and exclusively built Lincoln and Mercury vehicles. The factory was closed and demolished when operations at Maywood and Long Beach were combined into a new factory in Pico Rivera in 1958. Willys-Overland built its California factory in Maywood, California, in 1929 at the current location of 6201 Randolph Street. Over 900 people were employed at the new $1.5 million assembly plant. Willys-Overland became the second automobile manufacturer to build a major plant in the city. After the United States entered World War II, automobile production for civilians was phased out and in November 1941, automobile assembly at Maywood was stopped. A great many automobile plants were retooled to manufacture war machinery and for three years during the war, the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation rented the plant building from Willys-Overland for that purpose. Equipment was installed for the manufacture of sub-assemblies for Hudson Bombers until the war ended. Willys-Overland began to manufacture the first Jeeps (CJ-2As) for civilians in 1945. As the demand for Jeeps increased, the reconditioning of the plant back to automobile assembly began early in 1947 and by November, Willys was building "West Coast" CJ-2As. By the end of November, 108 Jeeps had been assembled. Jeep Trucks and Station Wagons were incorporated into the West Coast Division's "final assemblies" production lines in 1948. The Maywood plant produced the entire CJ-3A model production duration and about 5% of all CJ-3As were assembled in California. In 1952, Willys-Overland introduced a new post-war model car, the Aero, and they were assembled in both Maywood and Toledo. The entire plant was shut down in 1954. 2010 city layoffs Maywood officials were given notice in June 2009 that the city would lose its insurance coverage unless they implemented a 20-point performance plan. Maywood also owed the California Insurance Authority $927,135 and had been making interest-only payments. Mainly because of the troubled history, including multiple lawsuits, and the dubious reputation of the Maywood Police Department, the city's Liability and Workers Compensation insurer notified the city in August 2009, that it would cancel its coverage effective July 1, 2010. When the city was unable to find coverage elsewhere, it disbanded its police department, laid off all city employees, except for the city manager, city attorney and elected officials, and contracted with other agencies to provide all municipal services. An outside audit found that Maywood was losing approximately $620,000 annually from its $10 million general fund budget under the previous seven-year contract with nearby Cudahy, because they had neglected to bill Cudahy for administration, vehicle maintenance or insurance. The firm concluded that Maywood was losing about $620,000 a year, or a total of about $4 million in the last six years. George Perez, Cudahy's city manager, said Maywood's "politics have been getting in the way." Perez said that he and Paul Philips, then acting Maywood City Manager, would agree on a new contract, but the Maywood City Council would then send Philips back for further negotiation. Perez said that negotiations disintegrated in February, after Philips resigned. Councilman Felipe Aguirre said, "We don't want to file for bankruptcy. We don't want to disappear as a city." Aguirre said filing for bankruptcy was not an option for Maywood because its problems were related specifically to insurance coverage. Several cities in the state have said that they are close to bankruptcy because of the sharp drop in sales and property tax revenues caused by the deepest recession in decades. During a heated City Council meeting in June 2010, opponents of the plan accused council members of mismanaging the city by failing to maintain insurance coverage. Under the plan adopted by the City Council that night, council members would continue to be paid to set policy, but all services would be contracted out. "You single-handedly destroyed the city," Lizeth Sandoval, the city treasurer, told the City Council. Sandoval, a city employee, spoke out as a private citizen, and was laid off as part of the cuts. Though Maywood officials stopped short of filing for bankruptcy or even giving up the city's municipal status, the city still faces a serious problem with a huge deficit. The city did keep a few employees as independent contractors when they outsourced most city functions to Bell and police duties to the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department. In September 2010, the troubled nearby city of Bell agreed to cancel the contract to handle the day-to-day operations of neighboring Maywood. Maywood has been overrun with political crises, from recalls to a city clerk accused of trying to contract a hit man to kill Councilman Aguirre. In early 2006, a newly elected Aguirre called Maywood a "sanctuary city" for illegal immigrants, stating: "I think we needed to amplify the debate by saying that no human being is illegal. These people are here ... making your clothes, shining your shoes and taking care of your kids. And now you want to develop this hypocritical policy?" "Maywood's actions have made the town a lightning rod for criticism on conservative radio shows and websites." Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.2 square miles (3.1 km2), all land. It is southeast from Downtown Los Angeles Financial District and only east of the Los Angeles city limit on Slauson Ave and Alameda St in the Central-Alameda neighborhood. Maywood is part of the Gateway Cities region of southeastern Los Angeles County area. Maywood is bordered by the city of Bell on the south, Vernon on the north and west, Huntington Park on the southwest, and Commerce on the east. Climate The climate in the city of Maywood is very warm during summer when high temperatures tend to be in the 80s and mild during winter when high temperatures tend to be in the 60s. The warmest month of the year is August with an average maximum temperature of , while the coldest month of the year is December with an average minimum temperature of . Temperature variations between night and day tend to be moderate during summer with a difference that can reach 24 °F (13.3 °C), and moderate during winter with an average difference of 22 °F (12.2 °C). The annual average precipitation at Maywood is . The wettest month of the year is February with an average rainfall of . Maywood-area historical tornado activity is significantly above California state average. It is 75% smaller than the overall U.S. average. On November 7, 1966, a category 2 (max. wind speeds 113-157 mph) tornado away from the Maywood city center injured 10 people and caused between $50,000 and $500,000 in damages. Demographics 2010 The 2010 United States Census reported that Maywood had a population of 27,395. The population density was 23,247.5 people per square mile (8,975.9/km2). The racial makeup of Maywood was 14,244 (52.0%) White (1.8% Non-Hispanic White), 166 (0.6%) African American, 208 (0.8%) Native American, 87 (0.3%) Asian, 20 (0.1%) Pacific Islander, 11,495 (42.0%) from other races, and 1,175 (4.3%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 26,696 persons (97.4%). The Census reported that 27,276 people (99.6% of the population) lived in households, 0 (0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 119 (0.4%) were institutionalized. There were 6,559 households, out of which 4,120 (62.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 3,721 (56.7%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,254 (19.1%) had a female householder with no husband present, 717 (10.9%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 595 (9.1%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 32 (0.5%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 599 households (9.1%) were made up of individuals, and 231 (3.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 4.16. There were 5,692 families (86.8% of all households); the average family size was 4.30. The population was spread out, with 8,925 people (32.6%) under the age of 18, 3,402 people (12.4%) aged 18 to 24, 8,619 people (31.5%) aged 25 to 44, 4,807 people (17.5%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,642 people (6.0%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 27.9 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.9 males. There were 6,766 housing units at an average density of 5,741.6 per square mile (2,216.9/km2), of which 1,980 (30.2%) were owner-occupied, and 4,579 (69.8%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.2%; the rental vacancy rate was 2.6%. 9,245 people (33.7% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 18,031 people (65.8%) lived in rental housing units. According to the 2010 United States Census, Maywood had a median household income of $37,114, with 28.3% of the population living below the federal poverty line. 2000 As of the census of 2000, there were 28,083 people, 6,469 households, and 5,699 families residing in the city. The population density was 23,887.2 inhabitants per square mile (9,188.9/km2). There were 6,701 housing units at an average density of 5,699.8 per square mile (2,192.6/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 42.99% White, 0.36% African American, 1.14% Native American, 0.36% Asian, 0.13% Pacific Islander, 50.48% from other races, and 4.53% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 96.33% of the population. There were 6,469 households, out of which 62.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.8% were married couples living together, 16.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 11.9% were non-families. 8.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 4.33 and the average family size was 4.47. In the city, the population was varied, with 37.0% under the age of 18, 13.2% from 18 to 24, 32.6% from 25 to 44, 13.0% from 45 to 64, and 4.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 25 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.4 males. The median income for a household in the city was $30,480, and the median income for a family was $30,361. Males had a median income of $20,646 versus $16,397 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,935. About 23.1% of families and 24.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.3% of those under age 18 and 11.7% of those age 65 or over. Immigrant population Several news accounts have said Maywood's official population reaches approximately 40,000 persons when illegal aliens are counted. A significant percentage of its residents work in the factories at nearby Vernon and Commerce. The city has been at the forefront of immigration debates. It is speculated that one- third of Maywood's residents population lives in the U.S. without documentation. The city, 96% of which is Latino, and more than half are foreign-born, has declared itself as a "Sanctuary City" for illegal immigrants. Latino communities High-density neighborhoods Arts and culture Every Memorial Day weekend the City of Maywood holds their annual Street Fair. It is a place where families, friends, and neighbors get together to experience a variety of food, music, games, raffles, rides, and multi-cultural activities. Street fair presale ride tickets will be available at City Hall until sold out. Location : On Slauson between Pine Avenue and Loma Vista Avenue In July 2010, over 600 people attended the First Annual 4 July Family Fun Day Celebration at the Maywood Activities Center, to honor the country's declaration of independence. For a couple of years the fair did not return until recently. Sports The only sports team located in the city is the Maywood Buzz, which features former NBA star Cedric Ceballos. The team plays in the Maywood Activities Center, also known as the M.A.C. They are an ABA (American Basketball Association) team. Several famous baseball players have played at Maywood Park including former MLB player Marvin Benard, who attended local rival, Bell High School. The ABA team, the Beijing Aoshen Olympians played their inaugural season at the M.A.C. during the 2005–2006 season. They reached the playoffs, but lost to the SoCal Legends in the Great Eight Tournament in Rochester. After the season, the Olympians relocated, and now play on the campus of Azusa Pacific University. Parks and recreation Maywood has two major parks and two small "pocket parks". The existing Maywood Park at 4801 E 58th Street and the new Maywood Riverfront Park at 5000 Slauson Avenue are currently the largest parks in the city, both are in the east side of the city. Maywood Park has a baseball field and the Maywood Activity Center, which opened in 1999. The Parks and Recreation Department currently maintains all of the parks in the city and offers many activities for all ages, seniors, adults and youth. Mr. Aldo Perez is Director of Parks and Recreation. The two pocket parks are Pixely Park and Pine Avenue Park. The Maywood Activities Center (M.A.C.), is available for general public use and offers a wide variety of classes, specialty rooms, indoor basketball court, gymnasium, pool and place for clubs and classes to meet. The Riverfront Park is located next to the Los Angeles River and has handball courts, a basketball court, and soccer field. It also includes an access pathway to the LA River Bike Path that travels through of Los Angeles County, including Griffith Park and Long Beach. A small pocket park is located in the west side of the city, Pixley Park at 3626 56th Street. Two small pocket parks were proposed to the city in 2008, Maywood Avenue Park and Pine Avenue Park are to be built in the future in the west side of the city. As the city reorganizes, future plans are on hold. Government Municipal government The council consists of Mayor Ricardo Lara, Mayor Pro Tempore Heber Marquez, Councilman Eddie De La Riva, Councilman Frank Garcia and Councilwoman Jessica Torres. The City of Maywood has Jennifer Vasquez as full-time City Manager. County, state, and federal representation In the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors, Maywood is in the Fourth District, represented by Janice Hahn. In the California State Legislature, Maywood is in , and in . In the United States House of Representatives, Maywood is in . Education K–12 schools Maywood is a part of the Los Angeles Unified School District. The city has also joined South Gate, Huntington Park, Cudahy, Vernon, and Bell in the Southeast Cities School Coalition to improve the education of the children of the Southeast. Several council members from each city are part of this group. The city is offering scholarships to students planning to attend community colleges and universities. Public primary schools Public elementary schools in Maywood: Fishburn Avenue Elementary School Heliotrope Elementary School Loma Vista Elementary School Maywood Elementary School (opened 2005) Clemente Charter School Public secondary schools Public secondary schools located in Maywood: Maywood Academy High School Private schools Private schools include Maywood Christian School (K–12), an independent private school, Betania Christian School (1-12), an independent private school, and St. Rose of Lima School (K-8) of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles. Infrastructure Due to financial crisis the city officials in Maywood disbanded the Maywood Police Department and contracted with the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department for law enforcement services. In August 2010, the Sheriff's Department went out walking in Maywood streets and knocking on residents' doors to survey the safety and policing needs in the community. The nearby East Los Angeles Sheriff's Station will address non-emergency police questions and concerns including requests for police reports. Fire protection in Maywood is provided by the Los Angeles County Fire Department. Ambulance transport is provided by Care Ambulance Service. The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department will continue to provide police and aerial support to the city of Maywood. The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services operates the Whittier Health Center in Whittier, serving Maywood. Transportation The city can be reached by Atlantic Boulevard which runs north and south through the city and Slauson Avenue which runs east and west through the city. Maywood is also accessible via the Interstate 710 on Atlantic Boulevard. Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Metro) provides bus services to the city, Metro Local Line 108 and Metro Rapid Line 358 on Slauson Avenue. Metro Local Line 260 and Metro Rapid Line 762 on Atlantic Boulevard. Metro Shuttle Line 611 runs through the westside and northside of the city. The city of Maywood also operates a local bus service to its residents called Dial-a-Ride. The shuttles pick up residents at their location and transports them within the city limits for a one way fee of $1.00. The service is free to senior citizens, age 62 and over, and handicapped individuals. Seniors and the handicapped must come to City Hall to pick up their free pass. Effective January 2, 2013, the City of Maywood will no longer provide Dial-A-Ride service to the general public. Dial-A-Ride service will only be available to City of Maywood residents 62 years and over or those with a physician-certified disability which prohibits the use of public transportation. Individuals requiring special assistance will be permitted to have an attendant accompany them. Notable people Larry Anderson - professional baseball player, 1972–75, pitched for both the Chicago White Sox and the Milwaukee Brewers Tom Araya - bassist and vocalist for the band Slayer Scott Autrey - professional motorcycle speedway racer, part of the USA team that won the 1982 Speedway World Team Cup Jack Brohamer - former professional baseball player; played for Cleveland, Chicago White Sox and Boston in a career that spanned from 1972 to 1980; in 1977 he hit for the cycle for the White Sox. Todd Burns - former professional baseball player for the Oakland Athletics Jim Messina - songwriter, singer, guitarist, recording engineer, and record producer; half of rock duo Loggins and Messina and prior to that a member of Buffalo Springfield and Poco. Dana Plato - actress, best known as Kimberly Drummond on Diff'rent Strokes (1978-1986) Christie Repasy - American floral artist Ed Roth - American hot rod builder, fabricator, enthusiast Robert S. Woods - actor, played character Bo Buchanan on the ABC daytime drama "One Life to Live" See also Cheli Air Force Station References External links Maywood official website Cities in Los Angeles County, California Incorporated cities and towns in California Populated places established in 1924 Chicano and Mexican neighborhoods in California 1924 establishments in California Gateway Cities

107664

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwalk%2C%20California

Norwalk, California

Norwalk is a city in Los Angeles County, California, United States. The population was 105,549 at the 2010 census and an estimated 103,949 in 2019. It is the 58th most densely-populated city in California. Founded in the late 19th century, Norwalk was incorporated as a city in 1957. It is located southeast of downtown Los Angeles and is part of the Greater Los Angeles area. Norwalk is a member of the Gateway Cities Council of Governments. Norwalk's sister cities are Morelia in the Mexican state of Michoacán, and Hermosillo, in the Mexican state of Sonora. History The area known as "Norwalk" was first home to the Shoshonean Native American tribe. They survived primarily on honey, an array of berries, acorns, sage, squirrels, rabbits and birds. Their huts were part of the Sejat Indian village. In the late 1760s, settlers and missions flourished under Spanish rule with the famous El Camino Real trail traversing the area. Manuel Nieto, a Spanish soldier, received a Spanish land grant (Rancho Los Nietos) in 1784 that included Norwalk. After the Mexican–American War in 1848, the Rancho and mining days ended. Portions of the land were subdivided and made available for sale when California was admitted into the union of the United States. Word of this land development reached the Sproul Brothers in Oregon. They recalled the fertile land and huge sycamore trees they saw during an earlier visit to the Southern California area. In 1869, Atwood Sproul, on behalf of his brother, Gilbert, purchased of land at $11 an acre ($2,700/km2) in an area known as Corazón de los Valles, or "Heart of the Valleys". By 1873, railroads were being built in the area and the Sprouls deeded , stipulating a "passenger stop" clause in the deed. Three days after the Anaheim Branch Railroad crossed the "North-walk" for the first time, Gilbert Sproul surveyed a town site. In 1874, the name was recorded officially as Norwalk. While a majority of the Norwalk countryside remained undeveloped during the 1880s, the Norwalk Station allowed potential residents the opportunity to visit the "country" from across the nation. The families referred to as the "first families" of Norwalk (including the Sprouls, the Dewitts, the Settles, and the Orrs) settled in the area in the years before 1900. D.D. Johnston pioneered the first school system in Norwalk in 1880. Johnston was also responsible for the first real industry in town, a cheese factory, by furnishing Tom Lumbard with the money in 1882. Norwalk's prosperity was evident in the 1890s with the construction of a number of fine homes that were located in the middle of orchards, farms and dairies. Headstones for these families can be found at Little Lake Cemetery, which was founded in 1843 on the border between Norwalk and Santa Fe Springs at Lakeland Road. At the turn of the 19th century, Norwalk had become established as a dairy center. Of the 50 local families reported in the 1900 census, most were associated with farming or with the dairy industry. Norwalk was also the home of some of the largest sugar beet farms in all of Southern California during this era. Many of the dairy farmers who settled in Norwalk during the early part of the 20th century were Dutch. After the 1950s, the Hispanic population in Norwalk grew significantly as the area became increasingly residential. Airplane disaster In February 1958, two military aircraft, a Douglas C-118A military transport and a U.S. Navy P2V-5F Neptune patrol bomber, collided over Norwalk at night. Forty-seven servicemen were killed, as was a civilian 23-year-old woman on the ground who was hit by falling debris. A plaque commemorating the disaster and erected by the American Legion in 1961 marks the spot of the accident, today a mini-mall at the corner of Firestone Boulevard and Pioneer Boulevard. The Hargitt House Built in 1891 by the D.D. Johnston family, the Hargitt House was built in the architectural style of Victorian Eastlake. The Hargitt House Museum, located at 12426 Mapledale, was donated to the people of Norwalk by Charles ("Chun") and Ida Hargitt. The museum is open to the public for free on the first and third Saturday of the month from 1:00 p.m. to 4:00 p.m. Geography Norwalk is located at (33.906914, -118.083398). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . of it is land and of it (0.40%) is water. Norwalk is bordered by Downey to the northwest, Bellflower to the southwest, Cerritos and Artesia to the south, and Santa Fe Springs and Whittier to the north and east. Demographics 67.7% of persons age 5 years+, 2014-2018 live in a home where another language than English is spoken. 2010 The 2010 United States Census reported that Norwalk had a population of 105,549. The population density was 10,829.6 people per square mile (4,181.3/km2). The racial makeup of Norwalk was 52,089 (49.4%) White (12.3% Non-Hispanic White), 4,593 (4.4%) African American, 1,213 (1.1%) Native American, 12,700 (12.0%) Asian (5.3% Filipino, 2.5% Korean, 0.9% Chinese, 0.8% Indian, 0.8% Vietnamese, 0.6% Cambodian, 0.3% Thai, 0.3% Japanese), 431 (0.4%) Pacific Islander, 29,954 (28.4%) from other races, and 4,569 (4.3%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 74,041 persons (70.1%) The Census reported that 103,934 people (98.5% of the population) lived in households, 315 (0.3%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 1,300 (1.2%) were institutionalized. There were 27,130 households, out of which 13,678 (50.4%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 15,190 (56.0%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 5,045 (18.6%) had a female householder with no husband present, 2,348 (8.7%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,712 (6.3%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 178 (0.7%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 3,417 households (12.6%) were made up of individuals, and 1,631 (6.0%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.83. There were 22,583 families (83.2% of all households); the average family size was 4.10. The population was spread out, with 29,164 people (27.6%) under the age of 18, 12,026 people (11.4%) aged 18 to 24, 30,138 people (28.6%) aged 25 to 44, 23,790 people (22.5%) aged 45 to 64, and 10,431 people (9.9%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32.5 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.3 males. There were 28,083 housing units at an average density of 2,881.4 per square mile (1,112.5/km2), of which 17,671 (65.1%) were owner-occupied, and 9,459 (34.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.4%; the rental vacancy rate was 3.8%. 70,180 people (66.5% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 33,754 people (32.0%) lived in rental housing units. During 2009–2013, Norwalk had a median household income of $60,770, with 12.9% of the population living below the federal poverty line. 2000 As of the census of 2000, there were 103,298 people, 26,887 households, and 22,531 families residing in the city. The population density was 10,667.6 inhabitants per square mile (4,120.2/km2). There were 27,554 housing units at an average density of 2,845.5 per square mile (1,099.0/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 44.82% White, 4.62% African American, 1.16% Native American, 11.54% Asian, 0.39% Pacific Islander, 32.75% from other races, and 4.71% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 62.89% of the population. There were 26,887 households, out of which 46.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.1% were married couples living together, 16.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 16.2% were non-families. 12.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.79 and the average family size was 4.08. In the city, the population was spread out, with 32.1% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 30.5% from 25 to 44, 17.6% from 45 to 64, and 9.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.3 males. The median income for a household in the city was $46,047, and the median income for a family was $47,524. Males had a median income of $31,579 versus $26,047 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,022. About 9.5% of families and 11.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.8% of those under age 18 and 7.6% of those age 65 or over. Government and infrastructure City government Norwalk operates under a Council/Manager form of government, established by the Charter of the City of Norwalk which was drafted in 1957. The five-member City Council acts as the city's chief policy-making body. Every two years, Council members are elected by the citizens of Norwalk to serve four-year, overlapping terms. Council members are not limited to the number of terms they may serve. The Mayor is selected by the Council and serves a one-year term. According to the city's most recent Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the city's various funds had $78.2 million in Revenues, $79.1 million in Expenditures, $107.2 million in Total Assets, $48.7 million in Total Liabilities, and $54.8 million in Cash and Investments. The structure of the management and coordination of city services is: Public safety Norwalk is a contract city, in which the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department provides police services. It maintains its own station, which also provides police services to La Mirada and unincorporated South Whittier. At one time the station also provided contracted police services to Santa Fe Springs, but those services ended when the city entered into a contract with the Whittier Police Department. The station is staffed with 206 sworn personnel. Fire protection in Norwalk is provided by the Los Angeles County Fire Department with ambulance transport by Care Ambulance Service. Registrar/recorder Norwalk is the home of the Los Angeles County Registrar/Recorder. The Los Angeles County Registrar's Office is responsible for the registration of voters, maintenance of voter files, conduct of federal, state, local and special elections and the verification of initiative, referendum and recall petitions. There are approximately 4.1 million registered voters, and 5 thousand voting precincts established for countywide elections. The office also has jurisdiction over marriage license issuance, the performance of civil marriage ceremonies, fictitious business name filings and indexing, qualification and registration of notaries and miscellaneous statutory issuance of oaths and filings. The office issues approximately 75,000 marriage licenses and processes 125,000 fictitious business name filings annually. The Recorder's Office is responsible for recording legal documents which determine ownership of real property and maintains files of birth, death and marriage records for Los Angeles County. It serves the public and other County departments such as the Assessor, Health Services, Public Social Services and Regional Planning. The office processes 2 million real and personal property documents and 750,000 birth, death and marriage records annually and services approximately 2,000 customers daily. County, state, and federal representation In the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors, Norwalk is in the Fourth District, represented by Janice Hahn. In the California State Senate, Norwalk is in . In the California State Assembly, it is split between , and . In the United States House of Representatives, Norwalk is in . The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services operates the Whittier Health Center in Whittier, serving Norwalk. The United States Postal Service operates the Norwalk Post Office at 14011 Clarkdale Avenue and the Paddison Square Post Office at 12415 Norwalk Boulevard. Superior Court The Southeast District of the Los Angeles County Superior Court is located in Norwalk. Metropolitan State Hospital The Metropolitan State Hospital, a psychiatric and mental health facility operated by the California Department of State Hospitals, is located in Norwalk. It has four different types of categories for patient intake. The four categories being; incompetent to stand trial (PC 1370), offender with a mental health disorder (PCS 2962/2972), not guilty by reason of insanity (PC 1026), and conservatorship lanterman-petris-short (LPS) Act. Transportation Freeways Three freeways travel through the city. The Santa Ana Freeway (I-5) and San Gabriel River Freeway (I-605) pass through and intersect just above its northern edge, while the Century Freeway (I-105) ends in Norwalk at Studebaker Road. Norwalk Transit Norwalk Transit serves Norwalk and its adjacent communities. Six bus lines operate in Norwalk and adjacent cities, including Artesia, Bellflower, Cerritos, La Mirada and Whittier. Norwalk Transit Buses make connections with Los Angeles Metrorail Green Line from Route 2 and Southern California Metrolink from Route 7 Long Beach Transit Long Beach Transit provides service to the Metro Green Line Station via Studebaker Road from Long Beach. Los Angeles Metro The Los Angeles MTA ("Metro") provides both bus and rail service from Norwalk. The Metro C Line (formerly the Green Line) light rail provides service from the Norwalk C Line station to LAX (via shuttle from Aviation Station) and Redondo Beach. Metro bus routes provide service to the west on Florence Avenue, Firestone Boulevard, Imperial Highway, and Rosecrans Avenue from the Norwalk C Line Station. Express routes also connect to Disneyland, El Monte Bus Station, Long Beach and downtown Los Angeles. Metrolink The Metrolink Orange County Line and 91 Line (which operate on the same track in this area) trains connect Norwalk (the Norwalk/Santa Fe Springs station) with Orange County, Riverside County, and Downtown Los Angeles. Economy Top employers According to the City's 2013 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are: Education Norwalk is home to Cerritos College. Founded in 1955, Cerritos College is a public community college serving an area of of southeastern Los Angeles county. The college offers degrees and certificates in 87 areas of study in nine divisions. Over 1,200 students complete their course of studies each year. Norwalk is served by the Norwalk-La Mirada Unified School District, headquartered at 12820 Pioneer Boulevard in Norwalk, as well as the Little Lake City School District, headquartered in Santa Fe Springs. Certain areas of Norwalk are served by the ABC Unified School District, based in Cerritos, and others by the Whittier Union High School District. Among the several parochial schools in Norwalk are Saint John of God School (Roman Catholic), Pioneer Baptist School (Baptist Christian), and Saint Linus School (Roman Catholic). It also contains The California distinguished school J.B. Morrison Elementary Magnet School. Media KCAL-TV channel 9 was licensed to Norwalk for a year in 1989 during an ownership transfer as part of a settlement with the FCC by former owner RKO General; the one-year change in city of license was barely noted on-air (it returned to a city of license of Los Angeles in 1990), and the station never had any actual assets based in Norwalk. Notable people Ruth Asawa, sculptor Shirley Babashoff, swimmer, winner of eight Olympic medals and 1975 world championship, Norwalk High School graduate, 1973 Dick Bass, born Richard Lee Bass, played professional football as running back for Los Angeles Rams from 1960 through 1969 William Conrad (1920–94), actor, director and producer in film and television; graduate of Excelsior High School Tiffany Darwish, 1980s singer and actress James Gattuso, analyst and pundit in Washington, D.C., who often appears on television and radio to give opinions on domestic policy; Excelsior High School Class of 1975 Keith Ginter, MLB player for Houston Astros, Milwaukee Brewers, and Oakland Athletics Bob Kevoian, radio host, The Bob & Tom Show, Norwalk High Class of 1969 Joseph Marquez, professional Super Smash Bros. player for Cloud9, graduate of John Glenn High School class of 2010 Ron McGovney, the first bass player of Metallica Lindsay Mendez, Broadway actress Alexandra Nechita, artist, considered youngest cubist ever discovered (at age 8) and nicknamed "petite Picasso"; attended Moffit Elementary School prior to her fame when she relocated outside of Norwalk Pat Nixon (1912–93), First Lady of United States 1969–74, wife of President Richard Nixon; graduate of Excelsior High School Class of 1929 (family bought a truck farm in Dairy Valley, formerly in Artesia, now part of Cerritos) Donald Novis, actor, died in Norwalk 1966 Rashaad Penny, running back, Seattle Seahawks Ron Rinehart, lead singer, Dark Angel Poncho Sanchez, Latin jazz artist Cindy Sheehan, anti-Iraq War activist Gene Taylor, blues-rock and boogie-woogie pianist, Norwalk High Class of 1970 Delta Work, drag queen and stylist Nikki Schieler Ziering, Playboy Playmate, actress and Ian Ziering's ex-wife Movies and TV shows filmed in Norwalk The Postman Always Rings Twice (1946): Includes scene filmed on location at the Norwalk train depot near Front Street and Funston Avenue Corvette Summer (1978): Scene filmed outside of what was then the Golden West Ballroom on Studebaker between Imperial Highway and Firestone Boulevard Midnight Madness (1980 film) (1980): Scenes filmed at Golf n’ Stuff. Michael J. Fox’s first movie. Square Pegs (1982): Filmed at Excelsior High School Grease 2 (1982): Mostly filmed at Excelsior High School Filmed in front of at the time Norwalk Ice Rink on Rosecrans High School U.S.A. (1983): Filmed at Excelsior High School CHiPs (1983): Episode filmed in various parts of Norwalk Suburbia (1984): Streetscape in the Interstate 105/605 area The Karate Kid (1984): Golf 'N' Stuff Reform School Girls (1986): Filmed at Excelsior High School Another Day in Paradise (1989): Locations include both Front Street and Firestone Boulevard Cutting Class (1989 Horror Film): Filmed in Norwalk, the movie was Brad Pitt's first major role in a movie. The John Glenn High School band is heard playing their school fight song during the game scene Speed (1994): Shots filmed at the construction site of the 105 Freeway at Studebaker Rd and Imperial Hwy Things to Do in Denver When You're Dead (1995): Outside scenes filmed at Keystone Lanes, a bowling alley on Imperial Highway Korn (1995): "Shoots N' Ladders" music video was shot at Golf N' Stuff Best Men (1997): Mostly filmed on Front Street Life (1999): Scene filmed at Greyhound bus station on Front Street Frailty (2001): Shots filmed at Greyhound bus station on Front Street at San Antonio Boulevard Monk (2004): The scenes in the Mega-Mart storage area were recorded in the Big Lots at Norwalk Town Square. Avril Lavigne (2006): "Girlfriend" music video was shot at Golf N' Stuff Heroes (TV series, 2007): Scene filmed at Greyhound bus station on Front Street at San Antonio Boulevard Brüno (2009): Civil Marriage Scene filmed at the LA County Registrar-Recorder/County Clerk Building. Rebecca Black (2011): "Person of Interest" music video was shot at Golf N' Stuff The Master (2012): Scene filmed at Greyhound bus station on Front Street at San Antonio Boulevard Once Upon A Time In Hollywood (2019): Scenes were filmed at Excelsior High School in July / August 2018. The staff parking lot was transformed into Fox Studios in the 1960s. A photo of Margot Robbie at the school can be seen on her Instagram page. Neighborhoods Carmenita (South Norwalk) Civic Center (Central Norwalk) Norwalk Hills (North Norwalk) South Norwalk Studebaker (North Norwalk) Norwalk Manor (South East Norwalk) Sports The Falcon Field is the largest venue by capacity (12,000) in Norwalk. It is the home of the public community college football team Cerritos Falcons and a major venue for track and field events. See also References External links Norwalk Chamber of Commerce LA County Disaster Communications Service ( DCS ) Norwalk Station Norwalk Municipal Code Norwalk QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau Flag of Norwalk, California 1957 establishments in California Cities in Los Angeles County, California Gateway Cities Incorporated cities and towns in California Populated places established in 1957

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Rosa%2C%20California

Santa Rosa, California

Santa Rosa (Spanish for "Saint Rose") is a city and the county seat of Sonoma County, in the North Bay region of the Bay Area in California. Its estimated 2019 population was 178,127. It is the largest city in California's Wine Country and Redwood Coast, as well as the fifth most populous city in the Bay Area after San Jose, San Francisco, Oakland, and Fremont; and the 25th most populous city in California. History Early history Santa Rosa was founded in 1833 and named after Saint Rose of Lima. Before the arrival of Europeans, the Santa Rosa Plain was home to a strong and populous tribe of Pomo natives known as the Bitakomtara. The Bitakomtara controlled the area closely, barring passage to others until permission was arranged. Those who entered without permission were subject to harsh penalties. The tribe gathered at ceremonial times on Santa Rosa Creek near present-day Spring Lake Regional Park. Upon the arrival of Europeans, the Pomos were decimated by smallpox brought from Europe. By 1900, the Pomo population had decreased by 95%. The first known permanent European settlement of Santa Rosa was the homestead of the Carrillo family of California, in-laws to Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, who settled the Sonoma pueblo and Petaluma area. In the 1830s, during the Mexican period, the family of María López de Carrillo built an adobe house on their Rancho Cabeza de Santa Rosa land grant, just east of what later became downtown Santa Rosa. Allegedly, however, by the 1820s, before the Carrillos built their adobe in the 1830s, Spanish and Mexican settlers from nearby Sonoma and other settlements to the south raised livestock in the area and slaughtered animals at the fork of the Santa Rosa Creek and Matanzas Creek, near the intersection of modern-day Santa Rosa Avenue and Sonoma Avenue. This is supposedly the origin of the name of Matanzas Creek as, because of its use as a slaughtering place, the confluence came to be called La Matanza. By the 1850s, a Wells Fargo post and general store were established in what is now downtown Santa Rosa. In the mid-1850s, several prominent locals, including Julio Carrillo, son of Maria Carrillo, laid out the grid street pattern for Santa Rosa with a public square in the center, a pattern which largely remains as the street pattern for downtown Santa Rosa to this day, despite changes to the central square, now called Old Courthouse Square. In 1867, the county recognized Santa Rosa as an incorporated city and in 1868 the state officially confirmed the incorporation, making it officially the third incorporated city in Sonoma County, after Petaluma, incorporated in 1858, and Healdsburg, incorporated in 1867. The U.S. Census records, among others, show that after California became a state, Santa Rosa grew steadily early on, despite initially lagging behind nearby Petaluma in the 1850s and early 1860s. According to the U.S. Census, in 1870 Santa Rosa was the eighth largest city in California, and county seat of one of the most populous counties in the state. Growth and development after that was steady but never rapid. The city continued to grow when other early population centers declined or stagnated, but by 1900 it was being overtaken by many other newer population centers in the San Francisco Bay Area and Southern California. According to a 1905 article in the Press Democrat newspaper reporting on the "Battle of the Trains", the city had just over 10,000 people at the time. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake essentially destroyed the entire downtown, but the city's population did not greatly suffer. However, after that period the population growth of Santa Rosa, as with most of the area, was very slow. Famed director Alfred Hitchcock filmed his thriller Shadow of a Doubt in Santa Rosa in 1943; the film gives glimpses of Santa Rosa in the 1940s. Many of the downtown buildings seen in the film no longer exist due to major reconstruction following the strong earthquakes in October 1969. However, some, like the rough-stone Northwestern Pacific Railroad depot and the prominent Empire Building (built in 1910 with a gold-topped clock tower), still survive. A scene at the bank was filmed at the corner of Fourth Street and Mendocino Avenue (at present day Old Courthouse square); the Kress building on Fourth Street is also visible. However, the courthouse and bank are now gone. The Coen brothers' 2001 film The Man Who Wasn't There is set in Santa Rosa c. 1949. Since World War II Santa Rosa grew following World War II because it was the location for Naval Auxiliary Landing Field Santa Rosa, the remnants of which are now located in southwest Santa Rosa. The city was a convenient location for San Francisco travelers bound for the Russian River. The population increased by two-thirds between 1950 and 1970, an average of 1,000 new residents a year over the 20-year period. Some of the increase was from immigration, and some from annexation of portions of the surrounding area. In 1958 the United States Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization designated Santa Rosa as one of its eight regional headquarters, with jurisdiction over Region 7, which included American Samoa, Arizona, California, Guam, Hawaii, Nevada, and Utah. Santa Rosa continued as a major center for civil defense activity (under the Office of Emergency Planning and the Office of Emergency Preparedness) until 1979 when the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was created in its place, ending the civil defense's 69-year history. When the City Council adopted the city's first modern General Plan in 1991, the population was about 113,000. In the 21 years following 1970, Santa Rosa grew by about 3,000 residents a year—triple the average growth during the previous twenty years. Santa Rosa 2010, the 1991 General Plan, called for a population of 175,000 in 2010. The Council expanded the city's urban boundary to include all the land then planned for future annexation, and declared it would be Santa Rosa's "ultimate" boundary. The rapid growth that was being criticized as urban sprawl became routine infill development. At the first five-year update of the plan, in 1996, the Council extended the planning period by ten years, renaming it Vision 2020 (updated to Santa Rosa 2020, and then again to Santa Rosa 2030 Vision), and added more land and population. Now the City projects a population of 195,000 in 2020. Santa Rosa annexed the community of Roseland in November 2017. 2017 firestorm Beginning on the night of October 8, 2017, five percent of the city's homes were destroyed in the Tubbs Fire, a 45,000-acre wildfire that claimed the lives of at least 19 people in Sonoma County. Named after its origin near Tubbs Lane and Highway 128 in adjacent Napa County, the fire became a major section of the most destructive and third deadliest firestorm in California history. Most homes in the Coffey Park, Larkfield-Wikiup, and Fountain Grove neighborhoods were destroyed. A notable exception to the destruction in the area was the protection of more than 1,000 animals at the renowned Safari West Wildlife Preserve northeast of Santa Rosa. All of the preserve's animals were saved by owner Peter Lang, who, at age 76, single-handedly fought back the flames for more than 10 hours using garden hoses. The fire burned strongly for over seven days, bringing the largest aerial attack in history to Sonoma County skies. Some of the aircraft include a massive Boeing 747 Supertanker, a C-130, S-2, OV-10, DC-10 Air Tanker UH-60 Blackhawk, and Boeing CH-47 Chinook helicopter. Every police agency in the San Francisco Bay Area was called in to help. Firefighting crews from across California and as far away as Australia came to aid in extinguishing the fire. The fires, alongside the December 2017 Southern California wildfires, comprised the most destructive year of California wildfires on record. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . Of that area, is land and , comprising 0.49%, is water. The city is part of the North Bay region, which includes such cities as Petaluma, Rohnert Park, Windsor, and smaller cities as Sonoma, Healdsburg, Sebastopol. It lies along the US Route 101 corridor, approximately north of San Francisco, via the Golden Gate Bridge. Santa Rosa lies on the Santa Rosa Plain. The city's eastern extremities stretch into the Valley of the Moon, and the Sonoma Creek watershed known as the Sonoma Valley. The city's western edge lies in the Laguna de Santa Rosa catchment basin. The city is in the watershed of Santa Rosa Creek, which rises on Hood Mountain and discharges to the Laguna de Santa Rosa. Tributary basins to Santa Rosa Creek lying significantly in the city are Brush Creek, Matanzas Creek, and Piner Creek. Other water bodies within the city include Fountaingrove Lake, Lake Ralphine, and Santa Rosa Creek Reservoir. The prominent visual features east of the city include Bennett Peak, Mount Hood, and Sonoma and Taylor mountains. Climate Santa Rosa has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csb) with cool, wet winters and warm, dry summers. In the summer, fog and low overcast often move in from the Pacific Ocean during the evenings and mornings. They usually clear up to warm, sunny weather by late morning or noon before returning in the later evening but will occasionally linger all day. Average annual rainfall is , falling on 74 days annually. The wettest year was 1983 with and the driest year was 1976 with . The most rainfall in one month was in February 1998 and the most rainfall in 24 hours was on December 19, 1981. Measurable snowfall is rare in the lowlands, but light amounts sometimes fall in the nearby mountains. There are an average of 28.9 days with highs of or more and an average of 30.2 days with lows reaching the freezing mark. The record high was on July 11, 1913, and the record low was on December 25, 1924. Seismicity Santa Rosa lies atop the Healdsburg-Rodgers Creek segment of the Hayward-Rodgers Creek Fault System. The Working Group on California Earthquake Probabilities estimated a minimum 27 percent chance of a magnitude 6.7 or greater earthquake on this segment by 2037. On November 21, 2005, the United States Geological Survey released a map detailing the results of a new tool that measures ground shaking during an earthquake. The map determined that the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was most powerful in an area between Santa Rosa and what is now Sebastopol, causing more damage in Santa Rosa (for its size) than any other city affected. On October 1, 1969, two earthquakes of magnitudes 5.6 and 5.7 shook Santa Rosa, damaging about 100 structures. They were the strongest quakes to affect the city since 1906. The epicenters were about north of Santa Rosa. Nature and wildlife Due to its population, much of Santa Rosa's remaining undisturbed area is on its urban fringe. However, the principal wildlife corridors of Santa Rosa Creek and its tributaries flow right through the heart of the town. Great blue herons, great egrets, snowy egrets and black-crowned herons nest in the trees of the median strip on West Ninth Street as well as along Santa Rosa Creek and downtown. Deer often are spotted roaming the neighborhoods nearer the eastern hills, as deep into town as Franklin Avenue and the McDonald area; rafters of wild turkeys are relatively common in some areas; and mountain lions are occasionally observed within city limits. Raccoons and opossums are a common sight throughout the city, while foxes, and rabbits may be regularly seen in the more rural areas. In addition, the city borders and then wraps around the northern end of Trione Annadel State Park, which itself extends into the Sonoma Mountains and Sonoma Valley. Trione-Annadel State Park also adjoins Spring Lake County Park and Howarth Park, forming one contiguous park system that enables visitors to venture into wild native habitats. Neighborhoods Santa Rosa can be seen as divided into four quadrants: Northeast, Southeast, Southwest, and Northwest. U.S. Route 101 runs roughly north–south through the city, and divides it into east and west sides. State Route 12 runs roughly east–west, and divides the city into north and south sides. Neighborhoods, including both current ones and areas formerly known and named, include: Apple Tree I and II Bennett Valley Burbank Gardens Historic District Cherry Street Historic District Coffey Park Dutton Avenue Fountain Grove Hidden Valley Holland Heights Indian Village Juilliard Park Junior College Lomita Heights McDonald Mansion Historic District Monroe District, an area historically known, from 1870s on Montecito Heights Montgomery Village Moorland Avenue North Junior College North West Santa Rosa Oakmont Village Olive Park Railroad Square District Ridgway Historic District Rincon Valley Roseland Santa Rosa Avenue Skyhawk Spring Lake Annadel Heights South Park St. Rose Historic District Stonegate Town & Country/Grace Tract West 3rd West End Arts and Theater District West End Historic District West Junior College Valley Oak Demographics A graph of the population growth of Santa Rosa (to 2010). 2010 The 2010 United States Census reported that Santa Rosa had a population of 167,815. The population density was 4,043.8 people per square mile (1,561.3/km2). The racial makeup of Santa Rosa was: 119,158 White (59.7% non-Hispanic white), 4,079 (2.4%) African American, 2,808 (1.7%) Native American, 8,746 (5.2%) Asian (1.0% Filipino, 1.0% Chinese, 0.8% Vietnamese, 0.6% Indian, 0.5% Cambodian, 0.5% Laotian, 0.3% Japanese, 0.3% Korean, 0.1% Thai, 0.1% Nepalese), 810 (0.5%) Pacific Islander (0.2% Fijian, 0.1% Samoan, 0.1% Hawaiian, 0.1% Guamanian), 23,723 (14.1%) from other races, 8,491 (5.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 47,970 persons (28.6%). Among the Hispanic population, 98% of Santa Rosa is Mexican, 0.8% Salvadoran, and 0.4% Puerto Rican. The Census reported that 164,405 people (98.0% of the population) lived in households, 1,697 (1.0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 1,713 (1.0%) were institutionalized. There were 63,590 households, out of which 20,633 (32.4%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 27,953 (44.0%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 7,663 (12.1%) had a female householder with no husband present, 3,615 (5.7%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 5,020 (7.9%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 757 (1.2%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 18,021 households (28.3%) were made up of individuals, and 7,474 (11.8%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.59. There were 39,231 families (61.7% of all households); the average family size was 3.18. In terms of age cohorts, there were 39,217 people (23.4%) under the age of 18, 15,982 people (9.5%) aged 18 to 24, 46,605 people (27.8%) aged 25 to 44, 43,331 people (25.8%) aged 45 to 64, and 22,680 people (13.5%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.2 males. There were 67,396 housing units at an average density of 1,624.0 per square mile (627.0/km2), of which 34,427 (54.1%) were owner-occupied, and 29,163 (45.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.0%. 87,244 people (52.0% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 77,161 people (46.0%) lived in rental housing units. , there are an estimated 4,539 homeless people living in Sonoma County, many of whom live in Santa Rosa. Santa Rosa's Hispanic population, mainly of Mexican descent, while spread out through the city, is concentrated within the western part of Santa Rosa. The highest percentage of Hispanic residents in Santa Rosa is in the Apple Valley Lane/Papago Court neighborhood, at 87%. The Southeast Asian communities, mainly Vietnamese, Laotian, and Cambodian, are concentrated within the western Santa Rosa neighborhoods of Bellevue Ranch, Roseland, and West Steele areas. The northeast neighborhoods of Skyhawk and Fountaingrove have the most populous Chinese communities. 2000 As of the census of 2000, there were 63,153 households, of which 30.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.9% were married couples living together, 11.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.3% were non-families. 27.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.14. In terms of age cohorts, 24.3% of the population was under the age of 18, 9.5% was from 18 to 24, 30.0% from 25 to 44, 22.3% from 45 to 64, and 13.9% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.8 males. The median income for a household in the city was $50,931, and the median income for a family was $59,659. Males had a median income of $40,420 versus $30,597 for females. The per capita income for the city was $24,495. 8.5% of the population and 5.1% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 9.5% of those under the age of 18 and 4.7% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. Crime Neighborhoods such as South Park in south Santa Rosa, Corby Avenue, and Roseland, West Ninth District, and Apple Valley in west Santa Rosa, are most vulnerable to criminal activity. Acts of crime in these neighborhoods are commonly burglaries, graffiti, and violent gang activity. Street gangs such as Sureños and Norteños have large concentrations throughout Santa Rosa. There are multiple other gangs, including mostly racially based gangs or racially mixed that commit theft, street and violent crimes, motorcycle gangs, white supremacist gangs, and prison gangs. In 2011, there were 5 homicides, 58 rapes, 134 robberies, 485 aggravated assaults, and 637 burglaries. The violent crime rate for Santa Rosa (401.7 per 100,000 people) is slightly lower than the rate of California (411.1 per 100,000 people) and higher than that of the entire U.S. (386.3 per 100,000 people). 2021 and especially its late spring and summer saw an increase in shootings, violence, homicides, drug, gang, and homeless-related crimes. The increase was up to double for some crimes and problems, compared to the past several years. Homelessness There are at least 2,700 homeless people in Sonoma County. Around 1,500 are in Santa Rosa, about one percent of the city. Downtown Santa Rosa, including its outskirts and the area south of the Santa Rosa Mall (Wilson and Morgan Street) and Mendocino Avenue area, South Park/Fairgrounds area, Santa Rosa Avenue, West Steele Lane, and the Joe Rodota Trail/Stony Point districts and neighborhoods have been concentrations of homeless people since the 2000s. Homeless services can be found in the Wilson Street area. Economy Forbes Magazine ranked the Santa Rosa metropolitan area 185th out of 200 on its 2007 list of Best Places For Business And Careers. It was second on the list five years earlier. It was downgraded because of an increase in the cost of doing business, and reduced job growth—both blamed on increases in the cost of housing. Top employers According to the city's 2015 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the city's top employers are: Santa Rosa is also home to notable smaller businesses such as Moonlight Brewing Company, Russian River Brewing Company and ATIV Software. Retail As of 2014, Santa Rosa has 12 neighborhood shopping centers and 17 commercial districts, including three sizeable shopping malls: Santa Rosa Plaza, with more than 100 merchants; Coddingtown Mall, with over 40; and Montgomery Village, an open-air mall with more than 70 shops, a supermarket, five banks, and a satellite U.S. Post Office. Arts and culture Libraries The Sonoma County Library offers a Central Library in downtown Santa Rosa, a Roseland branch on Sebastopol Road, a Northwest branch at Coddingtown Mall, and a Rincon Valley branch in east Santa Rosa. It is a member of the North Bay Cooperative Library System. The Santa Rosa Central Library, the largest branch of the Sonoma County Library system, has a Local History and Genealogy Annex behind it. The Sonoma County Public Law Library is at the Sonoma County Courthouse. At Santa Rosa Junior College, the four-story Frank P. Doyle Library houses the Library, Media Services, and Academic Computing Departments, as well as the college art gallery, tutorial center and Center for New Media, a multimedia production facility for SRJC faculty. Tourism Santa Rosa sits at the northwestern gateway to the Sonoma and Napa Valleys of California's famed Wine Country. Many wineries and vineyards are nearby, as well as the Russian River resort area, the Sonoma Coast along the Pacific Ocean, Jack London State Historic Park, and the redwood trees of Armstrong Redwoods State Reserve. The City Council pays the Santa Rosa Chamber of Commerce to operate the Santa Rosa Convention & Visitors Bureau. The Chamber's visitors center is in the city-owned old railroad depot at the bottom of Fourth Street, in Historic Railroad Square. The SRC&VB has been a California Welcome Center since 2003. Downtown Santa Rosa, including the central Old Courthouse Square and historic Railroad Square, is an area of shopping, restaurants, nightclubs, and theaters. Downtown also includes City Hall, state and federal office buildings, many banks, and professional offices. The Santa Rosa Memorial Hospital medical center is just to the east of downtown. Although there are co-op network atms and several credit unions, there is no shared branching for credit unions in Santa Rosa. The city council funds a private booster group, Santa Rosa Main Street, which lobbies the city to revitalize the traditional business district. Three new mixed-use, high-rise buildings, and a new city parking garage, are under development. (WHEN?) The council and downtown business boosters hope condos atop the new buildings will house a population to keep the area active 24 hours a day. The nearby cities and towns of Bodega Bay, Calistoga, Guerneville, Healdsburg, Petaluma, Sebastopol, Sonoma, and Windsor are popular with tourists and readily accessible from Santa Rosa. Railroad Square is the portion of downtown that is on the west side of U.S. Route 101 and has the highest concentration of historic commercial buildings. Of particular note are the four rough-hewn stone buildings at its core, two of which are rare in that they predate the 1906 earthquake. They include the old Northwestern Pacific Railroad depot, prominently seen in the beginning and the end of the Alfred Hitchcock film Shadow of a Doubt, and the still-functioning Hotel La Rose, built in 1907 and registered as one of the National Trust for Historic Preservation's Historic Hotels of America. The area contains numerous other historic buildings, such as the former Petaluma and Santa Rosa Railroad depot, and the Lee Bros. Building, both at the corner of 4th and Wilson Streets. Near it in the West End district are numerous other old buildings, including not only many old houses but the masonry DeTurk Winery complex, dating to the 1880s–1890s, and the DeTurk round barn. Also of note nearby is the former Del Monte Cannery Building, built in 1894. One of the oldest surviving commercial buildings in town, it was renovated into the 6th Street Playhouse in 2005. Local attractions Carrillo Adobe. Built in 1837 for Dona Maria Ignacia Lopez de Carrillo (General Mariano Vallejo's mother-in-law), the Carrillo Adobe was the first home on the site of the future Santa Rosa. The remains of the Carrillo home rest behind a cyclone fence off Montgomery Drive, on property owned by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Santa Rosa in California, adjacent to its Cathedral of St. Eugene. Luther Burbank Home and Gardens Charles M. Schulz Museum and Research Center Redwood Empire Ice Arena ("Snoopy's Home Ice") Safari West wildlife preserve is located northwest Santa Rosa. As of 2017, Safari West had over 1,000 animals of approximately 98 animal species. Sonoma County Museum Trione-Annadel State Park Spring Lake Regional Park Railroad Square. With the highest concentration of historic commercial buildings in Santa Rosa, this portion of downtown is popular with both tourists and locals. Historic residential neighborhoods. Although most of Santa Rosa's commercial buildings were destroyed in the 1906 earthquake, almost all of its numerous houses survived and most have survived to this day. As a result, Santa Rosa has a number of old neighborhoods in and around downtown, several historically designated. These contain numerous old homes, including many Victorians. Most of these are on quiet, often tree-lined streets. An example of one of these houses would be the McDonald Mansion, near downtown. The annual Luther Burbank Rose Parade and Festival California Indian Museum and Cultural Center The Pacific Coast Air Museum is located on the southeast corner of the Charles M. Schulz–Sonoma County Airport, next to the airplane hangar used in the 1963 Hollywood all-star comedy movie It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World. Performing and visual arts The performing arts in Santa Rosa are represented by Luther Burbank Center for the Arts, the Sonoma County Philharmonic, the Summer Repertory Theatre, the Santa Rosa Symphony, and the 6th Street Playhouse. Santa Rosa is the home of the North Bay Theater Group, an alliance of some 40 theater companies, theater departments and individual performance companies from five North Bay counties. The Luther Burbank Center for the Arts (LBC) is a performance venue, that opened in 1981 and serves as the North Bay's premier arts and events center, presenting world-class performances, nationally recognized education programs, contemporary visual arts, and many popular community events. The center's mission of connecting the Santa Rosa community through the arts across schools, homes, and stages serves over 500,000 people annually including 50,000 students throughout the county. The Sonoma County Philharmonic performs at the Santa Rosa High School Performing Arts Auditorium. It is a 65-member all-volunteer orchestra that has presented hundreds of free and low-cost concerts throughout Sonoma County over the past 15 years. The orchestra is made up of professional-level local musicians who volunteer their time. Summer Repertory Theater (SRT) is a complete and extensive practicum in all aspects of stage production. The program combines professional directing, design, and production staff with outstanding students in acting, design, technical theater, dance, music, and management. The ensemble mounts five productions, which are performed in full rotating Repertory six days a week beginning in mid-June. Company members put theory to the test and learn to work in a professional system. The Santa Rosa Symphony, an award-winning regional orchestra founded in 1928, performs at the Green Music Center in Rohnert Park, a new venue with traditional "shoebox" acoustics. The Symphony's Institute for Music Education supports four youth ensembles and provides classical music education to students across Sonoma County, serving 30,000 elementary students per year. Francesco Lecce-Chong has served as music director since 2018, replacing Bruno Ferrandis, who held the post for twelve years. The visual arts are represented by the Sonoma County Museum and numerous independent art galleries. In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Jessica Rasmussen, Anna Wiziarde, and Julian Billotte set up a mailbox painted gold with Dutch metal, for queries concerning the past or the future to be collected and answered by the "United States Portal Service" as part of the city's Open & Out project, with the aims of supporting the US Post Office and alleviating loneliness. Government In the United States House of Representatives, Santa Rosa is in . It was moved to the district beginning with the 2013 Congress. In the 1980s, future U.S. Senator Barbara Boxer was Santa Rosa's representative. In the California State Legislature, the city is in California's 2nd State Senate district. The city is split between California's 2nd and 10th State Assembly districts. The city's Mayor is Chris Rogers, its Vice Mayor is Natalie Rogers, and the other five council members are Eddie Alvarez, Victoria Fleming, Jack Tibbits, John Sawyer, and Tom Schwedhelm. The city council in 2013 adopted a set of "Goals and Strategic Objectives" through 2015 comprising six main goals. A "strong, sustainable" economy topped the list; other goals include showing leadership in environmental and cultural issues, and promoting "partnerships between neighborhoods, community organizations, schools, and the City". According to the California Secretary of State, as of February 10, 2019, Santa Rosa has 91,998 registered voters. Of those, 47,905 (52.1%) are registered Democrats, 15,260 (16.6%) are registered Republicans, and 24,012 (26.1%) have declined to state a political party. Education Colleges Empire College Santa Rosa Junior College University of San Francisco (USF) – Santa Rosa School districts Bellevue Union Bennett Valley Union Mark West Union Oak Grove Union Piner-Olivet Union Rincon Valley Union Roseland Public Schools Santa Rosa City Schools Wright Union School District Private schools Cardinal Newman High School (9–12) Redwood Adventist Academy (K-12) Rincon Valley Christian School (K-12) Sonoma Academy (9–12) St. Eugene's cathedral school St. Luke's Elementary School St. Rose Elementary School Sonoma Country Day School (K-8) Summerfield Waldorf School (K-12) Stuart School (K-8) Media Print The Press Democrat is published in Santa Rosa and is the largest daily newspaper in the North Bay. It is descended from the Sonoma Democrat, founded in 1857. Local business papers include the North Bay Business Journal and NorthBay biz. The North Bay Bohemian is a free weekly alternative. The Sonoma County Gazette is a free monthly paper. Sonoma Media Investments is a significant regional presence: besides the Press Democrat and the North Bay Business Journal as well as the Sonoma County Gazette, it owns important newspapers in the nearby cities of Sonoma and Petaluma. Infrastructure Law enforcement The Santa Rosa Police Department currently has 259 employees, of which 172 are sworn peace officers. Its budget is more than $40 million, comprising more than one third of the city's General Fund budget. Police shootings in 2007 led to calls for an independent civilian police review board. Fire department The Santa Rosa Fire Department provides fire protection and emergency medical services. The Santa Rosa Fire Department, like many departments across the United States, made its start as a volunteer organization on February 12, 1861. Decades later in 1894 the department made its transition to a paid organization. In 1906 a massive 7.8 magnitude earthquake destroyed most of Santa Rosa. The department grew to 100 firefighters in 1983 with the addition of the city of Roseland to the SRFD responsibility area. Many members of the department serve as part of the California Task Force 4, one of the eight FEMA Urban Search and Rescue Task Forces throughout the state. The team, which is deployed as part of the nation's response to disasters both within and outside of the United States, specializes in dealing with large-scale disasters. Transportation Road The city sprawls along U.S. Route 101, about an hour north of San Francisco and the Golden Gate Bridge. Sonoma County Transit provides local bus service in the city. Into the 1950s, the Southern Pacific Railroad offered substitute bus service from Crockett in the northwestern edge of the San Francisco Bay. Rail Sonoma–Marin Area Rail Transit (SMART) brought passenger railway back to Santa Rosa for the first time in 59 years, in 2017. It operates two railway stations within the city limits: Guerneville Road and Railroad Square. Trains serve locations as far south as San Rafael; SMART opened on August 25, 2017, Into the 1950s, the Northwestern Pacific Railroad operated a passenger train from Eureka, through Santa Rosa, to San Rafael at the north edge of the Bay. Air Charles M. Schulz–Sonoma County Airport located just north of Santa Rosa is served by United, American, Alaska, and Sun Country airlines. Nonstop flights are available to San Francisco, Los Angeles, San Diego, Santa Ana, Portland, Seattle, Minneapolis, Las Vegas, Denver, Dallas, and Phoenix. Sonoma County Airport Express buses also connect Santa Rosa with Oakland International Airport and San Francisco International Airport. Motor-minimal travel The Prince Memorial Greenway is a developed bicycle and pedestrian path along Santa Rosa Creek through downtown and out to the west of town. Near Railroad Square, it connects directly to the Joe Rodota Trail, a paved path which goes to Sebastopol. Santa Rosa is on the path of the partially-developed Great Redwood Trail which will run "from San Francisco Bay in Marin County to Humboldt Bay in the north." Notable people Film locations Santa Rosa has served as a location for many major films, including: The Happy Land (1943), shot in Santa Rosa, including the house at 1127 McDonald Avenue, and Healdsburg. This was Natalie Wood's first movie, at age five. Shadow of a Doubt (1943), Alfred Hitchcock's personal favorite, filmed at Santa Rosa Railroad Depot, NWP Engine #140, Old Courthouse Square, Public Library, and the house at 904 McDonald Avenue. The 1991 telefilm remake involved eight weeks of filming at a house at 815 McDonald Avenue. The Sullivans (1944), shot on Morgan Street. All My Sons (1948), shot at the house at 825 McDonald Avenue. Storm Center (1956) – Bette Davis spent six weeks on location at the Santa Rosa Main Library, which keeps a collection of clippings. The movie includes scenes from downtown and a house on Walnut Court. Pollyanna (1960), featured the Mableton Mansion (also known as the McDonald Mansion), at 1015 McDonald Avenue. The Wonderful World of Disney – The "Inky the Crow" episodes (beginning in the late 1960s), filmed in the Fountain Grove area. It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963) – the sequence involving the plane flying full bore, at about 150 knots, through an airplane hangar in less than a second, was shot at the Sonoma County Airport, just north of Santa Rosa. The Candidate (1972), directed by Michael Ritchie, shot in Howarth Park and Schlumberger Gallery. Slither (1972) – Highway 101 south of Santa Rosa, and Cloverdale. Steelyard Blues (1973), shot in downtown Santa Rosa and at the Sonoma County Airport. Smile (1975), shot at the Veterans Memorial Auditorium and many other nearby locations. Made into a 1986 Broadway musical of the same name with music by Marvin Hamlisch. Little Miss Marker (1980), shot at the Sonoma County Fairgrounds. Shoot the Moon (1982), used a real Carl's Jr. on Industrial Drive at Cleveland Avenue. Also filmed at Wolf House at Jack London State Historic Park. Cujo (1983) – locations include Santa Rosa and Petaluma. Smooth Talk (1985) – locations include Santa Rosa shopping malls and Sebastopol. Peggy Sue Got Married (1986) – locations include Santa Rosa High School and Petaluma. Wildfire (1988) – includes Wood Pontiac & Cadillac on Corby Avenue. Wired (1989) – filmed in Santa Rosa. Die Hard 2 (1990) – scenes shot at Santa Rosa Air Center. Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot! (1992) – shot over a four-week period at Santa Rosa Air Center. Phenomenon (1996) – used Santa Rosa Junior College as an establishing shot for UC Berkeley. Also used "The Wagon Wheel" bar on Mendocino Avenue for bar scenes. Scream (1996) – scenes show a house on McDonald Avenue, a local grocery store, and the Bradley Video Store on Marlow Road. Inventing the Abbotts (1997), shot at Santa Rosa High School, on location in Healdsburg and Petaluma. Mumford (1999), shot at Santa Rosa Junior College, other Santa Rosa locations, and in Guerneville and Healdsburg. Bandits (2001) – locations included the Flamingo Hotel The Man Who Wasn't There (2001) – set in Santa Rosa. Cheaper by the Dozen (2003) – filmed in Railroad Square. Paranormal Activity 3 (2011) – set in Santa Rosa during the 1980s. Bad Ass (2012) – set in Santa Rosa in 1957 City image Horticulturalist Luther Burbank lived in Santa Rosa for more than 50 years. He said of Sonoma County, "I firmly believe, from what I have seen, that this is the chosen spot of all this earth as far as Nature is concerned." For many years the city's slogan was "The City Designed For Living". In 2007 the Santa Rosa Chamber of Commerce adopted a new slogan, "California's Cornucopia". Sister cities Cherkasy, Ukraine Jeju City, South Korea Los Mochis, Sinaloa, Mexico See also Sonoma State University Library, which holds the Gaye LeBaron Collection: 700 file folders of research notes and primary source materials, containing some 10,000 documents. List of California urban areas List of cities and towns in California List of cities and towns in the San Francisco Bay Area Church of One Tree Roseland References External links Sonoma State University local history collection 1868 establishments in California Cities in Sonoma County, California Cities in the San Francisco Bay Area County seats in California Incorporated cities and towns in California Populated places established in 1868 Spanish mission settlements in North America

108553

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estes%20Park%2C%20Colorado

Estes Park, Colorado

Estes Park is a statutory town in Larimer County, Colorado, United States. The town population was 5,904 at the 2020 United States Census. Estes Park is a part of the Fort Collins, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Front Range Urban Corridor. A popular summer resort and the location of the headquarters for Rocky Mountain National Park, Estes Park lies along the Big Thompson River. Landmarks include The Stanley Hotel and The Baldpate Inn. The town overlooks Lake Estes and Olympus Dam. History Early history Before Europeans came to the Estes Park valley, the Arapaho Indians lived there in the summertime and called the valley "the Circle." When three elderly Arapahoes visited Estes Park in 1914, they pointed out sites they remembered from their younger days. A photograph at the Estes Park Museum identified the touring party as Shep Husted, guide; Gun Griswold, a 73-year-old judge; Sherman Sage, a 63-year-old chief of police; Tom Crispin, 38-year-old reservation resident and interpreter; Oliver W. Toll, recorder; and David Robert Hawkins, a Princeton student. In the 1850s, the Arapaho had spent summers camped around Mary's Lake, where their rock fireplaces, tipi sites, and dance rings were still visible. They also recalled building eagle traps atop Longs Peak to get the war feathers coveted by all tribes. They remembered their routes to and from the valley in detail, naming trails and landmarks. They pointed out the site of their buffalo trap, and described the use of dogs to pack meat out of the valley. Their recollections included a battle with Apaches in the 1850s, and fights with Utes who came to the area to hunt bighorn sheep, so all three of those tribes used the valley's resources. Whites probably came into the Estes Park valley before the 1850s as trappers, but did not stay long. The town is named after Missouri native Joel Estes, who founded the community in 1859. Estes moved his family there in 1863. One of Estes' early visitors was William Byers, a newspaper editor who wrote of his attempted ascent of Longs Peak in 1864, publicizing the area as a pristine wilderness. Griff Evans and his family came to Estes Park in 1867 to act as caretakers for the former Estes ranch. Recognizing the potential for tourism, he began building cabins to accommodate travelers. Soon it was known as the first dude ranch in Estes Park, with guides for hunting, fishing, and mountaineering. The 4th Earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl, a young Anglo-Irish peer, arrived in late December 1872 under the guidance of Texas Jack Omohundro, subsequently made numerous visits, and decided to take over the valley for his own private hunting preserve. Lord Dunraven's 'land grab' didn't work, but he controlled 6,000 acres before he changed tactics and opened the area's first resort, the Estes Park Hotel, which was destroyed by fire in 1911. In 1873, Englishwoman Isabella Bird, the daughter of an Anglican minister, came to the United States. Landing at San Francisco, she came overland to Colorado, where she borrowed a horse and set out to explore the Rocky Mountains with a guide, the notorious James Nugent, aka 'Rocky Mountain Jim'. She wrote A Lady's Life in the Rocky Mountains, a memoir of their travels, including the breathtaking ascent of Longs Peak, where she was literally hauled up the steep pitches "like a bale of goods." On June 19, 1874, Rocky Mountain Jim and neighbor Griff Evans (see above) had an argument. Having had bitter history with each other, Nugent and Evans hated each other and were deep personal rivals when it came to tour guiding tourists. The argument escalated until Evans blasted Jim in the head with his rifle shotgun. Evans then traveled to Fort Collins to file an assault charge against Nugent, but he was arrested and tried for first degree murder when Jim Nugent died on September 9, 1874, of the bullet wound. Evans was put on trial, but the case was soon dismissed due to the lack of witnesses to the shooting. On August 9, 1875, the Loveland court-house acquitted Evans of any charges in the case. William Henry Jackson photographed Estes Park in 1873. Alex and Clara (Heeney) MacGregor arrived soon after and homesteaded at the foot of Lumpy Ridge. The MacGregor Ranch has been preserved as a historic site. In 1874, MacGregor incorporated a company to build a new toll road from Lyons, Colorado, to Estes Park. The road became what is today U.S. Highway 36. Before that time, however, the "road" was only a trail fit for pack horses. The improved road brought more visitors into Estes Park; some of them became full-time residents and built new hotels to accommodate the growing number of travelers. In 1884, Enos Mills (1870-1922) left Kansas and came to Estes Park, where his relative Elkanah Lamb lived. That move proved significant for Estes Park because Mills became a naturalist and conservationist who devoted his life after 1909 to preserving nearly a thousand square miles of Colorado as Rocky Mountain National Park. He succeeded and the park was dedicated in 1915. Enos Mills' younger brother Joe Mills (1880-1935) came to Estes Park in 1889. He wrote a series of articles about his youthful experiences for Boys Life which were later published as a book. After some years as a college athletics coach, he and his wife returned to Estes Park and built a hotel called The Crags on the north side of Prospect Mountain, overlooking the village. They ran that business in the summer while he continued his coaching career in winters at University of Colorado in Boulder. Many early visitors came to Estes Park in search of better health. The Rocky Mountain West especially attracted those with pulmonary diseases, and in Estes Park some resorts catered to them, providing staff physicians for their care. Recent history In 1903, a new road was opened from Loveland through the Big Thompson River canyon to Estes Park, increasing access to the valley. In 1907, three Loveland men established the first auto stage line from Loveland to Estes Park with three five-passenger touring Stanley Steamers. The following year, Mr. Stanley built nine-passenger steam busses and opened a bus line between Lyons and Estes Park. By 1912, Estes Park had its own seasonal newspaper, the Estes Park Trail, which provided advertising for the local hotels and other businesses. It was a year-round weekly by 1921. In 1949, Olympus Dam was finished, creating Lake Estes, giving the town its main source of drinking water. Today, Estes Park's outskirts include The Stanley Hotel, built in 1909. An example of Edwardian opulence, the building had Stephen King as a guest, inspiring him to change the locale for his novel The Shining from an amusement park to the Stanley's fictional stand-in, the Overlook Hotel. Olympus Dam, on the outskirts of the town, is the dam that creates Lake Estes, a lake which is the site for boating and swimming in Estes Park. There are some hotels on the shore, including the Estes Park Resort. Land was still being homesteaded in the area in 1914, when Katherine Garetson (1877-1963) filed on land near the base of Longs Peak. She built a cabin and started a business known as the Big Owl Tea Place. She proved up on her homestead claim in 1915, and left a memoir of her years there. In 1916 the Estes Valley Library was founded by the Estes Park Women's Club. It originally formed part of the old schoolhouse and contained only 262 printed works. Estes Park was also the site of the organization of the Credit Union National Association, an important milestone in the history of American credit unions. Trail Ridge Road, the highest continuous highway in the United States, runs from Estes Park westward through Rocky Mountain National Park, reaching Grand Lake over the continental divide. The town suffered severe damage in July 1982 from flooding caused by the failure of Lawn Lake Dam. The flood's alluvial fan can still be seen on Fall River Road. The downtown area was extensively renovated after the flood, and a river walk was added between the main street, Elkhorn Avenue, and the Big Thompson River. Historic ski areas Estes Park was home to a number of now defunct ski areas: Davis Hill Hidden Valley Leydman Hill Jump Old Man Mountain Estes Park vicinity was also the home of other resorts and tourist attractions. Major flooding events Flood of 1982 The town flooded in 1982 and suffered extensive damage due to the failure, "after years of disrepair and neglect", of an earthen dam several miles upstream. Flood of 2013 Both U.S. Highway 36 and U.S. Highway 34, the major routes into town, were severely damaged. Hundreds of Estes Park residents were also isolated by the destruction of sections of Fish Creek Road and all nine crossings across Fish Creek. Damaged sewer lines dumped raw sewage down the creek and into the Big Thompson River. Geography Estes Park sits at an elevation of on the front range of the Rocky Mountains at the eastern entrance of the Rocky Mountain National Park. Its location is . Its north, south and east extremities border the Roosevelt National Forest. Lumpy Ridge lies immediately north of Estes Park. At the 2020 United States Census, the town had a total area of including of water. Climate Estes Park has a humid continental climate (Koppen: Dfb). Summers days are typically warm, sometimes hot, while winter days are usually cold, with lows dropping into the teens and sometimes the single digits. Demographics In August 1900, Estes Park had a population of 218 in 63 households. Many (73) were born in Colorado. Eighteen were born in other countries: Canada (4), England (4), Germany (4), Finland (3), and one each from the Netherlands, Scotland, and Ireland. Eighty had been born in midwestern states, and thirty from states in the northeast. As of the census of 2010, 5,858 people, 2,796 households, and 1,565 families resided in the town of Estes Park. The population density was . There were 4,107 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 91.0% White, 0.3% African American, 0.5% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 2% Pacific Islander, 5.5% from other races, and 1.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 14% of the population. There were 2,541 households, out of which 20.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.3% were married couples living together, 6.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.4% were non-families. 31.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.11 and the average family size was 2.61. In the town, the population was spread out, with 17.6% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 26.6% from 25 to 44, 29.4% from 45 to 64, and 20.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.7 males. The median income for a household in the town was $43,262, and the median income for a family was $55,667. Males had a median income of $31,573 versus $20,767 for females. The per capita income for the town was $30,499. About 3.2% of families and 4.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.6% of those under age 18 and 0.8% of those age 65 or over. Three million tourists visit Rocky Mountain National Park each year; most use Estes Park as their base.<ref>Associated Press, "Rocky Mountain National Park sees more visitors" [http://www.denverpost.com/breakingnews/ci_16709839?source=rss Nov 25, 2010 Denver Post]</ref> Infrastructure Transportation Public transportation The main airport serving Estes Park is Denver International Airport, located 75 miles southeast. Service between the airport and Estes Park is provided by local carriers. The town of Estes Park operated Estes Transit, a free shuttle during the summer months. Highways US 34 is an east-west highway that runs from Granby, Colorado to Berwyn, Illinois. In Colorado, it connects Estes Park to Loveland, Interstate 25, Greeley and Interstate 76. US 36 begins at the nearby Rocky Mountain National Park, running to Uhrichsville, Ohio, passing through Kansas, Missouri, Illinois and Indiana. It connects Estes Park to Boulder, and Interstates 25 and 76, both near Denver. State Highway 7 begins at the junction of US 36 and N St. Vrain Avenue in Estes Park and runs to Boulder, Lafayette and Brighton. Its northwestern segment is part of the Peak-to-Peak Scenic Byway. Notable people Jacob M. Appel, author, wrote The Mask of Sanity while living in Estes Park Tommy Caldwell, rock climber Tom Hornbein, mountaineer & anesthesiologist. He was part of the U.S. expedition that climbed Mt. Everest in 1963. He and Willi Unsoeld were the first climbers to reach the summit via the West Ridge route, and the first to complete a traverse of a major Himalayan peak by descending by a different route than the one used to summit. In climbing circles, his climb is considered to be among the great feats in the history of mountaineering. He also designed the oxygen masks for the climb. Loren Shriver astronaut, commander on STS mission that launched the Hubble Telescope Freelan Oscar Stanley inventor of the Stanley Steamer and builder of the Stanley Hotel William Ellery Sweet, 23rd governor of Colorado, built a summer home in Estes Park in 1912, now used as a residence by his descendants Popular culture references Estes Park was the setting for Nicholas Sansbury Smith's Trackers series of novels. The Stanley Hotel inspired Stephen King to write the novel The Shining''. He checked into the hotel in 1973 for a one-night stay with his wife Tabitha. Sister city Estes Park's official sister city is Monteverde, Costa Rica. See also Colorado Bibliography of Colorado Index of Colorado-related articles Outline of Colorado List of counties in Colorado List of municipalities in Colorado List of places in Colorado List of statistical areas in Colorado Front Range Urban Corridor North Central Colorado Urban Area Fort Collins, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area Cheley Colorado Camps Rocky Mountain National Park References External links Town of Estes Park website CDOT map of the Town of Estes Park Towns in Larimer County, Colorado Rocky Mountain National Park Tourism in Colorado Towns in Colorado

108989

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocoa%20Beach%2C%20Florida

Cocoa Beach, Florida

Cocoa Beach is a city in Brevard County, Florida, United States. The population was 11,539 at the 2018 United States Census. It is part of the Palm Bay-Melbourne-Titusville, Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area. History The first non-native settlement in the area was by a family of freed slaves following the American Civil War. In 1888, a group of men from Cocoa bought the entire tract of land, which went undeveloped until it was bought out in 1923 by a member of the group—Gus Edwards, Cocoa's city attorney. At that time, Edwards' total holdings included approximately . He stopped practicing law to devote all his efforts to developing the area. Prior to incorporation, the area was known as Oceanus. The Town of Cocoa Beach was established on June 5, 1925. Cocoa Beach's first official meeting was held at the Cocoa Beach Casino on July 27, 1925, and adopted the City Seal. Gus C. Edwards was elected as mayor and served as a commissioner along with J.A. Haisten, and R.Z. Grabel. A little less than a month later, plans for a pier became official. In 1935, the FDOT opened up what is now State Road A1A as a one-lane dirt road to Eau Gallie. In 1938, a Deputy Marshal was appointed "to act in emergencies at night or at other times" for $.25/hour. By 1939, the town had 49 residents. In 1940, the town requested that State Road 140 (now A1A) be routed on Orlando Avenue instead of Atlantic Avenue. In 1942, the town prepared to receive men assigned to the newly opened Naval Air Station Banana River. Establishing regular garbage collection was discussed when the town discovered that the Air Station was having theirs collected. On May 1, 1942, the German submarine torpedoed the La Paz off the shore of Cocoa Beach. The crew was able to beach it with the help of tugs. Eventually it was returned to shipping. On May 3, the same U-boat sank the SS Laertes near the same spot. Local boys were recruited for salvaging efforts and to rid the beach of subsequent debris. Shortly thereafter, the federal government realized the danger of back-lighting from the coast making easy targets of passing ships and ordered a blackout for the remainder of the war. During World War II, Cocoa Beach experienced money shortages to pay employees or to fix roads. In 1944, the town successfully fought a bill introduced in the Florida legislature which would have dissolved the city government. In 1947 a single police officer was hired for $1/hour. The same year, the city constructed works for the distribution of potable water. In 1950, a volunteer fire department was created which used a second-hand vehicle. In 1950, a proposal to prevent people from driving on the beach was defeated. In 1951, the city sought to place a stoplight, the city's first, at the intersection of what is now A1A and Minutemen Causeway. In 1953, the city decided to mark the names of all streets. In 1953, the city planned to pave A1A south from 520 down Orlando Avenue. The city intended to bear 1/3 of the costs, the adjacent property owners, 2/3. In 1954, the Women's Club opened a library in the building used by the Fire Department. In 1955, the speed limit in most of the town was raised to . In 1955, the city prepared to house the people who were going to be launching missiles from what is now Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. In 1956, the city attorney warned the council that blacks might attempt to use the beach. If they did, he recommended clearing the beach of all persons, both white and black. The 1954 decision, Brown v. Board of Education, had, in theory at least, integrated all general public facilities. Actual integration came later. The city proposed selling the town dump to the school board for a junior high school, in order to keep students from being bused to Merritt Island. On June 29, 1957, the town of Cocoa Beach incorporated into a city. It sold its water system to Cocoa, Florida and contracted with them to furnish water. In September 1959, the city voted to add more sidewalks, improve the streets in residential areas as well as the main streets, and to pave more roads. In 1961, Ron-Jon opened their first store locally. In 1965, Cocoa Beach High School requested that Cocoa Avenue, the street that the school was located on, be renamed Minutemen Boulevard, in honor of the school's mascot, the Minuteman. Cocoa Beach started its major growth during the 1960s. There was a 1000% population increase from 1950 to 1960, mainly as a result of the U.S. space program. NASA's John F. Kennedy Space Center is located approximately north of town. Many people moved to Cocoa Beach due to jobs connected to the space program and in search of new opportunities. After manned space flights, the town held parades in honor of the astronauts. After NASA's Apollo program came to an end, and before the Space Shuttle program was in full swing, the town's economy reflected the resulting layoffs. At one point, in 1975, unemployment was 14.3%. Many families lost their jobs or simply moved away. The housing market plummeted and some people unable to sell their homes simply abandoned them. Cocoa Beach was the setting for the 1960s sitcom I Dream of Jeannie, although no episodes were actually filmed there, and star Barbara Eden only made two visits during the show's production—both in 1969, for publicity. Cocoa Beach High School was used as the school in the 2002 movie Race to Space. In 2002, 69% of the voters capped building height to . Prior construction and later variances, resulted in about 80 buildings between high, as of 2018. The 2010 Nebula Awards were held in the city. In 2016, the largest mansion in the city was destroyed by fire. It had been built on the beach by Al Neuharth in 1975. It contained of living space, 11 bedrooms and 12 bathrooms. It was valued at several million dollars. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . of it is land and of it (67.49%) is water. Bordering the city on the north is Cape Canaveral; on the south is Crescent Beach; on the east is the Atlantic Ocean ( of oceanfront); on the west is the Banana River. Propelled by a powerful hurricane, the ocean pushed its way through the barrier islands centuries ago and formed the Thousand Islands in the Banana River. There are a number of boating channels dredged in the area: the 0–99 Channel, the 100 Channel, the 200 Channel for houseboats, the 300 Channel, the 400 Channel near housing for private boats, the 500 Channel and the 600 Channel. Dredged material is placed on one of the Thousand Islands, but is now controlled. Many of the homes in Cocoa Beach are built on dredged mud and sand from the Banana River. Surrounding areas Merritt Island Atlantic Ocean Cape Canaveral Crescent Beach Climate Cocoa Beach's has a humid subtropical climate Köppen climate classification of Cfa. This climate features hot and humid summers with frequent tropical downpours and daily thundershowers, and warm, dry, and sunny winters. The average high temperature in the warmest month (July) in Cocoa Beach is and the average high in the coolest month (January) is . Government Cocoa Beach is run by a Commission-Manager government, agreed to by its citizens in 1958. The City Commission acts as the legislative branch of the city government, guided by the provisions of the Charter of the City of Cocoa Beach. The City Commission enacts ordinances and resolutions that the City Manager administers as the appointed executive officer of the city government. The city owns and runs the Cocoa Beach Country Club, a golf course on the Banana River. In 2007, the city had a taxable real estate base of $2.09 billion. In 2012, the police force consisted of 36 officers. In 2011, the city photographed more than 20,000 instances of vehicles running red lights by the use of automatic cameras. A total of 6,595 violations were prosecuted. In 2014, the city grossed $1.1 million for over 9.000 red light violations. Over 24,000 violations were captured on film. All could not be prosecuted for various reasons. The city netted over $249,000. The remainder went for licensing fees to the installing vendor; over half was remitted to the state. Cameras were sited at four locations on state road A1A, including the intersection with state road 520. Intersection crashes dropped from 88 in 2009 to 30 in 2014. The City Commission is made up of five members, one of whom is the Mayor. Historically, the commissioners were elected at-large to three-year terms but with a successful referendum on the 2010 ballot to hold elections on even-numbered years, the terms were extended to four years. Following an election, a Vice Mayor is then selected from the commission members at an organizational meeting. The Mayor presides over all meetings and performs duties as delegated by the City Commission. Seats affected by the 2010 referendum included Seat #1, Seat #4 and Seat #5. The November 6, 2012 election results were: City Commission Mayor/Commissioner, Seat #1 – Robert C Genaro jr (term expires 2022) Commissioner, Seat #2 – Ed Martinez (term expires 2020) Commissioner, Seat #3 – Karalyn Woulas (term expires 2020) Commissioner, Seat #4 – Skip Williams (term expires 2018) Vice Mayor/Commissioner, Seat #5 – Mike Miller (term expires 2018) City Manager The City Manager is appointed by the City Commission and is responsible for the city's day-to-day operations. The city's charter has established a separation of powers and responsibility between the Commission and the Manager; the elected commission establishes policy that the manager and staff carry out. The City Manager conducts day-to-day operations through four city departments: Administrative, Public Safety, Utilities, and Recreation. Charles Billias was the City Manager from 1998 until October 2012. Bob Majka was the City Manager from 2012 until 2015. Jim McKnight is the current city manager. Crime Rate In 2016, the crime index for the Cocoa Beach is 14 in 100. Where 100 is safest and 0 is most unsafe. Cocoa beach is safer than 14% of cities in the United States. The crime rate of Cocoa Beach is higher than Florida where chances of becoming a victim is 1 in 264, while in Cocoa Beach it is 1 in 183 people. Below is the chart for the crime rate of violent nature in Cocoa beach. It is important to note that this is a single year and may not represent the municipality as a whole, over a broader period of time. Demographics As of the census of 2010, there were 11,231 people, while estimated population as per 2017 is 11733 6,529 households, and 3,532 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,552.1 inhabitants per square mile (985.5 per km2). There were 8,709 housing units at an average density of 1,780.6 per square mile (687.6 per km2). The racial makeup of the city was 96.64% White, 0.62% Black, 0.22% Native American, 1.07% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.30% from other races, and 1.08% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.52% of the population. There were 6,529 households, 12.9% of which had children under the age of 18 residing; 45.5% were married couples living together; 5.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 45.9% were non-families. 38.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.7% were households of persons 65 years of age or older living alone. The average household size was 1.91 and the average family size was 2.47. The city's population was divided into the following age groups: 12.2% under the age of 18; 3.8% between 18 and 24; 22.0% between 25 and 44,; 27.6% between 45 and 64, and 34.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 54 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.3 males. For every 100 females aged 18 years and older, there were 96.4 males. Cocoa Beach is a retirement area, with an average age of 56.5. Economy Personal income According to the census, the median income for a single household in the city was $42,372, and the median income for a family was $51,795. Males had a median income of $39,418 versus $27,113 for females. The per capita income for the city was $28,968. About 3.7% of families and 6.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.8% of those under age 18 and 4.0% of those age 65 or over. Tourism Ron Jon's, a surf shop, receives 2 million visitors a year. Cocoa Beach is home to the East Coast Surfing Hall of Fame. The Cocoa Beach Pier, formerly known as the Cape Canaveral Pier, was built in 1962. An annual Easter Surfing Festival began in 1964. An estimated 100,000 spectators attend annually. An air show in 2009 drew a crowd estimated at 30,000. The Ron Jon Easter Surfing Festival drew 50,000 visitors in 2009, while around 10,000 visitors attend the Surfing Santas festival each year at Christmas. The largest charity surfing festival, National Kidney Foundation Pro-Am Surfing Festival, has been held every Labor Day Weekend in Cocoa Beach since 1985. In 2015 businesses in the city collected $5.6 million in tourist tax, over half the tourist tax collected in the county and more than any other municipality, $1.4 million. Workforce In 2007, Cocoa Beach's median labor force was 6,344. Of that group, 6,006 were employed and 338 were unemployed, for an unemployment rate of 5.3%. Housing In 2008, 6 building permits were issued. This was down from 9 permits for 11 units in 2007, which was down from 20 permits for 34 units in 2006. The median home price in 2007 was $409,000. Health The disability rate for the people under age of 65 is 7.6%. The number of people who do not have insurance policies on the Cocoa beach is 20.8%. Language The primary language spoken in Cocoa Beach is English, with 9.8% of the population speaking languages other than English at home. Travel Time to Work Mean travel time to the work is 25.4 minutes from home to work. Education The city has three public schools: Freedom 7 Elementary Theodore Roosevelt Elementary Cocoa Beach High School Freedom 7 Elementary school and Cocoa Beach Jr./Sr High School both are certified International Baccalaureate schools. Freedom 7 Elementary has a primary years program, and Cocoa Beach Jr./Sr High has both a middle years program and a diploma program. 96.1% of all residents 25 years or older are high school graduates. 42.3% have a Bachelor's Degree or higher. Landmarks Cocoa Beach Pier Alan Shepard Beachfront Park Thousand Islands Conservation Area Cocoa Beach Aquatic Center and Pool Complex I Dream of Jeannie Lane Former Cocoa Beach Glass Bank Infrastructure Roads The following roads are usually called by their numbers when spoken: SR A1A – This is the main road through the city. From north to south, SR A1A enters Cocoa Beach from Cape Canaveral as Atlantic Avenue. After passing the downtown area and resort area, the road splits into a one-way pair of roads, southbound being named Orlando Avenue, with northbound keeping the name Atlantic Avenue. The route continues in this manner until the southbound town limits. Major intersections include SR 520, 4th Street, and Minutemen Causeway. SR 520 – This is the main way to access the city from the mainland. It enters the city from the unincorporated community of Merritt Island, and the route terminates at SR A1A. Major intersections include the Cape Canaveral Hospital entrance, Banana River Boulevard, and SR A1A. It is estimated that there are 2.4 million day trippers to the city annually. While businesses appreciate the tourism, it creates a parking problem for the city. There are 1,780 paved parking spaces and 607 spaces on the streets downtown, near the beach. Public transportation Public transportation in Cocoa Beach, Cape Canaveral, and surrounding Brevard County is provided by Space Coast Area Transit. Utilities The city contracted directly with Florida Power & Light for electricity, paying 10.689 cents per kilowatt hour in 2010. Canals The city has 37 canals, totaling , serving residential homes, plus of channels. These are maintained by the city. Notable people Kim Adler, professional bowler and USBC Hall of Famer, 5th Street Allison Anders, raised in the city. Filmed Things Behind the Sun in the county in 2001 Willam Belli, a drag queen, actor, recording artist, and YouTuber raised in the city Dana Brown, iconic surfing legend, 16th Street Cullen Douglas, television and movie actor, director, screenwriter James Folston professional football player for the Oakland Raiders #55 Ashlyn Harris, professional soccer player Jay F. Honeycutt, former director of the Kennedy Space Center Zora Neale Hurston, author Rick Martel, former professional wrestler Bubba McDowell, professional football player with the Houston Oilers #25 Allen Neuharth, CEO of Gannett and columnist. Founder of USA Today Kelly Slater, professional surfer, 11-time World Champion George Steele, professional wrestler a.k.a. George "The Animal" Steele Carrot Top, comedian, actor, was born in the city Lori Wilson, Florida state legislator and lawyer Melissa Witek, Miss Florida USA 2005 and contestant on NBC's Treasure Hunters Nancy Yasecko, filmmaker and videographer See also Harbor Cay Condominium, which collapsed while under construction in 1981 Space Chase USA (2019 film documentary) References External links 1925 establishments in Florida Beaches of Brevard County, Florida Beaches of Florida Cities in Brevard County, Florida Cities in Florida Populated coastal places in Florida on the Atlantic Ocean Populated places established in 1925

109217

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avon%20Park%2C%20Florida

Avon Park, Florida

Avon Park is a city in Highlands County, Florida, United States. As of the 2010 census the population was 8,836, and in 2018 the estimated population was 10,695. It is the oldest city in Highlands County, and was named after Stratford-upon-Avon, England. History The first permanent white settler in Avon Park was Oliver Martin Crosby, a Connecticut native who moved to the area in 1884 to study the wildlife of the Everglades. By 1886, enough people had followed that the town of "Lake Forest" was founded. As president of the Florida Development Company, he recruited settlers to the area, many of whom were from England, including many from the town of Stratford-upon-Avon, who gave the town its name. In 2006, then-mayor Thomas Macklin (Republican) proposed City Ordinance 08-06, which would have blocked the issuance or renewal of city licenses to businesses that hired undocumented aliens, fined any property owner who rented and leased property to undocumented aliens, and established English as the city's official language, banning the use of other languages during the conduct of official business except where specified under state or federal law. The ordinance was defeated by the city council, on a 3–2 vote. Geography Avon Park is located in northwestern Highlands County at (27.594418, –81.503437). 27/98 is the main highway through the city, leading north to Lake Wales and south to Sebring. Florida State Road 17 (Main Street) leads east through the center of Avon Park, then south 10 miles to the center of Sebring. Florida State Road 64 leads west from Avon Park to Zolfo Springs. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Avon Park has a total area of , of which are land and , or 12.43%, are water. The city is located in a karst landscape underlain by the limestone Florida Platform, and numerous circular lakes are either within the city limits (Lake Tulane, Lake Verona, and Lake Isis) or border the city (Lake Anoka, Lake Lelia, Lake Glenada, Lake Lotela, Lake Denton, Little Red Water Lake, Pioneer Lake, Lake Brentwood, Lake Byrd, Lake Damon, and Lake Lillian). Demographics At the 2000 census, there were 8,542 people, 3,218 households and 2,114 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,841.8 per square mile (710.8/km2). There were 3,916 housing units at an average density of 844.4 per square mile (325.9/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 58.90% White, 29.2% African American, 0.32% Native American, 0.69% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 8.35% from other races, and 2.28% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 18.71% of the population. There were 3,218 households, of which 28.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.6% were married couples living together, 17.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.3% were non-families. 28.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.08. Age distribution was 26.5% under the age of 18, 11.1% from 18 to 24, 23.6% from 25 to 44, 18.3% from 45 to 64, and 20.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.2 males. The median household income was $23,576, and the median family income was $27,617. Males had a median income of $21,890 versus $18,678 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,897. About 21.3% of families and 27.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 40.4% of those under age 18 and 13.4% of those age 65 or over. At the 2010 census, there where 8,836 people, 3,337 households, and 4,162 housing units in the city. The racial make up of the city was 55.5% white (41.3% non-hispanic white), 28.1% African American, 0.3% Native American, 0.8% Asian, 0% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, and 4.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 29.2% of the population. 12.9% of the population was foreign born. The median household income was $28,496, the per capita income was $14,911, and 36.2% of the population lived below the poverty line. 51.8% of the population was female. Government Avon Park operates under a council-manager form of government, with a city manager who operates under the direction of an elected four-member council and mayor. The current Mayor is Garrett Anderson, and the City Manager is Mark C. Schrader. The city provides fire protection, utilities, and sanitation service to its residents. The city's police and the county sheriff work jointly to provide law enforcement. Transportation Avon Park Executive Airport is a public-use airport located west of the central business district. Education Public schools Avon Elementary School Park Elementary School Memorial Elementary School Avon Park Middle School Avon Park High School Private schools Walker Memorial Academy Central Florida Academy Parkview Pre-K LLC Community Christian Academy Cornerstone Christian Academy Colleges South Florida State College Media Television Avon Park is located in a fringe viewing area; its television stations originate in distant cities. Local television services offer signals from WFTV, the ABC affiliate in Orlando; WINK-TV, the CBS affiliate in Fort Myers/Naples; WFLA-TV, the Tampa Bay area NBC affiliate; and WTVT, the Tampa Bay area Fox affiliate. Radio Avon Park is in the Sebring radio market, which is ranked as the 288th largest in the United States by Arbitron. Radio stations broadcasting from Avon Park include WAVP/1390 (Adult Hits), WAPQ-LP/95.9 (Religious), WWOJ/99.1 (Country) "OJ99.1" & WWMA-LP/107.9 (Religious). Newspapers Local print media includes the News-Sun, a newspaper published on Wednesday, Friday, and Sunday. Highlands Today, a daily local supplement to The Tampa Tribune that covered events in Highlands County, was bought by and merged into The Highlands News Sun in 2016. Points of interest Avon Park Air Force Range Avon Park Historic District Lake Adelaide Notable people Red Causey, was a right-handed Major League Baseball pitcher who played for the New York Giants Dee Gordon, Major League Baseball, Seattle Mariners second baseman Nick Gordon, a professional MLB shortstop in the Minnesota Twins organization Tom Gordon, Major League Baseball pitcher Fred L. Lowery, Southern Baptist pastor and author, formerly resided in Avon Park Hal McRae, Kansas City Royals Hall of Fame Conrad Henry Moehlman, Baptist author and emeritus professor of church history The father of the perpetrator Melinda Loveless, accused of murdering Shanda Sharer lived there after he divorced Climate The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and warm winters. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Avon Park has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa). References External links City of Avon Park Highlands News-Sun Cities in Highlands County, Florida Populated places established in 1884 Cities in Florida 1884 establishments in Florida

109578

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boynton%20Beach%2C%20Florida

Boynton Beach, Florida

Boynton Beach is a city in Palm Beach County, Florida, United States. The population was 68,217 at the 2010 census. In 2019, the city had an estimated population of 78,679 according to the University of Florida, Bureau of Economic and Business Research. Boynton Beach is a principal city of the Miami metropolitan area, which was home to 6,138,333 people at the 2020 census. History See also William S. Linton In 1894, two years before Henry Morrison Flagler built his railroad, a former American Civil War major named Nathan Boynton first set eyes on the area that now bears his name. Boynton hailed from Port Huron, Michigan. He was so impressed by the natural beauty of the year-round sunshine and pristine beaches, he built the famous Boynton Hotel, where he also spent winters with his family. The first settlers, whom Boynton had brought along from Michigan, soon realized that many fruits and vegetables thrived in the fertile climate. Pineapples, tomatoes, mangoes, and citrus fruit were packed in crates and shipped by the ton on the newly built Florida East Coast Railroad to satisfy the appetites of hungry Americans across the country. Major Boynton died on May 27, 1911 in Port Huron, but the hotel lasted until 1925. Boynton Beach was founded on September 26, 1898 when Byrd Spilman Dewey and her husband Fred S. Dewey filed the original plat in the Dade County courthouse for the Town of Boynton. The town was incorporated in 1920 as the Town of Boynton. The name "Boynton Beach" was first used by a community that broke off from the Town of Boynton in 1931. In 1939, that community changed its name to "Ocean Ridge" while The Town of Boynton took the name "Boynton Beach" in 1941. In 1926, the Seaboard Air Line Railway entered what was then simply Boynton, spurring land development a mile inland near the Seaboard station, including the town's first planned subdivision, Lake Boynton Estates. As land became more valuable, areas along the Intracoastal Waterway and the Federal Highway in Boynton also saw housing developments. To the west, many dairies were founded so that the Boynton area became the main milk supplier for Palm Beach County. By the 1970s, the dairies were no longer profitable and these lands too were converted to housing developments. Boynton Beach Oceanfront Park is located just north of the original Boynton Hotel site. In 1921, the Town of Boynton acquired the beach site from Lewis S. Howe by eminent domain for park and recreation purposes. The beach casino was built in 1928 and featured a large dining hall, locker rooms and showers and residents used the casino for parties and social gatherings. The casino was demolished in 1967 and the property remained part of the beach park. From the 1920s to today, Boynton Beach Oceanfront Park has been popular with residents and visitors alike. In the mid-1990s, the park underwent a major renovation during which the boardwalk was rebuilt out of recycled plastic. Boynton Beach's Oceanfront Park was voted the best family beach in Palm Beach County by The Palm Beach Post in 2001. In 2011 the boardwalk was renovated again, replacing the plastic with ipe (pronounced ee-pay) wood (commonly known as Brazilian walnut). In 2012 improvements were made to the buildings along the boardwalk, including total refurbishment of the restrooms. Hurricane Wilma struck Boynton Beach on October 24, 2005, causing widespread damage to homes and businesses. In 2006, the city government authorized the demolition of the historic Seaboard rail station, which had survived intact in private hands since passenger service to the station halted in 1971. Crime 2006 saw an increase in gang-related violent crime. This mirrored a similar increase across Palm Beach County. A gang-related shooting that resulted in a death at the city's popular Boynton Beach Mall on Christmas Eve of 2006 caught the national attention on many news networks, such as CBS. There were ten known operating gangs in the city as of 2007, according to police, including the notorious South Florida Haitian Zoe Pound gang. As of 2009, countywide gang violence had fallen three percent. On January 27, 2012, Mayor Jose Rodriguez was suspended from office by the state governor for trying to influence a police investigation into his personal affairs. The crime rate starting decreasing in 2017 and hit its lowest number in 20 years in 2020. According to the Florida Department of Law Enforcement's 2020 Annual Crime Report, the total crime rate decreased by 28 percent in the city compared to 2019 and 64 percent compared to 2001. Violent crime, which includes murder, rape, robbery and aggravated assault, decreased 8.5 percent. Property crime, which includes burglary, larceny and motor vehicle theft, dropped by 32.2 percent. Florida’s total crime volume dropped 14.1 percent compared to 2019. Boynton Beach Police Chief Michael G. Gregory attributed the decrease to focused efforts, an all-hands-on-deck approach and "using a multitude of tactics and crime fighting strategies that are constantly evolving based on crime patterns." Demographics 2020 census As of the 2020 United States census, there were 80,380 people, 31,863 households, and 17,482 families residing in the city. 2010 census As of 2010, there were 36,289 households, out of which 19.8% were vacant. As of 2000, 22.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.4% were married couples living together, 10.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.2% were non-families. 33.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.87. 2000 census In 2000, the city's population was spread out, with 19.9% under the age of 18, 6.4% from 18 to 24, 28.1% from 25 to 44, 19.8% from 45 to 64, and 25.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.5 males. In 2021 the median income was $73,083. In 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $39,845, and the median income for a family was $47,546. Males had a median income of $32,503 versus $26,399 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,573. About 7.4% of families and 10.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.9% of those under age 18 and 7.2% of those age 65 or over. In 2000, native speakers of English accounted for 80.09% of all residents, while speakers of French Creole comprised 7.51%, Spanish was at 7.30%, French consisted of 1.02%, Italian at 0.97%, and German made up 0.87% of the population. Schools Like all of Palm Beach County, Boynton Beach is served by the School District of Palm Beach County. As of 2006, it was the fifth largest school district in Florida and the twelfth largest school district in the United States. Elementary schools: Citrus Cove Elementary School Crosspointe Elementary School Crystal Lakes Elementary School Forest Park Elementary Manatee Elementary School Freedom Shores Elementary School Galaxy Elementary School Hagen Road Elementary School Poinciana Elementary School (magnet school for math, science and technology) Rolling Green Elementary School Sunset Palms Elementary School Middle schools: Christa McAuliffe Middle School Congress Middle School Somerset Academy Canyons Middle School High schools: Boynton Beach Community High School Park Vista Community High School Somerset Academy Canyons High School South Tech Academy Charter High School Public transportation Boynton Beach is served by a Tri-Rail station of the same name linking Boynton Beach to West Palm Beach to the north and Miami to the south. It is also serviced by local buses provided by PalmTran. Controversy Boynton Beach commissioned a mural showing three of its firefighters, unveiled in 2020, for a window covering at a new fire station. The mural depicted former fire chief Glenn Joseph, and former deputy fire chief Latosha Clemons, both of whom are Black. Clemons was the city's first Black female fire fighter. The mural depicted both of them as white, and Clemons is suing the city for defamation, libel and negligence. The city has since removed the mural. Notable people Ramon Perez Blackburn, actor-singer-dance Danielle Bregoli, rapper, social media personality Marlon Byrd, MLB outfielder for the Cleveland Indians Jeremy Cain, NFL long snapper for the Jacksonville Jaguars Noah Centineo, actor Charles Cornelius, NFL and CFL player Byrd Spilman Dewey, author and town of Boynton co-founder Craig Erickson, NFL retired quarterback, played for Tampa Bay Buccaneers and Philadelphia Eagles, and in college for Miami 1987–1990 Johnny Farrell, golfer, 1928 U.S. Open champion James J. Greco, businessman, lived in town 2011-2016 Jayron Hosley, NFL cornerback for the New York Giants Lamar Jackson, NFL quarterback for the Baltimore Ravens Ryan Klesko, MLB player Sean Labanowski (born 1992), Israeli-American basketball player in the Israeli National League Vincent Mason, rapper, producer, DJ, and one third of hip hop trio De La Soul Hilary McRae, singer, songwriter Titus O'Neil, professional wrestler Harvey Eugene Oyer III, attorney and author Charlie W. Pierce, Florida pioneer and author Otis Thorpe, NBA basketball player Trea Turner, MLB Player Howard E. Wasdin, sniper in Navy SEAL Team Six Vince Wilfork, NFL nose tackle for the New England Patriots Mark Worrell, MLB Player See also Church of Our Savior, MCC Schoolhouse Children's Museum & Learning Center References External links City of Boynton Beach Boynton Beach Police Department Greater Boynton Beach Chamber of Commerce Boynton Beach Historical Society Green Cay Wetlands Cities in Florida Cities in Palm Beach County, Florida Populated coastal places in Florida on the Atlantic Ocean Populated places established in 1894 Beaches of Palm Beach County, Florida Beaches of Florida 1894 establishments in Florida

111011

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maywood%2C%20Illinois

Maywood, Illinois

Maywood is a village in Proviso Township, Cook County, Illinois, United States in the Chicago metropolitan area. It was founded on April 6, 1869, and organized October 22, 1881. The population was 23,512 at the 2020 United States Census. History There was limited European-American settlement in the Maywood area before a railroad was built after the American Civil War, which stimulated the rise of Chicago. At least one house in what became Maywood is known to have been used as a station on the Underground Railroad, to aid refugee African-American slaves in escaping to freedom in the North. Some settled in the free state of Illinois; others went on to Canada, which had abolished slavery, seeking further distance from slavecatchers. The site of the former house has been nationally commemorated. The plaque is located at today's Lake Street and the Des Plaines River bridge. This early West Side suburb of Chicago was developed along the oldest railway line that led away from the city. It attracted real estate developers because of its open grass prairie and scattered groves of ancient trees. In 1868, Vermont businessmen established the Maywood Company. In 1870 it organized the platting of streets, and began construction on the north side of the Chicago Great Western railroad tracks. The company planted 20,000 eight-year-old, nursery-grown trees to enhance the future town. By 2010, the last of these 148-year-old trees had succumbed to the emerald ash borer. The oldest documented ash tree in northeast Illinois is in Maywood and is dated at 250 years old. It is being protected from the borers with horticultural treatment. The danger is expected to pass locally by year 2020, as it already has in Canton, Michigan, where borers were first seen. The ash is nicknamed "The Great Dane", after Jens Jensen, founder of the Midwest's prairie ecology movement a century ago. The tree is located within old growth woods just behind Proviso East high school. With settlement underway, the village was founded on October 22, 1881, by Colonel William T. Nichols. He named it after his late daughter, May, and the groves. Many century-old homes survive here in relatively unaltered condition. Maywood boasts 17 homes and properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places. At one time two airports operated in Maywood. Loyola University Medical Center was developed on the site of one former airport, at the southwest corner of First Avenue and Roosevelt Road. It was the airfield used by Charles Lindbergh during his days as an airmail pilot. Checkerboard Field was located at the southeastern corner of that intersection and was a private field. The land has been converted to a forest preserve meadow. There was some apparent consolidation of the fields in later years. Later, an automobile board racetrack was located here, along with a viewing grandstand. Barney Oldfield raced on the track. The Hines Veterans Hospital constructed one of its buildings on the foundation of the former grandstand. Maywood in World War II Maywood was established as the base for the 33rd Tank Company, Illinois National Guard. The Armory was located on Madison Street, two blocks east of First Avenue. It was organized on 3 May 1929 with the purpose of training men for combat. On 25 November 1940, 122 men of the 33rd Tank Company were inducted into active service to become Company B of the famous 192nd Tank Battalion, which fought in the Philippine islands. Many of these American soldiers were taken prisoner by the Japanese and died in April 1942 on the Bataan Death March. Of the 122 men of Company B, only 41 survived the war to return to Maywood. Their sacrifice has been honored with an annual Bataan Day Parade. Given such losses, Ian Smith, who headed the history department at Proviso East High School, said that "World War II hit the town of Maywood really hard." Historic homes and buildings Fred Hampton, president of the Illinois chapter of the Black Panthers Party in the late 1960s, lived as a child in Maywood with his family for ten years. With the Black Panthers, he initiated community education and health programs for children, food for needy families, and other developmental projects. He was killed at the age of 21 in December 1969 in a police raid at his apartment in Chicago. In 2019, his family and supporters initiated a GoFundMe campaign to buy and restore his childhood house, to operate as a museum and community center. As of March 2021, they had exceeded their fundraising goal. Geography According to the 2010 census, Maywood has a total area of , all land. Neighboring villages are Broadview to the south, Forest Park and River Forest to the east, Melrose Park to the north, and Bellwood to the west. Demographics 2020 census Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race. 2010 Census As of the census of 2000, there were 26,987 people, 7,937 households, and 6,151 families residing in the village. The population density was 9,965.7 people per square mile (3,844.9/km). There were 8,475 housing units at an average density of 3,129.6 per square mile (1,207.5/km). The racial makeup of the village was 82.7% African American, 9.7% White, 0.1% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 5.6% from other races, and 1.63% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.5% of the population. There were 7,937 households, out of which 36.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.7% were married couples living together, 30.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.5% were non-families. 19.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.38 and the average family size was 3.84. In the village, the population was spread out, with 31.7% under the age of 18, 10.4% from 18 to 24, 27.7% from 25 to 44, 20.6% from 45 to 64, and 9.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.3 males. The median income for a household in the village was $41,942, and the median income for a family was $46,776. Males had a median income of $41,638 versus $37,316 for females. The per capita income for the village was $14,915. About 11.1% of families and 13.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.3% of those under age 18 and 1.8% of those age 65 or over. As of the census 2010, Maywood population was 24,106. The racial makeup of the village was 74.4% African American, 12.6% White, 0.5% Asian, and 0.3% Native American. Education Maywood-Melrose Park-Broadview School District 89 operates elementary and middle schools. Proviso Township High Schools District 209 operates high schools, with Proviso East High School being located in Maywood. Emerson Elementary School is an elementary school in Maywood. Enrollment as of 2006 was 476 students. The school teaches grades kindergarten through fifth grade. Other elementary schools in Maywood include Garfield, Lincoln, Washington Dual Language Academy and Irving Middle School. Maywood residents may apply to Proviso Math & Science Academy in Forest Park. Infrastructure Transportation Public Transportation The Village of Maywood is served by the Metra commuter railroad Union Pacific/West Line. Trains go east to Ogilvie Transportation Center in Chicago and as far west as Elburn, Illinois. Travel time from Maywood station to Ogilvie is 22 to 27 minutes. There are 13 inbound trains on weekdays, five on Saturdays and four on Sundays. Maywood station is in the heart of Maywood's business district. Maywood is also served by Melrose Park station, located on the border of Maywood and Melrose Park on the west side of town. Pace Bus serves Maywood with lines and stops throughout the Village. Illinois Prairie Path The Illinois Prairie Path is a multi-use nature trail for non-motorized public use: it stretches for approximately 61 miles in Cook, DuPage and Kane counties in northeastern Illinois. It was the first U.S. rail-to-trail conversion in the nation in the 1960s, adapting a former right-of-way for the old Chicago Aurora & Elgin electric railroad. In Maywood, the path runs between North and South Maywood Drive on the west side of town and along the Adams Street right-of way. Motor vehicle and air travel Interstate 290, the Eisenhower Expressway, bisects (north and south) the town as it goes from Chicago west to join Interstate 294, the Tri-State Tollway, in Hillside. Maywood is located between O'Hare and Midway airports. Notable people Naima Adedapo, singer Harry Julian Allen, director of NASA Ames Research Center Barbara Berger, catcher in All-American Girls Professional Baseball League; sister of Norma Berger Norma Berger, pitcher in the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League; sister of Barbara Berger Donnie Boyce, Atlanta Hawks basketball NBA player Jim Brewer, professional NBA basketball player Dee Brown, professional NBA basketball player Shannon Brown, professional NBA basketball player Sterling Brown, professional NBA basketball player Ray Buchanan, professional football player Walter Burley Griffin, architect, designer of Canberra, capital city of Australia. Jevon Carter, professional basketball player Eugene Cernan, astronaut Michael Curry, presiding bishop of Episcopal Church Bill Donovan, pitcher for Boston Braves Todd Dulaney, gospel musician Michael Finley, professional NBA basketball player Dennis Franz, actor Craig Hall, ballet dancer Fred Hampton, Black Panther Shirley Jameson, nationally recognized speed skater and softball player, and outfielder in All-American Girls Professional Baseball League Sheila Crump Johnson, co-founder of BET. Jackie LaVine, Olympic bronze medalist in swimming Charles Lindbergh, aviator Eugene Moore, politician who served as Cook County recorder of deeds and as a member of the Illinois House of Representatives Ray Nitschke, professional football player, Hall of Famer Walter "Walt" Parazaider, saxophonist for rock band, Chicago John Prine, singer, musician, and award-winning songwriter Doc Rivers, professional basketball player, head coach of NBA's Los Angeles Clippers Wanda Sharp, Illinois state representative W.A. Yackey, decorated WWI pilot, 1920s aviator and final owner of Checkerboard Field. References External links Village of Maywood official website Villages in Illinois Villages in Cook County, Illinois Chicago metropolitan area Populated places established in 1869 1869 establishments in Illinois

111125

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itasca%2C%20Illinois

Itasca, Illinois

Itasca is a village in DuPage County, Illinois, United States. Located approximately 25 miles northwest of downtown Chicago, Itasca is close to O'Hare International Airport, major expressways and rail transportation. Itasca is home to a country club, a resort and shares a border with Medinah's legendary golf course. The population was 9,725 at the 2020 census. BusinessWeek rated Itasca as the Best Affordable Suburb in the state of Illinois. History Itasca was first settled by Elijah Smith in 1841. Smith practiced medicine in Boston. In May 1841, at the advice of his colleagues he set out to find a suitable site for doctoring, farming, and raising a family. He traveled from New York via Detroit and headed toward DuPage County. His parchment government land title dated March 10, 1843, was signed by John Tyler, President of the United States. The document gave Smith title to the land that is now bounded by the railroad tracks on the south, Maple Street on the west, Cherry Street on the east, and Division Street on the north. The post office was established in 1846 and took on various names, such as Bremen, Pierce (after Charles Pierce, who ran a trading post), and Sagon. The name Itasca comes from Lake Itasca. In the 1860s the first school was built. It was a small wooden structure with one room. The building was located on a site near the present First Presbyterian Church. In 1873 Smith plotted eighty acres of his land into lots. The Chicago and Pacific Railroad was completed from Chicago to Elgin, with stations at Bensenville, Wood Dale (called Lester) and Itasca. Smith gave the right-of-way to encourage location of the tracks through the settlement. He donated $400 to help build a station. The Chicago and Pacific Railroad became insolvent. In 1880 the road went into the hands of the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, a newly formed corporation combining several rail networks. The citizens of Itasca decided in 1890 to incorporate into a village. At a meeting at his mill, A. G. Chessman was elected the first Village President. Irving Park Road was first called the Chicago and Elgin Road. At an 1891 Village Board meeting, the name was changed to Elgin Avenue. The 1900s The Village of Itasca created a Historical Commission in 1985 to retain the aesthetic beauty, character, and historical integrity of the Village. The Village of Itasca is committed to the preservation of its pre-1900 and early 1900 homes, buildings, structures, and places. In 1987, the Village adopted the Historic Preservation Ordinance which provides a mechanism to identify and preserve the special distinctive historic, aesthetic, architectural and/or landscaping characteristics of the Village's cultural, social, economic, political and architectural history. The Itasca Historical District includes the following area: Bounded on the north by North Street, on the south by Bloomingdale Road, east to Irving Park, Irving Park east to Rush Street; on the east by Cherry Street extended to Schiller Street then west to Rush Street, then south to Irving Park Road and on the west by Catalpa Avenue extended to Bloomingdale Road. The Spire, which is Itasca's most familiar landmark, graces the top of what was formerly the Lutheran Church of St. Luke. This edifice was erected in 1907 by builder Fred Westendorf. Pastor Frederick Zersen served the congregation for thirty-eight years. Church services were in German. It was not until 1926 that English services were held twice a month. German was also taught in the church school. Until 1916, there was no bank in Itasca. Herman H. Franzen took deposits for Village residents to the Roselle Bank each morning, making the trip regularly on the 9:00 AM train. In 1916, two banks opened within weeks of each other. The Itasca State Bank had as its president H. F. Lawrence. The cashier was Elmer H. Franzen. The second bank was called the Dairyman's Bank of Northern Illinois, and was opened by F. N. Peck. Peck opened a total of four banks, but the Depression forced him to close them all. The Franzen banks in Itasca, Roselle, and Fox Lake were sound throughout the hard times of the 1920s, and emerged successfully from the Depression. Telephone service had come to Itasca in 1899. Electricity was first installed in some homes in 1923. The bustling community soon gained another facility. The Itasca Country Club was opened in the spring of 1925. The rural village of the 1800s and early 1900s retained its atmosphere until the 1940s. A new word then began to enter the American vocabulary: suburb. The influence of the city increased as population increased. Commuting daily to the Loop became the routine for many of the Village wage earners. By 1982, the population had grown to 7,192. Annexations had resulted in fifty miles of Village streets, more parks, and two industrial areas to serve. Providing safety and service as population increased required the establishment of departments of public works, of sewer and water, of building and police. A park district, a Village library, and a fire district were formed. High school students from Itasca attended Bensenville's Fenton High School and Glenbard High School, a combined Glen Ellyn-Lombard school. A high school district, District 108, was organized in 1953. Lake Park High School, with students from Itasca, Roselle, Medinah, Keeneyville and Bloomingdale, opened in September 1956. Modern industry was foreign to Itasca until 1961 when Central Manufacturing District (CMD) bought about 400 acres on the western edge of the village. An industrial park was established, and such national companies as Continental Can and FMC soon moved in. In 1970, the Itasca Industrial Park was established to the east of the Village, and attracted many more industries. Anvan Corporation built a Holiday Inn on Irving Park east of Route 53. The building was of modular construction, the first such hotel in the nation to be built in this manner. In 1969, Carson Pirie Scott purchased Nordic Hills Country Club. Two 10-story tower hotel buildings were constructed adjacent to the eighteen-hole golf course. In 1973, the Carson Inn/Nordic Hills facility was annexed to the village. Today, it is the Eaglewood Resort. In October 1979, Trammell Crow Company of Texas broke ground for Hamilton Lakes. A 420-room Stouffer Hotel and a ten-story office building, completed in 1981, constituted the first phase of the project, situated on 278 acres on the northwest edge of Itasca. To date 15 buildings out of an estimated 26 have been completed, amounting to 2,767,589 gross square feet of floor space with an ultimate development of 4,490,700 gross square feet. A 16-story office building was added to the complex in 1984. In 1966, the Village purchased 60 acres of land south of Irving Park Road. This established a green belt area to ensure both open space and water retention. In 1968 the Spring Brook Nature Center was formed. A Master Plan for this area was adopted in 1965, and continues to guide the community into its future. Itasca, having celebrated its 100th anniversary in 1990, continues to control its development according to the individuality of its past. The overall growth and development of the Village has and is being controlled by the Comprehensive Plan that was first adopted in 1942 and has been amended in 1959, 1979, and 1993. Shirley H. Ketter, the first female Mayor of Itasca monumentally served as Village President of Itasca from 1983 to 1997. Former Mayor Ketter is after whom Itasca's Ketter Drive was named in 1999 in honor of her role with the Hamilton Lakes Business Park, which according to Mayor Gigi Gruber, Ketter "created and developed the whole Hamilton project." Outstanding residential neighborhoods, first-rate schools, and beautiful parks distinguish Itasca as a quality community. Most importantly, we have worked to retain our small town charm with a lovely historic district and churches of all architectural styles. Geography Itasca is located at (41.974678, -88.018513). According to the 2010 census, Itasca has a total area of , of which (or 97.58%) is land and (or 2.42%) is water. Demographics As of the 2020 census, there were 9,725 people, about 3,179 households, and 2,257 families residing in the village. The population density was 1,951 people per square mile (753.8/km). There were 3,258 housing units at an average density of 662.7 per square mile (255.7/km). The racial makeup of the village was 88.04% White, 1.69% African American, 0.26% Native American, 5.83% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 1.72% from other races, and 2.43% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.00% of the population. There were 3,179 households, out of which 31.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.9% were married couples living together, 8.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.0% were non-families. 23.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.07. In the village, the population is spread out, with 23.0% under the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 33.0% from 25 to 44, 25.1% from 45 to 64, and 11.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age is 45.4 years old. In 2020, the average household income in the village was $111,592 and the median house value was $319,500. Only 4.7% of the population were below the poverty line. Neighborhoods Itasca's residential neighborhoods, for the most part, straddle the railroad tracks running through the village. The railroad splits the town into the "North Side" and the "South Side". (Itasca has two unincorporated neighborhoods west of Rohlwing Road: Nordic Hills near the intersection of Rohlwing and Bloomingdale Roads, and the Ranchettes near the intersection of Rohlwing and Irving Park Roads). The four main are only four railroad crossings in Itasca, from west to east: IL 53/Rohlwing Road, Catalpa Street, Walnut Street, and CR 10/Prospect Avenue and several others in the Industrial Parks. Walnut Street, between Bloomingdale Road and Division Street, is generally regarded as Itasca's "downtown". There is a 7-11, dry cleaners, Cucina Casale Italian Restaurant, Daddy O's Diner, Kean's Bakery, the train station, Tree Guys Pizza Pub, as well as Wine With Me and Helix Camera & Video. The town's landmarks include Itasca Baptist Church, and Usher Park, which is on Walnut Street. A riverwalk was recently added, and Gigi Gruber Lane is a tribute to former mayor Gigi Gruber. Irving Park Road between Interstate 290 and First Street is also a commercial corridor, as well as the home of the town's Municipal Campus (library, museum, pool, fire station, and police station/village hall). West of I-290, Irving Park Road remains commercial, but with more national chain businesses (Holiday Inn, Subway, etc.) The Itasca post office is also on this stretch. The Holiday Inn located on Irving Park Road is in the process of being sold to the Haymarket Center, a drug rehabilitation company. Education Prior to 1995, Itasca's School District 10 had one PreK-5 elementary school on each side of town: Franzen School on the North Side and Raymond Benson Primary School (formerly Washington School) on the South Side. (Upon entering 6th grade, all students attend Peacock Jr. High (later renamed Peacock Middle School) on the town's North Side. Itasca is served by High School District 108, Lake Park High School in nearby Roselle). Beginning with the 1995–1996 school year, the elementary schools were consolidated: Benson Primary School, formerly Washington School, would become PreK-2nd Grade; Franzen Intermediate School would become 3rd-5th Grades. St. Peter the Apostle Catholic Church and School offered elementary education in Itasca from 1963 until its closure in 2010. St. Luke Lutheran Church and School dates back to 1885. The Church and school were relocated to their current location at Washington and Rush street in 1961. Economy Arthur J. Gallagher & Co., one of the world's largest insurance brokerage firms, Jewel-Osco (grocery stores), Walter E. Smithe (furniture), Midas and Fellowes, Inc. headquarters are located in Itasca. In 2014, Itasca-based LaunchPoint was ranked #100 in the Inc. (magazine) list of 5,000 fastest-growing private companies in the U.S. Additionally, PrimeCo had its headquarters in Itasca. In 1946 Hugh S. Knowles founded Knowles Electronics in Itasca. Eaglewood Resort is in Itasca, adjacent to Medinah Country Club. Transportation Itasca has a station on Metra's Milwaukee District/West Line, which provides daily rail service between Elgin and Chicago Union Station. The town is also located at the junction of Interstate 290, Veterans Memorial Tollway, and the Elgin-O'Hare Expressway, making Itasca a prime location for commerce and industry in the northwest suburbs. State Highway 19 (Irving Park Road), which connects Chicago and Elgin, runs east–west through the center of town. State Highway 53 (Rohlwing Road) runs north–south through the western edge of the village. Notable people Zach Ziemek, Olympic Athlete Camden Murphy, NASCAR driver and monster truck driver References External links 1890 establishments in Illinois Populated places established in 1890 Villages in DuPage County, Illinois Villages in Illinois

115488

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marksville%2C%20Louisiana

Marksville, Louisiana

Marksville is a small city in and the parish seat of Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana, United States. The population was 5,702 at the 2010 census, an increase of 165 over the 2000 tabulation of 5,537. Louisiana's first land-based casino, Paragon Casino Resort, opened in Marksville in June 1994. It is operated by the federally recognized Tunica-Biloxi Indian Tribe, which has a reservation in the parish. History Marksville is named after Marc Eliche (Marco Litche or Marco de Élitxe, as recorded by the Spanish), a Venetian Jew who established a trading post after his wagon broke down in this area. He was a Sephardic Jewish trader believed to be from Venice. His Italian name was recorded by a Spanish priest as Marco Litche; French priests, who were with colonists, recorded his name as Marc Eliche or Mark Eliché after his trading post was established about 1794. Marksville was noted on Louisiana maps as early as 1809, after the United States acquired the territory in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Eliche later donated the land that became the Courthouse Square. It is still the center of Marksville, the parish seat. Marksville's population has numerous families of Cajun ancestry, in addition to African Americans, European Americans, and persons of mixed European-African ancestry. Many of the families had ancestors here since the city was incorporated. . Marksville became the trading center of a rural area developed as cotton plantations. After the United States outlawed slavery in 1808, enslavers hired African-American slaves through the domestic slave trade as workers; a total of more than one million were transported to the Deep South from the Upper South in the first half of the 19th century. Enslavers typically bought slaves from markets in New Orleans, where they had been taken via the Mississippi River or by the coastal slave trade at sea. Solomon Northup, a free black from Saratoga Springs, New York, was kidnapped and sold into slavery in Louisiana. After being held for nearly 12 years on plantations in Avoyelles Parish, he was freed in 1853 with the help of Marksville and New York officials. Northup's memoir, which he published after returning to New York, was the basis of the 2013 movie 12 Years A Slave, of the same name. During the American Civil War, Marksville late in 1862 hosted Confederate soldiers from Texas. According to historian John D. Winters, they built wooden huts to shelter themselves from the icy winds and rain. At night, after the usual camp routines, the men amused themselves around their campfires with practical jokes and group singing or sat listening to the music of a regimental band. Some of the soldiers often gathered under an arbor of boughs to dance jigs, reels, and doubles to the music of several fiddles. On the opposite side of the camp, another arbor served as a church. There at night with the area lighted by pine knots, men listened to the exhortations and prayers of the preacher and sang favorite hymns. Marksville came under Union control in 1863 as part of Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks's Red River campaign. It was occupied by Union troops for the remainder of the war. 2015 shooting of Jeremy Mardis Marksville city police officers Norris Joseph Greenhouse, Jr. (born November 1991), and Derrick W. Stafford (born July 1983) of Mansura, both moonlighting for the Marksville marshal's office at the time, are being held with bail of one million dollars each on charges of second degree murder in the fatal shooting on November 3 of an autistic six-year-old first grader, Jeremy David Mardis, and the wounding of the child's 25-year-old father, Christopher Few (born c. 1990). The family had recently moved to Marksville from Hattiesburg, Mississippi, where the child was to have been interred on November 9. Struck with two bullets by the officers, Few remained hospitalized with injuries for several days after the shootings. The motive has not been revealed, but a police chase resulting from a traffic stop is suspected. Louisiana State Police superintendent Mike Edmonson, called the video of the shooting which he had personally observed "incredibly disturbing." A total of eighteen shots were fired, five of which struck the child, who died instantly. Greenhouse is a son of the Avoyelles Parish assistant district attorney, Norris Greenhouse, Sr. As a result of this family relationship, DA Charles A. Riddle, III, said that his office would recuse itself from the case. On March 31, 2017, Judge William Bennett of the 12th Judicial District Court sentenced Stafford to forty years' imprisonment for the manslaughter of Jeremy Mardis. He was given a concurrent fifteen years for the attempted manslaughter of Christopher Few. Judge Bennett denied Stafford's defense request for a new trial. Stafford told the court that he did not know Jeremy was strapped in the front seat of the father's vehicle when he fired the fatal shots. Meanwhile, Greenhouse will be tried beginning June 12 on second-degree and attempted second-degree murder counts. Geography Marksville is located at (31.126595, −92.066073). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and 0.24% is water. Demographics 2020 census As of the 2020 United States census, there were 5,065 people, 2,145 households, and 1,150 families residing in the city. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 5,537 people, 2,036 households, and 1,400 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 2,198 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 51.98% White, 48.59% African American, 0.80% Native American, 0.27% Asian, 0.11% from other races, and 1.25% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.65% of the population. There were 2,036 households, out of which 36.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.0% were married couples living together, 22.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.2% were non-families. 27.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.15. In the city, the population was spread out, with 28.7% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 27.2% from 25 to 44, 20.2% from 45 to 64, and 14.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 79.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 72.0 males. The median income for a household in the city was $20,750, and the median income for a family was $25,681. Males had a median income of $24,896 versus $15,865 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,546. About 32.0% of families and 34.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 50.1% of those under age 18 and 25.4% of those age 65 or over. Education All primary public schools are run by the Avoyelles Parish School Board, which operates two schools within the city of Marksville. In January 2018, 5 children from Marksville died in a car accident while traveling through Gainesville, Florida. Elementary Marksville Elementary High school Marksville High School Media Newspaper Avoyelles Journal Radio Notable people D'Anthony Batiste (born 1982), Former University of Louisiana at Lafayette football player; former National Football League player; Canadian Football League player Aaron Broussard, Jefferson Parish politician impacted by the political effects of Hurricane Katrina Dylan Dauzat social media celebrity and model known for publishing YouTube videos and other content on Instagram, Twitter, Vine, and Facebook Edwin Edwards, four-term Governor of Louisiana Elaine Schwartzenburg Edwards, US senator in 1972 H. Claude Hudson, civil rights activist and founder of Broadway Federal Savings and Loan Jeannette Knoll, associate justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court since 1997; long-time Marksville resident Chad Lavalais, former LSU and NFL football player Tommy Neck (pronounced NICK), LSU and NFL football player from the 1960s John H. Overton (1875–1948), U.S. senator, native of Marksville Gaston Porterie, former Attorney General of the State of Louisiana Charles Addison Riddle III, District Attorney since 2003; former State Representative, 1992–2003 Little Walter Jacobs, blues musician, 2008 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Ed Oliver, NFL football player Matthew "Boogie Jake" Jacobs, blues musician National Guard 1020th Engineer Company (Vertical) of the 527th Engineer Battalion of the 225th Engineer Brigade is located in Marksville. Small communities in the area Brouillette Fifth Ward Moncla Spring Bayou Tunica-Biloxi Indian Reservation References Cities in Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana Cities in Louisiana Colonial Louisiana Parish seats in Louisiana 1794 establishments in the Spanish Empire

116739

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tisbury%2C%20Massachusetts

Tisbury, Massachusetts

Tisbury is a town located on Martha's Vineyard in Dukes County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 4,815 at the 2020 census. Vineyard Haven is the main village/town center of Tisbury. The two names are used interchangeably. As can be seen in the history section below, the town of Tisbury was incorporated within the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in 1671 and remains the legal name of the town to this day. However, the port and harbor have had varying names. "Holmes Hole" was one of the first names of the port within the town of Tisbury. This name was later changed to "Vineyard Haven", which is the official post office name for the community. To residents of Martha's Vineyard, "Vineyard Haven" is by far the more common usage, although residents recognize Tisbury as the town's legal name. Vineyard Haven in Tisbury is the main port of entrance to Martha's Vineyard and is the only operational port on the island during most of the year. History The Wampanoag have lived on Martha's Vineyard, which they called Noepe, continuously for approximately 5,000-15,000 years. The first English maritime explorer, Bartholomew Gosnold, came in 1602. Six decades later, in 1660, Tisbury was first settled by James Allen, William Peabody and Lt. Josiah Standish, a son of Captain Myles Standish. It was officially incorporated in 1671 by Francis Lovelace, Governor General of New York. The town, which originally included the lands of West Tisbury, was named for Tisbury, Wiltshire, England, the hometown of Martha's Vineyard Governor Mayhew. Citizens of the island, unhappy with the leadership of Governor Mayhew, petitioned William III and Mary II in 1673 for a change of leadership, and the entire island, including the town, became a part of Massachusetts. The town was divided into its current boundaries in 1892. The town has long thrived on the sea and is now the home of the main ferry docks for the island. The island's first and primary ferry line is the Steamship Authority, which runs to and from Woods Hole, New Bedford, and Nantucket (in the summer months from the Oak Bluffs terminal), all in Massachusetts. There are several other private ferry lines that serve Martha's Vineyard as well, with terminals in the towns of Oak Bluffs and Edgartown. To get an idea of the embarkation in summer of passengers, tourists primarily, and goods, see the early scene in the movie Jaws which shows the debarkation on "Amity Island" of a typical boatload in summer at the Vineyard Haven Steamship Authority facility from the steamship Naushon. At the time of the filming of Jaws in 1975 this was the largest of the ferries, running only in the summer months for its high passenger capacity. It ceased service in 1987 and has been replaced by more modern vessels. Like the rest of Martha's Vineyard, is a popular summer resort for the rich and famous. Residents of Tisbury have included Art Buchwald, William Styron, Mike Wallace, Lillian Hellman, Carly Simon, Thornton Wilder, Dashiell Hammett, Katharine Cornell and Diane Sawyer. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the town of Tisbury has a total area of , of which is land and , or 65.79%, is water. The town ranks 329th out of the 351 communities in the Commonwealth in terms of land area, and is sixth out of the seven towns of Dukes County (only Aquinnah is smaller). Tisbury is bordered by Vineyard Haven Harbor, Lagoon Pond and Oak Bluffs to the east, West Tisbury to the southwest, and Vineyard Sound to the northwest. The town shares a common corner, along with West Tisbury and Oak Bluffs, with Edgartown. Localities of the town include Vineyard Haven, Makonikey, Pilot Hill, West Chop, and Lambert's Cove. Measuring from the western shore of Tisbury to Nobska Point at Woods Hole (town of Falmouth), the town is from the mainland (Cape Cod), the closest point on the Vineyard. Most of central Tisbury is low-lying and near sea level, with elevations rising to in places. West Chop is the northernmost point on the Vineyard, tipped by the West Chop Light. The town is also home to Lake Tashmoo, just south of the tip of West Chop. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 3,755 people, 1,646 households, and 902 families residing in the town. The population density was 572.4 people per square mile (221.0/km). There were 2,720 housing units at an average density of 414.7 per square mile (160.1/km). The racial makeup of the town was 90.04% White, 2.96% African American, 1.36% Native American, 0.32% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 1.33% from other races, and 3.94% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.04% of the population. A large percentage of the white population is of Portuguese descent, and a great number of "Native Islanders" (born on the island) within the community are of mixed ethnicity such as Portuguese, Native American (Wampanoag Indian), and African American families who have been there for generations, primarily tied to maritime ventures of fishing, whaling, and the fitting out of whaleships. There were 1,646 households, out of which 25.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.9% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 45.2% were non-families. 36.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.92. In the town, the population was spread out, with 21.5% under the age of 18, 5.5% from 18 to 24, 28.6% from 25 to 44, 26.5% from 45 to 64, and 17.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.7 males. The median income for a household in the town was $37,041, and the median income for a family was $53,051. Males had a median income of $38,452 versus $29,034 for females. The per capita income for the town was $26,783. About 7.7% of families and 12.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.9% of those under age 18 and 6.7% of those age 65 or over. In terms of population, Tisbury ranks 267th in the Commonwealth and second only to Edgartown in Dukes County in terms of year-round population. The town ranks 167th statewide in terms of population density, below the mean but above the median. It is the most densely populated town in Dukes County. There is a substantial dichotomy between the wealth of the year-round residents, which is generally below the Massachusetts median, and that of the summer residents, who tend to be quite wealthy. Government On the national level, Tisbury is a part of Massachusetts's 9th congressional district, and is currently represented by Bill Keating. Massachusetts is currently represented in the United States Senate by senior Senator Elizabeth Warren and junior Senator Ed Markey. On the state level, Tisbury is represented in the Massachusetts House of Representatives as a part of the Barnstable, Dukes and Nantucket district, which includes all of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket, as well as a portion of Falmouth. The town is represented in the Massachusetts Senate as a portion of the Cape and Islands district, which includes all of Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket and most of Barnstable County (with the exception of Bourne, Sandwich, Falmouth and a portion of Barnstable). All of Dukes County is patrolled by the Fifth (Oak Bluffs) Barracks of Troop D of the Massachusetts State Police. Tisbury is governed on the local level by the open town meeting form of government, and is led by an executive secretary and a board of selectmen. The town has its own police and fire departments, both located within Vineyard Haven, just blocks from the steamship authority piers. The post office is also nearby. The Vineyard Haven Public Library is located just north of the heart of Vineyard Haven, and is a part of the Cape Libraries Automated Materials Sharing library network. For 180 years Tisbury was a "Dry" town; alcohol could not be sold or purchased. For a number of years, to encourage dining there, the town and its eating establishments practiced a policy of "BYOB." On April 27, 2012, town voters approved (by a vote of 881-747) a ballot initiative granting the town's selectmen authority to grant licenses for the sale of beer and wine. The first licenses were issued in July 2012. As of August 2012 eight establishments in Tisbury have beer and wine licenses. Education Tisbury is part of the Martha's Vineyard Regional School District along with Aquinnah, Chilmark, Edgartown, Oak Bluffs, and West Tisbury. Students in Tisbury attend Tisbury Elementary School, from grades K-8. High School students then attend Martha's Vineyard Regional High School. The MVRHS's teams are nicknamed the Vineyarders, and their colors are violet and white. The school has a longstanding rivalry with Nantucket High School, with both competing for the Island Cup on an annual basis. MVRHS's teams are nicknamed the Vineyarders, and their colors are violet and white. The school has a longstanding rivalry with Nantucket High School, with both competing for the Island Cup on an annual basis. The Tisbury school is the oldest school on the island. Built in 1929 and has been educating children for over 80 years. The Tisbury school colors are blue and gold, their mascot is a tiger. Tisbury is also the home of the Vineyard Montessori School, which serves students from pre-kindergarten through third grade. References External links Town of Tisbury official website Populated coastal places in Massachusetts Towns in Dukes County, Massachusetts Martha's Vineyard Populated places established in 1660 1660 establishments in Massachusetts Towns in Massachusetts

116839

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dracut%2C%20Massachusetts

Dracut, Massachusetts

Dracut is a town in Middlesex County. At the 2020 census, the town's population was 32,617, making it the second most populous town in Massachusetts with an open town meeting system of governance. The town covers a total area of 21.36 square miles, 0.5 square miles of which is water. History Before Europeans arrived in the mid-17th century, Dracut and the surrounding area were known as Augumtoocooke. Important Pennacook Indian settlements were served by fishing at Pawtucket Falls on the Merrimack River and abundant game in the surrounding marsh areas. From the late 16th to mid-17th centuries, the powerful sachem Passaconaway and his family spent much of their lives on this land. Europeans began to settle in the area around 1653, and established the town of Chelmsford, incorporated in 1655, on the opposite side of the Merrimack River from modern Dracut. In October 1665, Bess, wife of Nobb How and daughter of Passaconaway, sold the Augumtoocooke land to Captain John Evered, also known as Webb of Draucutt of Norfolk County (the Webb family is associated closely with the town of Dreycot Foliat in Wiltshire, England) for four yards of duffill and one pound of tobacco. Webb had months earlier sold of the land — which he did not then own — to Samuel Varnum for 400 four hundred pounds; the deed for "Drawcutt upon Mirrimack" was dated 1664. Webb also sold land to Richard Shatswell, who traded it to Edward Colburn (also spelled "Coburn" or "Colborne") for his home and land in Ipswich, Massachusetts. Colburn and his family were probably the first settlers in Dracut who owned land with the intention of permanently living on it. (Samuel Varnum lived on the Chelmsford side of the Merrimack River.) Even though this area, now known to the new settlers as Dracut (Draucutt), was across the Merrimack River from the Chelmsford town center, they agreed to pay taxes and relied on Chelmsford for protection, according to 1667 Middlesex Court documents. By summer 1669, however, protection became too costly and difficult, so the Chelmsford Mayor Henchman declared: Wherefore, Honorable and Worshipful, I judge it highly needful and necessary that we have relief, and that speedily of about twenty men or more for the repulsing of the enemy and guarding some outplaces, which are considerable on each side of the Merrimac, as Messrs. Howard, Varnum, Coburn & company who must otherwise come in to us, and leave what they have to the enemy, or be exposed to the merciless cruelty of bloody and barbarous men. On the morning of March 18, 1676, the Wamesit Indians burned down four of Edward Colburne's buildings, then attacked Samuel Varnum and family as they crossed the river to milk the cows grazing in the Dracut pastures. The Indians fired upon their boat, killing Samuel's two sons, and one died in his daughter's arms as she sat behind him. The accompanying soldiers and Samuel fired back, but the Indians fled. By the late 17th century the Varnum, Coburn, Richardson, and other families of the Dracut section of Chelmsford, dissatisfied with the protection provided, began to petition to the General Court to lay out their own township. To the Hon. Council & Representatives of his Majesty's Province of the Massachusetts Bay in New England in General Court assembled February 1701. The petition of Samuel Sewall Esq., Benjamin Walker, John Hunt & Jonathan Belcher, proprietors of part of the Tract of Land called Dracut beyond Chelmsford in the County of Middlesex on the North Side of Merrimack River and of Samuel Varnum, ..., Thomas Colburne, ..., James Richardson, ..., Ezra Colburn,... Inhabitants and Proprietors of the said Tract of Land called Dracut, ... lyes very commodious for a Township & hath about twenty families already settled thereupon in which are about Eighty Souls & Forasmuch as the making said place a Township will not only be a great Encouragement to the Inhabitants thereof & be the means for a settlement of the Ministry among them (for the benefit of which they are now obliged to go to Chelmsford, which is a great difficulty & eamiot be attended by their children & several others by reason of the distance thereof) but will also be of considerable benefit to the Publick, and be a great strengthening of the Frontier parts by reason of the people which will be desirous to settle at said place when made a Township because of the convenient positionship thereof. Your Petitioners humbly pray that by the grant of this Honorable Court, the Tract of land aforesaid may be made a Township, and that the Inhabitants, which are or shall settle thereupon, may have and enjoy all Libertys, Privileges & Immunities as the Inhabitants of other Towns within this Province have & do enjoy. And ... the Tract of Land therein described be made a Township & called by the name of Dracut, ... Sent up by concurrence Nehemiah Jewett, Speaker. Dracut was granted separation from Chelmsford, and was officially incorporated as a town on February 26, 1701. Parts of the community were part of the Wamiset Praying Town, one of the preserves set aside by the colonists for Christianized Indians. The town has several large ponds, bogs and swamps, and numerous brooks (most notably Beaver Brook). Dracut's early economy relied on fishing, lumbering and milling, which led in turn to the 19th century industries of paper making and cotton textile manufacturing, including the Beaver Brook Mill. These mills attracted Irish and French-Canadian immigrants. There has been intense modern development in Dracut with suburban residential pressures from Lowell. Twice in the 19th century, Lowell annexed large sections of Dracut into its borders. However, some rural landscapes remain intact, as do some handsome historic houses. One of the better known is the 290-year-old Colburn/Cutter House, with its massive beams, huge center chimney and fireplaces. The building, dating back from about 1717, has served as the site of the annual Dracut Craft Fair. In addition, Dracut holds an annual Old Home Day every September starting in 2001 . As of 2020, Dracut remains the only town in the world with its exact name and spelling. Other municipalities do exist with similar names but different spellings. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and (2.15%) is water. Dracut is located in the Merrimack Valley of Massachusetts, zip code 01826, northwest of the state capital, Boston. The southern end of Dracut is on the Merrimack River, and the town is bisected by Beaver Brook. Dracut is made up of a number of neighborhoods. They are locally known as Collinsville, located in the western portion of the town, East Dracut located in the Southeast, Kenwood located in the Northeast, the Navy Yard which occupies the Southern portion of town bordering Lowell the Merrimack, and Dracut Center. Adjacent towns Dracut is bordered by Tyngsboro to the west and the city of Lowell to the south and west in Middlesex County, Methuen to the east in Essex County, and Pelham, New Hampshire, to the north in Hillsborough County, New Hampshire. Tewksbury (Middlesex County) and Andover (Essex County) border the town to the south over the Merrimack River. There are no bridges connecting Dracut to Tewksbury or Andover directly, forcing travel through Lowell via several crossings or I-93 in Methuen. Demographics The earliest census data shows the town of Dracut having a population of 1,173 residents in 1765. As of the census of 2010, there were 29,457 people, 10,451 households, and 7,733 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 10,643 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was: 88.1% White (U.S. Average: 75.1%) 4.0% Asian (U.S. Average: 3.6%) 2.3% African American (U.S. Average: 12.3%) 0.09% Native American (U.S. Average: 0.1%) 0.03% Pacific Islander (U.S. Average: 0.1%) 0.43% from other races (U.S. Average: 5.5%) 0.96% from two or more races (U.S. Average: 2.4%) Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.55% of the population (U.S. Average: 12.5%). There were 10,939 households with the average household size was 2.69 and the average family size was 3.17. 35.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them (U.S. Average: 32.8%). 55.4% were married couples living together (U.S. Average: 51.7%). 12.9% had a female householder with no husband present (U.S. Average: 12.2%). 28.2% were non-families (U.S. Average: 31.9%). 20.9% of all households were made up of individuals (U.S. Average: 25.8%). 8.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older (U.S. Average: 9.2%). In the town, the population had a median age of 41.1 years (U.S. Average: 35.3). 25.5% under the age of 18 7.3% from 18 to 24 33.5% from 25 to 44 22.2% from 45 to 64 11.6% who were 65 years of age or older. For every 100 females, there were 96.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.4 males. The median income for a household in the town was $57,676 (U.S. Average: $41,994), and the median income for a family was $65,633 (U.S. Average: $50,046). Males had a median income of $41,873 versus $31,396 for females. The per capita income for the town was $23,750. About 2.7% (U.S. Average: 9.2%) of families and 3.7% (U.S. Average: 12.4%) of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.2% of those under age 18 and 8.3% of those age 65 or over. Government Dracut is one of the largest towns in Massachusetts to still be governed by an open town meeting, whereby every registered voter is entitled to gather at stated times to conduct the business of the Town. There is an elected board of selectmen and school committee with five members each elected for three-year staggered terms. The voters also elect a town moderator, library trustees, and some members of the housing authority. Those who live in the Dracut Water Supply District also elect a district moderator and water commissioners. The board of selectmen, school committee, and library trustees hire a town manager, superintendent of schools, and library director respectively to execute their various duties. Public safety Police department The Town of Dracut has its own full-time police department, the Dracut Police Department, which employs 39 police officers who utilize 15 various types of police vehicles to perform their duties. As of January 2014, the Department has a K9 unit. The Department's headquarters is located at 110 Loon Hill Road in the Parker Village section of the town. The town of Dracut is also secondarily protected by the Massachusetts State Police and is periodically patrolled by troopers from the A-1 barracks in Andover. Fire department The Dracut Fire Department is a 24/7 career fire department of approximately 40 firefighters. It responds from three fire stations located throughout the town. Station 1 – Headquarters: 488 Pleasant Street Engine 1 Engine 4 Forestry 1 Ladder 1 Rescue 1 Service 1 Car 1 (Chief) Car 2 (Deputy Chief) Station 2: 15 Jones Avenue Engine 2 Forestry 2 Truck 4 State Hazmat ORU 62 Station 3: 539 Nashua Road Engine 3 Engine 5 Forestry 2 Education Public schools The Dracut School Department consists of six public schools: one high school, one middle school (grades 6–8), and four elementary schools (grades K-5). They are, with enrollment figures from the 2020-2021 school year: Dracut Senior High School (889 students) Richardson Middle School (920 students) Englesby Elementary School (544 students) Brookside Elementary School (444 students) Campbell Elementary School (579 students) Greenmont Elementary School (283 students) The school department also uses the former Parker Elementary School for a small portion of its special education activities. There are about 45 public school students attending out of district SPED programs and approximately 120 public school students attending out of town charter schools, as of FY14. In addition, about 440 Dracut students attend the Greater Lowell Technical High School. Transportation Dracut is in proximity to many major area highways. Interstate 93, Interstate 495, and U.S. Route 3 are among the largest. Interstate 95 is not far from Dracut either (roughly to the south), and the Massachusetts Turnpike (Interstate 90) is only to the south in Boston. Massachusetts Route 38, Route 110, and Route 113 run directly through the town. The LRTA 10 bus connects to the Lowell train station on the MBTA Commuter Rail Lowell Line. The Maritimes & Northeast Pipeline terminates in Dracut, connecting to the North American natural gas pipeline grid. The Portland Natural Gas Transmission System (PNGTS)), Tennessee Gas and the TransQuebec interconnect here. Notable residents Wendell Corey, actor Scott Grimes, actor Harry Lew, pro basketball player Lucy Lew, early African American rights leader John Ogonowski (1951–2001), airline pilot who was piloting American Airlines Flight 11 on 9/11 before it was hijacked James Mitchell Varnum, lawyer and general during the American Revolution Joseph Bradley Varnum, politician See also Beaver Brook (Merrimack River) Greater Boston Greater Lowell Merrimack Valley References Further reading 1871 Atlas of Massachusetts. by Wall & Gray. Map of Massachusetts. Map of Middlesex County. History of Middlesex County, Massachusetts, Volume 1 (A–H), Volume 2 (L–W) compiled by Samuel Adams Drake, published 1879–1880. 572 and 505 pages. Dracut article by Rev. Elias Nason in volume 1 pages 406–416. Dracut School Data from 2005 External links Town of Dracut official website Dracut Public Library (Moses Greeley Parker Memorial Library) Dracut Public Schools 1653 establishments in Massachusetts Massachusetts populated places on the Merrimack River Towns in Middlesex County, Massachusetts

117337

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westlake%20Village%2C%20California

Westlake Village, California

Westlake Village is a city in Los Angeles County on its western border with Ventura County. The City of Westlake Village incorporated in 1981 becoming the 82nd municipality of Los Angeles County. The population of the city was estimated to be at 8,217 in 2019, down from 8,270 at the 2010 census. The city is named after the master-planned community of Westlake that was later called Westlake Village to avoid confusion with the Los Angeles community. With a lake at the center, the community straddles the line between Los Angeles and Ventura counties. Roughly two-thirds of the community was previously annexed into the city of Thousand Oaks. History About 3,000 years ago, Chumash Indians moved into the region and lived by hunting rabbits and other game, and gathering grains and acorns. On-going excavations, archaeological sites, and polychrome rock paintings in the area provide a glimpse into the social and economic complexity of the ancient Chumash world. It is unknown when the first people settled in the area. A Chumash village was settled here in 500 BCE, known as Hipuc. The Chumash Indians gathered and prepared acorns and other seeds. These were collected in the fall. The Chumash also hunted wild animals, fish and gathered plants. Their diet consisted of acorns, gophers, cottontail rabbits, skunks, jack rabbits, rats, mice, and seeds. They made their clothing from the skins of animals such as rabbits, deer, and sea otters. Women wore long skirts woven from grass or soft bark, while men wore pieces of deerskin tied around their waists. Both men and women painted designs on their bodies and wore shell beads. On a return trip from Northern California in January 1770, a group of men led by Gaspar de Portola are believed to be the first Europeans to encounter the Chumash Indians in the Conejo Valley. Father Juan Crespi, chaplain and diarist of the expedition, wrote about El Triumfo, a Chumash village. He wrote that there was plenty of water and firewood in the village, and that the land was covered with pastures. He wrote: "We are on a plain of considerable extent and much beauty, forested on all parts by live oaks and oak trees, with much pasturage and water." Crespi named the place El triunfo del Dulcísimo Nombre de Jesús (in English: The Triumph of the Sweetest Name of Jesus) to a camping place by a creek. Other villages were found throughout the valley, including Satwiwa and two villages near Ventu Park Road in Newbury Park. These Chumash villages are believed by archeologists to have first been settled over 2,000 years ago. Another village was located by Lake Sherwood. In 1795, the area became part of one of the first Spanish land grants, Rancho Simi, given to the Pico family of California. When Mexico won independence from Spain in 1821, Alta California became Mexican territory, and the Rancho Simi grant was confirmed in 1842. At the time California was admitted to the union in 1850, most of the land that later became Ventura County was divided among only 19 families. Rising knolls, arroyos, barrancas and ancient oaks were found on two Mexican land grants: Rancho El Conejo and Rancho Las Virgenes. In 1881, the Russell brothers purchased a large portion of the land for cattle ranching. According to Patricia Allen, historian and family descendant, Andrew Russell beat the competition in buying the land by racing across 6,000 acres (24 km) on a fifteen-minute trip in a buckboard and sealed the deal with a $20 gold piece. The price per acre was $2.50. The area continued to be known as the Russell Ranch although it was sold in 1925 to William Randolph Hearst and again in 1943 to Fred Albertson. The Russell family leased back part of the land to continue its successful cattle ranch operation while the Albertson Company used the vast area as a movie ranch. Many movies and television shows were filmed in the Conejo Valley, including Robin Hood, King Rat, Laredo, and various episodes of Tarzan, Buck Rogers, Gunsmoke and Bonanza. The 1940 film Danger Ahead was filmed on Westlake Boulevard. In 1963, Daniel K. Ludwig's American-Hawaiian Steamship Company bought the 12,000 acre (49 km) ranch for $32 million and, in partnership with Prudential Insurance Company, commissioned the preparation of a master plan by architectural and planning firm A. C. Martin and Associates. This new "city in the country" planned to have a firm economic base including commercial areas, residential neighborhoods, and ample green space with the lake as a focal point. Prominent architects, engineers, and land planners participated in designing the new community, a prominent example of planned 1960s-style suburbanism. The original tract was divided by the Los Angeles/Ventura county line. In 1968 and 1972, two portions of the Westlake development consisting of on the Ventura County side were annexed into the city of Thousand Oaks. In 1981, the Los Angeles County portion ( or roughly 1/3) of the Westlake master-planned community was incorporated as the City of Westlake Village. California state law prevents a city from existing in two separate counties. Geography Much of Westlake Village is surrounded by open space, including hiking and horse trails, as well as the vast Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area. The town is in the northwestern Santa Monica Mountains area, and is 9 miles (14 km) inland from the Pacific Ocean. The lake lies within the watershed of Malibu Creek. Water from the lake must be released into the creek in compliance with an agreement between the California State Water Resources Control Board and the Westlake Lake Management Association, a private entity that oversees the operation of the lake. In addition to being a bedroom community for Los Angeles via the Ventura (101) Freeway, it is also home to many large commercial offices and the headquarters of the Dole Food Company, K-Swiss and J.D. Power and Associates. The western region office (Region 5) of Anheuser-Busch Inc. is also located in the community. The Ventura Freeway is one of three of Westlake's lifelines to Los Angeles and Ventura; the Pacific Coast Highway, and the Ronald Reagan (118) Freeway also run nearby. It is a short drive to the nearest mall in Thousand Oaks. Westlake Village has several golf courses and country clubs: the Westlake Golf Course, Sherwood Country Club, and North Ranch Country Club. Over one half of the original "Westlake" development lies west across the county line, wholly within the city limits of Thousand Oaks. This boundary which divides the Incorporated City of Westlake Village, and Thousand Oaks portion of Westlake Village, crosses over the Westlake Golf Course, halfway between Lakeview Canyon and Lindero Canyon roads, and half of the Lake itself. Lake Sherwood is nearby. The City of Westlake Village is located approximately West of downtown Los Angeles in the Conejo Valley. Other communities in the surrounding area include Thousand Oaks, Oak Park, Agoura Hills, Calabasas, Newbury Park, and Malibu. Climate Coastal breezes seep through canyons to allow Westlake to sometimes be up to 10 degrees cooler and considerably less hazy than nearby San Fernando Valley during the summer months. However, it generally remains 10 degrees hotter than the coastal plains below the Conejo Grade, in the communities of Santa Rosa Valley, Camarillo, and Ventura among others. Demographics 2010 The 2010 United States Census reported that the self-incorporated portion of Westlake Village, on the Los Angeles County side, had a population of 8,270. The population density was 1,502.4 people per square mile (580.1/km). The racial makeup of Westlake Village was 7,326 (88.6%) white (83.9% non-Hispanic white), 98 (1.2%) African American, 12 (0.1%) Native American, 490 (5.9%) Asian, 13 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 114 (1.4%) from other races, and 217 (2.6%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 533 persons (6.4%). The Census reported that 8,142 people (98.5% of the population) lived in households, 121 (1.5%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 7 (0.1%) were institutionalized. There were 3,262 households, out of which 971 (29.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 1,985 (60.9%) were married couples living together, 292 (9.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 119 (3.6%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 103 (3.2%) unmarried partnerships. 712 households (21.8%) were made up of individuals, and 376 (11.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50. There were 2,396 families (73.5% of all households); the average family size was 2.92. The population was spread out, with 1,737 people (21.0%) under the age of 18, 479 people (5.8%) aged 18 to 24, 1,380 people (16.7%) aged 25 to 44, 2,917 people (35.3%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,757 people (21.2%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.2 males. There were 3,384 housing units at an average density of 614.7 per square mile (237.4/km), of which 2,745 (84.2%) were owner-occupied, and 517 (15.8%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.4%. 6,906 people (83.5% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 1,236 people (14.9%) lived in rental housing units. According to the 2010 United States Census, Westlake Village had a median household income of $112,083, with 3.9% of the population living below the federal poverty line. 2000 As of the census of 2000, there were 8,469 people, 3,270 households, and 2,491 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,605.9 inhabitants per square mile (620.1/km). There were 3,347 housing units at an average density of 642.3 per square mile (248.0/km). The racial makeup of the city was 89.70% White, 6.08% Asian, 0.82% African American, 0.13% Native American, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 1.02% from other races, and 2.17% from two or more races, plus one of California's largest communities for Russian American and American Jewish ancestral groups. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.61% of the population. Many locals (the Conejo Valley and Simi Valley region in general) were of Italian, Portuguese and Spanish ethnic origins. The median income for a household in the city was $120,089, and the median income for a family was $148,885. The per-capita income for the city was $137,355 in 2007, while the median home price was (as of 2007) $1,163,800. There were 3,270 households, out of which 32.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.8% were married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.8% were non-families. 19.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 2.93. In the city, the age distribution of the population showed 23.8% under the age of 18, 3.9% from 18 to 24, 23.1% from 25 to 44, 31.9% from 45 to 64, and 17.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.7 males. About 2.5% of families and 2.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.6% of those under age 18 and 2.8% of those age 65 or over. Economy Dole Food Company is headquartered in Westlake Village. In 1994, Dole announced that it would finalize its plans to build its world headquarters on a site owned by the company, located north of the Ventura Freeway in Westlake Village. The decision had been delayed by groundwater contamination tests and reviewing of possible site plan revisions. Dole was expected to submit its plans for final approval by the Westlake Village City Council on February 9, 1994. K-Swiss, Guitar Center, PennyMac Loan Services and Ryland Homes also have their headquarters in Westlake Village. Top employers According to the city's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are: Government In the state legislature Westlake Village is located in California's 27th State Senate district, represented by Democrat Henry Stern, and in California's 44th State Assembly district, represented by Democrat Jacqui Irwin. Federally, Westlake Village is located in California's 26th congressional district, which has a Cook PVI of D +2 and is represented by Democrat Julia Brownley. As of May 2009, 1,943 (33%) of the 5,876 registered voters in Westlake Village are registered as Democrats, 2,583 (44%) as Republicans, and 1,101 (19%) declined to state a party affiliation. The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department operates the Malibu/Lost Hills Station in Calabasas, serving Westlake Village. Infrastructure The Las Virgenes Municipal Water District supplies potable, recycled and wastewater services to residents and businesses in Westlake Village. Education The community is in the Las Virgenes Unified School District (LVUSD). Residents are zoned to White Oak Elementary School in Westlake Village, Lindero Canyon Middle School in Agoura Hills, and Agoura High School in Agoura Hills. An off-campus center of California Lutheran University is located nearby in Thousand Oaks. In popular culture Westlake Village was home to Russell Ranch which was used to film Robin Hood (1922), Come On, Tarzan (1932), Buck Rogers (1939), King Rat (1965), Laredo (1965–67), Gunsmoke (1955–1975) and Bonanza (1959–1973). The Lash (1930) was also filmed at Russell Ranch, while Danger Ahead (1940) was shot on Westlake Boulevard. Baxter (GTE corporate headquarters at the time) was dubbed for a police station in the film Demolition Man (1993), while scenes from Gridiron Gang (2006) were shot at Westlake High School. Other movies filmed here include The Karate Kid (1984), American Pie (1999) and Bridesmaids (2011). Two episodes of Charlie's Angels (1976–1981) were filmed in Westlake Village: The Killing Kind (1976) and Angel in a Box (1979). Bonnie and Clyde (1967) features scenes from Skelton Canyon Road (Westlake Boulevard), while the TV series The FBI (1965–1974) was partly filmed at The Landing. Recreation Adjacent to Westlake Village is Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, which offers nature trails for hikers, backpackers, mountain bikers, equestrians, picnickers, and campers. Parks Parks include: Berniece Bennett Canyon Oaks Foxfield Russell Ranch Three Springs Triunfo Creek Park Westlake Village Community Park Westlake Village Dog Park Notable people David Anderson, wide receiver in the National Football League James Caviezel, actor Jimmy Clausen, Notre Dame and NFL quarterback Lenny Dykstra, baseball center fielder Wayne Gretzky, hockey Hall of Famer Audley Harrison, 2000 Olympic heavyweight boxing champion from Great Britain Mariel Hemingway, actress Hulk Hogan, pro wrestler and actor Cobi Jones, former Los Angeles Galaxy soccer player Kathryn Joosten, actress Scarlett Keegan Hayley Kiyoko Martin Lawrence, comedian and actor Mike Lieberthal, All Star and Gold Glove baseball catcher Jonathan Lipnicki, actor Heather Locklear, actress Maureen McCormick, actress, played Marcia Brady in the TV series The Brady Bunch Joe Montana, Hall of Fame quarterback Eddie Money, musician Alexis Neiers, television personality. John Ratzenberger, actor, best known as postal worker Cliff Clavin from '80s sitcom Cheers Kim Richards, child actress and television personality on Real Housewives of Beverly Hills Mickey Rooney, actor Bas Rutten, mixed martial arts fighter and actor Mike Scioscia, Major League Baseball player and manager George C. Scott, actor Vin Scully, voice of the Los Angeles Dodgers Mike Seidman, NFL football player Will Smith, musician and actor Robert Stock (born 1989), MLB baseball player Tommy Thayer, KISS lead guitarist Guillermo del Toro, film director Jered Weaver, former pitcher for the Angels Peter Weber, television personality Gary Wichard, college football player and professional sports agent Eric Wynalda, soccer player Christian Yelich, baseball player Robert Young, actor References External links WLVUnited — Opinion and information on New Developments in Westlake Village. Site includes Maps and Environmental Impact analysis. Cities in Los Angeles County, California Neighborhoods in Thousand Oaks, California Conejo Valley Planned cities in the United States Planned communities in California Populated places in the Santa Monica Mountains Simi Hills Incorporated cities and towns in California Populated places established in 1981 1981 establishments in California

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayonne%2C%20New%20Jersey

Bayonne, New Jersey

Bayonne (pronounced "bay-OWN") is a city in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. Located in the Gateway Region, Bayonne is situated on a peninsula located between Newark Bay to the west, the Kill Van Kull to the south, and New York Bay to the east. As of the 2020 United States Census, the city's population was 71,686. Bayonne was originally formed as a township on April 1, 1861, from portions of Bergen Township. Bayonne was reincorporated as a city by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on March 10, 1869, replacing Bayonne Township, subject to the results of a referendum held nine days later. At the time it was formed, Bayonne included the communities of Bergen Point, Constable Hook, Centreville, Pamrapo and Saltersville. While somewhat diminished, traditional manufacturing, distribution, and maritime activities remain a driving force of the economy of the city. A portion of the Port of New York and New Jersey is located there, as is the Cape Liberty Cruise Port. History Originally inhabited by Native Americans, the region presently known as Bayonne was claimed by the Netherlands after Henry Hudson explored the Hudson River which is named after him. According to Royden Page Whitcomb's 1904 book, First History of Bayonne, New Jersey, the name Bayonne is speculated to have originated with Bayonne, France, from which Huguenots settled for a year before the founding of New Amsterdam. However, there is no empirical evidence for this notion, which is considered apocryphal. Whitcomb gives more credence to the idea that Erastus Randall, E.C. Bramhall and B.F. Woolsey, who bought the land owned by Jasper and William Cadmus for real estate speculation, named it Bayonne for purposes of real estate speculation, because it was located on the shores of two bays, Newark and New York. Bayonne became one of the largest centers in the nation for refining crude oil and Standard Oil of New Jersey's facility – which had grown from its original establishment in 1877 – and its 6,000 employees made it the city's largest place of employment. Significant civil unrest arose during the Bayonne refinery strikes of 1915–1916, in which mostly Polish American workers staged labor actions against Standard Oil of New Jersey and Tidewater Petroleum, seeking improved pay and working conditions. Four striking workers were killed when strikebreakers protected by police fired into a crowd. The Cape Liberty Cruise Port is a cruise ship terminal that is on a site that had been originally developed for industrial uses in the 1930s and then taken over by the U.S. government during World War II as the Military Ocean Terminal at Bayonne. Voyager of the Seas, departing from the cruise terminal in 2004, became the first passenger ship to depart from a port in New Jersey in almost 40 years. Geography and climate Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had a total area of 11.09 square miles (28.72 km2), including 5.82 square miles (15.08 km2) of land and 5.27 square miles (13.64 km2) of water (47.50%). The city is located on a peninsula earlier known as Bergen Neck surrounded by Upper New York Bay to the east, Newark Bay to the west, and Kill Van Kull to the south. Bayonne is east of Newark, the state's largest city, north of Elizabeth in Union County and west of Brooklyn. It shares a land border with Jersey City to the north and is connected to Staten Island by the Bayonne Bridge. Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the city include: Bergen Point, Constable Hook and Port Johnson. Climate Bayonne has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) bordering a hot-summer humid continental climate (Dfa). The average monthly temperature varies from 32.3 °F in January to 77.0 °F in July. The hardiness zone is 7b and the average absolute minimum temperature is 5.2 °F. Demographics The city has a very ethnically diverse population, home to large populations of Italian Americans, Irish Americans, Polish Americans, Indian Americans, Egyptian Americans, Dominican Americans, Mexican Americans, Salvadoran Americans, Pakistani Americans, Boricua, amongst others. 2010 Census The U.S. Census Bureau's 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $53,587 (with a margin of error of +/- $2,278) and the median family income was $66,077 (+/- $5,235). Males had a median income of $51,188 (+/- $1,888) versus $42,097 (+/- $1,820) for females. The per capita income for the city was $28,698 (+/- $1,102). About 9.9% of families and 12.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.5% of those under age 18 and 8.4% of those age 65 or over. 2000 Census As of the 2000 United States Census there were 61,842 people, 25,545 households, and 16,016 families residing in the city. The population density was 10,992.2 people per square mile (4,241.1/km2). There were 26,826 housing units at an average density of 4,768.2 per square mile (1,839.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 78.8% White, 5.50% African American, 0.2% Native American, 4.1% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 7.46% from other races, and 4.02% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 17.81% of the population. As of the 2000 Census, the most common reported ancestries of Bayonne residents were Italian (20.1%), Irish (18.8%) and Polish (17.9%). There were 25,545 households, out of which 28.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.8% were married couples living together, 15.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.3% were non-families. 32.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 3.10. In the city the population was spread out, with 22.1% under the age of 18, 8.2% from 18 to 24, 30.7% from 25 to 44, 22.5% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.3 males. The median income for a household in the city was $41,566, and the median income for a family was $52,413. Males had a median income of $39,790 versus $33,747 for females. The per capita income for the city was $21,553. About 8.4% of families and 10.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.9% of those under age 18 and 11.0% of those age 65 or over. Economy Portions of the city are part of an Urban Enterprise Zone (UEZ), one of 32 zones covering 37 municipalities statewide. Bayonne was selected in 2002 as one of a group of three zones added to participate in the program. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment and investment within the Zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half of the % rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants. Established in September 2002, the city's Urban Enterprise Zone status expires in December 2023. More than 200 businesses have registered to participate in the city's UEZ since it was first established. The Bayonne Town Center, located within the Broadway shopping district, includes retailers, eateries, consumer and small business banking centers. The Bayonne Medical Center is a for-profit hospital that anchors the northern end of the Town Center. It is the city's largest employer, with over 1,200 employees. A 2013 study showed that the hospital charged the highest rates in the United States. Bayonne Crossing on Route 440 in Bayonne, includes a Lowe's, New York Sports Club, and Wal-Mart. On the site of the former Military Ocean Terminal, the Peninsula at Bayonne Harbor includes new housing and businesses. One of them, Cape Liberty Cruise Port is located at the end of the long peninsula with Royal Caribbean. Also found is a memorial park for the Tear of Grief, a , monument commemorating the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks and the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. The firearms manufacturing company Henry Repeating Arms moved from Brooklyn to Bayonne in 2009. Parks and recreation Hackensack RiverWalk begins at Bergen Point where the Kill Van Kull meets the Newark Bay and connect to the Hudson River Waterfront Walkway. A plaque unveiled on May 2, 2006, for the new Richard A. Rutkowski Park, a wetlands preserve on the northwestern end of town that is part of the RiverWalk. Also known as the Waterfront Park and Environmental Walkway, it is located immediately north of the Stephen R. Gregg Hudson County Park. Hudson River Waterfront Walkway is part of a walkway that is intended to run the more than from the Bayonne Bridge to the George Washington Bridge. In August 2014, the Bayonne Hometown Fair, a popular tourist and community attraction that ceased in 2000, was revived by a local business owner and resident. The first revived Bayonne Hometown Fair took place from June 6–7, 2015. Government Local government The City of Bayonne has been governed within the Faulkner Act, formally known as the Optional Municipal Charter Law, under the Mayor-Council system of municipal government (Plan C), implemented based on the recommendations of a Charter Study Commission as of July 1, 1962, before which it was governed by a Board of Commissioners under the Walsh Act. The city is one of 71 municipalities (of the 565) statewide that use this form of government. The governing body is comprised of the Mayor and the five-member City Council, of which two seats are chosen at-large and three from wards, all of whom serve four-year terms of office on a concurrent basis and are chosen in balloting held as part of the May municipal election. , the Mayor of Bayonne is James M. "Jimmy" Davis, whose term of office ends June 30, 2022; Davis was first elected as mayor in a runoff election on June 10, 2014, against incumbent Mayor Mark Smith. Members of the Bayonne City Council are Council President Sharon Ashe-Nadrowski (At-Large), Neil Carroll III (1st Ward; appointed to serve an unexpired term), Salvatore Gullace (2nd Ward), Gary La Pelusa Sr. (3rd Ward) and Juan M. Perez (At-Large), all of whom are serving concurrent terms of office that end on June 30, 2022. In November 2018, the City Council appointed Neil Carroll III to fill the 1st Ward seat vacated by Tommy Cotter, who resigned to take a position as the city's DPW director; at age 27, Carroll became the youngest councilmember in city history. In the November 2019 general election, Carroll was elected to serve the balance of the term of office. Federal, state and county representation Bayonne is split between the 8th and 10th Congressional Districts and is part of New Jersey's 31st state legislative district. Prior to the 2010 Census, Bayonne had been split between the 10th Congressional District and the , a change made by the New Jersey Redistricting Commission that took effect in January 2013, based on the results of the November 2012 general elections. The split placed 33,218 residents living in the city's south and west in the 8th District, while 29,806 residents in the northeastern portion of the city were placed in the 10th District. Hudson County is governed by a directly elected County Executive and by a Board of Chosen Freeholders, which serves as the county's legislative body. Hudson County's Freeholder District 1 includes all of Bayonne and a part of Jersey City. , the district is represented by Kenneth Kopacz The County Executive is Thomas A. DeGise, whose term of office ends December 31, 2019. Politics As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 32,747 registered voters in Bayonne, of which 17,087 (52.2%) were registered as Democrats, 2,709 (8.3%) were registered as Republicans and 12,928 (39.5%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 23 voters registered to other parties. In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 66.4% of the vote (13,467 cast), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 32.6% (6,605 votes), and other candidates with 1.0% (197 votes), among the 20,454 ballots cast by the city's 34,424 registered voters (185 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 59.4%. In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 57.0% of the vote here (13,768 cast), ahead of Republican John McCain with 40.6% (9,796 votes) and other candidates with 1.2% (283 votes), among the 24,139 ballots cast by the town's 35,823 registered voters, for a turnout of 67.4%. In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 56.0% of the vote here (12,402 ballots cast), outpolling Republican George W. Bush with 42.2% (9,341 votes) and other candidates with 0.6% (184 votes), among the 22,135 ballots cast by the town's 32,129 registered voters, for a turnout percentage of 68.9. In the 2013, gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 49.3% of the vote (5,322 cast), ahead of Democrat Barbara Buono with 49.1% (5,297 votes), and other candidates with 1.6% (169 votes), among the 10,987 ballots cast by the city's 34,957 registered voters (199 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 31.4%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Democrat Jon Corzine received 53.8% of the vote here (7,421 ballots cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 38.7% (5,333 votes), Independent Chris Daggett with 4.8% (662 votes) and other candidates with 1.3% (183 votes), among the 13,781 ballots cast by the town's 32,588 registered voters, yielding a 42.3% turnout. Local services Municipal Utilities Authority The Bayonne Municipal Utilities Authority (BMUA) is the second agency to use wind power in New Jersey and has built the first wind turbine in the metropolitan area. Construction of a single turbine tower was completed in January 2012. It is the first wind turbine created by Leitwind to be installed in the United States. In December 2012, the autonomous agency entered into a water management agreement with the Bayonne Water Joint Venture (BWJV), a partnership between United Water and investment firm Kohlberg, Kravis, Roberts. The 40-year concession agreement is a public-private partnership between the city and the BWJV in which the private partners pay off the BMUA's $130 million debt and take over the operations, maintenance, and capital improvement of Bayonne's water and wastewater utilities in exchange for a regulated share of the revenue. United Water is managing the operations for the partnership, while KKR is providing 90% of the funding. A rate schedule was included in the agreement, and it contained an immediate 8.5% utility rate increase (the first rate increase since 2006), followed by two years without increases, followed by annual increases estimated to range between 2.5% - 4.5%. This partnership was sought for several reasons, including the BMUA's debt, its shortage of skilled employees, and its lagging rate revenue from years without rate increases and reduced demand. Part of this reduced demand stemmed from the closure of the Military Ocean Terminal at Bayonne, and the fact that the subsequent plans to redevelop the site with housing fell short. The BMUA's $130 million debt that was paid off by the BWJV represented over half of Bayonne's overall debt ($240 million) at the time, and in March 2013, Moody's Investors Service upgraded the credit rating of Bayonne from 'negative' to 'stable', citing the water deal. Fire department The city of Bayonne is protected on a full-time, around-the-clock basis by the 161 professional firefighters of the city of Bayonne Fire Department (BFD), which was founded on September 3, 1906, and operates out of five fire stations located throughout the city. The Bayonne Fire Dept operates a fleet of five engines, one squad (rescue-pumper), three ladder trucks, a heavy rescue truck (which is also part of the Metro USAR Collapse Rescue Strike Team), a large 4,000 gallon foam tanker truck, a haz-mat truck, a multi-service unit, a fireboat, as well as spare apparatus. Each tour is commanded by a battalion chief. The department is part of the Metro USAR Strike Team, which consists of nine North Jersey fire departments and other emergency services divisions working to address major emergency rescue situations. Education Public schools The Bayonne Board of Education serves students from pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade. As of the 2017-18 school year, the district, comprised of 13 schools, had an enrollment of 9,907 students and 689.2 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 14.4:1. Schools in the district (with 2017-18 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are Henry E. Harris Community School No. 1 (683 students; in grades PreK-8), Phillip G. Vroom Community School No. 2 (489; PreK-8), Dr. Walter F. Robinson Community School No. 3 (777; PreK-8), Mary J. Donohoe Community School No. 4 (471; PreK-8), Lincoln Community School No. 5 (465; PreK-8), Horace Mann Community School No. 6 (573; PreK-8), William Shemin Midtown Community School No. 8 (1,179; PreK-8), Washington Community School No. 9 (684; PreK-8), Woodrow Wilson Community School No. 10 (700; PreK-8), John M. Bailey Community School No. 12 (664; PreK-8), Nicholas Oresko Community School No. 14 (462; PreK-8) an advanced school for gifted and talented students in academics, the arts, and physical education; and Bayonne High School (2,668; 9-12). Bayonne High School is the only public school in the state to have an on-campus ice rink for its hockey team. During the 1998-99 school year, Midtown Community School No. 8 was recognized with the National Blue Ribbon School Award of Excellence by the United States Department of Education. During the 2008–09 school year, P.S. #14 was recognized as a Blue Ribbon School award, and Washington Community School No. 9 was honored during the 2009–10 school year. For the 2004–05 school year, Mary J. Donohoe No. 4 School was named a "Star School" by the New Jersey Department of Education, the highest honor that a New Jersey school can achieve. It is the fourth school in Bayonne to receive this honor. The other three are Bayonne High School in 1995–96, Midtown Community School in 1996–97 and P.S. #14 in the 1998–99 school year. Private schools Private schools in Bayonne include All Saints Catholic Academy for grades PreK-8 and the co-ed Marist High School for grades 9-12, All Saints operates under the supervision of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark, while Marist High School operates under the Marist Brothers. All Saints was one of eight private schools recognized in 2017 as an Exemplary High Performing School by the National Blue Ribbon Schools Program of the United States Department of Education. Marist High School has been ranked in the top 50 private schools in New Jersey. It is one of a few high schools across the nation that provides an associate degree program. The Yeshiva Gedolah of Bayonne is a yeshiva high school / Bais Medrash / Kolel with 130 students. Holy Family Academy for girls in ninth through twelfth grades was closed at the end of the 2012-13 school year in the wake of financial difficulties and declining enrollment, having lost the support of the Sisters of St. Joseph of Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia in 2008. Libraries and museums The Bayonne Public Library, one of New Jersey's original 36 Carnegie libraries, the Bayonne Community Museum, the Bayonne Firefighters Museum, and the Joyce-Herbert VFW Post 226 Veterans Museum provide educational events and programs. Media and culture Bayonne is located within the New York media market, with most of its daily papers available for sale or delivery. Local, county, and regional news is covered by the daily Jersey Journal. The Bayonne Community News is part of The Hudson Reporter group of local weeklies. Other weeklies, the River View Observer and El Especialito also cover local news. Bayonne-based periodicals include the Bayonne Evening Star-Telegram (B.E.S.T.). Bayonne's local culture is served by the Annual Outdoor Art Show, which was instituted in 2008, in which local artists display their works. Jackie Gleason, a former headliner at the Hi-Hat Club in Bayonne, was fascinated by the city and mentioned it often in the television series The Honeymooners. Films set in Bayonne include the 1991 film Mortal Thoughts, with Demi Moore and Bruce Willis, which was filmed near Horace Mann School and locations around Bayonne and Hoboken; the 2000 drama Men of Honor, starring Robert De Niro and Cuba Gooding Jr.; the 2002 drama Hysterical Blindness; and the 2005 Tom Cruise science fiction film War of the Worlds, which opens at the Bayonne home of the lead character, and depicts the destruction of the Bayonne Bridge by aliens. Films shot in Bayonne include the 2001 film A Beautiful Mind, scenes of which were filmed at the Peninsula at Bayonne Harbor, and the 2008 Mickey Rourke drama The Wrestler, which was partially filmed in the Color & Cuts Salon and the former Dolphin Gym, both of which are on Broadway in Bayonne. The November 16, 2010, episode of The Daily Show with Jon Stewart parodied former Alaska Governor Sarah Palin's reality television series, Sarah Palin's Alaska, in the form of a trailer for a fictional reality show called Jason Jones' Bayonne, New Jersey, whose portrayal of the city was characterized by prostitution, drugs, crime, pollution and a stereotypical Italian-American population. Bayonne Mayor Mark Smith criticized the sketch, saying, "Jon Stewart's unfortunate and inaccurate depiction of Bayonne represents a lame attempt at humor at the expense of a rock solid, all-American community." The comic strip Piranha Club (originally "Ernie"), drawn by Bud Grace, is set in and around Bayonne. The ABC sci-fi comedy television series The Neighbors is about a family that moves from Bayonne into a fictional gated community, Hidden Hills, that is populated by aliens from another planet posing as humans. The Best Show with Tom Scharpling records near Bayonne, and the city is frequently mentioned due to Associate Producer Mike Lisk (a.k.a. AP Mike) being a Bayonne native, who tends bar at Massa's Tavern, a local bar. Religion The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark operates Catholic churches. Two in Bayonne, Blessed Miriam Teresa Demjanovich Church and St. John Paul II Church, were formed from consolidations, in 2016, because the number of people attending Catholic churches declined. Demjanovich church is a merger of St. Andrew and St. Mary Star of the Sea churches, with the merged congregation keeping the two sites for worship. Reverend Alexander Santora in the Jersey Journal wrote that due to the efforts of the pastor, the Demjanovich merger "went off, however, without a hitch." Three other churches, Our Lady of the Assumption, Our Lady of Mt. Carmel, and St. Michael/St. Joseph, merged into John Paul II in 2016. There were unsuccessful protests to keep Assumption open, and the archdiocese committed to closing that church. Transportation Roads and highways , the city had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the city, are overseen by Hudson County, by the New Jersey Department of Transportation and are the responsibility of the New Jersey Turnpike Authority. The Bayonne Bridge stretches , connecting south to Staten Island over the Kill Van Kull. Originally constructed in 1931, the bridge underwent a Navigation Clearance Project that was completed in 2017 at a cost of $1.7 billion, that raised the bridge deck from above the water to , allowing larger and more heavily laden ships to clear their way under the bridge. Kennedy Boulevard is a major thoroughfare along the west side of the city from the bridge north to Jersey City and North Hudson. The Newark Bay Extension (Interstate 78) of the New Jersey Turnpike eastbound travels to Jersey City and, via the Holland Tunnel, Manhattan. Westbound, the Newark Bay Bridge provides access to Newark, Newark Liberty International Airport and the rest of the turnpike (Interstate 95). Route 440 runs along the east side of Bayonne, and the West Side of Jersey City, partially following the path of the old Morris Canal route. Although it has traffic lights it is usually the quickest route north–south within Bayonne. It connects to the Bayonne Bridge, I-78, and to Route 185 to Liberty State Park. Public transportation The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail has four stops in Bayonne, all originally from the former Central Railroad of New Jersey (CNJ). They are located at 45th Street, 34th Street, 22nd Street, all just east of Avenue E, and 8th Street (the southern terminal of the 8th Street-Hoboken Line) at Avenue C, which opened in January 2011. Bus transportation is provided on three main north–south streets of the city: Broadway, Kennedy Boulevard, and Avenue C, both by the state-operated NJ Transit and several private bus lines. The Broadway line runs solely inside Bayonne city limits, while bus lines on Avenue C and Kennedy Boulevard run to various end points in Jersey City. The NJ Transit 120 runs between Avenue C in Bayonne and Battery Park in Downtown Manhattan during rush hours in peak direction while the 81 provides service to Jersey City. MTA Regional Bus Operations provides bus service between Bayonne and Staten Island on the S89 route, which connects the 34th Street light rail station and the Eltingville neighborhood on Staten Island with no other stops in Bayonne. It is the first interstate bus service operated by the New York City Transit Authority. For 114 years, the CNJ ran frequent service through the city. Trains ran north to the Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal in Jersey City. Trains ran west to Elizabethport, Elizabeth and Cranford for points west and south. The implementation of the Aldene Connection in 1967 bypassed CNJ trains around Bayonne so that nearly all trains would either terminate at Newark Pennsylvania Station or at Hoboken Terminal. By 1973, a lightly used shuttle between Bayonne and Cranford that operated 20 times per day was the final remnant of service on the line. Until August 6, 1978, a shuttle service between Bayonne and Cranford retained the last leg of service with the CNJ trains. Points of interest The Bayonne Bridge is the fifth-longest steel arch bridge in the world. For the more than 45 years from its dedication in 1931 until the completion of the New River Gorge Bridge, the Bayonne Bridge was the world's longest such bridge. Bergen Point Constable Hook is the site of two burials grounds known as the Constable Hook Cemetery, numerous tank farms and the Bayonne Golf Club, situated at the city's highest point Shooters Island, closed to the general public, is a island—of which are in Bayonne—that is operated as a bird sanctuary by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. To the Struggle Against World Terrorism is a high sculpture by Zurab Tsereteli located at the end of the former Military Ocean Terminal that was given to the United States as an official gift of the Russian government as a memorial to the victims of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks and the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. Russian President Vladimir Putin attended a groundbreaking ceremony in September 2005 and the monument was dedicated on September 11, 2006, in a ceremony attended by former President Bill Clinton as the keynote speaker. National Registered Historic Places and museums See List of Registered Historic Places in Hudson County, New Jersey Bayonne Truck House No. 1, home to Bayonne Firefighters Museum Bayonne Trust Company, home to Bayonne Community Museum First Reformed Dutch Church of Bergen Neck, constructed in 1866. Robbins Reef Light - Built to serve ships heading into New York Harbor, the current structure at the site dates to 1883, replacing an earlier lighthouse constructed in 1839. St. Vincent de Paul R.C. Church, constructed 1927-1930. Hale-Whitney Mansion Notable people People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Bayonne include ((B) denotes that the person was born in the city): Marc Acito (born 1966), playwright, novelist and humorist.(B) Walker Lee Ashley (born 1960), linebacker who played seven seasons in the NFL, for the Minnesota Vikings and Kansas City Chiefs.(B) Herbert R. Axelrod (1927-2017), tropical fish expert who was sentenced to prison in a tax fraud case.(B) Louis Ayres (1874-1947), architect best known for designing the United States Memorial Chapel at the Meuse-Argonne American Cemetery and Memorial and the Herbert C. Hoover U.S. Department of Commerce Building.(B) Alexander Barkan (1909-1990), head of the AFL-CIO's Committee on Political Education from 1963 until 1982, and an original member of Nixon's Enemies List.(B) Allan Benny (1867-1942), Bayonne council member who later represented from 1903 to 1905. Ben Bernie (1891-1943), bandleader, author, violinist, composer and conductor who wrote Sweet Georgia Brown.(B) Tammy Blanchard (born 1976), actress who won an Emmy Award for her portrayal of Judy Garland in Life with Judy Garland: Me and My Shadows. Marcy Borders (1973-2015), bank clerk who was known as "the dust lady" for an iconic photo taken of her after she survived the collapse of the World Trade Center. Joe Borowski (born 1971), professional baseball player for the Cleveland Indians. Kenny Britt (born 1988), wide receiver for the New England Patriots.(B) Dick Brodowski (born 1932), Major League Baseball pitcher, who came up with the Boston Red Sox as a 19-year-old. Clem Burke (born 1955), drummer who was an original member of the band Blondie.(B) Walter Chandoha (1920–2019), animal photographer, known especially for his 90,000 photographs of cats.(B) Leon Charney (1938-2016), real estate tycoon, author, philanthropist, political pundit and media personality.(B) Cy Chermak (1929-2021), producer and screenwriter, notable for producing the crime drama television series CHiPs and Ironside.(B) Anthony Chiappone (born 1957), indicted politician who served in the New Jersey General Assembly, where he represented the 31st Legislative District from 2004 to 2005 and again from 2007 until his resignation in 2010. Robert Coello (born 1984), MLB pitcher who has played for the Boston Red Sox, Toronto Blue Jays and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. Robert B. Cohen (1925-2012), founder of the Hudson News chain of newsstands that began in 1987 with a single location at LaGuardia Airport.(B) Dennis P. Collins (1924-2009), former Mayor of Bayonne who served four terms in office, from 1974 to 1990. George Cummings (born 1938), guitarist for the 1970s iconic pop band, Dr. Hook & The Medicine Show. Bert Daly (1881–1952), physician and MLB infielder for the Philadelphia Athletics who served five terms as mayor of Bayonne.(B) Tom De Haven (born 1949), author, editor and journalist.(B) Sandra Dee (1942-2005), actress best known for her role as Gidget.(B) Teresa Demjanovich (1901-1927), Ruthenian Catholic Sister of Charity, who has been beatified by the Catholic Church.(B) Martin Dempsey (born 1952), retired United States Army general who served as the 18th chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff from October 1, 2011 until September 25, 2015. Rich Dimler (born 1956), former nose tackle for the Cleveland Browns and Green Bay Packers.(B) James P. Dugan (born 1929), former member of the New Jersey Senate who served as chairman of the New Jersey Democratic State Committee.(B) Michael Embrich (born 1981) writer, historian, military researcher, federal policy maker. Michael Farber (born 1951), author and sports journalist, who was a writer with Sports Illustrated from 1994 to 2014. Barney Frank (born 1940), member of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts from 1981 until 2013.(B) Rich Glover (born 1950) former professional football player, who played defensive tackle in the NFL for the New York Giants and Philadelphia Eagles.(B) Rick Gomez (born 1972), actor who portrayed Sgt. George Luz, in the HBO television miniseries Band of Brothers. Arielle Holmes (born 1993), actress and writer best known for starring as a lightly fictionalized version of herself in the film Heaven Knows What. Danan Hughes (born 1970), former football wide receiver who played in the NFL for the Kansas City Chiefs.(B) Nathan L. Jacobs (1905-1989), Justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court in 1948 and from 1952 to 1975. Herman Kahn (1922-1983), military strategist. Brian Keith (1921-1997), film and TV actor who appeared in The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming and as Uncle Bill in Family Affair.(B) Frank Langella (born 1940), actor who has appeared in over 70 productions including Dave and Good Night, and Good Luck..(B) Bob Latour (1925-2010), swimming coach who organized and served as the first coach of the men's swimming team at Bucknell University from 1956 to 1968.(B) Joseph A. LeFante (1928-1977), politician who represented New Jersey's 14th congressional district from 1977 to 1978.(B) Jammal Lord (born 1981), former safety for the Houston Texans. Donald MacAdie (1899-1963), Suffragan Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Newark from 1958 to 1963. George R. R. Martin (born 1948), author and screenwriter of science fiction, horror, and fantasy.(B) Benjamin Melniker (1913–2018), film producer who was an executive producer with Michael E. Uslan on the Batman film series.(B) Miriam Moskowitz (1916-2018), schoolteacher who served two years in prison after being convicted for conspiracy as an atomic spy for the Soviet Union. Devora Nadworney (1895-1948), contralto singer who, in 1928, became the first singer heard over a radio network in the United States. Samuel Irving Newhouse Sr. (1895-1979), publishing and broadcasting executive who founded Advance Publications. Jim Norton (born 1968), standup comedian known for The Opie & Anthony Show, the Jim Norton & Sam Roberts show and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Denise O'Connor (born 1935), fencer who competed for the United States in the women's team foil events at the 1964 and 1976 Summer Olympics.(B) Jason O'Donnell (born 1971), member of the New Jersey General Assembly who represented the 31st Legislative District from 2010 to 2016. Gene Olaff (1920-2017), early professional soccer goalie.(B) Peter George Olenchuk (1922–2000), United States Army Major General. Shaquille O'Neal (born 1972), all-star basketball player for various NBA teams. Nicholas Oresko (1917-2013), United States Army Master Sergeant and recipient of the Medal of Honor.(B) Ronald Roberts (born 1991), professional basketball player who played for Hapoel Jerusalem of the Israeli Premier League. Steven V. Roberts (born 1943), journalist, writer and political commentator. William Sampson, politician who has represented the 31st Legislative District in the New Jersey General Assembly since 2022.(B) Dick Savitt (born 1927), tennis player who reached a ranking of second in the world.(B) William Shemin (1896–1973), U.S. Army sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient and namesake of the William Shemin Midtown Community School.(B) William N. Stape (born 1968), screenwriter and magazine writer who wrote episodes of Star Trek: The Next Generation and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. Corey Stokes (born 1988), college basketball player for Villanova University.(B) Robert Tepper (born 1953), singer/songwriter best known for the song "No Easy Way Out" from the Rocky IV motion picture soundtrack.(B) Joseph W. Tumulty (1914-1996), attorney and politician who represented the 32nd Legislative District for a single four-year term in the New Jersey Senate. James Urbaniak (born 1963), film and TV actor best known for his role as the voice of Dr. Thaddeus Venture in The Venture Bros..(B) Michael E. Uslan (born 1951), originator and executive producer of the Batman/Dark Knight/Joker movie franchise. Chuck Wepner (born 1939), hard-luck boxer who was known as "The Bayonne Bleeder". George Wiley (1931–1973), chemist and civil rights leader.(B) Zakk Wylde (born 1967), hard rock and heavy metal guitarist.(B) References External links Bayonne, New Jersey, at City-Data Bayonne Community Profile and Resource Links, NJ HomeTownLocator U.S. Census Bureau - State & County QuickFacts for Bayonne U.S. Census Bureau - Community Facts for Bayonne (enter city and state name) 1869 establishments in New Jersey Cities in Hudson County, New Jersey Faulkner Act (mayor–council) New Jersey Urban Enterprise Zones Populated places established in 1869 Port cities and towns in New Jersey

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakewood%20Township%2C%20New%20Jersey

Lakewood Township, New Jersey

Lakewood Township is the most populous township in Ocean County, New Jersey, United States. A rapidly growing bedroom community of New York City, as of the 2020 United States Census, the township had a total population of 135,158 representing an increase of 41,415 (+45.5%) from the 92,843 counted in the 2010 Census. The township ranked as the fifth-most-populous municipality in the state in 2020, after having been ranked 7th in 2010 and 22nd in 2000. The sharp increase in population from 2000 to 2010 was led by increases in the township's Orthodox Jewish and Latino communities. Lakewood is a hub of Orthodox Judaism, and is home to the largest yeshiva outside of Israel, the 6,500-student Beth Medrash Govoha, which was founded by Rabbi Aharon Kotler. The large Orthodox population, which comprises more than half the township's population, strongly influences the township’s culture and wields considerable political clout in the township as a voting bloc. History The earliest documented European settlement of the present Lakewood area was by operators of sawmills, from about 1750 forward. One such sawmill – located at the east end of the present Lake Carasaljo – was known as Three Partners Mill from at least 1789 until at least 1814. From 1815 until 1818, in the same area, Jesse Richards had an iron-smelting operation known as Washington Furnace, using the local bog iron ore. The ironworks were revived in 1833 by Joseph W. Brick, who named the business Bergen Iron Works, which also became the name of the accompanying town. In 1865, the town was renamed Bricksburg in 1865, and in 1880, it was renamed Lakewood and became a fashionable winter resort. Lakewood's developers thought that "Bricksburg" didn't capture their vision for the community, and the names "Brightwood" and "Lakewood" were proposed. After reaching out to area residents, "Lakewood" was chosen, and the United States Postal Service approved the name in March 1880. The name "Lakewood" was intended to focus on the location near lakes and pine forests. Lakewood was incorporated as a township by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on March 23, 1892, from portions of Brick Township. Portions of Howell Township in Monmouth County were annexed to Lakewood Township in 1929. Lakewood's three greatest hotels were the Laurel House (opened in 1880; closed in 1932), the Lakewood Hotel (opened January 1891, closed in 1925), and the Laurel-in-the-Pines (opened December 1891, burned down in 1967). Lakewood's promoters claimed that its winter temperature was usually about ten degrees warmer than that of New York City and were warmer than points located further south, but this claim is not substantiated by official records of the United States Weather Bureau. During the 1890s, Lakewood was a resort for the rich and famous, and The New York Times devoted a weekly column to the activities of Lakewood society. Grover Cleveland spent the winters of 1891-92 and 1892-93 in a cottage near the Lakewood Hotel, commuting to his business in New York City. Mark Twain also enjoyed vacationing in Lakewood. George Jay Gould I acquired an estate at Lakewood in 1896, which is now Georgian Court University. John D. Rockefeller bought a property in 1902 which later became Ocean County Park. Lakewood's hotel business remained strong in the 1920s and 1950s, but went into severe decline in the 1960s. In the 1960s, much of the woods and cranberry bogs in the township were replaced by large housing developments. Leisure Village, a condominium retirement development on the south side of Route 70, opened for sale in 1963. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the township had a total area of 25.08 square miles (64.95 km2), including 24.68 square miles (63.92 km2) of land and 0.40 square miles (1.03 km2) of water (1.59%). Lying on the coastal plain, Lakewood is a fairly flat place: three-quarters of it is above sea level, and its highest point is about . The North Branch of the Metedeconk River forms the northern boundary and part of the eastern boundary of the township, while the South Branch runs through the township. A southern portion of the township is drained by the north branch of Kettle Creek. As implied in its name, Lakewood township has four lakes, all of them man-made; three of them - Lake Carasaljo, Manetta, and Shenandoah - are on the South Branch of the Metedeconk River, whereas the fourth - Lake Waddill - is on Kettle Creek. Lakewood CDP (2010 Census population of 53,805), Leisure Village (4,400 as of 2010) and Leisure Village East (4,217 as of 2010) are unincorporated communities and census-designated places (CDPs) located within Lakewood Township. Other unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the township include Greenville, Lake Carasaljo, Seven Stars and South Lakewood. The township borders the municipalities of Brick Township, Jackson Township, and Toms River Township in Ocean County; and Howell Township in Monmouth County. Economy Portions of the township are part of an Urban Enterprise Zone (UEZ), one of 32 zones covering 37 municipalities statewide. Lakewood was selected in 1994 as one of a group of 10 zones added to participate in the program. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the UEZ, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half of the % rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants. Established in November 1994, the township's Urban Enterprise Zone status expires in October 2025. The UEZ is overseen by the Lakewood Development Corporation, which works to foster the UEZ and the businesses that operate inside it through loan and grant programs. Arts and culture The Strand Theater, established in 1922, was designed by architect Thomas W. Lamb. Sports FirstEnergy Park, home of the Jersey Shore BlueClaws, is a 6,588-seat stadium constructed at a cost of $22 million through funds raised from the township's Urban Enterprise Zone. The High-A East's Jersey Shore BlueClaws, the High-A Minor League Baseball affiliate of the Philadelphia Phillies, play at FirstEnergy Park. The BlueClaws, previously known as the Lakewood Blue Claws, have led the league in attendance every year since its formation in 2001 up until 2011, with more than 380,000 fans in the 2001 season, representing an average attendance of more than 6,200 fans per game. Parks and recreation Ocean County Park offers tennis courts, sports fields, hiking trails, beach volleyball, a driving range, swimming and cross-country skiing. Lakes Carasaljo and Shenandoah have canoe and kayak access, and jogging trails. The Sister Mary Grace Burns Arboretum is located on the campus of Georgian Court University. Demographics The percentage of Jewish people in Lakewood is one of the highest for incorporated areas in the U.S., at an estimated 59%. 2010 Census The Census Bureau's 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $41,527 (with a margin of error of +/- $1,797) and the median family income was $45,420 (+/- $2,296). Males had a median income of $39,857 (+/- $4,206) versus $32,699 (+/- $2,365) for females. The per capita income for the township was $16,430 (+/- $565). About 21.9% of families and 26.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 36.0% of those under age 18 and 5.7% of those age 65 or over. 2000 Census As of the 2000 United States Census there were 60,352 people, 19,876 households, and 13,356 families residing in the township. The population density was 2,431.8 people per square mile (938.8/km2). There were 21,214 housing units at an average density of 854.8 per square mile (330.0/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 78.77% White, 12.05% African American, 0.17% Native American, 1.39% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 4.61% from other races, and 2.98% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 14.80% of the population. There were 19,876 households, out of which 32.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.3% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.8% were non-families. 28.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.92 and the average family size was 3.64. In the township the population was spread out, with 31.8% under the age of 18, 10.1% from 18 to 24, 23.5% from 25 to 44, 15.7% from 45 to 64, and 18.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.5 males. The median income for a household in the township was $35,634, and the median income for a family was $43,806. Males had a median income of $38,967 versus $26,645 for females. The per capita income for the township was $16,700. About 15.7% of families and 19.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 28.9% of those under age 18 and 7.7% of those age 65 or over. The median value of owner occupied housing is $322,000 with an average mortgage of $2,216 and additional housing expenses of $807. The median gross rent is $1463. Government Local government Lakewood Township is governed under the Township form of New Jersey municipal government, one of 141 municipalities (of the 565) statewide that use this form, the second-most commonly used form of government in the state. The Township Committee is comprised of five members, who are elected directly by the voters at-large in partisan elections to serve three-year terms of office on a staggered basis, with either one or two seats coming up for election each year as part of the November general election in a three-year cycle. At an annual reorganization meeting, the Township Committee selects one of its members to serve as Mayor and another as Deputy Mayor. The Township Committee controls all legislative powers of the Township except for health matters, which are controlled by the Board of Health. In addition, the Committee appoints members to boards, commissions, and committees. Each member of the township committee serves as a liaison to different divisions, departments, and committees. The mayor, elected from among members of the committee, presides at meetings and performs other duties as the Township Committee may prescribe. The mayor has the power to appoint subcommittees with the consent of the committee. When authorized, he or she may execute documents on behalf of the township, makes proclamations concerning holidays and events of interest, and exercises ceremonial power of the Township and other powers conferred upon him by law. , the members of the Lakewood Township Committee are Mayor Ray Coles (D), Deputy mayor Menashe Miller (R), Albert Akerman (R, 2022), Michael J. D'Elia Sr. (R, 2020) and Meir Lichtenstein (D, 2021). Police Lakewood Township is served by the Lakewood Police Department (LPD), which provides police protection for the township. It has several specialized units: Traffic and Safety, School Resource Officers, Special Response Team (SWAT), Dive Team, and a Motorcycle Patrol and Bicycle Patrol unit in the spring and summer. The current Chief of Police is Gregory Meyer. Fire Lakewood Township is served by the Lakewood Fire Department (LFD), a unified combination consisting of four Volunteer Fire Stations and one career fire station which provide fire protection for the township. The fire department was founded in October 1888. The Board of Fire Commissioners was created in 1896. The first motorized equipment was purchased in 1915. The largest fire in township history occurred on April 20, 1940, when a forest fire destroyed over 50 structures and burned down most of the southern half of town. The largest loss of life caused by fire occurred on February 12, 1936 when the Victoria Mansion Hotel (valued at $100,000) located on the southeast corner of Lexington Avenue and Seventh Street, was destroyed in a fire and 16 people died. The largest structure fire in department history occurred on March 29, 1967, when the block-long Laurel in the Pines Hotel was leveled by a suspicious fire that also killed three people. The last fire hose was picked up a week later when the fire was finally declared out. There are currently 16 career firefighters and approximately 75 volunteer firefighters. The Chief of the Lakewood Fire Department is Mike D'Elia Jr. Fire Stations Engine Co#1 - Engine 1, Engine 11; 119 First Street Rescue Fire Co#2 - Engine 2, Tower 1, Utility 1; 1350 Lanes Mills Road Junior Hose Co#3 - Engine 3; 976 New Hampshire Avenue Junior Hose Co#3 - Ladder 1, Engine 33; 170 Lafayette Boulevard Reliance Hose Co#4 - Engine 4, Engine 44; 300 River Avenue Lakewood Fire District#1 - Engine 5; 735 Cedar Bridge Avenue Fire Police - Fire Police 1 (FP1); Monmouth Ave Station EMS Lakewood Township is served by three emergency medical services (EMS) entities, which include Lakewood EMS (LEMS), Lakewood First Aid & Emergency Squad (LFAS) and Hatzolah EMS. The squads are all independently operated, but work together to provide emergency medical services for the township. Lakewood First Aid & Emergency Squad and Hatzolah EMS are volunteer organizations, while Lakewood EMS is a career municipal service under the direction of EMS Chief Crystal Van de Zilver. In the event of a motor vehicle accident, Lakewood First Aid & Emergency Squad are the primary providers of vehicle extrication services for the township and Hatzolah EMS serves as backup. The three organizations collectively have approximately 150 volunteer and paid EMTs. Hatzolah also has a paramedic unit by special arrangement with RWJBarnabas Health. Lakewood First Aid & Emergency Squad - Squad 25 - 1555 Pine Street Hatzolah EMS - Squad 45 - Monmouth Avenue and 3rd Street, 501 West County Line Road at Heathwood Avenue EMS Department Lakewood EMS - Squad 52 - 1555 Pine Street Federal, state, and county representation Lakewood Township is located in the 4th Congressional District, and is part of New Jersey's 30th state legislative district. Politics As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 37,925 registered voters in Lakewood Township, of which 6,417 (16.9%) were registered as Democrats, 13,287 (35.0%) were registered as Republicans, and 18,202 (48.0%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 19 voters registered to other parties. Among the township's 2010 Census population, 40.8% (vs. 63.2% in Ocean County) were registered to vote, including 70.2% of those ages 18 and over (vs. 82.6% countywide). The Vaad in Lakewood is an 11-member council of elders from the Orthodox community, which greatly influences the way the community will vote, often after interviewing political candidates. In the 2020 presidential election, Republican Donald Trump received 82.5% of the vote (30,648 votes), ahead of Democrat Joe Biden with 17.2% (6,397 votes), and other candidates with 0.3% (117 votes). Trump won his greatest margin from any municipality in the whole state. In the 2016 presidential election, Republican Donald Trump received 74.4% of the vote (17,914 votes), ahead of Democrat Hillary Clinton with 24.2% (5,841 votes), and other candidates with 1.4% (333 votes). In the 2012 presidential election. Republican Mitt Romney received 72.9% of the vote (19,273 cast), ahead of Democrat Barack Obama with 26.7% (7,062 votes), and other candidates with 0.3% (87 votes), among the 26,590 ballots cast by the township's 41,233 registered voters (168 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 64.5%. In the 2008 presidential election, Republican John McCain received 69.1% of the vote (19,173 cast), ahead of Democrat Barack Obama with 29.7% (8,242 votes), and other candidates with 0.5% (144 votes), among the 27,750 ballots cast by the township's 39,640 registered voters, for a turnout of 70.0%. In the 2004 presidential election, Republican George W. Bush received 66.4% of the vote (16,045 ballots cast), outpolling Democrat John Kerry with 32.5% (7,852 votes) and other candidates with 0.4% (137 votes), among the 24,152 ballots cast by the township's 35,217 registered voters, for a turnout percentage of 68.6. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 82.4% of the vote (11,850 cast), ahead of Democrat Barbara Buono with 16.9% (2,427 votes), and other candidates with 0.7% (107 votes), among the 14,921 ballots cast by the township's 41,567 registered voters (537 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 35.9%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 54.9% of the vote (10,528 ballots cast), ahead of Democrat Jon Corzine with 30.8% (5,910 votes), Independent Chris Daggett with 2.6% (506 votes) and other candidates with 0.7% (142 votes), among the 19,171 ballots cast by the township's 37,928 registered voters, yielding a 50.5% turnout. Education The Lakewood School District serves students in pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade, and is broken up into three different stages of schooling. As of the 2018–19 school year, the district, comprised of eight schools, had an enrollment of 6,767 students and 492.5 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 13.7:1. Schools in the district (with 2018–19 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are Lakewood Early Childhood Center with 206 students in PreK, Ella G. Clarke School with 606 students in grades 2-5, Clifton Avenue School with 365 students in grades 2-5, Oak Street School with 794 students in grades 1-5, Piner Elementary School with 509 students in grades PreK-1, Spruce Street School with 479 students in grades PreK-1, Lakewood Middle School with 1,334 students in grades 6-8 and Lakewood High School with 1,243 students in grades 9-12. In recent years, the Lakewood School District has had budgetary issues, shutting down briefly in 2019 due to a funding deficit. The district spends more money on special education programs than any other district in the state and has a high bill for mandatory busing to non-public schools. Town leaders also cite imbalanced state funding formulas as the root of the district's financial problems. Georgian Court University is a private, Roman Catholic university located on the shores of Lake Carasaljo. Founded in 1908 by the Sisters of Mercy as a women's college in North Plainfield, New Jersey, the school moved to the former estate of George Jay Gould I in Lakewood in 1924. Women made up 88% of the student population in Fall 2006. There are many yeshivas and Jewish day schools serving the Orthodox Jewish community, with the school district providing busing to 18,000 students enrolled at 74 yeshivas as of 2011, and 25,000 by 2016. Beth Medrash Govoha has an enrollment in excess of 5,000, making it one of the world's largest yeshivas; the yeshiva is a post high school institution for higher education, where students primarily focus on the study of the talmud and Jewish Law. The non-denominational Calvary Academy serves students in kindergarten through twelfth grade. The Roman Catholic-affiliated Holy Family School served youth from pre-school through 8th grade under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Trenton. In 2014, the diocese announced that the school was closing at the end of the 2014-2015 school year, as fewer students were enrolling. Transportation Roads and highways , the township had a total of of roadways; of which were maintained by the municipality, by Ocean County, by the New Jersey Department of Transportation, and by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority. The Garden State Parkway is the most prominent highway in Lakewood. It passes through the eastern part of the municipality, connecting Toms River in the south to Brick in the north with one major interchange serving Lakewood at exit 89. Drivers can access Route 70 from exit 89, after exit 88 was permanently closed in November 2014. The state and U.S. routes that pass through are Route 70, Route 88 and Route 9. Major county routes that pass through are CR 526, CR 528, CR 547 and CR 549. Public transportation The Lakewood Bus Terminal is a regional transit hub. NJ Transit provides bus service on the 137 and 139 routes to and from the Port Authority Bus Terminal in New York City, to Philadelphia on the 317 route, to Newark on the 67 and to Atlantic City on the 559. The Lakewood Shuttle is a bus with two routes: one in town, and one in Industrial Park. Ocean Ride local service is provided on the OC3 Brick / Lakewood / Toms River and OC4 Lakewood - Brick Link routes. Lakewood Airport is a public-use airport located southeast of the township's central business district. The airport is publicly owned. The Monmouth Ocean Middlesex Line (MOM) is a passenger rail project proposed by NJ Transit Rail Operations (NJT) to serve the Central New Jersey counties of Monmouth, Ocean and Middlesex which would serve Lakewood. Notable people People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Lakewood Township include: Allen L. Rothenberg Esq. (born 1951), president of the National Jewish Commission on Law and Public Affairs(COLPA). Rabbi Yitzchak Abadi (born 1933), posek. Morton I. Abramowitz (born 1933), diplomat. Val Ackerman (born 1959), first president of the Women's National Basketball Association. Jay Alders (class of 1996), fine artist, photographer and graphic designer, best known for his original surf art paintings. Joe Baum (1920–1998), restaurateur. Spider Bennett (born 1943), professional basketball player in the ABA with the Dallas Chaparrals and Houston Mavericks. Tyrice Beverette (born 1995), professional Canadian football linebacker for the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League. Rabbi Yisroel Pinchos Bodner, author of books on various topics of halakha. Brandon Carter (born 1986), offensive lineman for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Haakon Chevalier (1901–1985), author, translator, and professor of French literature at the University of California, Berkeley, best known for his friendship with physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer. Rabbi Simcha Bunim Cohen, posek and author. Michael Cudlitz (born 1964), actor who has appeared in Southland and Band of Brothers. Ngo Dinh Diem (1901–1963), first president of South Vietnam. Marc Ecko (born 1972), founder and CEO of Eckō Unltd. Rabbi Shimon Eider (died 2007), author on halakha and expert on the construction of eruvin. Rabbi Mendel Epstein, convicted leader of a kidnapping ring. Dick Estelle (born 1942), pitcher who played for the San Francisco Giants. Mike Gesicki (born 1995), tight end who plays for the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League. Hazel Gluck (born 1934), politician and lobbyist who served in the New Jersey General Assembly and held several posts in the cabinet of Governor Thomas Kean. George Jay Gould I (1864–1923), financier and railroad executive, whose estate became Georgian Court University. Virginia E. Haines (born 1946), politician who serves on the Ocean County Board of chosen freeholders and had served in the New Jersey General Assembly from 1992 to 1994 and as Executive Director of the New Jersey Lottery from 1994 to 2002. Rabbi Yehudah Jacobs (c. 1940–2020), mashgiach ruchani at Beth Medrash Govoha. Serge Jaroff (1896–1985), conductor, composer and founder of the Don Cossack Chorus. Stan Kasten (born 1952), president and part-owner of the Los Angeles Dodgers, and former President of the Washington Nationals, Atlanta Braves, Atlanta Hawks and Atlanta Thrashers. * Shoshanna Keats Jaskoll (born 1975), activist and writer whose work focuses on women's rights in Orthodox Judaism and the visibility of women in Israel's Orthodox communities. Edith Kingdon (1864–1921), actress wife of George Jay Gould I. Rabbi Aharon Kotler (1891–1962), founder of the Beth Medrash Govoha yeshiva and a pre-eminent authority on Torah in the 20th Century among Haredi Jews. Rabbi Shneur Kotler (1918–1982), rosh yeshiva of Beth Medrash Govoha. Rabbi Malkiel Kotler, (born 1951) current rosh yeshiva of Beth Medrash Govoha. Cliff Kresge (born 1968), professional golfer. Meir Lichtenstein, first Haredi mayor of a U.S. municipality with a significant non-Jewish population. Joseph Mayer (1877–1942), mayor of Belmar, New Jersey who later served on the Ocean County Board of Chosen Freeholders. Sonia Handelman Meyer (born 1920), photographer best known for her street photography as a member of the New York Photo League. Purnell Mincy (1916–2003), Negro league baseball pitcher from 1938 to 1940. Charles W. Morse (1856–1933), Wall Street speculator. Loren Murchison (1898–1979), Olympic athlete who won gold medals in 1920 and 1924 in the 4x100m relay event. Rabbi Yisroel Neuman, (born 1947) current rosh yeshiva of Beth Medrash Govoha. Rabbi Yerucham Olshin, current rosh yeshiva of Beth Medrash Govoha. Arthur Newton Pack (1893–1975), naturalist and writer who founded the American Nature Association and the periodical Nature Magazine. Haydn Proctor (1903–1996), member of the New Jersey Senate. Rabbi Yosef Reinman, author who has written about inter-community dialogue within Judaism. Richard Roberts (born 1957), pharmaceutical executive, philanthropist and political activist. John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937), industrialist and philanthropist, had an estate in Lakewood, as well as other homes in Ohio, New York, and Florida. His family donated a large tract of land it owned in Lakewood to Ocean County, where the County built the current Ocean County Park on Route 88, Lakewood. Robert Schmertz (1926–1975), founder and CEO of Leisure Technology Corp. and former owner of the Portland Trail Blazers and Boston Celtics. Rabbi Dovid Schustal, (born 1947) current rosh yeshiva of Beth Medrash Govoha. Armin Shimerman (born 1949), actor, best known for playing the Ferengi bartender Quark in the television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. Betsy Sholl (born 1945), poet who was poet laureate of Maine from 2006 to 2011 Arthur Siegel (1923–1994), songwriter. Robert Singer (born 1947), member of the New Jersey Senate and former Mayor of Lakewood Township. J. R. Smith (born 1985), NBA basketball player who plays for Cleveland Cavaliers. Lew Soloff (born 1944), jazz trumpeter. Yisroel Taplin, author of The Date Line in Halacha. Penina Taylor, counter-missionary speaker. Steve Tisch (born 1948), film producer and chairman of the New York Giants. Harry Lancaster Towe (1898–1991), politician who represented New Jersey's 9th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 1943 to 1951. Marc Turtletaub (born 1946), CEO of The Money Store and film producer and director Jake Turx (born 1986), senior White House correspondent and chief political correspondent for Ami magazine. Charles Waterhouse (1924–2013), artist. Mookie Wilson (born 1956), baseball player, mostly notably with the New York Mets. Twinnings Bnei Brak, Israel, since 2011 Further reading References Sources Axel-Lute, Paul. Lakewood-in-the-Pines: A History of Lakewood, New Jersey, self-published, 1986 (South Orange, NJ) External links Lakewood Township website 1892 establishments in New Jersey Beth Medrash Govoha Orthodox Judaism in New Jersey New Jersey Urban Enterprise Zones Orthodox Jewish communities Populated places established in 1892 Township form of New Jersey government Townships in Ocean County, New Jersey

125804

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blairstown%2C%20New%20Jersey

Blairstown, New Jersey

Blairstown is a township in Warren County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the township's population was 5,967 reflecting an increase of 220 (+3.8%) from the 5,747 counted in the 2000 Census, which had in turn increased by 416 (+7.8%) from the 5,331 counted in the 1990 Census. The area had been known as Smith's Mill and was later called Butts Bridge (variously spelled as "Butt's Bridge" and "Butts' Bridge"), named for a family that owned the eponymous crossing of the Paulins Kill. Blairstown was incorporated as a township by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on April 14, 1845, from portions of Knowlton Township, based on the results of a referendum held that day. The township was named for John Insley Blair. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the township had a total area of 30.78 square miles (79.71 km2), including 29.89 square miles (77.41 km2) of land and 0.89 square miles (2.30 km2) of water (2.88%). The township is located in the Kittatinny Valley which is a section of the Great Appalachian Valley that stretches for from Canada to Alabama. Blairstown CDP (with a 2010 Census population of 515) is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) located within the township. Other unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the township include Blair Lake, Cedar Lake, Cooks Pond, Jacksonburg, Kalaroma, Lake Susquehanna, Mount Vernon, Paulina, Vail and Walnut Valley. White Township borders the Warren County municipalities of Frelinghuysen Township, Hardwick Township, Hope Township and Knowlton Township. Demographics The Township's economic data (as is all of Warren County) is calculated by the United States Census Bureau as part of the Allentown–Bethlehem–Easton metropolitan area which also includes Carbon County, Lehigh County and Northampton County counties in Pennsylvania. Census 2010 The Census Bureau's 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $82,952 (with a margin of error of +/- $10,269) and the median family income was $92,063 (+/- $14,594). Males had a median income of $73,818 (+/- $7,161) versus $54,959 (+/- $13,254) for females. The per capita income for the borough was $38,393 (+/- $7,342). About 4.1% of families and 5.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.1% of those under age 18 and 1.4% of those age 65 or over. Census 2000 As of the 2000 United States Census there were 5,747 people, 2,040 households, and 1,638 families residing in the township. The population density was 185.3 people per square mile (71.5/km2). There were 2,136 housing units at an average density of 68.9 per square mile (26.6/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 98.17% White, 0.26% African American, 0.14% Native American, 0.56% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.28% from other races, and 0.57% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.98% of the population. There were 2,040 households, out of which 35.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69.6% were married couples living together, 7.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.7% were non-families. 15.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.81 and the average family size was 3.14. In the township the population was spread out, with 25.6% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 26.7% from 25 to 44, 29.5% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.2 males. The median income for a household in the township was $64,809, and the median income for a family was $71,214. Males had a median income of $51,931 versus $33,646 for females. The per capita income for the township was $27,775. About 3.0% of families and 4.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.4% of those under age 18 and 3.4% of those age 65 or over. Government Local government Blairstown is governed under the Township form of New Jersey municipal government, one of 141 municipalities (of the 565) statewide that use this form, the second-most commonly used form of government in the state. The Township Committee is comprised of five members, who are elected directly by the voters at-large in partisan elections to serve three-year terms of office on a staggered basis, with either one or two seats coming up for election each year as part of the November general election in a three-year cycle. At a reorganization meeting held each year during the first week of January, the Committee members select one of their members to serve as Mayor and another to serve as Deputy Mayor. , the Blairstown Township Committee consists of Mayor Rob Moorhead (R, term on committee ends December 31, 2024, term as mayor ends 2022), Deputy Mayor Walter Orcutt (R, term on committee ends 2023; term as deputy mayor ends 2022), Charles Makatura (R, 2024), Giovanna "JoAnne" VanValkenburg (R, 2022) and Debra Waldron (R, 2023). Federal, state and county representation Blairstown Township is located in the 5th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 24th state legislative district. Prior to the 2011 reapportionment following the 2010 Census, Blairstown Township had been in the 23rd state legislative district. Politics As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 4,294 registered voters in Blairstown Township, of which 707 (16.5% vs. 21.5% countywide) were registered as Democrats, 1,882 (43.8% vs. 35.3%) were registered as Republicans and 1,702 (39.6% vs. 43.1%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 3 voters registered to other parties. Among the township's 2010 Census population, 72.0% (vs. 62.3% in Warren County) were registered to vote, including 94.6% of those ages 18 and over (vs. 81.5% countywide). In the 2012 presidential election, Republican Mitt Romney received 1,654 votes (63.2% vs. 56.0% countywide), ahead of Democrat Barack Obama with 910 votes (34.8% vs. 40.8%) and other candidates with 28 votes (1.1% vs. 1.7%), among the 2,616 ballots cast by the township's 4,326 registered voters, for a turnout of 60.5% (vs. 66.7% in Warren County). In the 2008 presidential election, Republican John McCain received 1,986 votes (60.7% vs. 55.2% countywide), ahead of Democrat Barack Obama with 1,192 votes (36.4% vs. 41.4%) and other candidates with 39 votes (1.2% vs. 1.6%), among the 3,271 ballots cast by the township's 4,332 registered voters, for a turnout of 75.5% (vs. 73.4% in Warren County). In the 2004 presidential election, Republican George W. Bush received 2,141 votes (65.8% vs. 61.0% countywide), ahead of Democrat John Kerry with 1,068 votes (32.8% vs. 37.2%) and other candidates with 33 votes (1.0% vs. 1.3%), among the 3,256 ballots cast by the township's 4,021 registered voters, for a turnout of 81.0% (vs. 76.3% in the whole county). In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 74.0% of the vote (1,335 cast), ahead of Democrat Barbara Buono with 23.7% (427 votes), and other candidates with 2.3% (42 votes), among the 1,850 ballots cast by the township's 4,338 registered voters (46 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 42.6%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 1,252 votes (63.5% vs. 61.3% countywide), ahead of Democrat Jon Corzine with 489 votes (24.8% vs. 25.7%), Independent Chris Daggett with 180 votes (9.1% vs. 9.8%) and other candidates with 24 votes (1.2% vs. 1.5%), among the 1,971 ballots cast by the township's 4,236 registered voters, yielding a 46.5% turnout (vs. 49.6% in the county). Former Mayors 2021 - Rob Moorhead (R) 2018-20 - Stephen Lance (R) 2014–17 - Herman Shoemaker (R) 2013 - Richard Mach (R) 2012 - Frank Anderson (R) 2009-11 - Richard Mach (R) 2006-08 - Stephen Lance (R) 2005 - Alfred Handy (R) 2004 - George Joest (R) 2003 - William Horsey (R) 2002 - George Joest (R) 2001 - William Seal (R) 2000 - Jane Santini (D) 1999 - Joseph DiGrazia (R) 1998 - Anita Ardia (I) 1996-97 - Franklin D Shotwell (R) 1995 - Charles Eble (R) 1990-94 - Walter Orcutt (R) 1989 - Frank Kelly (D) 1988 - Howard Mott, Sr (D) Former Committee Members 2021-23 - Walter Orcutt (R) 2019-21 - Steven Sikkes (R) 2019-21 - Rob Moorhead (R) 2017-23 - Debra Waldron (R) 2016-18 - Cynthia Dalton (R) 2015-22 - JoAnne VanValkenburg (R) 2015 - Harold Price (R) 2014-15 - Susan Price (R) 2013-18 - Paul Avery (R) 2012-17 - Herman Shoemaker (R) 2007-12 - William Seal (R) 2006-11 - Sal Lascari (R) 2006-20 - Stephen Lance (R) 2005-15 - Frank Anderson (R) 2005-13 - Richard Mach (R) 2004-06 - Gary Stevens (R) 2003-05 - Alfred Handy (R) 2003-05 - Raymond Davis (R) 2002-04 - William Horsey (R) 2001-05 - George Joest (R) 2001-03 - JoAnne VanValkenburg (I) 1998-01 - William Seal (R) 1997-02 - Jane Santini (D) 1997-02 - Anita Ardia (I) 1995-97 - Fred Cook (D) 1995-97 - Charles Eble (R) 1992-94 - Robert Rokosz (R) 1990-92 - Anthony Hipple (R) 1989-94 - Walter Orcutt (R) 1988-93 - Robert McElroy (D) 1984-86 - George Wilhelm (R) 1981-87 - Carl Race (R) 1979-87 - Sal Simonetti (R) 1978-83 - Elwyn Barker (R) 1975-79 - Howard Mott, Sr (D) 1968-89 - Frank Kelly (D) Education The Blairstown Township School District serves public school students in kindergarten through sixth grade at the Blairstown Elementary School. As of the 2017–18 school year, the district, comprised of one school, had an enrollment of 469 students and 46.9 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 10.0:1. Students from Hardwick Township, a non-operating school district, also attend Blairstown Elementary School. Students in seventh through twelfth grades for public school attend the North Warren Regional High School in Blairstown, a public secondary high school, serving students from the townships of Blairstown, Frelinghuysen, Hardwick and Knowlton. As of the 2017–18 school year, the high school had an enrollment of 820 students and 77.6 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 10.6:1. Ridge and Valley Charter School, a K-8 charter school founded in 2004 that is focused on Earth literacy and sustainable living, is located in neighboring Frelinghuysen Township. The school also serves (and grants admission priority to) students from Frelinghuysen, Hardwick and Knowlton Townships, who attend the school without cost to the parents. Students from the township and from all of Warren County are also eligible to attend Warren County Technical School in Washington borough (for 9-12), with special education services provided by local districts supplemented throughout the county by the Warren County Special Services School District in Oxford Township (for PreK-12). Students from across the world attend Blair Academy, a private boarding school for students in grades 9-12 established in 1848 by philanthropist John Insley Blair. Transportation Roads and highways , the township had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality, by Warren County and by the New Jersey Department of Transportation. Interstate 80 (the Bergen-Passaic Expressway) passes through briefly in the southern part without any interchanges, and is accessible via Route 94 and CR 521 in neighboring Knowlton and Hope townships, respectively. Route 94 passes runs east–west through the center of the township while County Route 521 passes through in the eastern section. Airport Blairstown Airport (1N7) is located southwest of the central business district. Railroads The Lackawanna Cut-Off, a high-speed, double-track railway line that stretches for was constructed by the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad between 1908 and 1911, opening for service on December 24, 1911. It ran west from Port Morris, New Jersey to Slateford, Pennsylvania and passed through Blairstown. The DL&W RR merged with the Erie Railroad on October 17, 1960, to form the Erie Lackawanna Railroad. Due to declining revenues, passenger service over the Lackawanna Cut-Off was discontinued on January 6, 1970, and freight service ceased in 1979, just three years after the E-L was absorbed into the Consolidated Railroad Corporation (Conrail). The tracks remained relatively-dormant until 1984, when the property was sold to a developer and the rails were removed. The right-of-way is now the property of the State of New Jersey, and plans are underway for the restoration of rail service in the future. Blairstown's poured concrete passenger and freight stations still stand, although privately owned. Blairstown was also served by a second railroad, the Blairstown Railway. The little short line, a personal project of the local industrial magnate John Insley Blair, was constructed in 1876 from Blairstown to Delaware, NJ, where it connected with the Old Main Line of the Lackawanna RR. The Blairstown Railway was absorbed by the New York, Susquehanna & Western Railroad in 1882 as it built west to the coal fields of Pennsylvania. The NYS&W also operated passenger service between Blairstown and New York (via Jersey City, NJ) until 1935. A third railroad, the Lehigh & New England Railroad, operated through Blairstown via trackage rights over the NYS&W between Swartswood Junction and Hainesburg Junction until October 31, 1961, when the L&NE was abandoned. With the loss of L&NE trackage rights revenues and little local business to sustain the line, the NYS&W also abandoned its line through Blairstown shortly thereafter, and the tracks were removed in 1962. The right-of-way today has been preserved by the State of New Jersey as the long Paulinskill Valley Trail. Landmarks Blairstown Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2007. Historic Blairstown Theater (also known as Roy's Hall) was built in 1913 as a silent movie house. The building was restored and painted blue in 2005 and is the centerpiece of Blairstown's vintage Main Street, surrounded by charming shops, galleries and restaurants. The HBT features a regular schedule of live music and theatrical performances, classic film and community events. The Blairstown Museum is a private, non-profit corporation organized under New Jersey law managed by a Board of Directors and housed in a 19th-century building, known as the last remaining structure of "Roy's Row". The Museum is the only general history and cultural museum for the Township of Blairstown. It cares for over 2,000 items that illustrate the history of the township and its inhabitants, including former resident and namesake John Insley Blair. Gallery Popular culture Scenes from the horror film Friday the 13th were filmed on Blairstown's Main Street, and at the Blairstown Diner on Route 94; the Boy Scout camp No-Be-Bo-Sco in adjacent Hardwick Township was the site for Camp Crystal Lake. The body of Princess Doe was discovered at the Cedar Ridge Cemetery in Blairstown on July 15, 1982. She became the first unidentified body entered into the FBI's NCIC computer system.<ref>Gallucci, Jaclyn. "Identifying Princess Doe: 30 Years After She Was Slain, New Technology May ID Her and The Killer", Long Island Press, August 2, 2012. Accessed August 26, 2013. "This headless mannequin dressed in red standing erect among the headstones is an eerie sight from the busy state road that borders the Cedar Ridge Cemetery in this small township of nearly 6,000. Here, in Blairstown, everyone seems to know each other—police, business owners, neighbors—everyone except for the teenage girl found barefoot, partially clothed and beaten beyond recognition the morning of July 15, 1982."</ref> Scenes from the horror film Plasterhead were filmed at the Blairstown Diner on Route 94. Notable people People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Blairstown include: Cathy Bao Bean (born 1942), lives in neighboring Frelinghuysen Township, author of The Chopsticks-Fork Principle: A Memoir and Manual''. Bennett Bean, studio potter, lives in neighboring Frelinghuysen Township. Anthony D'Amato, songwriter and singer. David T. Little (born 1978), composer. Robert A. Belet (1914-1942), United States Marine Corps master technical sergeant who was awarded the Silver Star for his actions in the Guadalcanal Campaign. DeWitt Clinton Blair (1833–1915), son of John Insley Blair. John Insley Blair (1802–1899), entrepreneur, railroad magnate, and Blairstown's most famous citizen. Gravel Hill was renamed Blairstown after Blair in 1839. John A. Haggerty (1841-1910), Wisconsin legislator and businessman who was born in Blairstown. Nancy Overton (1926-2009), singer best known for her work with The Chordettes. Lou Reed (1942–2013), musician, singer, songwriter and record producer, lived in neighboring Hardwick Township. Isaac Wildrick (1803–1892), represented in the United States House of Representatives from 1849 to 1853. References External links Blairstown Township website 1845 establishments in New Jersey Populated places established in 1845 Township form of New Jersey government Townships in Warren County, New Jersey

129069

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay%20Village%2C%20Ohio

Bay Village, Ohio

Bay Village is a city located west of Cleveland in Cuyahoga County, Ohio. The population was 16,163 at the 2020 census. Bay Village is located in Ohio's 9th congressional district. History Before the first European-Americans arrived in the area around 1600, Erie Indians lived in Bay Village and the surrounding areas. The most important Indian trail in Ohio is present-day Lake Road, which is a main road in Bay Village. In that same century, what is now Bay Village, along with Avon Lake, Avon, and Westlake, was part of one territory. This territory was later called by the whites in a native language, "Xeuma", a term roughly meaning "those who came before us". The area belonged to Connecticut until 1803, the year in which Ohio became a state. Before 1803, the Connecticut Land Company sold and gave away land in the area to Connecticut citizens, who had lost their homes and farms during the Revolutionary War. Because many had lost their homes to fires during the war, this new area was named "the Firelands". One surveyor with the Connecticut Land Company was Moses Cleaveland. He came with his friends on horseback from Connecticut and stopped at the Cuyahoga River with his Indian guides in July 1796. The land was then divided into five townships. The area between the Cuyahoga River and The Firelands to the west was laid out in 1806. Joseph Cahoon settled in what is now Bay Village in 1810. Bay Village was part of the original Dover Township, which comprised present-day Bay Village, Westlake, and portions of North Olmstead. By the turn of the 20th century, Dover would have a permanent population of roughly 2,200, with part-time residents who owned summer cottages on Lake Erie adding to this total in the summer months. In 1901, landowners in northern Dover forced an election to split from Dover Township, forming Bay Township. In 1903, Bay Village was incorporated, and the first mayor and council were elected. Ida Marie Cahoon, the last Cahoon descendant, died in 1917, leaving the family home and 115 acres of land to the city which is known today as Cahoon Memorial Park. John Huntington, one of the original partners of Standard Oil Company, donated his summer estate to the Cleveland Metroparks, which would later become the Huntington Reservation. Bay Village became a city on January 1, 1950, when it had reached a population of 6,917. Geography Bay Village is located at (41.484193, −81.926581). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water. Bay Village is home to the Cleveland Metroparks Huntington Reservation. Lake Erie Nature & Science Center and BAYarts are also located within the reservation. Demographics 2020 census At the 2020 census there were 16,163 people in 6,021 households, including 4,291 families, in the city. The population density was 3,536.8 inhabitants per square mile (1,362.8/km²). There 6,466 housing units at an average density of 1,414.9 per square mile (546.6/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 93.8% White, 0.6% African American, >0.1% Native American, 1.0% Asian, 0.5% from other races, and 4.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.7%. Of the 6,021 households 24.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.3% were married couples living together, 21.6% had a female householder with no spouse present, 13.1% had a male householder with no spouse present, and 4% were non-families. The median age was 43.4 years. 26.2% of residents were under the age of 18. The gender makeup of the city was 49.6% male and 51.4% female. 2010 census At the 2010 census there were 15,651 people in 6,198 households, including 4,441 families, in the city. The population density was . There were 6,436 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 97.0% White, 0.5% African American, 0.1% Native American, 0.9% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.6%. Of the 6,198 households 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.7% were married couples living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 28.3% were non-families. 25.0% of households were one person and 11.1% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.02. The median age was 43.4 years. 25.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 4.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.6% were from 25 to 44; 32% were from 45 to 64; and 15.5% were 65 or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.5% male and 52.5% female. Of the city's population over the age of 25, 56% hold a bachelor's degree or higher. 2000 census At the 2000 census there were 16,087 people in 6,239 households, including 4,685 families, in the city. The population density was 3,473.4 people per square mile (1,341.5/km). There were 6,401 housing units at an average density of 1,382.1 per square mile (533.8/km). The racial makeup of the city was 89.0% White, 9.3% African American, 0.01% Native American, 0.7% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.2% from other races, and 0.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.0%. 21.6% were of German, 20.4% Irish, 10.6% English, 8.6% Italian and 5.1% Polish ancestry according to Census 2000. Of the 6,239 households, 34.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.8% were married couples living together, 17.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.9% were non-families. 22.1% of households were one person and 9.6% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.01. The age distribution was 25.9% under the age of 18, 4.4% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 29.0% from 45 to 64, and 14.4% 65 or older. The median age was 41.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.9 males. The median household income was $70,397 and the median family income was $33,686. Males had a median income of $36,061 versus $18,746 for females. The per capita income for the city was $35,318. About 2.0% of families and 3.0% of the population were below the poverty line. Education There are about 2,500 students in the Bay Village City School District, and four school buildings. Normandy Elementary serves grades K–2, Westerly Elementary serves grades 3–4, Bay Middle School serves grades 5–8, and Bay High School serves grades 9–12. In 2019, Bay Village City Schools were ranked as the tenth-best district in the state of Ohio. Notable people John Elliott (born 1984), musician in the band Emeralds Rich Fields (born 1960), broadcaster and popular announcer of The Price Is Right Jonathan Freeman (born 1950), actor and singer Brad Friedel (born 1971), goalkeeper for Tottenham Hotspur, and retired US National Team goalkeeper Otto Graham (1921–2003) Pro Football Hall of Fame quarterback for the Cleveland Browns Patricia Heaton (born 1958), award-winning actress from The Middle and Everybody Loves Raymond Karen Kresge (born 1948), former star solo ice skating performer for Ice Follies and Holiday on Ice, currently ice skating choreographer, ice show director and producer Amy Mihaljevic (1978–1989), kidnapping and homicide victim Eliot Ness (1903–1957), Cleveland police investigator and Federal agent Richard Patrick (born 1968), co-founder of the alternative rock band Filter and former member of Nine Inch Nails Richard North Patterson (born 1947), Best-selling American fiction writer and political commentator Lili Reinhart (born 1996), actress, known for portraying Betty Cooper on the TV series Riverdale. She was born in Cleveland, Ohio, but grew up in Bay Village. Sam Sheppard (1923–1970), convicted in controversial 1954 murder case George Steinbrenner (1930–2010), former owner of the New York Yankees Kate Voegele (born 1986), singer and actress Dave Zastudil (born 1978), former NFL punter Recognition In 2012, Family Circle ranked Bay Village as one of the 10 Best Towns for Families. References Further reading Bay Village: A Way of Life, Bay Village Historical Society, 1974, External links City website Bay Village Schools Cities in Ohio Cities in Cuyahoga County, Ohio Cleveland metropolitan area 1903 establishments in Ohio Ohio populated places on Lake Erie

129565

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterville%2C%20Ohio

Waterville, Ohio

Waterville is a city in Lucas County, Ohio, United States, along the Maumee River, a suburb of Toledo. The population was 5,523 at the 2010 census. History Waterville was platted in 1830 by settler John Pray on the west bank of the upper Maumee River opposite what was then known as Pray's Falls, a rapids on that stream. A post office called Waterville has been in operation since 1828. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. The community is located on the Maumee River and was formerly on the Miami and Erie Canal route. Demographics 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 5,523 people, 2,065 households, and 1,566 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 2,151 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 96.7% White, 0.5% African American, 0.1% Native American, 1.0% Asian, 0.6% from other races, and 1.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.7% of the population. There were 2,065 households, of which 38.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.9% were married couples living together, 8.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 24.2% were non-families. 20.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.62 and the average family size was 3.03. The median age in the city was 41.6 years. 25.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.8% were from 25 to 44; 31.3% were from 45 to 64; and 13.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48.1% male and 51.9% female. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 4,828 people, 1,726 households, and 1,322 families living in the village. The population density was 1,378.7 people per square mile (532.6/km). There were 1,809 housing units at an average density of 516.6 per square mile (199.6/km). The racial makeup of the village was 97.91% White, 0.14% African American, 0.14% Native American, 0.35% Asian, 0.56% from other races, and 0.89% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.35% of the population. There were 1,726 households, out of which 39.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.6% were married couples living together, 6.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.4% were non-families. 19.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.70 and the average family size was 3.15. In the village the population was spread out, with 28.1% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 27.5% from 25 to 44, 25.3% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.3 males. The median income for a household in the village was $60,000, and the median income for a family was $71,027. Males had a median income of $49,489 versus $31,638 for females. The per capita income for the village was $23,679. About 1.9% of families and 1.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.4% of those under age 18 and 5.5% of those age 65 or over. Arts and culture Historic sites The Interurban Bridge, also known as the Ohio Electric Railroad Bridge. is a historic interurban railroad bridge built in 1908 across the Maumee River joining Lucas and Wood counties near Waterville, Ohio. It is now located in Farnsworth Metropark. One of the bridge's supports is the Roche de Boeuf, a historic Indian council rock, which was partially destroyed by the bridge construction. On June 19, 1972, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places. The bridge has been abandoned for several years. Built in 1828, John Pray constructed a house to serve as a trading post, tavern and hostel located in Waterville, OH. It became the centerpiece of the village. The place where locals and travelers alike escaped from the harsh Summers and Winters. Constructed from black walnut beams, it quickly transformed into a third-story structure containing a prison cell (for transit prisoners), a dressmaker's shop and doctor. Like many historic buildings, this one switched hands many times over the years, becoming a restaurant between 1943 and 1993 Parks and recreation Baer Park has a playground, baseball field, basketball courts, tennis courts, shuffleboard area, and walking path. It is home of the Baer Park Ballers. Government The City of Waterville is organized as a Strong Administrator form of government. The City Administrator is the CEO of the Municipal Corporation, overseeing the day-to-day operations of the city. The mayor (currently Timothy Pedro) and City Council members (currently Barb Bruno, Anthony Bruno, Rodney Frey, Mary Duncan, Todd Borowski, and John Rozic) serve part-time. Education Anthony Wayne School District administers public schools in the city. Waterville has a public library, a branch of the Toledo-Lucas County Public Library. Infrastructure The city has a full-time police department and public works department. The fire department is staffed by a full-time fire chief and deputy chief, and is supported by a combination of part-time and volunteer fire fighters. References External links more Waterville, Ohio info from Toledo.com Maumee Valley Heritage Corridor, history of Waterville Cities in Lucas County, Ohio 1830 establishments in Ohio Populated places established in 1830 Cities in Ohio

132743

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltsburg%2C%20Pennsylvania

Saltsburg, Pennsylvania

Saltsburg is a borough in Indiana County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 873 at the 2010 census. The town was based on the construction of salt wells and the canals and railroad tracks that passed through it. It is in western Pennsylvania. History On June 20, 1769, William Gray conducted the first survey in the Saltsburg area. Early settlers of the wooded region were mainly Scots-Irish immigrants, migrating west between 1768 and 1795. The settlers did not colonize the area near the Kiskiminetas River until 1795 because of Native Americans defending their land. The name 'Saltsburg' was adopted because of the salt grain that flourished in the area. Around the years 1795–1798, a Mrs. Deemer was the first settler to prove salt was present in the Conemaugh River, about one mile above Saltsburg's present site, in the town now known as Moween. Deemer produced a sample of salt by evaporating the water from the river. In January 1817 the first sale of land was made to the Congregation of Saltsburg. In 1816-1817 Andrew Boggs purchased a large amount of land, which held the first town lots. The town was named with the common consent of the first settlers for the newly thriving salt industry. The town's religion was mainly Presbyterian, which was also the denomination of the first church built in Saltsburg. The first house was built in 1820 and now is occupied with the Presbyterian Church. The town quickly filled with merchants in the late 1820s and became a prosperous place to reside. John Carson became the first tailor in 1827. Daniel Davis was the first blacksmith in 1828, and George Johnston was the first merchant in 1829. The population of the town continued to grow, and in 1838, the town was declared a borough. In 1840 the estimated population was 335. The primary means of transportation in the area were on foot, carriage, train, or boat. The canal and railroad were major trade conduits for the town and the region. As the town grew it became a site for the passage of the mainline canal from Harrisburg to Pittsburgh. Coal and salt were transported along the canal and boat-building became one of the chief industries of the town. In 1835 and 1836, Robert Young, Butler Meyers, and Jacob Newhouse opened the first canal-boat construction business in the town. In 1855 the railroad bridge was built, with Major S.S. Jameson as the contractor and with the help of the principal mason John Marth. By 1864 the railroad brought an end to the canal era. The growth of the town was minimal until coalmines became prevalent in the 1870s. Dr. John McFarland, a graduate of Jefferson Medical College was the town's first physician; he came to Saltsburg in 1836. McFarland was also the director of the Indiana County Medical Society and an instructor at the Saltsburg Academy. He served in the state House of Representatives from 1845 to 1846 and became one of the first directors of the Northern Pennsylvania Railroad. The first school was a log house located closer to the trestlework or railroad bridge. John Whittlesey was the first teacher, and John Bucklin was the second. The Saltsburg Academy was established in 1852. Saltsburg is located in the southwestern corner of Indiana County, Pennsylvania. It currently has an estimated population of 923. The borough maintains a police department with one police officer. Supplemental police protection is provided by the Pennsylvania State Police. Saltsburg also has a volunteer fire department (Station 131). There is an elementary school as well as a high school, located next to the Kiskiminetas River. The economy of Saltsburg is based on small restaurants, a few salons, a gas station, and a grocery store. The Rebecca B. Hadden Stone House Museum is located at 105 Point Street and has been standing since the days of the canal. The Saltsburg Area Historical Society retains information from the past of the town and the people and their ancestors of the area. The Saltsburg Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992. Geography Saltsburg is located at the confluence of the Conemaugh River and Loyalhanna Creek, which form the Kiskiminetas River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has a total area of . of it is land and of it is water. The total area is 16.67% water. Demographics As of the 2000 United States census, there were 955 people, 406 households, and 261 families residing in the borough. The population density was 4,628.9 people per square mile (1,755.8/km2). There were 445 housing units at an average density of 2,156.9 per square mile (818.2/km2). The racial makeup of the borough was 99.16% White, 0.21% African American, 0.10% Native American, 0.31% Asian, 0.21% from other races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.36% of the population. There were 406 households, out of which 30.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.8% were married couples living together, 11.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.7% were non-families. 33.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.97. In the borough, the population was spread out, with 25.4% under the age of 18, 7.3% from 18 to 24, 25.5% from 25 to 44, 22.7% from 45 to 64, and 19.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.2 males. The median income for a household in the borough was $27,448, and the median income for a family was $37,614. Males had a median income of $32,778 versus $24,688 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $14,580. About 11.4% of families and 12.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.7% of those under age 18 and 11.9% of those age 65 or over. Culture Every year in early June, Saltsburg holds a community celebration in the Canal Park and on Point Street lasting three days, including live music, a fireworks display, and the annual duck race, in which plastic ducks are numbered and thrown into the river from the bridge. Saltsburg also holds community days in early September called "Canal Days", including booths along the canal in the town containing crafts, food, and games, as well as live music, fireworks, and a poker run bicycle ride along the West Penn Trail. At the end of the ride, each person receives five cards to create a poker hand. Education Saltsburg Elementary Saltsburg Junior/Senior High School The Kiski School References Bibliography Anderson, Jenella M. Indiana County Heritage in Early Historic Saltsburg, ed. Mary Carson, (Indiana, PA: 1970–1971). Johnson, George B. Saltsburg and The Pennsylvania Canal. (Saltsburg, PA: Historic Saltsburg Inc., 1984). Sechrist, Ruth. "Rebecca B. Hadden Stone House Museum," in Historic Saltsburg Pennsylvania. Stephenson, Clarence D. The Early Salt Industry of the Conemaugh - Kiskiminetas Valley. 1 ed. Indiana County Heritage. 4, Marion Center, PA: Mahonin Mineograph and Pamphlet Service, 1968. Stephenson, Clarence D. The Pennsylvania Canal Indiana and Westmoreland Counties. (Indiana, PA: The A.G. Halldin Publishing Company). Telander, Franklin. "Saltsburg: An Historic Pennsylvania Canal Town," in Westmoreland History, (Summer/Fall 2000): 24–31. External links Saltsburg official website Populated places established in 1817 Boroughs in Indiana County, Pennsylvania 1878 establishments in Pennsylvania

133671

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%20the%20Name%20of%20the%20Father%20%28film%29

In the Name of the Father (film)

In the Name of the Father is a 1993 biographical crime drama film co-written and directed by Jim Sheridan. It is based on the true story of the Guildford Four, four people falsely convicted of the 1974 Guildford pub bombings, which killed four off-duty British soldiers and a civilian. The screenplay was adapted by Terry George and Jim Sheridan from the 1990 autobiography Proved Innocent: The Story of Gerry Conlon of the Guildford Four by Gerry Conlon. The film grossed $65 million at the box office and received overwhelmingly positive reviews by critics. It was nominated for seven Oscars at the 66th Academy Awards, including Best Actor in a Leading Role (Daniel Day-Lewis), Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Pete Postlethwaite), Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Emma Thompson), Best Director, and Best Picture. Plot In Belfast, Gerry Conlon is mistaken for an IRA sniper by British security forces and pursued until a riot breaks out. Gerry is sent to London by his father Giuseppe to dissuade an IRA reprisal against him. One evening, Gerry burgles a prostitute's flat and steals £700. While he is taking drugs in a park with homeless Irishman Charlie Burke, an explosion in Guildford occurs, killing four off-duty soldiers plus a civilian as well as injuring many others. Having returned to Belfast some time later, Gerry is captured by the British Army and Royal Ulster Constabulary and arrested on terrorism charges. Flown to the UK mainland, Gerry, his friend Paul Hill as well as the other members of the Guildford Four are subjected to police torture as part of their interrogation. Though he initially maintains his innocence, Gerry signs a confession after the police threaten to kill his father, who is later arrested along with other members of the Conlon family. At his trial, although Gerry's defence points out numerous inconsistencies in the police investigation, he, along with the rest of the Guildford Four, is sentenced to life imprisonment. During their time in prison Gerry and Giuseppe are approached by new inmate Joe McAndrew, who informs them that he was the real perpetrator of the bombing and had confessed this to the police, who in order to save face withhold this new information. Though Gerry warms to Joe, his opinion changes when Joe sets a hated prison guard on fire during a riot. Giuseppe later dies in custody, leaving Gerry to take over his father's campaign for justice. Giuseppe's lawyer Gareth Peirce, who had been investigating the case on Giuseppe's behalf discovers vital evidence relating to Gerry's earlier alibi through a statement made by Charlie Burke, which during an appeal in court totally exonerates Gerry and the rest of the Guildford Four. The film ends with the current activities of the wrongly accused, but also that the police who investigated the case were acquitted of any wrongdoing. The real perpetrators of the Guildford Bombing have not been charged with the crime. Cast Daniel Day-Lewis as Gerard Patrick "Gerry" Conlon Pete Postlethwaite as Patrick "Giuseppe" Conlon Emma Thompson as Gareth Peirce John Lynch as Paul Hill Corin Redgrave as Inspector Robert Dixon Beatie Edney as Carole Richardson John Benfield as Chief PO Barker Paterson Joseph as Benbay Marie Jones as Sarah Conlon Gerard McSorley as Detective Pavis Frank Harper as Ronnie Smalls Mark Sheppard as Patrick Joseph "Paddy" Armstrong Don Baker as Joe McAndrew Tom Wilkinson as an Appeal Prosecutor Model, now actress, Saffron Burrows made her feature film debut in the film, as Gerry Conlon's free love-interest at a commune/squat in London at the time of the bombings. Production To prepare for the role of Gerry Conlon, Day-Lewis lost over 50 pounds in weight. To gain an insight into Conlon's thoughts and feelings at the time, Day-Lewis also spent three days and nights in a jail cell. He was prevented from sleeping by a group of thugs, who would bang on the door every ten minutes with tin cups through the night, then was interrogated by three different teams of real Special Branch officers for nine hours. He would also insist that crew members throw cold water at him and verbally abuse him. He also kept his Belfast accent on and off set. Day-Lewis has stated in an interview that he went through all this as "How could I understand how an innocent man could sign that confession and destroy his own life." Reception The film received very positive reviews from most critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a "Certified Fresh" score of 94% based on 49 reviews, with an average rating of 7.80/10. The site's consensus states: "Impassioned and meticulously observed, In the Name of the Father mines rousing drama from a factual miscarriage of justice, aided by scorching performances and director Jim Sheridan's humanist focus." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 84 out of 100 based on 16 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. The film was the second highest-grossing film ever in Ireland behind Jurassic Park and the highest-grossing Irish film beating the record set by The Commitments in 1991. Year-end lists 2nd – James Berardinelli, ReelViews Top 10 (not ranked) – Dennis King, Tulsa World Honorable mention – Dan Craft, The Pantagraph Accolades Controversy Upon its release the film proved controversial for some historical inaccuracies and for fictionalising parts of the story and Jim Sheridan was forced to defend his choices. In 2003, Sheridan stated: "I was accused of lying in In the Name of the Father, but the real lie was saying it was a film about the Guildford Four when really it was about a non-violent parent." In the film we see Gerry and his father Giuseppe (in the closing credits, the name is misspelled 'Guiseppe') sharing the same cell, but this never took place and they were usually kept in separate prisons. The courtroom scenes featuring Gareth Peirce were also heavily criticised as clearly straying from recorded events and established English legal practices since, as a solicitor and not a barrister, she would not have been able to appear in court at the time as shown in the film. Furthermore, Peirce did not in fact represent Giuseppe Conlon. Investigative journalist David Pallister wrote, "the myriad absurdities in the court scenes, straight out of LA Law, are inexcusable." Soundtrack The soundtrack of the film includes the song "You Made Me the Thief of Your Heart" performed by Sinéad O'Connor and written by Bono, Gavin Friday, and Maurice Seezer. It also includes "Voodoo Child (Slight Return)" performed by The Jimi Hendrix Experience. However, the Bob Dylan Song "Like a Rolling Stone" was not included on the album due to licensing restrictions. The soundtrack featured these songs: Bono and Gavin Friday - "In the Name of the Father" (5:42) The Jimi Hendrix Experience - "Voodoo Child (Slight Return)" (5:09) Bono and Gavin Friday - "Billy Boola" (3:45) The Kinks - "Dedicated Follower of Fashion" (3:00) Trevor Jones - "Interrogation" (7:11) Bob Marley and the Wailers - "Is This Love" (3:51) Trevor Jones - "Walking the Circle" (4:42) Thin Lizzy - "Whiskey in the Jar" (5:44) Trevor Jones - "Passage of Time" (5:52) Sinéad O'Connor - "You Made Me the Thief of Your Heart" (6:21) Filming locations South Lotts, Dublin, Ireland (used for opening Belfast scenes) Sheriff Street, Dublin, Ireland (Sheriff Street flats complex (now demolished) used for riot scene) Kilmainham Gaol, Dublin, Ireland (as Park Royal Prison) Liverpool, England (used for many London scenes) See also Birmingham Six List of films featuring hallucinogens References External links 1993 films British films 1990s English-language films English-language Irish films 1990s biographical drama films 1990s prison films British biographical drama films British legal films British prison films Irish films Irish biographical films Irish drama films British courtroom films Political drama films Universal Pictures films Golden Bear winners Drama films based on actual events Films set in Belfast Films shot in the Republic of Ireland Films directed by Jim Sheridan Films about the Irish Republican Army Films about The Troubles (Northern Ireland) Films about lawyers Films about miscarriage of justice Films scored by Trevor Jones 1993 drama films

133714

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenandoah%2C%20Pennsylvania

Shenandoah, Pennsylvania

Shenandoah is a borough in Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, United States, located in the anthracite-mining region approximately west of New York City and 108 miles northwest of Philadelphia. It is distinct from Shenandoah Heights, which is part of West Mahanoy Township immediately to the north. History The area that became Shenandoah was first settled by a farmer named Peter Kehley in 1835 where he cleared a patch of land at the center of the valley and built a log cabin. Peter Kehley maintained his farm for about 20 years in total isolation. He sold his claim to the Philadelphia Land Company, which in anticipation of the opening of coal mines in the area, laid out the town in 1862. Booming growth occurred during the Civil War years caused by the development and opening of several anthracite coal mines. The area was incorporated as a borough in 1866 and was a famous hotbed of activity during the era of the Molly Maguires in the 1870s. After the original influx of English, Welsh, Irish, and German immigrants a large influx of people from central, eastern and southern European countries such as Poland, Lithuania, and Italy occurred in the decades before and after the turn of the 20th century. By 1920, the town had a population of nearly 30,000 residents. The community was hard hit by the decline of the anthracite coal industry after World War II and heavy emigration by coal miners occurred in order to find work elsewhere. In Schuylkill County Court, January 1902, those interested filed their petition for retail, wholesale, bottling or brewing licenses at the Office of the Clerk of the Court. Shenandoah was represented with bars and breweries. This coal town offered more bars per thousand people than any other location in the world. The Lehigh Valley Railroad Station served as the main passenger terminal in Shenandoah, but because of the coal industry, it was not the only railroad to service Shenandoah. The town was also served by the Pennsylvania Railroad and Reading Railroad, making Shenandoah the only borough in Pennsylvania to be served by three railroad companies. During the Great Coal Strike of 1902 the Pennsylvania National Guard was called into Shenandoah to keep the peace and curb rioting by angry miners. The strike would only be resolved after President Theodore Roosevelt intervened. Shenandoah, the rise and fall of the coal industry, and the dismantling of the Molly Maguires was one of the subjects examined by George Leighton in his 1939 book Five Cities: The Story of Their Youth and Old Age. Shenandoah Valley was featured in the documentary 2012 film "Shenandoah, Pennsylvania" exploring the hate crime murder of Luis Ramirez and the local police attempting to cover it up. Origins of the name The origin of the name Shenandoah is much debated. One theory holds that Shenandoah received its name from an Indian word meaning 'sprucy stream' or 'river flowing alongside high hills and mountains'. Another origin theory is that the town was named after the Shenandoah Valley in Virginia. The Virginia valley in turn took its name from an Iroquoian word meaning 'deer'. Geography Shenandoah is located at (40.819753, -76.202883). According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has a total area of , of which is land and (3.80%) is water. It has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Dfb) and average monthly temperatures range from 25.0 °F in January to 69.5 °F in July. The hardiness zone is 6a. Demographics As of the census of 2010, there were 5,071 people, 2,213 households, and 1,213 families residing in the borough. There were 3,112 housing units, with 28.9% vacant. The racial makeup of the borough was 86.3% White, 1.7% Black, 0.4% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 8.7% some other race, and 2.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 16.7% of the population. As of the census of 2000, there were 5,624 people, 2,649 households, and 1,380 families residing in the borough. The population density was ). There were 3,339 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the borough was 97.40% White, 0.34% African American, 0.25% Native American, 0.36% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.01% from other races, and 0.60% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.76% of the population. There were 2,649 households, out of which 20.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.5% were married couples living together, 13.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 47.9% were non-families. 42.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 26.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.07 and the average family size was 2.84. In the borough the population was spread out, with 19.0% under the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 23.3% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 28.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45 years. For every 100 females, there were 84.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.6 males. The median income for a household in the borough was $18,714, and the median income for a family was $26,910. Males had a median income of $24,289 versus $19,783 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $12,562. About 16.2% of families and 20.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 32.3% of those under age 18 and 16.1% of those age 65 or over. Notable people Joseph Awad – poet, painter and public relations executive. National president of the Public Relations Society of America, Poet Laureate of Virginia. Al Babartsky (19 April 1915 – 29 December 2002) – collegiate and professional American football player. He was one of the Seven Blocks of Granite at Fordham University. Francis Brennan (7 May 1894 – 2 July 1968) – the first American to receive an appointment to the Roman Curia. John Cavosie – National Football League player. Walter Ciszek – Jesuit priest and Russian GULAG survivor. Presently under consideration for possible beatification by the Roman Catholic Church and titled Servant of God. Anthony P. Damato – United States Marine and Medal of Honor recipient. A United States Navy was named in honor of Corporal Damato. John Morgan Davis (9 August 1906 – 8 March 1984) – Lieutenant Governor of Pennsylvania from 1959 to 1963. Jimmy Dorsey – jazz musician and bandleader. Tommy Dorsey – jazz musician and bandleader. Leo Katalinas – National Football League player. Herschel Levit – professor, artist, designer, author. Nicholas Marsicano- painter and teacher of the New York School. Ron Mattes – National Football League player. Al Matuza (11 September 1918 – 16 May 2004) – National Football League player. Rear Admiral Mary Joan Nielubowicz – Director of the United States Navy Nurse Corps. Darryl Ponicsan – author and screenwriter, The Last Detail, Cinderella Liberty. Abner Charles Powell (15 December 1860 – 7 August 1953)- professional baseball player, manager, owner and innovator. Frank Racis – National Football League player. Walter Slowakiewicz – fourth bishop of the Eastern Diocese of the Polish National Catholic Church Barney Wentz – National Football League player. Jerry Wolman - former owner of Philadelphia Eagles of NFL and Philadelphia Flyers of NHL. Nellie King - MLB pitcher and broadcaster for the Pittsburgh Pirates Local Media The Pottsville Republican – Herald, daily newspaper, name merged from the Pottsville Republican and Shenandoah Evening Herald. The Hazleton Standard-Speaker, daily newspaper, name merged from the Standard Sentinel (morning paper) and Plain Speaker (evening paper). WCDH 91.5FM, licensed to Shenandoah, with a Contemporary Christian music format. Locally owned WMBT 1530 on the AM dial served the community from 1963 to 2003. The Shenandoah Sentinel, online local newspaper. Churches St Michael Greek Catholic Church (Ruthenian Catholic Church) was first of that denomination in the United States. On 21 November 1886, the church was dedicated to Saint Michael the Archangel. The new parish was started four years earlier when a group of seventy Galician and Subcarpathian Ruthenian families gathered together and agreed to petition the Ruthenian Catholic Metropolitan of Galicia. St. George Lithuanian Roman Catholic Church is the oldest Lithuanian parish in the United States. The Lithuanian parish was established in 1872, and the church was built in 1891. The church was demolished in 2010 by the decision of Diocese of Allentown and against the wishes of parishioners. St. Casimir Roman Catholic Church is listed as one of the oldest Polish parish in the United States. Gallery See also George Bretz (photographer), who did a famous series of underground photographs of the old Kohinoor Mine here, in 1884. References External links Downtown Shenandoah, Inc. J.W. Cooper Community Center Popalis Family History; Shenandoah History and Image Gallery The Greater Shenandoah Area Historical Society Populated places established in 1820 1820 establishments in Pennsylvania Municipalities of the Anthracite Coal Region of Pennsylvania Boroughs in Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania Coal towns in Pennsylvania

136773

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laredo%2C%20Texas

Laredo, Texas

Laredo ( ; ) is a city in and the county seat of Webb County, Texas, United States, on the north bank of the Rio Grande in South Texas, across from Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas, Mexico. Laredo has the distinction of flying seven flags (the flag of the former Republic of the Rio Grande, which is now the flag of the city, in addition to the Six Flags of Texas). Founded in 1755, Laredo grew from a village to the capital of the short-lived Republic of the Rio Grande to the largest inland port on the Mexican border. Laredo's economy is based on international trade with Mexico. Many major transportation companies have a facility in Laredo. The city is on the southern end of I-35, which makes it close to the manufacturers in northern Mexico. It has four international bridges and one railway bridge. According to the 2010 census, the city population was 236,091, making it the 10th-most populous city in Texas and third-most populated U.S. city on the Mexican border, after San Diego, California, and El Paso, Texas. Its metropolitan area is the 178th-largest in the U.S. and includes all of Webb County, with a population of 250,304. Laredo is also part of the cross-border Laredo–Nuevo Laredo Metropolitan Area with an estimated population of 636,516. Laredo is notable for its high Hispanic proportion, which at over 95%, is the highest proportion of Hispanic Americans out of any city in the United States outside of Puerto Rico. Because of this, it is one of the least ethnically diverse cities in the United States. When economic, household, and social diversity are considered, Laredo is the 19th-least diverse of the 313 largest cities in the nation. Texas A&M International University and Laredo College are in Laredo. Laredo International Airport is within the Laredo city limits, while the Quetzalcoatl International Airport is nearby in Nuevo Laredo on the Mexican side. The biggest festival, Washington's Birthday Celebration, is held during the later part of January and the majority of February, attracting hundreds of thousands of tourists. History The Spanish colonial settlement of Villa de San Agustin de Laredo was founded in 1755 by Don Tomás Sánchez Barrera while the area was part of the Nuevo Santander region in the Spanish colony of New Spain. Villa de San Agustin de Laredo was named after Laredo, Cantabria, Spain and in honor of Saint Augustine of Hippo. In 1840, Laredo was the capital of the independent Republic of the Rio Grande, set up in opposition to Antonio López de Santa Anna; it was brought back into Mexico by military force. In 1846 during the Mexican–American War, the town was occupied by the Texas Rangers. After the war, the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo ceded the land to the United States. A referendum was taken in the town, which voted to petition the American military government in charge of the area to return the town to Mexico. When this petition was rejected, many who had been in the area for generations, moved across the river into Mexican territory, where they founded Nuevo Laredo. Many others, especially original land grantees on the north side of the Rio Grande remained, becoming Texans in the process. In 1849, the United States Army set up Fort McIntosh (originally Camp Crawford). Laredo was rechartered as a city in 1852. Laredo is one of the oldest crossing points along the Mexico–United States border, and the nation's largest inland port of entry. In 2005, Laredo celebrated the 250th anniversary of its founding. The etymology of the name for the Spanish town of Laredo is unclear. Some scholars say the name stems from glaretum, which means "sandy, rocky place". Others state Laredo stems from a Basque word meaning "beautiful pastures". Laredo might also stem from the Latin larida which means gull. In 1946, the Plaza Theater opened in downtown Laredo, but it closed in 1999, when the municipal government purchased the property from United Artists. In 2001, the Laredo City Council authorized a feasibility study to determine what use the old theater might yet have. In 2003, a consultant recommended converting the Plaza into a multipurpose performing-arts center, with dance recitals, concerts, live theater, and occasional films. In 2006, the city received an economic development grant for renovation of the Plaza. By 2008, renovations were made to the theater marquee and blade design. In 2011, a public-private partnership was attempted by two Laredo businessmen, Danny Lopez Jr. and Victor Trevino Jr., but that initiative never materialized. In 2018, the city council authorized the solicitation of private entities and nonprofit organizations to operate the theater. The council is also seeking input from architects for the concept and design of renovations to the structure. In 1954, Laredo faced a devastating Rio Grande flood, when the water reached , more than higher than in the previous 1932 flood, which had also caused great damage. According to Laredo historian Jerry D. Thompson of Texas A&M International University, the 1954 flood was "the largest in 91 years and the second-largest according to archeological records in the last 300 years." Many were left homeless for a time because of the calamity. Former Webb County administrative Judge Mercurio Martinez Jr. recalls his father surveyed the depth of the water and advised residents to evacuate. Several downtown businesses had to remove their merchandise inventory or risk losing it to the rising waters. The flood caused the relocation of the Holding Institute. The international bridge was destroyed when it was struck by the floating railroad bridge, which had been hit by the debris of another bridge in Eagle Pass up the river. Photos of the flood by Teofilo Esquivel Sr. are on the wall of a Danny's Restaurant on McPherson Avenue in Laredo. Cellist Yo-Yo Ma brought his Bach Project to the Juarez–Lincoln International Bridge in April 2019. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 102.6 square miles (265.7 km), of which 101.1 square miles (261.8 km) are land and 1.5 square miles (3.9 km) (1.37%) are covered by water. Location Laredo is on the west end of the Rio Grande Plains, south of the Edwards Plateau, west of the Coastal Plains, and east of the Mexican Mountains. The area consists of a few hills and flat land covered with grasses, oaks, and mesquite. Bodies of water Notable geographic features are the Rio Grande and Chacon Creek's man-made reservoir, Lake Casa Blanca, in Lake Casa Blanca International State Park. The lake is of land and of water. The six major creeks are Chacon Creek, San Ildefonso Creek, San Ygnacio Creek, Santa Isabel Creek, Sombrerillito Creek, and Zacate Creek, all of which drain into the Rio Grande. Several man-made reservoirs include the San Ildefonso Creek Lake (second-largest reservoir), and the Sombrerillito Creek Lake (third-largest reservoir). Nearby cities Climate Laredo's climate is semi-arid with hot temperatures in the summer and mild temperatures during the winter. The climate is considered to be hot semi-arid (Köppen: BSh). Its weather is affected by the Sierra Madre Oriental mountains to the west, the Gulf of Mexico to the east, and the Chihuahuan Desert of Northern Mexico and West Texas. Moisture from the Pacific is cut off by the Mexican mountain range. The normal monthly mean temperature ranges from in January to in August; official record temperatures range from on December 30, 1983, up to on May 7, 1927, and June 17, 1908. On average, temperatures reach or higher on 73 days annually, and fall to or below the freezing mark on 7.1 days, although, in five years, the most recent being 2015, the annual minimum temperature was above freezing. Precipitation averages annually, with higher amounts typically occurring from May to October. Although snowfall is rare in Laredo, measurable snow occurred most recently on Christmas Eve 2004, with , and December 7–8, 2017, with . Demographics As of the 2010, Laredo is the 81st-most populous city in the United States and the 10th-largest in Texas. According to the 2010 census there were 236,091 inhabitants in the city. According to the 2010 U.S. Census, the racial composition of Laredo was: Whites: 87.7%, non-Hispanic Whites: 3.86% Black or African American: 0.5% Native American: 0.4% Asian: 0.6% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander: 0.00% Two or more races: 1.5% other races 9.3% Ethnically, the city was: Hispanic or Latino (of any race) – 95.6% (Mexican 86.9%, Puerto Rican 0.4%, Cuban 0.1%, other Hispanic or Latino 8.3%) According to respondents' self-identification on the 2010 Census, the vast majority of Laredo's population is of Hispanic origin (95.6%), mostly Mexican (86.9%). Most Hispanics who did not identify themselves as Mexican identified as "other Hispanic or Latino" (8.3% of the total population). 84.3% of the population identifies as white Hispanic, while only 11.3% identifies as Hispanic but not white. 4.4% of the population was not Hispanic or Latino (3.4% non-Hispanic White, 0.2% non-Hispanic Black or African American, 0.6% non-Hispanic Asian, 0.1% from some other race (non-Hispanic), and 0.1% of two or more races (non-Hispanic)). In the 2005 estimate, there were 99,675 males and 108,112 females. The average household contained 3.69 occupants. The population density was 2,250.5 people per square mile (868.9/km). Of the 60,816 households, 56,247 or 92.5% were occupied: 33,832 were owner-occupied units and 22,415 were renter-occupied units. About 62.0% were married couples living together, 18.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 14.7% were not families. Around 12.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.69 and the average family size was 4.18. The city's population is distributed as 35.5% under the age of 18, 11.4% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 15.8% from 45 to 64, and 7.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 27 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.2 males. The median income for a household in the city was $32,019, and for a family was $32,577. The per capita income for the city was $12,269; 29.2% of families were below the poverty line. According to the United States Census Bureau, at a 2000 census, Laredo was the second-fastest growing city in the United States, after Las Vegas. A study released in 2015 by the Martin Prosperity Institute of the University of Toronto in Canada showed Laredo as the most "economically segregated" smaller metro area in the United States. The wealthy tend to congregate in enclaves and gated communities, such as Plantation, Regency, Lakeside, Winfield, and Alexander Estates. Most of the poor inhabit neighborhoods known for overall and long standing poverty, particularly in the southern portion of the city. Mayor Pete Saenz, however, said development is underway downtown and in The Heights neighborhood, once the city's most affluent residential area. There are no de facto Anglo and African-American neighborhoods. The second and third cities cited in the study are Jackson, Tennessee, and El Paso, Texas. In 2016, Laredo was ranked the safest city in Texas for motorists and the 14th safest nationally. Its average annual car insurance rate is $1,515.76; the average years between accidents is 11.7. In 2016, the violent crime rate in Laredo dropped to 379 per 100,000 inhabitants, according to AreaVibes. The violent crime rate in Dallas was 694 per 100,000 inhabitants. In Houston it was 967 per 100,000 inhabitants. Economy South Texas banking institutions in Laredo include Falcon International Bank, International Bank of Commerce, and Texas Community Bank. Laredo is the largest inland port in the United States, and Nuevo Laredo the largest in Latin America. This is due to their respective locations, served by Interstate Highway 35 / Mexican Federal Highway 85, the effects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), dozens of twin assembly plants on the Mexican side, and dozens of import export agencies to expedite trade. In January 2014, the Laredo customs district processed "$20 billion in two-way trade with Mexico", about half that for the entire US with Mexico for the month. Laredo is a shopping destination for Mexican shoppers from Northern Mexico. In 2015 the San Antonio Express-News reported the number of Mexican shoppers has declined due to drug war-related violence in Nuevo Laredo. Trade More than 47 percent of United States international trade headed for Mexico and more than 36 percent of Mexican international trade crosses through the Laredo port of entry. Laredo's economy revolves around commercial and industrial warehousing, import, and export. As a major player in international trade, the Laredo area benefited from passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement, which has encouraged trade. The Laredo port of entry consists of four international bridges (with a proposed fifth one) crossing the Rio Grande into the Mexican states of Tamaulipas and Nuevo León. Retail sales Retail sales attract shoppers from Northern Mexico and South Texas. There is one indoor shopping mall in Laredo, Mall del Norte, The Outlet Shoppes at Laredo, and another has not progressed past planning: Laredo Town Center, part of downtown redevelopment. There are dozens of shopping centers. The Streets of Laredo Urban Mall is an association created by businesses on Iturbide Street in the San Agustin historical district to beautify and renovate the area, which has a pedestrian scale. Mall Del Norte The Outlet Shoppes at Laredo, owned by Horizon Group Properties, opened March 2017 with as many as seventy-seven stores, including Banana Republic, Tommy Hilfiger, Michael Kors, Brooks Brothers, OshKosh B'Gosh, Old Navy, New York and Company, and Kay Jewelers. Streets of Laredo Urban Mall Labor market information As of October 2007, Laredo's labor market was in the following industries by percentage of number employed: Trade, Transportation, and Utilities (32%), Information (1%), Financial Activity (5%), Professional and Business Services (6%), Education and Health Services (15%), Leisure and Hospitality (10%), Government (23%), Mining and Construction (5%), Manufacturing (2%), and Other Services (2%). Laredo has increased the number of non-agricultural jobs from 55,100 in January 1996 to 86,600 in October 2007. Laredo has had a higher job growth rate (2%–6.5%) than the state as a whole because of expanded international trade through the North American Free Trade Agreement. In 2007, Laredo experienced a job growth rate of 2.5%. As of October 2007, the Laredo unemployment rate was 4.1% or 3,700 unemployed persons, as compared to 3.9% in Texas statewide. This is a significant drop since the mid-1990s, when Laredo's unemployment was over 15%. Laredo has had positive job market growth since the mid-1990s; setbacks in the mining (oil/gas) industry shifted a few thousand workers to other industries such as international trade and construction. Many large employers in the oil and gas industries shut down operations in Laredo and across Texas, and shifted to foreign countries. The same effect occurred in the garment industry (Levis and Haggar) along the Texas border area. Laredo lost its only garment-producing company (Barry), costing the jobs of about 300 workers. Laredo's strong job growth rate in retail and transportation services limited the adverse effects of long-term unemployment from the few massive layoffs of the late 1990s. Laredo's success with international trade is also a vulnerability; it depends on changes to Mexico's economy, that status of immigration laws (along with daily border crossings: shoppers and commercial trade), and terrorism. In 2014, according to the financial research company NerdWallet, Laredo had the worst pay for women of any city in the United States, with a large gender gap: an average annual salary of $24,700 for women, compared to nearly $35,000 for men. The gender pay gap in Laredo increased 25 percent between 2007 and 2012. Only the wealthy city of Frisco in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, had a greater pay gap within Texas than did Laredo. According to census reports, Laredo has a 30 percent rate of poverty. Laredo households headed by women with children under the age of eighteen have a 51 percent poverty rate. By contrast, the San Jose, California, area, the heart of the tech industry, has an average pay of $56,000, ranking first nationally. Top employers Arts and culture Annual celebrations The Washington's Birthday Celebration (WBCA) is a month-long event that celebrates George Washington's birthday. It is the largest annual celebration of its kind in the United States, with 400,000 attendees. It was founded in 1898 by the Improved Order of Red Men, local chapter Yaqui Tribe No. 59. The first celebration was a success, and its popularity grew rapidly; in 1923 it received its state charter. In 1924, the celebration held its first colonial pageant, which featured 13 girls from Laredo, representing the 13 original colonies. The celebration includes parades, a carnival, an air show, fireworks, live concerts, and a citywide prom during which many of Laredo's elite dress in very formal attire. The related Jalapeño Festival is one of the United States' top 10 eating festivals. Jamboozie is held in late January in downtown Laredo as part of the Washington Birthday celebrations. Similar to New Orleans' Mardi Gras, the Jamboozie is a colorful event, with many people dressed in beads, masks, and flamboyant outfits. The month of March is observed in honor of the Mexican-American labor organizer Cesar Chavez. A march, organized by the local League of United Latin American Citizens, is held downtown the last Saturday morning of March to remember Chavez for United Farm Workers, which in the 1960s and 1970s organized migrant laborers to obtain improved working conditions. Museums The Republic of the Rio Grande Museum is in the downtown historical district next to the historic La Posada Hotel. What was once the Capitol building now showcases memorabilia from the short lived Republic of the Rio Grande. It displays pictures, books, and furniture from the 19th century Laredo area, and offers guided tours for school-age children and adults year-round. Because of this Republic, Laredo had flown seven flags instead of the traditional Six Flags over Texas. The Laredo Center for the Arts is located in downtown Laredo. The building houses three galleries: the Goodman Gallery, the Laredo Art League Gallery and the Lilia G. Martinez Gallery. The Center for the Arts, in the former City Hall offices known as "The Mercado", displays regional artwork and provides community events for children and adults. The Laredo Little Theater provides Laredo with live stage performances. The theater also hosts comedians. Imaginarium of South Texas (formerly Laredo Children's Museum), in Mall del Norte, provides a hands-on experience with science, technology, and art for Laredo's youth. A second museum is planned on the Texas A&M International University campus. The Nuevo Santander Museum Complex is composed of restored buildings of Fort McIntosh, a historical collection of photographs of the fort, the main guardhouse, which has World War I (1914–1918) memorabilia, and a science and technology museum. Planetarium The Lamar Bruni Vergara Science Center Planetarium is on the Texas A&M International University campus. The planetarium surrounds audiences in a dome with an accurate image of the night sky showing all the motions and cycles of the Sun, Moon, planets, and constellations in the sky. Library The Joe A. Guerra Laredo Public Library was first housed on the second floor of the City Hall, now known as the Market Hall, in 1916. In 1974, the Laredo Public Library moved to the historic Bruni Plaza in downtown Laredo. In 1993, the citizens of Laredo approved the construction of a new main library at McPherson and Calton roads, which opened on February 1, 1998. On July 22, 2016, the structure was named in honor of Joe A. Guerra, a former member of the Laredo City Council known for his support for the library and a personal passion for reading. Council member Roque Vela, who first proposed the structure be named for Guerra, described the former councilman, who died in 2010, as "someone I looked up to for his unwavering commitment to public service. I am especially proud to know the library and reading were passions of Mr. Guerra." The Laredo Public Library, which still uses the Dewey Decimal Classification system, has a . main library and two branches. The main library is in central Laredo; the Bruni Plaza Branch is downtown east of Washington Street, and the Santo Niño Branch is in south Laredo. Two new libraries opened in 2014, one in northwest Laredo, the Fasken Library on March 14, and another in the south sometime in July. Nightlife The city is populated with both adult and family entertainment, such as bars, nightclubs, sports fields, movie theaters, family restaurants, and other entertainment venues. Churches and architecture Most of Laredo's architecture is of Spanish Colonial, American, and Mexican flavor. Most of Laredo's Spanish Colonial style buildings are in downtown Laredo. More modern American architecture can be seen along Interstate Highway 35 as well as in the downtown area. Heavily Roman Catholic in church affiliation, Laredo has impressive houses of worship. The oldest congregation, now San Agustin Cathedral, on the downtown historic plaza, dates to the founding of the city in 1755. The striking building we see today was begun in 1871. Our Lady of Guadalupe is an imposing structure in Romanesque Revival Lombard (North Italian) style. It was designed by Leo M. J. Dielmann of San Antonio, a popular architect of Catholic buildings, and built for a Mexican-American and Hispanic congregation in the inner-city, at San Jorge Avenue and Callaghan St. Dielmann was commissioned by Church authorities to design churches for similar congregations in Houston and San Antonio. He also did the San Agustin parish school, and may have had a hand in the San Agustin church itself. Other Catholic churches of note include Blessed Sacrament and Christ the King, both in the Heights neighborhood, St. John Neumann Church at Hillside Road and Springfield Avenue, San Martin de Porres at 1704 Sandman Street near the municipal water tower, and the large St. Patrick Catholic Church on Del Mar Boulevard, founded in 1970 and renovated in 2009. The Catholic diocese office, the headquarters of Bishop James Tamayo, is on Corpus Christi Street north of Guadalupe Street. San Luis Rey Catholic Church at the intersection of Sanders and San Jose opened on September 16, 1951. Outside is a flowered prayer shrine. The congregation of the Church of the Redeemer, at the intersection of Main and Garcia streets downtown, observed its centennial on August 29, 2009. Its building is another work by Leo M.J. Dielmann. Both the First United Methodist Church, in 1949, and the Christ Church Episcopal, were designed by Henry Steinbomer, a popular and prolific San Antonio architect who is credited with more than 100 churches and related buildings during the 1940s and 50s, from the Lower Rio Grande Valley mostly in South and West Texas, from the Sacred Heart Cathedral in San Angelo to Union Church in Monterrey, Mexico. Other Laredo churches include Baptist, Presbyterian, Lutheran, Assembly of God, Mormon, and non-denominational congregations. National Register of Historic Places sites Barrio Azteca Historic District Fort McIntosh San Agustin de Laredo Historic District Hamilton Hotel, architects Atlee B. Ayers and Robert Ayers, the tallest building in Laredo U.S. Post Office, Court House, and Custom House Webb County Courthouse, finished 1909 to designs in the Beaux-Arts style by renowned architect Alfred Giles List of the tallest buildings Laredo in multimedia Film and television Streets of Laredo is a 1949 western film starring William Holden, Macdonald Carey and William Bendix as three outlaws who rescue a young girl, played by Mona Freeman. When they become separated, two reluctantly become Texas Rangers, while the third continues on a life of crime. In the 1957 Christmas episode entitled "Laredo" of NBC's western series, Tales of Wells Fargo, series character Jim Hardie (Dale Robertson) must track gunrunners across the United States/Mexican border, a quest which keeps him from spending the holiday with friends in Laredo as he had intended. The episode stars Henry Rowland, Rodolfo Hoyos Jr., Karl Swenson and Pierre Watkin. In 1958, ABC aired the second episode, "Ambush in Laredo", of the 17-part miniseries, Texas John Slaughter. The 1959 western film, Gunmen from Laredo, stars Robert Knapp, Walter Coy, Paul Birch, and Ron Hayes in the story of a man seeking revenge for the murder of his wife. He winds up in prison on a false murder charge, but the marshal allows him to escape to pursue the man who killed his wife. In the episode "Cactus Lady" (February 21, 1961) of the NBC western television series, Laramie, it is revealed series regular Jess Harper, played by Robert Fuller, had been nearly hanged by mistake in the border city of Laredo c. 1870 because of the McCanles gang, played by Arthur Hunnicutt, L. Q. Jones, Harry Dean Stanton and Anita Sands. In the storyline, the gang arrives suddenly in Laramie. From 1965 to 1967, NBC aired an hour-long western television series entitled, Laredo, with the actors Philip Carey, William Smith, Peter Brown and Neville Brand. A spin-off of The Virginian, Laredo, with elements of comedy, focuses on Texas Rangers in the border country. It is available on DVD.Laredo was also broadcast on weekdays on the Encore Westerns Channel, having filled the time slot previously occupied by double episodes of the ABC/Warner Bros. series, Lawman, which also co-stars Peter Brown. The 1983 film Eddie Macon's Run, based on a James McLendon novel, features John Schneider as Eddie Macon, who is wrongly convicted of mostly minor crimes. While performing at a prison rodeo in Huntsville, Texas, he escapes and heads for Laredo, where he hopes to join his family in Mexico. Carl "Buster" Marzack (Kirk Douglas) is a cop in hot pursuit of Eddie. Without transportation, Eddie journeys on foot. He ends up in the woods, where he is nearly killed. He meets Jilly Buck (Lee Purcell), a bored rich girl who agrees to help him. Lone Star is a 1996 American mystery film written and directed by John Sayles and set in a small town in Texas. The ensemble cast features Chris Cooper, Kris Kristofferson, Matthew McConaughey and Elizabeth Peña and deals with a sheriff's investigation into the murder of one of his predecessors. The movie was filmed in Del Rio, Eagle Pass, and Laredo. The 2011 series, Bordertown: Laredo, is a 10-episode documentary on the Arts and Entertainment Network based on the work of the narcotics unit of the Laredo Police Department. The 2019 movie Terminator: Dark Fate Grace (Mackenzie Davis) traces text messages in Sarah's (Linda Hamilton) phone to Laredo, Texas, which requires them to cross into the US, after being captured and escaping the United States Border Patrol they steal a helicopter and head to the coordinates tattooed on Grace's body, where they meet Carl / T-800 Model 101 (Arnold Schwarzenegger) after having completed his mission, Carl gained autonomy from its original programming and integrated into human society; moved to Laredo, Texas, started a drapery company, married a human, and raised a stepson. Music Laredo has been the subject of several songs in popular culture. One of the most popular songs is the "Streets of Laredo", originally known as "A Cowboy's Lament" and written by Frank H. Maynard, who lived mostly in Colorado. It has been recorded by artists such as Johnny Cash, Marty Robbins, Waylon Jennings, John Cale, Roy Rogers and Prefab Sprout (who also made a lyrical reference to Laredo in an early song, Cue Fanfare), and is even featured in a Charlie's Angels episode ("Pretty Angels all in a Row", Season 2, Episode 3). On October 28, 1958, in the episode "The Ghost" of the ABC/WB western series, Sugarfoot, "The Streets of Laredo" is performed by the child actor Tommy Rettig. The first song on Marty Robbins' 1966 LP The Drifter was "Meet Me Tonight in Laredo." The song described a young Comanchero who woos a young woman despite her family's disapproval. The couple leave Laredo together to start a new life in the Sierre Madre mountains. From 1959 to 1972, the six-member singing group, The Rondels dominated the musical scene in Laredo. Carlos Saenz Landin, the lead singer, left the group to work for the Dallas independent school District but years later returned to Laredo. Lead guitarist Humberto Donovan served in the United States Marine Corps. The late Roberto Alonzo played the bass guitar. Sammy Ibarra, played the keyboard and composed the song, "Lo Mucho Que Te Quiero (The More I Love You)." He subsequently became a pastor. Singer Noe Adolfo Esparza pursued a college career and became a supervisor for Southwestern Bell Telephone Company. As of 2017, he was still performing with the oldies group, Los Fabulosos in Laredo. Joe Lee Vera served in the United States Navy and played drums for The Rondels. Several of Vera's brothers were drummers too. The Rondels packed the Laredo Civic Center Auditorium. Two other songs characteristic of the group are "Ya-Ya" and "All Night Worker." With their disbanding, Juan Cisneros of Laredo recalls The Rondels "left a large void that will never be forgotten." Another popular song is "Laredo" by country music star Chris Cagle, who sings about Laredo having a positive influence on his significant other. Ranked at the top of the charts in 1978 in several countries in Europe is Baccara's "The Devil Sent You to Laredo". "Laredo" is a song from the album Infinite Arms, released by Band of Horses in 2010. "Laredo Tornado" is a track from Electric Light Orchestra's 1974 concept album Eldorado. It uses the idea of missing the 'happy hunting grounds' of Laredo as a metaphor for the protagonist's loss of his dream-world. Joe Ely has a song and album entitled "Letter to Laredo". Sports Current teams Laredo Heat The Laredo Heat is a United Soccer Leagues Premier Development League team. The team's home stadium is the Texas A&M International University Soccer Complex. The team was founded in 2004. In the 2006 season, the Laredo Heat finished Runner-up yet made it only to the first round of the Open Cup. In the 2007 season, the Laredo Heat were the Southern Conference champions and won the PDL Championship. The Heat were on hiatus for the 2016 and 2017 seasons. In November 2017, the Heat announced they will be an expansion team of the National Premier Soccer League in 2018. The Heat recently announced they will also be joining the United Premier Soccer League for the 2020 season. Tecolotes de los Dos Laredos The Tecolotes de los Dos Laredos (Owls of the Two Laredos) are a Triple-A Minor League Baseball team based in Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas, Mexico, playing in the Mexican League. The team splits their home schedule between Parque la Junta in Nuevo Laredo and Uni-Trade Stadium in Laredo.</onlyinclude> Defunct teams Laredo Honey Badgers The Laredo Honey Badgers were a proposed professional indoor soccer team that was founded in April 2013, expected to make its debut in the Professional Arena Soccer League with the 2013–14 season. The team was to play its home games at the Laredo Energy Arena. The official name and colors (black and chrome) of the team were decided with fan participation. However, after several delays the team postponed its launch and eventually ceased operations. Laredo Lemurs The Laredo Lemurs, a professional baseball team, played their first season in the independent American Association in 2012 with home games at Uni-Trade Stadium. They won the South Division in their inaugural season, but were eliminated in the first playoff round. The Lemurs won the league championship in 2015 but ceased operations after the 2016 season. Laredo Roses The Laredo Roses were a professional women's full contact football team in the South Texas Sugar N Spice Football League that began play in the 2012 season. The Roses played their home games at the Uni-Trade Stadium. The female players used short-shorts and half-cut jerseys during games. Laredo Swarm Laredo Swarm was a semi-professional basketball in the relaunched American Basketball Association. They started playing in 2015 in Laredo Energy Arena. The team was disbanded before the 2017–18 season. Stadiums and arenas Sames Auto Arena The Sames Auto Arena, is at Loop 20 and Jacaman Road. The Sames Auto Arena was strongly pushed to fruition by former Laredo Mayor Betty Flores. Sames Auto Arena was home to the former Laredo Bucks. The , $36.5 million facility seats 8,002 people for ice hockey and arena football, and up to 10,000 for concerts. It has fourteen luxury suites, four meeting rooms and a private club for two hundred charter members. It was completed in mid-2002 through an increase in the Laredo sales tax of .25 percent. Sports that can be played at the Sames Auto Arena include ice hockey, arena football, indoor soccer, basketball, wrestling, and boxing. The arena has hosted many events such as The Laredo Hunting and Fishing Show, Miss Texas USA, Laredo Home and Garden Show and the South Texas Collectors Exp's Comic Con. Every year, Laredo College, TAMIU, United ISD and Laredo ISD have their graduation ceremonies at the Sames Auto Arena. Well-known artists and bands that have performed in the arena include Lil Wayne, Rihanna, Kesha, Pitbull, Flo Rida, Shakira, Enrique Iglesias, Tool, Aerosmith, Kiss, Elton John, Styx, REO Speedwagon, ZZ Top, Lynyrd Skynyrd, Ricky Martin, George Lopez, T.I., Ludacris, Cher, Hilary Duff, Monster Jam and WWE. Uni-Trade Stadium The Uni-Trade Stadium is Laredo's newest baseball field. The stadium is near the Laredo Energy Arena. The project was approved by the city council and was voted in favor of (with 61.32% of the votes in favor 38.68% against) constructing it with money collected since 2004 by a .25 percent sales tax increase. There is a surplus of about $15 million. The stadium was home to the Laredo Lemurs of the independent American Association from 2012 to 2016. Beginning in 2018, the Tecolotes de los Dos Laredos of the Triple-A Mexican League play half of their home games at the stadium and the other half at Estadio Nuevo Laredo.</onlyinclude> Student Activity Complex United independent school District's students use the Student Activity Complex on State Highway 359 for football, soccer, and baseball. Opened in the summer of 2002, it has the city's first artificial grass stadium. The SAC was also the home of the Laredo Heat. The capacity is 8,500 spectators. Texas A&M International University Soccer Complex Texas A&M International University Soccer Complex (also known as Dustdevil Field and TAMIU Soccer Complex) was built in 2006 and renovated in 2007. The soccer complex is on the Texas A&M International University campus. The complex has two soccer stadiums with a seating capacity of four thousand each. The Dustdevil Field is the new home stadium to the 2007 champion team Laredo Heat member of the United Soccer Leagues Premier Development League (PDL) and the TAMIU Dustdevils women and men's soccer teams member of the Lone Star Conference, NCAA Division II. Shirley Field The original Shirley Field was next to the Civic Center and R&T Martin High School on San Bernardo Avenue. It was built in 1937, along with Martin High School. Shirley Field was the location for outdoor athletics for Laredo independent school District and also hosts the annual Border Olympics events. It seats up to about 6,000 fans with additional seating at the 2 endzones. Professional Mexican soccer teams have played various exhibition games here, noting the real grass allows for "better" soccer games. The various sports played on the stadium are football, soccer and track & field events. Major renovations are slated for this historic stadium. In November 2009 Shirley Field was demolished and was rebuilt by the 2011 football season. The total cost of the reconstruction was $12,000,000 and it now seats 8,000 fans and features artificial turf. Krueger Field Krueger Field is in north Laredo and is owned by United independent school District. The stadium has a capacity of 5,000 and is used to play football and soccer high school games. It is home to United High School's football and soccer teams. Veterans Field Veterans Field is a 5,000 seat baseball park which was known as West Martin Field. Major renovation is happening to update the 1950 ball park. Veterans Field was also the home to the five-time champion Mexican Baseball League team Tecolotes de los Dos Laredos from 1985 to 2003. Veterans Field is also home to the Texas A&M International University's Lone Star Conference NCAA Division II Dustdevils baseball team. Laredo Civic Center Prior to the construction of the Laredo Energy Arena most major concerts and shows were performed at the Laredo Civic Center. The Laredo Civic Center complex has an auditorium with 1,979 seats and a banquet and exhibit hall with 1,635 seats. Parks and recreation Lake Casa Blanca Lake Casa Blanca International State Park, on Loop 20, has a artificial lake along with cooking out, camping, picnicking, lake swimming, skiing, boating, and mountain biking. The most popular recreational use of the lake is fishing. A boat ramp and fishing pier is available on the lake's eastern side. The lake is a popular destination for winter Texans. The park was operated by the City of Laredo and Webb County before it was acquired by the state in 1990 and opened in March 1991. Golf Laredo has three 18-hole golf courses: the Laredo Country Club, the Casa Blanca Golf Course. and Laredo's newest course Max A. Mandel Municipal Golf Course. The Laredo Country Club is an 18-hole private course with of golf. The golf course has a rating of 74.6, a slope rating of 133, and has a par of 72. The country club was designed by Joseph S. Finger and was opened in 1983. The Casa Blanca Golf Course is an 18-hole course with of golf. The golf course has a rating of 72.5, a slope rating of 125, and has a par of 72. The golf course was designed by Leon Howard and was opened in 1967. The Max A. Mandel Municipal Golf Course is an 18-hole course with of golf. The golf course has a par of 72. The golf course was designed by Robert Trent Jones II Golf Course Architects and was opened in 2012. Parks, recreational centers, plazas, and baseball fields The City of Laredo owns eight recreational centers, thirty-four developed parks, twenty-two undeveloped parks or under construction, five baseball fields, and four plazas. The parks total area is . David B. Barkley Plaza A memorial honoring the forty-one Hispanic soldiers who have received the Medal of Honor was built in Laredo, Texas in 2002. The plaza was named after the only Laredo Medal of Honor recipient David B. Barkley. The David B. Barkley Plaza has a bronze statue of David B. Barkley and an American flag measuring 100 ft by 50 ft and is 308 ft tall making it the tallest flagpole in the United States. The memorial is at . City of Laredo Shiloh Trail This mountain bike trail is approximately 4 miles of single-track dirt trails, widening occasionally to double-track. Some technical parts make this trail challenging, but not impossible, for beginners. Thorny shrubs and cacti are the predominate vegetation. The trail is well-marked and improvements continue to be made. The trail is located off Shiloh Road at the end of Livingston Road. Government Municipal government The Laredo city government is a strong city council – weak mayor system. The mayor presides over the eight-member city council, but only votes to break a tie. City Council elections are based on single-member districts and campaigns have no party affiliations. Municipal elections are now held in November (formerly in May) of even-numbered years. The municipal government is administered by the city manager hired by the city council. All city elected offices have a four-year term and are nonpartisan though most officials have a Democratic party preference or affiliation. One member of the city's 8-member Council is associated with the Texas Green Party City council meetings are held on Mondays and can be viewed on the Public-access television cable TV channel or live online at Public Access Channel live stream. The current mayor, Pete Saenz, was elected in 2014 to succeed his fellow Democrat, the term-limited Raul G. Salinas. In his bid for a second term, Salinas had in 2010 defeated then city council members Jose A. Valdez Jr., and Gene Belmares. Salinas also failed in a bid to unseat Webb County treasurer Delia Perales in the Democratic runoff election held on May 27, 2014. In 2015, the city council named Jesus R. "Chuy" Olivares (born c. 1959) as the city manager to succeed the retiring Carlos Villarreal. Olivares was paid just over $249,000 annually, which included a car and telephone allowance. He was formerly the city manager of Eagle Pass in Maverick County. On May 15, 2017, Olivares suddenly retired as city manager when he became a target of an ongoing Federal Bureau of Investigation probe into widespread public corruption in Webb County. Olivares claims thirty-eight years of municipal experience in Laredo (where was formerly the parks director), Austin, and Eagle Pass. Mayor Saenz expressed support for the decision as one of mutual convenience for Olivares and the city. The council then named the assistant city manager, Horacio De Leon, as the acting city manager. Robert Alexander Eads was selected as City Manager on March 4, 2020, City council members receive a monthly gross salary of $1,000 plus $750 monthly for maintaining a home office, $150 per month for a city cell phone, and $750 monthly for fuel expenses. The annual total compensation is hence $31,800. However, total annual compensation will increase to $50,000. The mayor receives about $61,200; that will rise to $75,000 a year beginning with the 2018 election. Since council terms are staggered, those increases begin with each forthcoming election cycle. On August 1, 2014, then city councilman Jorge A. Vera was arrested on a felony drug possession charge. He was accused of having earlier in the week offered cocaine to an off-duty agent of the United States Border Patrol and her friends outside a Laredo restaurant. First elected to the council in 2012, Vera faced a state jail felony (possession of a controlled substance) and a Class B misdemeanor (filing a false report). Vera was subsequently indicted on both charges by a grand jury of the Texas 406th Judicial District Court. His arraignment was in the 49th District Court. Because Vera did not resign from the city council, a recall election was held on November 4, 2014. By a wide margin, voters in District VII supported Vera's recall. Attorney George Altgelt won the special election to succeed Vera. In March 2017, Ray Garner resigned after four years as the chief of the Laredo Police Department. He instead returns to his former position as police chief of the United independent school District. Then city manager Jesus Olivares appointed Captain Gabriel E. Martinez Jr., a 30-year veteran of the department, as the acting police chief to succeed Garner. State and federal representation The United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas Laredo division is a relatively new building adjacent to the Webb County Courthouse. The United States Border Patrol Laredo Sector Headquarters is at 207 W. Del Mar Blvd, Laredo, Texas. The United States Postal Service operates its main Post Office at 2700 East Saunders Street south of Laredo International Airport. Postal branches are downtown and at 2395 East Del Mar Boulevard. The Texas Army National Guard armory is at 6001 E. Bob Bullock Loop 20 Laredo, Texas. The Colburn Memorial United States Army Reserve Center is at 1 W End Washington St, Laredo, Texas. The Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) operates the Laredo Parole Office. The private prison operator GEO Group runs the Rio Grande Detention Center in Laredo, which opened in 2008 and holds a maximum of 1900 federal detainees. In March 2014, it was reported Laredo and Webb County have a child abuse rate at nearly double the state average. In 2012–2013, 515 child clients were served by the Children's Advocacy Center in Laredo, 105 for physical abuse and 360 for sexual abuse. Statewide, 9.3 percent of children have been victims of physical abuse, but in Laredo the rate is 17 to 21 percent. A special investigator for Child Protective Services said he now sees two to three cases per day of such inflictions. Education Elementary and secondary Two school districts, the Laredo Independent School District and the United Independent School District, and eight private schools serve Laredo. The Laredo Independent School District (LISD) serves the areas in central Laredo. The LISD high schools are Cigarroa High School, Martin High School, J. W. Nixon High School and the Laredo Early College High School. LISD also has three magnet schools: Dr. Dennis D. Cantu Health Science Magnet School, LISD Magnet for Engineering and Technology Education, and Vidal M. Trevino School of Communications and Fine Arts. The United Independent School District serves the rest of Laredo and northern Webb County. The UISD high schools are John B. Alexander High School, Lyndon B. Johnson High School Laredo Early College High School, United High School, and United South High School. UISD has three magnet schools: John B. Alexander Health Science Magnet, United Engineering Magnet, and the United South Business Magnet. There are thirty-nine schools within UISD and more are under construction or development. United ISD is one of the state's fastest growing districts, serving almost forty thousand students and covering an area the physical size of Rhode Island. Several private schools also serve the city: Saint Augustine High School, Catholic school, 9th–12th Laredo Christian Academy, Assemblies of God, Grades PK–12th United Day School, PK-8th Mary Help of Christians School, Catholic school, PK-8th Blessed Sacrament School, Catholic school, PK-7th Our Lady of Guadalupe School, Catholic school, PK-6th St. Peter Memorial School, Catholic school, PK-6th Saint Augustine School, Catholic school, now elementary and middle, PK-8th, established 1928, enrollment 485 (2008) The city also has several charter schools, including: Gateway Academy K-12 Colleges and universities Laredo is home to Laredo College and Texas A&M International University (TAMIU). The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio has a campus in Laredo. Laredo College is a two-campus institution which offers two-year Associate's degrees. The main campus is at the western end of downtown Laredo near the Rio Grande, on the site of the former Fort McIntosh. This fort played a major role in the development of Laredo, as it protected the community from Indian raids in its early history. Several of the old buildings at the fort were converted into classrooms, but after renovation programs nearly all of the campus structures are now modern. The smaller, newer second campus, Laredo College South Campus, is in south Laredo along U. S. Route 83. The Texas A&M International University is a 4/6-year university that offers bachelor's and master's degrees. On April 22, 2004, the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board in Austin, Texas approved Texas A&M International University to grant its first PhD in International Business Administration. TAMIU's College of Business Administration has been named an outstanding business school in The Princeton Review's "Best 282 Business Schools", 2007 Edition, and ranked third in the nation for the category: "Greatest Opportunity for Minority Students." The university's campus is in Northeast Laredo along Loop 20. The university was an extension of Texas A&I-Kingsville and later the former Laredo State University. Prior to its current location along Bob Bullock Loop 20, the university was housed with the Laredo College downtown campus. The University of Texas Health Science Center campus is in East Laredo near U.S. Highway 59 and the Laredo Medical Center. The campus is an extension university from UTHSC in San Antonio, Texas. The university offers doctoral degrees in the medical and dental fields. Media Newspapers Television According to Nielsen Media Research, the Laredo region (which includes Webb and Zapata counties) is ranked 185th market by population size in the United States. The first station to broadcast in Laredo was KGNS in 1956, followed by KVTV in 1973, then KJTB (now KLDO) in 1985. The only notable television network missing from Laredo's airwaves is PBS. Laredo had a full-power local The CW affiliate, KGNS-DT2, but on July 3, 2014, the affiliation switched to ABC. Prior to that KJTB channel 27, from January 1985 to October 1988 was Laredo's ABC affiliate. KJTB was later bought by Entravision and affiliated the station to Telemundo and changed its callsign to KLDO. Today KLDO is affiliated to Univision. Before KJTB, KGNS, an NBC affiliate had a secondary affiliation to ABC from its founding in 1956 through KJTB's founding in 1985. On November 6, 2013, KGNS reached an agreement to add the ABC affiliation. The ABC affiliate launched in July 2014 when KGNS dropped The CW programming and added ABC programming. In October 2015 KVTV now KYLX started broadcasting The CW Programming on its digital subchannel 13.2. In December 2014, all Nuevo Laredo stations turned off analog television broadcasting and started broadcasting digitally only. Radio According to Arbitron, the Laredo region (which includes Jim Hogg, Webb, and Zapata counties) is ranked 191st market by population size. AM radio Long range AM stations The following Clear Channel AM stations can be heard in Laredo: FM radio PR:Suspected pirate radio stations since they are not licensed with Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States or COFETEL in Mexico. Some pirate stations are suspected, due to the fact other licensed stations nearby share the same frequency, such as 106.5 Radio Voz and KMAE from nearby Bruni, Texas and 103.3 Radio 33 and XHAHU-FM from nearby Anáhuac, Nuevo León, each city less than 50 miles from Laredo. Infrastructure Health care In addition to the University of Texas Health Science Center branch, there are five other principal medical centers in Laredo: the Laredo Medical Center, Doctor's Hospital, Gateway Community Health Center, Providence Surgical & Medical Center, and the Laredo Specialty Hospital. Doctors Hospital is Laredo's second-largest medical center. The hospital complex is over , with 180 licensed beds on a campus. Affiliated with Universal Health Services, it is on Loop 20 in north Laredo. The Doctors Regional Cancer Treatment Center offers comprehensive cancer services. The Providence Surgical & Medical Center is an ambulatory health care center in north-central Laredo and also owned by Universal Health Services. The Gateway Community Health Center is the third-largest medical center in Laredo. The health center's main building is . The Medical center moved to its new $11,000,000 building in 2006. The main Gateway Community Health Center is in East Laredo, close to U.S. Highway 59. It also has three branches in the Laredo area: the South Clinic, El Cenizo Community Center, and Quad City Community Center. Gateway Community Health Center services include: The Laredo Specialty Hospital is the fourth-largest medical center in Laredo. It is owned by Ernest Health Inc. and was founded by Elmo Lopez Jr. on May 22, 2006. It admitted its first patient within hours of operation. The grand opening took place in March 2007. Transportation In 2016, 82.3 percent of working Laredo residents commuted by driving alone, 10.2 percent carpooled, 0.9 percent used public transportation, and 1.9 percent walked. About 2 percent of working Laredo residents commuted by all other means, including taxi, bicycle, and motorcycles. About 2.6 percent worked at home. In 2015, 6.5 percent of city of Laredo households were without a car, which decreased slightly to 5.9 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Laredo averaged 1.85 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8 per household. Air Laredo is served by the Laredo International Airport. Daily flights are available to Houston (George Bush Intercontinental Airport) and to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. Tri-weekly flights to Las Vegas, Nevada are available. After Laredo Air Force Base closed in the mid-1970s, the federal government handed over the old air force base and property to the City of Laredo for a new municipal airport. From the mid-1970s until the mid-1990s, the airport used a small terminal for passenger airline service and several old hangars for air cargo and private aircraft. A new state-of-the art passenger terminal was built along the then newly constructed Loop 20 to accommodate larger jets and to increase passenger air travel through Laredo. Expansion of air cargo facilities, taxiways and aprons, air cargo carriers such as DHL, FedEx, UPS, BAX, and others have responded by adding commercial air cargo jet services. Laredo also has two medical helipads, at Laredo Medical Center and Doctor's Hospital. Mass transit El Metro is the public transit system that operates in the city with 21 fixed routes and Paratransit services, with approximately 4.6 million passengers per year. El Metro works with a fleet of over 47 fixed route buses, 2 trolleys and 18 Paratransit/El Lift vans. The El Metro hub is in downtown Laredo at El Metro Transit Center. The center also houses Greyhound Lines and provides fee-based daily parking for downtown shoppers and workers. Rural transit Rural transportation is provided by the Webb County operated "El Aguila Rural Transportation" (the Eagle) bus services. El Aguila serves fixed daily routes from rural communities (Bruni, El Cenizo, Mirando City, Oilton, and Rio Bravo) to the downtown El Metro Transit Center. International bridges Gateway to the Americas International Bridge Juárez-Lincoln International Bridge World Trade International Bridge (commercial traffic only) Colombia-Solidarity International Bridge Texas-Mexican Railway International Bridge Major highways Major highways in Laredo and their starting and ending points: Interstate 35 Laredo-Duluth Interstate 69W Laredo-Victoria following I-69 to Port Huron Interstate 2 is proposed to be extended to Laredo following US 83. If it is extended, I-2's terminus would be I-69W. It would also serve as the southern end of I-35. U.S. Highway 59 Laredo-Lancaster. Included on the I-69W corridor. U.S. Highway 83 Brownsville-Laredo-Westhope State Highway 255 Laredo-Colombia State Highway 359 Laredo-Skidmore State Loop 20 Loop around Laredo Farm to Market Road 1472 Laredo – Colombia Solidarity International Bridge Major highways in Nuevo Laredo and their starting and ending points: Mexican Federal Highway 85 Nuevo Laredo-Mexico City Mexican Federal Highway 2 Matamoros-Nuevo Laredo-Colombia-Ciudad Acuña Tamaulipas State Highway 1 Nuevo Laredo-Monterrey Nuevo León State Highway Spur 1 Colombia-Anáhuac Notable people Born in Laredo Pedro "Pete" Astudillo, composer David Barkley-Cantu, first Mexican-American to be awarded the Medal of Honor Freddie Benavides, former professional baseball player Santos Benavides, Confederate States of America colonel Louis H. Bruni (born 1949), businessman; former Webb County county judge and former member of the Laredo City Council Esther Buckley (1948–2013), member of the United States Commission on Civil Rights from 1983 to 1992; Laredo educator Kaleb Canales (born 1978), assistant coach of the Indiana Pacers of the National Basketball Association Quico Canseco, Republican U.S. Representative representing Texas' 23rd congressional district from 2010 to 2012 Orlando Canizales, professional boxer, Career W 50 L 5 D 1 Francisco G. Cigarroa, chancellor of University of Texas System Henry R. Cuellar, Democrat U.S. Representative from Texas's 28th congressional district since 2005, former Texas Secretary of State (2001) and state representative (1987–2001) Tony Dalton, actor and screenwriter Elizabeth De Razzo (born 1980), actress Tom DeLay, former U.S. Representative for Texas' 22nd congressional district, former House Majority Leader, Republican from Sugar Land, Texas Ramón H. Dovalina (born 1943), educator; president of Laredo Community College from 1995 to 2007 Elma Salinas Ender (born 1953), first Hispanic woman state court judge in Texas; served on the 341st District Court from 1983 until her retirement in 2012 Audrey Esparza, (born 1986), actress Megan Frazee (born 1987), women's professional basketball player, (2009–) Betty Flores (born 1944), first woman mayor of Laredo, 1998–2006 Alfonso Gomez-Rejon (born 1973), film and television director Armando Hinojosa (born 1944), sculptor, designed Tejano Monument in Austin and "Among Friends There Are No Borders" at the Laredo International Airport Jovita Idar (1885–1946) was a Mexican-American journalist, political activist and civil rights worker, who fought for the rights of Mexican Americans and women. Rodney Lewis (born 1954), oil and natural gas industrialist based in San Antonio Sebastián Ligarde (born 1954), actor Thomas C. Mann, (1912-1999) Pointman for Latin America policy for President Lyndon Johnson. Instrumental in the 1964 Brazilian coup d'etat in the United States occupation of the Dominican Republic; Former U.S. Ambassador to Mexico; former U.S. Ambassador to El Salvador Jose C. "Pepe" Martin Jr. (1913–1998), mayor of Laredo from 1954 to 1978; convicted federal felon popularly known as el patron César A. Martínez (born 1944), artist, prominent in the Chicano world of art. Alicia Dickerson Montemayor, Democratic political activist and educator Amado Maurilio Peña Jr. (born 1943), is an American visual artist and art educator. Federico Peña, former mayor of Denver, former U.S. Secretary of Transportation, and former U.S. Secretary of Energy, Democrat William Merriweather Peña (1919–2018), architect Ana Rodriguez, Miss USA finalist, finished third runner up, 2011 Johnny Rodriguez, Tex-Mex Country singer Pete Saenz (born 1951), mayor of Laredo since November 12, 2014; former trustee of Laredo Community College and Laredo lawyer Poncho Sanchez (born 1951), conga player, Latin jazz bandmaster & salsa singer Antonio R. "Tony" Sanchez Jr., oilman and banker, 2002 Democratic nominee for governor of Texas, lost to Rick Perry; first major party Latino nominee for Governor of Texas José Silva, parapsychologist Edgar Valdez Villarreal (born 1973), nicknamed La Barbie, Mexican-American drug lord and former leader of Los Negros Peggy Webber (born 1925), actress Jack Wheeler (1944–2010), co-founder of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund; aide to U.S. Presidents Reagan, George H.W. Bush, and George W. Bush Judith Zaffirini (born 1946), First Latina elected to the Texas State Senate; Has served since 1987 John King, Professional baseball pitcher for The Texas Rangers Other notable people W. J. Adkins (1907–1965), founding president of Laredo Community College, 1947–1960 Steve Asmussen (born 1965), horse breeder who won three legs of the Triple Crown Robert L. Bobbitt (1888–1972), politician, former Speaker of the Texas House of Representatives and state attorney general Norma Elia Cantú (born 1947), Chicana postmodernist writer and a professor of English at the University of Texas at San Antonio Thomas Haden Church, actor in film Sideways and sitcom Wings Edmund J. Davis (1827–1883), governor of Texas from 1869 to 1873; resided in Laredo during parts of the 1850s. Ned Kock, information systems professor affiliated with Texas A&M International University Ray A. Laird, president of Laredo Community College, 1960 to 1974 Jack Lanza, ex-professional wrestler, now WWE producer Rafael A. Lecuona (1928–2014), Cuban-born former Olympic gymnast and retired Texas A&M International University political science professor Juan L. Maldonado (born 1948), sixth president of Laredo Community College Saul N. Ramirez Jr., mayor of Laredo from 1990 to 1998 Richard Peña Raymond, state representative from Webb County since 2001; previously represented Duval County Raul G. Salinas, mayor of Laredo from 2006 to 2014; native of Alice, Texas Jerry D. Thompson (born 1943), historian affiliated with Texas A&M International University Jeremy Vuolo, (born 1987), is an American former soccer player for Major League Soccer and the North American Soccer League. He is a pastor and appears on the TLC (TV network) show "Counting On". He is the husband of Jinger Duggar Vuolo (m. 2016). Robert G. Whitehead (1916–2007), businessman/artist who marketed "Blue Star" first-aid ointment Roger L. Worsley (born 1937), president of Laredo Community College, 1985 to 1995 Kevin Patrick Yeary (born 1966), Republican member of the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals; born in Cotulla, reared in Laredo, resides in San Antonio Sister cities During the month of July, Laredo sponsors the Laredo International Sister Cities Festival, which was founded in 2003. The festival is an international business, trade, tourism, and cultural expo. All of Laredo's sister cities are invited to participate. In 2004, the Laredo International Sister Cities Festival received the best overall Program award from the Sister Cities International. Laredo's sister cities are: Acámbaro, Mexico (2004) Campeche, Mexico Cerralvo, Mexico Chenzhou, China (2001) Ciénega de Flores, Mexico (1987) Ciudad Valles, Mexico La Cruz, Costa Rica Cuernavaca, Mexico General Escobedo, Mexico General Terán, Mexico Guadalajara, Mexico Guadalupe, Mexico (2000) Los Herreras, Mexico Hutt, New Zealand Jerez, Mexico (1987) Lampazos de Naranjo, Mexico (2000) Laredo, Spain (1978) Lázaro Cárdenas, Mexico León, Mexico Mexticacán, Mexico (2002) Monclova, Mexico (2003) Montemorelos, Mexico Murray Bridge, Australia (1984) Nuevo Laredo, Mexico (1986) Papantla, Mexico San Antonio de Areco, Argentina San Miguel de Allende, Mexico (2001) Tainan, Taiwan Tepatitlán de Morelos, Mexico Tijuana, Mexico Tlahualilo, Mexico (1988) Tonalá, Mexico Torreón, Mexico 2004) Veracruz, Mexico (1992) Wenzhou, China Wuwei, China (2004) Zixing, China (2002) See also Laredo–Nuevo Laredo Nuevo Laredo Webb County, Texas Notes References Bibliography External links City of Laredo Homepage Laredo Chamber of Commerce Laredo Convention and Visitors Bureau Laredo Development Foundation Laredo History provided by the City Of Laredo Historic Photos from the Laredo Public Library hosted by the Portal to Texas History Cities in Webb County, Texas County seats in Texas Laredo–Nuevo Laredo Divided cities Mexico–United States border crossings Capitals of former nations Former colonial and territorial capitals in the United States Populated places established in 1755 1755 establishments in New Spain Cities in Texas Texas populated places on the Rio Grande

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Valley%20City%2C%20Utah

West Valley City, Utah

West Valley City is a city in Salt Lake County and a suburb of Salt Lake City in the U.S. state of Utah. The population was 140,230 at the 2020 census, making it the second-largest city in Utah. The city incorporated in 1980 from a large, quickly growing unincorporated area, combining the four communities of Granger, Hunter, Chesterfield, and Redwood. It is home to the Maverik Center and USANA Amphitheatre. History The earliest known residents of the western Salt Lake Valley were Native American bands of the Ute and Shoshoni tribes. The first European people to live in the area were the Latter-day Saints. The Euro-Americans arrived in the Salt Lake Valley in 1847. The area was first staked out by settler Joseph Harker and his family in the area they named as "over Jordan" (referring to the land west of the Jordan River, which runs through the valley). The Granger area was settled by Welsh pioneers who had come to Utah with Dan Jones in 1849. Irrigation systems and agriculture were developed in the area, and it was Elias Smith who proposed the area's name on account of its successful farming. Granger and vicinity had about 1,000 people in 1930. Hunter was not settled until 1876. This settlement was started by Rasmus Nielson, Edward Rushton, August Larsen and about seven others along with their families. Irrigation began in 1881 and the main crop was fruit trees. The city began to experience rapid growth in the 1970s, when the area that is now West Valley City consisted of the four separate communities of Hunter, Granger, Chesterfield, and Redwood. These four unincorporated areas merged in 1980 to form the present-day city. During the 2002 Olympic Winter Games, West Valley City was the official venue for men's and women's ice hockey. On May 19, 2011, the city unveiled an official plan to create a downtown area for the city over the course of 10 years, building on plans and development that already existed. It will be known as Fairbourne Station (named after Joseph Fairbourne, an early settler who operated a weigh station in the area in the late 19th century) and will consist of approximately , costing $500 million to build. The center will include a civic center (consisting of city hall, a courthouse, police headquarters, and a library), an eight-story Embassy Suites hotel, a plaza, and residential development, as well as the end of the TRAX Green Line, and a stop on the 3500 South MAX bus rapid transit line. Valley Fair Mall and the Maverik Center are located nearby, as is I-215. of the development is incomplete, with the TRAX line having opened in 2011 and the hotel in 2012, but the City Hall and government center are under construction. Serial killer Ted Bundy was arrested in Granger on August 16, 1975, on a routine traffic stop. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 35.5 square miles (91.8 km2), of which 35.4 square miles (91.7 km2) is land and 0.1 square miles (0.2 km2) (0.17%) is water. West Valley is located on the northwest side of the Salt Lake Valley between Salt Lake City on the north, South Salt Lake on the east, Magna Township on the west, and Taylorsville and Kearns Township on the south. The Oquirrh Mountains loom over the city to the west, while the Jordan River marks the eastern boundary. Government West Valley City has a nonpartisan, strong city manager form of government, which means that the city manager is analogous to a corporation's CEO, while the mayor fills a role similar to chairman of the board, with the City Council acting as the "board". The mayor is a voting member of the City Council. The West Valley City Council meets each Tuesday night at 6:30 PM, except fifth Tuesdays. City Hall is located at 3600 South Constitution Boulevard. The mayor and six councilors are elected to four-year terms. Mayoral elections are held the same year as three of the councilors. The other three councilors are staggered two years from the mayoral. Two council seats are at-large, or citywide, and the remaining four seats represent districts of approximately 28,000 residents. Officials are not subject to term limits. , the most recent election was held in November, 2013. In the Utah State Legislature, West Valley City is in Senate Districts 1, 3, 5, and 12 represented by Democrat Luz Robles, Democrat Gene Davis, Democrat Karen Mayne, and Republican Daniel Thatcher and House Districts 30, 31, and 33, represented by Republican Fred Cox, Republican Sophia DiCaro, and Republican Craig Hall. Federally, West Valley City lies in the 2nd and 4th congressional districts, represented by Republican Chris Stewart and Democrat Ben McAdams. Police The West Valley City Police Department (WVCPD) provides law enforcement services to the city. the police chief is Colleen Jacobs, a 21 year veteran of the department, who oversees 218 sworn officers and 47 support staff. In 2013, the city police's narcotics unit was disbanded due to rampant corruption among its officers. These officers were found stealing small items from seized vehicles, taking evidence, and placing tracking devices on potential suspects' vehicles without warrants. In 2016, Officer Cody Brotherson was killed in the line of duty, the department's only such fatality. In 2019, an officer shot and killed a handcuffed man who was reaching for the officer's gun: this killing was found legally justified by the district attorney. Demographics According to estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau, as of 2018, there were 136,401 people in West Valley City. The racial makeup of the city was 46.5% non-Hispanic White, 2.3% Black, 1.1% Native American, 6.0% Asian, 3.9% Pacific Islander, and 4.2% from two or more races. 38.1% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. As of the census of 2010, there were 129,480 people, 38,535 households, and 34,900 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,647.32 people per square mile (2,266.35/km2). There were 38,978 housing units at an average density of 1,097.97 per square mile (682.25/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 65.37% White, 1.96% African American, 1.26% Native American, 4.97% Asian, 3.64% Pacific Islander, 18.96% from other races, and 3.85% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 33.13% of the population. There were 38,535 households, out of which 47.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.3% were married couples living together, 13.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.6% were non-families. 14.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.36 and the average family size was 3.71. In the city, the population was spread out, with 33.7% under the age of 18, 12.9% from 18 to 24, 30.7% from 25 to 44, 17.4% from 45 to 64, and 5.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 27 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $45,773, and the median income for a family was $48,593. Males had a median income of $32,116 versus $22,693 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,031. About 6.7% of families and 8.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.0% of those under age 18 and 3.5% of those age 65 or over. Economy Companies based in West Valley City include Backcountry.com, C.R. England, FranklinCovey, and USANA Health Sciences. Top employers According to the City's 2017 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, these are the top employers in the city: Education The city lies in the Granite School District. It has 21 elementary schools, four junior high schools, and two high schools - Granger Senior High, which opened in 1958, and Hunter, which opened in 1990. The city is also the location of East Hollywood High School, a charter school specializing in film education and American Preparatory Academy. Transportation West Valley City is on the same address grid system as Salt Lake City, and therefore also follows the same street numbering system. I-215 runs through eastern portions of the city parallel to I-15, which lies farther east of the city. The SR-201 freeway lies along the northern border with Salt Lake City and continues west into Magna as an expressway. Bangerter Highway, which runs south from Salt Lake City International Airport, traverses the approximate center of the city as well on its way to serving the rapidly growing western and southern ends of the valley. The Mountain View Corridor will also run through the western portion of the city. The city also is served by several bus routes operated by the Utah Transit Authority, and an intermodal transportation hub located in the city center near Valley Fair Mall and the Maverik Center. In addition to local bus routes, the West Valley Intermodal Hub is serviced by TRAX light rail and MAX bus rapid transit (BRT) lines. The 3500 South MAX BRT line began service in 2008 and the TRAX Green Line to the intermodal hub was completed and began service in 2011. Sports and entertainment West Valley City is home to the Maverik Center and the Utah Grizzlies of the ECHL. It is also home to the Utah Cultural Celebration Center, Stonebridge Golf Course, The Ridge Golf Course, Rocky Mountain Raceways, USANA Amphitheatre, and the Valley Fair Mall. WVC is also home to The Drive-in. Neighborhoods Chesterfield, Redwood, Westshire, East Granger (84119) The Eastern side of West Valley City consists of the Redwood, Chesterfield and East Granger neighborhoods. The neighborhood population in 2013 was 54,832. This area of West Valley City has a median household income of $42,512, which is lower when compared to the rest of the city and region. The neighborhood's racial makeup was 51.17% White, 35.08% Hispanic or Latino, 4.73% Asian, 3.24% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander and 2.51% African-American. Much of Eastern West Valley's residential architecture is based on common brick ranch styles from the 1960s and 1970s. To the north of Parkway Boulevard exists a significant number of light industrial development. South of Parkway is mostly residential and commercial, including Valley Fair Mall and the Maverik Center. The Westshire neighborhood is located directly south of Valley Fair Mall and consists of 160 homes built by modernist architect Ron Molen. This neighborhood is unique in that all homes were built in the 1960s and 1970s in the Mid-Century Modern style and are excellent examples of modernist residential architecture. West Valley City planners are currently developing a planned mass-transit anchored Downtown area near the Valley Fair Mall with the emergence of the Fairbourne Station as a gathering place and revitalization of the mall. West Granger, Hunter, Lakepark (84120) The Central portion of West Valley City consists of the West Granger and Hunter, south of 3100 South, with the Lakepark and Westlake Business Park commercial and office developments taking up the majority of the space north of 3100 South. The neighborhood population in 2013 was 49,107. This area of West Valley City has a median household income of $55,087, which is typical for the state of Utah and Northern Salt Lake County. The neighborhood's racial makeup was 53.82% White, 32.11% Hispanic or Latino, 5.04% Asian, 4.54% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander and 1.57% African-American. Much of Central West Valley's residential architecture is based on common brick ranch styles from the 1960s and 1970s. The Highbury planned development is currently being established in the northwestern portion of this area. This is a large planned mixed residential and commercial area with a large pond and many casual restaurants in a walk-able district near 5600 West. West Hunter, Woodhaven, Oquirrh (84128) The western portion of West Valley City consists of the West Hunter, Woodhaven, and Oquirrh neighborhoods. The neighborhood population in 2013 was 28,475. This area of West Valley City has a median household income of $64,356, which is slightly higher than the median for both the state of Utah and Salt Lake County. The neighborhood's racial makeup was 60.65% White, 29.62% Hispanic or Latino, 3.15% Asian, 2.37% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander and 1.39% African-American. Much of western West Valley's residential architecture is based on 1990s and 2000s planned developments. The majority of the neighborhood is residential, with the exception of many strip-mall style commercial developments along its eastern border of 5600 West. The city's master plan calls for a Hunter Town Center development near the intersection of 5600 West and 3500 South, but no structures have yet been developed specifically for this. This side of West Valley City is also home to USANA Amphitheater, though it technically shares the 84118 zip code with Kearns and Taylorsville, rather than West Valley City. Key to the City West Valley City has presented the Key to the city to several visiting dignitaries. Past recipients have included Mayor Yéah Samaké of Ouélessébougou, Mali; Governor of Chiapas Juan Sabines Guerrero; and United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. The key was awarded to Tongan Queen Mother Halaevalu Mataʻaho ʻAhomeʻe on July 28, 2011, when she visited the city for the rededication of the Tongan United Methodist Church. It was also presented by Mayor Mike Winder on December 14, 2011 to Axl Rose of Guns N' Roses when they performed in the Maverik Center the day after it was announced that the band was to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Sister cities West Valley City has sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International: Nantou, Nantou, Taiwan Province, Republic of China (Taiwan) Boca del Río, Veracruz, Mexico Notable people Anton Palepoi, former defensive end with the Seattle Seahawks Matt Asiata, running back with the Minnesota Vikings John Madsen, NFL tight end for the Cleveland Browns Naufahu Tahi, full back, Minnesota Vikings Ray Feinga, offensive tackle for Miami Dolphins Tadd Gadduang, finalist, So You Think You Can Dance SHeDAISY Susan Powell, woman missing since 2009, last seen in West Valley City See also Salt Lake City metropolitan area Granger-Hunter, a census-designated place delineated within the area in 1970. References External links West Valley City official website Chamber of Commerce/Tourism website The Magna Times Weekly Newspaper - West Valley News, Magna and Kearns Cities in Utah Salt Lake City metropolitan area 1980 establishments in Utah Populated places established in 1980 Wasatch Front Cities in Salt Lake County, Utah

137552

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culpeper%2C%20Virginia

Culpeper, Virginia

Culpeper (formerly Culpeper Courthouse, earlier Fairfax) is the only incorporated town in Culpeper County, Virginia, United States. The population was 20,062 at the 2020 census, up from 16,379 at the 2010 census. It is the county seat of Culpeper County. Geography Culpeper is located at (38.471915, −77.999168). According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 7.31 square miles (18.9 km), of which 7.27 square miles (18.8 km) is land and 0.04 square mile (0.1 km) is water. History After establishing Culpeper County, Virginia in 1748, the Virginia House of Burgesses voted to establish the Town of Fairfax on February 22, 1759. The name honored Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron (1693–1781) who was proprietor of the Northern Neck peninsula, a vast domain north of the Rappahannock River; his territory was then defined as stretching from Chesapeake Bay to what is now Hampshire County, West Virginia. The original plan of the town called for ten blocks, which form the core of Culpeper's downtown area today. The original town was surveyed by a young George Washington, who at age 27 was a protege of the 6th Lord Fairfax. In 1795, the town received a U.S. Post Office under the name Culpeper Court House, although most maps continued to show the Fairfax name. The confusion resulting from the difference in official and postal names, coupled with the existence to the northeast of Fairfax Court House and Fairfax Station post offices in Fairfax County, was finally resolved when the Virginia General Assembly formally renamed the town as simply Culpeper in 1869 (Acts, 1869–1870, chapter 118, page 154). During the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783), the Culpeper Minutemen, a pro-Independence militia, formed in the town of Culpeper Courthouse. They organized in what was then known as "Clayton's Old Field," near today's Yowell Meadow Park. During the Civil War (1861-1865), Culpeper was a crossroads for a number of armies marching through central Virginia, with both Union and Confederate forces occupying the town by turn. In the heart of downtown, the childhood home of Confederate General A.P. Hill stands at the corner of Main and Davis streets. One block north on Main Street (present location of Piedmont Realty) was the frame house where "The Gallant Major" John Pelham died after sustaining a wound at the Battle of Kelly's Ford. In 1974, the town had a Choral Society, an Odd Fellows Hall, and an American Legion Hall. Culpeper began to grow dramatically in the 1980s, becoming a "bedroom community" of more densely populated Northern Virginia and Washington, D.C. suburbs. A growing number of residents of the town and county of Culpeper once lived and continue to work in those areas. In 2011, East Davis Street in downtown Culpeper was named as a 2011 America's Great Place by the American Planning Association. Downtown Culpeper was one of the communities most affected by the August 23, 2011 Virginia earthquake. Several buildings along Main Street and East Davis Street suffered structural damage, and some were later condemned. The earthquake led to the temporary evacuation of the Packard Campus for Audio-Visual Conservation, which at the time was hosting a town hall event for U.S. Senator Mark Warner. In 2014 the Museum of Culpeper History moved into the town's historic train depot. Demographics As of the 2010 Census, the racial makeup of the town was 61.5% White, 21.9% Black, 0.6% Native American, 2.1% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, and 4.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 17.0% of the population. The town's population included 25.7% under the age of 18, 10.0% from 18 to 24, 30.3% from 25 to 44, 19.0% from 45 to 64, and 15.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.9 males. The median income for a household in the town was at a time $35,438, and the median income for a family was $41,894 but due to the economic downturn this has changed. Males had a median income of $28,658 versus $25,252 for females. The per capita income for the town was $16,842. About 23.0% of families and 26.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 40.8% of those under age 18 and 22.1% of those age 65 or over. Climate Culpeper has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), with very warm, humid summers and cool winters. Precipitation is abundant and well spread (although the summer months are usually wetter), with an annual average of . Transportation Highways directly serving Culpeper include U.S. Route 15 Business, U.S. Route 29 Business, U.S. Route 522, Virginia State Route 3 and Virginia State Route 229. U.S. Route 15 and U.S. Route 29 pass just southeast of the town limits. US 15 Bus, US 29 Bus and US 522 share the same alignment through downtown, following Main Street. US 29 extends southwest towards Charlottesville and Interstate 64 westbound, while US 15 provides connections southward towards Orange and Gordonsville. US 15 and US 29 are concurrent to the north, providing connections to Warrenton and Washington, D.C. US 522 connects southward to I-64 eastbound, and northward towards Front Royal, Winchester and Interstate 81. SR 3 extends eastward, connecting to Fredericksburg and Interstate 95. SR 229 provides a connection northward towards Rixeyville and U.S. Route 211. Amtrak operates a station in Culpeper, station code CLP. This station is served by the Cardinal, Northeast Regional and Crescent trains daily. Nearly 9,000 train passengers in 2010 used Culpeper station, which connects to New Orleans, Chicago, New York and Boston via the Crescent, Cardinal, and Northeast Regional lines. The town of Culpeper is also serviced by Virginia Regional Transit. Virginia Regional Transit operates three buses in town—one on a northern loop, one on a southern loop, and one for disabled individuals. Academy Bus offers a commuter bus from Culpeper to Washington, D.C. Culpeper Regional Airport serves the area with a 5,000 foot runway. Public schools A.G. Richardson Elementary (18370 Simms Dr., Culpeper Va. 22701) Emerald Hill Elementary (11245 Rixeyville Road, Culpeper VA 22701) Farmington Elementary (500 Sunset Lane, Culpeper VA 22701) Pearl Sample Elementary (18480 Simms Drive, Culpeper VA 22701) Sycamore Park Elementary (451 Radio Lane, Culpeper, Virginia 22701) Yowell Elementary (701 Yowell Drive, Culpeper, VA 22701) Culpeper Middle School (14300 Achievement Drive, Culpeper VA 22701) Floyd T. Binns Middle School (205 E. Grandview Ave. Culpeper, VA 22701) Culpeper County High School (14240 Achievement Drive, Culpeper Va. 22701) Eastern View High School (16332 Cyclone Way, Culpeper, VA 22701) Notable people Nell Arthur, 21st First Lady of the United States Kenny Alphin, of the country music group Big & Rich John S. Barbour, Jr., U.S. congressman (1881–1887) and U.S. senator (1889-1892) Robert Young Button, Attorney General of Virginia (1962-1970) and Virginia State Senator (1945-1961) Cary Travers Grayson, highly decorated U.S. Navy surgeon, onetime chairman of the American Red Cross, and personal aide to U.S. President Woodrow Wilson A. P. Hill, Confederate general during the American Civil War, commander of "Hill's Light Division," under Stonewall Jackson John Preston "Pete" Hill, Negro league baseball player and member of the Baseball Hall of Fame, born in nearby Buena, Virginia John Jameson, Colonel in the American Revolutionary War Ann Jarvis, for whom Mother's Day was established by her daughter Anna Jarvis Keith Jennings, former NBA point guard, Golden State Warriors William Morgan, whose 1826 disappearance in New York state sparked a powerful anti-Freemasonry movement Waller T. Patton, Confederate colonel during the American Civil War, great-uncle of World War II General George S. Patton John Pendleton, American diplomat Eppa Rixey, major league pitcher and member of the Baseball Hall of Fame D. French Slaughter, Jr., former U.S. Congressman Jeannette Walls, author of The Glass Castle J. Loren Wince, lead singer/songwriter for the band Hurt Notable events Culpeper was the location of the main encampment for the Army of the Potomac during the winter of 1863-64 during the Civil War. It was from Culpeper that General Ulysses S. Grant began the Overland Campaign against General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. During the presidential election campaign of 1960, vice presidential nominee Lyndon B. Johnson began his whistle-stop campaign of the South by giving a speech at Culpeper. As the train was pulling away from the station, Johnson yelled out a phrase that would become a battle cry of the campaign: "What did Dick Nixon ever do for Culpeper?!" In 1967, it was the site of a one-day standoff between members of the American Nazi Party and police and military personnel over the group's attempt to bury their leader George Lincoln Rockwell in the local National Cemetery. In 1995, former "Superman" actor Christopher Reeve lost his balance during a horse competition and became paralyzed. References External links Town of Culpeper official website Visitor Information Culpeper Regional Hospital Culpeper Chamber of Commerce Culpeper County Public Schools Towns in Culpeper County, Virginia Micropolitan areas of Virginia Towns in Virginia County seats in Virginia Populated places established in 1759 1759 establishments in Virginia

138488

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benwood%2C%20West%20Virginia

Benwood, West Virginia

Benwood is a city in Marshall County, West Virginia, United States, along the Ohio River. It is part of the Wheeling, West Virginia Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 1,420 at the 2010 census. Benwood was chartered in 1853 and incorporated in 1895. The name of the city is derived from "Ben's Woods", as Benjamin McMechen (1777–1855) inherited that portion of land from the estate of his father, William McMechen (1724–1797), and built his homestead upon it. The neighboring city of McMechen is named after William McMechen and his family, who were among the earliest settlers of this area. Geography Benwood is located at (40.012748, -80.734008). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. Demographics 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 1,420 people, 654 households, and 357 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 761 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 95.8% White, 1.3% African American, 0.1% Asian, and 2.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.0% of the population. There were 654 households, of which 24.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.5% were married couples living together, 17.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 45.4% were non-families. 39.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.17 and the average family size was 2.94. The median age in the city was 40.5 years. 22.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.4% were from 25 to 44; 29.6% were from 45 to 64; and 16.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.4% male and 52.6% female. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 1,585 people, 706 households, and 429 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,268.7 people per square mile (489.6/km2). There were 811 housing units at an average density of 649.2 per square mile (250.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 98.23% White, 1.14% African American, 0.06% Native American, 0.06% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, and 0.44% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.19% of the population. There were 706 households, out of which 25.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.7% were married couples living together, 17.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.1% were non-families. 34.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.90. In the city the population was spread out, with 22.0% under the age of 18, 8.6% from 18 to 24, 26.3% from 25 to 44, 22.0% from 45 to 64, and 21.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 81.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $20,478, and the median income for a family was $27,232. Males had a median income of $23,906 versus $16,827 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,543. About 19.5% of families and 21.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30.6% of those under age 18 and 16.2% of those age 65 or over. Neighborhoods Benwood is partitioned into four sections (North Benwood, Center Benwood, South Benwood and Boggs Run) each connected by either Marshall Street or West Virginia Route 2. North Benwood North Benwood is the primary commercial area of the small city and contains several businesses and fast food restaurants. While all of Benwood lies in a flood zone, North Benwood tends to be hit hardest by the floods of the Ohio River. Center Benwood Slightly to the south lies Center Benwood, which is the primary residential section of the city and contains Saint John Roman Catholic Church, Benwood City Park (established in 1973), the Fourth Street Playground, the city building, the fire, water and police departments, the post office, the Blake Brothers Post No. 46 American Legion and the original Undo's Family Restaurant. Center Benwood is laid out in a rectangular grid, approximately 1 mile around divided 4 blocks long and 3 streets wide. Center Benwood used to be hit very hard by the devastating floods of the Ohio River, but a flood wall was constructed along Water Street (the street that runs along the banks of the Ohio River) in 1982, thus protecting that section of Benwood from the river floods seen in the last three decades (1990, 1991, 1996, 2004, 2005 and 2011). South Benwood South Benwood lies below Center Benwood and contains the majority of the city's industrial developments. Boggs Run The Boggs Run area of Benwood contains the land extending from Marshall Street at the mouth of Boggs Run to the confluence of Boggs Run and Browns Run. That portion of land was annexed to the city of Benwood on November 7, 1944. Boggs Run (the creek that runs through the land) is named after John Boggs (1738–1826), who staked his claim to the land surrounding the creek in 1774 and settled there with his family along the creek. In 1798, he sold the land at Boggs Run and moved with most of his family to Pickaway County, Ohio where he lived the remainder of his life. He is buried in the Boggs Family Cemetery (Elmwood Farm) in Logan Elm Village, Pickaway County, Ohio. Boggs Run has seen many devastating flash floods through the years, but one of the worst in recent history occurred August 31, 1975. Three other significant flash floods in the 20th and 21st Centuries occurred on June 14, 1990, September 17, 2004 and July 28, 2017. In the event of an Ohio River Flood, the mouth of Boggs Run is flooded both by the river and the creek, as the river flood backs up the flow of the creek. Outlying areas While the areas of Benwood Hill and a portion of Boggs Run beyond where Browns Run flows into Boggs Run are provided with some services from Benwood's public works, they fall outside the city limits and are not directly parts of the city. Former neighborhoods Harmony Hill was a residential area of Benwood that was located on the hillside between the mouth of Boggs Run and Schad's Crossing (former entrance to the north end of Center Benwood at Fourth Street) along West Virginia Route 2. Kentucky Heights was another residential area located on the hillside along Route 2 between Schad's Crossing at Center Benwood and The Bellaire Bridge. The homes and businesses of both areas were all razed to make way for the relocation of West Virginia Route 2 through the construction of the present four-lane highway in 1966. Religion Benwood was once home to three churches of different religious denominations. Of the three churches, two remain in operation. Saint John Roman Catholic Church Saint John Roman Catholic Church, located at 622 Main Street in Center Benwood, was officially established as a parish on August 1, 1875 when the first resident pastor, Rev. Patrick F. McKernan, was appointed to serve the Roman Catholic residents of Benwood. Prior to 1875, the original church, which had been constructed about 1868 and was dedicated to Saint John, was served by visiting priests from surrounding parishes. The original church was damaged in the Ohio River Flood of February 1884. As a result, the church was demolished, and a new church was built on the same site between 1891 and 1892. The cornerstone for the second church was laid on June 28, 1891. The second church served the parish for one hundred and twenty-four years until it was destroyed by a fire on March 30, 2015. The 1891 church, along with the rectory, was demolished between May 2015 and August 2015. Ground was broken for the third Saint John Church on June 28, 2016. The new church was constructed on the same site as the 1891 church. Construction was completed in the summer of 2017. The new church was blessed and dedicated on September 9, 2017. The first regular Sunday Mass was celebrated in the new church on September 17, 2017. The majority of the parish consists of the descendants of immigrants from several different European ethnic groups (Irish, English, Scottish, Welsh, German, Hungarian, Italian, Croatian, Slovak, Czech, Austrian, Serbian, Slovenian, Romanian, Polish, Lithuanian, Ukrainian and Russian) who settled in Benwood and the outlying areas of Boggs Run and Browns Run in the mid to late 1800s and early 1900s. Saint John Church is a parish within the Wheeling Vicariate of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Wheeling-Charleston. Since June 20, 1995, Saint John Church and Saint James Roman Catholic Church in the neighboring city of McMechen have been served by the same pastor. On June 15, 2016, the pastor of Saint John Church and Saint James Church was also appointed the pastor of Saint Alphonsus Roman Catholic Church in Wheeling, West Virginia. Saint Matthew Evangelical Lutheran Church Saint Matthew Lutheran Church is located in Boggs Run on Boggs Run Road just outside the Benwood city limits. The church was formerly located in what is now the Blake Brothers Post No. 46 American Legion building in Center Benwood on Water Street. It was relocated to the present church built on Boggs Run in 1941. Benwood Methodist Episcopal Church A Methodist Episcopal (M.E.) Church was formerly located in Center Benwood. The first structure that housed the church was located on Eighth Street. It was later relocated to a new church built on Main Street in 1900, which was razed in the early 1990s. Education Benwood was once home to several public schools and two Roman Catholic private schools. Marshall County Schools operates area public schools. Public Schools There was a public elementary school in Center Benwood. During the course of its history, three separate buildings housed this school located on Water Street. The first school building was built in the late 1860s and razed to build a larger school in 1873. The second school building was built in 1873 and razed in 1901. The third and final school building was built in 1901. The school closed in 1953, and the building was later razed. A public elementary school was located in North Benwood and closed in 1953 as well. The Croatian Cultural Club building housed this school. South Benwood had a public elementary school, but it was destroyed by fire in the early 1910s. Boggs Run Elementary School is located on Boggs Run Road beyond the Benwood city limits. It was first housed in a wooden structure, but was later replaced with a brick structure on the same site about 1927. The school closed in 1990 at the end of the 1989–1990 school year. The brick school building still stands, and it now houses a Halloween museum. Union High School, located in South Benwood on Marshall Street, was established in 1913 when Benwood High School was consolidated with McMechen High School. Union operated as a high school (grades 9, 10, 11 and 12) for fifty-five years, from 1913 until the end of the 1967–1968 school year, graduating its last class in 1968. Union High School was consolidated with two other public high schools in Marshall County (Moundsville High School and Sherrard High School, which both became junior high schools and are still in operation) in 1968 to form John Marshall High School in the city of Glen Dale in Marshall County. John Marshall High School opened at the beginning of the 1968–1969 school year and is still in operation. Union then became a junior high school (grades 7, 8 and 9) until it closed in 2003 at the end of the 2002–2003 school year. Parochial/Private Schools Saint James and Saint John School was a Roman Catholic elementary and middle school (preschool through eighth grade) that was located on 7th Street in Center Benwood. The origin of Saint John School dated back to 1860. The school, which was connected to the back of Saint John Roman Catholic Church, was housed in several different buildings in the immediate area during the course of its history before the most recent school building was built during 1952–1953 and opened in January 1954. At the end of the 1970–1971 school year, Saint John School in Benwood was consolidated with Saint James School in McMechen, and the school became known as Saint James and Saint John School in 1971. After the fire that destroyed Saint John Church on March 30, 2015, the school was moved to the former Saint Francis Xavier School in Moundsville, West Virginia (closed in 2012) where the students finished the 2014–2015 school year. On May 18, 2015, it was announced by the Diocese of Wheeling-Charleston that the school would remain in Moundsville. The school would be renamed All Saints Catholic School. All Saints operated for two school years (2015 - 2016 and 2016 - 2017) and was a Diocesan school rather than a parish school. It was announced on June 22, 2017 that it would close. All Saints Catholic School served the parishioners of Saint John in Benwood, Saint James in McMechen, Saint Jude in Glen Dale, Saint Francis Xavier in Moundsville, Saint Martin of Tours in Cameron and Saint Joseph in Proctor. Saint James and Saint John School was demolished in August 2015. Saint Catherine School was a Roman Catholic elementary and middle school (first through eighth grade) that was located on Marshall Street in North Benwood. The building, which once stood on the site of the parking lot of the former Pic-way Shoe Store (later the Payless ShoeSource) on Marshall Street, was originally used as a Roman Catholic chapel dedicated to Saint Catherine from 1924 to 1928. It was founded by Croatian immigrants, and it operated as its own parish during those years. In 1929, a school by the same name was opened in the chapel building and continued to operate until Saint Catherine School closed in 1962 at the end of the 1961–1962 school year. The majority of the students who attended the former Saint John School in Center Benwood (later Saint James and Saint John School) and the former Saint Catherine School in North Benwood went on to attend high school at Bishop Donahue Memorial High School in McMechen, which was founded in 1955. Bishop Donahue High School closed in 2017 at the end of the 2016 - 2017 school year. Mayors The following individuals have served as the mayor of Benwood: James L. Brown (1882–1889) Joseph Mahood (1889–1895) (1906–1910) Thomas Shepard (1895–1904) John Manley (1904–1905) (1910–1912) John Scanlon (1912–1914) Clark Sprouts (1914–1921) John Cox (1922–1926) Henry Healy (1928–1936) Raphael Deegan (1936–1959) Henry A. Musilli, Sr. (1959–1962) Anthony J. Scaffidi (1962–1996) Lawrence C. Ferrera, Jr. (1996–2003) Edward M. Kuca, Jr. (2003–2020) Walter W. Yates (2020-present) Coal mine disasters 1924 Wheeling Steel Corporation Benwood Mine Disaster Benwood was the location of the third worst mine disaster to occur in the state of West Virginia. At approximately 7:05 AM EST on Monday, April 28, 1924, the coal mine of the Wheeling Steel Corporation's mill located in Benwood exploded, killing all 119 men who were working in the coal mine at the time. The majority of the miners killed were recent immigrants of Polish, Italian, Greek, Croatian, Serbian, Hungarian, Russian, Ukrainian and Lithuanian descent. 1942 Hitchman Mine Disaster Eighteen years after the devastating 1924 explosion at the Wheeling Steel mine, Benwood was once again the location of another tragic coal mining disaster. On Monday, May 18, 1942, the coal mine of the Hitchman Coal & Coke Company exploded, killing 5 men. Media Benwood is home to WDUQ-LP, a listener supported commercial-free radio station. See also List of cities and towns along the Ohio River References Cities in Marshall County, West Virginia Coal towns in West Virginia West Virginia populated places on the Ohio River 1853 establishments in Virginia Cities in West Virginia

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wauwatosa%2C%20Wisconsin

Wauwatosa, Wisconsin

Wauwatosa (; known informally as Tosa; originally Wau-wau-too-sa or Hart's Mill) is a city in Milwaukee County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 48,387 at the 2020 census. Wauwatosa is located immediately west of Milwaukee, and is a part of the Milwaukee metropolitan area. It is named after the Potawatomi Chief Wauwataesie and the Potawatomi word for firefly. History The lush Menomonee Valley of the Wauwatosa area provided a key overland gateway between the rich glacial farmland of southeastern Wisconsin and the Port of Milwaukee. In 1835, Charles Hart became the first Euro-American to settle here, followed that year by 17 other families. The following year a United States Road was built from Milwaukee through Wauwatosa, eventually reaching Madison. Charles Hart built a mill in 1845 on the Menomonee River which gave the settlement its original name of "Hart's Mill." The mill was torn down in 1914. The Town of Wau-wau-too-sa was created by act of the Wisconsin Territorial Legislature on April 30, 1840. As of the 1840 census, the population of the Town of Wau-wau-too-sa or Wauwatosa was 342. The town government was organized in 1842. The town's borders originally extended from the present-day Greenfield Avenue in the south to Hampton Avenue in the north, and from 27th Street in the east to the Waukesha County line in the west, encompassing sections of present-day Milwaukee, West Milwaukee and West Allis, plus the southern part of former North Milwaukee, which was wholly annexed into the city of Milwaukee in 1927. Most of the town was farmland through the remainder of the 19th century. In 1849 the Watertown Plank Road was constructed through Wauwatosa, mainly following the old Madison territorial road. In 1851 Wisconsin's first railroad (later The Milwaukee Road) established Wauwatosa as its western terminus. The Village of Wauwatosa was incorporated from the central part of the Town of Wauwatosa in 1892, and was rechartered as the City of Wauwatosa on May 27, 1897. Expansion On November 25, 1952, the City of Wauwatosa more than doubled its size by annexing of land west of the Menomonee River, the entire remaining portion of the Town of Wauwatosa, which became the home to several large cold storage and regional food distribution terminals. Industrial plants owned by firms including Harley-Davidson and Briggs & Stratton were also constructed. In the past 40 years, western Wauwatosa has become an edge city with an important commercial and retail district built up along Milwaukee's beltline Highway 100 and anchored by the Mayfair Mall. Removal of cross Wauwatosa received some national attention in 1992 when the Wauwatosa Common Council, threatened with a lawsuit, decided to remove a Christian cross from the City's seal adopted in 1957. The cross was replaced with the text, "In God We Trust." The seal itself was designed by 9-year old Suzanne Vallier as an entry in a contest among Wauwatosa schoolchildren. The quadrants of the logo's shield represent, from top left going clockwise; an arrowhead representing the Indians who were the original inhabitants of the city, the mill representing Hart's Mill which was the original name of the city, the cross representing the "city of churches", and the symbol used on street signs representing the "city of homes." 2020 shootings On February 2, 2020, Alvin Cole, a 17-year-old African-American male, was shot and killed at Mayfair Mall by a police officer responding to a reported disturbance. According to authorities, Cole had been fleeing from police while carrying a stolen handgun. No charges were filed against the officer who fired the fatal shots, sparking protests. On November 20, a mass shooting occurred at the mall, leaving eight people injured. The shooter fled the scene afterwards and remained at large for a day, until the arrest of a 15-year-old suspect. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all land. Eastern Wauwatosa is also known for its homes and residential streets, at one time just a short streetcar ride away from downtown Milwaukee. Prior to the arrival of Dutch elm disease, many of Wauwatosa's older residential streets had large gothic colonnades of American Elm trees. In Wauwatosa, the Menomonee Valley made it easier to quarry portions of the Niagara Escarpment, which provided the necessary materials for cream-colored bricks and limestone foundations used in many homes and public buildings throughout the region. Climate Demographics As of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $54,519, and the median income for a family was $68,030. Males had a median income of $46,721 versus $35,289 for females. The per capita income for the city was $28,834. About 2.3% of families and 3.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.9% of those under age 18 and 5.5% of those age 65 or over. 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 46,396 people, 20,435 households, and 11,969 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 21,520 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 89.6% White, 4.5% African American, 0.3% Native American, 2.8% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.6% from other races, and 2.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.1% of the population. There were 20,435 households, of which 27.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.2% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.4% were non-families. 34.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.92. The median age in the city was 39.8 years. 21.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28.9% were from 25 to 44; 26.7% were from 45 to 64; and 16.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46.6% male and 53.4% female. Government Wauwatosa has a mayor–council government. The mayor is elected to a four-year term. The Common Council is composed of 16 aldermen, two from each of eight districts. They serve four-year terms, with one member from each district up for election every other year. The aldermen set policy and have extensive financial control, but are not engaged in daily operational management. Politics Wauwatosa voters have supported both Democratic and Republican candidates. Education Wauwatosa is served by the Wauwatosa School District: High Schools: Wauwatosa West, Wauwatosa East Middle Schools: Whitman, Longfellow Elementary Schools: Eisenhower, Jefferson, Lincoln, Madison, McKinley, Roosevelt, Underwood, Washington, Wilson Additional school-district services are provided to juvenile residents of the Milwaukee County Grounds—at Children's Hospital of Wisconsin and the Milwaukee County's Children and Adolescent Services Center—through the River Hills School on the Milwaukee County Mental Health Complex grounds. County juveniles in secure detention receive educational services through the Vel R. Phillips Juvenile Justice Center School within the Milwaukee County Children's Court building Catholic elementary schools in the city include Wauwatosa Catholic, St. Bernard, St. Joseph, St. Jude and Christ King. Lutheran Schools include Our Redeemer and St. John's. Points of interest Wauwatosa contains Milwaukee County's Regional Medical Center, which includes the Medical College of Wisconsin, the Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, and Froedtert Hospital, one of two level-one trauma centers in the state. Other points of interest are the Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church designed by Frank Lloyd Wright; and the Memorial Center, built in 1957, which contains the public library, an auditorium, and the city hall. The Washington Highlands Historic District, a residential neighborhood designed in 1916 by renowned city planner Werner Hegemann, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1989, as was the Kneeland-Walker House. The Milwaukee County School of Agriculture and Domestic Economy Historic District, located on a former high school campus, was added in 1998. Other buildings on the list include Wauwatosa's oldest house, the Lowell Damon House; the Thomas B. Hart House; and the Wauwatosa Woman's Club Clubhouse. In July 2019, the Tourism Commission of Wauwatosa sponsored the installation of several new murals by professional artists. The murals are curated by Milwaukee-based public arts agency Wallpapered City, and the artworks appear on buildings from 64th Street to 70th Street along North Avenue.' In popular culture Wauwatosa is the home town of the narrator of an unrecorded song by Bob Dylan, "On, Wisconsin" (not to be confused with the University of Wisconsin fight song of the same name). The lyrics were written by Dylan in 1961 and finished in 2018 by local musician Trapper Schoepp. Schoepp wrote music to accompany Dylan's lyrics and recorded the song at Wauwatosa's Wire & Vice studio for his album Primetime Illusion. "In Name and Blood", Episode 2 of Season 3 of the television show Criminal Minds is set in Wauwatosa. Notable people Matt Adamczyk, American businessman and politician Antler, poet Carole Barrowman, Author and Professor William Bast, screenwriter Henry S. Berninger, Wisconsin politician and businessman Bill Berry, musician Fabian Bruskewitz, Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Lincoln Milton F. Burmaster, Wisconsin politician and lawyer Matthew Busche, cyclist Glenn R. Davis, U.S. Representative Fisk Holbrook Day, physician and geologist Nancy Dickerson, Peabody Award-winning journalist Sarah E. Dickson, was elected first woman Presbyterian elder here Anton Falch, professional baseball player Charles Fingado, Wisconsin politician Charles Thompson Fisher, Wisconsin politician and farmer James L. Foley, Jr., Wisconsin politician and farmer Albert Fowler, mayor of Rockford, Illinois Eric E. Hagedorn, Wisconsin politician and electrical engineer Devin Harris, professional basketball player of the NBA Judson G. Hart, Wisconsin farmer and politician Stephen F. Hayes, author and political commentator Julius P. Heil, Wisconsin governor Michael W. Hoover, presiding judge of the Wisconsin Court of Appeals Mike Huwiler, Olympic athlete, MLS player Michael G. Kirby, Wisconsin politician Greg Koch, guitarist Christian A. Koenitzer, Wisconsin politician Mike Krol, musician Joseph H. Loveland, Vermont politician William Martz, chess International Master Joseph McBride, author, film historian Ed McCully, Christian missionary killed during Operation Auca John Morgridge, former CEO and Chairman of the Board of Cisco Systems Walter Nortman, Wisconsin politician Charles B. Perry, Wisconsin politician Roger Ream, educator John E. Reilly, Jr., Wisconsin politician and judge Peggy Rosenzweig, Wisconsin politician Brad Rowe, actor Jeremy Scahill. investigative journalist, author, and director Richard Schickel, film critic and author William A. Schroeder, Wisconsin politician and lawyer Steve Sisolak, Governor of Nevada Tony Smith, retired NBA player Jerry Smith, professional basketball player Andrew Stadler, professional soccer player Thomas A. Steitz, Nobel Prize-winning chemist Michael Torke, Composer and musician, New York, NY Spencer Tracy, Hollywood actor Frederick D. Underwood, president of the Erie Railroad Scott Walker, 45th Governor of Wisconsin Grace Weber, singer and songwriter David J. Wineland, Nobel Prize-winning physicist George Wylie, Wisconsin farmer and politician References External links City of Wauwatosa Cities in Wisconsin Cities in Milwaukee County, Wisconsin 1840 establishments in Wisconsin Territory

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos%20Def

Mos Def

Yasiin Bey (; born Dante Terrell Smith, December 11, 1973), previously known by his stage name Mos Def (), is an American rapper, singer, songwriter, and actor. Bey began his hip hop career in 1994, alongside his siblings in the short-lived rap group Urban Thermo Dynamics (UTD), after which they appeared on albums by Da Bush Babees and De La Soul. He subsequently formed the duo Black Star, alongside fellow Brooklyn-based rapper Talib Kweli, and in 1998 they released their eponymous debut album, featuring the singles "Definition" and "Respiration". He was featured on the roster of Rawkus Records and in 1999 released his solo debut, Black on Both Sides. His debut was followed by The New Danger (2004), True Magic (2006), and The Ecstatic (2009). The editors of About.com listed him as the 14th greatest rapper on their "50 Greatest Rappers of All Time" list. Some of his top hits include "Oh No", "Ms. Fat Booty" and "Mathematics". Prior to his career in music, Mos Def entered public life as a child actor with roles in television films, sitcoms, and theater. Since the early 2000s, he has appeared in the films Something the Lord Made, Next Day Air, The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, 16 Blocks, Be Kind Rewind, The Italian Job, The Woodsman, Bamboozled, and Brown Sugar and in television series such as Dexter and House. He is also known as the host of Def Poetry Jam, which aired on HBO between 2002 and 2007. Mos Def has been vocal on several social and political causes, including police brutality, the idea of American exceptionalism and the status of African Americans. Early life Mos Def was born Dante Terrell Smith on December 11, 1973, in Brooklyn, New York City, the son of Sheron Smith and Abdulrahman Smith. The eldest of 12 children and step-children, he was raised by his mother in Brooklyn, while his father lived in New Jersey. His father was initially a member of the Nation of Islam and later followed Imam Warith Deen Mohammed, who merged into the mainstream Sunni Islam from the Nation of Islam. Mos Def was not exposed to Islam until the age of 13. He is close friends with fellow Muslim hip-hop artists Ali Shaheed Muhammad and Q-Tip. Mos Def attended middle school at Philippa Schuyler Middle School in Bushwick, Brooklyn, where he picked up his love for acting. After returning from filming You Take the Kids in Los Angeles, and getting into a relationship with an older girl, Mos Def dropped out of high school during sophomore year. Growing up in New York City during the crack epidemic of the 1980s and early 1990s, he has spoken about witnessing widespread instances of gang violence, theft and poverty in society, which he largely avoided by working on plays, Off-Off-Broadway and arts programs. In a particularly traumatic childhood experience, Mos Def witnessed his then five-year-old younger brother, Ilias Bey (b. Denard Smith), get hit by a car. Ilias later adopted the alias DCQ and was described by Mos Def as "my first partner in hip hop". Music career 1994–1998: Beginnings with Rawkus and Black Star Mos Def began his music career in 1994, forming the group UTD (or Urban Thermo Dynamics) along with younger brother DCQ and high-school friend Ces. In 2004, they released the album Manifest Destiny, their first and only release to date. The album features a compilation of previously unreleased and re-released tracks recorded during the original UTD run. In 1996, Mos Def emerged as a solo artist and worked with De La Soul and Da Bush Babees, before he released his own first single, "Universal Magnetic" in 1997. Mos Def signed with Rawkus Records and formed the rap group Black Star with Talib Kweli. The duo released an album, Mos Def & Talib Kweli Are Black Star, in 1998. Mostly produced by Hi-Tek, the album featured the singles "Respiration" and "Definition", which both reached in the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. 1999–2006: Solo career and various projects Mos Def released his solo debut album Black on Both Sides in October 1999, also through Rawkus. The single "Ms. Fat Booty" charted, while the album reached #25 on the Billboard 200. Around this time he also contributed to the Scritti Politti album Anomie & Bonhomie. In January 2002, Rawkus Records was taken over by Geffen Records, which released his second solo album The New Danger in October 2004. It included contributions by Shuggie Otis and Bernie Worrell, Doug Wimbish, and Will Calhoun as the Black Jack Johnson Band. The album reached #5 on the Billboard 200, making it the most successful for the artist to date. The single "Sex, Love & Money" charted, and was nominated for a Grammy Award. Mos Def's final solo album for Geffen Records, titled True Magic, was released in 2006. 2007–2011: Good Music era and name change On November 7, 2007, Mos Def performed live in San Francisco at The Mezzanine venue. The performance was recorded for an upcoming "Live in Concert" DVD. During the event, he announced that he would be releasing a new album to be called The Ecstatic. He performed a number of new tracks; in later shows, he previewed tracks produced by Madlib and was rumored to be going to Kanye West for new material. Producer and fellow Def Poet Al Be Back revealed he would be producing on the album as well. The album was released on June 9, 2009; but only Madlib's production had made the cut, along with tracks by Preservation, The Neptunes, Mr. Flash, Madlib's brother Oh No, J. Dilla, and Georgia Anne Muldrow. Mos Def appears alongside Kanye West on the track "Two Words" from The College Dropout album, the track Drunk And Hot Girls and the bonus track "Good Night" off West's third major album, Graduation. In 2002, he released the 12" single Fine, which was featured in the Brown Sugar Motion Picture Soundtrack. Mos Def also appears on the debut album from fellow New Yorkers Apollo Heights on a track titled, Concern. In October, he signed a deal with Downtown Records and appeared on a remix to the song D.A.N.C.E. by Justice. He appeared on Stephen Marley's debut album Mind Control on the song "Hey Baby". In 2009, he worked with Somali-Canadian rapper K'naan to produce the track "America" for K'naan's album Troubadour. In April 2008, he appeared on the title track for a new album by The Roots entitled Rising Down. The new single, Life In Marvelous Times, was made officially available through iTunes on November 4, 2008, and is available for stream on the Roots' website Okayplayer. In April 2009, Mos Def traveled to South Africa for the first time where he performed with The Robert Glasper Experiment at the renowned Cape Town International Jazz Festival. He treated the South African audience with an encore introduced by his own rendition of John Coltrane's A Love Supreme, followed by a sneak preview of the track "M.D. (Doctor)". Mos Def has designed two pairs of limited edition Converse shoes. The shoes were released through Foot Locker stores on August 1, 2009 in limited amounts. In late 2009, Mos Def created his own clothing line with the "UNDRCRWN" brand called the "Mos Def Cut & Sew Collection". The items were released in select U.S. stores and almost exclusively on the UNDRCRWN website. 2009 also found Mos Def among the MCs aligning themselves with American entrepreneur Damon Dash's DD172 and collaborating with American blues rock band the Black Keys on the Blakroc album, a project headed by the Black Keys and Damon Dash. Mos Def appeared with Harlem-bred rapper Jim Jones and the Black Keys on the Late Show with David Letterman to perform the Blakroc track "Ain't Nothing Like You (Hoochie Coo)". In March 2010, Mos Def's song "Quiet Dog Bite Hard" was featured in Palm's "Life moves fast. Don't miss a thing." campaign. Mos Def features on the first single, "Stylo", from the third Gorillaz album, Plastic Beach, alongside soul legend Bobby Womack. He also appears on the track titled "Sweepstakes". In September 2010, after appearing on Kanye West's G.O.O.D. Friday track "Lord Lord Lord", Mos Def confirmed he had signed with GOOD Music. Mos Def has been an active contributor to the recovery of the oil spill in the Gulf, performing concerts and raising money towards repairing its damages. In June 2010, he recorded a cover of the classic New Orleans song originally by Smokey Johnson, "It Ain't My Fault" with the Preservation Hall Jazz Band, Lenny Kravitz and Trombone Shorty. In September 2011, Mos Def announced that he legally changed his name to Yasiin Bey and would go by that name. Shortly after that announcement, he recorded as the narrator of the children's hip hop musical, Pacha's Pajamas: A Story Written By Nature. 2012–present: Later career and retirement In January 2012, it was reported that Bey and Talib Kweli had begun "to resurrect" Black Star. In 2015, Bey was featured on A$AP Rocky's second studio album At. Long. Last. ASAP, on the track "Back Home", alongside Acyde and the deceased A$AP Yams. Bey again revived his Mos Def moniker for two new songs in August 2015, titled "Basquiat Ghostwriter" and "Sensei on the Block", respectively. On January 19, 2016, Bey announced his retirement from both the music and film industries on Kanye West's website: "I'm retiring from the music recording industry as it is currently assembled today, and also Hollywood, effective immediately. I'm releasing my final album this year, and that's that." After announcing his retirement, he expressed gratitude to everyone who has supported him over the years and revealed his intention to enter the fashion industry and complete a handful of films. Bey also confirmed he still planned to release a collaborative project with Ferrari Sheppard called Dec 99th. In October 2016, a planned concert in London was cancelled due to travel restrictions imposed on the artist, while other European dates suffered the same fate. On October 14, 2016, Bey posted a video to Facebook where he announced that he was still planning to retire: "I'm retiring for real this year, this week. With the 17th anniversary of Black on Both Sides being released, I am grateful to have had the career that I have been able to enjoy." He also announced one last concert which he said he would be live streaming from Cape Town, South Africa. In November 2016, he was granted the ability to leave but not reenter South Africa and was put on "South Africa's 'undesirable persons' list". He said he would perform one show in Harlem and three in Washington D.C. after leaving South Africa. He announced that Dec 99th, his final album, would be released on December 9. He released three singles from it, "Local Time", "N.A.W." and "Seaside Panic Room". On December 5, 2016, he announced the title of two albums, Negus in Natural Person and As Promised, the latter of which is a collaboration with Southern hip hop producer Mannie Fresh, initially titled OMFGOD. His claims of retirement were seen as questionable as he played shows on Wednesday September 13, 2017, at the Fox Theater in Oakland as part of Black Star and performed on Gorillaz' Humanz World Tour, performing "Stylo" with Peven Everett, who filled in for Bobby Womack, who died in 2014. He also has yet to release or announce a release date for the last two albums of his career. In February 2018, Mos Def announced, on stage, a new Black Star studio album to be released in 2018. The album will be produced by Madlib. No specific release date was made available. Later on that year, Bey appeared on the titular track of Kids See Ghosts, the collaborative effort of Kanye West and Kid Cudi. In March 2019, he debuted his latest album, ንጉሥ (pronounced Negus) at a listening session as part of Art Basel Hong Kong. In a press release, he said that the album "will continue to unfold as a series of varied installations around the world". He has no plans of releasing the album digitally or physically. On June 28, 2019, Bey appeared on Bandana, an album by Freddie Gibbs and Madlib, alongside Black Thought, on a track named "Education". Acting career Beginnings as child actor Prior to his career in music, Mos Def entered public life as a child actor, having played roles in television movies, sitcoms and theater, some of which were under the name Dante Beze. At the age of 14, he appeared in the TV movie God Bless the Child, starring Mare Winningham, which aired on ABC in 1988. He played the oldest child in the 1990 family sitcom You Take the Kids shortly before it was cancelled. In 1995, he played the character Dante, Bill Cosby's sidekick on the short-lived detective show The Cosby Mysteries. In 1996, he starred in a Visa check card commercial featuring Deion Sanders. He also had a small role alongside Michael Jackson in his short film and music video Ghosts (1997). Feature films, theater and television After brief appearances in Bamboozled and Monster's Ball, Mos Def played a rapper who is reluctant to sign with a major label in Brown Sugar. He was nominated for an Image Award and a Teen Choice Award. In 2001, he took a supporting role to Beyoncé Knowles and Mehki Phifer in the MTV movie Carmen: A Hip Hopera as Lt. Miller, a crooked cop. In 2002, he played the role of Booth in Suzan-Lori Parks' Topdog/Underdog, a Tony-nominated and Pulitzer-winning Broadway play. He and co-star Jeffrey Wright won a Special Award from the Outer Critics Circle Award for their joint performance. He played Left Ear in the 2003 film The Italian Job. That same year, he appeared in the Alicia Keys music video You Don't Know My Name. In television, Mos Def has appeared on NYPD Blue, Comedy Central's Chappelle's Show, and hosted the award-winning HBO spoken word show Def Poetry. He also appeared on the sitcom My Wife and Kids as the disabled friend of Michael Kyle (Damon Wayans). Mos Def won "Best Actor, Independent Movie" at the 2005 Black Reel Awards for his portrayal of Detective Sgt. Lucas in The Woodsman. For his portrayal of Vivien Thomas in HBO's film Something the Lord Made, he was nominated for an Emmy and a Golden Globe, and won the Image Award. He also played a bandleader in HBO's Lackawanna Blues. He then landed the role of Ford Prefect in the 2005 movie adaptation of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. In 2006, Mos Def appeared in Dave Chappelle's Block Party alongside Black Star partner Talib Kweli, while also contributing to the film's soundtrack. He was also featured as the banjo player in the Pixie Sketch" from Chappelle's Show: The Lost Episodes, though his appearance was edited out of the DVD. He starred in the action film 16 Blocks alongside Bruce Willis and David Morse. He also landed a recurring guest role on Boondocks, starring as Gangstalicious. He is set to be in Toussaint, a film about Haitian revolutionary Toussaint Louverture, opposite Don Cheadle and Wesley Snipes. He made a cameo appearance as himself in the movie Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby. In 2007, Mos Def narrated the PBS-broadcast documentary Prince Among Slaves. In 2008, Mos Def starred in the Michel Gondry movie Be Kind Rewind, playing a video rental store employee whose best friend is played by co-star Jack Black. He also portrayed Chuck Berry in the film Cadillac Records, for which he was nominated for a Black Reel Award and an Image Award. In 2009, he appeared in the House episode entitled "Locked In" as a patient suffering from locked-in syndrome. His performance was well received, with E! saying that Mos Def "delivers an Emmy-worthy performance". He was also in the 2009 film Next Day Air. In 2010, he appeared on the children's show Yo Gabba Gabba! as Super Mr. Superhero. He also appeared in A Free Man of Color, John Guare's play at the Vivian Beaumont Theatre. In 2011, he began a multi-episode appearance on the sixth season of Showtime television series Dexter. He played Brother Sam, an ex-convict who has supposedly found religion despite finding himself in violent situations. In January 2016, Mos Def announced his retirement from both the music and the film industry on Kanye West's website. In March 2016, it was announced that he had been attached to star in "his last live-action film", The Disconnected, a science fiction thriller dealing with policing, identity, and the intersection of technology and humanity. Social and political views In 2000, paired with Talib Kweli, Mos Def organized the Hip Hop for Respect project to speak out against police brutality. The project was created in response to the 1999 police shooting of Amadou Diallo, and sought to accumulate 41 artists to the roster, one to match each of the 41 gunshots fired on Diallo. Mos Def is well known for his Leftist activism. In 2000, Mos Def performed a benefit concert for death row inmate Mumia Abu-Jamal. In May 2005, Mos Def, Talib Kweli, R&B singer Martin Luther and City Councilman Charles Barron approached New York City Hall, demanding the withdrawal of the $1 million bounty for Assata Shakur. In September 2005, Mos Def released the single "Katrina Clap", renamed "Dollar Day" for True Magic (utilizing the instrumental for New Orleans rappers UTP's "Nolia Clap"). The song is a criticism of the Bush administration's response to Hurricane Katrina. On the night of the MTV Video Music Awards, Mos Def pulled up in front of Radio City Music Hall on a flatbed truck and began performing the "Katrina Clap" single in front of a crowd that quickly gathered around him. He was subsequently arrested for not having a public performance permit in his possession. In October 2006, Mos Def appeared on 4Real, a documentary television series. Appearing in the episode "City of God", he and the 4Real crew traveled to City of God, a favela in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to meet Brazilian MC MV Bill and learn about the crime and social problems of the community. On September 7, 2007, Mos Def appeared on Real Time with Bill Maher where he spoke about racism against African Americans, citing the government response to Hurricane Katrina, the Jena Six case, and the murder conviction of Mumia Abu-Jamal. He appeared on Real Time again on March 27, 2009, and spoke about the risk of nuclear weapons. In September 2011, Mos Def joined the cast of the environmental children's hip hop musical Pacha's Pajamas: A Story Written By Nature as narrator. He stated, "the earth was given as a trust to mankind, so we have a responsibility to look after it, take care of it, treat it with respect 'cause it's a gift from the creator to us... We're so dependent on the natural world. The natural world's also dependent on us... If we don't treat it good, it's not gonna treat us very good either." In July 2013, Mos Def, under the new name Yasiin Bey, appeared in a short film released by the human rights organization Reprieve, depicting the forced-feeding methods used at the Guantanamo Bay detention camps. This transpired after a document containing the military instructions for the procedure was leaked. In September 2018, Bey and advertising executive Free Richardson opened an art exhibition to the public in an art gallery in the South Bronx, called the Compound, centered around hip-hop and fine art. The goal of this gallery was to help bridge the gap between the two fields, by showcasing artists from marginalized backgrounds who normally would not be represented in art galleries. Art forms with negative connotations, such as graffiti, as presented in a more optimal context. "The purpose of the gallery is to say all art is equal," Mr. Richardson said. "But we are in the borough that created hip-hop, which is the biggest art form in the world, so it's always an extending arm. It's always present." Legacy About.com ranked him #14 on their list of the Top 50 MCs of Our Time, while The Source ranked him #23 on their list of the Top 50 Lyricists of All Time. AllMusic called him one of the most promising rappers to emerge in the late 1990s, as well as one of hip-hop's brightest hopes entering the 21st century. Mos Def has influenced numerous hip hop artists throughout his career, including Lupe Fiasco, Jay Electronica, Kid Cudi, and Saigon. Kendrick Lamar has also mentioned Mos Def as a very early inspiration and someone he listened to "coming up" as a young rapper, though he denied being a part of the conscious rap movement. Amy Winehouse named Mos Def as one of her main musical inspirations. Personal life Mos Def married Maria Yepes in 1996. He filed for divorce from Yepes in 2006. The former couple made headlines when Yepes took Mos Def to court over failure in child-support obligations, paying $2,000 short of the monthly $10,000 he is ordered to pay for their two daughters. Mos Def has four other children. His mother Sheron Smith, who goes by her nickname "Umi", has played an active role managing portions of her son's career. She is also a motivational speaker, and has authored the book Shine Your Light: A Life Skills Workbook, where she details her experience as a single mother raising him. In January 2016, Mos Def was ordered to leave South Africa and not return for five years, having stayed in the country illegally on an expired tourist visa granted in May 2013. Also that month, he was charged with using an unrecognized World Passport and having lived illegally in South Africa since 2014. Mos Def had reportedly recruited Kanye West to help defend him, and posted a message on West's website announcing his retirement from show business. There was an ongoing court case in relation to immigration offenses involving the artist and his family. He was allowed to leave South Africa on November 22, 2016, but he was barred from coming back. Discography Solo albums Black on Both Sides (1999) The New Danger (2004) True Magic (2006) The Ecstatic (2009) ንጉሥ (Negus) (2019) Collaborative albums Mos Def & Talib Kweli Are Black Star (with Talib Kweli, as Black Star) (1998) Manifest Destiny (with Ces and DCQ, as UTD) (2004) December 99th (with Ferrari Sheppard, as Dec 99th) (2016) As Promised (with Mannie Fresh) (TBA) Filmography Accolades Grammy Awards |- | 2005 | "Sex, Love & Money" |rowspan="2"| Best Urban/Alternative Performance | |- | 2006 | "Ghetto Rock" | |- | 2007 | "Undeniable" |rowspan="2"| Best Rap Solo Performance | |- |rowspan="2"| 2010 | "Casa Bey" | |- | The Ecstatic | Best Rap Album | |- | 2011 | "Stylo" (with Gorillaz and Bobby Womack) | Best Music Video | |} Black Movie Awards |- | 2006 | Mos Def | Source Awards | |} Black Reel Awards |- | 2004 | Civil Brand | Best Actor- Independent | |- | 2004 | The Italian Job | Best Supporting Actor | |- |rowspan="2"| 2005 | Something the Lord Made | Best Actor: T.V. Movie/Cable | |- | The Woodsman | Best Indie Actor | |- | 2008 | Cadillac Records | Best Supporting Actor | |} Primetime Emmy Awards |- | 2004 | Something the Lord Made | Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie | |} Golden Globe Awards |- | 2005 | Something the Lord Made | Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film | |} NAACP Image Awards |- | 2003 | Brown Sugar | Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture | |- | 2005 | Something the Lord Made | Outstanding Actor in a Television Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic Special | |- | 2009 | Cadillac Records | Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture | |} References Explanatory notes External links Mos Def / Dante Smith discographies at Discogs. 1973 births Living people African-American male actors African-American male rappers 20th-century African-American male singers American activists African-American male singer-songwriters African-American record producers African-American Muslims Converts to Islam American hip hop singers American hip hop record producers American male film actors American male television actors People from Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn Male actors from New York City Rappers from Brooklyn Alternative hip hop musicians East Coast hip hop musicians Slam poets Hip hop activists GOOD Music artists 21st-century American male actors 21st-century American rappers Record producers from New York (state) Downtown Records artists Theatre World Award winners American child actors Soulquarians members 21st-century African-American male singers Singer-songwriters from New York (state) Crooklyn Dodgers members

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand%20Marcos

Ferdinand Marcos

Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos Sr., (, September 11, 1917 – September 28, 1989) was a Filipino politician and lawyer who was the 10th president of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986, widely considered by academics, economists, and journalists as a kleptocrat. He ruled as a dictator under martial law from 1972 until 1981 and kept most of his martial law powers until he was deposed in 1986, branding his rule as "constitutional authoritarianism" under his New Society Movement. One of the most controversial leaders of the 20th century, Marcos' rule was infamous for its corruption, extravagance, and brutality. Marcos gained political success by claiming to have been the "most decorated war hero in the Philippines," but many of his claims have been found to be false, with United States Army documents describing his wartime claims as "fraudulent" and "absurd." After World War II, he became a lawyer then served in the Philippine House of Representatives from 1949 to 1959 and the Philippine Senate from 1959 to 1965. He was elected the President of the Philippines in 1965 and presided over an economy that grew during the beginning of his 20-year rule but would end in the loss of livelihood, extreme poverty, and a crushing debt crisis. He pursued an aggressive program of infrastructure development funded by foreign debt, making him popular during his first term, although it would also trigger an inflationary crisis which would lead to social unrest in his second term. Marcos placed the Philippines under martial law on September 23, 1972, shortly before the end of his second term. Martial law was ratified in 1973 through a fraudulent referendum. The Constitution was revised, media outlets were silenced, and violence and oppression were used against the political opposition, Muslims, suspected communists, and ordinary citizens. After being elected for a third term in the 1981 Philippine presidential election, Marcos's popularity suffered greatly, due to the economic collapse that began in early 1983 and the public outrage over the assassination of opposition leader Senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr. later that year. This discontent, the resulting resurgence of the opposition in the 1984 Philippine parliamentary election, and the discovery of documents exposing his financial accounts and false war records led Marcos to call the snap election of 1986. Allegations of mass cheating, political turmoil, and human rights abuses led to the People Power Revolution of February 1986, which removed him from power. To avoid what could have been a military confrontation in Manila between pro- and anti-Marcos troops, Marcos was advised by US President Ronald Reagan through Senator Paul Laxalt to "cut and cut cleanly." Marcos then fled with his family to Hawaii. He was succeeded as president by Aquino's widow, Corazon "Cory" Aquino. According to source documents provided by the Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG), the Marcos family stole US$5 billion–$10 billion from the Central Bank of the Philippines. The PCGG also maintained that the Marcos family enjoyed a decadent lifestyle, taking away billions of dollars from the Philippines between 1965 and 1986. His wife, Imelda Marcos, made infamous in her own right by the excesses that characterized her and her husband's conjugal dictatorship, is the source of the term "Imeldific". Two of their children, Imee Marcos and Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos Jr., are still active in Philippine politics. He and his wife currently hold the Guinness World Record for the largest-ever theft from a government. Personal life Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos was born on September 11, 1917, in the town of Sarrat, Ilocos Norte, to Mariano Marcos (1897–1945) and Josefa Edralin (1893–1988). Mariano Marcos was a lawyer and congressman from Ilocos Norte, Philippines. He was executed by Filipino guerillas in 1945 for being a Japanese propagandist and collaborator during World War II. Drawn and quartered with the use of carabaos, his remains were left hanging on a tree. Josefa Marcos was a schoolteacher who would far outlive her husband—dying in 1988, two years after the Marcos family left her in Malacañang Palace when they fled into exile after the 1986 People Power Revolution. Ferdinand was first baptized into the Philippine Independent Church, but was later baptized into the Catholic Church at the age of three. Marcos lived with his first common-law wife Carmen Ortega, an Ilocana mestiza who was 1949 Miss Press Photography. They had three children and resided for about two years at 204 Ortega Street in San Juan. In August 1953, their engagement was announced in Manila dailies. Not much is known about what happened to Ortega and their children after, but Marcos married Imelda Trinidad Romualdez on April 17, 1954, only 11 days after they first met. They had three biological children: Bongbong Marcos, Imee Marcos, and Irene Marcos. Marcos's fourth child with Ortega was born after his marriage to Imelda. Marcos had an affair with American actress Dovie Beams from 1968 to 1970. According to reports by the Sydney Morning Herald, Marcos also had an affair with former Playboy model Evelin Hegyesi around 1970 and sired a child with her, Analisa Josefa (named after his mother Josefa). Marcos and Imelda later adopted Aimee Marcos. Marcos claimed that he was a descendant of Antonio Luna, a Filipino general during the Philippine–American War. He also claimed that his ancestor was a 16th-century pirate, Lim-A-Hong (Chinese: 林阿鳳), who used to raid the coasts of the South China Sea. He is a Chinese mestizo descendant, just like many other presidents. Education Marcos studied law at the University of the Philippines in Manila, attending the College of Law. He excelled in both curricular and extra-curricular activities, becoming a member of the university's swimming, boxing, and wrestling teams. He was also an accomplished orator, debater, and writer for the student newspaper. While attending the UP College of Law, he became a member of the Upsilon Sigma Phi, where he met his future colleagues in government and some of his staunchest critics. When he sat for the 1939 Bar Examinations, he was a bar topnotcher (top scorer) with a score of 92.35%. He graduated cum laude. He was elected to the Pi Gamma Mu and the Phi Kappa Phi international honor societies, the latter giving him its Most Distinguished Member Award 37 years later. Ferdinand Marcos received an honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) (honoris causa) degree in 1967 from Central Philippine University. The assassination of Julio Nalundasan Marcos first shot into national notoriety over the murder of Julio Nalundasan. Nalundasan, Mariano Marcos's political rival, was killed with a single rifle shot after brushing teeth in his home in Batac on the night of September 21, 1935, the day after he had defeated Marcos a second time for a seat in the National Assembly. In December 1938, Ferdinand Marcos was prosecuted for the murder of Nalundasan. He was not the only accused from the Marcos clan. Also accused were his father, Mariano, and his uncles, Pio Marcos and Quirino Lizardo. According to two witnesses, the four had conspired to assassinate Nalundasan, with Ferdinand Marcos eventually pulling the trigger. In late January 1939, they were finally denied bail. The evidence was strong against the young Marcos who was a member of the University of the Philippines rifle team and a national rifle champion. Though Marcos's rifle was found in its gun rack in the U.P. ROTC armory, the rifle of team captain Teodoro M. Kalaw, Jr. was missing at the time and the National Bureau of Investigation had evidence that it was the one used in the murder of Nalundasan. Of all the accused, only Ferdinand Marcos had access to the U.P. armory. Later in the year, they were convicted. Ferdinand and Lizardo received the death penalty for premeditated murder, while Mariano and Pio were found guilty of contempt of court. The Marcos family took their appeal to the Supreme Court of the Philippines. According to Primitivo Mijares, Justice Jose P. Laurel who penned the majority decision saw himself in the young Marcos in that he had figured in almost killing a rival during a brawl his youth, was convicted by a trial court of frustrated murder, and was acquitted after appealing to the Supreme Court, and saw in Marcos an opportunity to pay forward his debt to society. Associate Justice George A. Malcolm, dean of the University of the Philippines College of Law who was the young Laurel's teacher had been recently appointed to the Supreme Court and had urged his colleagues to acquit the young Laurel because he knew him to be a bright student. In the same way, Justice Laurel saw in Marcos a mirror of himself and pleaded for his colleagues to acquit. The Supreme Court overturned the lower court's decision on October 22, 1940, acquitting the Marcos family of all charges except contempt. World War II (1939–1945) Marcos's military service during World War II has been the subject of debate and controversy, both in the Philippines and in international military circles. Marcos, who had received ROTC training, was activated for service in the US Armed Forces in the Philippines (USAFIP) after the attack on Pearl Harbor. He served as a 3rd lieutenant during the mobilization in the summer and fall of 1941, continuing until April 1942, after which he was taken prisoner. According to Marcos's account, he was released from prison by the Japanese on August 4, 1942, and US Military records show that he rejoined USAFIP forces in December 1944. Marcos's Military service then formally ended with his discharge as a major in the 14th Infantry, US Armed Forces, in the Philippines Northern Luzon, in May 1945. Controversies regarding Marcos's military service revolve around: the reason for his release from the Japanese POW camp; his actions between release from prison in August 1942 and return to the USAFIP in December 1944; his supposed rank upon discharge from USAFIP; and his claims to being the recipient of numerous military decorations, most of which were proven to be fraudulent. Documents uncovered by the Washington Post in 1986 suggested that Marcos's release in August 1942 happened because his father, former congressman and provincial governor Mariano Marcos, "cooperated with the Japanese military authorities" as publicist. After his release, Marcos claims that he spent much of the period between his August 1942 release and his December 1944 return to USAFIP as the leader of a guerrilla organization called Ang Mga Mahárlika (Tagalog, "The Freemen") in Northern Luzon. According to Marcos's claim, this force had a strength of 9,000 men. His account of events was later cast into doubt after a United States military investigation exposed many of his claims as either false or inaccurate. Another controversy arose in 1947, when Marcos began signing communications with the rank of Lt. Col., instead of Major. This prompted US officials to note that Marcos was only "recognized as a major in the roster of the 14th Infantry USAFIP, NL as of 12 December 1944 to his date of discharge." The biggest controversy arising from Marcos's service during World War II, however, would concern his claims during the 1962 Senatorial Campaign of being "most decorated war hero of the Philippines" He claimed to have been the recipient of 33 war medals and decorations, including the Distinguished Service Cross and the Medal of Honor, but researchers later found that stories about the wartime exploits of Marcos were mostly propaganda, being inaccurate or untrue. Only two of the supposed 33 awards – the Gold Cross and the Distinguished Service Star – were given during the war, and both had been contested by Marcos's superiors. Post-WWII and congressional career (1949–1965) After the surrender of the Japanese and the end of World War II, the American government became preoccupied with setting up the Marshall Plan to revive the economies of the western hemisphere, and quickly backtracked from its interests in the Philippines, granting the islands independence on July 4, 1946. After the war, Marcos was one of only eleven lawyers confirmed by the new government as a special prosecutor with the office of the Solicitor General tasked to try by "process of law and justice" all those accused of collaboration with the Japanese. Eventually, Marcos ran for his father's old post as representative of the 2nd district of Ilocos Norte and won three consecutive terms, serving in the House of Representatives from 1949 to 1959. Marcos joined the "Liberal Wing" that split from the Nacionalista Party, which eventually became the Liberal Party. He eventually became the Liberal Party's spokesman on economic matters, and was made chairman of the House Neophytes Bloc which included future President Diosdado Macapagal, future Vice President Emmanuel Pelaez and future Manila Mayor Arsenio Lacson. Marcos became chairman of the House Committee on Commerce and Industry and a member of the House Committees on Defense, Ways and Means; Industry; Banks Currency; War Veterans; Civil Service; and on Corporations and Economic Planning. He was also a member of the Special Committee on Import and Price Controls and the Special Committee on Reparations, and of the House Electoral Tribunal. After he served as member of the House of Representatives for three terms, Marcos won his senate seat in the elections in 1959 and became the Senate minority floor leader in 1960. He became the executive vice president of the Liberal Party in and served as the party president from 1961 to 1964. From 1963 to 1965, he was the Senate President. Thus far, he is the last Senate President to become President of the Philippines. He introduced a number of significant bills, many of which found their way into the Republic statute books. During his election campaign in the 1965 presidential election, Marcos' life became the basis of the biographical film Iginuhit ng Tadhana (The Ferdinand E. Marcos Story), which starred Luis Gonzales as Marcos. First term (1965–1969) Marcos' first term began with his inauguration on December 30, 1965, and ended when he was inaugurated for his second term on December 30, 1969. By pursuing an aggressive program of infrastructure development funded by foreign loans, he remained popular for most of his first term, with his popularity flagging only after his debt-driven spending during the campaign for his second term triggered an inflationary crisis in November and December 1969, before his second inauguration. Among the major projects of the first term was the construction of the Cultural Center of the Philippines complex, considered one of the earliest examples of what would come to be known as the Marcoses' edifice complex. Soon after being elected, Marcos developed close relations with the officers of the Philippine Military, and began expanding the armed forces by allowing loyal generals to stay in their positions past their retirement age, or giving them civilian government posts. He also gained the support of the Johnson administration in the US by allowing the limited Philippine involvement in the Vietnam war through the Philippine Civic Action Group. Marcos' first term also saw the Philippine senate's expose of the Jabidah massacre in March 1968, where a Muslim man named Jibin Arula testified that he had been the lone survivor of a group of Moro army recruits which had been executed en-masse on Corregidor island on March 18, 1968. The allegations in the expose became a major flashpoint which ignited the Moro insurgency in the Philippines. Presidential campaign Marcos ran a populist campaign emphasizing that he was a bemedalled war hero emerging from World War II. In 1962, Marcos would claim to be the most decorated war hero of the Philippines by garnering almost every medal and decoration that the Filipino and American governments could give to a soldier. Included in his claim of 27 war medals and decorations are that of the Distinguished Service Cross and the Medal of Honor. According to Primitivo Mijares, author of the book The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos and Imelda Marcos, the opposition Liberal Party would later confirm that many of his war medals were only acquired in 1962 to aid in his reelection campaign for the Senate, not for his presidential campaign. Marcos won the presidency in 1965. Inauguration Ferdinand Marcos was inaugurated to his first term as the 10th president of the Philippines on December 30, 1965, after winning the Philippine presidential election of 1965 against the incumbent president, Diosdado Macapagal. His inauguration marked the beginning of his two-decade long stay in power, even though the 1935 Philippine Constitution had set a limit of only two four-year terms of office. Expansion of the Philippine military One of Marcos's earliest initiatives upon becoming president was to significantly expand the Philippine military. In an unprecedented move, Marcos chose to concurrently serve as his own defense secretary, allowing him to have a direct hand in running the military. He also significantly increased the budget of the armed forces, tapping them in civil projects such as the construction of schools. Generals loyal to Marcos were allowed to stay in their positions past their retirement age, or were rewarded with civilian government posts, leading Senator Benigno S. Aquino Jr. to accuse Marcos in 1968 of trying to establish "a garrison state." Vietnam War Under intense pressure from the administration of Lyndon B. Johnson, Marcos reversed his pre-presidency position of not sending Philippine forces to Vietnam War, and consented to a limited involvement, asking Congress to approve sending a combat engineer unit. Despite opposition to the new plan, the Marcos government gained Congressional approval and Philippine troops were sent from the middle of 1966 as the Philippines Civic Action Group (PHILCAG). PHILCAG reached a strength of some 1,600 troops in 1968 and between 1966 and 1970 over 10,000 Filipino soldiers served in South Vietnam, mainly being involved in civilian infrastructure projects. Loans for construction projects With an eye towards becoming the first president of the third republic to be reelected to a second term, Marcos began taking up massive foreign loans to fund the "rice, roads, and schoolbuildings" he promised in his reelection campaign. With tax revenues unable to fund his administration's 70% increase in infrastructure spending from 1966 to 1970, Marcos began tapping foreign loans, creating a budget deficit 72% higher than the Philippine government's annual deficit from 1961 to 1965. This began a pattern of loan-funded spending which the Marcos administration would continue until the Marcoses were deposed in 1986, resulting in economic instability still being felt today, and of debts that experts say the Philippines will have to keep paying well into 2025. The grandest infrastructure projects of Marcos's first term, especially the Cultural Center of the Philippines complex, also marked the beginning of what critics would call Marcos couple's Edifice complex, with grand public infrastructures projects prioritized for public funding because of their propaganda value. Jabidah exposé and Muslim reactions In March 1968 a Muslim man named Jibin Arula was fished out of the waters of Manila Bay, having been shot. He was brought to then-Cavite Governor Delfin N. Montano, to whom he recounted the story of the Jabidah Massacre, saying that numerous Moro army recruits had been executed en-masse by members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) on March 18, 1968. This became the subject of a senate exposé by opposition Senator Benigno Aquino Jr. Although the lack of living witnesses other than Arula severely hampered the probes on the incident, it became a major flashpoint that ignited the Moro insurgency in the Philippines. Despite undergoing numerous trials and hearings, none of the officers implicated in the massacre were ever convicted, leading many Filipino Muslims to believe that the "Christian" government in Manila had little regard for them. This created a furor within the Muslim community in the Philippines, especially among the educated youth, and among Muslim intellectuals, who had no discernible interest in politics prior to the incident. Educated or not, the story of the Jabidah massacre led many Filipino Muslims to believe that all opportunities for integration and accommodation with the Christians were lost and further marginalised. This eventually led to the formation of the Mindanao Independence Movement in 1968, the Bangsamoro Liberation Organization (BMLO) in 1969, and the consolidation of these various forces into the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) in October 1972. 1969 presidential campaign Ferdinand Marcos's campaign for a second term formally began with his nomination as the presidential candidate of the Nacionalista Party at its July 1969 general meeting. A meeting of the party's ruling junta had met a week earlier to assure that the nomination would be unanimous. Under the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines which was in force at the time, Marcos was supposed to be allowed a maximum of two four-year terms as president. During the 1969 campaign, Marcos launched US$50 million worth in infrastructure projects in an effort to curry favor with the electorate. This rapid campaign spending was so massive that it would be responsible for the balance of payments crisis of 1970, whose inflationary effect would cause social unrest leading all the way up to the proclamation of martial law in 1972. Marcos was reported to have spent PHP100 for every PHP1 that Osmeña spent, using up PHP24 million in Cebu alone. With his popularity already beefed up by debt-funded spending, Marcos's popularity made it very likely that he would win the election, but he decided, as National Artist for Literature Nick Joaquin reported in the Philippines Free Press, to "leave nothing to chance." Time and Newsweek would eventually call the 1969 election the "dirtiest, most violent and most corrupt" in Philippine modern history, with the term "Three Gs", meaning "guns, goons, and gold" coined to describe administration's election tactics of vote-buying, terrorism and ballot snatching. 1969 balance of payments crisis During the campaign, Marcos spent $50 million worth in debt-funded infrastructure, triggering a Balance of Payments crisis. The Marcos administration ran to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help, and the IMF offered a debt restructuring deal. New policies, including a greater emphasis on exports and the relaxation of controls of the peso, were put in place. The Peso was allowed to float to a lower market value, resulting in drastic inflation, and social unrest. Second term (1969–1972) Presidential elections were held on November 11, 1969, and Marcos was reelected for a second term. He was the first and last Filipino president to win a second full term. His running mate, incumbent Vice President Fernando Lopez was also elected to a third full term as Vice President of the Philippines. Marcos' second term was characterized by social unrest, beginning with the 1969 Balance of Payments Crisis, which was already underway during the second inauguration. Opposition groups began to form, with "moderate" groups calling for political reform and "radical" groups who espoused a more radical-left ideology. Marcos responded to both groups with military force. The most notable of these was the series of protests during the first three months of 1970 – a period that has since come to be known as the first quarter storm. Another major event during Marcos' second term was the Philippine Constitutional Convention of 1971, which was marred in May 1972 when a delegate exposed a bribery scheme in which delegates were paid to vote in favor of the Marcoses – with First Lady Imelda Marcos herself implicated in the alleged payola scheme. On August 21, 1971, a political campaign rally of the opposition Liberal Party at Plaza Miranda in the district of Quiapo, Manila. Marcos blamed the then-still-nascent Communist Party of the Philippines, and issued Proclamation No. 889, through which he assumed emergency powers and suspended the writ of habeas corpus. Oppositionists were arrested after being accused of being "radicals." Marcos' response further obscured the distinction between the moderates and radical opposition, which had already been blurred since the First Quarter storm. This brought about a massive expansion of the underground socialist resistance, when many moderate oppositionists saw no other choice to join the radicals. In 1972 a series of bombings in Metro Manila took place, ratcheting up the tension. Marcos again blamed the communists, although he only suspects caught in connection to the explosions were linked to the Philippine Constabulary. Marcos' second term effectively ended a little under two years and nine months later, when Marcos announced on September 23, 1972, that he had placed the Philippines under martial law. Social unrest after the balance of payments crisis While Marcos had won the November 1969 election by a landslide, and was inaugurated on December 30 of that year, Marcos's massive spending during the 1969 presidential campaign had taken its toll and triggered growing public unrest. Marcos's spending during the campaign led to opposition figures such as Senator Lorenzo Tañada, Senator Jovito Salonga, and Senator Jose Diokno to accuse Marcos of wanting to stay in power even beyond the two term maximum set for the presidency by the 1935 constitution. Opposition groups quickly grew in the campuses, where students had the time and opportunity to be aware of political and economic issues. "Moderate" and "radical" opposition The media reports of the time classified the various civil society groups opposing Marcos into two categories. The "Moderates", which included church groups, civil libertarians, and nationalist politicians, were those who wanted to create change through political reforms. The "radicals", including a number of labor and student groups, wanted broader, more systemic political reforms. The "moderate" opposition With the Constitutional Convention occupying their attention from 1971 to 1973, statesmen and politicians opposed to the increasingly more-authoritarian administration of Ferdinand Marcos mostly focused their efforts on political efforts from within the halls of power. Their concerns varied but usually included election reform, calls for a non-partisan constitutional convention, and a call for Marcos not to exceed the two presidential terms allowed him by the 1935 Constitution. This notably included the National Union of Students in the Philippines, the National Students League (NSL), and later the Movement of Concerned Citizens for Civil Liberties or MCCCL, led by Senator Jose W. Diokno. The MCCCL's rallies are particularly remembered for their diversity, attracting participants from both the moderate and radical camps; and for their scale, with the biggest one attended by as many as 50,000 people. The "radical" opposition The other broad category of opposition groups during this period were those who wanted broader, more systemic political reforms, usually as part of the National Democracy movement. These groups were branded "radicals" by the media, although the Marcos administration extended that term to "moderate" protest groups as well. Groups considered "radical" by the media of the time included: the Kabataang Makabayan (KM), the Samahang Demokratiko ng Kabataan (SDK), the Student Cultural Association of the University of the Philippines (SCAUP), the Movement for Democratic Philippines (MDP), the Student Power Assembly of the Philippines (SPAP), and the Malayang Pagkakaisa ng Kabataang Pilipino (MPKP). Radicalization When Marcos became president in 1965, Philippine policy and politics functioned under a Post-World War II geopolitical framework. As a result, the Philippines was ideologically caught up in the anticommunist scare perpetuated by the US during the Cold War. Marcos and the AFP thus emphasized the "threat" represented by the formation of the Communist Party of the Philippines in 1969, even if it was still a small organization. partly because doing so was good for building up the AFP budget. As a result, notes Security Specialist Richard J. Kessler, this "mythologized the group, investing it with a revolutionary aura that only attracted more supporters." The social unrest of 1969 to 1970, and the violent dispersal of the resulting "First Quarter Storm" protests were among the early watershed events in which large numbers of Filipino students of the 1970s were radicalized against the Marcos administration. Due to these dispersals, many students who had previously held "moderate" positions (i.e., calling for legislative reforms) became convinced that they had no choice but to call for more radical social change. Other watershed events that would later radicalize many otherwise "moderate" opposition members include the February 1971 Diliman Commune; the August 1971 suspension of the writ of habeas corpus in the wake of the Plaza Miranda bombing; the September 1972 declaration of martial law; the 1980 murder of Macli-ing Dulag; and the August 1983 assassination of Ninoy Aquino. By 1970, study sessions on Marxism–Leninism had become common in the campuses, and many student activists were joining various organizations associated with the National Democracy Movement (ND), such as the Student Cultural Association of the University of the Philippines (SCAUP) and the Kabataang Makabayan (KM, lit. Patriotic Youth) which were founded by Jose Maria Sison; the Samahang Demokratiko ng Kabataan (SDK) which was founded as a separate organization from the SCAUP and KM by a group of young writer-leaders; and others. The line between leftist activists and communists became increasingly blurred, as a significant number of radicalized activists also joined the Communist Party of the Philippines. Radicalized activists from the cities began to be more extensively deployed in rural areas were some became guerillas. First Quarter Storm By the time Marcos gave the first State of the Nation Address of his second term on January 26, 1970, the unrest born from the 1969–1970 balance of payments crisis exploded into a series of demonstrations, protests, and marches against the government. Student groups – some moderate and some radical – served as the driving force of the protests, which lasted until the end of the university semester in March 1970, and would come to be known as the "First Quarter Storm". During Marcos's January 26, 1970, State of the Nation Address, the moderate National Union of Students of the Philippines organized a protested in front of Congress, and invited student groups both moderate and radical to join them. Some of the students participating in the protest harangued Marcos as he and his wife Imelda as they left the Congress building, throwing a coffin, a stuffed alligator, and stones at them. The next major protest took place on January 30, in front of the presidential palace, where activists rammed the gate with a fire truck and once the gate broke and gave way, the activists charged into the Palace grounds tossing rocks, pillboxes, Molotov cocktails. At least two activists were confirmed dead and several were injured by the police. Five more major protests took place in the Metro Manila area took place between then and March 17, 1970 – what some media accounts would later brand the "7 deadly protests of the First Quarter Storm." This included a February 12 rally at Plaza Miranda; a February 18 demonstration dubbed the "People's Congress," also supposed to be at the Plaza Miranda but dispersed early, resulting in protesters proceeding to the US Embassy where they set fire to the lobby; a "Second People's Congress" demonstration on February 26; a "People's March" from Welcome Rotonda to Plaza Lawton on March 3; and the Second "People's March" at Plaza Moriones on March 17. The protests ranged from 50,000 to 100,000 in number per weekly mass action. Students had declared a week-long boycott of classes and instead met to organize protest rallies. Violent dispersals of various FQS protests were among the first watershed events in which large numbers of Filipino students of the 1970s were radicalized against the Marcos administration. Due to these dispersals, many students who had previously held "moderate" positions (i.e., calling for legislative reforms) became convinced that they had no choice but to call for more radical social change. Constitutional Convention of 1971 Expressing opposition to the Marcos's policies and citing rising discontent over wide inequalities in society, civil society groups and opposition leaders began campaigning in 1967 to initiate a constitutional convention which would revise change the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines. On March 16 of that year, the Philippine Congress constituted itself into a Constituent Assembly and passed Resolution No. 2, which called for a Constitutional Convention to change the 1935 Constitution. Marcos surprised his critics by endorsing the move, but historians later noted that the resulting Constitutional Convention would lay the foundation for the legal justifications Marcos would use to extend his term past the two four-year terms allowable under the 1935 Constitution. A special election was held on November 10, 1970, to elect the delegates of the convention. Once the winners had been determined, the convention was convened on June 1, 1971, at the newly completed Quezon City Hall. A total of 320 delegates were elected to the convention, the most prominent being former senators Raul Manglapus and Roseller T. Lim. Other delegates would become influential political figures, including Hilario Davide, Jr., Marcelo Fernan, Sotero Laurel, Aquilino Pimentel, Jr., Teofisto Guingona, Jr., Raul Roco, Edgardo Angara, Richard Gordon, Margarito Teves, and Federico Dela Plana. By 1972 the convention had already been bogged down by politicking and delays, when its credibility took a severe blow in May 1972 when a delegate exposed a bribery scheme in which delegates were paid to vote in favor of the Marcoses – with First Lady Imelda Marcos herself implicated in the alleged payola scheme. The investigation on the scheme was effectively shelved when Marcos declared martial law in September 1972, and had 11 opposition delegates arrested. The remaining opposition delegates were forced to go either into exile or hiding. Within two months, an entirely new draft of the constitution was created from scratch by a special committee. The 1973 constitutional plebiscite was called to ratify the new constitution, but the validity of the ratification was brought to question because Marcos replaced the method of voting through secret ballot with a system of viva voce voting by "citizen's assemblies". The ratification of the constitution was challenged in what came to be known as the Ratification Cases. Early growth of the CPP New People's Army On December 29, 1970, Philippine Military Academy instructor Lt Victor Corpuz led New People's Army rebels in a raid on the PMA armory, capturing rifles, machine guns, grenade launchers, a bazooka and thousands of rounds of ammunition in 1970. In 1972, China, which was then actively supporting and arming communist insurgencies in Asia as part of Mao Zedong's People's War Doctrine, transported 1,200 M-14 and AK-47 rifles for the NPA to speed up NPA's campaign to defeat the government. Rumored coup d'état and assassination plot Rumors of coup d'état were also brewing. A report of the US Senate Foreign Relations Committee said that shortly after the 1969 Philippine presidential election, a group composed mostly of retired colonels and generals organized a revolutionary junta with the aim of first discrediting President Marcos and then killing him. The group was headed by Eleuterio Adevoso, an official of the opposition Liberal Party. A document given to the committee by a Philippine Government official alleged that key figures in the plot were Vice President Fernando Lopez and Sergio Osmena Jr., whom Marcos defeated in the 1969 election. While a report obtained by The New York Times speculated that rumors of a coup could be used by Marcos to justify martial law, as early as December 1969 in a message from the US Ambassador to the US Assistant Secretary of State, the ambassador said that most of the talk about revolution and even assassination has been coming from the defeated opposition, of which Adevoso is a leading activist. He also said that the information he has on the assassination plans are 'hard' or well-sourced and he has to make sure that it reaches President Marcos.{Primary source inline}} Plaza Miranda bombing In interviews by The Washington Post, unnamed former Communist Party of the Philippines officials alleged that "the Communist party leadership planned – and three operatives carried out – the Plaza Miranda attack in an attempt to provoke government repression and push the country to the brink of revolution. Communist Party Leader Jose Maria Sison had calculated that Marcos could be provoked into cracking down on his opponents, thereby driving thousands of political activists into the underground, the anonymous former officials said. Recruits were urgently needed, they said, to make use of a large influx of weapons and financial aid that China had already agreed to provide." José María Sison continues to deny these claims, and the CPP has never released any official confirmation of their culpability in the incident. Marcos and his allies claimed that Benigno Aquino Jr. was part of the plot, which was denied by CPP-NPA founding chair Jose Maria Sison. Some historians claim Marcos was responsible for the Plaza Miranda bombing as he is known to have used false flag operations as a pretext for martial law. There were a series of deadly bombings in 1971, and the CIA privately stated that Marcos was responsible for at least one of them. US intelligence documents declassified in the 1990s contained further evidence implicating Marcos, provided by a CIA mole within the Philippine army. Another false flag attack took place with the attempted assassination of Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile in 1972. President Nixon approved Marcos's martial law initiative immediately afterwards. 1971 suspension of the writ of habeas corpus As a response to the Plaza Miranda bombing, Marcos issued Proclamation No. 889, through which he assumed emergency powers and suspended the writ of habeas corpus – an act which would later be seen as a prelude to the declaration of martial law more than a year later. Marcos's suspension of the writ became the event that forced many members of the moderate opposition, such as Edgar Jopson, to join the ranks of the radicals. In the aftermath of the bombing, Marcos lumped all of the opposition together and referred to them as communists, and many former moderates fled to the mountain encampments of the radical opposition to avoid being arrested by Marcos's forces. Those who became disenchanted with the excesses of the Marcos administration and wanted to join the opposition after 1971 often joined the ranks of the radicals, simply because they represented the only group vocally offering opposition to the Marcos government. 1972 Manila bombings On the evening of September 23, 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos announced that he had placed the entirety of the Philippines under martial law. This marked the beginning of a 14-year period of one-man rule that would effectively last until Marcos was exiled from the country on February 25, 1986. Even though the formal document proclaiming martial law – Proclamation No. 1081 – was formally lifted on January 17, 1981, Marcos retained virtually all of his powers as dictator until he was ousted by the EDSA Revolution. Plaza Miranda was soon followed by a series of about twenty explosions that took place in various locations in Metro Manila in the months immediately proceeding Marcos' proclamation of martial law. The first of these bombings took place on March 15, 1972, and the last took place on September 11, 1972, – twelve days before martial law was announced on September 23 of that year. The Marcos regime officially attributed the explosions to communist "urban guerillas", and Marcos included them in the list of "inciting events" that served as rationalizations for his declaration of martial law. Marcos's political opposition at the time questioned the attribution of the explosions to the communists, noting that the only suspects caught in connection to the explosions were linked to the Philippine Constabulary. The sites of the 1972 Manila bombings included the Palace Theater and Joe's Department Store on Carriedo Street, both in Manila; the offices of the Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company (PLDT), Filipinas Orient Airways, and Philippine American Life and General Insurance Company (PhilamLife); the Cubao branch of the Philippine Trust Company (now known as PhilTrust Bank); the Senate Publication Division and the Philippine Sugar Institute in Quezon City, and the South Vietnamese embassy. However, only one of these incidents – the one in the Carriedo shopping mall – went beyond damage to property; one woman was killed and about 40 persons were injured. Martial law era (1972–1981) Marcos's declaration of martial law became known to the public on September 23, 1972, when his press secretary, Francisco Tatad, announced through the radio that Proclamation № 1081, which Marcos had supposedly signed two days earlier on September 21, had come into force and would extend Marcos's rule beyond the constitutional two-term limit. Ruling by decree, he almost dissolved press freedom and other civil liberties to add propaganda machine, closed down Congress and media establishments, and ordered the arrest of opposition leaders and militant activists, including senators Benigno Aquino Jr., Jovito Salonga and Jose Diokno. Marcos claimed that martial law was the prelude to creating his Bagong Lipunan, a "New Society" based on new social and political values. Arrests However, unlike Ninoy Aquino's Senate colleagues who were detained without charges, Ninoy, together with communist NPA leaders Lt. Corpuz and Bernabe Buscayno, was charged with murder, illegal possession of firearms and subversion. Bagong Lipunan (New Society) As one of his rationalizations for the declaration of martial law, Marcos said that there was a need to "reform society" by placing it under the control of a "benevolent dictator" which could guide the undisciplined populace through a period of chaos. He referred to this social engineering exercise as the bagong lipunan or "new society" and the Marcos administration produced a range propaganda materials – including speeches, books, lectures, slogans, and numerous propaganda songs – to promote it. According to Marcos's book Notes on the New Society, it was a movement urging the poor and the privileged to work as one for the common goals of society and to achieve the liberation of the Filipino people through self-realization. The Marcos regime instituted a youth organization, known as the Kabataang Barangay, which was led by Marcos's eldest daughter Imee. Presidential Decree 684, enacted in April 1975, encouraging youths aged 15 to 18 to go to camps and do volunteer work. 1973 martial law referendum Martial law was put on vote in July 1973 in the 1973 Philippine martial law referendum and was marred with controversy resulting to 90.77% voting yes and 9.23% voting no. Rolex 12 and the military Along with Marcos, members of his Rolex 12 circle like Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile, Chief of Staff of the Philippine Constabulary Fidel Ramos, and Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines Fabian Ver were the chief administrators of martial law from 1972 to 1981, and the three remained President Marcos's closest advisers until he was ousted in 1986. Other peripheral members of the Rolex 12 included Eduardo "Danding" Cojuangco Jr. and Lucio Tan. Between 1972 and 1976, Marcos increased the size of the Philippine military from 65,000 to 270,000 personnel, in response to the fall of South Vietnam to the communists and the growing tide of communism in South East Asia. Military officers were placed on the boards of a variety of media corporations, public utilities, development projects, and other private corporations, most of whom were highly educated and well-trained graduates of the Philippine Military Academy. At the same time, Marcos made efforts to foster the growth of a domestic weapons manufacturing industry and heavily increased military spending. Many human rights abuses were attributed to the Philippine Constabulary which was then headed by future president Fidel Ramos. The Civilian Home Defense Force, a precursor of Civilian Armed Forces Geographical Unit (CAFGU), was organized by President Marcos to battle with the communist and Islamic insurgency problem, has particularly been accused of notoriously inflicting human right violations on leftists, the NPA, Muslim insurgents, and rebels against the Marcos government. However, under martial law the Marcos administration was able to reduce violent urban crime, collect unregistered firearms, and suppress communist insurgency in some areas. US foreign policy and martial law under Marcos By 1977, the armed forces had quadrupled and over 60,000 Filipinos had been arrested for political reasons. In 1981, Vice President George H. W. Bush praised Marcos for his "adherence to democratic principles and to the democratic processes". No American military or politician in the 1970s ever publicly questioned the authority of Marcos to help fight communism in South East Asia. From the declaration of martial law in 1972 until 1983, the US government provided $2.5 billion in bilateral military and economic aid to the Marcos regime, and about $5.5 billion through multilateral institutions such as the World Bank. In a 1979 US Senate report, it was stated that US officials were aware, as early as 1973, that Philippine government agents were in the United States to harass Filipino dissidents. In June 1981, two anti-Marcos labor activists were assassinated outside of a union hall in Seattle. On at least one occasion, CIA agents blocked FBI investigations of Philippine agents. Withdrawal of Taiwan relations in favor of the People's Republic of China Prior to the Marcos administration, the Philippine government had maintained a close relationship with the Kuomintang-ruled Republic of China (ROC) government which had fled to the island of Taiwan, despite the victory of the Communist Party of China in the 1949 Chinese Communist Revolution. Prior administrations had seen the People's Republic of China (PRC) as a security threat, due to its financial and military support of Communist rebels in the country. By 1969, however, Ferdinand Marcos started publicly asserting the need for the Philippines to establish a diplomatic relationship with the People's Republic of China. In his 1969 State of the Nation Address, he said: In June 1975, President Marcos went to the PRC and signed a Joint Communiqué normalizing relations between the Philippines and China. Among other things, the Communiqué recognizes that "there is but one China and that Taiwan is an integral part of Chinese territory…" In turn, Chinese Prime Minister Zhou Enlai also pledged that China would not intervene in the internal affairs of the Philippines nor seek to impose its policies in Asia, a move which isolated the local communist movement that China had financially and militarily supported. The Washington Post, in an interview with former Philippine Communist Party Officials, revealed that, "they (local communist party officials) wound up languishing in China for 10 years as unwilling "guests" of the (Chinese) government, feuding bitterly among themselves and with the party leadership in the Philippines". The government subsequently captured NPA leaders Bernabe Buscayno in 1976 and Jose Maria Sison in 1977. 1978 Philippine parliamentary election By 1977, reports of "gross human rights violations" had led to pressure from the international community, including newly elected US President Jimmy Carter, put pressure on the Marcos Administration to release Ninoy Aquino and to hold parliamentary elections to demonstrate that some "normalization" had begun after the declaration of martial law. Marcos did not release Aquino, but announced that the 1978 Philippine parliamentary election would be held in 1978. The elections were held on April 7, 1978, for the election of the 166 (of the 208) regional representatives to the Interim Batasang Pambansa (the nation's first parliament). The elections were contested by several parties including Ninoy Aquino's newly formed party, the Lakas ng Bayan (LABAN) and the regime's party known as the Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL). The Ninoy Aquino's LABAN party fielded 21 candidates for the Metro Manila area including Ninoy himself, activist Jerry Barican, labor leader Alex Boncayao, Neptali Gonzales, Teofisto Guingona, Jr., Ramon Mitra, Jr., Aquilino Pimentel, Jr., journalist Napoleon Rama, publisher Alejandro Roces, and poet-playwright Francisco Rodrigo. Irregularities noted during the election included "prestuffed ballot boxes, phony registration, "flying voters", manipulated election returns, and vote buying," and LABAN's campaigning faced restrictions, including Marcos' refusal to let Aquino out of prison in order to campaign. All of the party's candidates, including Aquino, lost the election. Marcos's KBL party won 137 seats, while Pusyon Bisaya led by Hilario Davide Jr., who later became the Minority Floor Leader, won 13 seats. Prime Minister In 1978, Ferdinand Marcos became Prime Minister of the Philippines, marking the return of the position for the first time since the terms of Pedro Paterno and Jorge Vargas during the American occupation. Based on Article 9 of the 1973 constitution, it had broad executive powers that would be typical of modern prime ministers in other countries. The position was the official head of government, and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. All of the previous powers of the President from the 1935 Constitution were transferred to the newly restored office of Prime Minister. The Prime Minister also acted as head of the National Economic Development Authority. Upon his re-election to the Presidency in 1981, Marcos was succeeded as Prime Minister by an American-educated leader and Wharton graduate, Cesar Virata, who was elected as an Assemblyman (Member of the Parliament) from Cavite in 1978. He is the eponym of the Cesar Virata School of Business, the business school of the University of the Philippines Diliman. Proclamation No. 2045 After putting in force amendments to the constitution, legislative action, and securing his sweeping powers and with the Batasan, his supposed successor body to the Congress, under his control, President Marcos issued Proclamation 2045, which "lifted" martial law, on January 17, 1981. However, the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus continued in the autonomous regions of Western Mindanao and Central Mindanao. The opposition dubbed the lifting of martial law as a mere "face lifting" as a precondition to the visit of Pope John Paul II. Third term (1981–1986) On June 16, 1981, six months after the lifting of martial law, the first presidential election in twelve years was held. President Marcos ran while the major opposition parties, the United Nationalists Democratic Organizations (UNIDO), a coalition of opposition parties and LABAN, boycotted the election. Marcos won a massive victory over the other candidates. Armed conflict with the CPP–NPA After the lifting of martial law, the pressure on the communist CPP–NPA alleviated. The group was able to return to urban areas and form relationships with legal opposition organizations, and became increasingly successful in attacks against the government throughout the country. The violence inflicted by the communists reached its peak in 1985 with 1,282 military and police deaths and 1,362 civilian deaths. 1980s economic collapse Because the Marcos administration's spending had relied so heavily on debt since Marcos' first term in the 60s, the Philippines was left vulnerable when the US economy went into recession in the third quarter of 1981, forcing the Reagan administration to increase interest rates. The Philippine economy began going into decline in 1981, continuing to do so by the time of the Benigno Aquino Jr. assassination in 1983. The economic and political instability combined to produce the worst recession in Philippine history in 1984 and 1985, with the economy contracting by 7.3% for two successive years. Aquino's assassination On August 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport. He had returned to the Philippines after three years in exile in the United States, where he had a heart bypass operation to save his life after Marcos allowed him to leave the Philippines to seek medical care. Prior to his heart surgery, Ninoy, along with his two co-accused, NPA leaders Bernabe Buscayno (Commander Dante) and Lt. Victor Corpuz, were sentenced to death by a military commission on charges of murder, illegal possession of firearms and subversion. A few months before his assassination, Ninoy had decided to return to the Philippines after his research fellowship from Harvard University had finished. The opposition blamed Marcos directly for the assassination while others blamed the military and his wife, Imelda. Popular speculation pointed to three suspects; the first was Marcos himself through his trusted military chief Fabian Ver; the second theory pointed to his wife Imelda who had her own burning ambition now that her ailing husband seemed to be getting weaker, and the third theory was that Danding Cojuangco planned the assassination because of his own political ambitions. The 1985 acquittals of Chief of Staff General Fabian Ver as well as other high-ranking military officers charged with the crime were widely seen as a whitewash and a miscarriage of justice. On November 22, 2007, Pablo Martinez, one of the soldiers convicted in the assassination of Ninoy Aquino, alleged that it was Marcos crony Danding Cojuangco who ordered the assassination of Ninoy Aquino Jr. while Marcos was recuperating from his kidney transplant. Cojuangco is the cousin of Aquino's wife Corazon Cojuangco Aquino. Martinez also alleged only he and Galman knew of the assassination, and that Galman was the actual shooter, which is not corroborated by other evidence of the case. After the February 1986 People Power revolution swept Aquino's widow to the presidency, the Supreme Court ordered a retrial of Aquino's assassination. The Sandiganbayan convicted 16 military personnel for the murder, ruling that Constable 1st Class Rogelio Moreno, one of the military escorts assigned to Aquino, "fired the fatal shot" that killed Aquino, not Galman. Impeachment attempt In August 1985, 56 Assemblymen signed a resolution calling for the impeachment of President Marcos for alleged diversion of US aid for personal use, citing a July 1985 San Jose Mercury News exposé of the Marcos's multimillion-dollar investment and property holdings in the United States. The properties allegedly amassed by the First Family were the Crown Building, Lindenmere Estate, and a number of residential apartments (in New Jersey and New York), a shopping center in New York, mansions (in London, Rome and Honolulu), the Helen Knudsen Estate in Hawaii and three condominiums in San Francisco, California. The Assembly also included in the complaint the misuse and misapplication of funds "for the construction of the Manila Film Center, where X-rated and pornographic films are exhibited, contrary to public morals and Filipino customs and traditions." The impeachment attempt gained little real traction, however, even in the light of this incendiary charge; the committee to which the impeachment resolution was referred did not recommend it, and any momentum for removing Marcos under constitutional processes soon died. Physical decline During his third term, Marcos's health deteriorated rapidly due to kidney ailments, as a complication of a chronic autoimmune disease lupus erythematosus. He had a kidney transplant in August 1983, and when his body rejected the first kidney transplant, he had a second transplant in November 1984. Marcos's regime was sensitive to publicity of his condition; a palace physician who alleged that during one of these periods Marcos had undergone a kidney transplant was shortly afterwards found murdered. Police said he was kidnapped and slain by communist rebels. Many people questioned whether he still had capacity to govern, due to his grave illness and the ballooning political unrest. With Marcos ailing, his powerful wife, Imelda, emerged as the government's main public figure. Marcos dismissed speculations of his ailing health as he used to be an avid golfer and fitness buff who liked showing off his physique. By 1984, US President Ronald Reagan started distancing himself from the Marcos regime that he and previous American presidents had strongly supported even after Marcos declared martial law. The United States, which had provided hundreds of millions of dollars in aid, was crucial in buttressing Marcos's rule over the years, although during the Carter administration the relationship with the US had soured somewhat when President Jimmy Carter targeted the Philippines in his human rights campaign. Cabinet Economic performance The 21-year period of Philippine economic history during Ferdinand Marcos's regime—from his election in 1965 until he was ousted by the People Power Revolution in 1986—was a period of significant economic highs and lows. Philippine Annual Gross Domestic Product grew from $5.27 billion in 1964 to $37.14 billion in 1982, a year prior to the assassination of Ninoy Aquino. The GDP went down to $30.7 billion in 1985, after two years of economic recession brought about by political instability following Ninoy's assassination. A considerable amount of this money went to the Marcos family and friends in the form of behest loans. Poverty and inequality Susan Quimpo recounts that times were hard financially during the Marcos regime, so much so that citizens had to line up for rice rations due to rice shortage, and that the government told citizens to consume corn instead. In The Making of the Philippines, Frank Senauth (p. 103) says: Marcos himself diverted large sums of government money to his party's campaign funds. Between 1972 and 1980, the average monthly income of wage workers had fallen by 20%. By 1981, the wealthiest 10% of the population was receiving twice as much income as the bottom 60%. Debt To help finance a number of economic development projects, the Marcos government borrowed large amounts of money from international lenders. The external debt of the Philippines rose more than 70-fold from $360 million in 1962 to $26.2 billion in 1985, making the Philippines one of the most indebted countries in Asia. The country's total external debt rose from US$2.3 billion in 1970 to US$26.2 billion in 1985 during Marcos's term. Marcos's critics charged that policies have become debt-driven with rampant corruption and plunder of public funds by Marcos and his cronies. This held the country under a debt-servicing crisis which is expected to be fixed by only 2025. Critics have pointed out an elusive state of the country's development as the period is marred by a sharp devaluing of the Philippine Peso from 3.9 to 20.53. The overall economy experienced a slower growth GDP per capita, lower wage conditions and higher unemployment especially towards the end of Marcos's term after the 1983–1984 recession. Some of Marcos's critics claimed that poverty incidence grew from 41% in the 1960s at the time Marcos took the Presidency to 59% when he was removed from power, Reliance on US trade As a former colony of the United States, the Philippines was heavily reliant on the American economy to purchase agricultural goods such as sugar, tobacco, coconut, bananas, and pineapple Economy during martial law (1973–1980) According to World Bank Data, the Philippine's Annual Gross Domestic Product quadrupled from $8 billion in 1972 to $32.45 billion in 1980, for an inflation-adjusted average growth rate of 6% per year, while debt stood at US$17.2 billion by the end of 1980. Indeed, according to the US-based Heritage Foundation, the Philippines enjoyed its best economic development since 1945 between 1972 and 1979. The economy grew amidsts two severe global oil shocks following the 1973 oil crisis and 1979 energy crisis – oil price was $3 / barrel in 1973 and $39.5 in 1979, or a growth of 1200%. By the end of 1979, debt was still manageable, with debt to Debt-GNP ratio about the same as South Korea, according to the US National Bureau of Economic Research. Foreign capital was invited to invest in certain industrial projects. They were offered incentives, including tax exemption privileges and the privilege of bringing out their profits in foreign currencies. One of the most important economic programs in the 1980s was the Kilusang Kabuhayan at Kaunlaran (Movement for Livelihood and Progress). This program was started in September 1981. It aimed to promote the economic development of the barangays by encouraging its residents to engage in their own livelihood projects. The government's efforts resulted in the increase of the nation's economic growth rate to an average of six percent or seven percent from 1970 to 1980. Economy after martial law (1981–1985) The Philippine economy, heavily reliant on exports to the United States, suffered a great decline after the Aquino assassination in August 1983. In an attempt to launch a national economic recovery program and despite his growing isolation from American businesses, Marcos negotiated with foreign creditors including the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), for a restructuring of the country's foreign debts – to give the Philippines more time to pay the loans. Marcos ordered a cut in government expenditures and used a portion of the savings to finance the Sariling Sikap (Self-Reliance), a livelihood program he established in 1984. However, the economy continued to shrink despite the government's recovery efforts due to a number of reasons. Most of the so-called government development programs failed to materialize. Government funds were often siphoned off by Marcos or his cronies. American investors were discouraged by the Filipino economic elite who were against the corruption that by now had become endemic in the Marcos regime. The failure of the recovery program was further augmented by civil unrest, rampant graft and corruption within the government, and Marcos's lack of credibility. The unemployment rate increased from 6.25% in 1972 to 11.058% in 1985. Creation of the Credit Information Bureau In 1981, Ferdinand Marcos issued Letter of Instructions No. 1107 mandating the Central Bank of the Philippines to analyze the probability of establishing and funding the operation of a credit bureau in the Philippines due to the disturbing increase of failures on corporate borrowers. In adherence to the order, Central Bank of the Philippines organized the Credit Information Exchange System under the department of Loans and Credit. It was created to engage in collating, developing and analyzing credit information on individuals, institutions, business entities and other business concerns. It aims to develop and undertake the continuing exchange of credit data within its members and subscribers and to provide an impartial source of credit information for debtors, creditors and the public. On April 14, 1982, Credit Information Bureau, Inc. was incorporated as a non-stock, non-profit corporation. CIBI was created pursuant to LOI No. 1107 dated February 16, 1981, and was further strengthened by PD No. 1941 which recognizes and supports CIBI as a suitable credit bureau to promote the development and maintenance of rational and efficient credit processes in the financial system and in the economy as a whole. In 1997, Credit Information Bureau, Inc. was incorporated and transformed into a private entity and became CIBI Information, Inc. CIBI is a provider of information and intelligence for business, credit and individuals. The company also supplies compliance reports before accrediting suppliers, industry partners and even hiring professionals. Snap election and exile after the EDSA Revolution (1986) In late 1985, in the face of escalating public discontent and under pressure from foreign allies, Marcos called a snap election with more than a year left in his term. He selected Arturo Tolentino as his running mate. The opposition to Marcos united behind two American-educated leaders, Aquino's widow, Corazon, and her running mate, Salvador Laurel. It was during this time that Marcos's World War II medals for fighting the Japanese Occupation was first questioned by the foreign press. During a campaign in Manila's Tondo district, Marcos retorted: Marcos was referring to both presidential candidate Corazon Aquino's father-in-law Benigno Aquino Sr. and vice presidential candidate Salvador Laurel's father, José P. Laurel The elections were held on February 7, 1986. The official election canvasser, the Commission on Elections (COMELEC), declared Marcos the winner. The final tally of the COMELEC had Marcos winning with 10,807,197 votes against Aquino's 9,291,761 votes. On the other hand, the partial 69% tally of the National Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL), an accredited poll watcher, had Aquino winning with 7,502,601 votes against Marcos's 6,787,556 votes. Cheating was reported on both sides. This electoral exercise was marred by widespread reports of violence and tampering of election results. The fraud culminated in the walkout of 35 COMELEC computer technicians to protest their claim that the official election results were manipulated to favor Ferdinand Marcos, at least based from their testimonies which were never validated. The walkout of computer technicians was led by Linda Kapunan and the technicians were protected by Reform the Armed Forces Movement (RAM) officers led by her husband Lt. Col. Eduardo "Red" Kapunan. RAM, led by Lt. Col. Gregorio "Gringo" Honasan and backed by Enrile had plotted a coup d'état to seize Malacañang and kill Marcos and his family. The failed election process gave a decisive boost to the "People Power movement." Enrile and Ramos would later abandon Marcos and switch sides and seek protection behind the 1986 People Power Revolution, backed by fellow-American educated Eugenio Lopez Jr., Jaime Augusto Zobel de Ayala, and the old political and economic elites. At the height of the revolution, Juan Ponce Enrile revealed that a purported and well-publicized ambush attempt against him years earlier was in fact faked, and in his claim, it was in order for Marcos to have a pretext for imposing martial law. Enrile would later take retract this statement, and in 2012, he claimed that the ambush actually happened. Despite all this, Marcos never ceased to maintain that he was the duly elected and proclaimed president of the Philippines for a fourth term, but unfairly and illegally deprived of his right to serve it. On February 25, 1986, rival presidential inaugurations were held, but as Aquino supporters overran parts of Manila and seized state broadcaster PTV-4, Marcos was forced to flee. Fleeing from the Philippines to Hawaii At 15:00 PST (GMT+8) on February 25, 1986, Marcos talked to United States Senator Paul Laxalt, a close associate of the United States President, Ronald Reagan, asking for advice from the White House. Laxalt advised him to "cut and cut cleanly", to which Marcos expressed his disappointment after a short pause. In the afternoon, Marcos talked to Enrile, asking for safe passage for him and his family, and included his close allies like General Ver. Finally, at 9:00 p.m., the Marcos family was transported by four Sikorsky HH-3E helicopters to Clark Air Base in Angeles City, about 83 kilometers north of Manila, before boarding US Air Force C-130 planes bound for Andersen Air Force Base in Guam, and finally to Hickam Air Force Base in Hawaii where Marcos arrived on February 26. When he fled to Hawaii by way of Guam, he also brought with him 22 crates of cash valued at $717 million, 300 crates of assorted jewelry with undetermined value, $4 million worth of unset precious gems contained in Pampers diaper boxes, 65 Seiko and Cartier watches, a 12 by 4 ft box crammed full of real pearls, a 3 ft solid gold statue covered in diamonds and other precious stones, $200,000 in gold bullion and nearly $1 million in Philippine pesos, and deposit slips to banks in the US, Switzerland, and the Cayman Islands worth $124 million, which he all amassed during his dictatorship. Initially, there was confusion in Washington as to what to do with the Marcos and the 90 members of his entourage. Given the special relations Marcos nurtured with Reagan, the latter had expectations of favorable treatment. However, Reagan was to distance himself from the Marcoses. The State Department in turn assigned former Deputy Chief of Mission to Manila, Robert G. Rich Jr. to be the point of contact. The entourage were first billeted inside the housing facilities of Hickam Air Force Base. Later on the State Department announced the Marcoses were not immune from legal charges, and within weeks hundreds of cases have been filed against them. Throughout his stay in Hawaii, he and his family enjoyed a high life, living in a luxurious house in Makiki Heights while shopping and eating in one of the state's most expensive sections, as his wife Imelda entertained guests through various costly parties, while Filipinos back in the Philippines suffered from the debt the Marcos family incurred during their rule, which experts say may be fully paid only by 2025, almost four decades after the downfall of the Marcos authoritarian regime. Other specifics about the things Marcos brought to Hawaii were also identified through the 23-page US Customs record. These include 23 wooden crates; 12 suitcases and bags, and various boxes, whose contents included enough clothes to fill 67 racks; 413 pieces of jewelry; 24 gold bricks, inscribed "To my husband on our 24th anniversary"; and more than 27 million Philippine pesos in freshly printed notes. The jewelry included 70 pairs of jewel-studded cufflinks; an ivory statue of the infant Jesus with a silver mantle and a diamond necklace. The total value of these items was $15 millon. Meanwhile, when protestors stormed Malacañang Palace shortly after their departure, it was famously discovered that Imelda had left behind over 2,700 pairs of shoes in her closet. The protesters who stormed Malacañang Palace would later loot it, many would steal documents, jewelries, food from the pantries, typewriters, and so on. Other than looting, cases of vandalism and destruction also took place. The Catholic hierarchy and Manila's middle class were crucial to the success of the massive crusade. Contrary to the widely-held notion that the protests were secluded only within Metro Manila, protests against Marcos also occurred in the provinces and islands of Visayas and Mindanao. Plans to return to the Philippines and "The Marcos Tapes" More than a year after the People Power Revolution, it was revealed to the United States House Foreign Affairs subcommittee in 1987 that Marcos held an intention to fly back to the Philippines and overthrow the Aquino government. Two Americans, namely attorney Richard Hirschfeld and business consultant Robert Chastain, both of whom posed as arms dealers, gained knowledge of a plot by gaining Marcos's trust and secretly tape recorded their conversations with the ousted leader. According to Hirschfeld, he was first invited by Marcos to a party held at the latter's family residence in Oahu, Hawaii. After hearing that one of Hirschfeld's clients was Saudi Sheikh Mohammad Fassi, Marcos's interest was piqued because he had done business with Saudis in the past. A few weeks later, Marcos asked for help with securing a passport from another country, in order to travel back to the Philippines while bypassing travel restrictions imposed by the Philippines and United States governments. This failed, however, and subsequently Marcos asked Hirschfeld to arrange a $10-million loan from Fassi. On January 12, 1987, Marcos stated to Hirschfeld that he required another $5-million loan "in order to pay 10,000 soldiers $500 each as a form of "combat life insurance." When asked by Hirschfeld if he was talking about an invasion of the Philippines, Marcos responded, "Yes." Hirschfeld also recalled that the former president said that he was negotiating with several arms dealers to purchase up to $18 million worth of weapons, including tanks and heat-seeking missiles, and enough ammunition to "last an army three months." Marcos had thought of being flown to his hometown in Ilocos Norte, greeted by his loyal supporters, and initiating a plot to kidnap Corazon Aquino. ″What I would like to see happen is we take her hostage,″ Marcos told Chastain. ″Not to hurt her ... no reason to hurt her .. to take her.″ Learning of this plan, Hirschfeld contacted the US Department of Justice, and was asked for further evidence. This information eventually reached President Ronald Reagan, who placed Marcos under "island arrest", further limiting his movement. In response, the Aquino government dismissed Marcos's statements as being a mere propaganda ploy. Legal cases Within two weeks of his arrival to the United States, the Marcos family and their cronies received hundred of criminal and civil cases filed in Hawaii, San Francisco, and New York. Marcos made personal appeals with Pres. Ronald Reagan to intervene and put a stop to these cases. In June 1988 National Security Advisor Colin Powell recommended proceeding with the indictment of the Marcoses, as he reviewed the cases as forwarded by the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York Rudy Giuliani. Pres. Reagan gave his tacit approval to this. On August 4, Marcos stated that he had Head-of-State immunity to resist the subpoenas by a Federal grand jury to produce his finger and palm prints, and failed to consent to investigators to go into his foreign bank accounts. By August 18, a bench warrant of arrest was released against the Marcoses. By October that year, Pres. Reagan personally wrote to Marcos informing him that he believed his innocence of the charges against him, but reminding him that the case was out of his hands. He also assured him that they will have every opportunity to prove their innocence in the US justice system. Rudy Giuliani pressed for indicting of the Marcoses for violating the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO). The RICO Act focuses specifically on racketeering and allows the leaders of a syndicate to be tried for the crimes they ordered others to do or assisted them in doing, closing a perceived loophole. For example, before RICO, a person who instructed someone else to murder could be exempt from prosecution because they did not personally commit the crime. In his next letter to Pres. Reagan on October 20, Marcos complained that Giuliani was giving them nothing but an ultimatum to plead guilty, and even to testify against others including his own family. Death and burial He was admitted to the hospital on January 15, 1989, with pneumonia and underwent a series of operations. In his dying days, Marcos was visited by Vice President Salvador Laurel. During the meeting with Laurel, Marcos offered to return 90% of his ill-gotten wealth to the Filipino people in exchange for being buried back in the Philippines beside his mother, an offer also disclosed to Enrique Zobel. However, Marcos's offer was rebuffed by the Aquino government and by Imelda Marcos. Marcos died at St. Francis Medical Center in Honolulu at 12:40 a.m (HST) of September 28, 1989, of kidney, heart, and lung ailments, 17 days after his 72nd birthday. Moments after, the younger Ferdinand eulogised his late father by stating, "Hopefully friends and detractors alike will look beyond the man to see what he stood for his vision, his compassion and his total love of country". Marcos was interred in a private mausoleum at Byodo-In Temple on the island of Oahu where his remains were visited daily by the Marcos family, political allies and friends. The Aquino government refused to allow Marcos's body to be brought back to the Philippines. The body was only brought back to the Philippines four years after Marcos's death during the term of President Fidel Ramos. From 1993 to 2016, his remains were interred inside a refrigerated crypt in Ilocos Norte, where his son, Ferdinand Jr., and eldest daughter, Imee, have since become the local governor and congressional representative, respectively. A large bust of Ferdinand Marcos (inspired by Mount Rushmore) was commissioned by the tourism minister, Jose Aspiras, and carved into a hillside in Benguet. It was subsequently destroyed; suspects included left-wing activists, members of a local tribe who had been displaced by construction of the monument, and looters hunting for the legendary Yamashita treasure.On November 18, 2016, the remains of Marcos were buried at the Libingan ng mga Bayani despite opposition from various groups. The burial came as unexpected to many, as the Supreme Court's ruling still allowed 15 days for the opposition to file a motion for reconsideration. On the morning of November 18, using Philippine Armed Forces helicopters, his family and their supporters flew his remains from Ilocos to Manila for a private burial. In the months prior, opinion on his burial at the Libingan ng Mga Bayani had been split: 50 percent of the 1,800 respondents of a survey conducted by SWS in February 2016 said Marcos "was worthy to be buried at the Libingan ng Mga Bayani" while the other half rejected a hero's burial, calling him a "thief." Various protest groups formed immediately upon hearing the news of the unexpected burial. Among those who gathered to oppose the burial were youth groups and opponents of the burial of Ferdinand Marcos in the Libingan ng mga Bayani. The League of Filipino Students described the transfer of Marcos's remains as being done like "a thief in the night." They also criticized the government's involvement in the burial of the former president who they described as a "fascist dictator". The Kabataan Partylist also condemned the burial, labeling it as a "grave travesty" and as "galawang Hokage" in reference to the burial of Marcos being planned and conducted unbeknownst to the public. Trials and reparations Roxas v. Marcos Rogelio Roxas, a Filipino treasure hunter, discovered a 3-foot-tall golden Buddha statue in tunnels under the Baguio General Hospital in 1971. Roxas was later arrested and tortured by members of the military, and the statue was taken away. Upon exile of the Marcoses, Roxas assigned his rights to a friend in the United States and formed the Golden Buddha Corporation (GBC) who pursued the case against the former president. In 1996, the lower court awarded US$22 billion in favor of GBC, making this the largest award in any civil case in the history of the United States. In November 1998, the Hawaii Supreme Court overturned the ruling, but still maintained the award of US$6 million for the illegal arrest and torture experienced by Roxas. Sandiganbayan, Supreme Court, and international trials On November 9, 2018, Imelda Marcos was found "guilty beyond reasonable doubt..." by the Sandiganbayan of seven counts of graft for the private organizations set up in Switzerland during her active duty as a government official from 1968 to 1986. In less than 20 days however, the Sandiganbayan listed Imelda's "advanced age" and health condition as considerations for allowing the accused to post bail. The Fifth Division's (of the Sandiganbayan) ruling read that "the fact that she is of advanced age and for health reasons, consistent with the doctrine in Enrile vs Sandiganbayan, bail is allowed for these seven cases." The Supreme Court of the Philippines affirms that the Marcoses' assets, that are beyond the legal and declared government salaries, are considered as ill-gotten wealth. In 1998 however, the Supreme Court acquitted Imelda Marcos of corruption charges from a previous graft conviction in 1993. Some US Court of Appeals of the Ninth Circuit confirmed a contempt judgement in relation to the assets of Imelda and her son Bongbong in the United States. Although on a different subject matter, this judgement awarded $353.6 million to human rights victims, which was arguably the largest contempt award ever affirmed by an appellate court. Reparations In 1995, some 10,000 Filipinos won a US class-action lawsuit filed against the Marcos estate. The claims were filed by victims or their surviving relatives consequent on torture, execution, and disappearances. The Swiss government, initially reluctant to respond to allegations that stolen funds were held in Swiss accounts, has returned $684 million of Marcos's stash. Corazon Aquino repealed many of the repressive laws that had been enacted during Marcos's dictatorship. She restored the right of access to habeas corpus, repealed anti-labor laws and freed hundreds of political prisoners. From 1989 to 1996, a series of suits were brought before US courts against Marcos and his daughter Imee, alleging that they bore responsibility for executions, torture, and disappearances. A jury in the Ninth Circuit Court awarded US$2 billion to the plaintiffs and to a class composed of human rights victims and their families. On June 12, 2008, the US Supreme Court (in a 7–2 ruling penned by Justice Anthony Kennedy in Republic of Philippines v. Pimentel) held that: "The judgment of the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit is reversed, and the case is remanded with instructions to order the District Court to dismiss the interpleader action." The court dismissed the interpleader lawsuit filed to determine the rights of 9,500 Filipino human rights victims (1972–1986) to recover US$35 million, part of a US$2 billion judgment in US courts against the Marcos estate, because the Philippines government is an indispensable party, protected by sovereign immunity. The Philippines government claimed ownership of the funds transferred by Marcos in 1972 to Arelma S.A., which invested the money with Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith Inc., in New York. In July 2017, the Philippine Court of Appeals rejected the petition seeking to enforce the United States court decision that awarded the $2 billion in compensation to human rights victims during the term of former President Ferdinand Marcos. In 2013, Philippine Congress passed Republic Act 10368 or the Human Rights Victims Reparation and Recognition Act of 2013. The law created the Human Rights Violations Claims Board and provided reparations to victims of summary execution, torture, enforced disappearances, and other human rights violations committed under the regime of the late dictator Ferdinand Marcos. Compensation came from P10 billion of stolen wealth seized by the government from the Marcoses. A total of 11,103 victims of human rights violations under Martial Law received compensation in 2018. A bill filed in Congress in 2020 proposes to compensate tens of thousands of people who are still not officially recognized as victims of state-sponsored violence during the Marcos regime. Legacy Marcos left a mixed legacy for future generations. Authoritarianism While Ferdinand Marcos was not the first Philippine executive to institute an authoritarian form of government, he was the first to do so since the immediate post-WWII era, and the first to do so throughout the whole archipelago since the war itself. Comparisons have been made between Ferdinand Marcos and Lee Kuan Yew's authoritarian style of governance and Singapore's success, but in his autobiography, From Third World to First: The Singapore Story: 1965–2000, Lee relates: Human rights abuses As many student activists like Edgar Jopson and Rigoberto Tiglao, farmers like Bernabe Buscayno, journalists like Satur Ocampo, legal political opposition (Ninoy Aquino and fellow candidate in 1978 election Alex Boncayao), and priest and nuns joined or developed relationships with communist rebels, many farmers, student protesters, leftists, political opponents, journalists and members of the media accused of being members or sympathizing with the CPP, NPA or MNLF or of plotting against the government were frequent targets of human rights violations. Victims would simply be rounded up with no arrest warrant nor reading of prisoners' rights and kept indefinitely locked up with no charges filed against them. In a keynote speech at the University of the East, journalist Raissa Robles described how anyone could just be arrested (or abducted) with ease through pre-signed Arrest Search and Seizure Orders (ASSO), which allowed the military or police to detain victims on trumped up charges or unclear allegations according to Rappler research. Anybody could be picked up at any time for any reason by the military or the police, according to Raissa's husband, journalist Alan Robles. A 1976 Amnesty International report had listed 88 government torturers, including members of the Philippine Constabulary and the Philippine Army, which was respectively under the direct control of Major General Fidel V. Ramos and Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile. According to torture victim Rigoberto Tiglao, nearly all of the human rights abuses President Marcos has been accused of were undertaken by Philippine Constabulary units, especially through its national network of "Constabulary Security Units," whose heads reported directly to Fidel V. Ramos. The most dreaded of these was the Manila-based 5th Constabulary Security Unit (CSU), which featured the dreaded torturer Lt. Rodolfo Aguinaldo, credited with capturing most of the Communist Party leaders including Jose Ma. Sison and the communist's Manila-Rizal Regional Committee he headed, the Metrocom Intelligence and Security Group (MISG) under the command of Col. Rolando Abadilla, and the Intelligence Service, Armed Forces of the Philippines (ISAFP). There are various statistics for human rights abuses committed during the Marcos regime. Task Force Detainees of the Philippines (TFDP) has recorded: 2,668 incidents of arrests 398 disappearances 1,338 salvagings 128 frustrated salvagings 1,499 killed or wounded in massacres Amnesty International reports: 70,000 imprisoned 34,000 tortured 3,240 documented as killed Historian Alfred McCoy gives a figure of 3,257 recorded extrajudicial killings by the military from 1975 to 1985, 35,000 tortured and 70,000 incarcerated. The newspaper Bulatlat places the number of victims of arbitrary arrest and detention at 120,000, the extrajudicial execution of activists under martial law at 1,500 and Karapatan (a local human rights group)'s records show 759 involuntarily disappeared with their bodies never found. According to the late Susan Quimpo, co-author of Subversive Lives, 80,000 was a low figure for the number of persons incarcerated during the Marcos regime. In addition to these, up to 10,000 Moro Muslims were killed in massacres by the Philippine Army, Philippine Constabulary, and the Ilaga pro-government paramilitary group. Abductions Victims were often taken to military "safehouses", a euphemism for hidden places of torture, often blindfolded. In a document titled "Open Letter to the Filipino People," martial law martyr Edgar "Edjop" Jopson described safehouses as such: "Safehouses usually have their windows always shut tight. They are usually covered with high walls. One would usually detect [safehouses] through the traffic of motorcycles and cars, going in and out of the house at irregular hours. Burly men, armed with pistols tucked in their waists or in clutch bags, usually drive these vehicles." Torture Various forms of torture were used by the military, and these forms of torture were usually combined with each other. Killings "Salvagings" Summary executions were prevalent during the martial law era with bodies being recovered in various places and often bearing signs of torture and mutilation. Such cases were referred to as "salvaging" with the term widely believed to have originated from the Spanish word salvaje, meaning savage. Mutilated remains were often dumped on roadsides in public display in order to spread a sense of fear and to intimidate opponents from encouraging actions against the government—turning the Philippines into a theater state of terror. Anyone could be "salvaged": communist rebels, suspects, innocent civilians and priests included. TFDP documented 1,473 "salvage" cases from 1980 to 1984 alone. Victims included Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila student Liliosa Hilao, Archimedes Trajano and Juan Escandor. Also included in the list of summary execution victims was 16-year-old Luis Manuel "Boyet" Mijares, who was tortured brutally with his body found with burn marks, all his nails pulled and removed, 33 ice pick wounds around his body, skull bashed in, eyeballs gouged out, and genitals mutilated before being dropped from a helicopter. Enforced disappearances Enforced disappearances, also known "desaparecidos" or "the disappeared"—people who suddenly went missing, sometimes without a trace and with bodies never recovered. Victims include Primitivo "Tibo" Mijares, Emmanuel Alvarez, Albert Enriquez, Ma. Leticia Ladlad, Hermon Lagman, Mariano Lopez, Rodelo Manaog, Manuel Ontong, Florencio Pesquesa, Arnulfo Resus, Rosaleo Romano, Carlos Tayag, Emmanuel Yap, Jan Quimpo, Rizalina Ilagan, Christina Catalla, Jessica Sales and Ramon Jasul. Notable murders While the numbers of political detainees went down, the number of people killed rose and spiked in 1981, the year martial law was officially lifted by Marcos according to Task Force Detainees of the Philippines. According to Senator Jose Diokno, "As torture (cases) declined, a more terrible tactic emerged; unofficial executions"—suspected dissidents were simply arrested and vanished. Murder victims include: Senator Ninoy Aquino, August 21, 1983. Assassinated on the tarmac of the Manila International Airport NPA commander Alex Boncayao, Macli-ing Dulag Fr. Tulio Favali Liliosa Hilao Evelio Javier Edgar Jopson Emmanuel "Eman" Lacaba Civilian massacres It is hard to judge the full extent of massacres and atrocities that happened during the Marcos regime due to a heavily censored press at the time. Some of the civilian massacres include the following: Guinayangan, Quezon. February 1, 1981 - coconut farmers marched to air their grievances against the coco levy fund scam. The military opened fire on a group of 3000 farmers that neared Guinayangan plaza. Two people died and 27 were wounded. Tudela, Misamis Occidental. August 24, 1981 - A Subanon family, the Gumapons, were asleep in Sitio Gitason, Barrio Lampasan when paramilitary members of the "Rock Christ", a fanatical pseudo-religious sect, strafed their house. 10 of the 12 persons in the house were killed, including an infant. Las Navas, Northern Samar. September 15, 1981 - Known as the Sag-od massacre, 18 heavily armed security men of the San Jose Timber Corp. (owned by Juan Ponce Enrile who were also members of the Special Forces of the Civilian Home Defense Force (CHDF) and allied with the Lost Command (a paramilitary group pursuing insurgents) ordered residents of Barrio Sag-od to come out of their homes. They opened fire, killing 45 men, women and children. Only 13 inhabitants of Barrio Sag-od survived. Culasi, Antique. December 19, 1981 - More than 400 of Culasi's mountain barangays held a protest to raise two issues: complaint against a new Philippine Constabulary company in their area and the reduction of taxes on farm products. The protesters were warned, but they pushed on. Soldiers opened fire while they were on the bridge. Five farmers died and several were injured. Talugtug, Nueva Ecija. January 3, 1982 - 5 men in their twenties were rounded up by military elements at around 7pm. The next day, their corpses were found. The military had suspected them to be communist supporters. Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur. February 12, 1982 - Members of the Ilaga killed 12 persons to avenge the death of their leader who was reportedly killed by the NPA. Hinunangan, Southern Leyte. March 23, 1982 - Troopers of the 357th PC company killed 8 people in Masaymon barrio. 6 of the 8 victims were 3–18 years of age. Bayog, Zamboanga del Sur. May 25, 1982 - Airplanes dropped bombs on Barangay Dimalinao as military reprisal against the community because communist rebels killed 23 soldiers two days earlier. Three people died and eight people were injured. Days later, two men from the community were picked up and killed. Months later, the residence of Bayog's Jesuit parish priest was strafed with bullets. He had written letters protesting the torture and harassment of Subanon who were suspected to be supporters of armed communists. Daet, Camarines Norte. June 14, 1982 - People from different barrios marched to denounce "fake elections", Cocofed, and to demand an increase in copra prices. Soldiers opened fire as marchers moved forward. Four people died on the spot, at least 50 were injured, and 2 of the seriously wounded died 2 months later. Pulilan, Bulacan. June 21, 1982 - In a dimly lit house, six peasant organizers were discussing and assessing their work when 25-35 uniformed military men with firearms burst in. While one of them was able to slip away, 5 of the peasants were taken by elements of the 175th PC Company to Pulo in San Rafael town. By midnight, 5 bullet-riddled corpses lay at the municipal hall of San Rafael. Labo, Camarines Norte. June 23, 1982 - Five men were gunned down by soldiers of the 45th Infantry Battalion's Mabilo detachment to avenge the death of a friend of one of the soldiers in the hands of unidentified gunmen. Roxas, Zamboanga del Norte. A week before Fr. Tullio Favali was murdered, 8 members of a family, including a three-year-old child were murdered by soldiers and militia men. All of them were parishioners of Favali. The massacre was never investigated. Gapan, Nueva Ecija. The Bautista family of five were strafed in their house by men in camouflaged uniforms. Escalante, Negros Occidental. September 20, 1985. A crowd of 5000 farmers, students, fisherfolk, religious clergy gathered in front of the plaza of the city hall to protest the 13th anniversary of martial law's imposition. It was the second day of a three-day Welga ng Bayan. About 50 firemen, armed soldiers of the Regional Special Action Forces (RSAF) and member of the Civilian Home Defense Force (CHDF) attempted to disperse the crowd. They hosed demonstrators from firetrucks, soldiers used tear gas, and the CHDF opened fire with assault rifles and a machine gun. Between 20 to 30 people were killed, and 30 were wounded. This is now known as the Escalante massacre, or "Bloody Thursday", even though the massacre happened on a Friday. Muslim massacres The Marcos regime had started to kill hundreds of Moros even before the imposition of martial law in 1972. Thousands of Moro Muslims were killed during the Marcos regime, prompting them to form insurgent groups and separatist movements such as the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), which became more radical with time due to atrocities against Muslims. According to the study The Liberation Movements in Mindanao: Root Causes and Prospects for Peace, a doctoral dissertation by Marjanie Salic Macasalong, the number of Moro victims killed by the Army, Philippine Constabulary, and the Ilaga (a notorious government-sanctioned terrorist cult known for cannibalism and land grabbing that served as members of the CHDF) reached as high as 10,000 lives. Some of the massacres include: The Jabidah Massacre in March 1968 with 11 to 68 Moros killed. This is the aftermath of an aborted operation to destabilize Sabah, Operation Merdeka. From 1970 to 1971, pro-government militias such as the Ilaga were behind 21 cases of massacres that left 518 people dead, 184 injured and 243 houses burned down. The Tacub Massacre in Kauswagan, Lanao del Norte, 1971 - five truckloads of displaced resident voters were stopped at a military checkpoint in Tacub. People were asked to line up as if in a firing squad, then they were summarily executed in with open fire from armed men. Dozens of bodies were strewn all over the road of the barangay after the incident. The Manili massacre in June 1971, with 70-79 Moros, including women and children, were killed inside a mosque by suspected Ilaga and Philippine Constabulary. The Burning of Jolo, Sulu in February 7–8, 1974, where land, sea and air bombardment by the Armed Forces of the Philippines caused fires and destruction in the central commercial town of Jolo that killed over 1,000 and possibly up to 20,000 civilians. It was described as "the worst single atrocity to be recorded in 16 years of the Mindanao conflict" by the April 1986 issue of the Philippines Dispatch. The Malisbong Massacre in September 1974, where about 1,500 male Moros were killed inside a mosque, 3,000 women and children aged 9–60 were detained, and about 300 women raped by the Philippine Constabulary. The Pata Island massacre in 1982 where 3,000 Tausug civilians, including women and children, were killed by months of Philippine military artillery shelling. The Tong Umapoy Massacre in 1983 where a Navy ship opened fire on a passenger boat en route to an athletic event in Bongao, Tawi-Tawi. 57 people on board were killed. Family denial Members of the Marcos family deny that human rights violations happened during the Marcos administration. On the stories of human rights abuses, Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos Jr. describes them as "self-serving statements by politicians, self-aggrandizement narratives, pompous declarations, and political posturing and propaganda." His older sister, Imee, denies that human rights abuses occurred during her family's regime and called them political accusations. According to her, "If what is demanded is an admission of guilt, I don't think that's possible. Why would we admit to something we did not do?" Ill-gotten wealth The Philippine Supreme Court considers all Marcos assets beyond their legally declared earnings/salary to be ill-gotten wealth and such wealth to have been forfeited in favor of the government or human rights victims. According to Presidential Commission on Good Government, the Marcos family and their cronies looted so much wealth from the Philippines that, to this day, investigators have difficulty determining precisely how many billions of dollars were stolen. The agency has estimated that Marcos stole around $5 billion to $10 billion from the Philippine treasury during his presidency from 1965 to 1986, while earning an annual salary equivalent to only US$13,500.00. Adjusted for inflation, this would be equivalent to about US$11.16 billion to US$22.3 billion or over 550 billion to 1.1 trillion Philippine pesos in 2017. Among the sources of the Marcos wealth are alleged to be diverted foreign economic aid, US Government military aid (including huge discretionary funds at Marcos disposal as a "reward" for sending some Filipino troops to Vietnam) and kickbacks from public works contracts over a two-decades-long rule. In 1990 Imelda Marcos, his widow, was acquitted of charges that she raided the Philippine's treasury and invested the money in the United States by a US jury. Imelda was acquitted not because she didn't commit any crime but because the United States jury deemed that the charges and trial didn't belong in a US court. In 1993, she was convicted of graft in Manila for entering into three unfavorable lease contracts between a Government-run transportation agency and another government-run hospital. In 1998, the Philippine Supreme Court overturned the previous conviction of Imelda Marcos and acquitted her of corruption charges. In 2008, Philippine trial court judge Silvino Pampilo acquitted Imelda Marcos, then widow of Ferdinand Marcos, of 32 counts of illegal money transfer from the 1993 graft conviction. In 2010, she was ordered to repay the Philippine government almost $280,000 for funds taken by Ferdinand Marcos in 1983. In 2012, a US Court of Appeals of the Ninth Circuit upheld a contempt judgement against Imelda and her son Bongbong Marcos for violating an injunction barring them from dissipating their assets, and awarded $353.6 million to human rights victims. As of October 2015, she still faced 10 criminal charges of graft, along with 25 civil cases, down from 900 cases in the 1990s, as most of the cases were dismissed for lack of evidence. In the 2004 Global Corruption Report, Marcos appeared in the list of the world's most corrupt leaders, listed in second place behind Suharto, the former President of Indonesia. But one of Marcos' own former Ministers of industry, Vicente Paterno, notes that while "the amount of theft perpetrated by Marcos's regime was probably less than that by Suharto on Indonesia," it "harmed our country more because the sums stolen by Marcos were sent out of the country, whereas Suharto's loot mostly were invested in Indonesia." During the ICIJ's (International Consortium of Investigative Journalists) exposé of offshore leaks in April 2013, the name of his eldest daughter, Imee Marcos, appeared on the list of wealthy people involved in offshore financial secrecy. It was revealed that she is hiding parts of her father's ill-gotten wealth in tax havens in the British Virgin Islands. In 2014, Vilma Bautista, the former secretary of Imelda Marcos was sentenced to prison for conspiring to sell a Monet, Sisley, and other masterpiece artworks belonging to the Republic of the Philippines for tens of millions of dollars. On May 9, 2016, the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists released the searchable database from Panama Papers. His two daughters, Imee Marcos Manotoc and Irene Marcos Araneta, have been named, along with his grandsons Fernando Manotoc, Matthew Joseph Manotoc, Ferdinand Richard Manotoc, his son-in-law Gregorio Maria Araneta III, including his estranged son-in-law Tommy Manotoc's relatives Ricardo Gabriel Manotoc and Teodoro Kalaw Manotoc. On September 3, 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte said the family of the late dictator Ferdinand Marcos was "ready to return" their stolen wealth to the government, possibly through a settlement. In January 2018, a draft House Bill proposing a compromise settlement and immunity for the Marcoses submitted by the late Ferdinand Marcos's legal counsel Oliver Lozano was revealed on social media to have been received by the Duterte government in July 2017. Overseas investments and bank accounts The overseas properties of Marcos and his associates created an empire spanning places as diverse as California, Washington, New York, Rome, Vienna, Australia, Antilles, the Netherlands, Hong Kong, Switzerland and Singapore. The more popular properties among those in this empire are the multimillion-dollar New York real estate investments, California banks and Swiss bank accounts; lesser known ones are villas in Austria, London, and Rome, gold and diamond investments in South Africa, and banks and hotels in Israel. There were 10 prominent Filipinos, led by Ferdinand Marcos and Imelda Marcos, who acquired, presumably illegally, various extensive properties in the US. They were Roberto Benedicto, Antonio Floirendo, Juan Ponce Enrile, Jose Yao Campos, Eduardo Cojuangco, Roman Cruz, Jr., Geronimo Velasco, and Rodolfo Cuenca. Other nominees who were noted as having been crucial in considerable overseas transactions were Ricardo Silverio, Herminio Disini, Nemesio Yabi, and Edna Camam. Dewey Dee, one of Marcos' main nominees, as well as Jose Yao Campos would later reveal how they fronted Marcos' investments both locally and abroad via at least 25 interlocking corporations set up for this purpose. The process by which Marcos laundered dirty money abroad was very comprehensive and difficult to track. First, overseas bank accounts were established in order to have easy access to the funds without concern for Philippine exchange laws. Often, cronies would choose distinguished US law firms that specialized in offshore real investment in US jurisdictions. Then, a lawyer or accountant would be contacted to establish an offshore corporation, usually in Hong Kong, to serve as the managing director of the corporation. A "shell" company, organized solely for the purpose of moving and hiding the true ownership of assets served as a channel for transferring funds from the Philippines inconspicuously. As this happened, another lawyers, often in the US, would be hired for a fee of $200 to $3,000 to arrange for the incorporation of another offshore corporation through accounting firms in Curaçao in the Netherlands Antilles. This would become the significant link between the real estate investment and the client. By this point, it would be more and more convoluted, becoming in the process much more difficult to track. One San Francisco lawyer, who represented affluent Filipino investors in California land deals, said "You'll never find out who the principals are. Every time I have ever dealt with these guys, I have never dealt with a document signed by a principal." The Marcos group used this very complicated and developed "laundering" process of involving multiple layers of dummy corporations scattered internationally to acquire and establish several multimillion assets in various US locations. Marcos, through different international banks, was able to launder money abroad. Crocker National Bank in San Francisco, for example, had to settle with the US Treasury Department, because they failed to report $4 billion in cash deposits from 1980 to 1984 from six Hong Kong-based banks. Hong Kong was a favorite among Filipino launderers. Due to the absence of foreign exchange controls in Hong Kong, it was impossible to determine the origin of the money. Crocker merely stated that the money came from "various Asian countries." The compliance of private banks with anonymous individuals looking to deposit their money enabled money laundering. Consequently, money laundering is an integral part of private banking. Marcos would later go on to seek the help of other private banks in Switzerland, Hong Kong, Austria, Panama, Liechtenstein, and the Netherland Antilles. The Swiss are known for their mastery in money laundering thanks to the central role of secrecy in their society. Austria, which also has its own tradition of banking secrecy, allowed accounts to be opened without the client ever revealing his or her name, something Swiss banks did not even allow. Hong Kong, more conveniently located for the Philippines, has developed facilities for the movement of money and the ready availability of various British lawyers who offer services of opening front or shell corporations for a fee. Panama is noted for its corrupt politicians and convenient transit point to the US. The Netherland Antilles served as the home for more than 35,000 shell companies of Marcos in order to invest anonymously in overseas financial markets and US real estate. Throughout the entire process, highly paid lawyers, accountants, investment consultants and portfolio managers were hired in order to organize shell corporations and acquire overseas properties. The Marcoses invested a lot in the US East and West coasts, but there were also important investments in Texas and Washington state. Most of the major real estate investments were Imelda's purchases of real estate in New York, Jose Campos Yao's investments in Texas and Seattle, and crony purchases in California. Jose Campos Yao, a Marcos ally and crony, along with his associates, purchased a whole city block in Seattle, Washington, in 1983. He used the Unam Investment Corp., a shell corporation based in Netherlands Antilles and a corporation he is the president of, and purchased the Seattle real estate worth S9,178,215 on May 13, 1983. Included in the acquisition are 600 Pike Street, 614 Pike Street, 1506 Sixth Avenue, 1520 Sixth Avenue, 151 Seventh Avenue, 1521 Seventh Avenue and 1575 Seventh Avenue. Throughout the entire process of the purchase, Yao and his associates hid their identities from the Seattle attorney and worked through Simeon Dee until the final negotiations. In Texas, Yao also purchased a 5,000 acres of prime land in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The land included Tarrant County, Dallas as well as in San Antonio and Corpus Christi. The land would be valued at $51 million. Geronimo Velasco, Marcos' Minister of Energy, and Rodolfo Cuenca, one of the Philippine cronies who dominated the construction industry, were both connected to several real estate purchases in California. Velasco, using either Decision Research Management, a shell company in Hong Kong, or through Velasco's nephew, Alfredo de Borja, purchased several expenses properties in California, including a mansion in Woodside for $1.5 million (price as of 1986), a condominium in Los Angeles for $675,000 (price as of June 3, 1982) and a luxury condominium in San Francisco for $400,000 (price as of 1984). Cuenca, on the other hand, purchased different real estates properties in San Francisco through TRA Equities Inc., a shell corporation registered in Delaware. His purchases included a condominium, a home, two office buildings and an annex in San Francisco, as well as a home in San Bruno. In New Jersey while she was still studying, Imee Marcos, President Ferdinand Marcos' eldest daughter, was given an 18th-century estate to live in. The estate was purchased on October 26, 1982, and includes a mansion and 13 acres of land. The Marcos family spent approximately $3 million to $5 million in furnishings and improvements. As for President Ferdinand Marcos' only son, Ferdinand Jr., he was given a house in Cherry Hill, New Jersey, purchased for $119,000,  while he was studying in the Wharton Business School of the University of Pennsylvania. Another property was bought for $90,000 in the area for the servants and security that was serving his son on November 23, 1978. Imelda, in purchasing estate properties in Manhattan, organized many shell corporations based in Hong Kong, Panama and the Netherland Antilles. She elicited the help of key individuals such as Gliceria Tantoco, one of Imelda's closest friends and business associates, Antonio Floirendo, who was instrumental in Imelda's involvement in the lucrative sugar trading business in New York and the purchase of the Olympic Towers, Rolando Gapud, one of Marcos' financial advisers, Fe Roa Gimenez and Vilma H. Bautista, personal assistants of Imelda, and Joseph and Ralph Bernstein, who played key roles in helping the Marcoses purchase and conceal ownership of their Manhattan properties. Imelda Marcos purchased five expensive Manhattan condominiums at the Olympic Towers, located on 5th Avenue, New York. The first three condominiums were purchased by Thetaventure Ltd., a Hong Kong-based shell corporation, for a total of $688,000 and was remodelled for $3.75 million. The fourth and fifth condominium were bought for $270,000 and $1.1 million respectively. Imelda also purchased her own resort, the Lindenmere Estate in Center Moriches, Suffolk County, Long Island. It was estimated to be between $19 million to $20 million after renovations were done. The restorations was paid for by Vilma Bautista, Imelda's personal assistant and Luna 7 Development Corp., a corporation registered in New York. The Townhouse at 13–15 East 66th, New York City, is quite a different case from the other properties, because it was not purchased by a shell corporation but by the Philippine Consulate and the Philippine National Bank. The sixth floor of the townhouse was converted into a private disco where the guests can have fun and play with giant pillows. It also housed the expensive art Imelda collected over the years. Imelda would also purchase Herald Center, a shopping center worth $70 million, 200 Madison, an office building acquired for $50 million, Crown Building, a large edifice located at 730 Fifth Avenue bought for $51 million through Lasutra Corp. N.V., and 50 Wall Street, a large historic building in New York's financial district bought for $71 million through NYLand (CF8) Ltd., a shell corporation based in the Netherlands Antilles. All of these properties and investments are only a fraction of the entire Marcos empire. The Center for Research and Communication, a Philippine private think-tank, estimated that Marcos and his cronies took away not only $10 million but $30 billion since the 1950s. Illegal Swiss foundations In 1986, following the overthrow of the Marcos regime, it was discovered that as early as 1968, Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos, under the pseudonyms William Saunders and Jane Ryan, opened bank accounts in Swiss banks, with one account having a balance of $950,000. Ferdinand Marcos' salary then was only around $5,600 a year while Imelda Marcos did not have any visible means of income. Eventually, the Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG), the body created by the government of President Corazon Aquino to recover the Marcos "hidden wealth" would determine that the late dictator stole between $5 billion and 10 billion from the Philippine treasury. Dr. Bernardo Villegas of the Center for Research and Communication, meantime, affirmed that the total amount probably came closer to $13 billion. The initial deposit of under $1 million grew into hundreds of millions, especially after Marcos declared martial law in 1972. Marcos and his cronies milked major sectors of the economy, extorted business establishments, skimmed from international loans, borrowed from banks without collateral, established phony companies, and siphoned off vital capital funds to overseas donations. In March 1986, the Philippine Government had identified an $800 million Swiss bank account held by Marcos, which at the time was the largest asset of Marcos and his wife, Imelda, yet made public. But another commission member, Mary C. Bautista, said the commission actually had information on more than one account held by Marcos in Switzerland. The commission is seeking to regain five buildings in New York worth an estimated $350 million that it asserts are secretly owned by the Marcoses. Switzerland's federal tribunal ruled in December 1990 that cash in Swiss banks would be returned to the Philippine government only if a Philippine court convicted her. In December 1997 (Reuters 1997:3), Switzerland's highest court ordered the Swiss banks to return $500 million of Marcos' secret accounts to the Philippine government, marking a major step forward in efforts to recover the Marcos' hidden wealth. That same year, the Philippine Senate, through its Blue Ribbon Committee chairman Franklin Drilon, has revealed the existence of 97 alleged accounts of Ferdinand Marcos in 23 banks in Europe, the United States, and Asia, suspected to be depositories of wealth looted from the Philippine treasury. Thirteen of the 23 banks mentioned by Drilon are in Switzerland, namely: Swiss Credit Bank, Swiss Bank Corp., Bankers Trust AG, Banque Paribas, Affida Bank, Copla, S.A., Lombard Odier et Cie, Standard Chartered Bank, Swiss Volkabank, Bank Ricklin, Compaigne Banque Et d'Investissements, Compaigne de Gestion Et De Banque Gonet Sa Nyon, and Bank Hoffman AG. The Sandiganbayan 5th Division has recently convicted Imelda Marcos of seven counts of graft for creating and maintaining private foundations in Switzerland, violating the anti-graft law that prohibits public officials from having pecuniary interests in private businesses. As the Sandiganbayan's decision reads, "Though named as a foundation, the evidence shows that these entities were put up primarily for the entrepreneurial activity of opening bank accounts and deposits, transferring funds, earning interests and even profit from investment, for the private benefit of the Marcos family as beneficiaries". For example, in the creation of the Maler Foundation, Imelda and Ferdinand created it but appointed Andre Barbey and Jean Louis Suiner as attorneys, administrators, and managers of the foundation. Imelda then conducted business to get investments amounting to at least US$75 million. Monopolies Marcos' administration spawned new oligarchs in Philippine society who became instant millionaires. These oligarchs plundered government financing institutions to finance their corporate raiding, monopolies and various takeover schemes. Marcos' cronies were awarded timber, mining and oil concessions and vast tracts of rich government agricultural and urban lands, not to mention lush government construction contracts. During his martial law regime, Marcos confiscated and appropriated by force and duress many businesses and institutions, both private and public, and redistributed them to his cronies and close personal friends. A presidential crony representing Westington won for its principal the $500 million bid for the construction of the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant in Bagac. The crony's commission was $25 million or $200 million representing five percent of the total bid price. These new oligarchs were known to be insatiable and more profligate than the oligarchs of pre-martial law days. Two of Marcos's friends were Eduardo "Danding" Cojuangco Jr., who would go on to control San Miguel Corporation, and Ramon Cojuangco, late businessman and chairman of PLDT, and father of Antonio "Tony Boy" Cojuangco (who would eventually succeed his father in the telecommunications company), both happened to be cousins of Corazon Aquino. These associates of Marcos then used these as fronts to launder proceeds from institutionalized graft and corruption in the different national governmental agencies as "crony capitalism" for personal benefit. Graft and corruption via bribery, racketeering, and embezzlement became more prevalent during this era. Marcos also silenced the free press, making the press of the state propaganda the only legal one, which was a common practice for governments around the world that sought to fight communism. Marcos and his close Rolex 12 associates like Juan Ponce Enrile used their powers to settle scores against old rivals such as the Lopezes who were always opposed to the Marcos administration. Enrile and the Lopezes (Eugenio Lopez Sr. and Eugenio Lopez Jr]) were Harvard-educated Filipino leaders. Leading opponents such as senators Benigno Aquino Jr., Jose Diokno, Jovito Salonga and many others were imprisoned for months or years. This practice considerably alienated the support of the old social and economic elite and the media, who criticized the Marcos administration endlessly. The old social and economic elite, all of whom relied on trade and agricultural and industrial exports to the United States such as the families of Enrile, Lopez, Cojuangco, and Aquino, sought a free-market economy. At this point, Marcos controlled both the oligarchy and the oligopoly. According to Jovito Salonga, monopolies in several vital industries were created and placed under the control of Marcos cronies, such as the coconut industries (under Eduardo Cojuangco Jr. and Juan Ponce Enrile), the tobacco industry (under Lucio Tan), the banana industry (under Antonio Floirendo), the sugar industry (under Roberto Benedicto), and manufacturing (under Herminio Disini and Ricardo Silverio). The Marcos and Romualdez families became owners, directly or indirectly, of the nation's largest corporations, such as the Philippine Long Distance Company (PLDC), of which the present name is Philippine Long Distance Telephone (PLDT), Philippine Airlines (PAL), Meralco (an electric company), Fortune Tobacco, numerous newspapers, radio and TV broadcasting companies (such as ABS-CBN), several banks (most notably the Philippine Commercial and Industrial Bank; PCIBank of the Lopezes [now BDO after merging with Equitable Bank and after BDO acquired the merged Equitable PCI]), and real estate in New York, California and Hawaii. The Aquino government also accused them of skimming off foreign aid and international assistance. Floating casino in Manila Bay One of the first acts of Imelda Romualdez Marcos as the governor of Metro Manila was to legalize gambling to raise revenue for the new metropolis. A floating casino was allowed to operate exclusively inside the Manila Bay. It is owned and operated by "mysterious" stockholders according to the major daily. However, the people of Manila are aware that behind the floating casino management was the brother of Imelda Marcos. One of the most lucrative gambling managements back then was the Jai-Alai, managed by a corporation that received its franchise from the pre-war Commonwealth government. As soon as its franchised expired, a new corporation took over management of Jai-Alai. It was immediately under the control of the First Lady's brother. This new management was allowed to perform operations denied from the former, and it is estimated that the take between the Jai-Alai fronton and the floating casino is PHP2 million a day. Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company (PLDT) Reports of the US Senate and the US Securities and Exchange Commission have described massive million-dollar bribes to officials of the government-backed Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company by the General Telephone and Electric Co. of New York in exchange for supply contracts. The officials of PLDT needed to be investigated for violations of foreign currency regulations and unearned income. However, different stakeholders were kept silent. As one PLDT official boasted "an exposé will only hurt the Palace." In the US and Japan, presidents have been driven out of office for similar misconduct. Manila Electric Co. (Meralco) The Manila Electric Company (Meralco) was one of the largest corporations in the Philippines before the declaration of martial law. It was owned and controlled by the Lopez family. After martial law was imposed, it became the prime target for takeover by the Marcos-Romualdez family. Among the first things the clan did was to arrest the eldest son of Eugenio Lopez, Sr., the major stockholder of Meralco for allegedly plotting the assassination of Ferdinand Marcos. In the years 1973–1974, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) started applying the oil prize squeeze. As a public utility that supplies power needs of the metro, Meralco was caught in a vicious vice. Its fuel costs started to double, triple, and quadruple but the government refused to allow them to charge higher consumer rates. Within a year, Meralco was at the brink of bankruptcy. Government financing institutions refused to guarantee Meralco's foreign loans. As a result, the company was pushed to the edge of massive defaults in loans. It was here that the Marcos-Romualdez clan stepped in. According to Eugenio Lopez, Sr., he was promised the release of his eldest son from prison in exchange for the sale of his control in Meralco to the Marcos-Romualdez group. After several months of negotiations and with the increasing loan defaults, Mr. Lopez conceded defeat. He even died without seeing his son Eugenio, Jr. released from the Marcos martial law prison. After the Marcos-Romualdez takeover, the government allowed Meralco to increase consumer rates. The government gave huge subsidies to the company. On the fifth anniversary of martial rule, Jesus Bigornia of Bulletin Today wrote that Meralco rose as one of the top earners. Around Php 200 million in net income was recorded. This was 168% more than the previous year. Aside from being allowed to raise electricity rates, Meralco was also exempted from paying the duty of oil imports, which is a form of indirect subsidy it should share with poor consumers. Philippine national debt Massive foreign loans enabled Marcos to build more schools, hospitals and infrastructure than all of his predecessors combined, but crippled the Philippine economy. Today, according to Ibon Foundation, Filipino citizens are still bearing the heavy burden of servicing public debts incurred during Marcos's administration, with ongoing interest payments on the loan schedule by the Philippine government estimated to last until 2025–59 years after Marcos assumed office and 39 years after he was deposed. Corazon Aquino had an opportunity to default and not pay foreign debt incurred during the Marcos administration. However, due to Finance Secretary Jaime Ongpin's warning on the consequences of a debt default, which includes isolating the country from the international financial community and hampering the economic recovery, Corazon Aquino honored all the debts incurred during the Marcos Administration, contrary to expectations of left-learning organizations such as Ibon Foundation that advocated for non-payment of debt. Jaime Ongpin, who is a brother of Marcos trade minister Roberto Ongpin, was later dismissed by Cory Aquino and later died in an apparent suicide after "he had been depressed about infighting in Aquino's cabinet and disappointed that the 'People Power' uprising which had toppled dictator Ferdinand Marcos had not brought significant change". Infrastructure and edifices Marcos projected himself to the Philippine public as having spent a lot on construction projects, and his record upholds that reputation. A 2011 study by University of the Philippines School of Economics indicated that at the time of the study, Marcos was the president that spent the most on infrastructure, not just because he stayed in power for nearly two and a half decades, but in terms of actual per-year spending. By the time of the study, Marcos had only been outspent in infrastructure building for a period of one year, during the term of Fidel Ramos. These included hospitals like the Philippine Heart Center, Lung Center, and Kidney Center, transportation infrastructure like San Juanico Bridge (formerly Marcos Bridge), Pan-Philippine Highway, North Luzon Expressway, South Luzon Expressway, and Manila Light Rail Transit (LRT). Cultural and heritage sites like the Cultural Center of the Philippines], Nayong Pilipino, Philippine International Convention Center and the disastrous and ill-fated Manila Film Center were built as well. This focus on infrastructure, which critics saw as a propaganda technique, eventually earned the colloquial label "edifice complex". Most of these infrastructure projects and monuments were paid for using foreign currency loans and at great taxpayer cost. This greatly increased the Philippines' foreign deficit - from $360 million when Marcos became president, to around $28.3 billion when he was overthrown. The Marcos administration's spending on construction projects expanded even more with the construction of prominent building projects, mostly meant to build up Imelda Marcos' power base within the administration by projecting her as a patroness of the arts. This shift in the prioritization of projects was so significant that by 1977–1980, projects in the "conspicuous capital outlays" category had ballooned to 20% of the Philippines' capital outlays - up from a negligible percentage at the beginning of the Marcos administration. Critics contrasted this with the fact that poverty in the countryside was a much more pressing economic issue of the time. In addition, Imelda's "edifice complex" projects were typically constructed on a rush basis, resulting in some of them not being safe for long-term use. The following is a list of some of the most controversial projects constructed during the Marcos era. Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) Complex The CCP Complex is a 77-hectare reclaimed property in Pasay designed by Leandro Locsin. It includes the CCP main building, Folk Arts Theater, Philippine International Convention Center, Manila Film Center and Coconut Palace (also called the Tahanang Pilipino). It was established as a result of Ferdinand Marcos's issuance of Executive Order No. 30 s. 1966, which stated that "the preservation and promotion of Philippine culture in all its varied aspects and phases is a vital concern of the State." Following this issuance, he appointed a seven-member board of trustees, who then unanimously elected Imelda Romualdez Marcos as its chair. On September 8, 1969, the CCP main building was inaugurated as the "country's premier arts institution." The inauguration was originally set in January 1969, but was postponed because funds were running out from campaign overspending. The projected budget for the construction of CCP was P15 million, but by December 1968 the cost had already reached P48 million, and the construction was not even complete yet. Because of this, Imelda Romualdez Marcos loaned $7 million from the National Investment Development Corporation to finance the remaining amount. By 1972, debt for the construction of the theater alone has reached P63 million. San Juanico Bridge The San Juanico Bridge is part of the Pan-Philippine Highway and links the provinces of Leyte and Samar through Tacloban City and Santa Rita, Samar. Having a total length of , it is the longest bridge over a body of water in the Philippines. It is said to be Ferdinand Marcos's gift to his wife Imelda, whose hometown was Leyte. Construction of the bridge began in 1969. It was inaugurated on July 2, 1973, in time for Imelda Marcos's birthday. The cost of the construction reached $22 million and was acquired through the Japanese Official Development Assistance loans. At the time the project was conceived, there was not a need yet for a bridge that connects Leyte and Samar, for both of these provinces were still relatively underdeveloped. There was not enough traffic between these two islands to warrant a bridge to be constructed there. It is for this reason that the San Juanico Bridge remains to be the one of the costliest white elephant projects during the Marcos era. Manila Film Center Construction of the Manila Film Center began in January 1981 and was spearheaded by Imelda Romualdez Marcos. It cost $25 million. Construction work was compressed to just 10 months so it could be used as a venue for the first Manila International Film Festival scheduled on January 18, 1982. To meet the deadline, around 4,000 workers were employed to work three 24-hour nonstop shifts. The lobby, which would normally take 6 weeks to finish, was constructed in 72 hours by 1,000 workers. As a result of the rushed construction, a scaffolding collapsed on a group of workers on November 17, 1981, two months before the deadline. Despite the accident, work continued, and the bodies of the workers were buried in cement. Rescuers and ambulances were only permitted to enter the site 9 hours after the incident. Following the tragedy, then Prime Minister Cesar Virata disapproved the $5 million subsidy, which was intended for the film festival. The expenses incurred during opening night and the Film Center's operations ended up being shouldered by the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (then the Central Bank). Masagana 99 Marcos' signature agricultural program, Masagana 99, was thus launched on May 21, 1973, as an effort to address a nationwide rice shortage arising from the various natural disasters and pest infestations in 1972. Its goal was to promote Philippine rice self-sufficiency by raising the Philippines' average palay crop yield from 40 cavans per hectare to 99 cavans (4.4 tons) per hectare. The program planned to achieve this by pushing farmers to use newly developed technologies including high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, low-cost fertilizer, and herbicides. Masagana 99 also included a supervised credit scheme, which was supposed to provide farmers with the funds needed to pay for the program's technology package. The Central Bank designed subsidized rediscounting facilities for public and private credit institutions throughout the country, encouraging them to give loans to farmers without collateral or other usual borrowing requirements. The program achieved initial success by encouraging farmers to plant new "Miracle Rice" (IR8) variety of rice, which the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations, and the UP College of Agriculture through the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in Los Baños, Laguna, had been developing since 1962, during the administration of President Carlos P. Garcia. While this rise of industrialized, chemical agriculture to the Philippines resulted in annual rice production in the Philippines increasing from 3.7 to 7.7 million tons in two decades and made the Philippines a rice exporter for the first time in the 20th century, the switch to IR8 required more fertilizers and pesticides. This and other related reforms resulted in high profits for transnational corporations, but were generally harmful to small, peasant farmers who were often pushed into poverty. Economists generally acknowledge Masagana 99 to have failed because the supervised credit scheme it offered to farmers proved unsustainable. The program is said to have catered to rich landowners and has been criticized for leaving poor farmers in debt and for having become a vehicle of political patronage. Although Masagana 99 showed promising results, the years from 1965 to 1986 showed a complete paradox of events. The income per capita rose, the economy was growing, yet people were impoverished. The American economist James K. Boyce calls this phenomenon "immiserizing growth," when economic growth, and political and social conditions, are such that the rich get absolutely richer and the poor become absolutely poorer. From 1972 to 1980, agricultural production fell by 30%. After declaring martial law in 1972, Marcos promised to implement agrarian reforms. However, the land reforms served largely to undermine Marcos's landholder opponents, not to lessen inequality in the countryside, and encouraged conversion to cash tenancy and greater reliance on farm workers. While the book claimed that agricultural production declined by 30% in the 1970s and suggested that timber exports were growing in the same period, an article published by the World Bank on Philippine Agriculture says that crops (rice, corn, coconut, sugar), livestock and poultry and fisheries grew at an average rate of 6.8%, 3% and 4.5%, respectively from 1970 to 1980, and the forestry sector actually declined by an annual average rate of 4.4% through the 1970s. Logging and deforestation The Marcos administration marked a period of intense logging exportation, with commercial logging accounting for 5% of the gross national product during the first half of the 1970s. This was the result of intense demand created by a construction boom in Japan. Timber products became one of the nation's top exports but little attention was paid to the environmental impacts of deforestation as cronies never complied with reforestation agreements. By the early 1980s, forestry collapsed because most of the Philippines' accessible forests had been depleted—of the 12 million hectares of forestland, about 7 million had been left barren." This was such a severe drop in the Philippines' forest cover that most Philippine logging companies had transferred their operations to Sarawak and other nearby areas by the 1980s. Data from the Philippines' Forest Management Bureau indicates that the rate of forest destruction in the Philippines was about per year during the 1960s and 1970s, such that by 1981, the Food and Agriculture Organization classified 2 million hectares of Philippine forests "severely degraded and incapable of regeneration." Heavy industrialization projects In 1979, Marcos put a range of 11 heavy industrialization projects on the Philippines' economic agenda. The eleven priority projects were: the construction of an aluminum smelter, a copper smelter, an integrated petrochemical complex, an integrated pulp and paper plant, an integrated steel mill, and a phosphatic fertilizer plant; the development of an alcogas industry; the expansion of the country's cement industry; the integration of the country's coconut industry; the promotion of diesel engine manufacturing; and the construction of a nuclear power plant. Other industrialization projects during the Marcos administration included 17 hydroelectric and geothermal power plants to lessen the country's dependency on oil. With the commissioning of the Tongonan 1 and Palinpinon 1 geothermal plants in 1983, the Philippines became the second largest producer of geothermal power in the world. The Philippine economy began to go in decline in 1981 because of excessive debt, however, and finally went into a tailspin in 1984. This resulted in the closure of factories, massive layoffs, and the end of work on Marcos' industrialization projects until he was finally deposed two years later. Bataan Nuclear Power Plant The Bataan Nuclear Power Plant (BNPP) is one of the six nuclear power plants that the Marcos regime planned to build. It stands in Morong, Bataan, atop Napot Point that overlooks the South China Sea. Construction of the BNPP began in 1976 and was completed in 1985. Controversy surrounding the BNPP began well after its construction. In 1974, National Power was already negotiating with General Electric to get the order. However, Westinghouse, another energy company, hired a lobbyist: Herminio Disini, a friend of Ferdinand Marcos. Using Disini's close ties to Marcos, Westinghouse made a direct offer to Marcos and his cabinet to supply a plant with two 620 MW reactors at a base price of $500 million. The estimated total price was raised to around $650 million because of other charges like fuel and transmission lines. Soon after, the negotiations with General Electric were scrapped, and Westinghouse won the deal. By March 1975, Westinghouse's contract price increased to $1.1 billion for interest and escalation costs. There were numerous issues regarding its safety and usability. After the Three Mile Island incident in the United States, construction of the nuclear power plant was stopped. A safety inquiry was done subsequently, which revealed over 4,000 defects. The site chosen for the nuclear plant was also dangerous, as it was built near the open sea and the then-dormant Mount Pinatubo, and was within 25 miles of three geological faults. The nuclear plant was discontinued in 1986 following the Chernobyl disaster. Its goal of generating 620 MW of electricity was never achieved. Its cost reached over $2.3 million and was only paid off by the government in April 2017, 31 years after the beginning of its construction. However, government spending for the BNPP continues long after that. Maintaining the plant costs the government P40 million a year. In 2011, the government had to reimburse P4.2 billion to National Power Corporation for the plant's maintenance. To contribute to the cost of its maintenance, it was transformed into a tourist attraction. Educational system Recognizing the value Filipino culture placed on education, Marcos emphasized the construction of educational infrastructure as early as during his first presidential term. By being more willing than those previous presidents to use foreign loans to fund construction projects, he was able to achieve construct more roads and schoolbuildings than any previous administration. 47 of the Philippines' state colleges and universities were established during Marcos' 21-year administration. Two of these, the Mariano Marcos State University in Ilocos Norte, and the Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University in La Union, were named after Marcos' father Mariano. The Philippine education system underwent two major periods of restructuring under the Marcos administration: first in 1972 as part of the ideology of the Bagong Lipunan (New Society) alongside the declaration of martial law; and second in 1981 when the Fourth Philippine Republic was established. The 1972 restructuring marked the first major restructuring of Philippine education since the arrival of the Americans at the turn of the 20th century. It reoriented the teaching of civics and history so that it would reflect values that supported the Bagong Lipunan and its ideology of constitutional authoritarianism. In addition, it attempted to synchronize the educational curriculum with the administration's economic strategy of labor export. Changes sought by the second restructuring in 1981 was not extensively implemented as the administration was stymied by economic crises, and was eventually deposed. Establishment of Metro Manila In 1975, Marcos issued Presidential Decree No. 824, placing the four cities and thirteen municipalities in the immediate vicinity of the Province of Manila under the administration of the Metro Manila Commission (MMC), which would serve as the central government of the capital. The head of the MMC was called a "governor," but the position was an appointive rather than an elected one. Marcos appointed his wife Imelda Marcos as governor. The governorship of Metro Manila was the second most powerful office in the republic. Given that Metro Manila accounts for around 20% of the country's population, it is estimated to be responsible for at least 70% of gross national receipts. It is the seat of the national government and some 90% of the national government's offices and instrumentalities are located within its environs. Its budget is second to the national government. This increase in Imelda's political power was so dramatic that it led former UN General Assembly President Carlos P. Romulo to describe her as the Philippines' "de facto vice president." Laws passed during the Marcos administration The country crafted a large number of decrees, laws, and edicts during Marcos's term. From 1972 to 1986, the Marcos Administration codified laws through 2,036 Presidential Decrees, an average of 145 per year during the 14-year period. To put this into context, only 14, 12, and 11 laws were passed in 2015, 2014 and 2013, respectively. A large number of the laws passed during the term of Marcos remain in force today and are embedded in the country's legal system. According to Imee Marcos in 2006, many of the thousands of proclamations, decrees, and executive orders Marcos issued were still in force, and few have been repealed, revoked, modified or amended. Marcos, together with agriculture minister and Harvard-educated Arturo Tanco and later on Salvador Escudero III, was instrumental in the Green Revolution in the Philippines and initiated an agricultural program called Masagana 99, which according to President Rodrigo Duterte and the Department of Agriculture website, improved agricultural productivity and enabled the country to achieve rice sufficiency in the late 1970s. Economists generally view Masagana 99 as a failure. Impact on later Philippine governance Many people who rose to power during Marcos' 21-years as president continued to remain in power or even ascended higher after his exile, thus leaving a further imprint on present-day Filipino affairs. One of these was Fidel Ramos, a general promoted by Marcos who supervised many terror killings and tortures, who later switched sides and subsequently became president himself through free elections. The US-Marcos relationship All five American presidents from 1965 to 1985 were unwilling to jeopardize the US-Marcos relationship mainly to protect and retain access of the US military bases in the Philippines. However, at the same time, for the US, the Philippines was just one of its many allies, and for the Philippines, the US was its only patron. Therefore, Marcos ensured to identify himself closely to the US in order to secure a strong bargaining power with their government. Indeed, he had manipulated this American connection to sustain him during his two decades of power. US support was believed to be the only reason why Marcos remained in power. Over his term, Marcos was able to strengthen his ties to the US government. Johnson received two engineer battalions bought with the Philippine's American aid as a form of Philippines military participation in the Vietnam War. After the fall of South Vietnam, Gerald Ford demanded better security assistance from allies, such as the Philippines. While Carter wanted to retain the US military bases in the Philippines to project military power in the Indian Ocean to guard West's oil supply line from the Middle East. All of which, Marcos granted. To obtain additional aid, Marcos often leveraged on threats that caught the attention of the US government. To secure additional aid for his campaign, Marcos threatened to search every visiting American naval vessel. The US responded by assisting his campaign indirectly, injecting several million dollars into the government banking system. In another instance, when the issues of military bases heated up in the Philippines during 1969, Marcos secretly assured the US he had no desire for an American withdrawal. Yet he received warnings from the Philippine embassy in Washington that "provisions should now be made in anticipation of a possible phasing out or minimization of US aid to the Republic of the Philippines, both for military aid and non-military items, considering the evolving temper of the American Congress." Afraid, Marcos began to suggests threats again. In one of his presidential speeches, he stated that the bases were a threat to regional peace and security, while reminding the United States of its "solemn obligation" to continue aid. He warned that the bases could "imperil more than they serve our interests." In the last weeks of the Ford administration, Marcos had rejected the US compensation, Kissinger's package, of $1 billion in mixed grants and loans for being too small. Authored works A number of books were published under Marcos' name during his term from 1970 to 1983, and a final book was published in 1990 posthumously. Those published during his term are believed to have been written by ghostwriters, notably Adrian Cristobal. National Discipline: the Key to Our Future (1970) Today's Revolution: Democracy (1971) Notes on the New Society of the Philippines (1973) Tadhana: the history of the Filipino People (1977, 1982) The democratic revolution in the Philippines (1977) Five years of the new society (1978) President Ferdinand E. Marcos on law, development and human rights (1978) President Ferdinand E. Marcos on agrarian reform (1979) An Ideology for Filipinos (1980) An introduction to the politics of transition (1980) Marcos's Notes for the Cancun Summit, 1981 (1981) Progress and Martial Law (1981) The New Philippine Republic: A Third World Approach to Democracy (1982) Toward a New Partnership: The Filipino Ideology (1983) A Trilogy on the Transformation of Philippine Society (1990) Honors National Honors : : Chief Commander of the Philippine Legion of Honor (September 11, 1972) Man of the Year 1965, Philippine Free Press (January 1, 1966) : Knight Grand Cross of Rizal, KGCR of the Order of the Knights of Rizal. Foreign honors : Grand Cross of the Order of the Equatorial Star : Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum (September 20, 1966) : Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic (April 9, 1975) : Order of Temasek (January 15, 1974) : Knight of the Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (December 22, 1969) Grand Cross of the Order of Military Merit : Knight of the Most Auspicious Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (January 15, 1968) Marcos and his wife, Imelda, were jointly credited in 1989 by Guinness World Records with the largest-ever theft from a government (an estimated 5 billion to 10 billion US dollars), a record they still hold today. See also Bantayog ng mga Bayani Conjugal dictatorship Economic history of the Philippines (1965–1986) Corruption in the Philippines Ferdinand Marcos' cult of personality Kleptocracy Rolex 12 List of Filipinos by net worth List of films about martial law under Ferdinand Marcos List of South East Asian people by net worth Notes References Further reading Bonner, Raymond (1987). Waltzing with a Dictator: The Marcoses and the Making of American Policy. Times Books, New York Salonga, Jovito (2001). Presidential Plunder: The Quest for Marcos Ill-gotten Wealth. Regina Pub. Co., Manila Seagrave, Sterling (1988): The Marcos Dynasty, Harper Collins Library of Congress Country Studies: Philippines. The Inheritance from Marcos External links The Martial Law Memorial Museum Digital Museum of Martial Law in the Philippines Bantayog ng mga Bayani - Honoring the Martyrs and Heroes of the struggle against dictatorship in the Philippines The Marcos Regime Research (MRR) program by the University of the Philippines Third World Studies Center The Martial Law Chronicles Project The Philippine Martial Law Human Rights Violations Victims' Memorial Commmision Freedom Memorial website 1917 births 1989 deaths 20th-century Filipino lawyers Burials at the Libingan ng mga Bayani Candidates in the 1965 Philippine presidential election Candidates in the 1969 Philippine presidential election Candidates in the 1981 Philippine presidential election Candidates in the 1986 Philippine presidential election Chief Commanders of the Philippine Legion of Honor Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic Converts to Roman Catholicism from Catholic Independent denominations Deaths from kidney failure Exiled politicians Filipino anti-communists Filipino politicians convicted of crimes Filipino exiles Filipino expatriates in the United States Filipino military personnel of World War II Filipino politicians of Chinese descent Filipino politicians of Japanese descent Filipino people of Chinese descent Filipino people of Japanese descent Filipino prisoners of war Filipino prisoners sentenced to death Filipino Roman Catholics Ilocano people Kilusang Bagong Lipunan politicians Leaders ousted by a coup Liberal Party (Philippines) politicians Ferdinand Members of the House of Representatives of the Philippines from Ilocos Norte Nacionalista Party politicians People from Ilocos Norte People of the Cold War People of the People Power Revolution People with lupus Philippine Army personnel Philippines–United States relations Politicide perpetrators Presidents of the Liberal Party of the Philippines Presidents of the Philippines Presidents of the Senate of the Philippines Prime Ministers of the Philippines Recipients of the Darjah Utama Temasek Recipients of the Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic Recipients of the Philippine Medal of Valor Secretaries of National Defense of the Philippines Senators of the 5th Congress of the Philippines Thieves University of the Philippines Manila alumni University of the Philippines College of Law alumni Genocide perpetrators 20th-century criminals

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace%20Beery

Wallace Beery

Wallace Fitzgerald Beery (April 1, 1885 – April 15, 1949) was an American film and stage actor. He is best known for his portrayal of Bill in Min and Bill (1930) opposite Marie Dressler, as General Director Preysing in Grand Hotel (1932), as Long John Silver in Treasure Island (1934), as Pancho Villa in Viva Villa! (1934), and his titular role in The Champ (1931), for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor. Beery appeared in some 250 films during a 36-year career. His contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer stipulated in 1932 that he would be paid $1 more than any other contract player at the studio. This made Beery the highest-paid film actor in the world during the early 1930s. He was the brother of actor Noah Beery and uncle of actor Noah Beery Jr. For his contributions to the film industry, Beery was posthumously inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame with a motion-picture star in 1960. His star is located at 7001 Hollywood Boulevard. Early life Beery was born the youngest of three boys in 1885 in Clay County, Missouri, near Smithville. The Beery family left the farm in the 1890s and moved to nearby Kansas City, Missouri, where the father was a police officer. Beery attended the Chase School in Kansas City and took piano lessons, as well, but showed little love for academic matters. He ran away from home twice, the first time returning after a short time, quitting school and working in the Kansas City train yards as an engine wiper. Beery ran away from home a second time at age 16, and joined the Ringling Brothers Circus as an assistant elephant trainer. He left two years later, after being clawed by a leopard. Career Early career Wallace Beery joined his older brother Noah in New York City in 1904, finding work in comic opera as a baritone, and began to appear on Broadway and in summer stock theatre. He appeared in The Belle of the West in 1905. His most notable early role came in 1907 when he starred in The Yankee Tourist to good reviews. Comedy film star – Essanay Studios In 1913, he moved to Chicago to work for Essanay Studios. His first movie was likely a comedy short, His Athletic Wife (1913). Beery was then cast as Sweedie, a Swedish maid character he played in drag in a series of short comedy films from 1914 to 1916. Sweedie Learns to Swim (1914) co-starred Ben Turpin. Sweedie Goes to College (1915) starred Gloria Swanson, whom Beery married the following year. Other Beery films (mostly shorts) from this period included In and Out (1914), The Ups and Downs (1914), Cheering a Husband (1914), Madame Double X (1914), Ain't It the Truth (1915), Two Hearts That Beat as Ten (1915), and The Fable of the Roistering Blades (1915). The Slim Princess (1915), with Francis X. Bushman, was one of his earliest feature-length films. Beery also did The Broken Pledge (1915) and A Dash of Courage (1916), both with Swanson. Beery was a German soldier in The Little American (1917) with Mary Pickford, directed by Cecil B. De Mille. He did some comedies for Mack Sennett, Maggie's First False Step (1917) and Teddy at the Throttle (1917), but he gradually left that genre and specialized in portrayals of villains prior to becoming a major leading man during the sound era. Villainous roles In 1917, Beery portrayed Pancho Villa in Patria at a time when Villa was still active in Mexico. (Beery reprised the role 17 years later in Viva Villa!.) Beery was a villainous German in The Unpardonable Sin (1919) with Blanche Sweet. For Paramount, he did The Love Burglar (1919) with Wallace Reid; Victory (1919), with Jack Holt; Behind the Door (1919), as another villainous German; and The Life Line (1919) with Holt. Beery was the villain in five major releases in 1920: 813; The Virgin of Stamboul for director Tod Browning; The Mollycoddle with Douglas Fairbanks, in which Fairbanks and Beery fistfought as they tumbled down a steep mountain (see the photograph in the gallery below); and in the noncomedic Western The Round-Up starring Roscoe Arbuckle as an obese cowboy in a well-received serious film with the tagline "Nobody loves a fat man." Beery continued his villainy cycle that year with The Last of the Mohicans, playing Magua. Beery had a supporting part in The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1920) with Rudolph Valentino. He was a villainous Tong leader in A Tale of Two Worlds (1921), and was the bad guy again in Sleeping Acres (1922), Wild Honey (1922), and I Am the Law (1922), which also featured his brother Noah Beery Sr. Historical films Beery had a large then-rare heroic part as King Richard I (Richard the Lion-Hearted) in Robin Hood (1922), starring Douglas Fairbanks as Robin Hood. The lavish movie was a huge success and spawned a sequel the following year starring Beery in the title role of Richard the Lion-Hearted. Beery had an important unbilled cameo as "the Ape-Man" in A Blind Bargain (1922) starring Lon Chaney (Beery is seen crouching, in full ape-man make-up, in the background of some of the movie's posters), and a supporting role in The Flame of Life (1923). He played another historical king, King Philip IV of Spain in The Spanish Dancer (1923) with Pola Negri. Beery starred in an action melodrama, Stormswept (1923) for FBO Films alongside his elder brother, Noah Beery Sr. The tagline on the movie's posters was "Wallace and Noah Beery – The Two Greatest Character Actors on the American Screen". Beery played his third royal, the Duc de Tours, in Ashes of Vengeance (1923) with Norma Talmadge, then did Drifting (1923) with Priscilla Dean for director Browning. Beery had the titular role in Bavu (1923), about Bolsheviks and the Russian Revolution. He co-starred with Buster Keaton in the comedy Three Ages (1923), the first feature Keaton wrote, produced, directed, and starred in. Beery was a villain in The Eternal Struggle (1923), a Mountie drama, produced by Louis B. Mayer, who eventually became crucial to Beery's career. He was reunited with Dean and Browning in White Tiger (1923), then played the title role in the aforementioned Richard the Lion-Hearted (1923), a sequel to Robin Hood based on Sir Walter Scott's The Talisman; a print of Richard the Lion-Hearted is held at the Archives du Film du CNC in Bois d'Arcy. Beery was in The Drums of Jeopardy (1923) and had a supporting role in The Sea Hawk (1924) for director Frank Lloyd. He also appeared in a supporting role for Clarence Brown's The Signal Tower (1925) starring Virginia Valli and Rockliffe Fellowes. Paramount Beery signed a contract with Paramount Pictures. He had a support role in Adventure (1925) directed by Victor Fleming. At First National, he was given the star role of Professor Challenger in Arthur Conan Doyle's dinosaur epic The Lost World (1925), arguably his silent performance most frequently screened in the modern era. Beery was top billed in Paramount's The Devil's Cargo (1925) for Victor Fleming, and supported in The Night Club (1925), The Pony Express (1925) for James Cruze, and The Wanderer (1925) for Raoul Walsh. Beery starred in a comedy with Raymond Hatton, Behind the Front (1926), and he was a villain in Volcano! (1926). He was a bos'n in Old Ironsides (1926) for director James Cruze, with Charles Farrell in the romantic lead. Beery had the title role in the baseball movie Casey at the Bat (1927). He was reunited with Hatton in Fireman, Save My Child (1927) and Now We're in the Air (1927). The latter also featured Louise Brooks, who was Beery's costar in Beggars of Life (1928), directed by William Wellman, which was Paramount's first part-talkie movie. He made a fourth comedy with Hatton, Wife Savers (1929), then Beery starred in Chinatown Nights (1929) for Wellman, produced by a young David O. Selznick. This film was shot silent with the voices dubbed in by the actors afterward, which worked spectacularly well with Beery's resonant voice, although the technique was not used again during the silent era for another full-length feature. Beery then played in Stairs of Sand (1929), a Western also starring Jean Arthur (who played the leading lady in the Western film Shane 24 years later) before being fired by Paramount. MGM Irving Thalberg signed Beery to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) as a character actor. The association began well when Beery played the savage convict Butch, a role originally intended for Lon Chaney (who died that same year), in the highly successful 1930 prison film The Big House, directed by George W. Hill; Beery was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor. Beery's second film for MGM was also a huge success: Billy the Kid (1930), an early widescreen picture in which he played Pat Garrett. He supported John Gilbert in Way for a Sailor (1930) and Grace Moore in A Lady's Morals (1930), portraying P. T. Barnum in the latter. Stardom Beery was well established as a leading man and top-rank character actor. The picture that really made him one of the cinema's foremost stars was Min and Bill (1930) opposite Marie Dressler and directed by George W. Hill, a sensational success. Beery made a third film with Hill, The Secret Six (1931), a gangster movie with Jean Harlow and Clark Gable in key supporting roles. The picture was popular, but was surpassed at the box office by The Champ, which Beery made with Jackie Cooper for director King Vidor. The film, especially written for Beery, was another box-office sensation. Beery shared the Best Actor Oscar with Fredric March. Though March received one vote more than Beery, Academy rules at the time—since rescinded—defined results within one vote of each other as "ties". (An alternate account has MGM head Louis B. Mayer storming backstage at the Oscars and demanding that March and Beery share that year's Academy Award for Best Actor since the vote was so close. Beery's career went from strength to strength. Hell Divers (1932), a naval airplane epic also starring a young Clark Gable billed under Beery, was a big hit. So, too, was the all-star Grand Hotel (1932), in which Beery was billed fourth, under Greta Garbo, John Barrymore, and Joan Crawford, one of the very few times he would not be top billed for the rest of his career. In 1932, his contract with MGM stipulated that he be paid a dollar more than any other contract player at the studio, making him the world's highest-paid actor. Beery was a German wrestler in Flesh (1932), a hit directed by John Ford, but Ford removed his directorial credit before the film opened, so the picture screened with no director listed despite being labeled "A John Ford Production" in the opening title card. Next Beery was in another all-star ensemble blockbuster, Dinner at Eight (1933), with Jean Harlow holding her own as Beery's comically bickering wife. This time, Beery was billed third, under Marie Dressler and John Barrymore. Beery was lent to the new 20th Century Pictures for the boisterously fast-paced comedy/drama The Bowery (1933), also starring George Raft, Jackie Cooper, and Fay Wray, and featuring Pert Kelton, under the direction of Raoul Walsh. The picture was a smash hit. Back at MGM, he played the title role of Pancho Villa in Viva Villa! (1933) and was reunited with Dressler in Tugboat Annie (1933), a massive hit. He was Long John Silver in Treasure Island (1934), described as a box-office "disappointment" despite being MGM's third-largest hit of the season, and remains currently viewed as featuring one of Beery's iconic performances. Beery returned to 20th Century Productions for The Mighty Barnum (1934), in which he played P. T. Barnum again. Back at MGM, he was a kindly sergeant in West Point of the Air (1935) and was in an all-star spectacular, China Seas (1935), this time billed beneath Clark Gable. O'Shaughnessy's Boy (1935) reunited Beery and Jackie Cooper. He had the lead as the drunken uncle in MGM's adaptation of Ah, Wilderness! (1936) and went back to 20th Century – now 20th Century Fox – for A Message to Garcia (1936). At MGM, he was in Old Hutch (1936) and The Good Old Soak (1937), then he was back at Fox for Slave Ship (1937), taking second billing under Warner Baxter, a rarity for Beery after Min and Bill catapulted his career into the stratosphere in 1931, during which he received top billing in all but six films (Min and Bill, Grand Hotel, Tugboat Annie, Dinner at Eight, China Seas with Gable and Harlow, and Slave Ship). Decline The status of Beery's films went into a decline. After an abrupt European vacation, Beery was in The Bad Man of Brimstone (1938) with Dennis O'Keefe (and Noah Beery Sr. in a cameo role as a bartender), Port of Seven Seas (1938) with Maureen O'Sullivan, Stablemates (1938) with Mickey Rooney, Stand Up and Fight (1939) with Robert Taylor, Sergeant Madden (1939) with Tom Brown, Thunder Afloat (1939) with Chester Morris, The Man from Dakota (1940) with Dolores del Río, and 20 Mule Team (1940) with Marjorie Rambeau, Anne Baxter, and Noah Beery Jr., enjoying top billing in all of them. Wyoming (1940) teamed Beery with Marjorie Main. After The Bad Man (1941), which also stars Lionel Barrymore and future President of the United States Ronald Reagan, and was the remake of a Walter Huston picture, MGM reunited Beery and Main in Barnacle Bill (1941), The Bugle Sounds (1941), and Jackass Mail (1942). Beery did a war film, a Technicolor comedy titled Salute to the Marines (1943), then was back with Main in Rationing (1944). Barbary Coast Gent (1944), a broad Western comedy in which Beery played a bombastic con man, teamed him with Binnie Barnes. He did another war film, This Man's Navy (1945), then made another Western with Main, Bad Bascomb (1946), a huge hit, helped by Margaret O'Brien's casting. The Mighty McGurk (1947) put Beery with another child star of the studio, Dean Stockwell. Alias a Gentleman (1947) was the first of Beery's movies to lose money during the sound era. Beery received top billing for the smash hit A Date with Judy (1949), a hugely popular musical featuring Elizabeth Taylor. Beery's last film, again featuring Main, Big Jack (1949), also lost money according to Mannix's reckoning. Beery died of a heart attack three days after the picture's release. Personal life First marriage On March 27, 1916, at the age of 30, Beery married 17-year-old actress Gloria Swanson in Los Angeles. The two had co-starred in Sweedie Goes to College. Although Beery had enjoyed popularity with his Sweedie shorts, his career had taken a dip, and during the marriage to Swanson, he relied on her as a breadwinner. According to Swanson's autobiography, Beery raped her on their wedding night, and later tricked her into swallowing an abortifacient when she was pregnant, which caused her to lose their child. Swanson filed for divorce in 1917 and it was finalized in 1918. Second marriage and adoption On August 4, 1924, Beery married actress Rita Gilman (née Mary Areta Gilman; 1898–1986) in Los Angeles. The couple adopted Carol Ann Priester (1930–2013), daughter of Rita Beery's mother's half-sister, Juanita Priester (née Caplinger; 1899–1931) and her husband, Erwin William Priester (1897–1969). After years of marriage, Rita filed for divorce on May 1, 1939, in Carson City, Ormsby County, Nevada. Within 20 minutes of filing, she won the decree. Rita remarried 15 days later, on May 16, 1939, to Jessen Albert D. Foyt (1907–1945), filing her marriage license with the same county clerk in Carson City. Alleged fatal altercation In December 1937, comedic actor and Three Stooges founder Ted Healy was involved in a drunken altercation at Cafe Trocadero on the Sunset Strip. E. J. Fleming, in his 2005 book, The Fixers: Eddie Mannix, Howard Strickling and the MGM Publicity Machine, asserts that Healy was attacked by three men: Future James Bond producer Albert "Cubby" Broccoli Local mob figure Pat DiCicco (who was Broccoli's cousin as well as the former husband of Thelma Todd and the future husband of Gloria Vanderbilt) Wallace Beery Fleming writes that this beating led to Healy's death a few days later. Second adoption Around December 1939, Beery, recently divorced, adopted a seven-month-old girl, Phyllis Ann Beery. Phyllis appeared in MGM publicity photos when adopted, but was never mentioned again. Beery told the press he had taken the girl in from a single mother, recently divorced, but he had filed no official adoption papers. Working relationship with peers Beery was considered misanthropic and difficult to work with by many of his colleagues. Robert Young described Beery as a "shitty person". On set, he often never bothered to learn his lines and instead choose to take from other actors' characters and then resent it when his theft was pointed out. When prompting for another actor's close-up, Beery would read the wrong lines, making it harder for his co-stars to meet their marks. Beery was "loathed by everybody, and happily oblivious". Mickey Rooney was one of Beery's few co-stars to consistently speak highly of him in subsequent decades. In his memoir, Rooney described Beery as "... a lovable, shambling kind of guy who never seemed to know that his shirttail belonged inside his pants, but always knew when a little kid actor needed a smile and a wink or a word of encouragement". He did concede that "not everyone loved [Beery] as much as I did." Rooney noted that Howard Strickling, MGM's head of publicity, once went to Louis B. Mayer to complain that Beery was stealing props from the studio's sets. "And that wasn't all", Rooney continued. "He went on for some minutes about the trouble that Beery was always causing him ... Mayer sighed and said, 'Yes, Howard, Beery's a son of a bitch. But he's our son of a bitch.' Strickling got the point. A family has to be tolerant of its black sheep, particularly if they brought a lot of money into the family fold, which Beery certainly did." Child actors, in particular, recalled unpleasant encounters with Beery. Jackie Cooper, who made several films with him early in his career, called him "a big disappointment". Cooper accused Beery of upstaging and other attempts to undermine his performances out of what Cooper presumed was jealousy. He recalled impulsively throwing his arms around Beery after one especially heartfelt scene, only to be gruffly pushed away. Child actress Margaret O'Brien claimed that she had to be protected by crew members from Beery's insistence on constantly pinching her. On another occasion, after having invited 12-year-old actor Darryl Hickman to lunch, Beery responded to Darryl's thanks with, "okay, kid, you owe me 75 cents." Beery also refused to leave tips at the MGM commissary because he explained tips are for special service, and since he was a movie star, he already got special service and therefore leaving a tip would be a waste of money. Beery only met his match with co-star Marie Dressler. Having come up the hard and long way to her stardom, Dressler refused to take "nonsense from this baboon". She responded to one of Beery's insults by saying she would serve his head on a platter to MGM chief Louis B. Mayer. Although everyone expected Beery to explode, instead, he cowered and acted like "a little boy being very careful that Mommy didn't catch him with his hand in the cookie jar". Future author Ray Bradbury recalled meeting Beery as a young boy on a Hollywood street, and that his autograph request resulted in Beery cursing and spitting on him. Hobbies Beery owned and flew his own planes, one a Howard DGA-11. On April 15, 1933, he was commissioned a lieutenant commander in the United States Navy Reserve at NRAB Long Beach. One of his proudest achievements was catching the largest giant black sea bass in the world — — off Santa Catalina Island in 1916, a record that stood for 35 years. Activism against National Park Lands A noteworthy episode in Beery's life is chronicled in the fifth episode of Ken Burns' documentary The National Parks: America's Best Idea: In 1943, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed an executive order creating Jackson Hole National Monument to protect the land adjoining the Grand Tetons in Wyoming. Local ranchers, outraged at the loss of grazing lands, compared FDR's action to Hitler's taking of Austria. Led by an aging Beery, they protested by herding 500 cattle across the monument lands without a permit. Paternity suit On February 13, 1948, Gloria Schumm (or Gloria Smith Beery, née Florence W. Smith; 1916–1989) filed a paternity suit against Beery. Beery, through his lawyer, Norman Ronald Tyre (1910–2002), initially offered $6,000 as a settlement, but denied being the father. Gloria had given birth on February 7, 1948, to Johan Richard Wallace Schumm. Gloria, in 1944, divorced Stuttgart-born Hollywood actor Hans Schumm (né Johann Josef Eugen Schumm; 1896–1990), but remarried him August 21, 1947, after realizing that she was pregnant. Prior to remarrying Schumm, Gloria, on August 4, 1947, met with Beery at his home, where he gave her the name and address of a physician to submit an examination. At or around that time, she also asked Beery to marry her to "legitimatize the expected child" (her words), which Beery refused. According to newspapers, Gloria claimed to have been intimate with Wallace Beery on or about May 1, 1947, at his home in Beverly Hills (in the court proceedings, however, she claimed to have been intimate with Beery on May 17, 1947). Beery conceded that he had known Gloria for about 15 years, and that under the pseudonym "Gloria Whitney", she had played bit roles in six films in which he starred. She again separated from Hans Schumm on April 15, 1948. Politics Beery supported Thomas Dewey in the 1944 United States presidential election. Death, estate, and continuing paternity suit Beery died of a heart attack on April 15, 1949 (14 months, 1 week, and 1 day after Johan Schumm's birth) — while the suit was pending. Beery had been reading a newspaper at his Beverly Hills home when he collapsed. His body was interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California. The inscription on his grave reads, "No man is indispensable, but some are irreplaceable." Beery died intestate. In the paternity suit, Gloria Schumm's attorneys demanded $104,135 against Beery's $2,220,000 estate. In February 1952, Judge Newcomb Condee approved a $26,750 settlement from the estate. Gloria Schumm accepted the settlement, and Beery's paternity of Johan Schumm was not acknowledged. When Mickey Rooney's father died less than a year later, Rooney arranged to have him buried next to his old friend. "I thought it was fitting that these two comedians should rest in peace, side by side", he wrote. Enduring case law The paternity suit, and subsequent suits – including appeals – extended through about 1952 and were internationally publicized, particularly in gossip columns and tabloids. The litigation has endured as case law with, among other things, treatises addressing the rights of illegitimate offspring against legitimate heirs in races for inheritance. The upshot was that Schumm's paternity suit against Beery's estate put would-be half-siblings and other would-be family legatees, including a would-be uncle, Noah Beery, Sr., in the position as de facto defendants. Phyllis Ann Riley was not named in Beery's will. Part of plaintiff's claim, initially, hinged on whether an oral agreement was binding. Gloria had claimed that Beery, while alive, agreed to provide for the child. However, on November 17, 1949, Judge William B. McKesson (1895–1967) threw out Gloria's claim. The judge reasoned that any oral agreement between the two, specifically any that was intended to provide for maintenance and care of a minor, was not binding because the amount allegedly agreed upon was in excess of $500, which must be made in writing. Another matter in the case hinged on a "peppercorn" rule. That is, for any agreement, oral or written, between Wallace and Gloria to be binding, consideration must exist. The court, initially, found that Beery agreed to an oral contract where Gloria would (i) include the name "Wallace" in the child's name if a male, or "Wally" if a female, and (ii) refrain from filing a paternity suit that both agreed would damage Beery's "social and professional standing as a prominent motion picture star". Generally, under California state law at the time, a father who neither marries the mother nor acknowledges paternity does not have a right to name the child. That right belongs to the mother. In exchange for Gloria's promise to name the child "Wallace" or "Wally" (the promise representing a form of consideration), Wallace Beery agreed to arrange for the payment of $100 per week to the child (as a third-party beneficiary under the contract), plus a lump sum of $25,000 to the child when he or she attained age 21, in addition to the customary obligation to pay for the "maintenance, support, and education according to the station in life and standard of living of Wallace Beery". Legacy For his contributions to the film industry, Wallace Beery posthumously received a motion-picture star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960. His star is located at 7001 Hollywood Boulevard. Beery is mentioned in the film Barton Fink, in which the lead character has been hired to write a wrestling screenplay to star Beery. In the 1971 comedy The Projectionist, actor and comedian Chuck McCann impersonates Beery quoting a line from Min and Bill. Selected filmography His Athletic Wife (1913, Short) as Mr. Strong (film debut) A series of at least 29 Sweedie comedy films starting with Sweedie the Swatter, released 13 July 1914 In and Out (1914, Short) as Hans The Ups and Downs (1914, Short) Cheering a Husband (1914, Short) Madame Double X (1914, Short) as Madame Double X Two Hearts That Beat as Ten (1915, Short) (with Ben Turpin) as Fred Ain't It the Truth (1915, Short) as Harold Wallington The Slim Princess (1915) with Francis X. Bushman) as Popova The Broken Pledge (1915, Short) (with Gloria Swanson) as Percy The Fable of the Roistering Blades (1915, Short) as Milt A Dash of Courage (1916, Short) (with Gloria Swanson) as The Police Chief The Janitor's Vacation (1916) Patria (1917, Serial) as Pancho Villa Teddy at the Throttle (1917, Short) as Henry Black – Gloria's Rascally Guardian The Little American (1917) (with Mary Pickford) as German Soldier (uncredited) Maggie's First False Step (1917, Short) as The Villain Johanna Enlists (1918) as Col. Fanner The Unpardonable Sin (1919) as Col. Klemm The Love Burglar (1919) (with Wallace Reid and Anna Q. Nilsson) as Coast-to-Coast Taylor The Life Line (1919) (with Jack Holt) as Bos Soldiers of Fortune (1919) as Mendoza Victory (1919) (with Jack Holt and Lon Chaney Sr.) as August Schomberg Behind the Door (1919) (with Hobart Bosworth and Jane Novak) as Lt. Brandt The Lone Wolf's Daughter (1919) as Minor Role (uncredited) The Virgin of Stamboul (1920, directed by Tod Browning) as Sheik Achmet Hamid The Mollycoddle (1920) (with Douglas Fairbanks) as Henry von Holkar The Round-Up (1920) (with Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle) as Buck McKee The Last of the Mohicans (1920) as Magua 813 (1920) as Maj. Parbury / Ribeira The Rookie's Return (1920) as François Dupont Patsy (1921) as Gustave Ludermann The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1921) (with Rudolph Valentino) as Lieut. Col. von Richthosen A Tale of Two Worlds (1921 Goldwyn)(*extant; Library of Congress) as Ling Jo The Golden Snare (1921) as Bram Johnson The Policeman and the Baby (1921, Short) (with William Desmond and Elinor Fair) as The Crook The Last Trail (1921) as William Kirk Sleeping Acres (1921, Short) The Rosary (1922) as Kenwood Wright Wild Honey (1922) (with Priscilla Dean and Noah Beery Sr.) as Buck Roper The Sagebrush Trail (1922) as José Fagaro The Man from Hell's River (1922) (with Rin Tin Tin) as Gaspard, The Wolf I Am the Law (1922) (with Noah Beery Sr.) as Fu Chang Hurricane's Gal (1922) as Chris Borg Trouble (1922) as Ed Lee, the Plumber Robin Hood (1922) (with Douglas Fairbanks) as Richard the Lion-Hearted A Blind Bargain (1922) (with Lon Chaney Sr.) as Beast Man (uncredited) Only a Shop Girl (1922) as Jim Brennan The Flame of Life (1923) as Don Lowrie Stormswept (1923) (with Noah Beery Sr.) as William McCabe Bavu (1923) as Felix Bavu Three Ages (1923) (with Buster Keaton) as The Villain Ashes of Vengeance (1923) (with Norma Talmadge) as Duc de Tours Drifting (1923) (with Priscilla Dean and Anna May Wong) as Jules Repin The Spanish Dancer (1923) (with Pola Negri) as King Philip IV The Eternal Struggle (1923) as Barode Dukane Richard the Lion-Hearted (1923; sequel to 1922's Robin Hood) as King Richard the Lion-Hearted The Drums of Jeopardy (1923) as Gregor Karlov White Tiger (1923, directed by Tod Browning) as Count Donelli / Hawkes Unseen Hands (1924) as Jean Scholast The Sea Hawk (1924) as Captain Jasper Leigh The Signal Tower (1924) as Joe Standish Another Man's Wife (1924) as Captain Wolf The Red Lily (1924) as Bo-Bo Dynamite Smith (1924) as 'Slugger' Rourke Madonna of the Streets (1924) as Bill Smythe So Big (1924) as Klaus Poole Let Women Alone (1925) as Cap Bullwinkle Adventure (1925) as Morgan The Night Club (1925) (with Raymond Griffith and Vera Reynolds) as José The Lost World (1925; Arthur Conan Doyle dinosaur epic in which Beery portrayed Professor Challenger) with Lewis Stone (and Doyle himself in a frontispiece) as Prof. Challenger The Devil's Cargo (1925) as Ben The Great Divide (1925) as Dutch Coming Through (1925) as Joe Lawler In the Name of Love (1925) as Glavis Rugged Water (1925) as Capt. Bartlett The Wanderer (1925) (with Greta Nissen and Tyrone Power Sr.) as Pharis Pony Express (1925) (with Betty Compson and George Bancroft) as Rhode Island Red Behind the Front (1926) (with Raymond Hatton) as Riff Swanson Volcano! (1926) as Quembo We're in the Navy Now (1926) as 'Knockout' Hansen Old Ironsides (1926) (with Charles Farrell and George Bancroft) as Bos'n Casey at the Bat (1927) (with Ford Sterling and ZaSu Pitts) as 'Home Run' Casey Fireman, Save My Child (1927) (with Raymond Hatton) as Elmer Now We're in the Air (1927) (with Louise Brooks) (only twenty minutes survive) as Wally Two Flaming Youths (1927) as Beery – of Beery and Hatton (uncredited) Wife Savers (1928, lost film) (with Raymond Hatton and ZaSu Pitts) as Louis Hosenozzle Partners in Crime (1928) as Detective Mike Doolan The Big Killing (1928) as Powderhorn Pete Beggars of Life (1928) (with Louise Brooks and Richard Arlen) as Oklahoma Red Chinatown Nights (1929) (with Warner Oland and Jack Oakie) as Chuck Riley Stairs of Sand (1929) as Lacey River of Romance (1929) as General Orlando Jackson The Big House (1930) (with Chester Morris, Lewis Stone, and Robert Montgomery) as Machine Gun 'Butch' Schmidt Billy the Kid (1930; widescreen) (with Johnny Mack Brown billed as "John Mack Brown") as Pat Garrett Way for a Sailor (1930) (with John Gilbert) as Tripod A Lady's Morals (1930) as P.T. Barnum Min and Bill (1930) (with Marie Dressler) as Bill The Stolen Jools (1931; 20-minute ensemble short) (with Edward G. Robinson and Buster Keaton) as Police Sergeant The Secret Six (1931) (with Jean Harlow and Clark Gable) as "Slaughterhouse" Scorpio The Champ (1931) (with Jackie Cooper) as Andy "Champ" Purcell (Oscar-winning performance) Hell Divers (1932; early military planes) (with Clark Gable) as C.P.O. H.W. "Windy" Riker Grand Hotel (1932) (with Greta Garbo, John Barrymore, Lionel Barrymore, and Joan Crawford) as General Director Preysing Flesh (1932, directed by an uncredited John Ford) as Polakai Tugboat Annie (1933) (with Marie Dressler, Robert Young and Maureen O'Sullivan) as Terry Brennan Dinner at Eight (1933) (with Marie Dressler, Lionel Barrymore, and Jean Harlow) as Dan Packard The Bowery (1933) (with George Raft, Jackie Cooper, Fay Wray and Pert Kelton) as Chuck Connors Viva Villa! (1934, shot on location in Mexico) (with Leo Carrillo, Stu Erwin and Fay Wray) as Pancho Villa Treasure Island (1934) (with Jackie Cooper, Lionel Barrymore and Lewis Stone) as Long John Silver The Mighty Barnum (1934) (with Adolphe Menjou) as P.T. Barnum West Point of the Air (1935) (with Robert Young, Maureen O'Sullivan, Rosalind Russell, and Robert Taylor) as Big Mike Stone China Seas (1935) (with Clark Gable, Jean Harlow, Lewis Stone, and Robert Benchley) as Jamesy McArdle O'Shaughnessy's Boy (1935) (with Jackie Cooper) as Captain Michael 'Windy' O'Shaughnessy Ah, Wilderness! (1935) (with Lionel Barrymore, Aline MacMahon, and Mickey Rooney) as Sid Miller A Message to Garcia (1936) (with Barbara Stanwyck and Alan Hale Sr.) as Sergeant Dory Old Hutch (1936) as 'Hutch' Hutchins The Good Old Soak (1937) (with Betty Furness and Ted Healy) as Clem Hawley Slave Ship (1937) (with Warner Baxter (first-billed) and Mickey Rooney) as Jack Thompson The Bad Man of Brimstone (1937) (with Noah Beery Sr.) as 'Trigger' Bill Port of Seven Seas (1938; written by Preston Sturges and directed by James Whale) (with Maureen O'Sullivan) as Cesar Stablemates (1938) (with Mickey Rooney) as Doc Thomas 'Tom' Terry Stand Up and Fight (1939) (with Robert Taylor and Charles Bickford) as Capt. Boss Starkey Sergeant Madden (1939, directed by Josef von Sternberg) (with Laraine Day) as Sgt. Shaun Madden Thunder Afloat (1939) (with Chester Morris) as John Thorson The Man from Dakota (1940) (with Dolores del Río) as Sgt. 'Bar' Barstow 20 Mule Team (1940) (with Anne Baxter and Noah Beery Jr.) as Skinner Bill Bragg, an Alias of Ambrose Murphy Wyoming (1940) (with Ann Rutherford) as 'Reb' Harkness The Bad Man (1941) (with Lionel Barrymore, Laraine Day, and Ronald Reagan) as Pancho Lopez Barnacle Bill (1941) (with Marjorie Main) as Bill Johansen The Bugle Sounds (1942) (with Marjorie Main, Lewis Stone, and George Bancroft) as Sgt. Patrick Aloysius 'Hap' Doan Jackass Mail (1942) (with Marjorie Main) as Marmaduke 'Just' Baggot Salute to the Marines (1943, in color) (with Noah Beery Sr.) as Sgt. Maj. William Bailey Rationing (1944) (with Marjorie Main) as Ben Barton Barbary Coast Gent (1944) (with Chill Wills and Noah Beery Sr.) as Honest Plush Brannon This Man's Navy (1945) (with Noah Beery Sr.) as Ned Trumpet Bad Bascomb (1946) (with Margaret O'Brien and Marjorie Main) as Zeb Bascomb The Mighty McGurk (1947) (with Dean Stockwell and Edward Arnold) as Roy 'Slag' McGurk Alias a Gentleman (1948) (with Gladys George and Sheldon Leonard) as Jim Breedin A Date with Judy (1948) (with Jane Powell, Elizabeth Taylor and Carmen Miranda) as Melvin Colner Foster Big Jack (1949) (with Richard Conte, Marjorie Main, and Edward Arnold) as Big Jack Horner (final film role) Box office ranking 1932 – 7th 1933 – 5th 1934 – 4th 1935 – 8th 1936 – 15th, 8th (UK) 1937 – 15th 1938 – 12th 1939 – 15th 1940 – 8th 1941 – 19th 1942 – 18th 1943 – 18th 1944 – 11th 1946 – 11th Awards and nominations Academy Awards Venice Film Festival See also List of actors with Academy Award nominations References Further reading Wise, James. Stars in Blue: Movie Actors in America's Sea Services. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1997. External links AllMovie.com/ biography Wallace Beery and Gloria Swanson's Marriage Photographs of Wallace Beery 1885 births 1949 deaths 20th-century American male actors American male film actors American male silent film actors American male stage actors Best Actor Academy Award winners Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale) Male actors from Kansas City, Missouri Male actors from Missouri Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract players Paramount Pictures contract players People from Clay County, Missouri Volpi Cup for Best Actor winners

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enema%20of%20the%20State

Enema of the State

Enema of the State is the third studio album by American rock band Blink-182, released on June 1, 1999, by MCA Records. After a long series of performances at various clubs and festivals and several indie recordings throughout the 1990s, Blink-182 first achieved popularity on the Warped Tour and in Australia following the release of their second album Dude Ranch (1997) and its rock radio hit "Dammit." To record their third album, Blink-182 turned to veteran punk rock producer Jerry Finn, who previously worked on Green Day's breakthrough album Dookie (1994). Enema was the band's first album to feature second drummer Travis Barker, who replaced original drummer Scott Raynor. The group recorded with Finn over a period of three months at numerous locations, including their hometown of San Diego and in Los Angeles. Finn was key in producing the fast-paced, melodic mixes, creating pop-punk with a more radio-friendly, accessible polish. Lyrically, the album is inspired by adolescent frustration and relationships. Guitarist Tom DeLonge and bassist Mark Hoppus primarily culled stories from friends and autobiographical situations to craft summer-related tracks revolving around breakups, suburban parties and maturity, as well as more offbeat subject matter such as UFO conspiracy theories. The cover artwork for Enema of the State features porn star Janine Lindemulder famously clad in a nurse uniform, and the title is a pun on the term enemy of the state. Enema of the State was an enormous commercial success, although the band was criticized as synthesized, manufactured pop only remotely resembling punk, and pigeonholed as a joke act due to the puerile slant of its singles and associating music videos. The album sold over 15 million copies worldwide, catapulting the band to become one of the biggest rock bands of the turn of the millennium. "What's My Age Again?," "All the Small Things," and "Adam's Song" became hit singles and MTV staples, generating heavy radio airplay. Enema of the State had an extensive impact on contemporary pop punk, reinventing it for a new generation and spawning countless tributes and accolades. Background By 1997, Blink-182, consisting of Mark Hoppus, Tom DeLonge, and Scott Raynor, began to receive mainstream exposure as their sophomore record, Dude Ranch, shipped gold and the lead single "Dammit" began to be added to rock radio playlists across the country. The band entered an extended period of touring beginning that summer, which included each date of the worldwide 1997 Vans Warped Tour, a lifestyle tour promoting skateboarding and punk rock music. The trio would only return to their home of San Diego, California for days at a time before striking out the next tour. "When we did our longest tour stretch, it was right when I started dating my fiancee," recalled guitarist and vocalist Tom DeLonge in 2001. "We were all new and in love, and I had to leave. It was just, 'Hey, I'll see you in nine months.' It was really hard." Hoppus felt increasingly lonely; while the other members had longtime girlfriends to return home to, Hoppus was single. In addition to the hefty touring schedule, the trio grew tired of other commitments, including interviews and TV appearances due to the success of "Dammit." Desperate for a break, the overworked band began to argue and tensions formed. Raynor, who was at the center of this drama, had been commenting of his desire to attend college for years, and had been taking homework out with him on tour to try and complete his high school diploma. The tension came to a head in February 1998 as the band embarked on SnoCore, described as "a winter version of the Warped Tour." Sharing the stage with Primus, the band was enjoying more success than ever before, but the drama between the musicians had grown substantially. The band reached a low point when the band engaged in a fight on a Nebraska date after SnoCore's conclusion. Raynor would depart following SnoCore, and the ensemble recruited Travis Barker, drummer for the opening ska punk group The Aquabats, to fill in for Raynor. Barker, who had not had time to prepare or practice with the duo, learned the drum tracks for the 20-song setlist in only 45 minutes before the first show and performed them flawlessly thereafter. "I remember Travis rehearsing backstage for an hour or two, then playing with them during sound-check," said Adam Deibert of the Aquabats. "A few of us were standing behind the stage and vividly remember the feeling of this is the new Blink. We should have looked for a new drummer right then because it was obvious what band he belonged in." Shortly thereafter, the band embarked on a short minitour along the western coast, most notably Southern California, the band's favorite place to play. The tour ended with the band headlining a sold-out show at the Palladium in Hollywood, California, where the band had dreamed of performing for years. Raynor returned for the band's Palladium performance, but the band became increasingly uneasy and arguments grew worse. To offset personal issues and a "tragic loss," Raynor began to drink heavily and it began to affect the band's performances. Following a largely successful Australian tour in the spring, Hoppus and DeLonge presented an ultimatum: quit drinking or go to an in-patient rehab. Raynor agreed to both and informed the band of his decision after taking the weekend to mull options. According to Raynor, he was fired through a phone call despite his agreement to rehab. Despite this, he felt no malice toward his former bandmates and later conceded they were "right" to fire him. The band would minimize the impact of the situation in future interviews and remained vague regarding his departure. Initial news reports explained that Raynor had "reportedly returned to school." DeLonge would later explain the drinking problem that led to his expulsion: "One show he dropped his sticks 10 times. It was so disturbing to see someone ruining himself." The addition of Barker inspired DeLonge and Hoppus to "play better" and keep up with their new member, whom DeLonge called "perfect." Recording and production Pre-production MCA gave the band its first professional recording budget, and Blink-182 began work on Enema of the State in October 1998. The trio had not been in a studio in two years and were anxious to record new material. Blink-182 returned to DML Studios to write new songs, where the band had previously spent time writing songs for their second record, Dude Ranch. The three spent much more time in the studio than on previous records, allowing them to try many different things. Barker would drive down each day from Riverside to take part in the writing process. Very satisfied with the results, the band completed writing in two weeks. Though Barker helped write the songs on Enema of the State, only Hoppus and DeLonge received songwriting credits, as Barker was technically a hired musician, not official band member. Don Lithgow, owner and operator of DML Studios, recalled that the trio's celebrity had increased considerably during the recording process: "[It] was different than their other sessions — girls hanging around outside, calling their friends on cell phones. All the kids wanted autographs. ... They'd unlock the doors and let kids into the studio, which most bands would never do." Due to the success of Dude Ranch, the label and band management had high expectations. Recording When the band completed writing and recording demos for the songs, the three headed to Los Angeles to record drum tracks at Chick Corea's Mad Hatter Studios in January 1999. Barker recorded the majority of his drum tracks in eight hours. The recording process for the album was completed over a period of four months, and production was handled at several production facilities in southern California, including Signature Sound and Studio West in San Diego, Big Fish Studios in Encinitas, and Conway Recording Studios and The Bomb Factory in Los Angeles. For Barker, the album was "fueled by black coffee and Marlboro Lights"; he was hopeful for the album as the band were well-rehearsed and no time would be wasted. To record Enema of the State, Blink-182 turned to punk rock producer Jerry Finn, who previously worked on Green Day's breakthrough album, Dookie (1994). Hoppus and DeLonge were impressed with his work when they recorded "Mutt" for its placement on the American Pie soundtrack. Finn was harder on the trio to record better takes, and Hoppus credited Finn with knowing a great deal about punk rock music, but also helping the band establish a more pop-inspired sound. Finn came with an array of amps, effects and equipments; previously the band were forced to rent such equipment. Barker kept attempting to irritate Finn by sneaking in vibraslaps, which Finn hated. In addition, the band had so much fun with Finn that there were days when very little work was accomplished: "Recording can get pretty monotonous, but at least we could laugh with Jerry," recalled Hoppus. "A pretty typical day would involve multiple takes for one part of one song, and then everyone would get naked and jump on Jerry." The band chose "never to work with anyone else again," and Finn would produce their next three releases. Recording completed in March 1999 and all parties involved were enormously proud of the record. "When it was done, we were so stoked. It was like a masterpiece for our band," remembered DeLonge. "We knew this was going to be the best thing we ever did." Hoppus felt the band achieved the purest, cleanest sound on the record that they had been striving for. Finn felt similarly, proud of his work on the record and believing in retrospect that the album would appeal to the masses. As the album was recorded on analog tape, the trio put enormous trust into Finn to give the record the polished pop sound they wanted, recalled DeLonge in 2012. "The Party Song" was the final song to be completed, and the three were mixing the song coincidentally when lead single "What's My Age Again?" premiered on Los Angeles-based radio station KROQ. In 2013, Hoppus referred to Enema of the State as "the heart of Blink-182's musical sensibilities," singling out "its simplicity, its purity, its singularity of purpose between the three of us." According to Barker, the album's title stemmed from DeLonge, who was worried about his diet at the time and using enemas. Post-production At the end of recording, Finn suggested they utilize keyboardist Roger Joseph Manning, Jr., best known for his work with Beck. Hoppus was initially reluctant, noting that most of the band's fans up to that point were hardcore punk rock fans that might not be receptive to keyboard parts. In the end, the group were open to his inclusion: "They welcomed all my ideas and they were super supportive and that’s why it was so much fun working with them," Manning later remembered. For Tom Lord-Alge, the main mixing engineer on the album, the band had one goal: "Make it sound as aggressive as possible." Lord-Alge's mixes were completed at his space, South Beach Studios, located in Miami, Florida. Lastly, the album was mastered by Brian Gardner at Bernie Grundman Mastering in Hollywood. Musical style and composition Enema of the State is considered by critics as pop-punk and skate punk. The songs on Enema of the State are fast-paced songs regarding "adolescent aimlessness, broken hearts and general confusion over the care and feeding of girls." Summarizing the album's content, The New York Times called Enema of the State a sampling of "ecstatic, goofy numbers about teenage uselessness, with a smattering of tender introspection." The songs are mainly autobiographical, or are inspired by stories from friends' experiences. Enema of the State largely revolves around age and maturity—"more specifically, their lack of it, their attitude toward their lack of it, or their eventual wide-eyed exploration of it." The band decided to emphasize arrangements, harmonies and melodic ideas rather than the fast-paced nature of Dude Ranch; the change was brought about by the band, rather than the label. Barker hoped to give the songs varying tempos, something missing in the group's prior recordings. "I told Mark and Tom, 'It's going to be repetitive if all our songs have the same punk-rock beat all the time. Why don't we try some different tempos?'" DeLonge noted he was open to his proposals, and responded, "Dude, I just play guitar and write melodies. You own the beats. If you have an idea, that's what you're supposed to do." DeLonge later reflected on his desire for a more "pop" sound: Songs "Dumpweed" kicks off the record, and explores sexual frustration. The song is based around the hook "I need a girl that I can train," as in dog training. DeLonge, the song's primary lyricist, explains the song in a 2000 tour booklet: "Girls are so much smarter than guys and can see the future as well as never forget the past. So that leaves the dog as the only thing men are smarter than." The song is a "callow complaint about girls not always doing exactly what you wish they would," and is followed by Hoppus' "Don't Leave Me," a song about a breakup, in irony. Hoppus wrote the song in ten minutes. The guitar swell preceding the second chorus is actually a digital reversal of the delaying guitar preceding it. "Aliens Exist" originates from DeLonge's interest in UFOs and conspiracy theories. "Going Away to College" was written in ten minutes by Hoppus while at home sick on Valentine's Day 1999. While watching the movie Can't Hardly Wait, Hoppus began to think about "how much it sucks when people are in love in high school" and are forced to be separated after graduation by different colleges in different cities. Since it was recorded late in production, the band had to go back to Los Angeles to record Barker's drum track. The track segues directly into "What's My Age Again?," also penned by Hoppus, who created it partially as a joke to amuse friends. It was originally titled "Peter Pan Complex," referencing the subject matter: one who refuses to grow up. "Dysentery Gary" leads off the second half of the album, and was written by DeLonge about a crush that instead chooses someone else. Left with "nothing better to do," the devastated friend chooses to mock her boyfriend. It was one of the first songs the band wrote with Barker, who incorporated a "Latin groove" into his drumming. "Adam's Song," the piano-laced seventh track of the record, was written primarily based on the loneliness that Hoppus experienced during the unending days of touring the previous year. When Hoppus brought the song to the band, the trio reacted positively but showed reluctance to add it to the record, believing the dark subject matter might off-put listeners. Although usually vocals would take many alternate takes to complete, Hoppus completed the vocal track for "Adam's Song" in a single take. The power pop-inspired "All the Small Things" was composed by DeLonge as both an ode to his girlfriend and one of his favorite bands, the Ramones. During the recording process of Enema of the State, DeLonge came home to find roses at the top of the stairs from his girlfriend, which inspired the line: "She left me roses by the stairs; surprises let me know she cares." "The Party Song" was inspired by when Hoppus attended a "jock-infested" party at San Diego State University and met some students who thought highly of themselves. Disinterested in the party, he felt he would much rather be at home, which found its way into the song's lyrics. "Mutt" was written by DeLonge for his friend Benji Weatherly and his appearance in the Taylor Steele surf video The Show. An early version of "Mutt," with Scott Raynor behind the drum kit, was recorded with producer Mark Trombino and appears on the film's 1998 soundtrack. The title of "Wendy Clear" comes from Hoppus' boat, named "Wendy," and how boaters end transmissions by letting other boaters know the channel is open for use, or "clear." Hoppus wrote the song while on tour with MxPx about having a crush on "someone that you are not supposed to like." Lastly, "Anthem," the final song on Enema of the State, is about being trapped in the suburbs, longing for freedom and the age of 21. It is based on when DeLonge was in high school and told his peers that his band would be playing at a friend's house. The party was later busted by the police and a "giant fight broke out." Hoppus felt it a perfect summary of the album's themes: "lots of youthful angst, energy, and suburban unrest." Artwork The cover artwork features porn star Janine Lindemulder dressed in a nurse uniform, pulling on a rubber glove. The band—semi-nude—appear on the back cover with Lindemulder preparing for some sort of injection. The trio was oblivious to the fact that Lindemulder worked in the porn industry until informed by producer Jerry Finn. The record company had delivered a stack of photos of potential cover girls, and the band members happened to pick Lindemulder. "So it's kind of funny that they've been lumped in with Kid Rock and Limp Bizkit, who play up that kind of pimp lifestyle, because Blink is so not that," remarked Finn. According to Mark Hoppus, they always intended to have a sexy nurse on the cover, and the women considered included models from both Playboy and Janine's employer Vivid Entertainment. David Goldman was the photographer behind the shoot, held March 12, 1999, and did not know the trio before shooting. In 2012, he stated the glove was inspired by the album's working title. "Up until the very last minute, the album was going to be called Turn Your Head and Cough," he said. "And that's why I came up with the idea of the glove. Obviously an enema is not really a glove type of thing. I thought it was a good visual." Lindemulder is also featured in the music videos for "What's My Age Again?" and "Man Overboard." There are three different versions of the cover art. The first release has a red cross on the nurse's hat and a capital B in the Blink-182 logo. The band preferred the lower-case b in the band name, and the second version features the red cross and a lower-case b. In a Reddit comment on June 2, 2013, Blink-182 bassist Mark Hoppus claimed that the American Red Cross pressured the band to remove the red cross from their artwork, stating that if they did not, they would be in violation of the Geneva Conventions. The band complied and, thus, the third iteration of the album cover features a plain white nurse's hat. This third version is the only version to bear a Parental Advisory label for profane lyrics in "Dumpweed" and "Dysentery Gary." Hoppus said the controversy some had with the cover was exaggerated as "it is just a picture of a girl." Art direction for the album was headed by Tim Stedman, with Stedman and graphic designer Keith Tamashiro designing the package. The album cover has since been called iconic by many publications. In 2015, Billboard ranked the cover among the top 15 "greatest of all-time," calling it "an image that was burned into the mind of every TRL viewer, one that became instantly iconic." Singles To promote Enema of the State, MCA Records released three singles in support: "What's My Age Again?," "All the Small Things," and "Adam's Song." The singles were bigger than anyone in the band expected, crossing over into Top 40 radio format and experiencing major commercial success. "What's My Age Again?" became an "airplay phenomenon," achieving mass success on both radio and television. Its television success made it into an MTV staple. It achieved the highest success on Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart, where it peaked at number two. It registered within the top 20 on UK Singles Chart as well, peaking at number 17. The music video for "What's My Age Again?," directed by Marcos Siega, famously depicted the band running naked through the streets of Los Angeles. A clip of the band streaking opened the 1999 Billboard Awards and the band's affinity for nudity would be referenced in interviews for years to come. "All the Small Things," released in early 2000, became an even bigger success — it crossed over from alt-rock radio to contemporary hit radio, peaking at number six on Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Modern Rock Tracks chart. This track stayed at the top of the Modern Rock Tracks chart for eight weeks and remained in the top 10 for 20 weeks. It also peaked at number two on the official UK charts, and within the top ten in Italy, Ireland, Austria, Sweden and Australia. The music video for "All the Small Things" parodies boy bands and contemporary pop videos, and features the trio participating in choreographed dancing and dressing up as members of Backstreet Boys, 98 Degrees, and 'N Sync. "I was a little surprised it went over so well," recalled Marcos Siega, director of the clip, commenting that he felt it would offend viewers of Total Request Live (TRL) and boy band fans. "I think we had the opposite effect. In some ways, I think that video put Blink at that sort of pop level with those other bands. We were making fun of them, but it kind of became [what it was making fun of]." At the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards, it was nominated for Video of the Year and Best Pop Video, and won Best Group Video. The third and final single, "Adam's Song," performed less substantially than the first two but still managed to peak at number two on Billboard Alternative Songs chart. The band was engulfed in controversy when Greg Barnes, a survivor of the Columbine High School massacre, set "Adam's Song" on repeat on his stereo and committed suicide in May 2000. Hoppus was very upset when he got the call from band manager Rick DeVoe explaining what happened, as he intended the track as an anti-suicide song. Rolling Stone later compared the controversy to that of Ozzy Osbourne's "Suicide Solution." Despite that controversy, it managed to connect deeply with fans of the band, who wrote letters to the band remarking the track saved their lives during difficult situations. The constant airplay of the three videos on MTV and TRL cemented the band's image as video stars, amid a climate of teen pop and boy bands. Release By May 1999, the group was nearing platinum status for Dude Ranch and sales targets were higher for Enema of the State. The Los Angeles Times ran a Sunday feature on the band two days prior to release, noting that "The musicians are sanguine about chances to repeat or exceed the sales of Dude Ranch, noting the always-shifting sands of pop culture and that they've already done better than they'd ever anticipated." Momentum began to build when US radio stations received advance copies of Enema of the State. MCA issued Enema of the State on June 1, and the release peaked at number nine on the U.S. Billboard 200. The album chart was gripped by the Backstreet Boys' Millennium, but Enema of the State still managed to move 109,000 units that week. The band was supporting Lagwagon in Europe when MCA executives phoned the trio about rising record sales. Joey Cape, frontman of Lagwagon, remarked that "They were selling, like, 90,000 records a day [...] I was saying things like, 'What are you doing here? Go home! Why do you want to be on tour with Lagwagon right now?" At a show shortly following the release of the album, DeLonge was approached by Noodles from The Offspring to congratulate him. "He looks at me right in the eyes and he goes, 'You're next,'" remembered DeLonge, who blushed and shook off the compliment. The major-label debut sold strongly and nearly four times as fast as Dude Ranch, and shipped gold to stores, unlike its predecessor, which took seven months to achieve that certification. Enema of the State went platinum in October 1999 and went triple platinum in January 2000; in February 2001, the album was certified five times platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America. The record performed well in international markets as well. Enema of the State went quadruple platinum in Canada and triple platinum in Australia. It peaked at number seven on the Canadian Albums Chart, but peaked the highest worldwide on the New Zealand Albums Chart (number two), where it was certified double platinum. It was also certified double platinum in Italy, platinum in the United Kingdom, and gold in six other territories (Austria, Germany, Indonesia, Mexico, the Philippines, and Switzerland). In Europe, the album sold over one million copies. To further promote Enema of the State, the trio made a cameo appearance in American Pie, a teen comedy released several weeks following the album release. Hoppus, DeLonge and Barker appear in a scene in which they are interrupted rehearsing to see a webcast on a computer. Music from Enema of the State was also used in the film and on its soundtrack. The cameo appearance was well-received, with New York Nitsuh Abebe commending the common sensibility and humor between the two: "green grass, sun, swimming pools, teen boys obsessed with and mildly terrified by sex, jokes about having sex with things that are not other humans, and a healthy side of toilet-oriented gags." As of 2014, Enema of the State remains the highest seller in the band's catalogue, moving 4.54 million units to date in the U.S., according to Nielsen SoundScan. Combined sales from international markets estimate the album has sold over 15 million copies worldwide. Reception Critical response In an early review, Billboard called the record "short, to the point, and bristling with attitude," and predicted it would poise the band for commercial breakthrough. In a less enthusiastic review, Rolling Stone Neva Chonin wrote, "It's all harmless but still gnarly enough to foment the kind of anti-everything rebellion that spawned rock & roll way back in the day." Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described it as a "fun record that's better than the average neo-punk release." Kerrang! wrote that the album includes "enough energy, attitude and cracking songs here to ensure that blink will be remembered for more than just onstage nudity." The catchy, pop sensibility of the album was praised by Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club, describing the band as finding success within a "well-worn genre" (punk rock). The New York Times also designated the record its 'Album of the Week'. The record did have its detractors: British music publication New Musical Express (NME) gave the record a very poor review, calling the record despicable, "wholly toothless and soulless" and deriding the band as "as bad, as meaningless, as the cock-rockers and hippy wankers punk originally sought to destroy." Jon Blisten of Beats Per Minute wrote a retrospective review of the album in 2011, regarding Enema of the State a seminal album of Generation Y and "one of those rare records that allows you to relive [adolescence], a record where every song conjures up a specific memory or emotion that you could have only felt when you were a teenager." Billboard described the album as a "classic" in a retrospective review, calling it the "catchiest batch of songs the band had ever written," and commending the leap in quality both in production and vocals in comparison to its predecessor. Criticism The success of the album, as well as its cleaner sound and the group's appearances on MTV, caused many longtime fans to accuse the band of "selling out." Many commentators stated that the band's polished pop sound only remotely resembled punk music. Although the video for "All the Small Things" was filmed as a mockery of boy bands and teen pop, "fame [didn't] discriminate based on origin: soon the group was as famous as those it was parodying." "Blink now had the backing of a major record company ... just like the synthesized pop acts they were spoofing," said British journalist Tim Footman. "In what way were they less 'pop' than Sugar Ray and 98 Degrees?" Matt Diehl, author of the book My So-Called Punk, called the basis for satire thin: "To seasoned ears, Blink-182 sounded and looked just as manufactured as the pop idols they were poking fun at." The band faced a backlash shortly after Enema of the State was released from several punk and emo acts who wished to not be associated with their music. Tristin Laughter, employee of Bay Area record label Lookout! Records, wrote in an issue of the influential zine Punk Planet that the band would have a genuinely negative impact on punk and accused the band of misogyny. DeLonge responded to the accusations, commenting, "I love all those criticisms, because fuck all those magazines! I hate with a passion Maximumrocknroll and all those zines that think they know what punk is supposed to be. I think it's so much more punk to piss people off than to conform to all those veganistic views." While ska veterans Blue Meanies tried to empathize ("I think they [Blink] are just trying to get in the mindset of a teenager, which means a lot of curiosity about sex,") others, such as John Lydon, frontman of the Sex Pistols and Public Image Ltd, dismissed the band as a "bunch of silly boys ... an imitation of a comedy act." Legacy The record proved very influential on the pop-punk genre. With the release of the record, Blink-182 became celebrities and the biggest pop punk act of the era. The glossy production instantly set Blink-182 apart from the other crossover punk acts, such as Green Day. In 2011, The New York Times credited the record with "[taking] punk's already playful core and [giving] it a shiny, accessible polish," calling it "among the catchiest music of the time." Matt Diehl, author of My So-Called Punk, writes that mainstream acolytes of their sound led to profound effects on the "pop punk" genre, such as the deracination of regional scene identity—due to its wide popularity, pop punk bands became commonplace outside the genre's origins. Jon Blisten of Beats Per Minute writes that "Enema success perpetuated pop-punk's viability on mainstream radio, which is where Blink's progeny — bands like Fall Out Boy, Simple Plan, and New Found Glory — would receive a decent amount of airplay." Rolling Stone Nicole Frehsée wrote that the album influenced emo fans, while MTV News credited the album, alongside the Get Up Kids' Something to Write Home About (1999) as pioneering emo pop, calling them "some of the scene's most influential records." Enema of the State has been called an accurate representation of middle-class teenage life, especially at the time of its release. Entertainment Weekly called it the "perfect encapsulation of the American adolescent male mind-set circa 1999." Nitsuh Abebe of New York describes the immense popularity of the record with adolescents in an article measuring its influence: "After you figure in singles, videos, CD-R burns, copies on repeat in friends' cars and finished basements, this was apparently enough to create blanket immersion among America's twenty-some million teenagers." Alternative Press has ranked Enema of the State among Jerry Finn's top production work, and UK-based music magazine Rock Sound rated it number 2 on their list of "101 Modern Classics" in 2012, writing, "Enema didn't just bring pop-punk to the masses, it marked a complete shift in how music television, radio and the world at large viewed it." In 2014, Ian Cohen of Pitchfork noted the album's extensive influence: "In a literal sense, many indie bands evolved not from Velvet Underground or Sonic Youth, but Smash, Dookie, or Enema of the State—records that served as beginner's manuals and inspired musicians in great numbers to buy their first guitar." Likewise, Scott Russo of the band Unwritten Law remarked that, following the album's release, he would receive CDs from fans that mimicked the glossy sound the album made famous. "It was revolutionary, it was equally as revolutionary as Green Day when it hit, they just didn't get the credit," Russo remarked in 2009. In 2014, Alternative Press ran a special in celebration of the album's fifteenth anniversary, which contains reflections from members of bands influenced by the album, including The Maine, The Story So Far, Mayday Parade, and Yellowcard, among others. "When I heard how massive and epic Enema was for the first time, my mind was blown. It definitely made me want to be a better songwriter and make bigger-sounding records," said Ryan Key of Yellowcard. In the article, the magazine credits the album with "single-handedly changed the face of mainstream rock." Property of Zack also gave the album a fifteenth anniversary feature, commenting, "Enema of the State has become the single most important album in our overarching community since its release in 1999. It is more important, to this current generation and the one preceding it, than Dookie, or Smash, or whatever you want to put on that pedestal — and it will likely never give up that spot at the top of the standings." Accolades * denotes an unordered list Touring With massive radio and video play, Blink-182 played to larger crowds when they began touring in support of Enema of the State. The Loserkids Tour commenced in the autumn of 1999 and was the band's first arena tour. The band was forced to postpone remaining dates of a spring European tour in 2000 when both DeLonge and Barker came down with strep throat. The band played to sold-out audiences and performed worldwide during the summer of 2000 on The Mark, Tom and Travis Show Tour. The tour was staged as a drive-in movie, with a giant retro billboard suspended from the ceiling, and films were projected on the screen behind the band – including vintage gay porn as a joke. The tour was one of the most anticipated rock tours of the season and the band headed out on the road with Bad Religion and Fenix TX. Barker broke one of his fingers during an altercation with two men who kept flirting with his girlfriend in Ohio, and Damon Delapaz, guitarist of Fenix TX, stepped in on drums for Barker. Hoppus recalled an overwhelming emotional feeling when the band sold out the Great Western Forum in Los Angeles. The band also performed at the Reading and Leeds Festivals in August 2000. To celebrate the success of the tour, the band released a limited edition live album titled The Mark, Tom, and Travis Show (The Enema Strikes Back!), which featured snippets of the band's between-song dialogue. Released in November 2000, the band returned to the studio with Finn to complete a song left off the final track listing of Enema of the State: "Man Overboard." The final tour in support of Enema of the State was the 2001 Honda Civic Tour, for which the band designed a Honda Civic to promote the company. Track listing Personnel Adapted from Enema of the State liner notes. Blink-182 Mark Hoppus – bass guitar, vocals Tom DeLonge – guitars, vocals Travis Barker – drums, percussion Additional musicians Roger Joseph Manning, Jr. – keyboards on "What's My Age Again?," "Adam's Song," "All the Small Things," "Wendy Clear," and "Anthem" Artwork Tim Stedman – art direction, design Keith Tamashiro – design David Goldman – photography Janine Lindemulder – cover model Production Jerry Finn – production, mixing engineer of "The Party Song" and "Wendy Clear" Tom Lord-Alge – mixing engineer Sean O'Dwyer – recording engineer Darrel Harvey – assistant engineer John Nelson – assistant engineer Robert Read – assistant engineer Mike Fasano – drum technician Brian Gardner – mastering engineer Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications See also 1999 in music Pop-punk Jerry Finn Notes References Footnotes Sources External links Enema of the State at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed) Blink-182 albums MCA Records albums 1999 albums Albums produced by Jerry Finn

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20suicides

List of suicides

The following people committed suicide. This includes suicides effected under duress and excludes deaths by accident or misadventure. People who might or might not have died by their own hand, or whose intention to die is in dispute, but who are widely believed to have deliberately killed themselves, may be listed under "possible suicides". Confirmed suicides A Chris Acland (1996), English drummer for the band Lush, hanging. Art Acord (1931), American actor and rodeo champion, ingestion of poison. Manuel Acuña (1873), Mexican poet, ingestion of potassium cyanide. George Washington Adams (1829), American politician, lawyer, and eldest son of John Quincy Adams, drowning in Long Island Sound. Marian Hooper Adams (1885), American socialite and photographer, potassium cyanide. Phillip Adams (2021), American football player, gunshot. Robert Adams Jr. (1906), Congressman from Pennsylvania, gunshot. Stephanie Adams (2018), American former glamour model, known as the November 1992 Playboy Playmate, jump from a 25th floor window after having murdered her 7-year-old son Vincent by pushing him out first. Stuart Adamson (2001), Scottish guitarist and singer for Big Country and Skids, hanging after alcohol ingestion. Adrastus (c. 550s BC), exiled son of Gordias, king of Phrygia. Vibulenus Agrippa (36 AD), Roman equestrian, poison. Ahn Jae-hwan (2008), South Korean actor, carbon monoxide poisoning. Aizong of Jin (1234), Chinese emperor of the Jin dynasty. Chantal Akerman (2015), Belgian film director. Sergey Akhromeyev (1991), Marshal of the Soviet Union, hanging. Stephen Akinmurele (1999), British suspected serial killer, hanging. Ryūnosuke Akutagawa (1927), Japanese writer, overdose of barbital. Marwan al-Shehhi (2001), United Arab Emirate member of Al-Qaeda and one of the 9/11 hijackers, plane crash of United Airlines Flight 175. Alcetas (320 BC), Hellenic general of Alexander the Great. Leelah Alcorn (2014), American transgender teenager, walked in front of a truck. Leandro Alem (1896), Argentine politician, founder of the Radical Civic Union, gunshot to the head. Alexander (220 BC), Seleucid satrap of Persis. Ross Alexander (1937), American actor, gunshot to the head. Ekaterina Alexandrovskaya (2020), Russian-Australian ice skater, jumped from window of her apartment. Prince Alfred of Edinburgh (1899), member of the British Royal Family, gunshot. Ghazaleh Alizadeh (1996), Iranian poet and writer, hanging. Gia Allemand (2013), American actress and model, hanging. Nadezhda Alliluyeva (1932), wife of Joseph Stalin, gunshot. Jeff Alm (1993), American football player, gunshot. Jason Altom (1998), American Ph.D. student, potassium cyanide. August Ames (2017), Canadian pornographic actress, hanging. Jean Améry (1978), Austrian writer, overdose of sleeping pills. Amphicrates of Athens (86 BC), Greek sophist and rhetorician, starved himself. Korechika Anami (1945), Japanese War Minister, stabbed himself as part of seppuku. Adna Anderson (1889), General, U.S. Military Railroads during the American Civil War, railroad civil engineer/manager, gunshot. Forrest Howard Anderson (1989), Governor of Montana, gunshot. Mary A. Anderson (1996), unidentified woman using an alias, cyanide poisoning. Keith Andes (2005), American actor, asphyxiation. Andragathius (388 AD), Roman general and Magister equitum who assassinated emperor Gratian, drowned in the sea. Andromachus (364 BC). Eleian cavalry general. Roger Angleton (1998), American murderer, cut himself over 50 times with a razor. Publius Rufus Anteius (67 AD), Roman politician, drank poison and cut his veins. Mark Antony (30 BC), Roman politician and general, stabbed with sword. Kei Aoyama (2011), Japanese manga artist, hanging. Marcus Gavius Apicius (before 40 AD), Roman socialite, gourmet and man of great wealth, poison. Marshall Applewhite (1997), American leader of the Heaven's Gate religious cult, poisoned himself as part of the cult's mass suicide that year. Araki Yukio (1945), Japanese kamikaze pilot. Arbogast (394 AD), Roman general. Diane Arbus (1971), American photographer, overdosed on pills and slashed wrists. Archias of Cyprus (between 158 and 154 BC), Ptolemaic governor of Cyprus, hanging. Reinaldo Arenas (1990), Cuban-American artist and writer, drug and alcohol overdose. José María Arguedas (1969), Peruvian novelist and poet, gunshot. Pedro Armendáriz (1963), Mexican actor, gunshot. Edwin Armstrong (1954), American inventor of FM radio, jumped from a 13th floor window. Arria (42 AD), Roman wife of Caecina Paetus an alleged conspirator against Emperor Claudius, stabbed herself. Sei Ashina (2020) Japanese actress. Ottilie Assing (1884), German writer, journalist, feminist and abolitionist, swallowing potassium cyanide. John Atchison (2007), American federal prosecutor and alleged child sex offender, hanging. Mohamed Atta (2001), Egyptian member of Al-Qaeda, and leader of the 9/11 hijackers, plane crash of American Airlines Flight 11. Pekka-Eric Auvinen (2007), Finnish Jokela High School shooter, gunshot to head. Avicii (2018), Swedish DJ and music producer, self-inflicted cuts resulting in blood loss. Mike Awesome (2007), American professional wrestler, hanging. Marion Aye (1951), American actress, ingestion of bi-chloride of mercury tablets. May Ayim (1996), German author, jumped from 13th floor of a Berlin building. Albert Ayler (1970), American jazz saxophonist, jumped into New York City's East River. B Andreas Baader (1977), German RAF terrorist, gunshot. Nikki Bacharach (2007), American daughter of Burt Bacharach and Angie Dickinson, suffocation using plastic bag and helium. Josef Bachmann (1970), German anti-communist, who made an assassination attempt on the German student movement-leader Rudi Dutschke, asphyxiation with plastic bag. Faith Bacon (1956), American burlesque dancer and actress, jumped from hotel window. Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi (2019), Iraqi-born Islamic terrorist and leader of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, detonation of a suicide vest. Bai Qi (257 BC), Chinese general and commander of the Qin army, cut his throat with a sword. David Bairstow (1998), English cricketer, hanging. James Robert Baker (1997), American writer, asphyxiation. Mark Balelo (2013), American cast member on the reality TV series Storage Wars, carbon monoxide asphyxiation. Joe Ball (1938), American serial killer, gunshot. José Manuel Balmaceda (1891), President of Chile, gunshot. Lou Bandy (1959), Dutch singer and comedian. Pratyusha Banerjee (2016), Indian actress, hanging. Somen Banerjee (1994), Indian American entrepreneur, co-founder of Chippendales and convicted criminal, hanging. Herculine Barbin (1868), French intersex memoirist, gas. Erich Bärenfänger (1945), German general. Robert Hayward Barlow (1951), American writer and anthropologist, barbiturate overdose. Boris Barnet (1965), Russian film director, hanging. Mark O. Barton (1999), American spree killer, gunshot. Ralph Barton (1931), American artist, gunshot. Johanna Bassani (2020), Austrian combined Nordic skier and ski jumper. Pierre Batcheff (1932), French actor, overdose of barbital. Simone Battle (2014), American pop singer and member of the band G.R.L., hanging. Herb Baumeister (1996), American serial killer, gunshot. J. Clifford Baxter (2002), American Enron Corporation executive, gunshot. Amelie "Melli" Beese (1925), German pioneer aviator, gunshot. Ari Behn (2019), Norwegian author and painter. Jovan Belcher (2012), American football player, gunshot, murder-suicide. Peter Bellamy (1991), English folk musician and member of the band The Young Tradition. Helena Belmonte (2014), Filipina model, jumped off building. Malik Bendjelloul (2014), Swedish documentary filmmaker, jumped in front of moving train. Brenda Benet (1982), American television and film actress, gunshot. Walter Benjamin (1940), German-Jewish literary critic and culture theorist, morphine overdose. Jill Bennett (1990), English actress, secobarbital overdose. Chester Bennington (2017), American lead singer of Linkin Park, hanging. Louis Bennison (1929), American actor, gunshot. Chris Benoit (2007), Canadian professional wrestler, hanging. Pierre Bérégovoy (1993), French politician and Prime Minister (1992–93), gunshot. Mary Kay Bergman (1999), American voice actress, gunshot. David Berman (2019), American musician and poet, hanging. John Berryman (1972), American poet, jumped off the Washington Avenue Bridge in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Bruno Bettelheim (1990). Austrian-born U.S. psychologist and writer, asphyxiation with plastic bag. Paul Bhattacharjee (2013), British actor, jumped from a clifftop. Brian Bianchini (2004), American model, hanging. Steve Bing (2020), American businessman and film producer, jumped from 27th floor of apartment building. Bob Birch (2012), American musician, gunshot. David Birnie (2005), Australian serial killer and rapist, hanging. Jens Bjørneboe (1976), Norwegian novelist, hanging. Eli M. Black (1975), CEO of United Fruit Co., jumped out of a building. Junius Blaesus (31 AD), Roman consul, general and governor of Africa, fell on a sword. Jeremy Blake (2007), American artist, drowning. Clara Blandick (1962), American stage and screen actress. Erica Blasberg (2010), American golfer, asphyxia caused prescription overdose. Miguel Blesa (2017), Spanish banker and businessman, involved in various corruption scandals, gunshot to chest. Vasily Blokhin (1955), Soviet general and NKVD executioner. Adele Blood (1936), American actress, gunshot. Clara Bloodgood (1907), American Broadway actress, gunshot. Gaius Blossius (c. 129 BC), Roman philosopher and adviser to Tiberius Gracchus and Eumenes III. Isabella Blow (2007), English magazine editor, and muse to fashion designer Alexander McQueen, poisoning. Ludwig Boltzmann (1906), Austrian physicist, known for thermodynamics and atomic theory, hanging. Bonosus (280 AD), Roman usurper, hanging. Eduardo Bonvallet (2015), Chilean World Cup footballer and pundit, hanging. Jeremy Michael Boorda (1996), US Chief of Naval Operations, gunshot to the chest. Éric Borel (1995), French high school student and spree killer, gunshot. Adrian Borland (1999), English singer-songwriter (The Outsiders, The Sound), jumped in front of a moving train. Martin Bormann (1945), German head of the Nazi Party Chancellery, cyanide poisoning. Jean-Louis Bory (1979), French writer, gunshot to the chest. Yevgenia Bosch (1925), Soviet Bolshevik revolutionary and politician, gunshot. Novak Bošković (2019), Serbian handball player, gunshot. Dmitry Bosov (2020), Russian businessman and billionaire, gunshot. Mohamed Bouazizi (2011), Tunisian street vendor, self-immolation. Boudica (61 AD), Queen of the Iceni, poison. Georges Ernest Boulanger (1891), French general and politician, gunshot. Dallen Bounds (1999), American serial killer, gunshot. Anthony Bourdain (2018), American chef, author, and television personality, hanging. Tommy Boyce (1994), American songwriter, gunshot. Karin Boye (1941), Swedish writer. Charles Boyer (1978), French actor, secobarbital overdose. Jonathan Brandis (2003), American actor, hanging. Cheyenne Brando (1995), Tahitian model/actress, hanging. Charlie Brandt (2004), American serial killer, hanging. Mike Brant (1975), Israeli pop star, jumped from his Paris apartment building. Robert Eugene Brashers (1999), American serial killer, gunshot. Eva Braun (1945), German wife of Adolf Hitler, cyanide poisoning. Richard Brautigan (1984), American writer, gunshot. Brennus (279 BC), Gallic tribal leader and general, stabbed himself. James E. Brewton (1967), American painter and printmaker, gunshot. Lilya Brik (1978), Russian author and socialite, overdose of sleeping pills. Molly Brodak (2020), American poet, writer, and baker. Herman Brood (2001), Dutch rock musician and painter, jumped from hotel roof. Joseph Brooks (2011), American screenwriter, director, producer, and composer, asphyxiation. May Brookyn (1894), British stage actress, overdose of carbolic acid. John Munro Bruce (1901), Australian businessman, father of Prime Minister S. M. Bruce. Jürgen Brümmer (2014), German Olympic gymnast, jumped from the Koersch Viaduct after suffocating his son. Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger (42 BC), Roman politician and conspirator to assassinate Julius Caesar, ran into his sword. Roy Buchanan (1988), American guitarist and blues musician, hanging. David Buckel (2018), American LGBT rights lawyer and environmental activist, self-immolation in Prospect Park, Brooklyn. Randy Budd (2016), American businessman whose wife, Sharon, was critically injured and disfigured by rocks thrown at their car from an overpass, gunshot. Eustace Budgell (1737), English writer and politician, drowning in the Thames. Brad Bufanda (2017), American actor, jumped from building. Dale Buggins (1981), Australian stunt motorcyclist, gunshot. Wilhelm Burgdorf (1945), German general, Chief of the Heerespersonalamt and Chief Adjutant to Adolf Hitler, gunshot. Dan Burros (1965), Jewish American neo-Nazi activist and member of the Ku Klux Klan, gunshot to the head. August Anheuser Busch Sr. (1934), American CEO of Anheuser-Busch, gunshot. Germán Busch (1939), Bolivian military officer and 41st and 43rd President of Bolivia, gunshot Zvonko Bušić (2013), Croatian hijacker responsible for hijacking TWA Flight 355 in 1976, gunshot C Calanus (323 BC), Indian gymnosophist and companion of Alexander the Great, self-immolation. Novius Calavius (314 BC), Campanian nobleman, leader of an anti-Roman insurrection. Ovius Calavius (314 BC), Campanian nobleman, leader of an anti-Roman insurrection. Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus (42 AD), Roman politician, consul and rebel against Emperor Claudius. Donald Cammell (1996), Scottish film director, gunshot. Homaro Cantu (2015), American chef, hanging. Capital Steez (2012), American hip-hop artist, jumped off the rooftop of the Cinematic Music Group headquarters in Manhattan. Capucine (1990), French actress and model, jumped from an eighth-floor apartment. George Caragonne (1995), American comic book writer, jumped from the 45th floor of the Marriott Marquis Hotel in Manhattan. Wallace Carothers (1937), American inventor of nylon, cyanide poisoning. Dora Carrington (1932), English artist, gunshot. Kevin Carter (1994), South African photojournalist, carbon monoxide poisoning. Tim Carter (2008), English footballer, hanging. Justina Casagli (1841), Swedish opera singer, jumped out a window. Finn M. W. Caspersen (2009), American financier and philanthropist, gunshot. Gaius Cassius Longinus (42 BC), Roman politician, general and conspirator to assassinate Julius Caesar, fell on his sword. Camilo Castelo Branco (1890), Portuguese novelist. Ariel Castro (2013), Puerto Rican-American kidnapper, rapist and murderer, hanging. Fidel Castro Diaz-Balart (2018), Cuban nuclear physicist, son of Fidel Castro. Kelly Catlin (2019), American cycling champion. Cato the Younger (46 BC), Roman statesman and politician, stabbed with sword. Paul Celan (1970), Romanian poet, drowning in the Seine. Censorinus (53 BC), Roman cavalryman and friend of Publius Licinius Crassus, ordered shieldbearer to stab him. Champignon (2013), Brazilian musician, bassist for Charlie Brown Jr., gunshot. Joseph Newton Chandler III (2002), formerly unidentified identity thief, gunshot. Pierre Chanal (2003), French serial killer, cut femoral artery. Iris Chang (2004), American historian and author of The Rape of Nanking, gunshot to head. Charmion (30 BC), servant and advisor of Cleopatra. Richard Chase (1980), American serial killer, anti-depressant overdose. Gilles Châtelet (1999), French philosopher and mathematician. Thomas Chatterton (1770), English poet and forger, arsenic poisoning. Gu Cheng (1993), Chinese poet, hanging. Danny Chen (2011), Chinese-American U.S. Army Private, gunshot. Vic Chesnutt (2009), American singer-songwriter, muscle relaxant overdose. Leslie Cheung (2003), Hong Kong singer and actor, leapt from the 24th floor of the Mandarin Oriental hotel. Chimalpopoca (1428), Emperor of Tenochtitlan, hanging. V. J. Chitra (2020), Indian actress, hanging. Seung-Hui Cho (2007), American university student who perpetrated the Virginia Tech shooting, gunshot. Choi Jin-sil (2008), South Korean actress, hanging. Choi Jin-young (2010), South Korean actor and singer, hanging. Chongzhen (1644), Chinese emperor of the Ming dynasty. David Christie (1997), French singer. Brian Christopher (2018), American professional wrestler, hanging. Christine Chubbuck (1974), American television reporter, gunshot. Chung Doo-un (2019), South Korean politician. Diana Churchill (1963), Eldest daughter of British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, barbiturate overdose. Frank Churchill (1942), American film composer, gunshot. Bob Carlos Clarke (2006), Irish photographer, jumped in front of a train Jeremiah Clarke (1707), English baroque composer and organist, gunshot. Paul Clayton (1967) American folksinger and folklorist, electrocution. Tyler Clementi (2010), Rutgers University student, jumped off the George Washington Bridge. Robert George Clements (1947), Irish physician and suspected murderer, morphine overdose. Cleomenes I (c. 489 BC), King of Sparta, slashed himself from shins to belly. Cleomenes III (219 BC), King of Sparta. Cleombrotus of Ambracia (after 399 BC), Greek philosopher, acquaintance of Socrates and Plato. Cleopatra (30 BC), Queen of Egypt, inducing an asp to bite her. Kurt Cobain (1994), American singer/songwriter, and frontman of the band Nirvana, gunshot. Jack Cole (1958), American cartoonist known as the creator of Plastic Man, gunshot to the head. with a rifle. Ray Combs (1996), American comedian, actor, and television game show host, hanging. Camila María Concepción (2020), American screenwriter and transgender rights activist. Louis Conradt (2006) assistant district attorney from Texas, gunshot Adolfo Constanzo (1989), American serial killer, drug dealer, warlock and cult leader, ordered a follower to shoot him. Tarka Cordell (2008) British musician, hanging. Don Cornelius (2012), American television producer, best known as the creator and host of Soul Train, gunshot. Chris Cornell (2017), American musician, singer/songwriter, and member of the bands Soundgarden and Audioslave, hanging after a performance. Tony Costa (1974), American serial killer, hanging. John Coughlin (2019), American figure skater, hanging. Hart Crane (1932), American poet, jumped off ship. Darby Crash (1980), American singer (Germs), heroin overdose. Publius Licinius Crassus (53 BC), Roman general, ordered shieldbearer to stab him. Robert W. Criswell (1905), American humorist and newspaperman, jumped in front of subway train. Dennis Crosby (1991), American singer and actor, gunshot. Lindsay Crosby (1989), American singer and actor, gunshot. Charles Crumb (1992), American comics writer and artist and brother of cartoonist Robert Crumb, overdosed on pills. Andrew Cunanan (1997), American serial killer, gunshot. Lester Cuneo (1925), American actor, gunshot. Will Cuppy (1949), American humorist, sleeping pill overdose. Ian Curtis (1980), English singer-songwriter (Joy Division), hanging. Patricia Cutts (1974), English film and television actress, barbiturate overdose. Adam Czerniaków (1942), Polish-Jewish senator and head of the Warsaw Ghetto Judenrat, cyanide poisoning. D Dalida (1987), French-Italian singer, barbiturate overdose. Karl Dane (1934), Danish-American silent film actor, gunshot. Laurie Dann (1988), American murderer and arsonist, gunshot to the head. Monika Dannemann (1996), German skater and painter, carbon monoxide exhaust fumes. Bella Darvi (1971), Polish actress, gas inhalation. Ali-Akbar Davar (1937), Iranian politician, judge and the founder of the modern judicial system of Iran, overdose of opium. Brad Davis (1991), American actor, assisted barbiturate overdose. Charlotte Dawson (2014), Australian TV presenter, hanging. Osamu Dazai (1948), Japanese author, drowning in the Tamagawa Aqueduct. Alice de Janzé (1941), American heiress, gunshot. Decebalus (106 AD), King of Dacia. Decentius (353 AD), Roman usurper. Guy Debord (1994), French philosopher and founder of the Situationists International, gunshot. Jeanine Deckers (1985), Belgian musician known as the Singing Nun, overdose of sedatives. Albert Dekker (1968), actor known for the science fiction film Dr. Cyclops, autoerotic asphyxiation. Gilles Deleuze (1995), French philosopher, jumped out of window. Peter Delmé (1770), English politician, gunshot. Brad Delp (2007), American singer-songwriter for the bands Boston and RTZ, carbon monoxide poisoning. Penelope Delta (1941), Greek writer, poison. Demonax (c. 170 AD), Greek Cypriot Cynic philosopher, starved himself to death. Demosthenes (322 BC), Greek statesman, poison. Karl Denke (1924), German serial killer, hanging. Jerry Desmonde (1967), English actor. Patrick Dewaere (1982), French actor, gunshot. Diaeus (146 BC), Greek strategos of the Achaean League, poison. Ding Ruchang (1895), Chinese admiral, opium overdose. Dioxippus (after 336 BC), ancient Greek pankratiast and Olympic champion, fell upon his sword. Tove Ditlevsen (1976), Danish poet and author. Dipendra Bir Bikram Shah (2001), King of Nepal and perpetrator of the Nepalese royal massacre, gunshot to the head. Thomas M. Disch (2008), American writer, gunshot. Adriaan Ditvoorst (1987), Dutch film director and screenwriter, drowning. Julia Domna (217 AD), Roman empress, second wife of Emperor Septimius Severus. Christopher Dorner (2013), former American police officer and mass shooter, gunshot. Michael Dorris (1997), American novelist, overdose of sleeping pills with vodka and asphyxiation. Jon Dough (2006), American pornographic actor, hanging. Edward Downes (2009), English conductor, assisted double suicide with wife Lady Joan Downes at the Dignitas clinic in Switzerland. Scott Dozier (2019), American murderer, hanging. Charmaine Dragun (2007), Australian television newsreader, jumped off The Gap. Lynwood Drake (1992), American spree killer, gunshot. Nick Drake (1974), English singer-songwriter, overdose of amitriptyline tablets. Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus (42 BC), Roman senator. Pete Duel (1971), American actor, gunshot. Dave Duerson (2011), American football safety for the Chicago Bears, New York Giants, and Phoenix Cardinals, gunshot to the chest. Theresa Duncan (2007), American video game designer, blogger, filmmaker and critic, ingestion of Tylenol and alcohol. R. Budd Dwyer (1987), American politician, gunshot to mouth. E George Eastman (1932), American inventor and philanthropist, gunshot to heart. Volker Eckert (2007), German serial killer, hanging. Edward I. Edwards (1931), American politician, gunshot to head. Mack Ray Edwards (1971), American serial killer, hanging. Naima El Bezaz (2020), Moroccan-Dutch writer. Keith Emerson (2016), English rock musician, keyboardist, and composer for the bands The Nice and Emerson, Lake & Palmer, gunshot to the head. Martin Emond (2004), New Zealand cartoonist and painter, hanging. Empedocles (c. 430 BC), Greek philosopher, leapt into Mount Etna. Robert Enke (2009), German footballer, struck by train. Gudrun Ensslin (1977), German RAF terrorist, hanging. Peg Entwistle (1932), Welsh-born American actress, leapt from the "H" in the Hollywood Sign. Epicharis (65 AD), Roman leading member of the Pisonian conspiracy, strangled herself with a band of cloth. Eratosthenes (194 BC), Greek polymath and chief librarian at the Library of Alexandria, voluntary starvation. Ermanaric (376 AD), king of the Greuthungi. Etika (2019), American YouTuber and streamer, drowned after jumping from the Manhattan Bridge. Euphrates the Stoic (118 AD), Roman Stoic philosopher, hemlock poisoning. Eurydice II of Macedon (317 BC), Queen of Macedon, hanging. Tom Evans (1983), English musician and songwriter for the group Badfinger, hanging. Richard Evonitz (2002), American serial killer and kidnapper. F Angus Fairhurst (2008), English artist, hanging. Enevold de Falsen (1808), Norwegian Supreme Court Justice, drowning. Moni Fanan (2009), Israeli basketball executive Maccabi Tel Aviv, hanging. Gaius Fuficius Fango (40 BC), Roman general and politician. Fausto Fanti (2014), Brazilian humorist known as a member of the comedy troupe Hermes & Renato, and guitarist for Massacration, hanging. Richard Farnsworth (2000), American actor, gunshot. Justin Fashanu (1998), British footballer, hanging. René Favaloro (2000), Argentine cardiac surgeon (created technique for coronary bypass surgery), gunshot to the heart. José Feghali (2014), Brazilian pianist, winner of the 1985 Van Cliburn International Piano Competition, gunshot to head. Hans Fischer (1945), German organic chemist and recipient of the 1930 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Hermann Emil Fischer (1919), German chemist and recipient of the 1902 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Robert FitzRoy (1865), English meteorologist, surveyor, hydrographer, Governor of New Zealand and captain of during Charles Darwin's second voyage of HMS Beagle, slit throat Quintus Fulvius Flaccus (172 BC), Roman consul, hanging. Caroline Flack (2020), English radio and television presenter, hanging. Ed Flanders (1995), American actor, gunshot. John Bernard Flannagan (1942), American sculptor. Frederick Fleet (1965), English sailor and lookout on the RMS Titanic who first spotted the iceberg that struck the vessel, hanging. Keith Flint (2019), English singer and dancer for The Prodigy, hanging. Charley Ford (1884), American outlaw, gunshot. Tom Forman (1926), American actor, director and producer, gunshot. André "Dédé" Fortin (2000), Canadian songwriter, singer and guitarist (Les Colocs), stabbing. Vince Foster (1993), American attorney and Deputy White House Counsel to Bill Clinton, gunshot to mouth. Wade Frankum (1991), Australian mass murderer who perpetrated the Strathfield massacre, gunshot. Kelly Fraser (2019), Canadian pop singer and songwriter. Ryan Freel (2012), American professional baseball player, gunshot. John Friedrich (1991), Australian fraudster, gunshot. Emil Fuchs (1929), Austrian-American sculptor, gunshot. Fujimura Misao (1902), Japanese philosophy student and poet, jumped from the Kegon Falls. Anton Furst (1991), English production designer (Batman (1989), Planet Hollywood), jumped from an eighth story parking garage. G Anthony Galindo (2020), Venezuelan singer. Alan García (2019), Peruvian politician who served as President of Peru from 1985 to 1990 and again from 2006 to 2011, gunshot. Jamir Garcia (2020), Filipino singer, vocalist of the band Slapshock, hanging. Santiago García (2021), Uruguayan soccer player, gunshot. Danny Gatton (1994), American guitarist, gunshot. John Geddert (2021), American gymnastics coach, gunshot shortly after being charged with 24 felony counts related to sexual abuse of his trainees. Helen Palmer Geisel (1967), author and actress who was the first wife of famed children's author Theodor "Dr. Seuss" Geisel, barbiturate overdose. Babak Ghorbani (2014), Iranian wrestler, overdose. Jeremy Giambi (2022), American retired baseball player, gunshot to chest. Karl Giese (1938), German archivist, museum curator and life partner of Magnus Hirschfeld. Gildo (398 AD), Roman Berber general and rebel leader, hanging. Rex Gildo (1999), German singer and actor, jumping from his third-floor apartment window. Sam Gillespie (2003), philosopher whose writings and translations were crucial to the initial reception of Alain Badiou's work in the English-speaking world. Claude Gillingwater (1939), American actor, gunshot. Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1935), American writer, chloroform overdose. Kurt Gloor (1997), Swiss film director, screenwriter and producer. John Wayne Glover (2005), Australian serial killer, hanging. Holly Glynn (1987), a formerly unidentified young woman found in Dana Point, California, who had jumped off a cliff. Her body was not identified until 2015. Joseph Goebbels (1945), Nazi politician and Propaganda Minister, gunshot or cyanide poisoning. Magda Goebbels (1945), German wife of Joseph Goebbels, assisted suicide by gunshot or cyanide poisoning. Gongsun Zan (199 AD), Chinese general and warlord, setting himself and his family on fire. David Goodall (2018), English-born Australian botanist and ecologist, physician-assisted suicide. Gordian I (238 AD), Roman emperor, hanging. Adam Lindsay Gordon (1870), Australian poet, gunshot. Lucy Gordon (2009), English actress and model, hanging. Gōri Daisuke (2010), Japanese voice actor, narrator and actor, cut his wrist. Hermann Göring (1946), German politician, military leader, major figure in Nazi Party, potassium cyanide. Arshile Gorky (1948), Armenian American painter; hanging. Joachim Gottschalk (1941), German stage and film actor, gas inhalation. Gaius Gracchus (121 BC), Roman politician, reformer and tribune, ordered a slave to kill him. Frank Graham (1950), American voice actor and radio announcer, carbon monoxide poisoning. Phil Graham (1963), American newspaper publisher, shotgun blast. Wolfgang Grams (1993), German RAF terrorist, gunshot. Bob Grant (2003), English actor, carbon monoxide poisoning. Shauna Grant (1984), American porn actress, gunshot. Spalding Gray (2004), American actor, playwright, screenwriter, performance artist, and monologuist, jumped off the Staten Island Ferry. Mark Green (2004), American record-setting minor league hockey star, hanging. Larry Grey (1951), English magician and actor, gunshot. Walter Groß (1945), German physician, politician, eugenicist and race theorist. Carl Großmann (1922), German serial killer, hanging. Theodor Grotthuss (1822), German chemist. Paul Gruchow (2004), American writer, drug overdose. H Charlie Haeger (2020), American baseball player, gunshot. Jason Hairston (2018), American football player. Lillian Hall-Davis (1933), English actress, carbon monoxide poisoning and cut throat. Ryan Halligan (2003), bullied American middle school student, hanging. Pete Ham (1975), Welsh singer-songwriter and guitarist for the band Badfinger, hanging. Tony Halme (2010), Finnish athlete, actor and politician, gunshot. Bernardine Hamaekers (1912), Belgian opera singer, cut throat with shattered drinking glass. Rusty Hamer (1990), American actor, gunshot. David Hamilton (2016), British photographer and filmmaker known for his nudes of pubescent girls, asphyxiation via plastic bag after several of his models accused him of rape. Hampsicora (215 BC), Sardo-Punic political leader, landowner and anti-Roman rebel leader. Tony Hancock (1968), English comedian, overdose by vodka and amphetamines. Hannibal (ca 182 BC), Carthaginian commander during the Second Punic War, poison. Goo Hara (2019), South Korean singer. James Harden-Hickey (1898), Franco-American author, newspaper editor, duellist, adventurer and self-proclaimed Prince of Trinidad, overdose of morphine. Marlia Hardi (1984), Indonesian actress, hanging. Eric Harris (1999), one of the two American high school seniors who committed the Columbine High School massacre, gunshot. Brynn Hartman (1998), wife of comedian and actor Phil Hartman, shot herself after murdering Hartman. Elizabeth Hartman (1987), American actress, leapt out of fifth floor window. Walter Hasenclever (1940), German poet and playwright, overdose of Veronal. Neda Hassani (2003), Iranian protester, self-immolation in front of French embassy in London. Charles Ray Hatcher (1984), American serial killer, hanging. Donny Hathaway (1979), American musician, jumped from the 15th floor window of his hotel room. Phyllis Haver (1960), American silent film actress, barbiturate overdose. Sadegh Hedayat (1951), Iranian writer, carbon monoxide poisoning. Marvin Heemeyer (2004), American welder who went on a rampage with a modified bulldozer, gunshot. Sarah Hegazi (2020), Egyptian LGBT activist. Ernest Hemingway (1961), American writer and journalist, gunshot to head. Margaux Hemingway (1996), American fashion model, actress; overdose of phenobarbital. Benjamin Hendrickson (2006), American actor, gunshot. George Hennard (1991), American mass murderer who perpetrated the Luby's shooting, gunshot. Victor Heringer (2018), Brazilian novelist and poet, winner of the 2013 Prêmio Jabuti, self-defenestration. Aaron Hernandez (2017), American football player and convicted murderer, hanging in prison cell, five days after his acquittal from a separate murder charge. Rudolf Hess (1987), German Nazi leader, hanging. Paul Hester (2005), Australian drummer for Split Enz and Crowded House, hanging. John Hicklenton (2010), British comics artist. hide (1998), Japanese heavy metal singer, songwriter and record producer for the metal band X Japan, hanging. Virginia Hill (1966), American mobster, sedative overdose Himilco (396 BC), Carthaginian general, starving himself. Heinrich Himmler (1945), German Nazi leader, cyanide. Ludwig Hirsch (2011), Austrian singer, songwriter and actor, jumped from the second floor of a hospital window. Adolf Hitler (1945), Austrian-born Nazi Germany dictator, gunshot (possibly while biting down on a cyanide capsule at the same time). Abbie Hoffman (1989), American political and social activist; phenobarbital overdose. Crash Holly (2003), American wrestler, asphyxia due to pulmonary aspiration as a result of an alcohol and drug overdose Libby Holman (1971), American singer and actress, carbon monoxide poisoning. Alec Holowka (2019), Canadian video game programmer, designer, and musician. Tyler Honeycutt (2018), American basketball player (Sacramento Kings, Khimki), gunshot. Doug Hopkins (1993), American songwriter and lead guitarist for the band Gin Blossoms, gunshot. Brita Horn (1791), Swedish countess and courtier, drowning. Harry Horse (2007), English author, illustrator, cartoonist and musician, stabbed himself 47 times in a murder-suicide. Silvio Horta (2020), American screenwriter and television producer, gunshot. Robert E. Howard (1936), American author probably best known for his character Conan the Barbarian, gunshot to the head. Hu Bo (2017), Chinese novelist and director. Jeanne Hébuterne (1920), French art model and artist, threw herself out of the fifth-floor window, grief-stricken over the death of her husband, Amedeo Modigliani. Quentin Hubbard (1976), son of L. Ron Hubbard, gas. Nicholas Hughes (2009), fisheries biologist, son of renowned poet Sylvia Plath, hanging. Rodney Hulin (1996), American prison inmate who had been raped, hanging. Lester Hunt (1954), United States Senator, gunshot. Michael Hutchence (1997), Australian singer and songwriter (INXS), hanging. Phyllis Hyman (1995), American singer-songwriter and actress, overdose of phenobarbital. I Imai Kanehira (1184), Japanese general, jumping from his horse onto a sword he placed in his mouth. Clara Immerwahr (1915), German chemist, gunshot. William Inge (1973), American writer, carbon monoxide poisoning. Arthur Crew Inman (1963), American poet, editor and author of one of the longest diaries on record. Hideki Irabu (2011), Japanese professional baseball player, hanged. Iras (30 BC), servant and advisor of Cleopatra. Isokelekel (17th century), semi-mythical conqueror of Pohnpei Island in the Carolines and father of the cultural system of modern Pohnpei, bled to death after severing penis. Silius Italicus (c. 103 AD), Roman consul, orator, author and poet, starvation. Juzo Itami (1997), Japanese actor and film director, jumped from building. Bruce Ivins (2008), American microbiologist and suspect in the 2001 anthrax attacks, overdose of paracetamol. J Charles R. Jackson (1968), American writer, barbiturate overdose. Marcel Jacob (2009), Swedish bassist for the hard rock bands Talisman and Yngwie Malmsteen. Irwin L. Jacobs (2019), American businessman, CEO of Genmar Holdings, gunshot after murdering his wife. M. Jaishankar (2018), Indian serial killer and rapist, slitting his own throat. Rahmah ibn Jabir Al Jalhami (1826), Arab tribal leader, pirate captain and admiral, blew himself up with his ship and crew. Jill Janus (2018), American lead singer of the metal band Huntress. Jang Ja-yeon (2009), South Korean actress, hanging. Rick Jason (2000), American actor, gunshot. Jaxon (2006), American cartoonist and illustrator. Fatafat Jayalaxmi (1980), Indian actress, hanging. Richard Jeni (2007), American standup comedian and actor, gunshot. Herbert Turner Jenkins (1990), longest serving police chief of Atlanta, gunshot. Ryan Jenkins (2009), American contestant on the 2009 reality TV series Megan Wants a Millionaire, hanging. Jeon Mi-seon (2019), South Korean actress, hanging. Jeong Da-bin (2007), South Korean actress, hanging. Ji Yan (224 AD), Chinese official of the state of Eastern Wu, bureaucrat and reformer. Prince Joachim of Prussia (1920), son of Wilhelm II, German Emperor, gunshot. Adolph Joffe (1927), Soviet revolutionary and Left Oppositionist, gunshot. Jo Min-ki (2018), South Korean actor, hanging. B. S. Johnson (1973), English novelist, poet, literary critic, sports journalist, television producer and filmmaker, cut his wrists. Dan Johnson (2017), American politician, Republican member of the Kentucky House of Representatives, gunshot. George Robert Johnston (2004), Canadian burglar and fugitive known as the Ballarat Bandit, gunshot. Greg Johnson (2019), Canadian ice hockey player, gunshot. J.J. Johnson (2001), American Bebop trombonist, gunshot. Daniel V. Jones (1998), American maintenance worker, gunshot. Jim Jones (1978), American cult leader and founder of Peoples Temple, gunshot. Malcolm Jones III (1996), American comic book creator known for his work on Vertigo series The Sandman. Ingrid Jonker (1965), South African poet, drowning Tor Jonsson (1951), Norwegian poet. Luc Jouret (1994), Belgian religious leader and co-founder of Order of the Solar Temple. Pavle Jovanonic (2020), Serbian-American Olympic bobsledder. Juba I of Numidia (46 BC), King of Numidia, double-suicide by sword with Marcus Petreius. Judacilius (90 BC), Piceni general and leader, swallowed poison and ordered to be set on fire. Claude Jutra (1987), Canadian film director, actor and screenwriter, drowning. K Kari Kairamo (1988), Finnish CEO and chairman of telecommunications company Nokia, hanging. Romas Kalanta (1972), Lithuanian high school student, self-immolation. Antonie Kamerling (2010), Dutch actor and musician, hanging. Sayaka Kanda (2021), Japanese actress and singer, jumped from an upper floor of a hotel. Sarah Kane (1999), English writer, hanging. Chris Kanyon (2010), American professional wrestler, overdose of anti-depressant pills. Kostas Karyotakis (1928), Greek poet, gunshot. Ricky Kasso (1984), American murderer, hanging. Bruno Kastner (1932), German actor, hanging. Kazuhiko Katō (2009), Japanese musician, hanging. Yasunari Kawabata (1972), Japanese writer, gassing. Kawatsu Kentarō (1970), Japanese swimmer, self-immolation. Andrew Kehoe (1927), American mass murderer, detonated truck full of dynamite while inside. Brian Keith (1997), American actor, gunshot. Mike Kelley (2012), American artist, carbon monoxide poisoning. Israel Keyes (2012), American serial killer, slit wrists and strangulation. Jiah Khan (2013), British American actress of Indian descent, hanging. Sahar Khodayari (2019), Iranian activist who self-immolated in front of the Islamic Revolutionary Court of Tehran. Margot Kidder (2018), Canadian-American actress, known for her role as Lois Lane in Superman feature films, drug and alcohol overdose. Daul Kim (2009), South Korean model and blogger, hanged in her Paris apartment. Kim Ji-hoon (2013), South Korean singer-songwriter (Two Two) and actor, hanging. Kim Jong-hyun (2017), South Korean singer-songwriter, radio host, and member of boy band SHINee, carbon monoxide poisoning. Kim Sung-il (1987), North Korean agent who, together with Kim Hyon-hui, was responsible for the Korean Air Flight 858 bombing, bit into a cyanide-laced cigarette. Yu-ri Kim (2011), South Korean model, poison. Hana Kimura (2020), Japanese wrestler, hydrogen sulfide poisoning. Allyn King (1930), American actress, jumped from a fifth story window. Syd King (1933), English footballer and football manager, ingestion of corrosive liquid. Uday Kiran (2014), Indian actor, hanging. Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1938), German artist, gunshot. Stan Kirsch (2020), American actor, hanging. R. B. Kitaj (2007), American artist, suffocation. John Kivela (2017), American politician, hanging. Dylan Klebold (1999), one of the two American high school seniors who committed the Columbine High School massacre, gunshot. Heinrich von Kleist (1811), German author, poet and journalist, gunshot. Billy Knight (2018), UCLA basketball player, self-inflicted blunt force injuries. Ilse Koch (1967), Nazi war criminal, hanging. Andrew Koenig (2010), American actor, hanging. Arthur Koestler (1983), Hungarian-British author, novelist known for the antitotalitarian novel Darkness At Noon, barbiturates. Hannelore Kohl (2001), German wife of German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, overdose of sleeping pills. Lawrence Kohlberg (1987), American developmental psychologist, drowning. Takako Konishi (2001), Japanese office worker known for an urban legend surrounding her death, froze to death. Fumimaro Konoe (1945), Japanese prime minister, poison. Ruslana Korshunova (2008), Kazakhstani model, aged 20, jumped from the ninth-floor balcony of her apartment in New York City. Gé Korsten (1999), South African artist, gunshot. Jerzy Kosinski (1991), Polish-born American writer, suffocation with plastic bag. Milica Kostić (1974), Serbian-Yugoslavian high school student, jump from the 12th floor of a building while fleeing a rapist. Oleksandr Kovalenko (2010), Ukrainian football player and referee, jumped from his apartment. Hans Krebs (1945), German general and Chief of Staff of the OKH, gunshot. Tim Kretschmer (2009), German student and mass shooter, gunshot. Norbert Kröcher (2016), German 2 June Movement terrorist, gunshot. Cheslie Kryst (2022), American model and presenter known as Miss USA 2019, jumped from a Manhattan high-rise Aleksandr Krymov (1917), Russian general, gunshot to the heart. Ashwani Kumar (2020), Indian police officer and politician who served as governor of Nagaland from 2013 to 2014, hanging. Hsu Kun-yuan (2020), Taiwanese politician, jumped off his home. Kuyili (1780), Indian freedom fighter. Applied ghee, set herself ablaze and jumped into the armoury of the British. L L'Inconnue de la Seine (late 1880s), unidentified French woman pulled out of the Seine, known for the influence of her death mask on literature and art Deborah Laake (2000), American columnist and writer, overdose of pills Titus Labienus (8 AD), Roman lawyer, orator and historian Leonard Lake (1985), American serial killer, ingesting cyanide capsules Paul Lambert (2020), British television journalist, producer and communications director Vilho Lampi (1936), Finnish painter, jumped from bridge Karen Lancaume (2005), French pornographic film actress, overdose of temazepam Carole Landis (1948), American actress, overdose of Secobarbital pills James Henry Lane (1866), American partisan, abolitionist, senator and Union general, gunshot to the head Hans Langsdorff (1939), German naval officer and Kapitän zur See, gunshot Adam Lanza (2012), perpetrator of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, gunshot to the head Don Lapre (2011), American television pitchman noted for several products, cut throat with a razor blade Anna Laughlin (1937), American actress, gas poisoning Florence Lawrence (1938), Canadian-American silent film actress, poisoning Lee Eun-ju (2005), South Korean actress, slit wrists and hanging Lee Hye-Ryeon (2007), South Korean singer, known as U;Nee, hanging Jon Lee (2002), Welsh drummer for the British rock band Feeder, hanging Valery Legasov (1988), Soviet-Russian inorganic chemist, member of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster commission, hanging Friedrich Leibacher (2001), Swiss mass murderer, gunshot Megan Leigh (1990), American pornographic actress, gunshot wound to the head Lemp Family (1949), Four members of the St. Louis Lemp Brewing family, gunshots Dave Lepard (2006), Swedish singer and guitarist (Crashdïet), hanging Marc Lépine (1989), Canadian perpetrator of the École Polytechnique massacre, shot himself after killing 14 women Andrzej Lepper (2011), Polish politician known as the leader of Samoobrona RP (Self-Defense of the Republic of Poland), hanging. Arnie Lerma (2018), American former Scientologist and critic of Scientology, gunshot Eugene Lester (1940), former Justice and Chief Justice of the Oklahoma Supreme Court, gunshot to the head Amy Levy (1889), British writer inhaling charcoal gas Harry Lew (2011), United States Marine, gunshot Ephraim Lewis (1994), English singer, jumped off a fourth floor balcony Robert Ley (1945), German Nazi politician and leader of the German Labour Front, hanging Chris Lighty (2012), American music industry executive and manager, gunshot lil' Chris (2015), English pop singer, hanging Lil Loaded (2021), American rapper, gunshot to head. Max Linder (1925), French film and stage actor, double suicide with wife Hélène "Jean" Peters, veronal and morphine ingestion, cut wrists Vachel Lindsay (1931), American poet, poison Diane Linkletter (1969), American actress and daughter of Art Linkletter, jump from a sixth story window Mark Linkous (2010), American musician, gunshot to the heart Carlo Lizzani (2013), Italian film director, jumped from a balcony. Liu Rushi (1664), Chinese courtesan, Ming loyalist, poet, painter and calligrapher, hanging Willie Llewelyn (1893), Welsh cricketer, gunshot Philip Loeb (1955), American actor, sleeping pill overdose Kevin James Loibl (2016), assassin of Christina Grimmie, gunshot Bernard Loiseau (2003), French chef, shotgun blast to the head Ellen Joyce Loo (2018), Canadian-Hong Kong musician, singer, songwriter, and co-founder of the folk-pop rock group at 17, fall from her high-rise apartment building. Daniele Alves Lopes (1993), teen whose jump from a building was broadcast on Brazilian national television Ricardo López (1996), Uruguayan-born American stalker who attempted to kill Icelandic singer Björk by sending a letter bomb, gunshot Lu Zhaolin (684 or 686), Chinese poet, drowning in the Ying River Andreas Lubitz (2015), co-pilot of Germanwings Flight 9525, plane crash Lucan (65 AD), Roman poet, cut veins Lucretia (c. 510 BC), Roman noblewoman, stabbed herself Ludwig II of Bavaria (1886), King of Bavaria, drowning Roman Lyashenko (2003), Russian NHL hockey player, hanging David Lytton (2015), a formerly unidentified British man found on Saddleworth Moor, strychnine M Billy Mackenzie (1997), Scottish vocalist for the band The Associates, drug overdose Naevius Sutorius Macro (38 AD), Roman prefect of the Praetorian Guard Magnentius (353 AD), Roman usurper Maurice Magnus (1920), American memoirist Mago (344 BC), Carthaginian admiral and general Bhaiyyu Maharaj (2018), Indian spiritual guru, gunshot George W. Maher (1926), American architect Joe Maini (1964), American jazz alto saxophonist, Russian Roulette Philipp Mainländer (1876), German poet and philosopher, hanged himself using a pile of copies of The Philosophy of Redemption as platform Sean Malone (2020), American bassist Donald R. Manes (1986), American politician, stab wound to the chest Mădălina Manole (2010), Romanian pop singer, pesticide poisoning Michael Mantenuto (2017), American actor and ice hockey player, best known for his performance as Jack O'Callahan in the 2004 biopic Miracle, gunshot Richard Manuel (1986), Canadian pianist and lead singer for The Band, hanging Titus Clodius Eprius Marcellus (79 AD), Roman consul and senator, slit his throat with a razor Simone Mareuil (1954), French actress, self-immolation Michael Marin (2012), American businessman, cyanide pill Andrew Martinez (2006), American nudism activist who became known on the University of California, Berkeley campus as the "Naked Guy", suffocation Williams Martínez (2021), Uruguayan soccer player Eleanor Marx (1898), socialist activist and younger daughter of Karl Marx, poison Thalia Massie (1963), American victim of violent crime which resulted in the heavily publicized Massie Trial, barbiturate overdose David Edward Maust (2006), American serial killer, hanging Maximian (310 AD), Roman emperor Vladimir Mayakovsky (1930), Russian and Soviet poet, gunshot Jacques Mayol (2001), French free diver and subject of the movie The Big Blue, hanging John McAfee (2021), British-American computer programmer, businessman and founder of the computer security software company McAfee, hanging Allyson McConnell (2013), Australian-Canadian woman who killed her two children, jumped off a bridge while in Australia Kid McCoy (1940), American world champion boxer, overdose of sleeping pills Mindy McCready (2013), American country music singer, gunshot Hector MacDonald (1903), British army major-general, gunshot Walt McDougall (1938), American cartoonist, gunshot Dan McGann (1910), American baseball player, gunshot Evelyn McHale (1947), American bookkeeper, subject of an iconic photograph showing her body after she jumped from an observation platform of the Empire State Building Tom McHale (1983), American novelist Chris McKinstry (2006), Canadian artificial intelligence researcher Kenny McKinley (2010), American football player, gunshot Robert McLane (1904), American politician, mayor of Baltimore, gunshot John B. McLemore (2015), American horologist and subject of the podcast S-Town, ingested potassium cyanide Maggie McNamara (1978), American actress, drug overdose Alexander McQueen (2010), British fashion designer and couturier, hanging Charles B. McVay III (1968), American naval officer, captain of the USS Indianapolis, gunshot to the head Joe Meek (1967), English record producer, gunshot Megabocchus (53 BC), Roman cavalryman and friend of Publius Licinius Crassus Megan Meier (2006), American high school student and victim of bullying, hanging Ulrike Meinhof (1976), German RAF terrorist, hanging David Meirhofer (1974), American serial killer, hanging Kitty Melrose (1912), English stage actress and singer, carbon monoxide poisoning Adolf Merckle (2009), German entrepreneur and billionaire, train Lucius Cornelius Merula (87 BC), Roman politician, consul and high priest, cut his veins Jill Messick (2018), American film producer, method not disclosed Maningning Miclat (2000), Filipino poet and painter, jumped from the seventh floor of a building Flávio Migliaccio (2020), Brazilian actor, film director and screenwriter, hanging Walter M. Miller, Jr. (1996), American writer, gunshot Mary Millington (1979), English model and softcore pornographic actress, overdose of clomipramine, paracetamol and alcohol Minamoto no Yorimasa (1180), Japanese poet, general and politician, ritual seppuku disembowelment Mingsioi (1866), Chinese general, explosion Miroslava (1955), Czech-born Mexican actress, overdose of sleeping pills Dave Mirra (2016), American BMX rider who later competed in rallycross racing, gunshot Yukio Mishima (1970), Japanese author, poet, playwright, film director and activist, ritual seppuku disembowelment Tyrone Mitchell (1984), American murderer, gunshot Mithridates VI (63 BC), King of Pontus, ordered an officer to stab him Haruma Miura (2020), Japanese actor, hanging Shizuka Miura (2010), Japanese doll maker and musician, possibly related to medication. Mkwawa (1898), Hehe tribal leader, gunshot to the head Molon (220 BC), Seleucid satrap of Media Antonin Moine (1849), French sculptor, gunshot Mario Monicelli (2010), Italian film director, jumped out of a hospital window Marilyn Monroe (1962), American film actress, barbiturate overdose Haoui Montaug (1991), American nightclub doorman and cabaret promoter, secobarbital overdose Henry de Montherlant (1972), French writer, gunshot in the throat Donnie Moore (1989), American baseball player, gunshot after shooting his wife Ronald Lee Moore (2008), American fugitive and suspected serial killer, hanging Masakatsu Morita (1970), Japanese political activist, stabbing himself as part of seppuku A. R. Morlan (2016), American author Gray Morrow (2001), American comics artist and illustrator, gunshot Jason Moss (2006), American attorney and author of The Last Victim, gunshot Miljan Mrdaković (2020), Serbian footballer, gunshot Uwe Mundlos (2011), German National Socialist Underground terrorist, gunshot Ona Munson (1955), American actress, barbiturate overdose David Munrow (1976) English music historian, hanging Francine Mussey (1933), French actress, ingestion of poison N Chūichi Nagumo (1944), Japanese admiral, gunshot Mirosław Nahacz (2007), Polish novelist and screenwriter, hanging Seigō Nakano (1943), Japanese fascist political leader and journalist, disembowelment Vladimir Nalivkin (1918), Russian scientist, politician, diplomat Azade Namdari (2021), Iranian television host Scott Nearing (1983), American political activist and conservationist, by self-starvation Nekojiru (1998), Japanese manga artist, hanging Nero (68 AD), Roman emperor, ordered his secretary to kill him Marcus Cocceius Nerva (33 AD), Roman jurist, official and confidant of Tiberius, starvation Klara Dan von Neumann (1963), Hungarian-American computer programmer, drowning Terry Newton (2010), English rugby league player, hanging Tom Nicon (2010), French model, jumped out of apartment window Frank Nitti (1943), American gangster in charge of Al Capone's strong-arm and "muscle" operations, and later the front-man for Capone's crime syndicate, gunshot to the head Karl Nobiling (1878), German academic, who made an assassination attempt on the German emperor Wilhelm I, gunshot to the head Jon Nödtveidt (2006), Swedish guitarist for the black metal band Dissection, gunshot Iván Noel (2021), French-Argentine film director and producer Bill Nojay (2016), American politician and member of the New York State Assembly, gunshot Mita Noor (2013), Bangladeshi actress, hanging Franz Nopcsa (1933), Hungarian aristocrat, adventurer, scholar, geologist, paleontologist and albanologist, gunshot after killing companion Bajazid Doda Christine Norman, (1930), American stage actress, jump from building John Norton-Griffiths, (1930), British engineer and politician, gunshot to head Hisashi Nozawa (2004), Japanese writer, hanging O John O'Brien (1994), American novelist, best known for his novel, Leaving Las Vegas, gunshot to the head Sean O'Haire (2014), American former WWE wrestler and MMA fighter, hanging Phil Ochs (1976), American singer-songwriter, hanging Oda Nobunaga (1582), Japanese daimyō and general, ritual seppuku disembowelment Ogawa Kiyoshi (1945), Japanese kamikaze pilot Aleksandr Dmitrievich Ogorodnik (1977), Soviet diplomat and spy for the CIA, cyanide capsule Per "Dead" Ohlin (1991), Swedish vocalist for the Norwegian black metal band Mayhem, gunshot to the head Yukiko Okada (1986), Japanese singer, jumped out of window Lembit Oll (1999), Estonian chess Grandmaster, jumped out of window Ambrose Olsen (2010), American model, hanging Sergo Ordzhonikidze (1937), Soviet Bolshevik leader, member of the CPSU Politburo, the head of the Supreme Soviet of the National Economy and close associate of Joseph Stalin, gunshot Otho (69 AD), Roman Emperor, stabbed himself Othryades (546 BC), Spartan hoplite, sole survivor of the Battle of the 300 Champions Ōuchi Yoshitaka (1551), Japanese daimyō and general, ritual seppuku disembowelment P Stephen Paddock (2017), American perpetrator of the 2017 Las Vegas shooting, gunshot Caecina Paetus (42 AD), Roman alleged conspirator against Emperor Claudius, stabbed himself Tommy Page (2017), American singer songwriter Ali-Reza Pahlavi (2011), son of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, last Shah of Iran, gunshot Leila Pahlavi (2001), daughter of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, last Shah of Iran, overdose of sleeping pills Jan Palach (1969), Czech student, self-immolation Mico Palanca (2019) Filipino actor, jump from building Brodie Panlock (2006), Australian bullying victim, jumped from the top of a multilevel carpark in Hawthorn Pantites (c. 470s BC), Spartan warrior and one of the 300 Spartans sent to the Battle of Thermopylae, hanging Park Yong-ha (2010), South Korean actor and singer, hanging Park Won-soon (2020), South Korean activist, lawyer and Mayor of Seoul Violeta Parra (1967), Chilean composer, songwriter, folklorist, ethno-musicologist and visual artist, gunshot Rehtaeh Parsons (2013), Canadian high school student who was bullied at school and online after images of her alleged gang rape were distributed online by its perpetrators, hanging Christine Pascal (1996), French actress, writer and director, jumped out of window Dušan Pašek (1998), Slovak ice hockey player, gunshot Darrin Patrick (2020), American author and pastor, gunshot Mark Pavelich (2021), American hockey player, asphyxia Cesare Pavese (1950), Italian author, overdose of barbiturates Pina Pellicer (1964), Mexican actress, overdose of sleeping pills Peregrinus Proteus (165 AD), Greek early Christian convert and later Cynic philosopher from Mysia, immolated himself on a funeral pyre during the Olympic Games Jeret "Speedy" Peterson (2011), American skier, Olympic medalist, gunshot Marcus Petreius (46 BC), Roman politician and general, double-suicide by sword with Juba I of Numidia Petronius (66 AD), Roman senator, consul, courtier and novelist, opening his veins Phasael (40 BC), prince from the Herodian Dynasty of Judea and governor of Jerusalem, hit his head against a great stone Phila (287 BC), Macedonian noblewoman, daughter and adviser of Antipater, poison Philistus (356 BC), Greek historian and naval commander Justin Pierce (2000), English-born American actor and skateboarder known for his role in the 1995 drama Kids, hanging Rosamond Pinchot (1938), American actress and socialite, carbon monoxide poisoning H. Beam Piper (1964), American science fiction author, gunshot Gaius Calpurnius Piso (65 AD), Roman senator, orator, advocate and leading member of the Pisonian conspiracy, slit his wrists Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso (20 AD), Roman statesman and consul, cut his throat Luigi Pistilli (1996), Italian actor, hanging Alejandra Pizarnik (1972), Argentine poet, secobarbital overdose Sylvia Plath (1963), American poet, novelist, children's author, gassing herself in her kitchen Dana Plato (1999), American child actress, notable for the TV series Diff'rent Strokes, overdose of carisoprodol and hydrocodone Plato's son, Tyler Lambert, killed himself on May 6, 2010, almost 11 years to the day after her death, via gunshot wound to the head Edward Platt (1974), American actor, notable for his role on the TV series Get Smart E. O. Plauen (1944), German cartoonist, hanging with a towel Michael Player (1986), American serial killer, gunshot Daniel Pollock (1992), Australian actor, walked in front of moving train Gnaeus Pompeius Longinus (105 AD), Roman senator and general, swallowing poison Porcia (42 BC), Roman noblewoman, wife of Marcus Junius Brutus, swallowing burning coal or carbon monoxide poisoning. C.W. Post (1914), American inventor, and pioneer in the manufacturing of prepared foods, in particular breakfast cereal, gunshot Poenius Postumus (61 AD), Roman praefectus castrorum of the Legion II Augusta, fell upon his sword Randy Potter (2017), American former missing person, gunshot Jan Potocki (1815), Polish nobleman, gunshot James Edward Pough (1990), American spree killer, gunshot Josh Powell (2012), American main suspect in the disappearance of his wife, Susan, blew up his house with him and his children inside Slobodan Praljak (2017), Bosnian Croat director, general and war criminal, potassium cyanide George R. Price (1975), American scientist, cutting an artery Phoebe Prince (2010), American high school student who was bullied at school and online, hanging Ptolemy (309 BC), Macedonian general, hemlock poisoning Ptolemy of Cyprus (58 BC), King of Cyprus and member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, poison Boris Pugo (1991), Soviet politician, gunshot Kushal Punjabi (2019), Indian actor, hanging Q Qiao Renliang (2016), Chinese singer and actor, slit wrist Qu Yuan (278 BC), Chinese poet and minister, drowning Henry Quastler (1963), Austrian physician and radiologist, overdosed on pills Antero de Quental, (1891) Portuguese writer and poet, gunshot. Quintillus (270 AD), Roman emperor, opening his veins Horacio Quiroga (1937), Uruguayan playwright, poet, and short story writer, drank a glass of cyanide R Władysław Raginis (1939), Polish military commander, grenade Otto Rahn (1939), German medievalist, Ariosophist and Obersturmführer of the Schutzstaffel, freezing Jason Raize (2004), American actor, singer and former Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations Environment Programme, hanging Sushant Singh Rajput (2020), Indian actor, hanging František Rajtoral (2017), Czech soccer player, hanging Anil Ramdas (2012), Dutch writer and journalist, method undisclosed Kodela Siva Prasada Rao (2019), Indian politician, hanging Nicola Ann Raphael (2001), Scottish bullied student, overdose of dextropropoxyphene David Rappaport (1990), English actor, known for the film Time Bandits, gunshot Jan-Carl Raspe (1977), German RAF terrorist, gunshot Terry Ratzmann (2005), American mass murderer, gunshot Geli Raubal (1931), niece of Adolf Hitler, gunshot Margaret Mary Ray (1998), American stalker, hit by a train Roy Raymond (1993), American founder of Victoria's Secret, jumped off the Golden Gate Bridge Albert Razin (2019), Russian Udmurt language rights activist and sociologist, self-immolation Reckful (2020), Israeli-American Twitch streamer and Esports player Liam Rector (2007), American poet and educator, gunshot Wilhelm Rediess (1945), Nazi SS and Police Leader in Norway, gunshot Ernst Reicher (1936), German actor, screenwriter, film producer and film director, hanging David Reimer (2004), Canadian man who after a botched circumcision in infancy, was unsuccessfully reassigned as a girl until he learned the truth at age 13, gunshot Angelo Reyes (2011), Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, gunshot Thomas C. Reynolds (1887), Confederate governor of Missouri, jumping from the third floor into the freight elevator shaft of the Custom House in St. Louis. John Rheinecker (2017) American Major League Baseball pitcher, hanging Rikyū (1591), Japanese tea master and confidant of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, ritual seppuku disembowelment Artūras Rimkevičius (2019), Lithuanian footballer, gunshot Al Rio (2012), Brazilian comics artist, and animation director, hanging Adele Ritchie, (1930) American actress, gunshot to the throat Peter Robbins (2022), American voice actor, voice of Charlie Brown Dale Roberts (2010), English football, hanging Rachel Roberts (1980), Welsh actress, barbiturate and alcohol overdose and consumption of lye or alkali Charles Rocket (2005), American actor, cut throat Jamey Rodemeyer (2011), American bullied blogger and high school student, hanging Elliot Rodger (2014), American spree killer who perpetrated the 2014 Isla Vista killings, gunshot to the head Robert Neal Rodriguez (1992), American serial killer, cyanide poisoning Roh Moo-hyun (2009), ninth President of the Republic of Korea, jump from a cliff Erwin Rommel (1944), German general and military theorist, cyanide poisoning Jodon F. Romero (2012), American criminal whose suicide was broadcast on national television following a car chase in Arizona, gunshot Edgar Rosenberg (1987), American film and television producer and husband of Joan Rivers, diazepam overdose Frank Rosolino (1978), American jazz trombonist, shot himself after killing one son and blinding the other Mark Rothko (1970), American abstract expressionist painter, slit his arms Conrad Roy (2014), American marine salvage captain, carbon monoxide poisoning Ruan Lingyu (1935), Chinese actress, barbiturate overdose Ernst Rückert (1945), German actor, hanging Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria (1889), son of Emperor Franz Joseph I, gunshot during the Mayerling incident Lori Erica Ruff (2010), American formerly unidentified identity thief, gunshot Edmund Ruffin (1865), American author, agriculturalist, agronomist and secessionist, gunshot to the head Quintus Corellius Rufus (before 113 AD), Roman senator, consul, confidant and teacher of Pliny the Younger, refusing food and treatment for his illnesses Michael Ruppert (2014), American political activist, gunshot Richard Russell (2018), American airport ground operator and airplane thief, intentionally crashing the stolen airplane Stevie Ryan (2017), American actress and comedian, hanging Rick Rypien (2011), Canadian professional ice hockey player S Jun Sadogawa (2013), Japanese manga artist, hanging El Hedi ben Salem (1977), Moroccan actor, hanging Mark Salling (2018), American actor, hanging Johanna Sällström (2007), Swedish actress Alexander Samsonov (1914), Russian cavalry officer and general, gunshot George Sanders (1972), Russian-born English actor, singer, composer and author, overdose Sanmao (1991), Taiwanese writer and translator, hanged with silk stockings Mónica Santa María (1994), Peruvian model and TV presenter, gunshot Nick Santino (2012), American soap opera actor, overdosed on pills Alberto Santos-Dumont (1932), Brazilian aviation pioneer, hanging. Vytautas Šapranauskas (2013), Lithuanian actor, hanging Carl Sargeant (2017), Welsh politician and former member of the Welsh Government, hanging Sam Sarpong (2015), British-born American model and actor, jump from a bridge Satanta (1878), Kiowa war chief, jumping out a window Drake Sather (2004), American screenwriter, gunshot Jiro Sato (1934), Japanese tennis player, drowning Saul (1012 BC), Jewish king, pierced himself with his sword Savannah (1994), American adult film actress, gunshot to the head Marcus Ostorius Scapula (65 AD), Roman senator, consul and military tribune, severed his veins and stabbed himself with help from a slave Mamercus Aemilius Scaurus (34 AD), Roman rhetorician, poet, senator and consul Thomas Schäfer (2020), German politician, jumped in front of a train Aleko Schinas (1913), Greek assassin of King George I of Greece, jumped out of a Thessaloniki police station window Sybille Schmitz (1955), German actress, overdose of sleeping pills Robert Schommer (2001), American astronomer Conrad Schumann (1998), German Democratic Republic soldier who famously defected to West Germany during the construction of the Berlin Wall, hanging Tom Schweich (2015), American politician, gunshot Metellus Scipio (46 BC), Roman consul and military commander, stabbed himself L'Wren Scott (2014), American fashion designer, hanging Tony Scott (2012), English film director of films such as Top Gun, jumped off the Vincent Thomas Bridge in Los Angeles Junior Seau (2012), American football All-Pro player, gunshot to the chest Jean Seberg (1979), American actress, barbiturate overdose Sonia Sekula (1963), Swiss painter, hanging Seneca the Younger (65 AD), Roman philosopher, cut his veins Arma Senkrah (1900), American violinist, gunshot Rezső Seress (1968), Hungarian pianist and composer, choked himself with a wire Marcus Sedatius Severianus (161 or 162), Roman senator, consul and general, starved himself Mamercus Aemilius Scaurus (34 AD), Roman senator, followed by his wife Sextia Anne Sexton (1974), American poet, carbon monoxide poisoning Frances Ford Seymour (1950) Canadian-American socialite, cut her throat Oksana Shachko (2018), Ukrainian artist and activist, cofounder of FEMEN, hanging Shahrzad (1937), Iranian dramatist and playwright Shamash-shum-ukin (648 BC), King of Babylon, self-immolation Del Shannon (1990), American musician, gunshot Samir Sharma (2020), Indian actor, hanging H. James Shea Jr. (1970), American politician, gunshot Alice Bradley Sheldon (James Tiptree, Jr.) (1987), American writer, gunshot Harold Shipman (2004), English family doctor and serial killer, hanging Shoba (1980), Indian actress, hanging Manuel Fernández Silvestre (1921), Spanish general, gunshot Tiffany Simelane (2009), Swazi beauty queen, ingestion of weevil tablet Per Sivle (1904), Norwegian poet and novelist, gunshot Mykola Skrypnyk (1933), Ukrainian Bolshevik leader, gunshot Austra Skujiņa (1932) Latvian poet, jump from a bridge. Irina Slavina (2020), Russian journalist, self-immolation Walter Slezak (1983), Austrian actor, gunshot Everett Sloane (1965), American actor, drug overdose Smiley Culture (2011), English reggae singer and DJ, stabbing James Vinton Smith (1952), Australian politician, gunshot Someshvara I (1068), King of Western Chalukya, drowning in the Tungabhadra river David Sonboly (2016), Iranian-German perpetrator of the 2016 Munich shooting, gunshot Sophonisba (after 203 BC), Carthaginian noblewoman, swallowing poison Peu Sousa (2013), Brazilian guitarist for Nove Mil Anjos and Pitty, hanging Barea Soranus (66 AD), Roman consul, senator and governor of Asia Kate Spade (2018), American fashion designer, hanging Gary Speed (2011), Welsh footballer and manager, hanging Mark Speight (2008), English television presenter, hanging Sporus (69 AD), Roman boy whom the emperor Nero had castrated and married, stabbed his throat with a dagger Andrew Joseph Stack III (2010), American embedded software consultant, plane crash Nicolas de Staël (1955), French painter, leapt from his eleventh story studio terrace Frank Stanford (1978), American poet, gunshot Scott Stearney (2018), United States Navy admiral, gunshot Costică Ștefănescu (2013), Romanian footballer and manager, jumping from the fifth floor of the Military Hospital in Bucharest. Jean Stein (2017), American author, jump from a New York City high rise Steve Stephens (2017), American vocational specialist and murder suspect, gunshot after police pursuit Jon Paul Steuer (2018), American actor and musician, known as the first actor to play the Star Trek character Alexander Rozhenko, gunshot Brody Stevens (2019), American stand-up comedian and actor, hanging Inger Stevens (1970), Swedish-American actress, barbiturate overdose John Stevens (1923), English cricketer, jumped in front of moving train Lyle Stevik (2001), formerly unidentified man using the alias name taken from a book by Joyce Carol Oates, hanging Gary Stewart (2003), American country music singer, gunshot to the neck Jay Stewart (1989), American television and radio announcer, gunshot Adalbert Stifter (1868), Austrian writer, cut neck with a razor Pringle Stokes (1828), British naval officer and captain of during her first voyage, gunshot Alfonsina Storni (1938), Argentine poet, drowning David Stove (1994), Australian philosopher, hanging Otto Strandman (1941), Estonian politician, gunshot Mel Street (1978), American country singer, gunshot Ludwig Stumpfegger (1945), German doctor and Adolf Hitler's personal surgeon, cyanide poisoning Sue Harukata (1555), daimyo of Ouchi clan, disembowelment Sungdare Sherpa (1989), Nepalese Sherpa mountaineer Sulli (2019), South Korean actress, singer, and model, hanging Roy Sullivan (1983), American park ranger known for being struck by lightning seven times, gunshot David Edward Sutch (1999), English musician also known as Screaming Lord Sutch, hanging Adam Svoboda (2019), Czech ice hockey goaltender and coach, hanging Aaron Swartz (2013), American computer programmer, writer, political organizer and activist, hanging Sawyer Sweeten (2015), American former child actor (Everybody Loves Raymond), gunshot T Sinedu Tadesse (1995), Ethiopian murderer, hanging Taira no Tokiko (1185), Japanese Buddhist nun, wife of the chief of the Taira, grandmother of Emperor Antoku, drowning Taira no Tomomori (1185), Japanese general, admiral and heir apparent of the Taira, drowning Yūko Takeuchi (2020), Japanese actress, hanging Yutaka Taniyama (1958), Japanese mathematician Jacque Alexander Tardy (1827), Scottish-French pirate, slit his own throat Jean Tatlock (1944), American physician, psychiatrist, communist activist, mistress of Robert Oppenheimer, drowning in a bathtub Victor Tausk (1919), Austrian psychoanalyst and neurologist, gunshot and hanging Wayne Kent Taylor (2021), American entrepreneur and founder of Texas Roadhouse Pál Teleki (1941), Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Hungary, gunshot Lou Tellegen (1934), Dutch actor, director and screenwriter, stabbed himself in the chest with a pair of scissors Stella Tennant (2020) British model Josef Terboven (1945), Nazi Reichskommissar for Norway, detonating 50 kg of dynamite Tewodros II (1868), Emperor of Ethiopia, gunshot Tezozomoctli (1430), Emperor of Cuauhtitlan, poison Mike Thalassitis (2019), English-Cypriot footballer and television personality, hanging Jack Thayer (1945), Titanic survivor, cut his wrists Samuel J. F. Thayer (1893), American architect, gunshot Thích Quảng Đức (1963), Vietnamese Mahayana Buddhist monk, self-immolation Hugo Thimig (1944), Austrian actor, overdose of Barbital Nicky Thomas (1990), Jamaican reggae singer Hunter S. Thompson (2005), gonzo journalist, author of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, gunshot Terry Thompson (2011), zookeeper and owner of Muskingum County Animal Farm, gunshot William Thornton (1840), British lieutenant-general Ofonius Tigellinus (69 AD), Roman prefect of the Praetorian Guard, cut his throat with a razor Carlos Tobalina (1989), Peruvian-born pornographic filmmaker and actor, gunshot Li Tobler (1975), Swiss actress, model and life partner of artist H. R. Giger, gunshot Amanda Todd (2012), Canadian high school student who was bullied at school and online, hanging Ernst Toller (1939), German playwright, socialist revolutionary and politician, hanging Ivo-Valentino Tomaš (2019), Croatian football player Radka Toneff (1982), Norwegian jazz singer, overdose of sleeping pills John Kennedy Toole (1969), American novelist known for A Confederacy of Dunces, carbon monoxide poisoning Dudu Topaz (2009), Israeli TV personality and entertainer, hanging while incarcerated in jail Maury Travis (2002), American serial killer, hanging Silvanus Trevail (1903), English architect, gunshot Dick Trickle (2013), American NASCAR driver, gunshot Sunil Tripathi (2013), American student and former suspect in the Boston Marathon bombing Verne Troyer (2018), American actor known for his role as Mini-Me in the Austin Powers films, alcohol intoxication Tron (1998), German hacker, hanging Butch Trucks (2017), American drummer for the Allman Brothers Band, gunshot Yordan Tsitsonkov (1926), Macedonian Bulgarian assassin, hanged himself Kōkichi Tsuburaya (1968), Japanese marathoner, cut his wrists Marina Tsvetaeva (1941), Russian poet, hanging Kurt Tucholsky (1935), German journalist, satirist and writer, overdose of sleeping pills Alan Turing (1954), English mathematician, logician, cryptanalyst and computer scientist, eating an apple laced with cyanide Jim Tyrer (1980), American football player, gunshot U Ernst Udet (1941), German pilot and air force general, gunshot to the head Miyu Uehara (2011), Japanese model, hanging Ugaki Matome (1945), Japanese admiral, diarist and the last kamikaze pilot, unsuccessfully attempted a kamikaze attack after Japan already surrendered, likely crashing into the sea Jack Unterweger (1994), Austrian serial killer, hanging Andrew Urdiales (2018), American serial killer Mitsuru Ushijima (1945), Japanese general, began to commit ritual seppuku disembowelment just before one of his adjutants decapitated him with a saber V Edwin Valero (2010), Venezuelan boxer, hanging Kelly Jean Van Dyke (1991), American adult film actress, hanging Vincent van Gogh (1890), Dutch Post-Impressionist painter, gunshot George Washington Vanderbilt III (1961), American explorer and member of the Vanderbilt family, jumped from the 10th floor of the Mark Hopkins Hotel Johannes Vares (1946), Estonian poet, doctor and politician, gunshot Getúlio Vargas (1954), two-time President of Brazil, gunshot Publius Quinctilius Varus (9 AD), Roman general, fell upon his sword Minnie Vautrin (1940), American missionary in China, stove gas inhalation Lupe Vélez (1944), Mexican actress, overdose of secobarbital Dominique Venner (2013), French author, gunshot to the head in the Notre Dame de Paris Marcus Julius Vestinus Atticus (65 AD), Roman senator and consul, opening his veins Titus Vettius (104 BC), Roman equestrian and leader of a slave revolt Lucius Antistius Vetus (65 AD), Roman senator, consul and governor of Germania Superior Juhan Viiding (1995), Estonian poet and actor, cut his veins Hervé Villechaize (1993), French actor known for his work on the television series Fantasy Island, gunshot Pierre-Charles Villeneuve (1806), French admiral, stabbing Lucius Annius Vinicianus (42 AD), Roman senator, plotter of the assassination of Caligula, rebel against Claudius Frank Vitkovic (1987), Australian spree killer who perpetrated the Queen Street massacre in Melbourne, jumped from a window Ned Vizzini (2013), American author of young adult fiction, such as the novel, It's Kind of a Funny Story, leapt from a building Zinaida Volkova (1933), daughter of Leon Trotsky, gas asphyxiation Chris Von Erich (1991), professional wrestler, gunshot to the head Kerry Von Erich (1993), professional wrestler, gunshot to the chest Mike Von Erich (1987), professional wrestler, overdose of Placidyl and alcohol Bulelani Vukwana (2002), South African spree killer, gunshot W Bradford Thomas Wagner (2005), American real estate agent, gay pornographic film actor and suspected serial rapist, hanging himself with a bed sheet Gustav Wagner (1980), Austrian SS-Oberscharführer and deputy commander of Sobibor extermination camp, knife wound David Wallace (1904), father of United States First Lady Bess Truman, gunshot to the head David Foster Wallace (2008), American author, hanging Stephen Ward (1963), English osteopathic physician and one of the central figures in the 1963 Profumo affair, overdose of sleeping pills John William Warde (1938), American bank clerk known for spending 14 hours on a ledge before jumping from the 17th floor of Manhattan's Gotham Hotel Ed Warren (1963), American actor, politician and former mayor of Cheyenne, Wyoming, carbon monoxide poisoning Nick Wasicsko (1993), former Mayor of Yonkers, New York (1987–89), gunshot to the head Andre Waters (2006), former NFL safety, gunshot to the head Gary Webb (2004), American investigative reporter, gunshot to the head Jaromir Weinberger (1967), Czech/American composer, lethal overdose of sedative Otto Weininger (1903), Austrian philosopher, gunshot Jeff Weise (2005), American high school student who perpetrated the Red Lake shootings, gunshot Dorrit Weixler (1916), German film actress, hanging Bob Welch (2012), American rock singer-songwriter and former member of Fleetwood Mac, gunshot to the chest Horace Wells (1848), American dentist and pioneer of anaesthesiology, slitting his left femoral artery with a razor Dawn-Marie Wesley (2000), Canadian bullied high school student, hanging Fred West (1995), English serial killer, hanging Assia Wevill (1969), German born lover of English poet Ted Hughes, murder-suicide of her daughter with Hughes, gas James Whale (1957), English director, drowning Dan White (1985), San Francisco politician who assassinated Mayor George Moscone and Harvey Milk, carbon monoxide poisoning Kurt-Werner Wichmann (1993), German suspected serial killer and main suspect in the Göhrde murders, hanging Robin Williams (2014), American comedian and actor, hanging Rozz Williams (1998), American musician, lead vocalist for Christian Death, hanging Wendy O. Williams (1998), American singer-songwriter for the Plasmatics, gunshot Tom Wills (1880), Australian cricketer and pioneer of Australian rules football, stabbed himself in the heart with a pair of scissors Jarrid Wilson (2019), American pastor and author Christopher Wilmarth (1987), American sculptor, hanging Sheree Winton (1976), English actress, barbiturate overdose Jack Wishna (2012), president and CEO of CPAmerica, carbon monoxide poisoning Frank Wolff (1971), American actor, slashed his throat Jiverly Antares Wong (2009), naturalized American citizen from Vietnam who perpetrated the Binghamton shooting, gunshot Tobi Wong (2010), Canadian born designer, and conceptual artist, overdosed on pills Bum-kon Woo (1982), South Korean policeman and spree killer Seung-yeon Woo (2009), South Korean actress and model, hanging Wally Wood (1981), American comic book writer and artist, gunshot Francesca Woodman (1981), American photographer, jumped from a window Virginia Woolf (1941), English author, essayist, and publisher, drowning Stephen Wooldridge (2017), Australian cyclist Tera Wray (2016), American pornographic actress Marcin Wrona (2015), Polish film director, hanging Wu Zixu (484 BC), Chinese general and politician of the Wu, stabbed himself with a sword Y Yakushiji Motoichi (1504), Japanese samurai and deputy governor, ritual seppuku disembowelment Yamaguchi Otoya (1960), Japanese nationalist who assassinated Asanuma Inejirō, hanging Yang Yang (2019), Chinese tenor, jump from the 26th floor of his apartment building Yasmine (2009), Belgian singer, hanging Seizō Yasunori (1945), Japanese kamikaze pilot, flew his plane into the USS Bunker Hill Kelly Yeomans (1997), English bullied high school student, dextropropoxyphene overdose Sergei Yesenin (1925), Russian and Soviet poet, hanging Francis Parker Yockey (1960), American neo-Fascist political philosopher and polemicist also known under his pen name Ulick Varange, cyanide poisoning Yoñlu (2006), Brazilian singer-songwriter, carbon monoxide poisoning Yoon Ki-won (2011), South Korean football goalkeeper, charcoal-burning suicide Atsumi Yoshikubo (2014), Japanese psychiatrist, intentionally getting lost in the Canadian Taiga Gūwalgiya Youlan (1921), Manchu noblewoman, primary consort of Zaifeng, Prince Chun and mother of China's last emperor Puyi, opium overdose Cy Young (1964), Chinese-American animator, barbiturate overdose Faron Young (1996), American country music singer, gunshot Gig Young (1978), American actor, gunshot after fatally shooting his wife Lee Thompson Young (2013), American actor, gunshot Fakhra Younus (2012), Pakistani dancer, jumped from building Z Bill Zeller (2011), American computer programmer and developer of myTunes, oxygen deprivation due to hanging led to brain damage, taken off life support Hai Zi (1989), Chinese poet, lying down on railroad tracks Marion Zioncheck (1936), American congressman from Washington's 1st district, jumped from his office window Joost Zwagerman (2015), Dutch writer, poet, and essayist Stefan Zweig (1942), Austrian novelist, playwright, journalist and biographer, barbiturate overdose Possible or disputed suicides Clodius Albinus (197), Roman emperor, killed himself after a defeat in battle (possibly executed by Septimius Severus). Salvador Allende (1973), president of Chile, gunshot. Uwe Barschel (1987), German politician, ingested five sleeping potions and tranquilizers. Gameel Al-Batouti (1999), Egyptian pilot of EgyptAir and former officer of the Egyptian Air Force who was killed in the crash of EgyptAir Flight 990. It is disputed on whether or not it was caused by mechanical malfunction or by Al-Batouti in a suicide by pilot. Scotty Beckett (1968), American actor, an overdose of barbiturates or alcohol. Wade Belak (2011), Canadian ice hockey player. Belak was found dead in his home in Toronto, and the police investigated his death as a suicide. Later, hockey analyst and former player P.J. Stock alleged that Belak's death was not a suicide, but accidental. Although Stock later stepped back from his comments, members of Belak's family also believe his death was accidental. Edward Brittain (1918), British army captain, gunshot by enemy sniper, to whom Brittain may have deliberately exposed himself, to avoid a court-martial for homosexuality. Le Corbusier (1965), one of the pioneers of modern architecture. Found dead in the Mediterranean Sea following a swim. Terry A. Davis (2018) American programmer and creator of TempleOS, struck by a train. Jeffrey Epstein (2019), American financier and convicted sex offender, hanging. Whether Epstein's death was suicide or homicide is a point of controversy. John Fitch (1798), American inventor, opium overdose. James Forrestal (1949), First U.S. Secretary of Defense, Secretary of the Navy, fell from 16th floor of building (disputed suicide). Rick Genest (2018), performance artist, actor and model, fall from a balcony. Kurt Gödel (1978), Austrian-American logician, mathematician and philosopher, died of starvation as a result of refusing to eat anything not prepared by his wife, out of fear of being poisoned. It is unclear whether this is a suicide. Nigel Green (1972), English actor, overdose of sleeping pills. Hannibal (183–181 BC), Carthaginian military commander and tactician, possibly poison. Sung-jae Kim (1995), South Korean singer and former member of Deux, stabbed in the arm 28 times with a syringe containing animal anesthetic. It is unknown if it was a murder or suicide. David Koresh (1993), American leader of the Branch Davidians, gunshot. It is unknown if he was murdered by one of the Branch Davidians or died by suicide. Jules Lequier (1862), French philosopher, probably swam voluntarily out into the ocean. Primo Levi (1987), Italian chemist, writer and Holocaust survivor, jumped from his third-story apartment. Meriwether Lewis (1809), U.S. explorer and partner of William Clark, gunshot. There is some debate as to whether his death was a suicide. Lucretius (c. 55 BC), Roman poet and Epicurean philosopher. The only source of his suicide is Jerome who is considered by scholars as unreliable and hostile towards Lucretius. Kizito Mihigo (2020), Rwandan gospel singer, genocide survivor and peace activist, hanging. Human rights organisations and Rwandan activists challenged this. Unity Mitford, (1948), British socialite and Nazi sympathiser, died eight years after shooting herself of injuries caused by the bullet; debatable if this counts as suicide. Alighiero Noschese (1979), Italian TV impersonator, gunshot while being recovered under care for clinical depression. As patients suffering from depression are not permitted to possess firearms and other lethal objects, it was suspected that someone murdered Noschese or smuggled the gun to him. Orgetorix (60 BC), Gallic member of the ruling class of the Helvetii and conspirator. It is uncertain if he died by suicide or was executed. Giuseppe Pinelli (1969), Italian anarchist, fall from police station window, police claim of suicide widely disputed. John William Polidori (1821), English writer and physician, ingestion of prussic acid. The coroner gave a verdict of death by natural causes despite strong evidence of suicide. Freddie Prinze (1977), American actor and comedian, gunshot to the head while under the influence of methaqualone and alcohol. His death was initially ruled suicide, but his mother and other loved ones successfully convinced a court to change the official cause of death to accidental. Elliott Smith (2003), American singer, songwriter and musician, stab wounds to chest. While Smith's death was originally reported as a suicide, the official autopsy report released in December 2003 left open the question of homicide. Socrates (399 BC), Classical Greek Athenian philosopher, credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, drank poison, probably hemlock. Because Socrates was forced to poison himself to death as his sentence following his conviction for impiety and corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, the question of whether this constitutes a genuine suicide is a subject of debate. John Hanning Speke (1864), British explorer, gunshot. An inquest concluded that his death was accidental, a conclusion supported by Speke's biographer Alexander Maitland, as the location of the fatal wound just below Speke's armpit made suicide unlikely. However the idea of suicide has appealed to some critics of Speke. Sid Vicious (1979), English musician and member of the Sex Pistols, heroin overdose. References External links Suicides Ancient people who committed suicide suicide

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klemens%20von%20Metternich

Klemens von Metternich

Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar, Prince of Metternich-Winneburg zu Beilstein (15 May 1773 – 11 June 1859), known as Klemens von Metternich or Duke Metternich, was a conservative Austrian statesman and diplomat who was at the center of European affairs for three decades as the Austrian Empire's foreign minister from 1809 and Chancellor from 1821 until the liberal Revolutions of 1848 forced his resignation. Born into the House of Metternich in 1773 as the son of a diplomat, Metternich received a good education at the universities of Strasbourg and Mainz. Metternich rose through key diplomatic posts, including ambassadorial roles in the Kingdom of Saxony, the Kingdom of Prussia, and especially Napoleonic France. One of his first assignments as Foreign Minister was to engineer a détente with France that included the marriage of Napoleon to the Austrian archduchess Marie Louise. Soon after, he engineered Austria's entry into the War of the Sixth Coalition on the Allied side, signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau that sent Napoleon into exile and led the Austrian delegation at the Congress of Vienna that divided post-Napoleonic Europe amongst the major powers. For his service to the Austrian Empire, he was given the title of Prince in October 1813. Under his guidance, the "Metternich system" of international congresses continued for another decade as Austria aligned itself with Russia and to a lesser extent Prussia. This marked the high point of Austria's diplomatic importance and thereafter Metternich slowly slipped into the periphery of international diplomacy. At home, Metternich held the post of Chancellor of State from 1821 until 1848 under both Francis I and his son Ferdinand I. After a brief exile in London, Brighton, and Brussels that lasted until 1851, he returned to the Viennese court, this time to offer only advice to Ferdinand's successor, Franz Josef. Having outlived his generation of politicians, Metternich died at the age of 86 in 1859. A traditional conservative, Metternich was keen to maintain the balance of power, in particular by resisting Russian territorial ambitions in Central Europe and lands belonging to the Ottoman Empire. He disliked liberalism and strove to prevent the breakup of the Austrian Empire, for example, by crushing nationalist revolts in Austrian northern Italy. At home, he pursued a similar policy, using censorship and a wide-ranging spy network to suppress unrest. Metternich has been both praised and heavily criticized for the policies he pursued. His supporters pointed out that he presided over the "Age of Metternich" when international diplomacy helped prevent major wars in Europe. His qualities as a diplomat were commended, some noting that his achievements were considerable in light of the weakness of his negotiating position. Meanwhile, his detractors argued that he could have done much to secure Austria's future, and he was deemed a stumbling block to reforms in Austria. Early life Klemens Metternich was born into the House of Metternich on 15 May 1773 to Franz Georg Karl Count Metternich-Winneburg zu Beilstein, a diplomat who had passed from the service of the Archbishopric of Trier to that of the Imperial court, and his wife Countess Maria Beatrix Aloisia von Kageneck. He was named in honour of Prince Clemens Wenceslaus of Saxony, the archbishop-elector of Trier and the past employer of his father. He was the eldest son and had one older sister Pauline (1772–1855), wife of Duke Ferdinand of Württemberg. At the time of his birth, the family possessed a ruined keep at Beilstein, a castle at Winneberg, an estate west of Koblenz, and another in Königswart, Bohemia, won during the 17th century. At this time Metternich's father, described as "a boring babbler and chronic liar" by a contemporary, was the Austrian ambassador to the courts of the three Rhenish electors (Trier, Cologne and Mainz). Metternich's education was handled by his mother, heavily influenced by their proximity to France; Metternich spoke French better than German. As a child he went on official visits with his father and, under the direction of Protestant tutor John Frederick Simon, was tutored in academic subjects, swimming, and horsemanship. In the summer of 1788, Metternich began studying law at the University of Strasbourg, matriculating on 12 November. While a student he was for some time accommodated by Prince Maximilian of Zweibrücken, the future King of Bavaria. At this time he was described by Simon as "happy, handsome and lovable", though contemporaries would later recount how he had been a liar and a braggart. Metternich left Strasbourg in September 1790 to attend Leopold II's October coronation in Frankfurt, where he performed the largely honorific role of Ceremonial Marshall to the Catholic Bench of the College of the Counts of Westphalia. There, under the wing of his father, he met with the future Francis II and looked at ease among the attendant nobility. Between the end of 1790 and summer of 1792 Metternich studied law at the University of Mainz, receiving a more conservative education than at Strasbourg, a city the return to which was now unsafe. In the summers he worked with his father, who had been appointed plenipotentiary and effective ruler of the Austrian Netherlands. In March 1792 Francis succeeded as Holy Roman Emperor and was crowned in July, affording Metternich a reprise of his earlier role of Ceremonial Marshall. In the meantime France had declared war on Austria, beginning the War of the First Coalition (1792–7) and making Metternich's further study in Mainz impossible. Now in the employment of his father, he was sent on a special mission to the front. Here he led the interrogation of the French Minister of War the Marquis de Beurnonville and several accompanying National Convention commissioners. Metternich observed the siege and fall of Valenciennes, later looking back on these as substantial lessons about warfare. In early 1794 he was sent to England, ostensibly on official business helping Viscount Desandrouin, by the Treasurer-General of the Austrian Netherlands, to negotiate a loan. Marriage and the Congress of Rastatt In England, he met the King on several occasions and dined with a number of influential British politicians, including William Pitt, Charles James Fox and Edmund Burke. Metternich was nominated the new Minister Plenipotentiary to the Austrian Netherlands and left England in September 1794. On arrival, he found an exiled and powerless government in a headlong retreat from the latest French advance. In October a revitalised French army swept into Germany and annexed all of the Metternich estates except Königswart. Disappointed, and affected by strong criticism of his father's policies, he joined his parents in Vienna in November. On 27 September 1795 he married Countess Eleonore von Kaunitz-Rietberg, a granddaughter of former Austrian chancellor Wenzel Anton, Prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg. The marriage was arranged by Metternich's mother and introduced him to Viennese society. This was undoubtedly part of the motivation for Metternich, who demonstrated less affection for her than she for him. Two conditions were imposed by the father of the bride, Prince Kaunitz: first, the still youthful Eleonore was to continue to live at home; and second, Metternich was forbidden from serving as a diplomat as long as the Prince was still alive. Their daughter Maria was born in January 1797. After Metternich's studies in Vienna, the Prince's death in September 1797 allowed Metternich to participate in the Congress of Rastatt. Initially his father, who headed the imperial delegation, took him as a secretary while ensuring that, when proceedings officially started in December 1797, he was named the representative of the Catholic Bench of the College of the Counts of Westphalia. A bored Metternich remained at Rastatt in this role until 1799 when the congress was finally wound down. During this period Eleonore had chosen to live with Metternich at Rastatt and gave birth to sons Francis (February 1798) and, shortly after the end of the Congress, Klemens (June 1799). Much to Metternich's anguish, Klemens died after only a few days, and Francis soon contracted a lung infection from which he would never recover. Ambassador Dresden and Berlin The Holy Roman Empire's defeat in the War of the Second Coalition shook up diplomatic circles, and the promising Metternich was now offered a choice between three ministerial positions: to the Imperial Diet at Regensburg; to the Kingdom of Denmark at Copenhagen; or to the Elector of Saxony at Dresden. He chose Dresden in late January 1801, and his appointment was officially announced in February. Metternich summered in Vienna, where he wrote his "Instructions", a memorandum showing a much greater understanding of statesmanship than his earlier writing. He visited the Königswart estate in the autumn before taking up his new position on 4 November. The subtleties of the memorandum were lost on the Saxon court, which was headed by the retiring Frederick Augustus, a man with little political initiative. Despite the boredom of the court, Metternich enjoyed the light-hearted frivolity of the city and took up a mistress, Princess Katharina Bagration-Mukhranska, who bore him a daughter, Marie-Clementine. In January 1803 Metternich and his wife had a child whom they named Viktor. In Dresden Metternich also made a number of important contacts including Friedrich Gentz, a publicist who would serve Metternich as both confidant and critic for the next thirty years. He also established links with important Polish and French political figures. To compensate for the loss of the Metternich's ancestral estates in the Moselle valley when the French Republic annexed the west bank of the Rhine, the Imperial Recess of 1803 brought Metternich's family new estates in Ochsenhausen, the title of Prince, and a seat in the Imperial Diet. In the ensuing diplomatic reshuffle Metternich was appointed ambassador to the Kingdom of Prussia, being notified of this in February 1803 and taking his position in November of that year. He arrived at a critical juncture in European diplomacy, soon growing worried about the territorial ambitions of Napoleon Bonaparte, newly the leader of France. This fear was shared by the Russian court under Alexander I, and the Tsar kept Metternich informed of Russian policy. By autumn of 1804 Vienna decided on action entered into in August 1805 when the Austrian Empire (as the Holy Roman Empire was in the process of becoming) began its involvement in the War of the Third Coalition. Metternich's now almost impossible task was to convince Prussia to join the coalition against Bonaparte. Their eventual agreement was not due to Metternich, however, and after the coalition's defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz, Prussia disregarded the agreement and signed a treaty with the French instead. Paris In the ensuing reshuffle in Vienna Count Johann Philipp von Stadion-Warthausen became the Foreign Minister of Austrian Empire, freeing Metternich to assume the post of Ambassador to the Russian Empire. He never made it to Russia, as need had arisen for a new Austrian at the French court. Metternich was approved for the post in June 1806. He enjoyed being in demand and was happy to be sent to France on a generous salary of 90,000 gulden a year. After an arduous trip he took up residence in August 1806, being briefed by Baron von Vincent and Engelbert von Floret, whom he would retain as a close adviser for two decades. He met French foreign minister Prince Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord on 5 August and Napoleon himself five days later at Saint-Cloud; soon, the War of the Fourth Coalition drew both Talleyrand and Napoleon eastwards. Metternich's wife and children joined him in October, and he went into society, using his charm to win great eminence there. The presence of Eleonore did not prevent him from a series of affairs that certainly included Napoleon's sister Princess Caroline Murat, Laure Junot, and perhaps many besides. After the Treaties of Tilsit of July 1807, Metternich saw that Austria's position in Europe was much more vulnerable but believed the accord between Russia and France would not last. In the meantime he found the new French Foreign Minister, Jean-Baptiste Champagny unaccommodating and struggled to negotiate a satisfactory settlement over the future of several French forts on the River Inn. Over the following months the reach of Austrian policy, and Metternich's own reputation, increased. Metternich pushed for a Russo-Austrian alliance, though Tsar Alexander was too preoccupied with the three other wars he was engaged in to commit. Over time, Metternich came to see an eventual war with France as inevitable. In a memorable event, Metternich argued with Napoleon at Napoleon's 39th birthday celebrations in August 1808 over the increasingly obvious preparations for war on both sides. Soon after, Napoleon refused Metternich's attendance at the Congress of Erfurt; Metternich was later glad to hear from Talleyrand that Napoleon's attempts at the Congress to get Russia to invade Austria had proved unsuccessful. In late 1808 Metternich was recalled to Vienna for five weeks of meetings about the possibility of Austria invading France while Napoleon was on campaign in Spain. His memoranda reported that France was not united behind Napoleon, that Russia was unlikely to want to fight Austria, and that France had few reliable troops that could fight in central Europe. Back in Paris, Metternich was overtly apprehensive about his own safety. When Austria declared war on France, Metternich was indeed arrested in retaliation for the arrest of two French diplomats in Vienna, but the effects of this were minimal. He was allowed to leave France under escort for Austria in late May 1809. After Napoleon's capture of Vienna Metternich was conducted to the Austrian capital and exchange there for the French diplomats. Foreign Minister Détente with France Now back in Austria, Metternich witnessed first hand the Austrian army's defeat at the Battle of Wagram in 1809. Stadion tendered his resignation as Foreign Minister in the aftermath, and the Emperor immediately offered the post to Metternich. Metternich, worried that Napoleon would seize on this to demand harsher peace terms, instead agreed to become a minister of state (which he did on 8 July) and to lead negotiations with the French on the understanding that he would replace Stadion as Foreign Minister at a later date. During peace talks at Altenburg, Metternich put forward pro-French proposals to save the Austrian monarchy. Napoleon, however, disliked his position on the future of Poland, and Metternich was gradually displaced from the proceedings by Prince Liechtenstein. He soon regained influence, however, on 8 October, as Foreign Minister (and additionally that of Minister of the Imperial Household). In early 1810 Metternich's earlier affair with Junot became public but, because of Eleonore's understanding, the scandal was minimal. One of Metternich's first tasks was to push for the marriage of Napoleon to Archduchess Marie Louise rather than to the Tsar's youngest sister Anna Pavlovna. Metternich would later seek to distance himself from the marriage by claiming it was Napoleon's own idea, but this is improbable; in any case, he was happy to claim responsibility at the time. By 7 February Napoleon had agreed and the pair were married by proxy on 11 March. Marie Louise left for France soon after and Metternich followed by a different route and unofficially. The trip was designed, Metternich explained, to transport his family (stranded in France by the outbreak of war) home and to report to the Austrian Emperor about Marie Louise's activities. Instead, Metternich stayed six months, entrusting his office in Vienna to his father. He set about using the marriage, and flattery, to renegotiate the terms set out at Schönbrunn. The concessions he won were trivial, however: a few trading rights, delay in the payment of the war indemnity, restitution of some estates belonging to Germans in the Austrian service, including the Metternich family's, and the lifting of a 150,000-man limit on the Austrian army. The last was particularly welcomed as a sign of increased Austrian independence, although Austria could no longer afford an army greater than the limit prescribed. As France's ally When Metternich returned to Vienna in October 1810, he was no longer as popular. His influence was limited to foreign affairs, and his attempts to get a full Council of State reintroduced had failed. Convinced that a much weakened Austria should avoid another invasion by France, he rejected the advances of Tsar Alexander and instead concluded an alliance with Napoleon on 14 March 1812. He also supported a period of moderate censorship, aimed at preventing provocation of the French. Requiring that only 30,000 Austrian troops fight alongside the French, the alliance treaty was more generous than the one Prussia had signed a month earlier; this allowed Metternich to give both Britain and Russia assurances that Austria remained committed to curbing Napoleonic ambitions. He accompanied his sovereign for a final meeting with Napoleon at Dresden in May 1812 before Napoleon embarked upon the French invasion of Russia. The Dresden meeting revealed that Austria's influence in Europe had reached its lowest point, and Metternich was now bent on re-establishing that influence by using what he considered strong ties with all sides in the war, proposing general peace talks headed by Austria. Over the next three months, he would slowly distance Austria from the French cause, while avoiding alliance with either Prussia or Russia, and remaining open to any proposal that would secure a place for the combined Bonaparte-Habsburg dynasty. This was driven by concern that if Napoleon were defeated, Russia and Prussia would stand to gain too much. Napoleon was intransigent, however, and the fighting (now officially the War of the Sixth Coalition) continued. Austria's alliance with France ended in February 1813, and Austria then moved to a position of armed neutrality. As a neutral Metternich was much less keen on turning against France than many of his contemporaries (though not the Emperor), and he favoured his own plans for a general settlement. In November 1813 he offered Napoleon the Frankfurt proposals, which would allow Napoleon to remain Emperor but would reduce France to its "natural frontiers" and undo its control of most of Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands. Napoleon, expecting to win the war, delayed too long and lost this opportunity; by December the Allies had withdrawn the offer. By early 1814, as they were closing in on Paris, Napoleon agreed to the Frankfurt proposals, too late, and he rejected the new, harsher terms then proposed. Nevertheless, the Allies were not faring well, and although a statement of general war aims that included many nods to Austria was secured from Russia, Britain remained distrustful and generally unwilling to give up the military initiative she had fought 20 years to establish. Despite this, Francis created the Austrian Foreign Minister Grand-Chancellor of the Order of Maria Theresa, a post which had been vacant since the time of Kaunitz. Metternich increasingly worried that Napoleon's retreat would bring with it disorder that would harm the Habsburgs. A peace had to be concluded soon, he believed. Since Britain could not be coerced, he sent proposals to France and Russia only. These were rejected, though, after the battles of Lützen (2 May) and Bautzen (20–21 May), a French-initiated truce was called. Starting in April Metternich began to "slowly and reluctantly" prepare Austria for war with France; the armistice provided Austria time for fuller complete mobilisation. In June Metternich left Vienna to personally handle negotiations at Gitschin in Bohemia. When he arrived he benefitted from the hospitality of Princess Wilhelmine, Duchess of Sagan and began an affair with her that lasted several months. No other mistress ever achieved such influence over Metternich as Wilhelmine, and he would continue to write to her after their separation. Meanwhile, French Foreign Minister Hugues-Bernard Maret remained elusive, though Metternich did manage to discuss the state of affairs with the Tsar on 18–19 June at Opotschna. In talks which would later be ratified as the Reichenbach Convention they agreed on general peace demands and set out a process by which Austria could enter the war on the Coalition side. Shortly afterwards Metternich was invited to join Napoleon at Dresden, where he could put the terms directly. Though no reliable record of their meeting on 26 June 1813 exists, it seems it was a stormy but effective meeting. The agreement was finally reached as Metternich was about to leave: peace talks would start in Prague in July and run until 20 August. In agreeing to this Metternich had ignored the Reichenbach Convention, and this angered Austria's Coalition allies. The Conference of Prague would never properly meet since Napoleon gave his representatives Armand Caulaincourt and the Count of Narbonne insufficient powers to negotiate. At the informal discussions held in lieu of the conference, Caulaincourt implied that Napoleon would not negotiate until an allied army threatened France itself. This convinced Metternich, and, after an ultimatum Metternich issued to France went unheeded, Austria declared war on 12 August. As a coalition partner Austria's allies saw the declaration as an admission that Austria's diplomatic ambitions had failed, but Metternich viewed it as one move in a much longer campaign. For the rest of the war he strove to hold the Coalition together and, as such, to curb Russian momentum in Europe. To this end he won an early victory as an Austrian general, the Prince of Schwarzenberg, was confirmed supreme commander of the Coalition forces rather than Tsar Alexander I. He also succeeded in getting the three allied monarchs (Alexander, Francis and Prussia's Frederick William III) to follow him and their armies on campaign. With the Treaties of Teplitz, Metternich allowed Austria to remain uncommitted over the future of France, Italy, and Poland. He was still confined, however, by the British, who were subsidizing Prussia and Russia (in September Metternich requested subsidies for Austria as well). Meanwhile, the Coalition forces took the offensive. On 18 October 1813 Metternich witnessed the successful Battle of Leipzig and, two days later, he was rewarded for his "wise direction" with the rank of prince (). Metternich was delighted when Frankfurt was retaken in early November and, in particular, by the deference the Tsar showed Francis at a ceremony organised there by Metternich. Diplomatically, with the war drawing to a close, he remained determined to prevent the creation of a strong, unified German state, even offering Napoleon generous terms in order to retain him as a counterweight. On 2 December 1813 Napoleon agreed to talk, though these talks were delayed by the need for the participation of a more senior British diplomat, (Viscount Castlereagh). Before talks could begin, Coalition armies crossed the Rhine on 22 December. Metternich retired from Frankfurt to Breisgau to celebrate Christmas with his wife's family before travelling to the new Coalition headquarters at Basel in January 1814. Quarrels with Tsar Alexander, particularly over the fate of France intensified in January, prompting Alexander to storm out. He therefore missed the arrival of Castlereagh in mid-January. Metternich and Castlereagh formed a good working relationship and then met with Alexander at Langres. The Tsar remained unaccommodating however, demanding a push into the centre of France; but he was too preoccupied to object to Metternich's other ideas, like a final peace conference in Vienna. Metternich did not attend talks with the French at Chatillon, as he wanted to stay with Alexander. The talks stalled, and, after a brief advance, Coalition forces had to retreat after the Montmirail and Montereau. This relieved Metternich's fears that an overconfident Alexander might act unilaterally. Metternich continued negotiations with the French envoy Caulaincourt through early to mid March 1814, when victory at the Laon put the Coalition back on the offensive. By this time Metternich was tiring of trying to hold the Coalition together, and even the British-engineered Treaty of Chaumont did not help. In the absence of the Prussians and Russians the Coalition agreed to the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty. Francis rejected a final plea from Napoleon that he would abdicate in favour of his son with Marie Louise as regent, and Paris fell on 30 March. Military manoeuvres had forced Metternich westward to Dijon on 24 March and now, after a deliberate delay, he left for the French capital on 7 April. On 10 April he found a city at peace and, much to his annoyance, largely in the control of Tsar Alexander. The Austrians disliked the terms of the Treaty of Fontainebleau that Russia had imposed on Napoleon in their absence, but Metternich was reluctant to oppose them and on 11 April signed the treaty. Thereafter he focused on safeguarding Austrian interests in the forthcoming peace; asserting Austria's influence in Germany over that of Prussia; and undoing Russian ascendancy. For these reasons he ensured that the Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia, lost to French client states in 1805, were duly re-annexed. On the division of formerly French-occupied Poland and Germany, Metternich was more confined by the interests of the Allies. After two failed proposals, advanced by the Prussians, the issue was postponed until after a peace treaty had been signed. Elsewhere, Metternich, like many of his counterparts, was anxious to provide the renewed French monarchy with the resources to suppress the new revolution. The generous Treaty of Paris was signed on 30 May. Now free, Metternich accompanied Tsar Alexander to England; Wilhelmine, who had followed Metternich to Paris, also made the crossing. A triumphant Metternich filled his four weeks with revelry, re-establishing his reputation and that of Austria; he was also awarded an honorary law degree from the University of Oxford. By contrast and to Metternich's pleasure, Alexander was ill-mannered and often insulting. Despite the opportunities, little diplomacy took place; instead, all that was firmly agreed was that proper discussions would take place at Vienna, with a date tentatively set for 15 August. When the Tsar tried to postpone it to October Metternich agreed but effected conditions that prevented Alexander from exercising any advantage due to his de facto control of Poland. Metternich was eventually reunited with his family in Austria in the middle of July 1814, having stopped for a week in France to soothe fears surrounding Napoleon's wife Marie Louise, now the Duchess of Parma. His return to Vienna was celebrated by an occasional cantata that included the line "History holds thee up to posterity as a model among great men". Congress of Vienna In the autumn of 1814, the heads of the five reigning dynasties and representatives from 216 noble families began gathering in Vienna. Before ministers from the "Big Four" (the Coalition allies of Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia) arrived, Metternich stayed quietly in Baden bei Wien, two hours to the south. When he heard they had reached Vienna he journeyed to meet them and encouraged them to go with him back to Baden. They declined, and four meetings were held in the city itself. In these, the representatives agreed on how the Congress would operate and, to Metternich's delight, named his own aide Friedrich Gentz secretary to the negotiations of the "Big Six" (the Big Four plus France and Spain). When Talleyrand and Spanish representative Don Pedro Labrador learned of these decisions, they were incensed that agreements were negotiated by the Big Four only. Sweden and Portugal were similarly angered by their exclusion from all but the full Congress, especially since Metternich was determined to give the latter as little power as possible. As a result, the Big Six became the Preliminary Committee of the Eight, whose first decision was that the congress itself be postponed to 1 November. In fact, it would soon be postponed again, with only a minor commission beginning work in November. In the meantime, Metternich organised a controversially vast array of entertainments for the delegates including himself. Leaving Castlereagh to negotiate on Tsar Alexander's behalf, Metternich briefly turned his attention to quelling anti-Habsburg feeling in Italy. Around the same time, he learnt that the Duchess of Sagan was courting the Tsar. Disappointed, and exhausted by social rounds, Metternich let his guard drop, angering Tsar Alexander during negotiations over Poland (then ruled by Napoleon as the Grand Duchy of Warsaw) by implying Austria could match Russia militarily. Despite the blunder, Francis refused to dismiss his foreign minister, and political crisis rocked Vienna throughout November, culminating in a declaration by Tsar Alexander that Russia would not compromise in its claim on Poland as a satellite kingdom. The Coalition rejected this utterly, and the agreement seemed further off than ever. During the stand-off, it seems that Alexander even went as far as to challenge Metternich to a duel. However, Tsar Alexander soon did a rapid volte face and agreed to the division of Poland. He also softened in regard to the Germanic Kingdom of Saxony, and for the first time allowed Talleyrand to participate in all Big Four (now Big Five) discussions. With the new consensus, the major issues concerning Poland and Germany were settled in the second week of February 1815. Austria gained land in the partition of Poland and prevented the Prussian annexation of Saxony, but was forced to accept Russian dominance in Poland and increasing Prussian influence in Germany. Metternich now focused on getting the various German states to cede historic rights to a new Federal Diet that could stand up to Prussia. He also assisted the Swiss Committee and worked on a myriad of smaller issues, like navigation rights on the Rhine. The beginning of Lent on 8 February brought him more time to devote to these congressional issues as well as private discussions about southern Italy, where Joachim Murat was said to be raising a Neapolitan army. On 7 March Metternich was awakened with the news that Napoleon had escaped from his island prison of Elba and within an hour had met with both the Tsar and the King of Prussia. Metternich wanted no rash change of course, and at first, there was little impact on the Congress. Finally, on 13 March the Big Five declared Napoleon an outlaw and the Allies began preparations for renewed fighting. On 25 March they signed a treaty committing each to send 150,000 men with little sign of their prior divisive stances. After the military commanders left, the Vienna Congress settled down to serious work, fixing the boundaries of an independent Netherlands, formalising proposals for a loose confederation of Swiss cantons, and ratifying earlier agreements over Poland. By late April only two major issues remained, the organisation of a new German federation and the problem of Italy. The latter soon began to come to a head. Austria had solidified its control over Lombardy-Venice and extended its protection to provinces nominally under the control of Francis' daughter Marie Louise. On 18 April Metternich announced that Austria was formally at war with Murat's Naples. Austria won the Battle of Tolentino on 3 May and captured Naples less than three weeks later. Metternich then was able to delay a decision on the future of the country until after Vienna. Discussions about Germany would drag on until early June when a joint Austrian-Prussian proposition was ratified. It left most constitutional issues to the new diet; its president would be Emperor Francis himself. Despite criticism from within Austria, Metternich was pleased with the outcome and the degree of control it granted Habsburgs, and, through them, himself. Certainly, Metternich was able to use the diet to his own ends on numerous occasions. The arrangement was similarly popular with most German representatives. A summation treaty was signed on 19 June (the Russians signed a week later), bringing the Vienna Congress officially to an end. Metternich himself had left on 13 June for the front line, prepared for a lengthy war against Napoleon. Napoleon, however, was defeated decisively at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June. Paris and Italy Metternich was soon back with coalition allies in Paris, once more discussing peace terms. After 133 days of negotiations, longer than the turmoil itself, the second Treaty of Paris was concluded on 20 November. Metternich, of the opinion that France should not be dismembered, was happy with the result: France lost only a little land along its eastern borders, seven hundred million French francs, and the artworks it had plundered. It also accepted an army of occupation numbering 150,000. In the meantime a separate treaty, proposed by Alexander and redrafted by Metternich, had been signed on 26 September. This created a new Holy Alliance centered on Russia, Prussia and Austria; it was a document Metternich neither pushed for nor wanted, given its vaguely liberal sentiments. Representatives from most of the European states eventually signed, with the exception of the Pope, the United Kingdom, and the Ottoman Empire. Shortly afterwards, a separate treaty reaffirmed the Quadruple Alliance and established through its sixth article the Congress System of regular diplomatic meetings. With Europe at peace, the Austrian flag now flew over 50% more land than when Metternich had become Foreign Minister. Metternich now returned to the question of Italy, making his first visit to the country in early December 1815. After visiting Venice, his family joined him in Milan on 18 December. For once it was Metternich playing the liberal, vainly urging Francis to give the region some autonomy. Metternich spent four months in Italy, endlessly busy and suffering chronic inflammation of the eyelids. He tried to control Austrian foreign policy from Milan and when there was a serious disagreement between the Empire and the Kingdom of Bavaria, was heavily criticised for his absence. His enemies could not capitalise on this, however; Stadion was occupied by his work as finance minister and the Empress Maria Ludovika, a fierce critic of Metternich's policies, died in April. The uncharacteristic gap between the views of Metternich and his emperor was eased only by the active compromise of proposals. Metternich returned to Vienna on 28 May 1816 after almost a year's absence. Professionally, the rest of 1816 passed quietly for the tired Minister, who was concerned with fiscal policy and monitoring the spread of liberalism in Germany and nationalism in Italy. Personally, he was shaken in November by the death of Julie Zichy-Festetics. Two years later he wrote that his "life ended there," and his old frivolity took some time to return. The only consolation was July's news that Metternich was to receive new estates along the Rhine at Johannisberg, only from his birthplace at Koblenz. In June 1817 Metternich was required to escort the emperor's newlywed daughter Maria Leopoldina to a ship at Livorno. There was delay upon their arrival, and Metternich spent the time travelling around Italy again; he visited Venice, Padua, Ferrara, Pisa, Florence and Lucca. Though alarmed by developments (he noted that many of Francis' concessions were still not in practice), he was optimistic and made another plea for decentralisation on 29 August. After this failed, Metternich decided to broaden his efforts into general administrative reform to avoid the appearance of favouring the Italians over the rest of the Empire. While working on this, he returned to Vienna on 12 September 1817 to be immediately caught up in the organisation of his daughter Maria's marriage to Count Joseph Esterházy just three days later. It proved too much, and Metternich was taken ill. After a delay for recovery, Metternich condensed his proposals for Italy into three documents he submitted to Francis, all dated 27 October 1817. The administration would remain undemocratic, but there would be a new Ministry of Justice and four new chancellors—each with local remits, including one for "Italy". Importantly, the divisions would be regional, not national. In the end, Francis accepted the revised proposals, albeit with several alterations and restrictions. Aachen, Teplice, Karlsbad, Troppau and Laibach Metternich's primary focus remained on preserving unity among the Great Powers of Europe and hence his own power as mediator. He was also concerned by liberal-minded Ioannis Kapodistrias' increasing influence over Tsar Alexander and the continual threat of Russia annexing large areas of the declining Ottoman Empire (the so-called Eastern Question). As he had earlier envisaged, by April 1818 Britain had drawn up, and Metternich pushed through, proposals to have a Congress at Aachen, then a Prussian frontier town, six months later. Meanwhile, Metternich was advised to go to the spa town of Karlsbad to treat the rheumatic tension in his back. It was a pleasant month-long trip, although it was there he received news of the death of his father at the age of 72. He visited the family estate at Königswart and then Frankfurt in late August to encourage the member states of the German Confederation to agree on procedural issues. He could also now visit Koblenz for the first time in 25 years and his new estate at Johannisberg. Travelling with Emperor Francis, he was warmly greeted by the Catholic towns along the Rhine as he progressed towards Aachen. He had arranged in advance for newspapers to cover the first peacetime congress of its kind. As discussions began, Metternich pushed for the withdrawal of allied troops from France and means for preserving the unity of the European powers. The former was agreed almost immediately, but the latter agreement extended only to maintaining the Quadruple Alliance. Metternich rejected the Tsar's idealistic plans for (among other things) a single European army. His own recommendations to the Prussians for greater controls on freedom of speech was equally hard for other powers such as Britain to support openly. Metternich travelled with Princess Dorothea von Lieven to Brussels soon after the congress broke up, and although he could not stay more than a few days, the pair exchanged letters for the next eight years. He arrived in Vienna on 11 December 1818 and was finally able to spend considerable time with his children. He entertained the Tsar during the Christmas season and spent twelve weeks monitoring Italy and Germany before setting off with the Emperor on the third trip to Italy. The trip was cut short by the assassination of the conservative German dramatist August von Kotzebue. After a short delay, Metternich decided that if the German governments would not act against this perceived problem, Austria would have to compel them. He called an informal conference in Karlsbad and sounded out Prussian support beforehand by meeting with Frederick William III of Prussia in Teplice in July. Metternich carried the day, using a recent attempt on the life of the Chief Minister of Nassau, Carl Ibell to win agreement for the conservative program now known as the Convention of Teplitz. The Karlsbad conference opened on 6 August and ran for the rest of the month. Metternich overcame any opposition to his proposed "group of anti-revolutionary measures, correct and preemptory", although they were condemned by outsiders. Despite censure Metternich was very pleased with the result, known as the Carlsbad Decrees. At the conference in Vienna later in the year, Metternich found himself constrained by the Kings of Württemberg and Bavaria to abandon his plans to reform the German federation. He now regretted having so quickly forced through its original constitution five years before. Nevertheless, he held ground on other issues and the Conference's Final Act was highly reactionary, much as Metternich had envisaged it. He remained in Vienna until the close in May 1820, finding the whole affair a bore. On 6 May he heard of the death of his daughter Klementine from tuberculosis. Journeying on to Prague, he heard that his eldest daughter Maria had also contracted the disease. He was at her bedside in Baden bei Wien when she died on 20 July. This prompted Eleonore and the remaining children to leave for the cleaner air of France. The rest of 1820 was filled with liberal revolts to which Metternich was expected to respond. Ultimately, the Austrian Foreign Minister was torn between following through on his conservative pledge (a policy favoured by the Russians) and keeping out of a country in which Austria had no interest (favoured by the British). He chose "sympathetic inactivity" on Spain but, much to his dismay and surprise, Guglielmo Pepe led a revolt in Naples in early July and forced King Ferdinand I to accept a new constitution. Metternich reluctantly agreed to attend the Russian-initiated Congress of Troppau in October to discuss these events. He need not have worried: the Tsar gave way and accepted a compromise proposal of moderate interventionism. Still worried by Kapodistrias' influence over the Tsar, he laid down his conservative principles in a long memorandum, including an attack on the free press and the initiative of the middle classes. The Congress disbanded in the third week of December, and the next step would be a congress at Laibach to discuss intervention with Ferdinand. Metternich found himself able to dominate Laibach more than any other congress, overseeing Ferdinand's rejection of the liberal constitution he had agreed to only months before. Austrian armies left for Naples in February and entered the city in March. The Congress was adjourned but, forewarned or by luck, Metternich kept representatives of the powers close at hand until the revolt was put down. As a result, when similar revolts broke out in Piedmont in the middle of March, Metternich had the Tsar at hand, who agreed to send 90,000 men to the frontier in a show of solidarity. Concerns grew in Vienna that Metternich's policy was too expensive. He responded that Naples and Piedmont would pay for stability; nonetheless, he, too, was clearly worried for the future of Italy. He was relieved when able to create a Court Chancellor and Chancellor of State on 25 May, a post left vacant since the death of Kaunitz in 1794. He was also pleased at the renewed (if fragile) closeness between Austria, Prussia and Russia; however, it had come at the expense of the Anglo-Austrian entente. Chancellor Hanover, Verona, and Czernowitz In 1821, while Metternich was still at Laibach with Tsar Alexander, the revolt of Prince Alexander Ypsilantis threatened to bring the Ottoman Empire to the brink of collapse. Wanting a strong Ottoman Empire to counterbalance Russia, Metternich opposed all forms of Greek nationalism. Before Alexander returned to Russia, Metternich secured his agreement not to act unilaterally and would write to the Tsar, again and again, asking him not to intervene. For extra support he met with Viscount Castlereagh (now also Marquis of Londonderry) and King George IV of the United Kingdom in Hanover in October. The warmness of Metternich's welcome was sweetened by his promise to settle in part Austria's financial debts to Britain. The earlier Anglo-Austrian entente was thus restored, and the pair agreed that they would support the Austrian position concerning the Balkans. Metternich went away happy, not least because he had met Dorothea Lieven once more. Over Christmas, the Tsar wavered more than Metternich had expected and sent Dmitry Tatishchev to Vienna in February 1822 for talks with Metternich. Metternich soon convinced the "conceited and ambitious" Russian to let him dictate events. In return Austria promised to support Russia in enforcing its treaties with the Ottomans if the other alliance members would do likewise; Metternich was aware this was politically impossible for the British. Metternich's adversary at the Russian court, Kapodistrias, retired from service there; however, by the end of April there was a new threat: Russia now determined to intervene in Spain, action Metternich described as "utter nonsense". He played for time, convincing his ally Castlereagh to come to Vienna for talks before a scheduled congress in Verona, although Castlereagh died by suicide on 12 August. With Castlereagh dead and relations with the British weakening, Metternich had lost a useful ally. The Congress of Verona was a fine social event but diplomatically less successful. Supposedly concerned with Italy, the Congress had to focus on Spain instead. Austria urged non-intervention, but it was the French that carried the day with their proposal for a joint invasion force. Prussia committed men, and the Tsar pledged 150,000. Metternich worried about the difficulties of transporting such numbers to Spain and about French ambitions, but still pledged (if only moral) support for the joint force. He lingered in Verona until 18 December, then spending some days in Venice with the Tsar and then by himself in Munich. He returned to Vienna in early January 1823 and remained until September; after Verona, he travelled much less than before, partly because of his new post as Chancellor and partly because of his declining health. He was buoyed by the arrival of his family from Paris in May. He shone once more in Viennese society. Politically, the year was one of disappointments. In March the French crossed the Pyrenees unilaterally, undoing the "moral solidarity" established at Verona. Likewise, Metternich thought the new Pope Leo XII too pro-French, and there was trouble between Austria and several German states over why they had not been included at Verona. Furthermore, Metternich, in discrediting the Russian diplomat Pozzo di Borgo, instead renewed the Tsar's former suspicion of him. Worse came in late September: while accompanying the Emperor to a meeting with Alexander at Czernowitz, an Austrian settlement now in Ukraine, Metternich fell ill with a fever. He could not continue and had to make do with brief talks with the Russian Foreign Minister, Count Karl Robert von Nesselrode-Ehreshoven. At the Czernowitz talks, in Metternich's absence, an impatient Tsar asked for a congress in the then Russian capital Saint Petersburg to discuss the Eastern Question. Metternich, wary of letting the Russians dominate affairs, could only play for time. The Tsar's dual proposal for the St Petersburg meetings, a settlement of the Eastern Question favourable to Russia and limited autonomy for three Greek principalities, was a pairing unpalatable to the other European powers, and potential attendees like British Foreign Secretary George Canning slowly turned away, much to the annoyance of Alexander. Metternich believed for several months afterward that he had gained a unique level of influence over the Tsar. Meanwhile, he renewed the conservative program he had outlined at Karlsbad five years before and sought to further increase Austrian influence over the German Federal Diet. He also informed the press they could no longer publicise the minutes of Diet meetings, only its rulings. In January 1825 he began to worry about his wife Eleonore's health and he reached her sickbed in Paris shortly before her death on 19 March. Mourning sincerely for her, he also took the opportunity to dine with the Paris elite. An aside he made about the Tsar there was reported back and did not enhance his reputation. He left Paris for the last time on 21 April and was joined by the Emperor in Milan after arriving on 7 May. He declined the Pope's invitation to become a cardinal of the church. There was also a short trip to Genoa. Early in July the court dispersed and Metternich visited his daughters Leontine (fourteen) and Hermine (nine) in the quiet town of Bad Ischl. Despite the seclusion, he received constant reports, including those of ominous developments in the Ottoman Empire, where the Greek revolt was rapidly being crushed by Ibrahim Ali of Egypt. He also had to deal with the fallout from St. Petersburg where the Tsar, although unable to convene a full congress, had talked with all the major ambassadors. By mid-May it was clear the allies could not decide on a course of action and, as such, the Holy Alliance was no longer a viable political entity. Hungarian Diets, Alexander I's death, and problems in Italy In the early 1820s, Metternich had advised Francis that convening the Hungarian Diet would help get approval for financial reform. In fact, the Diet of 1825 to 1827 saw 300 sessions filled with criticism of how the Empire had eroded the historic rights of the Kingdom of Hungary's nobility. Metternich complained that it "interfered with [his] time, [his] customs and [his] daily life", as he was forced to travel to Pressburg (modern-day Bratislava) to perform ceremonial duties and to observe. He was alarmed by the growth of Hungarian national sentiment and wary of the growing influence of nationalist István Széchenyi, whom he had met twice in 1825. Back in Vienna, in mid-December, he heard of the death of Tsar Alexander with mixed feelings. He had known the Tsar well and was reminded of his own frailty, although the death potentially wiped the soured diplomatic slate clean. Moreover, he could claim credit for foreseeing the Decembrist liberal revolt the new Tsar Nicholas I had to crush. Now 53, Metternich chose to send Archduke Ferdinand to establish the first contact with Nicholas. Metternich was also friendly with the British envoy (the Duke of Wellington) and enlisted his help to charm Nicholas. Despite this, the first 18 months of Nicholas' reign did not go well for Metternich: firstly, the British were chosen over the Austrians to oversee Russian-Ottoman talks; and, as a result, Metternich could exercise no influence over the resulting Akkerman Convention. France too began to drift away from Metternich's non-interventionist position. In August 1826 Russian Foreign Minister Nesselrode rejected a proposal by Metternich to convene a congress to discuss the events that eventually led to the outbreak of civil war in Portugal. The Austrian Foreign Minister accepted this with "surprising resilience". On 29 March 1827 Metternich spoke and attended the funeral of Beethoven in front of a crowd of about 30,000 people. On 5 November 1827 Baroness Antoinette von Leykam, daughter of diplomat Christoph Ambros Baron von Leykam (1777–1830) and Donna Antonia Caputo dei Marchesi della Petrella (b.1783), became Metternich's second wife. She was only twenty, and their marriage, a small affair at Hetzendorf (a village just outside Vienna), drew considerable criticism considering their difference in status. She belonged to the lower nobility, but Antoinette's grace and charm soon won over Viennese society. The same day British, Russian and French forces destroyed the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Navarino. Metternich worried that further intervention would topple the Ottoman Empire, upsetting the balance so carefully created in 1815. To his relief, the new British Prime Minister Wellington and his cabinet were equally fearful of giving Russia the upper hand in the Balkans. After another round of his proposals for congresses was rejected, Metternich stood back from the Eastern Question, watching as the Treaty of Adrianople was signed in September 1829. Though he publicly criticised it for being too harsh on Turkey, privately he was satisfied with its leniency and promise of Greek autonomy, making it a buffer against Russian expansion rather than a Russian satellite state. Metternich's private life was filled with grief. In November 1828 his mother died, and in January 1829 Antoinette died, five days after giving birth to their son, Richard von Metternich. After fighting tuberculosis for many months, Metternich's son Viktor, then a junior diplomat, died on 30 November 1829. Consequently, he spent Christmas alone and depressed, worried by the draconian methods of some of his fellow conservatives and by the renewed march of liberalism. In May Metternich took a much-needed holiday on his estate at Johannisberg. He returned to Vienna a month later, still worried by the "chaos in London and Paris" and his declining ability to prevent it. Hearing Nesselrode was due to take the waters at Karlsbad, he met him there in late July. He berated the quiet Nesselrode, but no offence was taken. The two arranged a second meeting in August. In the interim Metternich heard of France's July Revolution, which deeply shocked him and theoretically posed the need for a congress of the Quadruple Alliance. Instead, Metternich met with Nesselrode as planned and, while the Russian rejected his plan to restore the old Alliance, the pair agreed on the Chiffon of Karlsbad: that panic was needless unless the new government showed territorial ambitions in Europe. Although pleased by this, Metternich's mood was soured by news of unrest in Brussels (then part of the Netherlands), the resignation of Wellington in London, and calls for constitutionality in Germany. He wrote with sombre and "almost morbid relish" that it was the "beginning of the end" of Old Europe. Nonetheless, he was heartened by the fact that the July Revolution had made a Franco-Russian alliance impossible and that the Netherlands had called an old-style congress of the sort he enjoyed so much. The 1830 convocation of the Hungarian Diet was also more successful than past ones, crowning Archduke Ferdinand as King of Hungary with little dissent. Moreover, by November his betrothal to 25-year-old Countess Melanie Zichy-Ferraris, who came from a Magyar family the Metternichs had long known, was agreed upon. The announcement caused far less consternation in Vienna than Metternich's previous bride, and they were married on 30 January 1831. In February 1831 rebels took the cities of Parma, Modena and Bologna and appealed to France for help. Their former masters appealed for help from Austria, but Metternich was anxious not to march Austrian troops into the Papal States without authorisation from the new Pope Gregory XVI. He occupied Parma and Modena, however, and eventually did cross into Papal territory. As a result, Italy was pacified by the end of March. He authorised troop withdrawal from the Papal States in July, but by January 1832 they were back to put down a second rebellion. By now Metternich was ageing noticeably: his hair was grey and his face drawn and sunken, although his wife still enjoyed his company. In February 1832 a daughter, also Melanie, was born; in 1833 a son, Klemens, though he died aged two months; in October 1834 a second son, Paul; and in 1837 his third with Melanie, Lothar. Politically, Metternich had a new adversary, Lord Palmerston, who had taken over at the British Foreign Office in 1830. By the end of 1832, they had clashed on virtually every issue. "In short," Metternich wrote, "Palmerston is wrong about everything". Mostly, Metternich was annoyed by his insistence that under the 1815 agreements Britain had the right to oppose Austria's tightening of university controls in Germany, as Metternich had done again in 1832. Metternich also worried that if future congresses were held in Britain, as Palmerston wanted, his own influence would be significantly reduced. Eastern Question revisited and peace in Europe In 1831 Egypt invaded the Ottoman Empire. There were fears of the Empire's total collapse, by which Austria stood to gain little. Metternich therefore proposed multilateral support for the Ottomans and a Viennese Congress to sort out details, but the French were evasive and the British refused to support any congress held in Vienna. By the summer of 1833 Anglo-Austrian relations had hit a new low. With Russia Metternich was more confident of exerting influence. He was mistaken, however, and left to observe from afar Russian intervention in the region (culminating in the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi). He still arranged to meet with the King of Prussia at Teplitz and accompany Francis to meet Tsar Nicholas at Münchengrätz in September 1833. The former meeting went well: Metternich still felt able to dominate the Prussians, despite their rising economic prominence in Europe. The latter was more strained but, as Nicholas warmed, three Münchengrätz Agreements were reached that shaped a new conservative league to uphold the existing order in Turkey, Poland, and elsewhere. Metternich left happy; his sole disappointment was having to commit to being tougher on Polish nationalists. Almost immediately, he heard of the creation of the Quadruple Alliance of 1834 between Britain, France, Spain and Portugal. This alliance of liberals was such an affront to Austrian values that Palmerston wrote he "should like to see Metternich's face when he reads our treaty". It did indeed draw bitter condemnation, mostly because it provided the occasion for an outbreak of war. Metternich tried two tacks: to intrigue for the removal of the British Foreign Secretary and to attempt (vainly) to build up cross-power bloc agreements. Palmerston did indeed leave office in November, but only temporarily and not by any of Metternich's attempts. Large-scale war, however, had been avoided and the Quadruple Alliance was beginning to disintegrate. On 2 March 1835 Emperor Francis died, succeeded by his epileptic son Ferdinand I. Despite the widespread opinion that Ferdinand was a "ghost of a monarch", Metternich valued legitimacy highly and worked to keep the government running. He soon accompanied Ferdinand on his first meeting with Tsar Nicholas and the King of Prussia, again at Teplitz. Ferdinand was overwhelmed, especially as the delegations paraded into Prague. Overall, however, it was an untroubled meeting. The next few years passed relatively peacefully for Metternich: diplomatic incident was limited to the occasional angry exchange with Palmerston and Metternich's failure to be a mediator between the British and Russians over their Black Sea dispute. He also put effort into bringing new technology like the railways into Austria. The most pressing issue was Hungary, where Metternich remained reluctant to support the centrist (but still nationalist) Széchenyi. His hesitancy is "a sad commentary on his declining powers of political presence". At court Metternich increasingly lost power to the rising star Franz Anton von Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky, particularly in his proposals to increase military budgets. After his failed attempt in 1836 to force constitutional reform (which would have afforded him greater influence)—largely thwarted by the more liberally minded Archduke John—Metternich was forced to share more power with Kolowrat and Archduke Ludwig as part of Austria's Secret State Conference. Decision making ground to a halt. Entertaining and maintaining his estates at Johannisberg, Königswart and Plasy (together with Mariánská Týnice) were consuming much of his resources at a time when he had four young children to support, causing him more stress. Metternich had long predicted a new crisis in the East, and when the Second Turko-Egyptian War broke out in 1839 he was anxious to re-establish Austria's diplomatic credentials. He quickly gathered representatives in Vienna, whence on 27 July they issued a communiqué to Constantinople pledging support. However, Tsar Nicholas sent Metternich a message from St Petersburg challenging Vienna's claim to diplomatic centrality. Metternich worked so furiously that he fell ill, spending the next five weeks resting at Johannisberg. The Austrians lost the initiative, and Metternich had to accept that London would be the new centre of negotiations over the Eastern Question. Just three weeks after its creation, Metternich's European League of Great Powers (his diplomatic response to aggressive moves by French Prime Minister Adolphe Thiers) had become a mere curiosity. Little, too, was heard of his proposals to hold a congress in Germany. A separate attempt to strengthen the influence of ambassadors stationed in Vienna was also rejected. This set the tone for the rest of Metternich's chancellorship. His illness had, it seemed to others, broken his love of being in office. Over the next decade, his wife prepared quietly for his retirement or death in office. Metternich's work during the early 1840s was dominated again by Hungary and, more generally, questions of national identity within the diverse Austrian Empire. Here, Metternich "showed [moments of] acute perception". His Hungarian proposals came far too late, however, as Lajos Kossuth had already led the rise of strong Hungarian nationalism. Metternich's support for other nationalities was patchy since he only opposed those that threatened the unity of the Empire. At the Conference of State Metternich lost his principal ally Count Karl von Clam-Martinic in 1840, which furthered the growing paralysis at the heart of Austrian government. Metternich now struggled to enforce even the level of censorship he desired. There were no major challenges to the regime from outside. Italy was quiet, and neither Metternich's attempt to lecture the new Prussian king Frederick William IV nor the boredom of the new British Queen Victoria at their first meeting posed immediate problems. Far more worrying was Tsar Nicholas, whose estimation of the Habsburg dynasty and Austria was low. After an impromptu tour of Italy in 1845, the Tsar unexpectedly stopped in Vienna. Already in a bad mood, he was an awkward guest, though in between criticisms of Austria he reassured Metternich that Russia was not about to invade the Ottoman Empire again. Two months later their countries were required to work together over the Galician slaughter and a declaration of independence from Kraków. Metternich authorised the occupation of the city and the use of troops to restore order in surrounding areas, intent on undoing the pseudo-independence that had been granted Kraków in 1815. After months of negotiations with Prussia and Russia, Austria annexed the city in November 1846. Metternich regarded it as a personal victory, but it was an act of dubious utility: not only were Polish dissidents now officially part of Austria, the Europe-wide Polish dissident movement was now worked actively against the "Metternich system" that had overridden the rights enshrined in 1815. Britain and France appeared similarly outraged, although calls for Metternich's resignation were ignored. For the next two years, Ferdinand could not abdicate in favour of his nephew without a regency; Metternich believed Austria would need him in the interim to hold the government together. Revolution Though Metternich was tiring, memoranda kept pouring forth from his chancellery. Despite this, he did not foresee the building crisis. The new Pope Pius IX was gaining a reputation as a liberal nationalist, counterbalancing Metternich and Austria; at the same time, the Empire experienced unemployment and rising prices as a result of poor harvests. Metternich was bemused at the outcry from Italians, the Pope, and Palmerston when he ordered the occupation of Papal-controlled Ferrara in the summer of 1847. Despite securing French agreement for the first time in years from François Guizot over the Swiss Civil War, France and Austria were forced into backing breakaway cantons. The pair proposed a conference, but the government crushed the revolt. It was a major blow to Metternich's prestige, and his opponents in Vienna called it evidence of his incompetence. In January 1848 Metternich predicted trouble in Italy during the year ahead. He acted on this by dispatching an envoy, Karl Ludwig von Ficquelmont to Italy; by resurrecting his 1817 plans for an Italian chancellery; and by arranging various contingency plans with the French. In late February Austrian Field Marshal Joseph Radetsky placed Austrian Italy (Lombardy-Venetia) under martial law as disturbances spread. Despite this and hearing of renewed revolution in France, Metternich was cautious, still thinking domestic revolution unlikely. He was described by a Saxon diplomat as, in the words of biographer Musulin, "having shrunk to a shadow of his former self". On 3 March Kossuth gave a fiery speech in the Hungarian Diet, calling for a constitution. It was not until 10 March that Metternich appeared concerned about events in Vienna, where there were now threats and counter-threats flying. Two petitions were organised, calling for greater freedom, transparency, and representation. Students were involved in several demonstrations, culminating on 13 March when they cheered the imperial family but voiced anger at Metternich. After a customary morning, Metternich was called to meet with Archduke Ludwig soon after midday. The Chancellor had troops sent into the streets while also announcing a prearranged and minimal concession. In the afternoon the crowd turned hostile, and a division of troops opened fire on it, killing five. The mob was now truly incited, as the liberals were joined by underprivileged Viennese set on wreaking havoc. The students offered to form a pro-government Academic Legion if their demands were met. Ludwig was eager to accept and told Metternich he must resign, to which he reluctantly agreed. After sleeping in the Chancellery he was advised to either take back his resignation or leave the city. After Ludwig sent him a message to the effect that the government could not guarantee his safety, Metternich left for the house of Count Taaffe and then, with aid from friends Charles von Hügel and Johann Rechberg, reached the family seat of Prince Liechtenstein forty miles away at Feldsberg. Metternich's daughter Leontine joined them on 21 March and suggested England as a haven; agreeing, Metternich, Melanie and 19-year-old Richard set out, leaving the younger children with Leontine. Metternich's resignation had been met with cheering in Vienna, and even the Viennese commoners welcomed the end of Metternich's era of social conservatism. Exile, return, and death After an anxious journey of nine days during which they were honoured in some towns and refused entry to others, Metternich, his wife, and son Richard arrived in the Dutch city of Arnhem. They stayed until Metternich regained his strength, then reached Amsterdam and The Hague, where they waited to hear the results of a demonstration by English chartists, planned for 10 April. On 20 April they landed at Blackwall in London, where they stayed in the Brunswick Hotel in Hanover Square for a fortnight until they found a permanent residence. Metternich largely enjoyed his time in London: the Duke of Wellington, now nearly eighty, tried to keep him entertained, and there were also visits from Palmerston, Guizot (now also in exile) and Benjamin Disraeli, who enjoyed his political conversation. The sole disappointment was that Victoria herself did not acknowledge his presence in the capital. The trio leased a house, 44 Eaton Square, for four months. The younger children joined them in the summer. He followed events in Austria from afar, famously denying ever having erred; in fact, he declared the turmoil in Europe to be a vindication of his policies. In Vienna, a hostile post-censorship press continued to attack him; in particular, they accused him of embezzlement and accepting bribes, prompting an investigation. Metternich was eventually cleared of the more extreme charges, and searches for evidence of the lesser ones came up empty-handed. (In all likelihood Metternich's large expense claims were merely a product of the necessities of early 19th-century diplomacy.) Meanwhile, as he was denied his pension, Metternich was ironically reliant on loans. In mid-September, the family moved to 42 Brunswick Terrace, Brighton, on the south coast of England where the tranquillity of life contrasted greatly with revolutionary Europe left behind. Parliamentary figures, particularly Disraeli, travelled down to visit them, as did Metternich's former friend Dorothea Lieven (Melanie led a reconciliation between the two). Expecting a visit from Metternich's daughter Leontine and her own daughter Pauline, the family moved to a suite of rooms at Richmond Palace on 23 April 1849. Visitors included Wellington, who still watched out for Metternich; Johann Strauss, the composer; and Dorothea de Dino, sister of Metternich's former lover Wilhemine of Sagan; and former lover Catherine Bagration. Metternich was showing his age, and his frequent fainting was cause for worry. The ex-Chancellor was also depressed by the lack of communication from the new Emperor Franz Joseph I and his government. Leontine wrote to Vienna trying to encourage this contact, and in August Metternich received a warm letter from Franz Joseph; sincere or not, it buoyed Metternich considerably. From mid-August Melanie began to push for a move to Brussels, a city cheaper to live in and closer to continental affairs. They arrived in October, staying overnight in the Hotel Bellevue. With revolution subsiding, Metternich was hopeful they would return to Vienna. Their stay in fact lasted over 18 months while Metternich waited for an opportunity to re-enter Austrian politics. It was a pleasant enough (and cheap) stay, first in the Boulevard de l'Observatoire and later in the Sablon area—filled with visits from politicians, writers, musicians and scientists. For Metternich, however, the tedium and homesickness only increased. In March 1851 Melanie induced him to write to the new political force in Vienna, Prince Schwarzenberg, to ask if he might return if he promised not to interfere in public affairs. In April he received an affirmative reply, authorised by Franz Joseph. In May 1851 Metternich left for his Johannisberg estate, which he had last visited in 1845. That summer Metternich enjoyed the company of Prussian representative Otto von Bismarck. He also enjoyed a visit from Frederick William, though the King irritated Metternich by appearing to cultivate him as a tool against Schwarzenberg. In September Metternich returned to Vienna, entertained along the way by various German princes keen to entertain the focus of Prussian intrigue. Metternich was reinvigorated, dropped his nostalgia, and lived in the present for the first time in a decade. Franz Josef asked for his advice on numerous issues (though he was too headstrong to be much influenced by it), and both of the two emerging factions in Vienna courted Metternich; even Tsar Nicholas called on him during a state visit. Metternich was not keen on the new Foreign Minister, Karl Ferdinand von Buol, but thought him sufficiently incompetent that he would be impressionable. Metternich's advice was of varying quality; nonetheless, some of it was usefully insightful, even in modern issues. Now deaf, Metternich wrote endlessly, particularly for an appreciative Franz Josef. He wanted Austrian neutrality in the Crimean War, though Buol did not. In the meantime Metternich's health was slowly failing, and he was a more peripheral figure after the death of his wife Melanie in January 1854. In a brief resurgence of energy in early 1856, he busied himself in arrangements for a marriage between his son Richard and his granddaughter Pauline (Richard's step-sister's daughter) and undertook more travel. The King of the Belgians came to visit, as did Bismarck, and on 16 August 1857, he entertained the future Edward VII of the United Kingdom. Buol, however, was growing more resentful of Metternich's advice, particularly about Italy. In April 1859 Franz Josef came to ask him about what should be done in Italy. According to Pauline, Metternich begged him not to send an ultimatum to Italy, and Franz Josef explained that such an ultimatum had already been sent. In this way, much to Metternich's disappointment and to Franz Josef's embarrassment, Austria began the Second Italian War of Independence against the combined forces of Piedmont-Sardinia and its ally France. Though Metternich was able to secure the replacement of Buol with his friend Rechberg, who had helped him so much in 1848, involvement in the war itself was now beyond his capacity. Even a special task given to him by Franz Josef in June 1859—to draw up secret papers addressing the event of Franz Josef's death—was now too taxing. Shortly afterwards Metternich died in Vienna on 11 June 1859, aged 86, and the last great figure of his generation. Almost everyone of note in Vienna came to pay tribute; in the foreign press, his death went virtually unnoticed. Historians' assessment Historians agree on Metternich's skill as a diplomat and his dedication to conservatism. According to Arthur May, he believed that: the mass of Europeans yearned for security, quiet, and peace, and regarded liberal abstractions as repugnant or were utterly indifferent to them. The best of all patterns of government, he insisted, was autocratic absolutism, upheld by a loyal army, by a submissive, decently efficient bureaucracy and police machine, and by trustworthy churchmen. Particularly during the remainder of the nineteenth century, Metternich was heavily criticised, decried as the man who prevented Austria and the rest of central Europe from "developing along normal liberal and constitutional lines". Had Metternich not stood in the way of "progress", Austria might have reformed, dealt better with its problems of nationality, and the First World War might never have happened. Instead, Metternich chose to fight an overwhelmingly fruitless war against the forces of liberalism and nationalism. Heavy censorship was just one of a range of repressive instruments of state available to him that also included a large spy network. Metternich opposed electoral reform, criticising Britain's 1832 Reform Bill. In short, he locked himself into an embittered battle against "the prevailing mood of his age". On the other hand, Metternich's diplomacy and statesmanship became the focus of praise in the twentieth century from more favourably inclined historians, particularly biographer . For example, particularly after WWII, historians were more likely to defend Metternich's policies as reasonable attempts to achieve his goals, chiefly the balance of power in Europe. Sympathetic historians point out that Metternich correctly foresaw and worked to prevent Russian dominance in Europe, succeeding where his successors would fail 130 years later. As argued by Srbik, Metternich himself pursued legality, cooperation, and dialogue, and therefore helped ensure thirty years of peace, the "Age of Metternich". Authors like Peter Viereck and Ernst B. Haas also give Metternich credit for his more liberal ideals, even if they weighed relatively little in his overall policies. Critical views presuppose Metternich had the ability to shape Europe favorably but chose not to. More modern critiques like that of A. J. P. Taylor have questioned how much influence Metternich actually wielded. Robin Okey, a critic of Metternich, noted that even in the realm of foreign affairs Metternich "had only his own persuasiveness to rely on", and this degraded over time. By this interpretation, his task was to create a "smokescreen" that hid Austria's true weakness. When it came to choosing a set of sound principles, wrote Taylor, "most men could do better while shaving." The result was that Metternich was no captivating diplomat: Taylor described him as "the most boring man in European history". Not only were his failures limited to foreign affairs, critics argue: at home he was equally powerless, failing to effect even his own proposals for administrative reform. In contrast, those who have attempted to rehabilitate Metternich describe him as "unquestionably [a] master of diplomacy", someone who perfected and indeed shaped the nature of diplomacy in his era. In a similar vein, Alan Sked argues that Metternich's "smokescreen" may well have served a purpose in furthering a relatively coherent set of principles. Issue Metternich's children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren are (names are untranslated): With Countess Maria Eleonore von Kaunitz-Rietberg (10 October 1775 – 19 March 1825): Maria Leopoldina (17 January 1797 – 24 July 1820), married on 15 September 1817 to Count Jozsef Esterházy de Galántha. No issue. Franz Karl Johann Georg (21 February 1798 – 3 December 1799). Klemens Eduard (10 June 1799 – 15 June 1799). Franz Karl Viktor Ernst Lothar Clemens Joseph Anton Adam (12 January 1803 – 30 November 1829); he had one illegitimate son with Claire Clemence Henriette Claudine de Maillé de La Tour-Landry, daughter of the 2nd Duc de Maillé: Roger Armand Viktor Maurice, Baron von Aldenburg (21 October 1827 – 14 October 1906), unmarried. Klementine Marie Octavie (30 August 1804 – 6 May 1820). Leontine Adelheid Maria Pauline (18 June 1811 – 16 November 1861), married on 8 February 1835 to Count Moric Sándor de Szlavnicza. They had one daughter: Pauline Klementine Marie Walburga Sándor de Szlavnicza (25 February 1836 – 28 September 1921), married on 13 June 1856 to her uncle Richard von Metternich. Hermine Gabriele (Henrietta) Marie Eleonore Leopoldine (1 September 1815 – December 1890), unmarried. With Baroness Maria Antoinette von Leykam, Countess von Beylstein (15 August 1806 – 17 January 1829): Richard Klemens Josef Lothar Hermann, 2nd Prince Metternich (7 January 1829 – 1 March 1895), married on 13 June 1856 to his niece Pauline Sándor de Szlavnicza. They had three daughters: Sophie Marie Antoinette Leontine Melanie Julie (17 May 1857 – 11 January 1941), married 24 April 1878 to Prince Franz-Albrecht of Oettingen-Oettingen und Oettingen-Spielberg. They had three children: Franz Albert Otto Richard Notger (2 September 1879 – 9 May 1895), Hereditary Prince of Oettingen-Oettingen in Oettingen-Spielberg. Moritz Joseph Richard Notger (5 May 1885 – 4 October 1911), Hereditary Prince of Oettingen-Oettingen in Oettingen-Spielberg. Princess Elisabeth Pauline Georgine Marie Notgera of Oettingen-Oettingen in Oettingen-Spielberg (31 October 1886 – 2 October 1976), married on 19 November 1910 to Prince Viktor III of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst-Breunner-Enkevoirth, Duke of Ratibor and Prince of Corvey. Antoinette Pascalina (20 April 1862 – 5 August 1890), married on 11 July 1885 to Count Georg Wilhelm von Waldstein-Wartenberg. No issue. Klementine Marie Melanie Sofie Leontine Crescentia (27 June 1870 – 25 October 1963), unmarried; she adopted Prince Franz Albrecht of Hohenlohe (born 1920; son of her niece Elisabeth), who assumed the title of Prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst-Metternich-Sándor. With Countess Melania Maria Antonia Zichy-Ferraris de Zich et Vásonykeö (18 January 1805 – 3 March 1854): Melanie Marie Pauline Alexandrine (27 February 1832 – 16 November 1919), married on 20 November 1853 to Count Jozsef Zichy de Zich et Vásonykeö. No issue. Klemens (21 April 1833 – 10 June 1833). Paul Klemens Lothar, 3rd Prince Metternich (14 October 1834 – 6 February 1906), married on 9 May 1868 to his cousin Countess Melania Zichy-Ferraris de Zich und Vásonykeö. They had three children: Klemens II Wenzel Lothar Michal Felix (Richard), 4th Prince Metternich (9 February 1869 – 13 May 1930), married on 4 October 1905 to Isabel de Silva y Carvajal. They had one son: Paul II Alphonse Klemens Lothar Filip Neri Felix Nikomedes, 5th Prince Metternich (26 May 1917 – 21 September 1992), married on 6 September 1941 to Princess Tatiana Hilarionovna Wassiltchikova; he died without issue and the title of Prince Metternich became extinct. Emilie Marie Felicitas (24 February 1873 – 20 January 1884). Pauline Felix Maria (6 January 1880 – 19 May 1960), married on 5 May 1906 to Prince Maximilian Theodor of Thurn und Taxis. They had one daughter. Maria Emilia Stephanie (22 March 1836 – 12 June 1836). Lothar Stephan August Klemens Maria (13 September 1837 – 2 October 1904), married firstly on 21 April 1868 to Karoline Anna Rosalie Johanna Reittner, and secondly on 5 June 1900 to Countess Františka Mittrowsky von Mittrowitz. No issue in both marriages. With Countess Katharina Skavronskaya, by marriage Princess Bagration (illegitimate, acknowledged): Marie-Clementine Bagration (29 September 1810 – 29 May 1829), married on 1 May 1828 to Otto, Lensgraf von Blome. They had one son: Otto Paul Julius Gustav (18 May 1829 – 24 August 1906), Lensgraf von Blome; married on 1 September 1858 to Joséphine, Countess von Buol-Schauenstein. They had nine children: Countess Marie-Clementine Blome (23 June 1860 – died young). Karl Otto Arnold (12 December 1861 – 5 September 1926), Lensgraf von Blome; married on 6 July 1907 to Countess Maria Hedwig Ida Leopolda Hermenegilde of Stolberg-Stolberg. No issue. Countess Maria Sophie von Blome (23 November 1864 – died young). Louis Pius Blome (1 December 1865 – 1930), Lensgraf von Blome. Johannes Hubertus Xaverius (23 February 1867 – 19 July 1945), Lensgraf von Blome; married on 19 November 1901 to Princess Martha Elisabeth Maria Stirbey. They had one daughter. Countess Maria Adeline von Blome (21 August 1868 – died young). Countess Anna Maria von Blome (11 February 1871 – 9 January 1960), married in 1896 to Franz August Joseph Maria, Count of Eltz gen. Faust von Stromberg. They had three children. Countess Maria Giulia Sidonia von Blome (29 December 1873 – 7 January 1939), married in 1906 to Count Joseph von Plaz. They had three children. Countess Maria Karola von Blome (16 January 1877 – 19 July 1951), a nun. Honours and arms Honours Arms Other honours In 1823, botanist J.C.Mikan published a genus of flowering plants from Brazil, belonging to the family Solanaceae as Metternichia in his honour. See also Metternich Stela Notes References Bibliography , by Walter Alison Phillips Primary Sources Walker, Mack, ed. Metternich's Europe: Selected Documents (1968) 352 pp. of primary sources in English translation. Further reading Herman, Arthur. Metternich (1932), biography Kissinger, Henry. "The Conservative Dilemma: Reflections on the Political Thought of Metternich", American Political Science Review, 48#4 (1954), pp. 1017–1030 Šedivý, Miroslav. Metternich, the Great Powers and the Eastern Question (Pilsen: University of West Bohemia Press, 2013) major scholarly study 1032pp Siemann, Wolfram. Metternich: Strategist and Visionary (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2019). A major scholarly work presenting Metternich as a thwarted innovator in the national industrial policy. Woodwards, E. L. Three Studies in European Conservatism. Metternich: Guizot: The Catholic Church In The Nineteenth Century (1923) External links Metternich's Political Profession of Faith 1773 births 1859 deaths Austrian Roman Catholics Austrian monarchists Austrian princes House of Metternich Ambassadors of Austria to Norway Foreign ministers of Austria Austrian Empire people of the Napoleonic Wars Austrian Empire politicians People of the Revolutions of 1848 University of Strasbourg alumni Members of the Württembergian Chamber of Lords Austrian people of German descent Politicians from Koblenz Counter-revolutionaries Conservatism in Austria Counter-Enlightenment Chamberlains of the Emperor of Austria Knights of the Golden Fleece of Austria Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary Bailiffs Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Gregory the Great Grand Crosses of the Order of Christ (Portugal) Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur Grandees of Spain

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave%20Gahan

Dave Gahan

Dave Gahan (; born David Callcott) is an English singer-songwriter, best known as the lead singer of the electronic band Depeche Mode since their debut in 1980. Q magazine ranked Gahan No. 73 on its list of the "100 Greatest Singers" and No. 27 on its list of "The 100 Greatest Frontmen". Gahan is known for his "commanding presence on stage" and his "huge, deep baritone voice". Although his bandmate Martin Gore continues to be the main songwriter for Depeche Mode, Gahan has contributed a number of songs to the albums Playing the Angel (2005), Sounds of the Universe (2009), Delta Machine (2013) and Spirit (2017). Four of these songs were released as singles, including "Suffer Well" in 2005, "Hole to Feed" in 2009, "Should Be Higher" in 2013, and "Cover Me" in 2017. Gahan's albums as a solo artist are Paper Monsters (released 2003) and Hourglass (2007). He also contributed lyrics and sang lead vocals on the Soulsavers albums The Light the Dead See (2012), Angels & Ghosts (2015) and Imposter (2021). Childhood and early years Gahan was born as David Callcott into a working-class family, to parents Len Callcott (a bus driver of Malaysian British ancestry) and his wife Sylvia (a conductress or "clippy" on London buses), Dave was only six months old when his father left the family. Sylvia and Len divorced two years later and his mother moved Dave and sister Sue (born 1960) to Basildon, Essex, after Sylvia met and married her second husband Jack Gahan (an administrator with Shell Oil). The Gahan family continued to grow with the birth of two more half-brothers Peter (born 1966) and Phil (born 1968). Dave and Sue were raised under the impression that their mother's second husband, Jack, was their natural father. When Gahan was 9 years old, his stepfather died. His father showed up again when he was 10. "I'll never forget that day. When I came home from school, there was this stranger in my mum's house. My mother introduced him to me as my real dad. I remember I said, that was impossible because my father was dead. How was I supposed to know who that man was? From that day on, Len often visited the house, until one year later he disappeared again, forever this time." While attending Barstable School on Timberlog Close in Basildon, Gahan started playing truant, got into trouble with the police, was suspended from school and ended up in juvenile court three times for offences ranging from joyriding and graffiti to criminal damage and theft. He enjoyed the thrill of stealing cars, driving them around, and setting them alight. Gahan tells of the time: "I was pretty wild. I loved the excitement of nicking a motor, screeching off and being chased by the police. Hiding behind the wall with your heart beating gives you a real kick – 'will they get you?'". In his final year at school, he applied for a job as an apprentice fitter with North Thames Gas. He was told by his probation officer to be honest with the interviewer, and as a result, he admitted his criminal record but claimed he was a "reformed character." As a result, he did not get the job which, he claimed, led to him trashing his probation officer's office. His punishment was spending Saturdays for a number of weeks at an attendance centre in Romford for one year. Gahan recalls: "You had to work. I remember doing boxing, stuff like that. You had to have your hair cut. It was every weekend, so you were deprived of your weekend and it seemed like forever. I was told very clearly that my next thing was detention centre. To be honest, music saved me." Career in Depeche Mode (1980–present) In March 1980, Martin Gore, Andy Fletcher and Vince Clarke formed the band Composition of Sound, with Clarke on vocals and guitar, Gore on keyboards and Fletcher on bass. Clarke and Fletcher soon switched to synthesizers. The same year, Gahan joined the band after Clarke heard him perform David Bowie's "Heroes." The band was soon renamed Depeche Mode, a name suggested by Gahan after he had come across a fashion magazine called Dépêche-mode. A new wave/synthpop pioneer of the early 1980s, Depeche Mode have released 14 studio albums, four greatest hits compilations and two remix albums. The band has achieved global sales in excess of 100 million records. Four of the band's singles have reached number one on Billboard's Alternative Songs chart: "Enjoy the Silence" (1990), "Policy of Truth" (1990), "I Feel You" (1993), and "Walking in My Shoes" (1993). In a 2003 interview, Gahan shared that "During the making of Exciter, sometimes I felt a bit frustrated that there was a lack of experimentation." This led him, in 2004, to tell his bandmates that he wanted to write half of the songs on their next album, and there was "no way" he could be involved in the band without contributing as a songwriter. Eventually, there was a compromise, and three of Gahan's songs appeared on 2005's Playing the Angel: "Suffer Well" (nominated for a Grammy award), "I Want It All" and "Nothing's Impossible." "Suffer Well" was released as a single in 2006, reaching No. 12 in the UK. Gahan also wrote the lyrics to the B-side "Oh Well", although the music was written by Martin Gore. It was their first writing collaboration. Gahan's persona onstage is influenced by Dave Vanian, frontman of The Damned. He has also credited David Bowie, James Brown, Elvis Presley and Prince as influences. Solo albums and collaborations (1997–present) In 2003, Gahan released his first solo album, Paper Monsters (which he co-wrote with guitarist and friend Knox Chandler), followed by the Paper Monsters Tour (including a performance at 2003's Glastonbury Festival), singing both his new solo tracks and Depeche Mode fan favourites. The album was a moderate success. The first single "Dirty Sticky Floors" hit the Top 20 in the UK Singles Chart. The album became a Top 10 hit on the European album chart and a Top 40 hit in the UK Albums Chart. In 2007, Gahan announced he was working on a new album via a video greeting for Depeche Mode's official website recorded at the 2007 MusiCares Charity event on 11 May. The album, entitled Hourglass, was accompanied working by Andrew Phillpott and Christian Eigner. The material was recorded at Gahan's 11th Floor Studios in New York City. According to Gahan, Hourglass is more electronic-sounding than Paper Monsters. The album made the UK Top 50, the French Top 20 and narrowly missed going to No. 1 in Germany. The first single to be pulled from Hourglass was "Kingdom". In July 2007, Side-Line magazine revealed that Gahan had been working with Thomas Anselmi on a project called Mirror, which was produced by Vincent Jones. Along with Jones, who played with Gahan's touring band and mixed the live DVD Live Monsters, Mirror featured another Gahan collaborator, Knox Chandler (Siouxsie & the Banshees, the Psychedelic Furs), as well as piano by Bowie favourite Mike Garson, and a monologue by Warhol superstar Joe Dallesandro. Gahan sang vocals on the track "Nostalgia". The song was released in October 2008, and the album released via download at the start of 2009. He also appeared in the accompanying video for the song. Gahan also contributed vocals to a track called "Visitors", after walking in while producer and ex-Clor guitarist Luke Smith was working on the song in his New York studio. The song was released under the artist name of frYars. Gahan is the lead singer and lyricist on Soulsavers' fourth studio album The Light the Dead See. The album was released on 21 May 2012. Gahan sings and plays harmonica on "Low Guns", the first single from the 2014 album The Morning After by English band SixToes. The single was released on 18 November 2013. The SixToes remix of "Jezebel" was released on the special edition of Sounds of the Universe in 2009. Members of SixToes also collaborated with Soulsavers, on the album The Light the Dead See. In 2017, Gahan featured on Null + Voids song "Where I wait" from the album Cryosleep where the song features three times in different remixes. In 2018, a remix of the Goldfrapp single "Ocean" featuring guest vocals from Gahan was released as a digital download on 21 May 2018. Regarding the collaboration, the Goldfrapp issued a statement: "Working with Dave Gahan on the new version of 'Ocean' had been a real honor for us as a band." In 2021, Gahan contributed a cover of the Metallica song "Nothing Else Matters" to the charity tribute album The Metallica Blacklist and did guest vocals on a single from Jenny Lee Lindberg. On November 12, 2021, Gahan released an album of covers called Imposter with Soulsavers. Personal life Gahan has lived in New York City since 1997. He lives with his third wife, Jennifer Sklias Gahan; their daughter; and Jennifer’s son from a previous relationship, whom Gahan officially adopted in 2010. Gahan also has a biological son named Jack from his first marriage to Joanne Fox. Gahan's marriage to his second wife, Teresa Conroy, a former Depeche Mode publicist, lasted four years. Gahan is a convert to the Greek Orthodox Church. In a 2008 interview, he explains his religious faith in the following words: "When it comes to religion, it’s very confusing and always has been for thousands of years and probably will be for thousands of years more. I don’t know what it is I believe in, but I know that I feel a sense of some kind of higher power, for lack of better words." Health Gahan is a recovering heroin addict. He has survived four brushes with death, living up to the nickname "The Cat", which paramedics gave him during his roughest years in Los Angeles. In October 1993, Gahan suffered a minor drug-induced heart attack during a performance in New Orleans, leaving his bandmates to improvise an encore without him. In August 1993, he attempted suicide by slashing his wrists; in August 1995, Gahan said it was a "cry for help", and had "made sure there were people who might find me". On 28 May 1996, Gahan overdosed on a speedball at the Sunset Marquis Hotel in Los Angeles, which resulted in his heart stopping for two minutes until he was revived by paramedics. He said he had an out-of-body experience: "All I saw and all I felt at first was complete darkness. I've never been in a space that was blacker, and I remember feeling that whatever it was I was doing, it was really wrong. Then the next thing I remember was seeing myself on the floor, on the steps outside my hotel bathroom, and there was a lot of activity going on around me ... In some ways it was very liberating. Then I came to and a cop was handcuffing me. It certainly wasn't a place I'd like to visit again." Several months later, after facing drug charges, Gahan sought help at a rehabilitation center. On 12 May 2009, shortly before Depeche Mode were due onstage in Athens, Greece, for a concert for their Tour of the Universe, Gahan fell ill in his dressing room. He was rushed to hospital where it was suspected he was suffering from a bout of gastroenteritis. An ultrasound revealed a malignant tumor in his bladder, which was removed. Several shows were postponed and Gahan underwent cancer treatments during the remaining three months of the tour. Gahan suffered a torn calf muscle while performing in Bilbao, Spain, on 9 July 2009, resulting in two further cancellations. After a two-week break, he and Depeche Mode returned to the tour for their North American leg. While performing in Seattle on 10 August 2009, Gahan strained his vocal cords. Doctors ordered Gahan complete vocal rest, resulting in two more cancelled shows. In May 2011, Gahan was honored at the seventh annual MusiCares MAP Fund Benefit Concert in Los Angeles for more than 10 years of sobriety. Discography Studio albums Paper Monsters (2003) Hourglass (2007) with Soulsavers The Light the Dead See (2012) Angels & Ghosts (2015) Imposter (2021) with Depeche Mode Speak & Spell (1981) A Broken Frame (1982) Construction Time Again (1983) Some Great Reward (1984) Black Celebration (1986) Music for the Masses (1987) Violator (1990) Songs of Faith and Devotion (1993) Ultra (1997) Exciter (2001) Playing the Angel (2005) Sounds of the Universe (2009) Delta Machine (2013) Spirit (2017) References External links Official website 20th-century English singers 21st-century English singers British synth-pop new wave musicians People from Epping Converts to Eastern Orthodoxy Depeche Mode members English electronic musicians English expatriates in the United States English male singers English new wave musicians English rock singers English songwriters English people of Indian descent English people of Malaysian descent Living people Male new wave singers Musicians from Essex Mute Records artists Columbia Records artists English Eastern Orthodox Christians Year of birth missing (living people)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWAT

SWAT

In the United States, a SWAT (special weapons and tactics) team is generic term for a law enforcement unit that uses specialized or military equipment and tactics. Although they were first created in the 1960s to handle riot control or violent confrontations with criminals, the number and usage of SWAT teams increased in the 1980s and 1990s during the War on Drugs and later in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks. In the United States by 2005, SWAT teams were deployed 50,000 times every year, almost 80% of the time to serve search warrants, most often for narcotics. By 2015 that number had increased to nearly 80,000 times a year. SWAT teams are increasingly equipped with military-type hardware and trained to deploy against threats of terrorism, for crowd control, hostage taking, and in situations beyond the capabilities of ordinary law enforcement, sometimes deemed "high-risk". Other countries have developed their own paramilitary police units (PPUs) that are also described as or comparable to SWAT forces. SWAT units are often equipped with automatic and specialized firearms, including submachine guns, assault rifles, riot shotguns, sniper rifles, riot guns, riot control agents, smoke, and stun grenades. In addition, they may use specialized equipment including heavy body armor, ballistic shields, entry tools, armored vehicles, thermal and night vision devices, and motion detectors for covertly determining the positions of hostages or hostage takers, inside enclosed structures. Definition The United States National Tactical Officers Association definition of SWAT is: SWAT: A designated law enforcement team whose members are recruited, selected, trained, equipped and assigned to resolve critical incidents involving a threat to public safety which would otherwise exceed the capabilities of traditional law enforcement first responders and/or investigative units. History Riots and political conflicts of the 1960s According to the Historical Dictionary of Law Enforcement, the term "SWAT" was used as an acronym for the "Special Weapons and Tactics" established as a 100-man specialized unit in 1964 by the Philadelphia Police Department in response to an alarming increase in bank robberies. The purpose of this unit was to react quickly and decisively to bank robberies while they were in progress, by utilizing a large number of specially trained officers who had at their disposal a great amount of firepower. The tactic worked and was later soon to resolve other types of incidents involving heavily armed criminals. Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) Inspector Daryl Gates has said that he first envisioned "SWAT" as an acronym for "Special Weapons Attack Team" in 1967, but later accepted "Special Weapons and Tactics" on the advice of his deputy chief, Edward M. Davis. The LAPD promoted what became known as SWAT teams for a variety of reasons. After the racially charged Watts riots in Los Angeles in August 1965, the LAPD began considering tactics it could use when faced with urban unrest, rioting, or widespread violence. Daryl Gates, who led the LAPD response to the riots, would later write that police at the time didn't face a single mob, but rather "people attacking from all directions." New York University professor Christian Parenti has written that SWAT teams were originally conceived of as an "urban counterinsurgency bulwark." Another reason for the creation of SWAT teams was the fear of lone or barricaded gunmen who might outperform police in a shootout, as happened in Austin with Charles Whitman. After the LAPD's establishment of its own SWAT team, many law enforcement agencies across the United States established their own specialized units under various names. Gates explained in his autobiography Chief: My Life in the LAPD that he neither developed SWAT tactics nor the associated and often distinctive equipment; but that he supported the underlying concept, tried to empower his people to develop it, and generally lent them moral support. SWAT-type operations were conducted north of Los Angeles in the farming community of Delano, California on the border between Kern and Tulare Counties in the San Joaquin Valley. At the time, the United Farm Workers union led by César Chavez was staging numerous protests in Delano in a strike that would last over five years. Though the strike never turned violent, the Delano Police Department responded by forming ad-hoc SWAT-type units involving crowd and riot control, sniper skills and surveillance. Television news stations and print media carried live and delayed reportage of these events across the United States. Personnel from the LAPD, having seen these broadcasts, contacted Delano and inquired about the program. One officer then obtained permission to observe the Delano Police Department's special weapons and tactics units in action, and afterwards, he took what he had learned back to Los Angeles, where his knowledge was used and expanded on to form the LAPD's own first SWAT unit. John Nelson was the officer who conceived the idea to form a specially trained and equipped unit in the LAPD, intended to respond to and manage critical situations involving shootings while minimizing police casualties. Inspector Gates approved this idea, and he formed a small select group of volunteer officers. This first SWAT unit initially consisted of fifteen teams of four men each, making a total staff of sixty. These officers were given special status and benefits, and were required to attend special monthly training sessions. The unit also served as a security unit for police facilities during civil unrest. The LAPD SWAT units were organized as "D Platoon" in the Metro division. Early police powers and tactics used by SWAT teams were aided by legislation passed in 1967-8 with the help of Republican House representative Donald Santarelli. The legislation was promoted within the context of fears over the Civil Rights Movement, race riots, the Black Panther Party, and the emerging War on Drugs. The first significant deployment of the LAPD's SWAT unit was on December 9, 1969, in a four-hour confrontation with members of the Black Panthers in a densely populated area of Los Angeles. The raid was problematic from the start, leading to a shootout in which Daryl Gates phoned the Department of Defense, requesting and receiving permission to use a grenade launcher. The Panthers eventually surrendered, with four Panthers and four officers being injured. All six arrested Panthers were acquitted of the most serious charges brought against them, including conspiracy to murder police officers, because it was ruled that they acted in self-defense. By 1974, there was a general acceptance of SWAT as a resource for the city and county of Los Angeles. 1974 Symbionese Liberation Army conflict On the afternoon of May 17, 1974, elements of the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA), a group of heavily armed left-wing guerrillas, barricaded themselves in a residence on East 54th Street at Compton Avenue in Los Angeles. Coverage of the siege was broadcast to millions via television and radio and featured in the world press for days afterwards. SWAT teams engaged in a several-hour gun battle with the SLA; no police were wounded, but the six SLA members died in the conflict, which ended when the house caught fire and burned to the ground. By the time of the SLA shootout, SWAT teams had reorganized into six 10-man teams, each team being divided further into two five-man units, called elements. An element consisted of an element leader, two assaulters, a scout, and a rear-guard. The normal complement of weapons was a sniper rifle (a .243-caliber bolt-action, based on the ordnance expended by officers at the shootout), two .223-caliber semi-automatic rifles, and two shotguns. SWAT officers also carried their service revolvers in shoulder holsters. Standard gear included a first aid kit, gloves, and a military gas mask. At a time when officers were usually issued six-shot revolvers and shotguns, it was a significant change to have police armed with semi-automatic rifles. The encounter with the heavily armed Symbionese Liberation Army, however, sparked a trend towards SWAT teams being issued body armor and automatic weapons of various types. A report issued by the LAPD after the SLA shootout offers one of the few firsthand accounts by the department regarding SWAT history, operations, and organization. On page 100 of the report, the Department cites four trends which prompted the development of SWAT. These included riots such as the Watts riots, which in the 1960s forced the LAPD and other police departments into tactical situations for which they were ill-prepared; the emergence of snipers as a challenge to civil order; political assassinations; and the threat of urban guerrilla warfare by militant groups. "The unpredictability of the sniper and his anticipation of normal police response increase the chances of death or injury to officers. To commit conventionally trained officers to a confrontation with a guerrilla-trained militant group would likely result in a high number of casualties among the officers and the escape of the guerrillas." To deal with these under conditions of urban violence, the LAPD formed SWAT, notes the report. The report states on page 109, "The purpose of SWAT is to provide protection, support, security, firepower, and rescue to police operations in high personal risk situations where specialized tactics are necessary to minimize casualties." The "War on Drugs": 1980s and 1990s In 1981 U.S. Congress passed the Military Cooperation with Law Enforcement Act, giving police access to military intelligence, infrastructure, and weaponry in the fight against drugs. Reagan subsequently declared drugs to be a threat to U.S. national security. In 1988 the Reagan administration encouraged Congress to create the Edward Byrne Memorial State and Local Law Enforcement Program. The program modified existing federal aid structures to local police, making it easier to transfer money and equipment to fight the War on Drugs. Police forces also received increased assistance from the DEA. The money resulted in the creation of many narcotics task forces, and SWAT teams became an important part of these forces. In 1972, paramilitary police units launched a few hundred drug raids annually within the United States. In the early 1980s, SWAT drug raid numbers increased to 3000 annually, and by 1996, 30,000 raids annually. During the 1990s, according to The Capital Times in Madison, Wisconsin, weapons donations from the Pentagon greatly bolstered the number of SWAT teams and the extent of their operations. The paper reported that the military transferred nearly 100,000 pieces of military equipment to Wisconsin police departments in the 1990s. Criminal justice professors Peter Kraska and Victor Kappeler, in their study Militarizing American Police: The Rise and Normalization of Paramilitary Units, surveyed police departments nationwide and found that their deployment of paramilitary units had grown tenfold between the early 1980s and late 1990s. Columbine shooting The Columbine High School massacre in Colorado on April 20, 1999 was another seminal event in SWAT tactics and police response. As perpetrators Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold were shooting students and staff inside the school, officers did not intervene in the shooting, but instead set a perimeter as they were trained to do. By the time they did enter the school, 12 people were killed and Harris and Klebold had committed suicide. They were also heavily criticized for not saving teacher Dave Sanders, who had died from blood loss, three hours after the SWAT first entered the school. As noted in an article in the Christian Science Monitor, "Instead of being taught to wait for the SWAT team to arrive, street officers are receiving the training and weaponry to take immediate action during incidents that clearly involve suspects' use of deadly force." The article further reported that street officers were increasingly being armed with rifles, and issued heavy body armor and ballistic helmets, items traditionally associated with SWAT units. The idea was to train and equip street officers to make a rapid response to so-called active shooter situations. In these situations, it was no longer acceptable to simply set up a perimeter and wait for SWAT. As an example, in the policy and procedure manual of the Minneapolis Police Department, it is stated, "MPD personnel shall remain cognizant of the fact that in many active shooter incidents, innocent lives are lost within the first few minutes of the incident. In some situations, this dictates the need to rapidly assess the situation and act quickly in order to save lives." Post-9/11 and the War on Terror According to criminal justice professor Cyndi Banks, the War on Terror, like the War on Drugs, became the context of a significant expansion of SWAT policing. Whereas some have attributed this expansion to "mission creep" and the militarization of police, other scholars argue that increased SWAT policing is a response to real or perceived moral panics associated with fear of crime and terrorism. Banks writes that SWAT team employment of military veterans has influenced their tactics and perspective. Countering the view that post-9/11 SWAT policing represents the militarization of police forces, scholar den Heyer writes that SWAT policing is part of a natural progression towards police professionalization. Den Heyer also argues that while SWAT teams continue to be deployed to executing large numbers of drug warrants, this is a rational use of available police resources. Other defenders of SWAT raids state that police departments have every reason to minimize risks to themselves during raids. By 2005, the number of yearly SWAT deployments in the United States had increased to 50,000, most often to serve drug-related warrants in private homes. According to a study by the ACLU, just under 80% of SWAT deployments were used to serve arrest warrants. Officers have cited safety as the main reason for use of SWAT teams, stating that SWAT units would frequently be called if there were a possibility a suspect might be armed. For instance in 2006, only two police officers were killed in the arrest of 2 million drug suspects, a low casualty rate possibly stemming from the military equipment and tactics used in the raids. On February 7, 2008, a siege and subsequent firefight with a shooter in the Winnetka neighborhood of Los Angeles led to the first line-of-duty death of a member of the LAPD's SWAT team in its 41 years of existence. Cato Institute analyst Radley Balko, in his book Overkill: The Rise of Paramilitary Police Raids in America, argues that increased SWAT raids have made no-knock raids, and danger to innocents and suspects, far greater. Another study, Warrior Cops: The Ominous Growth of Paramilitarism in American Police Departments by Diane Cecilia Weber, also of the Cato Institute, raises concern about the increasing use of SWAT teams for ordinary policing tasks. Organization The relative infrequency of SWAT call-outs means these expensively trained and equipped officers cannot be left to sit around, waiting for an emergency. In many departments the officers are normally deployed to regular duties, but are available for SWAT calls via pagers, mobile phones, or radio transceivers. Even in larger police agencies, such as the LAPD or the NYPD, SWAT personnel will normally be seen in crime suppression roles—specialized and more dangerous than regular patrol, perhaps, but the officers would not be carrying their distinctive armor and weapons. Since officers have to be on call-out most of the day, they may be assigned to regular patrol duties. To decrease response times to situations that require a SWAT team, it is now a common practice to place SWAT equipment and weaponry in secured lockers in the trunks of specialized police cruisers. Departments that often use this style of organization are county sheriffs, due to the different sizes of counties, and the predominance of back-roads. In places like Los Angeles, where traffic may be heavy, the LAPD uses cruisers such as this to respond with their officers so they do not have to return to a police station to armor up. However, heavier duty equipment may be needed depending on the situation that arises. By illustration, the LAPD's website shows that in 2003, their SWAT units were activated 255 times for 133 SWAT calls and 122 times to serve high-risk warrants. The NYPD Emergency Service Unit is one of the few police special-response units that operate autonomously 24 hours a day. However, this unit also provides a wide range of services in addition to SWAT functions, including search and rescue, and car accident vehicle extrication, normally handled by fire departments or other agencies. The need to summon widely dispersed personnel, then equip and brief them, makes for a long lag between the initial emergency and actual SWAT deployment on the ground. The problems of delayed police response at Columbine led to changes in police response, mainly rapid deployment of line officers to deal with an active shooter, rather than setting up a perimeter and waiting for SWAT to arrive. SWAT equipment SWAT teams use equipment designed for a variety of specialist situations including close-quarters combat (CQC) in an urban environment. The particular pieces of equipment vary from unit to unit, but there are some consistent trends in what they wear and use. Much of their equipment is indistinguishable from that supplied to the military, not least because much of it is military surplus. Clothing SWAT personnel wear similar utility uniforms to the tactical uniforms worn by the military. Many police departments have diverged from the original standard black or blue uniforms, and SWAT uniforms now include plain military green and camouflage patterns. Originally SWAT units were equipped with WWII-surplus steel helmets, or even fiberglass motorcycle helmets. Modern SWAT units commonly use the standard US military helmet. Fire retardant balaclavas are often used to protect the face, as well as to protect the identity of team members. Ballistic vests, sometimes including rigid plate inserts, are standard issue. These vests are labelled with "POLICE", "SHERIFF", "SWAT" or similar, to allow for easy identification. Weapons While a wide variety of weapons are used by SWAT teams, the most common weapons include submachine guns, carbines, assault rifles, shotguns, and sniper rifles. Tactical aids include flash bangs, stingers, and tear gas grenades. Canine units may also be incorporated within SWAT teams, or may be used on an ad hoc basis. The 9 mm Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine gun used to be the mainstay of most SWAT teams, but this has been phased out by many departments in favor of 5.56 carbines, such as the Colt CAR-15 and the more modern M4. Common shotguns used by SWAT units include the semi-automatic Benelli M1 and, to a lesser extent, the pump-action Remington 870. Semi-automatic pistols are the most popular sidearms. Examples may include, but are not limited to: M1911 pistol series, SIG Sauer series (especially the P226 and P229), Beretta 92 series, Glock pistols, H&K USP series, and 5.7x28mm FN Five-seveN pistol. The Colt M16A2 may be used by SWAT marksmen when a longer ranged weapon is needed. Common sniper rifles used are M14 rifle and the Remington 700P. Many different variants of bolt-action rifles are used by SWAT, including limited use of .50 caliber sniper rifles for more intense situations. To breach doors quickly, battering rams, shotguns with breaching rounds, or explosive charges can be used to break the lock or hinges, or even demolish the door frame itself. SWAT teams also use many non-lethal munitions and weapons. These include Tasers, pepper spray canisters, shotguns loaded with bean bag rounds, Pepperball guns, stinger grenades, flash bang grenades, and tear gas. Ballistic shields are used in close quarters situations to provide cover for SWAT team members and reflect gunfire. Pepperball guns are essentially paint ball markers loaded with balls containing oleoresin capsicum ("pepper spray"). Vehicles SWAT units may also employ ARVs (Armored Rescue Vehicle) for insertion, maneuvering, or during tactical operations such as the rescue of civilians, officers, firefighters, and/or military personnel pinned down by gunfire. Helicopters may be used to provide aerial reconnaissance or even insertion via rappelling or fast-roping. To avoid detection by suspects during insertion in urban environments, SWAT units may also use modified buses, vans, trucks, or other seemingly normal vehicles. During the 1997 North Hollywood shootout, LAPD SWAT commandeered an armored cash-delivery truck, which they used to extract wounded civilians and officers from the raging firefight with the heavily armed bank robbers. Units such as the Ohio State Highway Patrol's Special Response Team (SRT) used a vehicle called a B.E.A.R., made by Lenco Engineering, which is a very large armored vehicle with a ladder on top to make entry into the second and third floors of buildings. Numerous other agencies such as the LAPD, LASD and NYPD use both the B.E.A.R. and the smaller Lenco BearCat variant. The Anaheim Police Department has a customized B.E.A.R. fitted with a ladder for assaulting multi-story buildings. Many SWAT teams in the states and around the world, including the LAPD, fit their armored and non-armored vehicles with the Patriot3 Liberator and 'MARS' (Mobile Adjustable Ramp System) Elevated Tactics Systems for gaining entry to 2nd- and 3rd-story buildings, airplane assault, sniper positioning, ship access, etc. The Tulsa Police Department's SOT (Special Operations Team) uses an Alvis Saracen, a British-built armored personnel carrier. The Saracen was modified to accommodate the needs of the SOT. A Night Sun was mounted on top and a ram was mounted to the front. The Saracen has been used from warrant service to emergency response. It has enabled team members to move from one point to another safely. The police departments of Killeen, Texas, Austin, Texas, and Washington, D.C. use the Cadillac Gage Ranger, as does the Florida Highway Patrol. Notable events United States North Hollywood shootout Iraq In late November 2010, Huthaifa al-Batawi, known as al-Qaeda (in Iraq)'s "Emir of Baghdad", was arrested along with 11 others in connection with the October 31, 2010 assault on Our Lady of Salvation Syrian Catholic church in Baghdad. Batawi was locked up in a counter-terrorism jail complex in Baghdad's Karrada district. During a failed attempt to escape in May 2011, Batawi and 10 other senior al-Qaeda militants were killed by a SWAT team. See also Emergency Service Unit Hostage Rescue Team List of special law enforcement units Police tactical unit Special reaction team (U.S. military police) Spetsnaz SWAT World Challenge Militarization of police SWAT 4 2005 tactical shooter video game about being a SWAT officer. References External links NTOA.org The National Tactical Officers Association, a national organization of tactical professionals. ITOTA.net The International Tactical Officers Training Association, an international organization of tactical professionals 1968 establishments in California History of Los Angeles Law enforcement in the United States Law enforcement units Non-military counter-terrorist organizations Organizations established in 1968

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mervyn%20LeRoy

Mervyn LeRoy

Mervyn LeRoy (; October 15, 1900 – September 13, 1987) was an American film director, film producer and screenplay writer. In his youth he played juvenile roles in vaudeville and silent film comedies. During the 1930s, LeRoy was one of the two great practitioners of economical and effective film directing at Warner Brothers studios, the other his cohort Michael Curtiz. LeRoy's most acclaimed films of his tenure at Warners include Little Caesar (1931), I Am a Fugitive From a Chain Gang (1932), Gold Diggers of 1933 (1933) and They Won't Forget (1937). LeRoy left Warners and moved to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios in 1939 to serve as both director and producer. Perhaps his most notable achievement as a producer is the 1939 classic The Wizard of Oz, which he was also uncredited as a director. Early life LeRoy was born on October 15, 1900, in San Francisco, California, the only child of Jewish parents Edna (née Armer) and Harry LeRoy, a well-to-do department store owner. Both his parents' families had fully assimilated, residing in the Bay Area for several generations. LeRoy described his relatives as "San Franciscans first, Americans second, Jews third." LeRoy's mother was a frequent attendee at San Francisco's premier vaudeville venues, the Orpheum and the Alcazar, often socializing with the theater's personnel. She arranged for the six-year-old LeRoy to serve as a Native-American papoose in the 1906 stage production of The Squaw Man. LeRoy attributed his early interest in vaudeville to "my mother's fascination with it" and to that of his cousins, Jesse L. Lasky and Blanche Lasky, vaudevillians during LeRoy's youth. LeRoy's parents separated suddenly in 1905 for reasons that were not divulged to their son. They never reunited and his father Harry raised LeRoy as a single parent. His mother moved to Oakland, California with Percy Teeple, a travel agent and former journalist, who would later become LeRoy's stepfather after the death of Harry Leroy in 1916. LeRoy visited his mother as a child, regarding her more as "a grandparent or a favorite aunt." The 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire devastated the city when LeRoy was five-and-a-half years old. He was sleeping in his bed on the second floor when the quake struck in the early morning causing the house to collapse. Neither LeRoy nor his father suffered serious physical injury. His father's import-export store was completely destroyed. LeRoy retained vivid mental images of the city's devastation: Reduced to virtual penury, father and son lived as displaced persons at the military-run tent city on the Presidio for the next six months. The elder LeRoy obtained work as a salesman for the Heinz Pickle Company, but his business losses had left him "a beaten man." The young LeRoy emerged from the traumatic event with a sense of pride that he had survived the ordeal and to regard it as fortuitous: "The big thing in my life was the earthquake...it changed my life before I knew I even had one." At the age of twelve, with few prospects to acquire a formal education and his father financially strained, LeRoy became a newsboy. His father supported him in this endeavor. LeRoy hawked newspapers at iconic locations, including Chinatown, the Barbary Coast red-light district and Fisherman's Wharf, where he became educated as to the realities of life in the city: Juvenile acts in vaudeville: 1914–1923 Selling newspapers near the Alcazar Theatre, LeRoy was spotted by stage star Theodore Roberts. A personable and attractive youth at age fourteen, LeRoy was engaged for a bit part in a 1914 stage production of Barbara Frietchie. Gratified by "that lovely feeling—audience approval", he performed in productions with the Liberty Theater in Oakland, playing the lead juvenile roles in Tom Sawyer and Little Lord Fauntleroy. Chaplin impersonator As a 14-year-old, LeRoy carefully observed emerging screen star Charlie Chaplin at a number of film sets in the greater San Francisco area. From these studies, LeRoy devised a burlesque of the comedian, and perfected his imitation on the local amateur circuit. In 1915 he won a competition that hosted almost a thousand Chaplin imitators at the Pantages Theater. His outstanding performance earned him a slot as "The Singing Newsboy" in Sid Grauman's vaudeville show at the Panama–Pacific International Exposition titled "Chinatown by Night". In 1916 his father died, leaving the 15-year-old LeRoy responsible for providing his own financial support. LeRoy and Cooper: "Two Kids and a Piano": 1916–1919 Now a show-business professional, LeRoy left his newsboy job. Pairing with the 16-year-old actor-pianist Clyde Cooper, they formed a vaudeville routine "LeRoy and Cooper: Two Kids and a Piano." The duo struggled to find engagements, and LeRoy recalled "we would have played toilets if they had offered us some money." Soon they were discovered by the premier vaudeville circuits – Pantages, Gus Sun and Orpheum – and provided with regular bookings on national tours. LeRoy relished the lifestyle of a vaudevillian, occasionally appearing in shows that featured iconic performers of the era, among them Sarah Bernhardt, Harry Houdini and Jack Benny. After three years, and now "a fairly well-established act" in theater listings, the duo amicably disbanded after an unexpected death in Cooper's family. LeRoy joined George Choos's mostly female troupe in musical comedies, and Gus Edwards act billed "The Nine Country Kids" in 1922. LeRoy's enthusiasm for the stage gradually waned and he left the troupe in 1923. Early Hollywood career: technician and actor: 1919–1923 LeRoy accepted a bit role in a scene with former The Perils of Pauline (1914) star Pearl White filmed at Fort Lee, New Jersey. LeRoy was "thoroughly intrigued" by the filmmaking process, recalling "I knew I was finished with vaudeville. I knew, just as positively that I wanted to get into the movie business." In October 1919 LeRoy, just turned 19, approached his cousin Jesse L. Lasky, a former vaudevillian who was twenty years his senior. Lasky was a partner with rising movie moguls Samuel Goldwyn and Adolf Zukor at its New York headquarters at Famous Players-Lasky. Lasky furnished LeRoy with note to the employment department at their Hollywood studios. A week later LeRoy began working in the Wardrobe Unit folding costumes for the American Civil War picture Secret Service (1919), earning $12.50 a week. According to film historian Kingley Canham, Leroy's "enthusiasm, energy and push", in addition to a further appeal to Jesse Lasky, earned LeRoy promotion to lab technician in the film tinting unit. LeRoy's next advancement was achieved through his own initiative. Discovering that director William DeMille wished to create an illusion of moonlight shimmering on a lake to produce a romantic effect, LeRoy devised a technique in the lab: Despite LeRoy suffering a stern reprimand, DeMille was delighted with the effect and used the footage in the film. LeRoy was immediately promoted to assistant cameraman. After six months behind the camera, LeRoy experienced a disastrous contretemps when he improperly adjusted the camera focus settings, ruining footage on several scenes on a DeMille production. LeRoy describes it as "a horrible mess" which led to his dismissal in 1921 as cameraman. LeRoy was soon hired as an extra on Cecil B. DeMille's 1923 epic The Ten Commandments LeRoy credits Cecil B. DeMille, for inspiring him to become a director: "As the top director of the era, DeMille had been the magnet that had drawn me to his set as often as I could go." LeRoy also credits DeMille for teaching him the directing techniques required to make his own films. LeRoy worked intermittently in small supporting roles in film during the early 1920s. The youthful and diminutive LeRoy (at and just over ) was consistently cast in juvenile roles. appearing with film stars Wallace Reid, Betty Compson and Gloria Swanson (See Film Chronology table) He performed his last role in The Chorus Lady (1924) as "Duke". Gag writer (comedy constructor) and Alfred E. Green, 1924–1926 During the filming of The Ghost Breaker (1922), bit actor LeRoy suggested a number of humorous skits, which were incorporated into the picture by director Alfred E. Green. Green offered him a position as "gag man". LeRoy recalled: While working at First National Pictures, LeRoy wrote gags for comedienne Colleen Moore in several films including Sally (1925), The Desert Flower (1925), We Moderns (1925) and Ella Cinders (1926). LeRoy served as acting advisor and confidant to Moore. In 1927 her husband John McCormick, studio head at First National in Hollywood, asked LeRoy to direct Moore in a version of Peg O' My Heart. When the project was cancelled studio president Richard A. Rowland, with Moore advocating, authorized LeRoy to direct a comedy, No Place to Go, starring Mary Astor and Lloyd Hughes and launching LeRoy's filmmaking career at age twenty-seven. First National Pictures: transition to sound, 1927–1930 His success with No Place to Go (1927), was followed by "a string of comedies and jazz-baby dramas" that served as vehicles for actress Alice White and allowed LeRoy to hone his skills as director. His prolific output in the final years of the silent film era included the box-office successes Harold Teen with Arthur Lake and Oh, Kay! with Colleen Moore. Warner Brothers acquired First National in 1925 as a subsidiary studio and producer Jack Warner became a mentor and in-law to LeRoy in subsequent years. LeRoy eagerly anticipated his first sound picture assignment, Naughty Baby (1929): LeRoy's early directing efforts at First National were largely limited to comedies. His movies from this period include Gentleman's Fate (1931) with John Gilbert (filmed at M-G-M studios), Tonight or Never (1931), with Gloria Swanson, High Pressure, a proto-screwball comedy with William Powell and Evelyn Brent, and The Heart of New York (1932) with Joe Smith. Warner Brothers: 1930–1939 LeRoy embarked on a period of enormous productivity and inventiveness at Warner Studios, creating "some the most polished and ambitious" films of the Thirties. His only rival at Warner's was fellow director Michael Curtiz. Film historian John Baxter observes: In the studio's competitive crucible produced by the Great Depression demanding profitable entertainment, LeRoy directed 36 pictures during the decade (Curtiz filmed an astounding 44 features during the same period). Baxter adds: "No genius could function without variation under such pressure." The social perspective of films favored at Warner Brothers was distinct from those of its chief rivals: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (M-G-M), uncontested for its "technical virtuosity" aimed to serve "middle-class tastes" and Paramount studios identified for its "sophisticated dialogue and baroque settings" that catered to European sensibilities. In contrast, Warner Brothers films carried themes appealing to the working classes. Leroy biographer Kingsley Canham writes: LeRoy's output in the early thirties was prodigious. The director attests to the rate of film production at the studios: LeRoy admits in retrospect that "I shot them so often and so fast that they tend to blend together in my memory." LeRoy's social realism mocked corrupt politicians, bankers and the idle rich, while celebrating the Depression Era experiences of "hard-working chorus girls...taxi-drivers and bell-hops struggling to make ends meet in the brawl of New York...gloss and polish were considered useless affectation." Gangster genre: Little Caesar, 1930 LeRoy first departed from his comedy-romance themed films with his drama Numbered Men (1930), a character study of convicts shot on location at San Quentin prison. The depiction of criminal elements had enjoyed popularity with Josef von Sternberg's silent classic Underworld (1927), a fantasy treatment of his lone Byronic gangster "Bull" Weed. The gangster film as a genre was not achieved until LeRoy's 1930 Little Caesar, starring Edward G. Robinson, the first time that "any real attempt was made by Hollywood to describe the brutal reality of the criminal world." LeRoy's Little Caesar established the iconography of subsequent films on organized crime, emphasizing the hierarchy of family loyalties and the function of violence in advancing criminal careers. LeRoy's adroit cinematic handling of Robinson's Rico incrementally shifts initial audience response from revulsion at the character's homicidal acts to a "grudging admiration" that provides for a measure of sympathy when the gangster meets his sordid death in a back alley. LeRoy recalled the topicality of his subject in 1930: "Al Capone was a household word and the Saint Valentine's Day Massacre had happened only a year before." LeRoy further demonstrated his talent for delivering fast-paced and competently executed social commentary and entertainment with Five Star Final (1931), an exposé of tabloid journalism, and Two Seconds (1932), a "vicious and disenchanted" cautionary tale of a death row inmate, each starring Robinson. I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang (1932) Warner Brothers' most explosive social critique of the 1930s appeared with LeRoy's I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang, dramatizing the harsh penal codes in Georgia and starring Paul Muni as the hunted fugitive James Allen. Historian John Baxter observes that "no director has managed to close his film on so cold a note as LeRoy." Muni's escaped convict, falsely condemned to hard labor, is reduced to furtive prey: Asked by his estranged sweetheart "how do you get along, how do you live?" he hisses "I steal" and retreats into the night. Muni continued to work effectively with LeRoy in The World Changes (1933) with Aline MacMahon and in Hi, Nellie! (1934) with Glenda Farrell. The versatile LeRoy portrayed both hard-boiled and clownish characters at Warner Brothers. His Hard to Handle (1933), James Cagney plays a fast-talking and remorselessly unscrupulous con-man, often to comic effect. His 1933 pictures Tugboat Annie (with LeRoy on loan to M-G-M), with Marie Dressler and Elmer, the Great, the final of three pictures that LeRoy made with comic Joe E. Brown, stand in contrast with the director's gangster melodramas. LeRoy's socially-themed narrative is evident in his Three on a Match (1932) which follows the fates of three young women: a stenographer, a showgirl and a socialite played by Bette Davis, Joan Blondell and Ann Dvorak, respectively. His adroit transitions and cross-cutting provide quick and effective insights into his characters' social rise and fall. The "pitiless mileau of grimy backstreets and cheap motels" serve as an implicit social critique without making this the theme of the picture. The Gold Diggers of 1933 (1933) The musical Gold Diggers of 1933 is one of the outstanding examples of the genre released by Warner Brothers in the Thirties. While the dance stagings—"surreal, geometric, often erotically charged" by choreographer Busby Berkeley dominate the picture, Warner's musicals, according to historian John Baxter "are distinguished enough to be worth considering outside any discussion of Berkeley's dance direction. The Gold Diggers of 1933 certainly deserves such attention." Offering more than mere depression era escapism, the musical depicts the mass unemployment of veterans of World War I and alludes to the recent Washington D.C. Bonus Army protests, violently suppressed by police and U.S. Army units. The movie closes with the "dark and pessimistic" number "Remember My Forgotten Man". LeRoy's control of the comedic elements and his direction of a cast endowed with "hard-boiled" heroines Ruby Keeler, Joan Blondell, Aline MacMahon and Ginger Rogers, would provide stand alone entertainment even if unencumbered by Berkeley's choreographed numbers. MacMahon, who plays the "ruthless" Trixie was later cast in the lead for LeRoy's dramatic Heat Lightning (1934) as a murderess. a picture which prefigures director Archie Mayo's The Petrified Forest (1936). LeRoy followed with musical-like comedies for Warners in 1934 Happiness Ahead with Dick Powell and Josephine Hutchinson, about a society heiress who woos a window washer. Oil for the Lamps of China (1935) Oil for the Lamps of China, an adaption of the Alice Tisdale Hobart novel, is an examination of an American oil company in China, centering on its paternalistic and humiliating treatment of an ambitious company man played by Pat O'Brien. Josephine Hutchinson portrays his long-suffering wife. LeRoy effectively employed cinematic techniques of montage, structural parallels in settings, chiaroscuro lighting and musical leitmotifs to develop atmosphere and convey O'Brien's struggle, ending in his vindication. LeRoy returned to light comedy and romance in 1935 with a film adaption of the 1929 Jerome Kern and Oscar Hammerstein II stage production of the same name starring Irene Dunne. and a Marion Davies vehicle Page Miss Glory (filmed at Hearst's Cosmopolitan Pictures) and I Found Stella Parish, with a sentimental "tour-de-force" performance by Kay Francis. Anthony Adverse (1936) Based on the popular twelve-hundred page historical romance by Hervey Allen, Warner's Anthony Adverse (1936) was LeRoy's most prestigious undertaking to date. Only two-thirds of the vast and unwieldy picaresque tale, set during the Napoleonic era, is depicted onscreen (a sequel was planned but abandoned). The sheer scale of the project remains impressive, and Leroy's ability to handle a film with high production values that possessed a "Metro-like glossiness" recommended him to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer as a prospective executive producer. The "lively performances" from a large cast including Fredric March, Olivia de Havilland, Claude Rains, Anita Louise and Gale Sondergaard, as well as LeRoy's "technical excellence" was rewarded with five academy award nominations. LeRoy reports in his 1974 memoir that "by the time 1936 arrived, I was slowing my pace somewhat. Gone were the assembly-line tactics, the grinding-them-out methods of a few years before...I was working slower, trying to achieve more beauty on film, looking for cinematic perfection." Producer-Director at Warner Brothers: 1936–1938 In 1936, Warners began tasking LeRoy with both directing and producing assignments. LeRoy served as producer-director on Three Men on a Horse (1936), a "madcap" comedy starring Frank McHugh and a screenplay co-written by Groucho Marx. This was followed in 1937 with The King and the Chorus Girl, starring French actor Fernand Gravet . Both films costarred Joan Blondell. Leroy also produced director James Whale's The Great Garrick (1937), a historical comedy with Brian Aherne who plays the renowned English actor. They Won't Forget (1937) LeRoy's penultimate film for Warners was They Won't Forget (1937), a harsh indictment of lynch law based on the Ward Greene novel, Death in the Deep South (1936). According to critic Kingsley Canham, LeRoy's handling of tracking and low-angle shots, overhead composition, close-ups and dissolves possess a "visual power" that "retains its impact for modern audiences." LeRoy's unmitigated condemnation of lynching rejects misanthropy and adopts a tone of "righteous anger", in which there "is no forgiveness" for the instigators of mob law. LeRoy was poised to move to M-G-M as head of production in 1938, with the fulsome support of the studio's Louis B. Mayer where "[LeRoy] would establish himself as a major force in Forties cinema." Before departing Warners, Leroy directed and produced his final film Fools for Scandal (1938), the studio's second – and failed attempt – to launch the American film career of French actor Fernand Gravet. Comedienne Carol Lombard costars. Interlude as producer: M-G-M: 1938–1939 LeRoy arrived at M-G-M fully expecting to finish his career as the studio's chief production executive. His first assignments were modest: Dramatic School (1938) directed by Robert B. Sinclair: A romantic drama starring Luise Rainer and Paulette Goddard and LeRoy's first picture at M-G-M. Biographer John Baxter attributes Rainer's "coherent, moving and truthful" performance to producer LeRoy and "a fitting to [the filmmakers] rich Thirties career." Stand Up and Fight (1938), directed by W. S. Van Dyke: A Wallace Beery vehicle, with costars Robert Taylor and Florence Rice. The screenplay was co-written by crime fiction writer James M. Cain, and Jane Murfin, who wrote the adaption of Booth Tarkington's novel the Katharine Hepburn vehicle Alice Adams (1935). At the Circus (1938) directed by Edward Buzzell: A Marx Brothers comedy. Leroy's last picture as M-G-M's production executive was an adaption of L. Frank Baum's children's book The Wizard of Oz. The Wizard of Oz (1939): Magnum opus production In 1938, LeRoy proposed a film version of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900). Louis B. Mayer purchased the rights to the property from Samuel Goldwyn for $50,000. Mayer limited LeRoy's role to producer and ultimately Victor Fleming was enlisted as credited director. LeRoy recalled the scope of the project: LeRoy added that "it took six months to prepare the picture, six months to shoot it, and then a lengthy post-production schedule for editing and scoring. Altogether The Wizard of Oz was many months in the making..." Though LeRoy was earning $3000 week ($600,000 per year), after completing The Wizard of Oz, he requested a release from his contract so as to return to directing, and Mayer complied: LeRoy accepted a cut in salary to $4000 a week as a director at M-G-M and "never again functioned only as a producer." Director at M-G-M: 1940–1949 The onset of war in Europe in 1939 created anxiety in the Hollywood film industry as the overseas movie market contracted and currency restrictions mounted in Great Britain. Hollywood studios implemented salary reductions and limits on film content were imposed, particularly at M-G-M. Film historians Charles Higham and Joel Greenberg describe these developments persisting "almost to the end of the decade": Critic Andrew Sarris disparages the "sentimental piety and conformist cant" that characterized M-G-M studios, as well as Warner Brothers in Hollywood's Golden Age LeRoy limited himself to directing features at M-G-M for the next 9 years, delivering 11 pictures. The quality of his output during this period is generally viewed as a decline creatively compared to his early work at Warner Brothers during the Thirties. He resumed directorial duties with an adaption of Robert E. Sherwood's romantic play Waterloo Bridge (1930). Waterloo Bridge (1940) Metro-Goldwyn-Meyer purchased the rights to Waterloo Bridge from Universal Studios, which had produced an adaption filmed in 1931 by James Whale and starring Mae Clarke as the fallen woman, Myra. LeRoy's Waterloo Bridge (1940), served as a vehicle to capitalize upon the meteoric rise of Vivien Leigh, heroine of David O. Selznick's epic Gone with the Wind (1939). In a period when foreign markets were in jeopardy, profitable films were at a premium. A silent film era technician and director in his early Hollywood career, LeRoy utilized silent film methods to film a key nightclub love scene with Leigh and costar Robert Taylor. LeRoy describes his epiphany: LeRoy directed Robert Taylor, Norma Shearer and Conrad Veidt in the 1940 Escape, the first of a number of anti-Nazi features suppressed by Hitler and which ultimately led to the banning of all M-G-M pictures in Germany. The Greer Garson pictures LeRoy completed four features with English actress Greer Garson, an enormously profitable property cultivated by M-G-M to appeal to their British markets during WWII. Blossoms in the Dust (1941): The screenplay by Anita Loos portrays the struggle by social reformer Edna Gladney to redeem children stigmatized by illegitimacy. Termed "highly romanticized" and "shamelessly sentimental" by film historian Kingley Canham, LeRoy defended the picture as virtuous and socially significant: The pairing of Garson with Walter Pidgeon proved particularly appealing to their fans. They would appear together in a number of pictures, including LeRoy's 1943 biopic of Madame Curie. As Leroy's first color film, Blossoms in the Dust demonstrates an aesthetically pleasing and an adroit handling of the new Technicolor technology. Random Harvest (1942): Leroy and producer Sydney Franklin paired Garson with fellow Briton Ronald Colman in a romance that dramatizes clinical amnesia suffered by a WWI combat veteran. Garson's genteel and largely desexualized screen image – "M-G-M's First Lady of Saintly Virtue" – favored by Louis B. Mayer, is countered by LeRoy's less inhibited Garson as the "impulsive Scottish lass" Paula. LeRoy's leisurely narrative pace, the lavishness of the settings, the fulsome musical score and the balanced editing demonstrate his embrace of M-G-M production values and distinguishing the stylish Random Harvest from his work at Warner Brothers. Madame Curie (1943): Apropos LeRoy's "lavish and lengthy biography" portraying the Nobel prize-winning scientist Marie Curie, critics Higham and Greenberg make these observations: LeRoy and producer Sydney Franklin made a genuine effort to make the "highbrow" subject of the film – the heroic discovery of radium isotopes – engaging to the public, resorting to romanticizing and simplifying the topic. Madame Curie was one of nine pictures in which Garson was cast with leading man Pidgeon. Married to Buddy Fogelson, Garson earned the title "the daytime Mrs. Pidgeon" on M-G-M sets. Desire Me (1946): LeRoy attempted to reshoot an uncompleted George Cukor project starring Garson and Robert Mitchum, Desire Me, but abandoned the film, disparaging the "rotten script, a script that made absolutely no sense.". Neither Cukor nor LeRoy appeared in the credits. Strange Lady in Town (1955): LeRoy's first film after returning to Warner Brothers studios as a director-producer. Garson, passed over by M-G-M to star as opera diva Marjorie Lawrence in Interrupted Melody (1955), signed with Warners to make Strange Lady in Town, a western set in Santa Fe, New Mexico and endowed to Garson's satisfaction "with horses and sunsets." Dana Andrews co-stars. Wartime propaganda: 1944–1945 In the final years of World War II, LeRoy directed propaganda films dramatizing the American war efforts at home and overseas. Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (1944) recounts the 1942 U.S. bombing mission over Tokyo by sixteen B-25s, coordinated by Lieutenant-Colonel James H. Doolittle (played by Spencer Tracy). LeRoy employs flashbacks in an effort to present the personal lives of the airmen and their spouses, including an emotionally wrought scene in which the wounded Lieutenant Ted W. Lawson (played by Van Johnson) has his leg amputated. Conceived as a morale-builder for the homefront, Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo, with a script written by Dalton Trumbo "lacks the scope and organization" and compares unfavorably to director John Cromwell's 1943 Since You Went Away according to critic Kingsley Canham. The rescue sequences of the downed American flyers' by Chinese guerrillas was designed "to foster closer relations 'between the American People and their courageous Chinese allies'" and includes a scene with Chinese children at a mission hospital honoring the airmen with a rendition of Katherine Lee Bates' patriotic anthem America the Beautiful. The House I Live In (1945), Documentary short: LeRoy reports in his memoir Take One that Frank Sinatra approached him in 1945 with the idea of making a short movie version based on the song by Abel Meeropol The House I Live In. LeRoy thought it a worthy project and "a good thing to do during the wartime years." The script was written by Albert Maltz and produced by Frank Ross and Leroy, who also directed. The House I Live In garnered LeRoy a special Oscar for his role as producer in the short film, the only Academy Award he would ever receive. In appreciation for LeRoy's contributions to The House I Live In, Frank Sinatra presented him with a medallion bearing the Jewish Star of David on one side and a Saint Christopher medal on the obverse. Postwar Hollywood in the 1940s The Hollywood film industry reached its zenith in productivity, profitability, and popularity at the end of World War II. The studios collectively enjoyed their most lucrative year in 1946, with gross earnings reaching 1.75 billion dollars. In the closing years of the decade, organized labor won wage increases of 25% through protracted strikes. Overseas markets imposed substantial taxes on Hollywood films. Studios reacted by cutting expenses on film production and ordering mass layoffs. Historians Higham and Greenberg describe the qualitative impact on Hollywood films: The formerly "glossy" productions were often replaced with lower budget black-and-white films, employing smaller casts and using indoor stages, rather than expensive on location sites. Compounding the financial crisis was the Red Scare launched against purported Communist influence in Hollywood. The leading studio executives expelled many of the most talented figures in collaboration with House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). Accused of introducing Communist content into productions, the departure of Leftist screenwriters, directors and actors removed a creative element that had for years contributed to the high calibre and profitability of Hollywood pictures. These purgings were considered, in some financial circles and the anti-Communist establishment, a necessary corrective to labor militancy in the industry: "To some observers, [the blacklist] represented a long overdue housecleaning process; to others it meant the beginning of an era of fear, betrayal and witch-hunting hysteria." Leroy reflected on the Red Scare in his 1974 memoir: By the close of the Forties, the drain of artistic talent, the emerging television industry, and litigation that led to the weakening of studio monopolies destabilized the film industry, initiating a decline in the heretofore unlimited power and profitability of the Hollywood movie empire. Comedies, melodramas and a literary remake: 1946–1950 Without Reservations (1946): LeRoy's post-war pictures began with a Claudette Colbert vehicle (reminiscent of her role in It Happened One Night (1934)), with John Wayne as "Rusty" in an uncharacteristic romantic-comedic role. Colbert, as "Kit", utters the memorable and mildly impious phrase "Thanks, God. I'll take it from here". This is also the title of the book, by Jane Allen and Mae Livingston on which the movie is based. Homecoming (1948): Like director William Wyler's 1946 The Best Years of Our Lives, LeRoy's Homecoming dramatizes an ex-servicemen's readjustment to civilian life. The gravity of the treatment is established in the title of Sidney Kingsley novel on which the film is based, The Homecoming of Ulysses (1944), invoking Homer's ancient Greek epic. Clark Gable plays Ulysses "Lee" Johnson, a recently discharged war surgeon whose self-complacency is shaken by his personal and professional combat experiences, softening his misanthropy and easing a nexus with his estranged wife. Anne Baxter. In the third of her three film pairings with Gable, Lane Turner plays an "uncharacteristically unglamorous" Lt. Jane "Snapshot" McCall. Little Women: One of several film adaptations of Louisa May Alcott's Civil War era literary classic. The M-G-M Technicolor production offers "a picture postcard prettiness" in lieu of credible performances by June Allyson, Janet Leigh, Elizabeth Taylor and Margaret O'Brien. Any Number Can Play (1949): Based on an Edward Harris Heth novel, the film describes the personal and professional crisis of a casino owner of high rectitude Clark Gable who also plays for high stakes, with his family relations in the balance. LeRoy was perplexed that the compelling screenplay by Richard Brooks and excellent performances delivered by Gable and Alexis Smith did not register at the box-office. LeRoy reflected on the picture: "I don't know what went wrong. You start out with what you think is a good script and you get a good cast...[but] you end up with a film that is less than you expect. Something happened or, more likely, something didn't happen – the chemistry didn't work and the emotions didn't explode. Whatever the reason, Any Number Can Play was a disappointment to me." East Side, West Side (1949): A "dramatic social melodrama", the east-side, west-side refers to the class differences that define and divide the "superlative cast" in this M-G-M "high gloss" production. Barbara Stanwyck, plays the betrayed spouse, supported by co-stars James Mason, Ava Gardner and Van Heflin. Quo Vadis (1951): Biblical spectacle Metro-Goldwyn-Meyer's Quo Vadis (1950) dramatizes an episode in the apocrypha Acts of Peter. The Latin title translates as "Where are you going?", adapted from a novel by Nobel Laureate author Henryk Sienkiewicz. LeRoy's recognized that the Hollywood film industry would be best served by "accommodating" the emerging popularity of television, envisioning a division of mass entertainment function: TV would do small scale, low-budget productions dealing with "intimate things", while the motion picture studios would provide "the bigger, broader type of film." LeRoy's turn to "gigantic spectacle" coincided with the early onset of Hollywood's relative decline, as described by film historians Charles Higham and Joel Greenberg: Logistically, Quo Vadis presented an "enormity." Filmed at the Cinecittà Studios in Rome, the production required the mobilization of tens-of thousands of extras, over nine months of shooting and an immense financial risk for M-G-M. The huge investment in time and money paid off: Second only to Gone with the Wind (1939) in gross earnings, Quo Vidas garnered eight Academy Award nominations in 1952. Leroy welcomed the services of an American Jesuit priest assigned to act as a technical advisor on the production. The director was granted a personal audience with Pope Pius XII and upon LeRoy's request, the Pope blessed the script of Quo Vadis. Musicals and romantic comedies: 1952–1954 In the aftermath of his successful epic Quo Vadis, LeRoy turned away from spectacles to lighter productions: Lovely to Look At (1952): A re-make of the 1935 Astaire-Rogers musical scored by Jerome Kern, Roberta, directed by William A. Seiter. Vincente Minnelli organized the extravagant fashion show finale, with costumes by Adrian Million Dollar Mermaid (1952): An aquatic-themed biopic loosely based on the life of Australian swimmer Annette Kellerman, portrayed by Esther Williams and aided by LeRoy's "competent direction." Busby Berkeley stages his lavishly produced underwater Oyster ballet. Latin Lovers (1953): A romantic musical comedy starring Lana Turner and Ricardo Montalban. Rose Marie (1954): An adaption of a stage operetta by Otto Harbach and previously filmed by M-G-M in silent and sound versions, the Leroy adaption starred Ann Blyth and Howard Keel.<ref>Barson, 2020: "Rose Marie (1954) was another inferior remake of a 1930s classic."Passafiume, 2011. TCM: "Rose Marie was based on the famous stage operetta originally written by Otto Harbach, Oscar Hammerstein II and Rudolf Friml that was first produced for the New York stage in 1924. The story had already been filmed twice before at MGM, both times to great success. The 1928 silent version featured Joan Crawford in the title role, and the 1936 version starred Nelson Eddy and Jeanette MacDonald."Canham, 1976 p. 161: "LeRoy must take some blame for [Lovely To Look At and Rose Marie], although they reflect the gulf between the major companies and their audiences that characterized American films in the post-war period."</re And p. 185: "...LeRoy's farewell to M-G-M...</ref> his final effort with M-G-M before he returned to Warner Brothers. LeRoy attributes his disaffection from M-G-M to a professional incompatibility with Dore Schary, who had recently replaced Louis B. Mayer as head of production: "[Schary] and I never really did see eye-to-eye on most things...since he was then running the studio, it didn't seem to make much sense for me to stick around." Warner Brothers redux: 1955–1959 After completing his last production featuring Greer Garson in Strange Lady in Town (1955), LeRoy turned largely to adapting Broadway successes, serving as producer and director and often enlisting casts from the original stage productions. Mister Roberts (1955) Warners tasked LeRoy and Joshua Logan with completing Mister Roberts after the original director John Ford was hospitalized with a gallbladder disorder and removed from the production. Ford's departure and substitution proved to be fortuitous. Henry Fonda, screen star in several Ford pictures and the lead actor in the highly acclaimed Mister Roberts) 1948 Broadway production, was at odds with Ford's film adaption: the two engaged in a demoralizing contretemps that threatened to undermine the project. Mister Rogers enjoyed immense popular and financial film success for Warners and earned supporting actor Jack Lemmon his first Oscar. Return to director-producer LeRoy assumed the dual role of director-producer in the late Fifties and Sixties- the declining period of the Hollywood Golden Age, primarily serving at Warner Studios, but also 20th Century Fox, Columbia and Universal. Critic Kingsley Canham offers the following appraisal of LeRoy's work in this period: Despite these developments, LeRoy remained a profitable asset in the film industry. The Bad Seed (1956): The film is based on a story by William March about a disturbed eleven-year-old girl whose murderous behavior is credited to her genetic heritage: she is the granddaughter of a notorious serial killer. Maxwell Anderson's 1954 stage production enjoyed success and Leroy imported most of the cast for his film adaption, including child actor Patty McCormick. The Motion Picture Production Code required that the child murderess perish for her crimes, and LeRoy dispatches her with a lightning bolt. Leroy recounts his struggle with censors: The highly profitable Bad Seed garnered Academy Award nominations for several of the principal cast and cinematographer Harold Rosson. Toward the Unknown (1956): A sympathetic dramatization post-Korean War of a former Korean war POW William Holden, who struggles to recover from post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and return to service as a test pilot in the U.S. Air Force. No Time for Sergeants (1958): Novelist Mac Hyman's hillbilly protagonist Will Stockdale gained popularity in comic book form and was adapted to the stage by Ira Levin. Andy Griffith played the lead and Nick Adams his sidekick in LeRoy's film adaption. Home Before Dark (1958): Based on a story and screenplay by Robert and Eileen Bassing, LeRoy examines the struggle of a former mental patient (Jean Simmons) to normalize her relationships with her husband (Dan O'Herlihy) who she suspects of having an affair with her half-sister (Rhonda Fleming). The FBI Story (1959): A hagiographic review of federal law enforcement figure Chip Hardesty, vetted by the LeRoy's close personal friend and FBI director J. Edgar Hoover and starring James Stewart. For his services in directing and producing The FBI Story, the agency honored LeRoy with its Distinguished Service Award. Wake Me When It's Over (1960), 20th Century Fox: A comedy-of-errors involving the appropriation of post-WWII era army surplus to build a resort on a remote Japanese island occupied by US troops. Starring Ernie Kovacs and Dick Shawn. The Devil at 4 O'Clock (1961), Columbia Pictures: A priest (Spencer Tracy) and a convict (Frank Sinatra) join forces to rescue children from a leper colony when a volcano eruption threatens their Polynesian island. A Majority of One (1961): Warner Brothers: An adaption of the successful Leonard Spigelgass play directed by Dore Schary. Stage actors Gertrude Berg and Cedric Hardwicke were replaced by producer Jack L. Warner with film stars Rosalind Russell and Alec Guinness as the romantic leads, set in Japan. Gypsy (1962), Warner Brothers: LeRoy returned to musicals with a portrayal of the young Gypsy Rose Lee in her early career as a burlesque stripper, played by Natalie Wood and Rosalind Russell as her domineering stage mother. Moment to Moment (1965), Universal: LeRoy's last credited directorial effort, Moment to Moment starring Jean Seberg and Honor Blackman. Following Moment to Moment, disputes with Universal production head Edward Muhl over studio-proposed screenplays led to Leroy's return to Warner Brothers under Jack Warner's auspices. There he embarked on several projects, including preproduction for an adaption of James Thurber's The 13 Clocks, a tale that Leroy believed "had the makings of another The Wizard of Oz." When Warners was purchased by The McKinney Company, executives cancelled the project and Leroy quit the studio. The Green Berets (1968): Uncredited advisor LeRoy served for over five months as an uncredited advisor on the 1968 The Green Berets, co-directed by Ray Kellogg and John Wayne and based on Robin Moore's 1965 collection of short stories. The studio producing The Green Berets, Seven Arts, after recently acquiring Warners, were concerned that Wayne's dual role as actor-director was beyond his abilities. LeRoy describes his enlistment in the project and the suggests the extent of his contribution: Leroy added that he "was on the picture for five and a half months...I didn't do it for nothing of course, but I wouldn't let them put my name on it, as I didn't think that would be fair to Duke." LeRoy retired from Warners-Seven Arts shortly after completing The Green Berets, representing his directorial swan song. LeRoy received an honorary Oscar in 1946 for The House I Live In, "for tolerance short subject", and the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award in 1976. A total of eight movies Mervyn LeRoy directed or co-directed were nominated for Best Picture at the Oscars, one of the highest numbers among all directors. On February 8, 1960, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1560 Vine Street, for his contributions to the motion pictures industry. Casting discoveries LeRoy has been credited with launching or advancing the careers of numerous actors in Hollywood films when he served as director or producer at Warner Brothers and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios. Biographer Kingsley Canham makes these observations: Loretta Young: LeRoy's discovery of Loretta Young (then Gretchen Young) presents at least two distinct origin tales: Ronald L. Bowers in Film Review [April 1969]) reported that Leroy had directly solicited the 13-year-old Young in 1926 to play a juvenile part in Naughty but Nice (1927), a Colleen Moore vehicle for which Young received $80.00. LeRoy, in his memoir Take One, offers a variation of this origin story: In 1930, Leroy reports that he recruited Young through the auspices of her mother. Leroy needed a leading lady to play opposite Grant Withers in Too Young to Marry (1931). Young's older half-sister (stage name Sally Blane) was engaged on another film, and her mother offered the younger daughter, Gretchen, as a substitute. LeRoy agreed, but changed her name to Loretta. Clark Gable: Warner Brothers studio cast Edward G. Robinson in the role of gangster Rico Bandello in Little Caesar (1930), but Leroy was anxious to cast the part of racketeer Joe Masara. Rejecting Warners offer of Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., LeRoy spotted Gable in a touring production of The Last Mile at the Majestic Theatre in Los Angeles in the role of Killer Mears, and arranged a screen test with the stage actor. Pleased with the results, LeRoy championed Gable to producers Darryl Zanuck and Jack L. Warner for the part: they emphatically rejected the prospect, objecting to his relatively large ears. LeRoy declined the opportunity to sign Gable in a personal contract, which he would later regret. Despite this, Gable credited LeRoy for elevating his prospects in Hollywood: "He always gave me credit for discovering him." As Leroy shared in an interview with John Gillett in 1970: "I always tried to help young players- Clark Gable would have been in Little Caesar, but the front office thought his ears were too big." Jane Wyman: LeRoy claims Wyman as one of his discoveries, though she had already been signed by Jack L. Warner at the age of 16, though not yet cast in a production. She was selected by LeRoy to play a bit part in his 1933 Elmer, the Great. LeRoy recalled his first encounter with the actress: Lana Turner: At age fifteen, the then Judy Turner was auditioned by LeRoy in his effort to cast an actor to play Mary Clay in the 1937 social drama They Won't Forget. According to LeRoy's recollections, Turner was introduced to him as a prospect by Warner Brothers casting director Solly Baianno. LeRoy changed her name to Lana (pronounced LAW-nuh) Turner and personally groomed Turner for stardom. Leroy would also direct Turner in his 1948 Homecoming co-starring Clark Gable. Audrey Hepburn: During casting for M-G-M's 1950 biblical epic Quo Vadis LeRoy sought an unknown actress for the role of Lygia, the young Christian loved by centurion Marcus Vinicius, played by (Robert Taylor). Audrey Hepburn was among hundreds of aspirants who were tested for the part. LeRoy reports in his memoir that he personally championed Hepburn as a "sensational" pick for the role, but the studio declined. Robert Mitchum: LeRoy singled out 27-year-old Mitchum among the extras during the shooting of Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (1944), casting him to play one of the crew of the "Ruptured Duck", a B-25 bomber. This was Mitchum's first role on screen, but M-G-M declined to sign him, despite LeRoy's urging. Mitchum starred with Greer Garson in Desire Me (1947), for which LeRoy's directorial contribution went uncredited. Sophia Loren: According to LeRoy, actress Sophia Loren credits him with launching her film career. LeRoy had noticed the 16-year-old Loren among the extras assembled for a crowd scene in Quo Vadis, placing her in a prominent position where his cameras would "pick up this tall, Italian dark-eyed beauty." Years later, Loren personally thanked him: "My Mother and I needed the money and you hired us. None of [my film career] would have happened except for you." Personal life LeRoy married three times and had many relationships with Hollywood actresses. He was first married to Elizabeth Edna Murphy in 1927, which ended in divorce in 1933. During their separation, LeRoy dated Ginger Rogers, but they ended the relationship and stayed lifelong friends. In 1934, he married Doris Warner, the daughter of Warner Bros. founder, Harry Warner. The couple had one son, Warner LeRoy and one daughter, Linda LeRoy Janklow, who is married to Morton L. Janklow. His son, Warner LeRoy, became a restaurateur. The marriage ended in divorce in 1942. In 1946, he married Kathryn "Kitty" Priest Rand, who had been previously married to Sidney M. Spiegel (the co-founder of Essaness Theatres and grandson of Joseph Spiegel); and to restaurateur Ernie Byfield. They remained married until his death. LeRoy also sold his Bel Air, Los Angeles, home to Johnny Carson. Other interests A fan of thoroughbred horse racing, Mervyn LeRoy was a founding member of the Hollywood Turf Club, operator of the Hollywood Park Racetrack and a member of the track's board of directors from 1941 until his death in 1987. In partnership with father-in-law, Harry Warner, he operated a racing stable, W-L Ranch Co., during the 1940s/50s. Death After being bed ridden for six months, LeRoy died of heart issues complicated by Alzheimer's disease in Beverly Hills, California on September 13, 1987, at the age of 86. He was interred in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California. Film chronology Silent Era Actor: 1920–1924 Writer (comedies): 1924–1926 Director Sound Era Producer Contributions (uncredited) Footnotes References Arnold, Jeremy. 2012. Strange Lady in Town. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/91603/strange-lady-in-town#articles-reviews?articleId=569780 Retrieved December 24, 2020. Arnold, Jeremy. 2004. Any Number Can Play. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/1975/any-number-can-play/#articles-reviews?articleId=83983 Retrieved December 26, 2020. Axmaker, Sean. 2014. Hi, Nellie! Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/77918/hi-nellie#articles-reviews?articleId=1008239 Retrieved December 12, 2020. Baxter, John. 1970. Hollywood in the Thirties. International Film Guide Series. Paperback Library, New York. LOC Card Number 68-24003. Baxter, John. 1971. The Cinema of Josef von Sternberg. London: A. Zwemmer / New York: A. S. Barnes & Co. Cady, Brian. 2004. Mister Roberts (1955). Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/16883/mister-roberts#articles-reviews?articleId=72472 Retrieved December 30, 2020. Canham, Kingsley. 1976. The Hollywood Professional, Volume 5: King Vidor, John Cromwell, Mervyn LeRoy. The Tantivy Press, London. Carr, Jay. 2014. The World Changes. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/511/the-world-changes#articles-reviews?articleId=941261 Retrieved December 12, 2020. Cox, Amy. 2004. Million Dollar Mermaid. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/2584/million-dollar-mermaid#articles-reviews?articleId=70939 Retrieved December 28, 2020. Flint, Peter B. 1987. Mervyn LeRoy, 86, Dies; Director and Producer. New York Times. September 14, 1987, https://www.nytimes.com/1987/09/14/obituaries/mervyn-leroy-86-dies-director-and-producer.html Retrieved August 25, 2020. Fristoe, Roger. 2006. The King and The Chorus Girl. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/2572/the-king-and-the-chorus-girl#articles-reviews?articleId=88452 Retierved December 20, 2020. Fristoe, Robert. 2003. Lovely To Look At. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/3260/lovely-to-look-at#articles-reviews?articleId=24013 Retrieved December 27, 2020. Georgaris, Bill. 2020. Mervyn LeRoy. They Shoot Pictures Don't They (TSPDT). https://www.theyshootpictures.com/leroymervyn.htm Retrieved December 10, 2020. Higham, Charles and Greenberg, Joel. 1968. Hollywood in the Forties. A.S. Barnes & Co. Inc. Paperback Library, New York. 1970. Johnson, Deborah L. 2002. Escape (1940). Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/2892/escape#articles-reviews?articleId=327 Retrieved December 21, 2020. Kutner, Jerry C. 2011. Two Seconds to Noirville. Brightlightsfilms.org. February 16, 2011. https://brightlightsfilm.com/two-seconds-to-noirville/#.X6LfeKjYq00 Retrieved November 5, 2020. Landazuri, Margarita. 2008. Tugboat Annie. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/1511/tugboat-annie#articles-reviews?articleId=202410 Retrieved December 11 Landazuri, Margarita. 2003. Waterloo Bridge (1940). Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/14463/waterloo-bridge#articles-reviews?articleId=24055 Retrieved December 22, 2020. Landazuri, Margarita. 2008. East Side, West Side. Turner Classics Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/2214/east-side-west-side#articles-reviews?articleId=202792 Retrieved December 26, 2020. LeVoit, Violet. 2011. Mary, Mary. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/83019/mary-mary#articles-reviews?articleId=409920 Retrieved January 3, 2021. LeRoy, Mervyn and Kleiner, Dick. 1974. Mervyn LeRoy: Take One. Hawthorn Books, Inc. New York. LoBianco, Lorraine. 2014. I Found Stella Parish. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/1129/i-found-stella-parish#articles-reviews?articleId=1009645 Retrieved December 13, 2020. LoBianco, Lorraine. 2009. Latin Lover. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/1905/latin-lovers#articles-reviews?articleId=276127 Retrieved December 28, 2020. Looney, Deborah. 2002. They Won't Forget. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/2289/they-wont-forget#articles-reviews?articleId=18606 Retrieved December 14, 2020. McGee, Scott. 2007. The Green Berets. Turner Classic Movie. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/21344/the-green-berets#articles-reviews?articleId=88176 Retrieved January 5, 2021. Miller, Frank. 201 4. Happiness Ahead. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/2565/happiness-ahead#articles-reviews?articleId=959582 Retrieved December 12, 2020. Miller, Frank. 2007. Oil for the Lamps of China. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/350/oil-for-the-lamps-of-china#articles-reviews?articleId=88917 Retrieved December 13, 2020 Miller, Frank. 2004. Page Miss Glory. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/697/page-miss-glory#articles-reviews?articleId=76323 Retrieved December 11, 2020. Miller, Frank. 2009. The Essentials – Random Harvest. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/2716/random-harvest/#articles-reviews?articleId=71664 Retrieved December 22, 2020. Miller, Frank. 2011. The Essentials – Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/451/thirty-seconds-over-tokyo#articles-reviews?articleId=373459 Retrieved December 24, 2020. Miller, Frank. 2004. The Bad Seed (1956). Turner Movie Classics. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/67988/the-bad-seed#articles-reviews?articleId=78406 Retrieved December 31, 2020. Miller, Frank. 2014. Toward the Unknown. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/93724/toward-the-unknown#articles-reviews?articleId=1008869 Retrieved January 1, 2021. Miller, Frank. 2008. GypsyItalic text. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/15879/gypsy#articles-reviews?articleId=198696 Retrieved January 3, 2021. Niles, Cimo. TMC. Mervyn LeRoy Profile. Turner Classic Movies. http://www.tcm.com/this-month/article/482%7C484/Mervyn-LeRoy-Profile.html Retrieved November 5, 2020. Nixon, Rob. 2013. The Essentials – Gold Diggers Of 1933. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/3463/gold-diggers-of-1933#articles-reviews?articleId=582518 Retrieved December 11, 2020. Nixon, Rob. 2004. Stand Up And Fight. Turner Classic Movies.https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/3409/stand-up-and-fight#articles-reviews?articleId=81489 Retrieved December 20, 2020. Passafiume, Andrea. 2007. Madame Curie. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/82296/madame-curie#articles-reviews?articleId=74637 Retrieved December 24, 2020. Passafiume, Andrea. 2011. Rose Marie (1954). Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/14548/rose-marie#articles-reviews?articleId=413227 Retrieved December 29, 2020. Passafiume, Andrea. 2008. A Majority of One. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/26647/a-majority-of-one#articles-reviews?articleId=198748 Retrieved January 3, 2021. Passafiume, Andrea. 2008. A Majority of One. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/26647/a-majority-of-one#articles-reviews?articleId=198748 Retrieved January 3, 2021. Reilly, Celia M. 2003. Quo Vadis. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/933/quo-vadis#articles-reviews?articleId=59900 Retrieved December 26, 2020. Sarris, Andrew. 1966. The Films of Josef von Sternberg. New York: Doubleday. Safford, Jeff. 2005. Five Star Final, TMC. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/1664/five-star-final#articles-reviews?articleId=97200 Retrieved December 10, 2020 Smith, Richard Harlan. 2014. The FBI Story. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/16097/the-fbi-story#articles-reviews?articleId=963757 Retrieved January 1, 2021. Stafford, Jeff. 2011. Heat Lighting. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/667/heat-lightning#articles-reviews?articleId=411148 Retrieved December 12, 2020. Sarris, Andrew. 1998. "You Ain't Heard Nothin' Yet." The American Talking Film History & Memory, 1927–1949. Oxford University Press. Stafford, Jeff. 2004. The Devil At 4 O'Clock. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/72936/the-devil-at-4-oclock/#articles-reviews?articleId=79235 Retrieved January 5, 2021. Steinberg, Jay S. 2009. Anthony Adverse. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/1857/anthony-adverse#articles-reviews?articleId=236452 Retrieved December 15, 2020. Steinberg, Jay S. 2004. Homecoming. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/669/homecoming#articles-reviews?articleId=83989 Retrieved December 25, 2020. Sterritt, David. 2011. High Pressure, TMC. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/2567/high-pressure#articles-reviews?articleId=453747 Retrieved December 10, 2020. Sterritt, David. 2011. Home Before Dark. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/78243/home-before-dark#articles-reviews?articleId=385023 Retrieved January 1, 2021. Thames, Stephanie. 2007. Sweet Adeline. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/2173/sweet-adeline#articles-reviews?articleId=182351 Retrieved December 7, 2020. Thames, Stephanie. 2003. Without Reservations. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/96061/without-reservations#articles-reviews?articleId=62611 Retrieved 25, 2020. Whiteley, Chris. 2020. Mervyn LeRoy (1900–1987). Hollywood's Golden Age. http://www.hollywoodsgoldenage.com/moguls/mervyn-leroy.html Retrieved November 8, 2020. Wood, Bret. 2009. Two Seconds. Turner Classic Movies. Two Seconds Retrieved December 12, 2020. External links Mervyn leRoy at Virtual History 1900 births 1987 deaths 20th-century American businesspeople 20th-century American male actors Actors from Palm Springs, California American male film actors American male silent film actors American racehorse owners and breeders American writers Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale) Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners Neurological disease deaths in California Deaths from Alzheimer's disease Film directors from California Film producers from California Jewish American writers Jewish American male actors Male actors from San Francisco Vaudeville performers Warner family 20th-century American Jews

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Castellano

Paul Castellano

Constantino Paul Castellano (; June 26, 1915 – December 16, 1985), also known as "The Howard Hughes of the Mob" and "Big Paulie" (or "PC" to his family), was an American crime boss who succeeded Carlo Gambino as head of the Gambino crime family. Castellano was killed in an unsanctioned hit on December 16, 1985, ordered by John Gotti, who subsequently became boss. Early life Castellano was born in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn in 1915, to Italian immigrants Giuseppe and Concetta Castellano (née Cassata). Giuseppe was a butcher and an early member of the Mangano crime family, the forerunner of the Gambino family. Castellano dropped out of school in the eighth grade to learn butchering and collecting numbers game receipts, both from In July 1934, Castellano was arrested for the first time in Hartford, Connecticut for robbing a haberdasher. The 19-year-old Castellano refused to identify his two accomplices to the police and served a three-month prison sentence. By refusing to cooperate with authorities, Castellano enhanced his reputation for mob loyalty. Castellano's sister Catherine had married one of their cousins, future Mafia boss Carlo Gambino, in 1932. In 1937, Castellano married his childhood sweetheart Nina Manno; the couple had three sons (Paul, Philip, and Joseph Castellano) and a daughter, Constance Castellano; Manno died in 1999. He was of no relation to actor Richard S. Castellano from The Godfather, despite claims made by Richard's wife after his death. Castellano often signed his name as "C. Paul Castellano" because he hated his first name, Constantino. His first name at birth has been cited as both Constantino and Costantino. Mob life In the 1940s, Castellano became a member of the Mangano family. He became a capo under boss Vince Mangano's successor, Albert Anastasia. In 1957, after Anastasia's homicide and Carlo Gambino's elevation to boss, Castellano attended the abortive Apalachin meeting in Apalachin, New York. When New York State Police raided the meeting, Castellano was one of 61 high-ranking mobsters arrested. Refusing to answer grand jury questions about the meeting, Castellano spent a year in prison on contempt charges. On January 13, 1960, Castellano was sentenced to five years in prison for conspiracy to withhold information. However, in November 1960, Castellano's conviction was reversed by an Appeals Court. Castellano identified more as a businessman than a hoodlum; he took over non-legitimate businesses and converted them to legitimate enterprises. But Castellano's businesses, and those of his sons, thrived from their mob ties. In his early years, Castellano used his butcher's training to launch Dial Poultry, a poultry distribution business that once supplied 300 butchers in New York City. Dial's customers also included supermarket chains Key Food and Waldbaum's. Castellano used intimidation tactics to force his customers to buy Dial's products. As Castellano became more powerful in the Gambino family, he started to make large amounts of money from construction concrete. Castellano's son Philip was the president of Scara-Mix Concrete Corporation, which exercised a near monopoly on Staten Island on construction concrete. Castellano also handled the Gambino interests in the "Concrete Club," a club of contractors selected by The Commission to handle contracts between $2 million and $15 million. In return, the contractors gave a two percent kickback of the contract value to The Commission. Castellano also supervised Gambino control of Teamsters Union Local Chapter 282, which provided workers to pour concrete at all major building projects in New York and Long Island. In 1975, Castellano allegedly had Vito Borelli, the boyfriend of his daughter Constance, murdered because he heard Borelli had compared him to Frank Perdue, the owner and commercial spokesman for Perdue Farms. Castellano was so insulted, he personally ordered the killing. In 2004, court documents revealed that Joseph Massino, a government witness and former Bonanno crime family boss, admitted murdering Borelli as a favor to Castellano. Succession On October 15, 1976, Carlo Gambino died at home of natural causes. Against expectations, he had appointed Castellano to succeed him over his underboss Aniello "Neil" Dellacroce. Gambino appeared to believe that his crime family would benefit from Castellano's focus on white collar businesses. Dellacroce, at the time, was imprisoned for tax evasion and was unable to contest Castellano's succession. Castellano's succession was confirmed at a meeting on November 24, with Dellacroce present. Castellano arranged for Dellacroce to remain as underboss while directly running traditional Cosa Nostra activities such as extortion, robbery, and loansharking. While Dellacroce accepted Castellano's succession, the deal effectively split the Gambino family into two rival factions. In 1978, Castellano allegedly ordered the murder of Gambino associate Nicholas Scibetta. A cocaine and alcohol user, Scibetta participated in several public fights and insulted the daughter of George DeCicco. Since Scibetta was Salvatore "Sammy the Bull" Gravano's brother-in-law, Castellano asked Frank DeCicco to first notify Gravano of the impending hit. When advised of Scibetta's fate, a furious Gravano said he would kill Castellano first. However, Gravano was eventually calmed by DeCicco and accepted Scibetta's death as the punishment earned by his behavior. In 1978, Castellano allegedly ordered the murders of Gambino capo James Eppolito and his son, mobster James Eppolito, Jr. Eppolito, Sr. had complained to Castellano that Anthony Gaggi was infringing on his territory and asked permission to kill him. Castellano gave Eppolitto a noncommittal answer, but later warned Gaggi about Eppolito's intentions. In response, Gaggi and soldier Roy DeMeo murdered Eppolito senior and junior. In February 1978, Castellano made an agreement between the Gambino family and the Westies, an Irish-American gang from Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan. Castellano wanted hitmen that law enforcement could not tie directly to the Gambino family. The Westies wanted Gambino protection from the other Cosa Nostra families. The Gambino–Westie alliance was set in a meeting between Westies leader James Coonan and Castellano. According to Westies gangster Mickey Featherstone, Castellano gave them the following directive: You guys got to stop acting like cowboys – acting wild. You're going to be with us now. If anyone is going to get killed, you have to clear it with us. Castellano also created an alliance with the Cherry Hill Gambinos, a group of Sicilian heroin importers and distributors in New Jersey, also for use as gunmen. With the Westies and the Cherry Hill Gambinos, Castellano commanded a small army of capable killers. In September 1980, Castellano allegedly ordered the murder of his former son-in-law Frank Amato. A hijacker and minor criminal, Amato had physically abused his wife Connie Castellano (Paul's daughter) when they were married. According to FBI documents, Gambino soldier Roy DeMeo murdered Amato, cut up his body, and disposed of the remains at sea. In 1981, Castellano met twice with businessman Frank Perdue, the alleged cause of the 1975 Borelli murder. Perdue wanted Castellano's help in thwarting a unionization drive at a Perdue facility in Virginia. However, according to Perdue, the two men talked, but never agreed to anything. At the height of his power, Castellano built a lavish 17-room mansion on a ridgeline in Todt Hill on Staten Island. Designed to resemble the in Castellano's house featured Carrara marble, an Olympic-size swimming pool, and an English garden. He started a love affair with his Colombian maid, Gloria Olarte. Castellano became a recluse, rarely venturing outside the mansion. Capos such as Daniel Marino, Thomas Gambino, and James Failla visited Castellano at Todt Hill to provide information and receive orders. When not entertaining guests, Castellano wore satin and silk dressing gowns and velvet slippers around John Gotti, Dellacroce's former protégé, rapidly became dissatisfied with Castellano's leadership, regarding the new boss as being too isolated and greedy. Like other members of the family, Gotti also personally disliked Castellano. The boss lacked street credibility, and those who had paid their dues running street level jobs did not respect him. Gotti also had an economic interest: he had a running argument with Castellano on the split Gotti took from hijackings at Kennedy Airport. Gotti was also rumored to be expanding into drug dealing, a lucrative trade Castellano had banned. Legal problems In January 1983, Castellano allegedly ordered the murder of Roy DeMeo, who was found shot to death in the trunk of his Cadillac automobile. In March 1983, the FBI obtained a warrant to install secret listening devices in Castellano's house. Waiting until Castellano went on vacation to Florida, agents drugged his watch dogs, disabled his security system, and planted devices in the dining and living rooms. These devices provided law enforcement with a wealth of incriminating information on Castellano. In August 1983, Angelo Ruggiero and Gene Gotti were arrested for dealing heroin, based primarily on recordings from a bug in Ruggiero's house. Castellano, who had banned made men from his family from dealing drugs under threat of death, demanded transcripts of the tapes, and, when Ruggiero refused, threatened to demote Gotti. On March 30, 1984, Castellano was indicted on federal racketeering charges in the Gambino case, including the Eppolitto and DeMeo murders. Other charges were extortion, narcotics trafficking, theft, and prostitution. Castellano was released on $2 million bail. On February 25, 1985, Castellano was one of many Mafia bosses arrested on charges of racketeering, which was to result in the Mafia Commission Trial; he was released on $3 million bail. On July 1, 1985, Castellano was indicted on loansharking charges and with tax evasion for not reporting the profits from his illegal racket, and pleaded not guilty. On November 4, 1985, in a testimony from car thief Vito Arena, Castellano was named the head of the stolen-car ring that employed him, as well as having been connected to five murders. Conspiracy Dellacroce died of cancer on starting a chain of events that led to Castellano's murder two weeks Several factors contributed to the conspiracy to kill Castellano; his failure to attend Dellacroce's wake was an insult to the Dellacroce family and his followers. Secondly, Castellano named his bodyguard Thomas Bilotti as the new underboss. A Castellano loyalist, Bilotti was a brutish loanshark with little of the diplomatic skill required as underboss. Castellano also hinted that he was breaking up Gotti's crew. Gravano suggested killing both Castellano and Bilotti while they were eating breakfast at a diner. However, when DeCicco tipped Gotti off that he would be having a meeting with Castellano and several other Gambino mobsters at Sparks Steak House on December 16, Gotti and the other conspirators decided to kill him then. Murder On Monday, December 16, 1985, Bilotti drove Castellano to the prearranged early evening meeting at Sparks Steak House in Midtown Manhattan, on East 46th Street near Third Avenue. A hit team (consisting of Salvatore Scala, Edward Lino and John Carneglia) waited near the restaurant entrance; positioned down the street were backup shooters Dominick Pizzonia, Angelo Ruggiero, and Tony Rampino. Gotti observed the scene from a car across the street. As Castellano was exiting the car at the front of the restaurant at around 5:26 pm, the gunmen ran up and shot him several times. Allegedly, John Carneglia was the gunman who shot Castellano in the head. Bilotti was shot as he exited from the driver's door; before leaving the murder scene, Gotti drove over to view the bodies. Aftermath Castellano was buried in the Moravian Cemetery in the New Dorp section of Staten Island. The Archdiocese of New York refused to grant Castellano a Catholic funeral, citing his notorious life and death. Two weeks after Castellano's murder, a meeting of capos in a Manhattan basement elected Gotti, age 45, as the new Gambino boss. The Castellano murder enraged Vincent Gigante, boss of the Genovese crime family, because Gotti never received permission for the act from the Commission. Gigante solicited the help of Lucchese crime family boss Anthony Corallo to kill Gotti. On April 13, 1986, a car bomb meant for Gotti exploded outside a Bensonhurst social club, but the only casualty was Frank DeCicco. Gotti was arrested by the FBI in late 1990 on racketeering charges and denied bail 10 days later. On April 2, 1992, with the help of Gravano becoming a government witness, Gotti was convicted of numerous racketeering charges, including the 1985 Castellano murder. On June 23, Gotti was sentenced to life in federal prison, where he died of throat cancer in 2002. No one else was ever charged in the Castellano murder. Media portrayals Jazz pianist Gene DiNovi portrays Castellano in the 1994 TV film Getting Gotti Richard C. Sarafian portrays Castellano in the 1996 HBO network original film Gotti Abe Vigoda portrays Castellano in the NBC network TV movie Witness to the Mob (1998) Sam Coppola portrays Castellano in the 2001 Canadian-American TV movie The Big Heist Chazz Palminteri portrays Castellano in Boss of Bosses, a 2001 film on the TNT network. Donald John Volpenhein portrays Castellano in the biopic 2018 Gotti based on John Gotti, Jr.'s 2015 book Gotti: In The Shadow Of My Father Subject of the Fear City: New York vs The Mafia (2020) Netflix documentary Notes References External links Paul Castellano's Death Certificate Paul Castellano – Biography.com 1915 births 1985 deaths 1985 murders in the United States American butchers American crime bosses Bosses of the Gambino crime family Deaths by firearm in Manhattan Murdered American gangsters of Sicilian descent People from Brooklyn People from Todt Hill, Staten Island People murdered by the Gambino crime family People murdered in New York City Burials at Moravian Cemetery Catholics from New York (state) Assassinated people

147576

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alastair%20Sim

Alastair Sim

Alastair George Bell Sim, CBE (9 October 1900 – 19 August 1976) was a Scottish character actor who began his theatrical career at the age of thirty and quickly became established as a popular West End performer, remaining so until his death in 1976. Starting in 1935, he also appeared in more than fifty British films, including an iconic adaptation of Charles Dickens’ novella A Christmas Carol, released in 1951 as Scrooge in Great Britain and as A Christmas Carol in the United States. Though an accomplished dramatic actor, he is often remembered for his comically sinister performances. After a series of false starts, including a spell as a jobbing labourer and another as a clerk in a local government office, Sim's love of and talent for poetry reading won him several prizes and led to his appointment as a lecturer in elocution at the University of Edinburgh in 1925. He also ran his own private elocution and drama school, from which, with the help of the playwright John Drinkwater, he made the transition to the professional stage in 1930. Despite his late start, Sim soon became well known on the London stage. A period of more than a year as a member of the Old Vic company brought him wide experience of playing Shakespeare and other classics, to which he returned throughout his career. In the modern repertoire, he formed a close professional association with the author James Bridie, which lasted from 1939 until the dramatist's death in 1951. Sim not only acted in Bridie's works, but directed them. In the later 1940s and for most of the 1950s, Sim was a leading star of British cinema. They included Green for Danger (1946), Hue and Cry (1947), The Happiest Days of Your Life (1950), Scrooge (1951), The Belles of St. Trinian's (1954) and An Inspector Calls (1954). Later, he made fewer films and generally concentrated on stage work, including successful productions at the Chichester Festival and regular appearances in new and old works in the West End. Early life Sim was born in Edinburgh, the youngest child and second son of Isabella (née McIntyre) and Alexander Sim. His mother moved to Edinburgh as a teenager from Eigg, one of the Small Isles in the Hebrides, and was a native Gaelic speaker. His father was a Justice of the Peace and a successful tailor with a business on Lothian Road. Sim was educated at Bruntsfield Primary school, James Gillespie's High School and George Heriot's School. He worked – probably part-time – in his father's shop and then for the men's outfitters Gieve's, displaying no talent for the retail trade. In 1918 he was admitted to the University of Edinburgh to study analytical chemistry, but was called up for army training. After the end of the First World War in November 1918, Sim was released from military service. On his return home, he told his family that he did not intend to resume his studies at the university, but instead would become an actor. His announcement was so badly received that he left the parental home, and spent about a year in the Scottish Highlands with a group of itinerant jobbing workers. Returning to Edinburgh, he took a post in the burgh assessor's office. In his spare time, he joined poetry reading classes, winning the gold medal for verse speaking at the Edinburgh Music Festival. This led to his engagement to teach elocution at a further education college in Dalry, Edinburgh. He held this post from 1922 to 1924. After taking an advanced training course in his subject, in 1925 he successfully applied to the University of Edinburgh for the post of Fulton Lecturer in Elocution, which he held for five years. While maintaining his university position, Sim also taught private pupils and later founded and ran his own drama school for children in Edinburgh. This developed his skills as a director and occasional actor. One of his pupils, Naomi Merlith Plaskitt, aged 12 when they met, became his wife six years later. The dramatist John Drinkwater saw one of Sim's productions for the school and encouraged him to become a professional actor. Through Drinkwater's influence, Sim was cast in his first professional production, Othello at the Savoy Theatre, London, in 1930; he understudied the three principal male roles (played by Paul Robeson, Maurice Browne and Ralph Richardson) and played the small role of the messenger. Early stage and screen career Sim followed Othello with productions ranging from a musical revue to a medieval costume drama by Clifford Bax, in whose The Venetian he made his Broadway debut in October 1931. In 1932–33 he was engaged for sixteen months as a member of the Old Vic company, headed by Peggy Ashcroft. He performed in ten plays by Shakespeare, two each by Shaw and Drinkwater, and one by Sheridan. He began to attract the attention of reviewers. The Times said that in As You Like It Sim as Duke Senior and George Devine as Duke Frederick "endowed the dukes with the properly fabulous touch of fairyland". In The Observer, Ivor Brown wrote that Sim's Claudius in Hamlet had "a sly roguishness that was immensely alive." During the Old Vic season, Sim married his former pupil, Naomi Plaskitt, on 2 August 1932. They had one daughter, Merlith Naomi. For several months in 1934, Sim was incapacitated by a slipped disc, which was successfully treated by osteopathy. When he recovered, he made a strong impression on West End audiences as Ponsonby, a sycophantic bank director in the comedy Youth at the Helm. Ivor Brown called his performance "a joy … a marvellous mixture of soap and vinegar". On the strength of this success Sim was cast in his first film, The Riverside Murder (1935), in the role of the earnest but dim Sergeant McKay. There followed a sequence of films, a mixture of comedies and detective stories, including Wedding Group (1936), in which Sim and his wife both appeared, he as a Scottish minister, she as the maid; Edgar Wallace's The Squeaker (1937), after a stage production of the same piece; Alf's Button Afloat (1938) with the Crazy Gang; also in 1938 he played a revengeful ex-con Soapy Marks in the Associated British Picture film The Terror, and the "Inspector Hornleigh" series (1939–41), as the bumbling assistant of Gordon Harker. Starring roles Sim returned to substantial stage roles at the last Malvern Festival; in James Bridie's comedy What Say They? he played Professor Hayman, making him, as The Manchester Guardian put it, "baleful as a shaven John Knox and lean as a buzzard … a grand performance". This was the start of an association between Sim and Bridie that lasted until the latter's death in 1951, with Sim starring in, and directing, Mr Bolfry (1943), The Forrigan Reel (1945), Dr Angelus (1947) and Mr Gillie (1950). By the mid-1940s, Sim was being cast in starring roles in films. His earliest successes as a leading man included the police detective in the thriller Green for Danger (1946); the headmaster of Nutbourne College, co-starring with Margaret Rutherford, in the farcical comedy The Happiest Days of Your Life (1950); and a writer of lurid crime fiction in the comedy Laughter in Paradise (1951). His other films included Waterloo Road (1944), London Belongs to Me (1948), Alfred Hitchcock's Stage Fright (1950), Scrooge (A Christmas Carol) (1951), Folly to Be Wise (1953) and An Inspector Calls (1954). Sim turned down the role of Joseph Macroon in Whisky Galore! (1949), saying, "I can't bear professional Scotsmen". An even more central role for which he was intended was the mad criminal mastermind Professor Marcus in The Ladykillers (1955). The role was written with him in mind but was finally taken by Alec Guinness, who, in the words of Mark Duguid of the British Film Institute, played it "with more than a hint of Sim about him", to the extent that according to Simpson many people thought then and still think that Sim played the part. Sim's performance in Scrooge (1951) is considered by many to be the best portrayal of the title character on screen, and it is among his best known film roles, particularly in the U.S. In the farcical The Belles of St. Trinian's (1954) he played the dual roles of Millicent and Clarence Fritton, the headmistress of St Trinian's and her shady brother. Having originally accepted the part of Clarence, Sim agreed to play in drag as Miss Fritton when Margaret Rutherford proved unavailable, and the director and co-producer, Frank Launder could find no suitable actress as an alternative. His "Burke and Hare" film The Anatomist debuted on British TV (on "International Theatre") on Feb. 6, 1956, and was later released theatrically in the U.S. in 1961, leading some reference sources to list it as a 1961 movie. Sim was among the top British film stars of the early- and mid-1950s, but his films of the late 1950s are considered by the critic Michael Brooke to be of lesser quality, because of poor scripts or lack of innovative direction. Sim made no films in the decade between 1961 and 1971; it is not clear whether this was, as Brooke suggests, because he found the scripts offered to him unacceptable or, as Simpson proposes, because film makers in the 1960s thought him unsuited to the kitchen sink dramas then fashionable. After Bridie's death in 1951, Sim appeared in only two stage productions during the rest of the decade. The first was a revival of Bridie's Mr Bolfry in 1956, in which Sim moved from the role of the puritanical clergyman to that of the Devil. The second was William Golding's The Brass Butterfly, a 1958 comedy described by The Times as portraying the relations between an urbane Roman emperor (Sim) and a Greek inventor with wildly anachronistic scientific ideas (George Cole). In 1959, Sim sued the food company H J Heinz over a television advertisement for its baked beans; the advertisement had a voiceover sounding remarkably like him, and he insisted that he would not "prostitute his art" by advertising anything. He lost the case and attracted some ridicule for his action, but he was conscious of the importance of his highly recognisable voice to his professional success. Brooke comments on Sim's "crowning glory: that extraordinary voice. Only Gielgud rivalled his tonal control and sensitivity to the musicality of the English language." 1960s and last years After doing little stage work in the 1950s, Sim resumed his theatre career in earnest in the 1960s. His range was wide, from Prospero in The Tempest (1962) and Shylock in The Merchant of Venice (1964), to the villainous Captain Hook in Barrie's Peter Pan (1963, 1964 and 1968) and the hapless Mr Posket in Pinero's farce The Magistrate (1969). The new plays in which Sim appeared were Michael Gilbert's Windfall (1963), William Trevor's The Elephant's Foot (1965) and Ronald Millar's Number Ten (1967); he directed all three productions. The first was dismissed by The Times as a tepid comedy about a progressive young headmaster thwarted by a reactionary member of his staff; the second, billed as a pre-London tour, started and finished in the provinces; the last was castigated by Philip Hope-Wallace in The Guardian as "maladroit playmaking" with a tedious plot about political machinations. Sim's performances provided some consolation: in the first, The Times said, his "treacherously sweet smiles, triple takes and unheralded spasms of apoplectic fury almost make the evening worth while". Much more successful among Sim's 1960s appearances were two productions at the Chichester Festival: Colman and Garrick's 1766 comedy The Clandestine Marriage (1966) and The Magistrate. In the former he co-starred once more with Rutherford, whom J. C. Trewin in The Illustrated London News praised for her "irresistible comic effect"; he thought Sim "enchantingly right". In the Pinero farce three years later, Trewin was equally approving of Sim and his co-star Patricia Routledge. On television, Sim's best remembered performance was probably as Mr Justice Swallow in the comedy series Misleading Cases (1967–71), written by A. P. Herbert, with Roy Dotrice as the litigious Mr Haddock over whose court cases Swallow presided with benign shrewdness. Sim returned to the cinema in 1971 as the voice of Scrooge in an animated adaptation of A Christmas Carol. The following year he appeared as the Bishop in Peter Medak's The Ruling Class (1972) with Peter O'Toole, and in 1975 he played a cameo in Richard Lester's Royal Flash (1975) with Malcolm McDowell. After playing Lord Harrogate in the 1976 Disney film Escape from the Dark, his last role was as the Earl in the 1976 remake of Rogue Male opposite Peter O'Toole, a role for which he literally climbed out of his sick bed, saying, "Peter needs me." On stage Sim returned to Pinero farce, playing Augustin Jedd in Dandy Dick at Chichester and then in the West End. Once again he co-starred with Patricia Routledge. His last stage appearance was in a return to the role of Lord Ogleby in a new production of The Clandestine Marriage at the Savoy in April 1975. Personal life and honours Sim and his family guarded their privacy carefully. He seldom gave press interviews and refused to sign autographs. In his view, the public's interest in him should be solely confined to his stage or screen performances. In a rare interview with the magazine Focus on Film he said, "I stand or fall in my profession by the public's judgment of my performances. No amount of publicity can dampen a good one or gloss over a bad one." Sim and his wife Naomi promoted and encouraged young acting talent. Among their protégés was George Cole, who lived with them on and off from 1940, when he was 15 years old, until 1952, when he married and bought a house nearby. Cole appeared with Sim in eight films from Cottage to Let (1941), to Blue Murder at St Trinian's (1957). An obituary of Naomi Sim noted in 1999: "Cole wasn't the only youngster to benefit from the Sims' generosity and love of youthful spirits. At least half a dozen others – 'our boys' as Naomi called them – mostly unhappy at home, have cherished memories of life at Forrigan, the welcoming woodland retreat built by the couple near Henley-on-Thames in 1947. They also found time to have a child of their own, Merlith, who lives [in 1999] at Forrigan with her family and next door to George Cole, who remained close to Naomi Sim to the end." In 1948, Sim was elected Rector of the University of Edinburgh. He held the post until 1951; when he stood down he was made an honorary Doctor of Law. He was appointed CBE in 1953, and refused a knighthood in the early 1970s. An English Heritage blue plaque was unveiled in July 2008 at his former home at 8 Frognal Gardens, Hampstead, by his daughter Merlith McKendrick at a ceremony attended by George Cole. There is a plaque commemorating Sim's birth outside the Filmhouse Cinema in Lothian Road, Edinburgh. Sim died in 1976, aged 75, in London, from lung cancer. His widow Naomi lived until 3 August 1999. She published a memoir, Skylark: Fifty Years with Alastair Sim in 1987. Credits Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading External links Funny Peculiar – Sight & Sound profile of Alastair Sim by Michael Brooke 1900 births 1976 deaths 20th-century Scottish male actors Academics of the University of Edinburgh Deaths from cancer in England Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Deaths from lung cancer Male actors from Edinburgh Rectors of the University of Edinburgh Scottish male film actors Scottish male stage actors Scottish male television actors British male comedy actors British Army personnel of World War I

147972

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo%20Gambino

Carlo Gambino

Carlo Gambino (; August 24, 1902 – October 15, 1976) was an Italian-American crime boss of the Gambino crime family. After the Apalachin Meeting in 1957, and the imprisonment of Vito Genovese in 1959, Gambino took over the Commission of the American Mafia until his death from a heart attack on October 15, 1976. During more than 50 years in organized crime, he served only 22 months in prison for a tax evasion charge in 1937. Early life and family Gambino was born in Palermo, Sicily, Italy, on August 24, 1902, to a family that belonged to a Sicilian Mafia gang from Passo di Rigano. He had two brothers, Gaspare Gambino, who was not involved with the Mafia, and Paolo Gambino who was a part of the Gambino crime family. His parents were Italian immigrants Tommaso Gambino and Felice Castellano. Gambino entered the United States on December 23, 1921, at Norfolk, Virginia, as a stowaway on the SS Vincenzo Florio. He then joined his cousins, the Castellanos, in New York City. He had worked for a small trucking firm owned by his uncle's family. Gambino later moved to a modest house located at 2230 Ocean Parkway in Brooklyn; his Long Island residence, located at 34 Club Drive in Massapequa, served as his summer home. The two-story brick house, surrounded by a low fence with marble statues on the front lawn, was at the end of a cul-de-sac in Harbor Green Estates, overlooking the South Oyster Bay. In 1932, Gambino married one of his cousins, Catherine Castellano, sister of Paul Castellano. They raised four children – sons Thomas, Joseph (March 28, 1936 – February 20, 2020) and Carlo (born 1934), and a daughter, Phyllis Gambino Sinatra (September 22, 1927 – February 19, 2007). Castellammarese War and The Commission Gambino was a part of a criminal organization headed by Joe Masseria. In 1930, Gambino was arrested in Lawrence, Massachusetts as a suspicious person. That charge was dismissed, but he was seized a month later in Brockton, Massachusetts, on a larceny charge. A warrant was issued for his arrest when he failed to show up in court. Four years later, he was arrested in Manhattan as a fugitive and was returned to Brockton, where the larceny charge was dropped when he made restitution of $1,000. By the early 1930s, Masseria's main rival was boss Salvatore Maranzano, who had come from Sicily to run the Castellammarese clan. Their rivalry eventually escalated into the bloody Castellammarese War. Masseria and Maranzano were so-called "Mustache Petes": older, traditional Mafia bosses who had started their criminal careers in Italy. They believed in upholding the supposed "Old World Mafia" principles of "honor", "tradition", "respect", and "dignity". These bosses refused to work with non-Italians, and were skeptical of working with non-Sicilians. Some of the most conservative bosses worked with only men having roots in their own Sicilian village. The war had been going poorly for Masseria, and Lucky Luciano saw an opportunity to switch allegiance. In a secret deal with Maranzano, Luciano agreed to engineer Masseria's death in return for receiving Masseria's rackets and becoming Maranzano's second-in-command. On April 15, 1931, Masseria was killed at Nuova Villa Tammaro, a Coney Island restaurant in Brooklyn. With Maranzano's blessing, Luciano took over Masseria's gang and became Maranzano's lieutenant, ending the Castellammarese War. With Masseria gone, Maranzano reorganized the Italian American gangs in New York City into Five Families headed by Luciano, Profaci, Gagliano, Vincent Mangano and himself. Maranzano called a meeting of crime bosses in Wappingers Falls, New York, where he declared himself capo di tutti capi ("boss of all bosses"). Maranzano also whittled down the rival families' rackets in favor of his own. Luciano appeared to accept these changes, but was merely biding his time before removing Maranzano. Although Maranzano was slightly more forward-thinking than Masseria, Luciano had come to believe that Maranzano was even more greedy and hidebound than Masseria had been. By September 1931, Maranzano realized Luciano was a threat, and hired Vincent "Mad Dog" Coll, an Irish gangster, to kill him. However, Lucchese alerted Luciano that he was marked for death. On September 10, Maranzano ordered Luciano, Genovese and Costello to come to his office at the 230 Park Avenue in Manhattan, where he was killed. Later in 1931, Luciano called a meeting in Chicago with various bosses, where he proposed a Commission to serve as the governing body for organized crime. Designed to settle all disputes and decide which families controlled which territories, the Commission has been called Luciano's greatest innovation. Luciano's goals with the Commission were to quietly maintain his own power over all the families, and to prevent future gang wars; the bosses approved the idea of the Commission. Mangano family After the death of Masseria, Gambino and his cousins became soldiers in the family headed by Vincent Mangano. Despite being a mob power in his own right, Albert Anastasia was nominally the underboss of the Mangano family. During Mangano's 20-year rule, Mangano had resented Anastasia's close ties to Luciano and Costello, particularly the fact that they had obtained Anastasia's services without first seeking Mangano's permission. This and other business disputes led to heated, almost physical fights between the two mobsters. Gambino was arrested in 1937, and served 22 months in prison at Lewisburg for tax evasion related to operating a million‐gallon distillery in Philadelphia. Mangano's brother Philip was found dead near Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn on April 19, 1951. He was murdered along with his brother on the orders of Anastasia in Brooklyn in 1951. Vincent Mangano's body was never found and was declared dead 10 years later on October 30, 1961, by the Surrogate's Court in Brooklyn. No one was ever arrested in the Mangano murders, but it was widely assumed that Anastasia had them killed. Anastasia murder During the mid-1950s, Genovese decided to move against Frank Costello. However, Genovese needed to also remove Costello's strong ally on the Commission, Albert Anastasia, the boss of the Anastasia crime family. Genovese was soon conspiring with Gambino, Anastasia's underboss, to remove Anastasia. In early 1957, Genovese decided to move on Costello. Genovese ordered Vincent Gigante to murder Genovese family boss Costello, and on May 2, 1957, Gigante shot and wounded Costello outside his apartment building. Although the wound was superficial, it persuaded Costello to relinquish power to Genovese and retire. A doorman identified Gigante as the gunman, however, in 1958, Costello testified that he was unable to recognize his assailant; Gigante was acquitted on charges of attempted murder. With Costello gone, Genovese and Gambino allegedly ordered Anastasia's murder. Gambino gave the contract to Joe Profaci, who then allegedly gave it to the Gallo crew, headed by Joseph "Crazy Joe" Gallo, with Anastasia being murdered on October 25, 1957, in the barbershop of the Park Sheraton Hotel in Midtown Manhattan. Gambino then became the new boss of the Mangano crime family, which was renamed the Gambino crime family. Gambino appointed Joseph Biondo as underboss, however, by 1965, was replaced with Aniello Dellacroce. Apalachin and Genovese's fall In November 1957, immediately after the Anastasia murder, after taking control of the Luciano crime family from Costello, Genovese wanted to legitimize his new power by holding a national Cosa Nostra meeting. Genovese elected Buffalo, New York boss and Commission member, Stefano "The Undertaker" Magaddino, who in turn chose northeastern Pennsylvania crime boss Joseph Barbara and his underboss Russell Bufalino to oversee all the arrangements for the Apalachin meeting. Cuba was one of the Apalachin topics of discussion, particularly the gambling and narcotics smuggling interests of La Cosa Nostra on the island. The international narcotics trade was also an important topic on the Apalachin agenda. The New York garment industry interests and rackets, such as loansharking to the business owners and control of garment center trucking, were other important topics on the Apalachin agenda. On November 14, 1957, powerful mafiosi from the United States and Italy convened at Barbara's estate in Apalachin, New York. The meeting agenda included the resolution of open questions on illegal gambling and narcotics dealing, particularly in the New York City area. State trooper Edgar D. Croswell had become aware that Barbara's son was reserving rooms in local hotels along with the delivery of a large quantity of meat from a local butcher to the Barbara home. That made Croswell suspicious, and he therefore decided to keep an eye on Barbara's house. When the state police found many luxury cars parked at Barbara's home they began taking down license plate numbers. Having found that many of these cars were registered to known criminals, state police reinforcements came to the scene and began to set up a roadblock. When the mobsters discovered the police presence, they started fleeing the gathering by car and by foot. Many Mafiosi escaped through the woods surrounding the Barbara estate; Gambino is thought to have attended the meeting, but was not one of the mobsters apprehended. The police stopped a car driven by Bufalino, whose passengers included Genovese and three other men, at a roadblock as they left the estate; Bufalino said that he had come to visit his sick friend, Barbara. Genovese said he was just there for a barbecue and to discuss business with Barbara. The police let him go. Gambino and Luciano allegedly helped pay part of $100,000 to a Puerto Rican drug dealer to falsely implicate Genovese in a drug deal. On April 17, 1959, Genovese was sentenced to 15 years in prison for drug offenses, where he died on February 14, 1969. Boss After Genovese's imprisonment, Gambino subsequently took control of The Commission. Gambino despised drugs, and even though heroin and cocaine were highly lucrative, he thought that they would also attract attention. The punishment for a family member dealing drugs, in Gambino style, was death. In the 1960s, the Gambino family had 500 soldiers and over 1,000 associates. In 1962, Carlo Gambino's oldest son, Thomas Gambino, married Tommy Lucchese's daughter Frances. Over 1,000 guests attended the wedding, at which Carlo Gambino presented Lucchese with a $30,000 gift. In return, Lucchese gave Gambino a part of his rackets at Idlewild Airport (now called John F. Kennedy Airport). Lucchese exercised control over airport management security and all the airport unions. As a team, Lucchese and Gambino now controlled the airport, the Commission, and most organized crime in New York City. Conspiracy against the Commission In 1963, Joseph Bonanno, the head of the Bonanno crime family, made plans to assassinate several rivals on the Mafia Commission—bosses Gambino, Tommy Lucchese, and Stefano Magaddino, as well as Frank DeSimone. Bonanno sought Joseph Magliocco's support, and Magliocco readily agreed. Not only was he bitter from being denied a seat on the Commission, but Bonanno and Profaci had been close allies for over 30 years prior to Profaci's death. Bonanno's audacious goal was to take over the Commission and make Magliocco his right-hand man. Magliocco was assigned the task of killing Lucchese and Gambino, and gave the contract to one of his top hit men, Joseph Colombo. However, the opportunistic Colombo revealed the plot to its targets. The other bosses quickly realized that Magliocco could not have planned this himself. Remembering how close Bonanno was with Magliocco (and before him, Profaci), as well as their close ties through marriages, the other bosses concluded Bonanno was the real mastermind. The Commission summoned Bonanno and Magliocco to explain themselves. Fearing for his life, Bonanno went into hiding in Montreal, leaving Magliocco to deal with the Commission. Badly shaken and in failing health, Magliocco confessed his role in the plot. The Commission spared Magliocco's life, but forced him to retire as Profaci family boss and pay a $50,000 fine. As a reward for turning on his boss, Colombo was awarded the Profaci family. Health and deportation order Deportation proceedings were started by the Immigration and Naturalization Service as early as 1953, but made no headway for several years because of Gambino's heart condition and constant hospitalizations. In 1970, he was indicted on charges of conspiring to hijack an armored car carrying $3 million, and was arrested on March 23, 1970. He was released on $75,000 bail, and was never brought to trial because of his health. The same year, the Supreme Court upheld a 1967 order, that he previously appealed, that he be deported because he had entered the country illegally. When the government tried to carry out the order, Gambino was rushed to a hospital after he had suffered a massive heart attack. Colombo assassination attempt On June 28, 1971, Colombo was shot three times by Jerome A. Johnson, one being in the head, at the second Italian Unity Day rally in Columbus Circle sponsored by the Italian-American Civil Rights League; Johnson was immediately killed by Colombo's bodyguards. Colombo was paralyzed from the shooting, and later died in 1978. Although many in the Colombo family blamed Joe Gallo for the shooting, the police eventually concluded that Johnson was a lone gunman after they had questioned Gallo. Since Johnson had spent time a few days earlier at a Gambino club, one theory was that Gambino organized the shooting. Colombo refused to listen to Gambino's complaints about the League, and allegedly spat in Gambino's face during one argument. However, the Colombo family leadership was convinced that Gallo ordered the murder after his falling out with the family. Gallo was murdered on April 7, 1972. On January 26, 1962, Luciano died of a heart attack at Naples International Airport. Three days later, 300 people attended a funeral service for Luciano in Naples. His body was conveyed along the streets of Naples in a horse-drawn black hearse. With the permission of the US government, Luciano's relatives took his body back to New York for burial. He was buried in St. John's Cemetery in Middle Village, Queens. More than 2,000 mourners attended his funeral. Gambino, Luciano's longtime friend, gave his eulogy. Tommy Eboli murder After Genovese's death, Gerardo Catena became the new official boss. However, Catena was indicted and jailed in 1970. Thomas Eboli was then the "front boss" of the family for the next two years. However, Eboli wanted to be the real head of the Genovese family. To further his advancement, Eboli borrowed $4 million from the Commission chairman and head of the rival Gambino crime family, Carlo Gambino to fund a new drug trafficking operation. However, law enforcement soon shut down Eboli's drug racket and arrested most of his crew. Gambino and his underboss Aniello Dellacroce allegedly came to Eboli to get their money back, but he did not have it. Gambino then allegedly ordered Eboli's murder due to lack of payment. However, it is believed that Gambino actually wanted to replace Eboli with Gambino ally Frank "Funzi" Tieri, and that Gambino used the drug trafficking operation to set up Eboli. On July 16, 1972, Eboli left his girlfriend's apartment in Crown Heights, Brooklyn and walked to his chauffeured Cadillac car. As Eboli sat in the parked car, a gunman in a passing truck shot him five times. Hit in the head and neck, Eboli died instantly. No one was ever charged in this murder. Death Gambino died at his home in Massapequa in the early morning hours of Friday, having watched the television broadcast of the winning the American League pennant the previous evening. The official cause was natural causes, and his death was not unexpected, given a recent history of heart disease. Cusimano & Russo Funeral Home hosted his wake over the weekend of October 16 and 17. His funeral mass was held on Monday, October 18, at the Church of Our Lady of Grace Gambino was then entombed within his family's private room in the Cloister building of Saint John Cemetery in Queens. Gambino's funeral and wake were attended by several hundred people, with plainclothes police and FBI agents mingling outside. His funeral procession consisted of 13 limousines, around a dozen private cars, and one flower car. Aftermath Against expectations, he had previously appointed Castellano to succeed him over his underboss Dellacroce. Gambino appeared to believe that his crime family would benefit from Castellano's focus on white collar businesses. Dellacroce, at the time, was imprisoned for tax evasion and was unable to contest Castellano's succession. Castellano's succession was confirmed at a meeting on November 24, with Dellacroce present. Castellano arranged for Dellacroce to remain as underboss while directly running traditional Cosa Nostra activities such as extortion, robbery, and loansharking. While Dellacroce accepted Castellano's succession, the deal effectively split the Gambino family into two rival factions. In popular culture In the 1996 TV film Gotti, Carlo Gambino is portrayed by Marc Lawrence as the head of the Gambino family towards his death in 1976. In the 2001 TV film Boss of Bosses, Carlo Gambino is portrayed by Al Ruscio. He was shown from his early years in the Cosa Nostra till his death, when Paul Castellano was chosen to succeed him. His younger self is portrayed by William DeMeo. In the 2015 AMC mini series The Making of the Mob: New York, Carlo Gambino is portrayed by Noah Forrest. In the 2018 biopic Gotti, Carlo Gambino is portrayed by Michael Cipiti. Notes References External links https://web.archive.org/web/20071203045421/http://www.americanmafia.com/images/Frank_Gambino284x152.jpg 1902 births 1976 deaths American crime bosses American gangsters American gangsters of Sicilian descent American gangsters of Italian descent American Roman Catholics Bosses of the Gambino crime family Burials at St. John's Cemetery (Queens) Capo dei capi Gambino crime family Italian emigrants to the United States Italian crime bosses People from Massapequa, New York Gangsters from Palermo Prohibition-era gangsters

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danbury%2C%20Connecticut

Danbury, Connecticut

Danbury is a city in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States, located approximately northeast of New York City. Danbury's population as of the 2020 census was 86,518. Danbury is nicknamed the "Hat City" because it was the center of the American hat industry for a period in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The mineral danburite is named for Danbury while the city itself is named for Danbury in Essex, England. Danbury is home to Danbury Hospital, Western Connecticut State University, Danbury Fair Mall and Danbury Municipal Airport. In November 2015, USA Today ranked Danbury as the second best city to live in the United States. History Danbury was settled by colonists in 1685, when eight families moved from what are now Norwalk and Stamford, Connecticut. The Danbury area was then called Pahquioque by its namesake, the Algonquian-speaking Pahquioque Native Americans (they are believed to have been a band of the Paugusset people), who occupied lands along the Still River. Bands were often identified by such geographic designation but they were associated with the larger nation by culture and language). One of the original settlers in Danbury was Samuel Benedict, who bought land from the Paquioque in 1685, along with his brother James Benedict, James Beebe, and Judah Gregory. This area was also called Paquiack ("open plain" or "cleared land") by the Paquioque. In recognition of the wetlands, the settlers chose the name Swampfield for their town. In October 1687, the general court decreed the name Danbury. The general court appointed a committee to lay out the new town's boundaries. A survey was made in 1693, and a formal town patent was granted in 1702. During the Revolutionary War, Danbury was an important military supply depot for the Continental Army. Sybil Ludington, 16-year-old daughter of American Colonel Henry Ludington, made a 40-mile ride in the early hours of the night on April 26, 1777, to warn the people of Danbury and her father's forces in Putnam County, New York, of the approach of British regulars, helping them muster in defense. During the following day on April 26, 1777, the British, under Major General William Tryon, burned and sacked Danbury, but fatalities were limited due to Ludington's warning. The central motto on the seal of the City of Danbury is Restituimus, (Latin for "We have restored"), a reference to the destruction caused by the Loyalist army troops. The American General David Wooster was mortally wounded at the Battle of Ridgefield by the British forces which had raided Danbury, but at the beginning of the battle, the Americans succeeded in driving the British forces down to Long Island Sound. Wooster is buried in Danbury's Wooster Cemetery; the private Wooster School in Danbury also was named in his honor. In 1802, President Thomas Jefferson wrote a letter to the Danbury Baptist Association, a group expressing fear of persecution by the Congregationalists of that town, in which he used the expression "Separation of Church and State". It is the first known instance of the expression in American legal or political writing. The letter is on display at the Unitarian-Universalist Congregation of Danbury. The first Danbury Fair was held in 1821. In 1869, it became a yearly event; the last edition was in 1981. The fairgrounds were cleared to make room for the Danbury Fair Mall, which opened in autumn 1986. In 1835, the Connecticut Legislature granted a rail charter to the Fairfield County Railroad, but construction was delayed because of lack of investment. In 1850, the organization's plans were scaled back, and renamed the Danbury and Norwalk Railroad. Work moved quickly on the railroad line. In 1852, the first railroad line in Danbury opened, with two trains making the 75-minute trip to Norwalk. The central part of Danbury was incorporated as a borough in 1822. The borough was reincorporated as the city of Danbury on April 19, 1889. The city and town were consolidated on January 1, 1965. The first dam to be built on the river, to collect water for the hat industry, impounded the Kohanza Reservoir. This dam broke on January 31, 1869, under pressure of ice and water. The ensuing flood of icy water killed 11 people within 30 minutes, and caused major damage to homes and farms. As a busy city, Danbury attracted traveling shows and tours, including Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show in 1900. It featured young men of the Oglala Sioux nation, who re-enacted events from frontier history. Oglala Sioux Albert Afraid of Hawk died on June 29, 1900, at age 21 in Danbury during the tour. He was buried at Wooster Cemetery. In 2012, employee Robert Young discovered Afraid of Hawk's remains. The city consulted with Oglala Sioux leaders of the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation and arranged repatriation of the remains to the nation. This meeting occurred in the Health Sciences Library of Danbury Hospital with assistance of the Chaplain. Wrapped in a bison skin, the remains were transported to Manderson, South Dakota, to Saint Mark's Episcopal Cemetery, for reburial by tribal descendants. In 1928 local plane pilots bought a tract near the Fairgrounds, known as Tucker's Field, and leased it to the town. This was developed as an airport, which is now Danbury Municipal Airport . Connecticut's largest lake, Candlewood Lake (of which the extreme southern part is in Danbury), was created as a hydroelectric power facility in 1928 by building a dam where Wood Creek and the Rocky River meet near the Housatonic River in New Milford. During World War II, Danbury's federal prison was one of many sites used for the incarceration of conscientious objectors. One in six inmates in the United States' federal prisons was a conscientious objector, and prisons like Danbury found themselves suddenly filled with large numbers of highly educated men skilled in social activism. Due to the activism of inmates within the prison, and local laborers protesting in solidarity with the conscientious objectors, Danbury became one of the nation's first prisons to desegregate its inmates. On August 18–19, 1955, the Still River, which normally meandered slowly through downtown Danbury, overflowed its banks when Hurricane Diane hit the area, dropping six inches of rain on the city. This was in addition to the nine inches that fell from Hurricane Connie five days earlier. The water flooded stores, factories and homes along the river from North Street to Beaver Brook, causing $3 million in damages. Stores downtown on White Street between Main and Maple were especially hard hit. On October 13–16, another 12 inches of rain fell on Danbury, causing the worst flooding in the city's history. This time, the river damaged all bridges across it, effectively cutting the city in half for several days. Flooding was more widespread than in August, and the same downtown areas hit in August were devastated once again. The resulting damage was valued at $6 million, and two people lost their lives. The City determined the river in the downtown area had to be tamed. $4.5 million in federal and state funding were acquired as part of a greater urban renewal project to straighten, deepen, widen, and enclose the river in a concrete channel through the downtown. At the same time, roads were relocated and rebuilt, 123 major buildings were razed and 104 families were relocated. This began various efforts by the City through 1975 towards urban renewal, using another $22 million of federal funding. However, these efforts failed to reinvigorate the central business district. On February 13, 1970, brothers James and John Pardue detonated time bombs (injuring 26 people) at the police station, Union Savings Bank and in their getaway car to cover their escape from robbing the bank at gunpoint, the culmination of a two-year crime spree that included four bank robberies and five murders. The flawed primary mirror of the Hubble Space Telescope was ground and polished in Danbury by Perkin-Elmer's Danbury Optical System unit from 1979 to 1981. It was mistakenly ground to the wrong shape due to the use of a miscalibrated testing device. The mistake was not discovered until after the telescope was in orbit and began to be used. The effects of the flaw were corrected during the telescope's first servicing mission in 1993. In the August 1988 issue of Money magazine, Danbury topped the magazine's list of the best U.S. cities to live in, mostly due to low crime, good schools, and location. A case that would make national headlines and play out for over four years began on September 19, 2006, when eleven day laborers, who came to be known as the "Danbury 11", were arrested in Danbury. A sting operation had been set up where day laborers were lured into a van whose driver, a disguised Danbury police officer posing as a contractor, promised them work. The laborers were driven to a parking lot where, if it was determined they were in the US illegally, were arrested by agents of ICE and the Danbury police. Yale University law students represented the men pro bono and filed a civil rights lawsuit against the city on their behalf. On March 8, 2011, it was confirmed a settlement had been reached in the case whereby Danbury agreed to pay the laborers $400,000 (Danbury's insurance carrier paid the settlement plus legal fees of close to $1,000,000, less a $100,000 deductible). The federal government agreed to pay them $250,000. As part of the settlement, the City did not admit any wrongdoing and there were no changes in the city's policies or procedures. Hatmaking in Danbury In 1780, what is traditionally considered to be the first hat shop in Danbury was established by Zadoc Benedict. (Hatmaking had existed in Danbury before the Revolution.) The Benedict shop had three employees, and they made 18 hats weekly. By 1800, Danbury was producing 20,000 hats annually, more than any other city in the U.S. Due to the fur felt hat coming back into style for men and increasing mechanization in the 1850s, by 1859 hat production in Danbury had risen to 1.5 million annually. By 1887, thirty factories were producing 5 million hats per year. Around this time, fur processing was separated from hat manufacturing when the P. Robinson Fur Cutting Company (1884) on Oil Mill Road and the White Brothers' factory began operation. By 1880, workers had unionized, beginning decades of labor unrest. They struggled to achieve conditions that were more fair, going on strike; with management reacting with lockouts. Because of the scale of the industry, labor unrest and struggles over wages affected the economy of the entire town. In 1893, nineteen manufacturers locked out 4000 union hatters. In 1902, the American Federation of Labor union called for a nationwide boycott of Dietrich Loewe, a Danbury non-union hat manufacturer. The manufacturer sued the union under the Sherman Antitrust Act for unlawfully restraining trade. In the 1908 Danbury Hatters' Case the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the union was liable for damages. In the 1930s and 1940s, there were a number of violent incidents during several strikes, mostly involving scab workers brought in as strikebreakers. Beginning in 1892, the industry was revolutionized when the large hat factories began to shift to manufacturing unfinished hat bodies only, and supplying them to smaller hat shops for finishing. While Danbury produced 24% of America's hats in 1904, the city supplied the industry with 75% of its hat bodies. The turn of the century was the heyday of the hatting industry in Danbury, when it became known as the "Hat City" and the "Hatting Capitol of the World". Its motto was "Danbury Crowns Them All". Mercury poisoning The use of mercuric nitrate in the felting process poisoned many workers in the hat factories, creating a condition called erethism, also called "mad hatter disease." The condition, known locally as the "Danbury shakes", was characterized by slurred speech, tremors, stumbling, and, in extreme cases, hallucinations. The effect of mercury on the workers' health was first noted in the late 19th century. While workers in the Danbury factories lobbied for controls on mercury in the early 20th century, a government study on the health effects of mercury was not conducted until 1937. The State of Connecticut announced a ban on mercury in hatmaking in 1941. While Danbury hat factories stopped using mercury in the 1940s, the mercury waste has remained in the Still River and adjacent soils, and has been detected at high levels in the 21st century. Industry decline By the 1920s, the hat industry was in decline. By 1923, only six manufacturers were left in Danbury, which increased the pressure on workers. After World War II, returning GIs went hatless, a trend that accelerated through the 1950s, dooming the city's hat industry. The city's last major hat factory, owned by Stetson, closed in 1964. The last hat was made in Danbury in 1987 when a small factory owned by Stetson closed. Historic pictures Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, Danbury has a total area of , of which is land and , or 4.94%, is water. The city is located in the foothills of the Berkshire Mountains on low-lying land just south of Candlewood Lake (the City includes the southern parts of the lake). It developed along the Still River, which flows generally from west to east through the city before joining the Housatonic River. The city's terrain includes rolling hills and not-very-tall mountains to the west and northwest called the Western Highland. Ground elevations in the city range from 378 feet to 1,050 feet above sea level. A geologic fault known as Cameron's Line runs through Danbury. Neighboring towns Pollution The hatmaking fur-removal process was based on the use of mercury nitrate. The waste caused serious water pollution as the hat manufacturers dumped it into the Still River throughout the late 19th century and into the 1940s. This toxic product flowed into the Housatonic River and Long Island Sound, affecting water quality and various fish and other organisms. Field studies conducted in the Still River basin in the 21st century have detected the continuing presence of high levels of mercury in the river sediments and nearby soils. Climate Danbury has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa), with four distinct seasons, resembling Hartford more than coastal Connecticut or New York City. Summers are hot and humid, while winters are cold with significant snowfall. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from in January to in July; on average, temperatures reaching occur on 18 and 3.1 days of the year, respectively. The average annual precipitation is approximately , which is distributed fairly evenly throughout the year; snow averages per season, although this total may vary considerably from year to year. Extremes in temperature range from on July 22, 1926, and July 15, 1995 (the highest temperature recorded in Connecticut) down to on February 9, 1934. Demographics It's estimated that the population of Danbury as of 2015 is 84,657. As of the 2010 census, there were 80,893 people and 29,046 households in the city, with 2.73 persons per household. 44.1% of the population spoke a language other than English at home. The population density was 1,921.4 people per square mile. There were 31,154 housing units at an average density of 740.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 68.2% White, 25.0% Hispanic or Latino (of any race), 7.2% African American, 0.40% Native American, 6.8% Asian, less than 0.10% Pacific Islander, 7.6% from other races, and 4.5% from two or more races. 32% of the population was foreign born. Of particular note is a sizeable population of residents of Portuguese and Brazilian heritage. They are served by locally based Portuguese-language print and broadcast media. 6.7% of the population was under the age of 5, and 21.1% was under the age of 18. 11.1% of the population was 65 years of age or older. 50.9% of the population was female. The per capita income for the city was $31,411. 11.1% of the population was below the poverty line. The median gross monthly rent was $1,269. In 2015 the median income for a household in the city was approximately $66,676. When ZIP codes were introduced in 1963, the 06810 code was given to all of Danbury; it was shared with a then-still-rural New Fairfield to its north. In 1984, the 06810 Zip Code was cut back to areas of Danbury south of Interstate 84. A new 06811 ZIP code was created for areas north of Interstate 84. New Fairfield received its own code, 06812. Economy In 2016 Danbury's workforce was approximately 79,400 workers. 12,200 (15.4%) of them worked in goods producing industries. 67,200 (84.6%) of them worked in service providing industries which includes: trade, transportation and utilities (17,300), professional and business services (9,400), leisure and hospitality (7,300), government (10,200) and all other (23,000). In Nov. 2016, the unemployment rate for the Danbury Labor Market Area was 3.0%, compared to 3.7% for the State and 4.6% nationally. The top employers in the city in 2020 were: Government The chief executive officer of Danbury is the Mayor, who serves a two-year term. The current mayor is Dean Esposito (R). The Mayor is the presiding officer of the City Council, which consists of 21 members, two from each of the seven city wards, and seven at-large. The City Council enacts ordinances and resolutions by a simple majority vote. If after five days the Mayor does not approve the ordinance (similar to a veto), the City Council may re-vote on it. If it then passes with a two-thirds majority, it becomes effective without the Mayor's approval. The current City Council consists of 14 Republicans and 7 Democrats. Danbury has six state representatives as of 2021; Raghib Allie-Brennan D-2, Stephen Harding R-107, Patrick Callahan R-108, David Arconti D-109, Bob Godfrey D-110 and Kenneth Gucker D-138. There is one state senator, Julie Kushner D-24. Danbury is represented in the United States Congress by U.S. Rep. Jahana Hayes (D). Danbury's Fiscal Year 2020-2021 mill rate is 27.60. Infrastructure Education Public schools Danbury Public Schools operates most public schools, with Danbury High School belonging to the district. The other public high school, Henry Abbott Technical High School, is within the Connecticut Technical High School System. Each high school is grades 9 through 12. An alternative school by the name of Alternative Center for Excellence is housed off-campus, and its graduates receive Danbury High School diplomas upon completion of their studies. Danbury also has 3 public middle schools for grades 6 through 8: Broadview Middle School, Rogers Park Middle School and WestSide Middle School Academy. There are 13 elementary schools in Danbury. These schools are Academy for International Studies Magnet School (K-5), Ellsworth Avenue (K-5), Great Plain (K-5), Hayestown (K-5), King Street Primary (K-3) and King Street Intermediate (4–5), Mill Ridge Primary (K-3), Morris Street (K-5), Park Avenue (K-5), Pembroke (K-5), Shelter Rock (K-5), South Street (K-5) and Stadley Rough (K-5). Parochial schools Roman Catholic schools in Danbury reside within the administration of the Diocese of Bridgeport and include: 1 high school: Immaculate High School (9–12) 3 elementary schools: St Peter-Sacred Heart School (PK-8), St. Gregory the Great School (PK-8), and St. Joseph School (PK-8) Other parochial schools in Danbury are: Colonial Hills Christian Academy Immanuel Lutheran School Private schools Hudson Country Montessori School New England Country Day School Wooster School Post-secondary schools Danbury is home to Western Connecticut State University and a campus of Naugatuck Valley Community College. Danbury Federal Correctional Institution Danbury is the site of a low-security men's and women's prison, the Danbury Federal Correctional Institution, located near the border with New Fairfield. Built in the 1940s to house men, the facility was converted to a women's prison in 1994 to address a shortage of beds for low-security female inmates in other facilities. However, overcrowding at federal facilities for low-security males prompted a reconversion to a male prison, beginning in 2013, and relocation of the female inmates from the low-security Pembroke Road facility to other locations. As of 2016, an adjacent satellite camp houses up to 193 women. A new $25 million women's facility was completed and began accepting female inmates in December, 2016 Transportation Danbury is the terminus of the Danbury branch line of the MTA Metro-North Railroad which begins in Norwalk. The line was first built by the Danbury and Norwalk Railroad which was later bought by the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad Company. Danbury was an important junction between the Danbury Branch and the Maybrook Line. The Maybrook line was the New Haven's main freight line which terminated in Maybrook, New York, where the New Haven exchanged traffic with other railroads. After the ill-fated Penn Central took over the New Haven, the Maybrook line was shut down when a fire on the Poughkeepsie Bridge made the line unusable. Today, the historic station is part of the Danbury Railway Museum. The Providence and Worcester Railroad, along with the Housatonic Railroad provide local rail freight service in Danbury. Local bus service is provided by Housatonic Area Regional Transit (HART). The city is also the location of Danbury Municipal Airport (DXR). Interstate 84 and U.S. Route 7 are the main highways in the city. I-84 runs west to east from the lower Hudson Valley region of New York to Waterbury and Hartford. US 7 runs south to north from Norwalk (connecting to I-95) to the Litchfield Hills region. The two highways overlap in the downtown area. The principal surface roads through the city are Lake Avenue, West Street, White Street, and Federal Road. Other secondary state highways are U.S. Route 6 in the western part of the city, Newtown Road, which connects to US 6 east of the city, Route 53 (Main Street and South Street), Route 37 (North Street, Padaranam Road, and Pembroke Road), and Route 39 (Clapboard Ridge Road and Ball Pond Road). Danbury has 242 miles of streets. Libraries The Danbury Public Library was established in 1869. The Long Ridge Library is a small library occupying an old schoolhouse on Long Ridge Road in Danbury. It was founded in 1916. Places of worship Danbury is home to numerous churches, two synagogues, and two mosques. Mass media Danbury is in the New York City TV market and receives its TV stations. Some TV stations in the Hartford-New Haven are also available to Danbury viewers. The News-Times - a daily newspaper owned by Hearst Communications. Tribuna Newspaper - a biweekly, bilingual (Portuguese/English) news publication. HamletHub Danbury - a local news publication. WFAR-FM, 93.3 MHz, low-power - religious (Christian) and ethnic/Portuguese-language programming. WLAD-AM, 800 kHz, 1000 watts (daytime), 287 watts (nighttime) - news/talk format, owned by the Berkshire Broadcasting Corporation. WDAQ-FM 98.3 MHz, 1300 watts - hot adult contemporary format, owned by the Berkshire Broadcasting Corporation. WDAQ-HD2 FM, 103.7 MHz - alternative rock format, owned by the Berkshire Broadcasting Corporation. WDAQ-HD3 FM, 107.3 MHz - new country music, owned by the Berkshire Broadcasting Corporation. WDAQ-HD4 FM, 94.5 MHz - "The Hawk" - classic rock format, owned by the Berkshire Broadcasting Corporation. WAXB, 850 kHz AM / 94.5 MHz FM, 2500 watts (daytime only) - Spanish-language adult hits, owned by the Berkshire Broadcasting Corporation. WXCI-FM, 91.7 MHz, 3000 watts - non-profit, college radio station, owned by Western Connecticut State University and operated by past and present students; receives funding from the Western Connecticut State University Student Government Association. WRKI-FM, 95.1 MHz, 50000 watts - classic rock music, owned by Townsquare Media; debuted on December 24, 1976. WDBY-FM, 105.5 MHz ("Kicks 105.5") - contemporary country music, owned by Townsquare Media. WINE-AM, 940 kHz - CBS Sports Radio, owned by Townsquare Media. Public utilities The Public Utilities Division operates and maintains the City of Danbury's Water Division, water utility infrastructure, sanitary sewer infrastructure, which includes several large water supply dams, a closed landfill, landfill gas collection system, and administer programs for recycling and disposal of solid waste. The Division oversees a Water Pollution Control Plant, operated by Veolia Water North America, and a public yard waste management processing center, located on Plumtrees Road, in accordance with an agreement between the City of Danbury and Total Landscaping and Tree Service. The sewer fund makes up 80 percent of Danbury's 2019–2020 Adopted Capital Projects Budget, accounting for $103 million of the $127 million budget to maintain the plant. In October 2020, the city renamed its water pollution control plant the John Oliver Memorial Sewer Plant after John Oliver, the host of the late-night comedy program Last Week Tonight with John Oliver jokingly insulted the city. Oliver attended the unveiling ceremony in person as a condition of Mayor Boughton. Sites of interest Hiking trails Bear Mountain Reservation The Old Quarry Nature Center has two short educational trails on Tarrywile Mansion and Park has of trails and several ponds on , as well as a Victorian mansion and gardens. The Ives Trail runs through the park. The Ives Trail is a 20-mile stretch of trail that runs from Bennett's Pond in Ridgefield through Danbury to Redding. The Charles Ives House and Hearthstone Castle are located along this trail. Parks Bear Mountain Park Blind Brook Park Candlewood Town Park Danbury Dog Park at Margerie Reservoir Danbury Dog Park at Miry Brook Elmwood Park Farrington Woods Hatters Park Highland Playground Joseph Sauer Memorial Park Kennedy Park Lake Kenosia Park Lions Club Children's Park on Rowan Street Memorial Park Old Quarry Nature Center Richter Park Rogers Park Rogers Park Playground Stephen A. Kaplanis Field Still River Greenway Tarrywile Park Tom West Park Museums Danbury Museum and Historical Society Danbury Railway Museum Other The Connecticut 9/11 Memorial by sculptor Henry Richardson is located in Danbury in Elmwood Park. The Danbury Fair Mall was built on the old fairgrounds in 1986. Danbury is also home to an Army Reserve Special Operations unit, the 411th Civil Affairs Battalion. Danbury Hospital is a 456-bed hospital, serving patients in Fairfield County, Connecticut and Putnam County, New York. The hospital is the home of the new Praxair Regional Heart and Vascular center, providing state of the art cardiovascular care to this growing region including open heart surgery and coronary angioplasty. Richter Park Golf Course is Danbury's municipal golf course and hosts numerous tournaments such as the annual Danbury Amateur and American Junior Golf Association majors. It has won a variety of awards, including being a "Top 10 Connecticut Course" and the "#2 Best Public Course in the NY Metropolitan Area". The Summit at Danbury is one of the largest office complexes in Connecticut Danbury Ice Arena The John Oliver Memorial Sewer Plant National Register of Historic Places Sports Ice hockey The United Hockey League (UHL) expanded to Danbury in 2004. The Danbury Trashers played their first season at the Danbury Ice Arena in October 2004. Among those on the roster included Brent Gretzky (brother of hockey legend Wayne Gretzky) and Scott Stirling (son of former New York Islanders coach Steve Stirling). Scott's older brother, Todd, coached the Trashers in the 2004–05 season. The team folded in 2006 after its owner, coach and management were charged (and later convicted) of several charges of wire fraud and racketeering. On December 27, 2009, Danbury was named the first city to officially have a team in the newly formed Federal Hockey League (FHL). The team was named the Danbury Whalers, bringing back the name "Whalers" to Connecticut for the first time since 1997 when the Hartford Whalers of the WHA/NHL moved to North Carolina and became the Carolina Hurricanes. At the end of the 2014–15 season, the Danbury Ice Arena evicted the Danbury Whalers. However, a new FHL Danbury team called the Danbury Titans was approved for the 2015–16 season, owned by local car dealership owner Bruce Bennett. The Titans folded after two seasons. The Danbury Ice Arena was sold and put under new management in 2019. The arena then added a third FHL franchise called the Danbury Hat Tricks, a Tier III junior team called the Danbury Colonials, and the relocation of the Premier Hockey Federation's Connecticut Whale. In 2020, the arena added a Tier II junior team called the Danbury Jr. Hat Tricks and the Tier III team also rebranded to the same name. Other sports The Danbury Westerners, a member of the New England Collegiate Baseball League, play their home games at Rogers Park in Danbury. AC Connecticut is a soccer team based in the Danbury suburb of Newtown. The team plays in the Northeast Division of the USL League Two, the fourth tier of the American soccer pyramid. Danbury High School carries a strong athletic tradition in wrestling, boys and girls track and field, boys cross country, baseball, tennis, basketball, and football. The wrestling, boys cross country, and boys track teams have all numerous state titles and New England championships. All three programs are considered to be nationally ranked annually. Western Connecticut State University is a member of the NCAA Division III, the Eastern College Athletic Conference, and the Little East Conference. The university fields teams in baseball, basketball, lacrosse, football, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, and volleyball. WestConn also fields several nationally competitive club sports on campus including Men's Rugby, Women's Rugby, Dance Team, Cheerleading, and Men's Hockey. The Danbury Hatters Cricket Club formed in 2001 and has been playing cricket in Southern Connecticut along with other cities such as Norwalk, Stamford, Bridgeport, New Haven, Waterbury and West Haven. Their home ground is Broadview Middle School. The Western Connecticut Militia is a semi-professional football team that played in the New England Football League from 2011 to 2016, winning the league championship the last year. The team played its home games in Danbury during that period. After taking 2017 off, the team joined Major League Football for the 2018 season, playing its home games in New Fairfield, CT. Notable people Renata Adler, author, journalist and film critic Willard H. Allen (1893–1957), New Jersey secretary of agriculture Marian Anderson, (1897–1993), singer James Montgomery Bailey, 19th century Danbury News editor Matt Barnes, professional baseball player Zadoc Benedict, the first hat maker of Danbury Jonathan Brandis (1976–2003) actor Peter Buck (1930-2021), co-founder, Subway sandwich restaurants Austin Calitro, professional football player Ray Cappo, singer Neil Cavuto, television anchor Frank Conniff (1914–1971), 1956 Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist Ken Green, professional golfer Lee Hartell, Medal of Honor recipient Charles Ives (1874–1954), composer Joe Lahoud, professional baseball player Rose Wilder Lane, author, writer, daughter of Laura Ingalls Wilder Jimmy Monaghan, Irish musician and former boxer Jerry Nadeau, professional auto racing driver Steven Novella, neurologist and noted skeptic Laura Nyro, (1947-1997), musician, songwriter, bandleader, singer Elizabeth Peyton, painter Chet Powers aka Dino Valenti (1937–1994), musician and songwriter George Radachowsky, professional football player William R. Ratchford, three term U.S. Congressman Delvin Rodríguez, professional boxer Neil Rudenstine, past president of Harvard University Chauncey Foster Ryder, Postimpressionist painter Trevor Siemian, professional football player Christian Siriano, fashion designer Ian Smith, panelist on VH1's Celebrity Fit Club Lee Smith, Member of the Baseball Hall of Fame, Relief Pitcher Ronnie Spector, singer Glover Teixeira, Professional MMA Fighter in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) and Champion of the Light heavyweight (MMA) division. Roy M. Terry, Chief of Chaplains of the U.S. Air Force TJR (birth name Thomas Joseph Rozdilsky), musician John Hubbard Tweedy, U.S. Congressional Delegate from the Wisconsin Territory Samuel Tweedy (1776–1868), U.S. Representative from Connecticut Jenna von Oÿ, actress William A. Whittlesey, former U.S. Congressman Zalmon Wildman (1775–1835), U.S. Representative from Connecticut Cultural references Danbury's sewage plant has been named the "John Oliver Memorial Sewer Plant" in honor of comedian John Oliver after a lighthearted social media exchange between Oliver and mayor Mark Boughton following Oliver's satirical criticism of Danbury on Last Week Tonight with John Oliver in August 2020. Oliver donated $55,000 to local charities in exchange for the renaming. In October 2020, Oliver visited Danbury for the official unveiling of the renamed plant. In Robert Lawson's children's novel Rabbit Hill, the story's Anthropomorphic rabbit characters preserve by oral tradition the memory of Danbury being burned by the British during the American War of Independence and later of the town's young men going off to fight in the American Civil War and many of them not coming back. See also Greater Danbury, the metropolitan area centered on the city References External links Cities in Connecticut Cities in Fairfield County, Connecticut Cities in the New York metropolitan area Hat making Populated places established in 1685

151061

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson%20City%2C%20Tennessee

Johnson City, Tennessee

Johnson City is a city in Washington, Carter, and Sullivan counties in the U.S. state of Tennessee, mostly in Washington County. As of the 2020 United States census, the population was 71,046, making it the eighth largest city in Tennessee. Johnson City is the principal city of the Johnson City Metropolitan Statistical Area, which covers Carter, Unicoi, and Washington counties and had a combined population of 200,966 as of 2013. The MSA is also a component of the Johnson City–Kingsport–Bristol, Tennessee–Virginia Combined Statistical Area – commonly known as the "Tri-Cities" region. This CSA is the fifth-largest in Tennessee with an estimated 500,530 residents. History William Bean, traditionally recognized as Tennessee's first settler, built his cabin along Boone's Creek near Johnson City in 1769. In the 1780s, Colonel John Tipton (1730–1813) established a farm (now the Tipton-Haynes State Historic Site) just outside what is now Johnson City. During the State of Franklin movement, Tipton was a leader of the loyalist faction, residents of the region who wanted to remain part of North Carolina rather than form a separate state. In February 1788, an armed engagement took place at Tipton's farm between Tipton and his men and the forces led by John Sevier, the leader of the Franklin faction. Founded in 1856 by Henry Johnson as a railroad station called "Johnson's Depot", Johnson City became a major rail hub for the Southeast, as three railway lines crossed in the downtown area. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Johnson City served as headquarters for the narrow gauge East Tennessee and Western North Carolina Railroad (the ET&WNC, nicknamed "Tweetsie") and the standard gauge Clinchfield Railroad. Both rail systems featured excursion trips through scenic portions of the Blue Ridge Mountains and were engineering marvels of railway construction. The Southern Railway (now Norfolk Southern) also passes through the city. During the American Civil War, before it was formally incorporated in 1869, the name of the town was briefly changed to "Haynesville" in honor of Confederate Senator Landon Carter Haynes. Henry Johnson's name was quickly restored following the war, with Johnson elected as the city's first mayor on January 3, 1870. The town grew rapidly from 1870 until 1890 as railroad and mining interests flourished. However, the national depression of 1893, which caused many railway failures (including the Charleston, Cincinnati and Chicago Railroad or "3-Cs", a predecessor of the Clinchfield) and resulting financial panic, halted Johnson City's boom town momentum. In 1901, the Mountain Branch of the National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers (now the U.S. Veterans Affairs Medical Center and National Cemetery), Mountain Home, Tennessee was created by an act of Congress introduced by Walter P. Brownlow. Johnson City began growing rapidly and became the fifth-largest city in Tennessee by 1930. Together with neighboring Bristol, Johnson City was a hotbed for old-time music. It hosted noteworthy Columbia Records recording sessions in 1928 known as the Johnson City Sessions. Native son "Fiddlin' Charlie" Bowman became a national recording star via these sessions. The Fountain Square area in downtown featured a host of local and traveling street entertainers including Blind Lemon Jefferson. During the 1920s and the Prohibition era, Johnson City's ties to the bootlegging activity of the Appalachian Mountains earned the city the nickname of "Little Chicago". For many years, the city had a municipal "privilege tax" on carnival shows, in an attempt to dissuade traveling circuses and other transient entertainment businesses from doing business in town. The use of drums by merchants to draw attention to their goods is prohibited. Title Six, Section 106 of the city's municipal code, the so-called "Barney Fife" ordinance, empowers the city's police force to draft into involuntary service as many of the town's citizens as necessary to aid police in making arrests and in preventing or quelling any riot, unlawful assembly or breach of peace. Geography Johnson City is in northeastern Washington County at (36.3354, -82.3728), According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of , of which is land and , or 0.75 percent, is water. Climate Johnson City has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), with warm summers and cool winters. Temperatures in Johnson City are moderated somewhat by its elevation and proximity to the Appalachian Mountains. Precipitation is abundant, with an average of . Summer is typically the wettest part of the year, while early autumn is considerably drier. Snowfall is moderate and sporadic, with an average of . Demographics 2020 census As of the 2020 United States census, there were 71,046 people, 30,724 households, and 15,904 families residing in the city. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 55,469 people, 23,720 households, and 14,018 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,412.4 per square mile. There were 25,730 housing units at an average density of 655.1 per square mile (253.0/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 90.09 percent white, 6.40 percent African American, 0.26% Native American, 1.22 percent Asian, 0.02 percent Pacific Islander, 0.69 percent from other races, and 1.32 percent from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.89 percent of the population. There were 23,720 households, out of which 25.0 percent had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.1 percent were married couples living together, 11.6 percent had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.9 percent were non-families. 33.9 percent of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.5 percent had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.20, and the average family size was 2.82. In the city, the population was spread out, with 19.8 percent under the age of 18, 13.7 percent from 18 to 24, 28.1 percent from 25 to 44, 22.5 percent from 45 to 64, and 15.9 percent who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.0 males. The median income for a household in the city was $30,835, and the median income for a family was $40,977. Males had a median income of $31,326 versus $22,150 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,364. About 11.4 percent of families and 15.9 percent of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.9 percent of those under age 18 and 12.7 percent of those age 65 or over. Economy Johnson City is an economic hub largely fueled by East Tennessee State University and the medical "Med-Tech" corridor, anchored by the Johnson City Medical Center and Niswonger Children's Hospital (of Ballad Health), Franklin Woods Community Hospital (also of Ballad Health), ETSU's Gatton College of Pharmacy and ETSU's Quillen College of Medicine. The popular citrus soda Mountain Dew traces its origins to Johnson City. In July 2012, PepsiCo announced a new malt-flavored version of the drink named Mountain Dew Johnson City Gold in honor of the city. The drink was test marketed in the Chicago metropolitan area, Denver, and Charlotte, beginning in late August. Johnson City and its metropolitan area had a gross metropolitan product of in 2019. Major companies headquartered in Johnson City American Water Heater Company (owned by A.O. Smith Corp.) Advanced Call Center Technologies Cantech Industries General Shale Brick LLC LPI, Inc. Mayes Brothers Tool Mfg Moody Dunbar, Inc. Mullican Flooring R.A. Colby, Inc. TPI Corporation Other companies JD Squared, manufacturer of tube and pipe benders and other fabrication tools Publix, regional grocery store Arts and culture Shopping As a regional hub for a four-state area, Johnson City is home to a large variety of retail businesses, from well-known national chains to local boutiques and galleries. The Mall at Johnson City is the city's only enclosed shopping mall. California-based Forever 21 opened an XXI Forever flagship store on the mall's upper level, and Express opened in late 2010. The nearby Target Center houses Target, T.J.Maxx, Books-A-Million, and Pier One. Much of the new retail development is in North Johnson City, along State of Franklin Road. Johnson City Crossings is the largest of these developments and houses Michael's, Ross, Old Navy, Bed Bath and Beyond, Shoe Carnival, and more. On the other side of the highway are retailers Kohl's, Lowe's, Sam's Club and Barnes & Noble. Points of interest Boone Lake Buffalo Mountain Park East Tennessee State University Arboretum ETSU/Mountain States Health Alliance Athletic Center Freedom Hall Civic Center Gray Fossil Site Johnson City STOLport Rocky Mount State Historic Site Thomas Stadium, baseball venue Tipton-Haynes State Historic Site Tri-Cities Regional Airport, north of downtown Watauga River Wheatland (Knob Creek, Washington County, Tennessee) William B. Greene Jr. Stadium Yee Haw Brewing Co. Founders Park Tweetsie Trail Sports Several Minor League Baseball teams have been based in Johnson City. Professional baseball was first played in the city by the Johnson City Soldiers in the Southeastern League in 1910. The city's longest-running team was the Johnson City Cardinals, who played in the Appalachian League as the Rookie affiliate of the St. Louis Cardinals from 1975 to 2020. In conjunction with a contraction of Minor League Baseball beginning with the 2021 season, the Appalachian League was reorganized as a collegiate summer baseball league, and the Cardinals were replaced by the Johnson City Doughboys, a new franchise in the revamped league designed for rising college freshman and sophomores. Government In the United States House of Representatives, Johnson City is represented by Republican Diana Harshbarger of the 1st district. Johnson City is run by a five-person board of commissioners: Mayor: Joe Wise Vice Mayor: Todd Fowler Commissioner: Jenny Brock Commissioner: Aaron T. Murphy Commissioner: John Hunter The city manager is M. Denis "Pete" Peterson. Education Colleges and universities East Tennessee State University has around 16,000 students in addition to a K-12 University School, a laboratory school of about 540 students. University School was the first laboratory school in the nation to adopt a year-round academic schedule. Milligan College (which changed its name to Milligan University in June, 2020) is just outside the city limits in Carter County, and has about 1,200 students in undergraduate and graduate programs. Northeast State Community College has renovated a building in downtown Johnson City for use as a new satellite teaching site. Tusculum College has a center on the north side of Johnson City in the Boones Creek area. Johnson City School System Elementary schools Intermediate schools Indian Trail Intermediate (formerly Middle) School Middle schools Liberty Bell Middle School High schools Science Hill High School Private schools Ashley Academy (PreK-8) St. Mary's (K-8) Providence Academy (K-12) Tri-Cities Christian Schools (PreK-12) University School (K-12) Infrastructure Transportation Johnson City is served by Tri-Cities Regional Airport (IATA Code TRI) and Johnson City Airport (0A4) in Watauga. Interstate highways Interstate 26 Johnson City is bisected by Interstate 26, which connects the city to Kingsport to the north and Asheville, North Carolina, and Spartanburg, South Carolina, to the south. Interstate 81 intersects I-26 a northwest of the city center and carries drivers to Knoxville to the southwest and Bristol to the northeast. Major federal and state routes U.S. Route 19W runs through the city, signed partially on I-26, before joining 19E near Bluff City en route to Bristol. U.S. Route 11E connects Johnson City to Jonesborough and Greeneville to the southwest, and reunites with 11W to the northeast in Bristol before continuing on to Roanoke, Virginia. In Johnson City, route 11E forms a concurrency with North Roan Street, a major artery in the city. U.S. Route 321, also partially on the 11E route, connects Johnson City to Elizabethton (forming a high-speed, limited-access freeway) before continuing on to Hickory and Gastonia, North Carolina. U.S. Route 23 is concurrent with I-26 from North Carolina, through Johnson City, and north to the I-26 terminus in Kingsport. Public transport Johnson City Transit (JCT) operates a system of buses inside the city limits, including a route every fifteen minutes along Roan Street. Main transit routes operate 6:15 a.m. to 6:15 p.m. Monday through Friday, and 8:15 a.m. to 5:15 p.m. on Saturdays. JCT also has an evening route that operates weeknights between 6:15 p.m. and 11:00 p.m. The Johnson City Transit Center, downtown on West Market Street, also serves as the transfer point for Greyhound lines running through the city. JCT operates the BucShot, a system serving the greater ETSU campus. The Southern Railway used to serve Johnson City with several trains: the Birmingham Special (ended, 1970), the Pelican (ended, 1970) and the Tennessean (ended, 1968). Hospitals Johnson City serves as a regional medical center for northeast Tennessee and southwest Virginia, along with parts of western North Carolina and southeastern Kentucky. The Johnson City Medical Center, designated a Level 1 Trauma Center by the State of Tennessee, is one of Ballad Health's three tertiary hospitals. Also affiliated with the center are the Niswonger Children's Hospital, a domestic affiliate of St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, and Woodridge Hospital, a mental health and chemical dependency facility. Franklin Woods Community Hospital is a LEED-certified facility in North Johnson City. The "green" hospital (opened July 12, 2010) encloses approximately on a lot adjacent to The Wellness Center inside MedTech Park. The hospital has 80 licensed beds and a 22-room Emergency Department. Of the licensed beds, 20 are dedicated to Women's and Children's Services. The James H. & Cecile C. Quillen Rehabilitation Hospital, also in North Johnson City, serves patients who have suffered debilitating trauma, including stroke and brain-spine injuries. Additionally, the James H. Quillen Veterans Affairs Medical Center, in the Mountain Home community in Johnson City's southside, serves veterans in the four-state region. The center is closely involved with the East Tennessee State University James H. Quillen College of Medicine. Notable people Bill Bain, management consultant, one of the founders of the management consultancy Bain & Company Sam Bettens, lead singer of rock band K's Choice; Johnson City firefighter for a year Jerry Blevins, Major League Baseball pitcher (New York Mets) Ernie Bowman, Major League Baseball (San Francisco Giants, 1961–63) Joe Bowman, bootmaker and marksman; guardian of western culture Mike Brown, American Motorcyclist Association rider Jo Carson, playwright and author George Lafayette Carter, entrepreneur David Cash, professional wrestler David Cole, founding member of C+C Music Factory Patrick J. Cronin, television and film actor, a professor in English and Theater at ETSU Matt Czuchry, actor (Gilmore Girls), attended Science Hill High School David Davis, Tennessee state senator; U.S. congressman 2007-2009 Lindsay Ellis, American film critic, YouTuber, cinematographer, and author Ray Flynn, miler with 89 sub-four-minute miles; graduated ETSU, president/CEO of Flynn Sports Management Aubrayo Franklin, defensive tackle, San Francisco 49ers Wyck Godfrey, film producer and studio executive Jake Grove, born in Johnson City; played center for Virginia Tech, won the Rimington Trophy, played for the Miami Dolphins Del Harris, NBA coach, attended Milligan College Holly Herndon, electronic musician Mark Herring, Attorney General of Virginia Jim Hickman (1910s outfielder), was a former professional baseball player who played outfield for Brooklyn Dodgers. Steven James, novelist, attended ETSU Drew Johnson, political commentator and columnist, and founder of the Beacon Center of Tennessee Amythyst Kiah, Americana singer/songwriter Catherine Marshall, author, born in Johnson City, later worked on her novel Christy while staying with relatives in town John Alan Maxwell, artist and illustrator, raised in Johnson City, illustrated for Pearl S. Buck, John Steinbeck, and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, spent his last 18 years in Johnson City; permanent collection housed at Carroll Reece Museum at ETSU Johnny Miller, NASCAR driver Daniel Norris, Major League Baseball, debuted with the Toronto Blue Jays in 2014 Eureka O'Hara, drag queen and television personality Mike Potter, NASCAR driver David Phil Roe, mayor of Johnson City and representative for Tennessee's 1st congressional district in 2008 Mo Sabri, alternative hip hop artist Bryan Lewis Saunders, artist and writer, ETSU alumnus Connie Saylor, NASCAR driver and Johnson City business owner Constance Shulman, actress, singer, producer Steve Spurrier, Heisman Trophy-winning quarterback and College Football Hall of Fame coach, spent most of his childhood in Johnson City and attended Science Hill High School. The school's football field is named Steve Spurrier Field. Robert Love Taylor and Alfred A. Taylor, brothers who were both governor of Tennessee; each owned and resided in Robins' Roost, historic house on South Roan Street Brad Teague, NASCAR driver Phyllis Tickle, prominent author on religion and spirituality Ed Whitson, MLB pitcher known for a brief but colorful stint with the Yankees in the 1980s Samuel Cole Williams, historian, jurist, first dean of the Emory University School of Law Van Williams, NFL running back and kick returner for Buffalo Bills, All-American at Carson-Newman, attended Science Hill High School Sister cities Johnson City's sister cities are: Guaranda, Ecuador Ronneby, Sweden Rybinsk, Russia Teterow, Germany See also Music of East Tennessee References General Specific Greater Johnson City, by Ray Stahl, 1986. A History of Johnson City, Tennessee and its Environs, by Samuel Cole Williams, 1940. History of Washington County, Tennessee, by Joyce and Gene Cox, Editors, 2001. Fiddlin' Charlie Bowman, by Bob L. Cox, University of Tennessee Press, 2007. The Railroads of Johnson City, by Johnny Graybeal, Tar Heel Press, 2007. External links Official website Washington County, TN Economic Development Council Johnson City Development Authority Cities in Tennessee Cities in Carter County, Tennessee Cities in Sullivan County, Tennessee Cities in Washington County, Tennessee Populated places established in 1856 1856 establishments in Tennessee East Tennessee Johnson City metropolitan area, Tennessee State of Franklin

152877

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvatore%20Maranzano

Salvatore Maranzano

Salvatore Maranzano (; July 31, 1886 – September 10, 1931) was an Italian-American mobster from the town of Castellammare del Golfo, Sicily, and an early Cosa Nostra boss who led what later would become the Bonanno crime family in New York City. He instigated the Castellammarese War in 1930, to seize control of the American Mafia, winning the war after the murder of rival faction head Joe Masseria in April 1931. He then briefly became the Mafia's capo di tutti capi ("boss of all bosses") and formed the Five Families in New York City, but was murdered on September 10, 1931, on the orders of Charles "Lucky" Luciano, who established an arrangement in which families shared power to prevent future turf wars: The Commission. Early life Salvatore Maranzano was the youngest of 12 children born to Domenico Maranzano and Antonina Pisciotta. Five of his siblings lived to adulthood: Mariano, Angelo, Nicolo, Giuseppe, and Angela. As a youngster, Maranzano had wanted to become a priest and even studied to become one, but later became associated with the Mafia in his homeland. Maranzano had a very commanding presence and was greatly respected by his underworld peers. He had a fascination with Julius Caesar and the Roman Empire, and enjoyed talking to his less-educated American Mafia counterparts about these subjects. Because of this, he was nicknamed "Little Caesar" by his underworld peers. Early career Maranzano emigrated from Sicily to the United States in the 1920s, settling in Brooklyn. The Sicilian mafioso Don Vito Ferro decided to make a bid for control of Mafia operations in the United States. From his base in Castellammare del Golfo, Maranzano was sent to seize control. While building a legitimate business as a real estate broker, Maranzano also maintained a growing bootlegging business, using the real estate company as a front for his illegal operations. He soon became involved in prostitution and the illegal smuggling of narcotics; he also took a liking to a young Joseph Bonanno and became his mentor. Castellammarese War To protect the criminal empire that Maranzano had built up, he declared war on his rival Joe Masseria, the boss of all bosses, in 1930, starting the Castellammarese War. In early 1931, Lucky Luciano decided to eliminate his boss, Masseria. In a secret deal with Maranzano, Luciano agreed to engineer Masseria's death in return for receiving Masseria's rackets and becoming Maranzano's second-in-command. On April 15, Luciano invited Masseria and two other associates to lunch in a Coney Island restaurant. After finishing their meal, the mobsters decided to play cards. At that point, according to mob legend, Luciano went to the bathroom. Four gunmen – Vito Genovese, Albert Anastasia, Joe Adonis and Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel – then walked into the dining room and shot and killed Masseria. With Maranzano's blessing, Luciano took over Masseria's gang and became Maranzano's lieutenant. Boss of all bosses With Masseria gone, Maranzano reorganized the Italian American gangs in New York City into the Five Families, headed by Luciano, Joe Profaci, Tommy Gagliano, Vincent Mangano and himself. Each family would have a boss, underboss, capos, soldiers, and associates, would be composed of only full-blooded Italian Americans, while associates could come from any background. However, Maranzano called a meeting of crime bosses in Wappingers Falls, New York, and declared himself capo dei capi ("boss of all bosses"). Maranzano also whittled down the rival families' rackets in favor of his own. Luciano appeared to accept these changes, but was merely biding his time before removing Maranzano. Although Maranzano was slightly more forward-thinking than Masseria, Luciano had come to believe that Maranzano was even more greedy and hidebound than Masseria had been. Maranzano's scheming, his arrogant treatment of his subordinates and his fondness for comparing his organization to the Roman Empire (he attempted to model the organization after Caesar's military chain of command) did not sit well with Luciano and his ambitious friends, such as Vito Genovese, Frank Costello and others. Despite his advocacy for modern methods of organization, including crews of soldiers doing the bulk of a family's illegal work under the supervision of a caporegime, at heart Maranzano was a "Mustache Pete" — an old-school mafioso too steeped in Old World ways. He was opposed to Luciano's partnership with Jewish gangsters such as Meyer Lansky and Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel. Luciano and his colleagues had intended all along to bide their time before getting rid of Maranzano. Death By September 1931, Maranzano realized Luciano was a threat, and hired Vincent "Mad Dog" Coll, an Irish gangster, to kill him. However, Tommy Lucchese alerted Luciano that he was marked for death. On September 10, Maranzano ordered Luciano and Genovese to come to his office at the New York Central Building (now the Helmsley Building), at 230 Park Avenue in Manhattan. Convinced that Maranzano planned to murder them, Luciano decided to act first. He sent to Maranzano's office four Jewish gangsters whose faces were unknown to Maranzano's people. They had been secured with the aid of Lansky and Siegel. Disguised as government agents, two of the gangsters disarmed Maranzano's bodyguards. The other two, aided by Lucchese, who was there to point Maranzano out, stabbed the boss multiple times before shooting him. This assassination was the first of what would later be fabled as the "Night of the Sicilian Vespers." Although there would have been few objections had Luciano declared himself capo di tutti capi, he abolished the title, believing the position created trouble among the families and would make himself a target for another ambitious challenger. Luciano subsequently created The Commission to serve as the governing body for organized crime. Maranzano is buried in Saint John's Cemetery, Queens, New York, near Luciano's grave. Photographs The only known photographs of Maranzano are from the scene of his death. In 2009, Informer author David Critchley had identified the picture once claimed to be a mugshot of Maranzano, as that of the London-based gangster Salvatore Messina instead. In August 2019, the Informer had issued another photo believed to be Maranzano, but later retracted the statement in September due to European historians identifying the image to be that of German criminal Peter Kürten. In popular culture Maranzano plays a small fictionalized role in Mario Puzo's The Godfather. Maranzano refused Don Vito Corleone's proposal to share his monopoly on gambling in New York City, in exchange for police and political contacts and expansion into Brooklyn and the Bronx. Maranzano arranged for two of Al Capone's gunmen to come to New York and finish Corleone. Through his contacts in Chicago, Corleone found out, and sent Luca Brasi to murder the gunmen. With Capone out of the picture, the great mob war of 1933 had begun. Desperate for peace, Maranzano agreed to a sit down in a restaurant in Brooklyn, where he was killed by Salvatore Tessio, a capo in the Corleone family. Afterwards, Corleone took over Maranzano's organization and held a meeting to reorganize the American Mafia, something that the real-life Maranzano did. In the 1972 film The Valachi Papers, Maranzano is portrayed by Joseph Wiseman. In the 1981 NBC mini-series The Gangster Chronicles, Maranzano is portrayed by Joseph Mascolo. In the 1990 film Mobsters, Maranzano is portrayed by Michael Gambon, but is known as "Faranzano". In the 1999 film Lansky, Maranzano is portrayed by Ron Gilbert. In the 1999 Lifetime film Bonanno: A Godfather's Story, Maranzano is portrayed by Edward James Olmos. In the 2011 Torchwood episode "Immortal Sins", Maranzano is portrayed by Cris D'Annunzio. In the fifth season of Boardwalk Empire, Maranzano is portrayed by Giampiero Judica. In the show, his assassination is depicted as being ordered by Nucky Thompson, and Nucky's brother Eli is one of the participating gunmen, finishing Maranzano off by shooting him in the head. See also Black Hand (extortion) References Further reading Davis, John H. Mafia Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Gambino Crime Family. New York: HarperCollins, 1993. Reppetto, Thomas. American Mafia: A History of Its Rise to Power. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1994. 1886 births 1931 deaths 1931 murders in the United States Capo dei capi Murdered American gangsters of Sicilian descent People from Castellammare del Golfo Bosses of the Bonanno crime family Burials at St. John's Cemetery (Queens) Prohibition-era gangsters Deaths by firearm in Manhattan People murdered in New York City People murdered by the Genovese crime family

153216

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuching

Kuching

Kuching (), officially the City of Kuching, is the capital and the most populous city in the state of Sarawak in Malaysia. It is also the capital of Kuching Division. The city is on the Sarawak River at the southwest tip of the state of Sarawak on the island of Borneo and covers an area of with a population about 165,642 in the Kuching North administrative region and 159,490 in the Kuching South administrative regiona total of 325,132 people. Kuching was the third capital of Sarawak in 1827 during the administration of the Bruneian Empire. In 1841, Kuching became the capital of the Kingdom of Sarawak after the territory in the area was ceded to James Brooke for helping the Bruneian empire in crushing a rebellion particularly by the interior Borneo dwelling Land Dayak people who later became his loyal followers after most of them were pardoned by him and joined his side. The town continued to receive attention and development during the rule of Charles Brooke such as the construction of a sanitation system, hospital, prison, fort, and a bazaar. In 1941, the Brooke administration had a Centenary Celebration in Kuching. During World War II, Kuching was occupied by Japanese forces from 1942 to 1945. The Japanese government set up a Batu Lintang camp near Kuching to hold prisoners of war and civilian internees. After the war, the town survived intact. However, the last Rajah of Sarawak, Sir Charles Vyner Brooke decided to cede Sarawak as part of British Crown Colony in 1946. Kuching remained as capital during the Crown Colony period. After the formation of Malaysia in 1963, Kuching retained its status as state capital and was granted city status in 1988. Since then, the Kuching city is divided into two administrative regions managed by two separate local authorities. The administrative centre of Sarawak state government is located at Wisma Bapa Malaysia, Kuching. Kuching is a major food destination for tourists and the main gateway for travellers visiting Sarawak and Borneo. Kuching Wetlands National Park is located about from the city and there are many other tourist attractions in and around Kuching such as Bako National Park, Semenggoh Wildlife Centre, Rainforest World Music Festival (RWMF), state assembly building, The Astana, Fort Margherita, Kuching Cat Museum, and Sarawak State Museum. The city has become one of the major industrial and commercial centres in East Malaysia. Etymology The name "Kuching" was already in use for the city by the time Brooke arrived in 1841. There are many theories as to the derivation of the name "Kuching". It was perhaps derived from the Malay word for cat, "kucing" or from Cochin, an Indian trading port on the Malabar Coast and a generic term in China and British India for trading harbour. Some Hindu artefacts can be seen today at the Sarawak State Museum. However, another source reported that the Kuching city was previously known as "Sarawak" before Brooke arrived. The settlement was renamed to "Sarawak proper" during the kingdom expansion. It was only in 1872 that Charles Brooke renamed the settlement to "Kuching". There was one unlikely theory based on a story on miscommunication. According to the story, James Brooke arrived in Kuching on his yacht Royalist. He then asked his local guide about the name of the town. The local guide mistakenly thought that Brooke was pointing towards a cat, and so had said the word "Kuching". However, ethnic Malays in Sarawak have always used the term "pusak" for cats (cognate with Filipino pusa), instead of the standard Malay word "kucing". Despite this etymological discrepancy, Sarawakians have adopted the animal as a symbol of their city, and it features in statues as well as the municipal council's coat of arms - an example of heraldic canting. Some source also stated that it was derived from a fruit called "mata kucing" (Euphoria malaiense), a fruit that grows widely in Malaysia and Indonesia. There was also a hill in the city that was named after the fruit, which is called Bukit Mata Kuching. A British woman writing to her son in the 19th century, stated that the name was derived from a stream of the same name, called "Sungai Kuching" or Cat River in English. On page 64 of Bampfylde and Baring-Gould's 1909 'A History of Sarawak under its Two White Rajahs', it says: "Kuching, the capital of Sarawak, is so called from a small stream that runs through the town into the main river...." The stream was situated at the foot of Bukit Mata Kuching and in front of the Tua Pek Kong Temple. In the 1950s, the river became very shallow because of silt deposits in the river. The river was later filled to make way for roads. There is another theory that Kuching actually means "Ku" (古）- Old and "Ching"（井） - Well or "old well" (古井) in Chinese. During the Brooke administration, there was no water supply and water-borne diseases were common. In 1888, an epidemic broke out which later was known as "Great Cholera Epidemic". A well situated in the present day China Street in Main Bazaar helped to combat the disease by providing clean water supply. Due to increased demand for a water supply, the role of the well was later replaced by water treatment plant on the Bau Road. History Sarawak was part of the Bruneian Empire since the reign of first Brunei sultanate, Sultan Muhammad Shah. Kuching was the third capital of Sarawak, founded in 1827 by the representative of the Sultan of Brunei, Pengiran Indera Mahkota. Prior to the founding of Kuching, the two past capitals of Sarawak were Santubong, founded by Sultan Pengiran Tengah in 1599, and Lidah Tanah, founded by Datu Patinggi Ali in the early 1820s. Pengiran Raja Muda Hashimit later ceded the territory to a British adventurer, James Brooke as a reward for helping him to counter a rebellion. The rebellion was crushed in November 1840, and on 24 September 1841, Brooke was appointed as the Governor of Sarawak with the title of Rajah. It was not announced until 18 August 1842, following Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II's ratifying the governorship, and requiring Brooke to pay an annual sum of $2,500 to the Sultan. Since that time, Kuching became the seat of the Brooke government. The administration was later continued by his nephew, Charles Brooke. As an administrative capital, it became the centre of attention and development. Improvements included a sanitation system. By 1874, the city had completed several developments, including construction of a hospital, prison, Fort Margherita, and many other buildings. Charles Brooke's wife, in her memoir (My Life in Sarawak), included this description of Kuching: The Astana (Palace), which is now the official residence of the governor of Sarawak, was constructed next to Brooke's first residence. He had it built in 1869 as a wedding gift to his wife. Kuching continued to prosper under Charles Vyner Brooke, who succeeded his father as the Third Rajah of Sarawak. In 1941, Kuching was the site of the Brooke Government Centenary Celebration. A few months later, the Brooke administration came to a close when the Japanese occupied Sarawak. During the Second World War, six platoons of infantry from 2/15 Punjab Regiment were stationed at Kuching in April 1941. The Regiment defended Kuching and Bukit Stabar airfield from being the destroyed by the Japanese. Defence was mainly concentrated on Kuching and Miri. However, on 24 December 1941, Kuching was conquered by the Japanese forces. Sarawak was ruled as part of the Japanese Empire for three years and eight months, until the official Japanese surrender on 11 September 1945. The official surrender was signed on HMAS Kapunda at Kuching. From March 1942, the Japanese operated the Batu Lintang camp, for POWs and civilian internees, outside Kuching. After the end of World War II, the town survived and was wholly undamaged. The third and last Rajah, Sir Charles Vyner Brooke later ceded Sarawak to the British Crown on 1 July 1946. During the Crown Colony period, the government worked to develop and improve the infrastructure on Sarawak. Kuching was revitalised as the capital of Sarawak under the British colonial government. When Sarawak, together with North Borneo, Singapore and the Federation of Malaya, formed the Federation of Malaysia in 1963, Kuching kept its status as the state capital and was granted a city status on 1 August 1988. Kuching experienced further development throughout the years as the state capital. On 29 July 2015, Kuching was declared as "City of Unity" by One Malaysia Foundation for racial harmony that existed in the city because of cross-racial marriages, multi-racial schools, fair scholarship distributions, and balanced workforce patterns. Governance As a capital of Sarawak, Kuching plays an important role in the political and economic welfare of the population of the entire state as it became the seat of the state government where almost all of their ministries and agencies are based. The Sarawak State Legislative Assembly is located at the suburb of Kuching in Petra Jaya. There are 5 Members of Parliament (MPs) representing the five parliamentary constituencies and twelve state legislative assemblymen in the state legislature representing twelve state constituencies in Kuching district. Local authority and city definition Kuching is the only city in Malaysia to be administered by two mayors; the city is divided into Kuching North and Kuching South. Each of these is administered by a mayor for Kuching South and commissioner for Kuching North. The current commissioner for Kuching North is Datu Junaidi Reduan, who took over from Datuk Haji Abang Abdul Wahab Abang Julai on 31 August 2019 while Datuk Wee Hong Seng became the new Mayor for the Kuching South in 2019, succeeding Dato' James Chan Khay Syn. The city obtained a city status on 1 August 1988, and since that it was administered by Kuching North City Hall (DBKU) and Kuching South City Council (MBKS). The city is defined within the borders of what is the Kuching District. With an area of 1,868.83 square kilometres, it is the most populous district in Sarawak. The area then subdivided into two sub-districts, namely Kuching Proper and Padawan. Kuching Proper included the city area and northern part of Padawan municipality (e.g. Batu Kawah, Matang Jaya), while Padawan sub-district (southern part of Padawan municipality) included Kota Padawan, Teng Bukap and Borneo Highlands (Mambong). The combined area of Kuching North City Hall, Kuching South City Council, Padawan Municipal Council, and the Kota Samarahan Municipal Council is known as Greater Kuching. Geography Kuching is located on the banks of the Sarawak River in the northwestern part of the island of Borneo. The limits of the City of Kuching include all that area in Kuching District containing an area approximately bounded from Gunung Lasak (Mount Lasak) in Muara Tebas to Batu Buaya (Crocodile Rock) in the Santubong peninsula following a series of survey marks as stated in the First Schedule of the City of Kuching Ordinance, 1988. As a simplification of the legal statute, the Kuching city limits extend from the Kuching International Airport in the south to the northern coast of the Santubong and Bako peninsulas; from the Kuching Wetlands National Park in the west to the Kuap River estuary in the east. The Sarawak River generally splits the city into North and South. The highest point in the city is Mount Santubong on the Santubong peninsula, which is at above sea level, located 35 km north of the city centre. Rapid urbanisation has occurred in Greater Kuching and the urban sprawl extends to Penrissen, Kota Sentosa, Kota Padawan, Batu Kawah, Matang, Samariang, Siburan, Tarat, Kota Samarahan, Asajaya as well as Serian which is located about 65 km from Kuching. Climate Kuching has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification Af), moderately hot but very humid at times and receives substantial rainfall. The average annual rainfall is approximately . Kuching is the wettest populated area (on average) in Malaysia with an average of 247 rainy days per year. Kuching receives only 5 hours of sunshine per day on average and an average of only 3.7 hours of sunshine per day in the month of January (wettest month of the year). The wettest times are during the North-East Monsoon months of November to February and the city's driest months are June through August. The temperature in Kuching ranges from to but the average temperature is around in the early hours of the morning and rises to around during mid afternoon. This temperature stays almost constant throughout the year if it is not affected by the heavy rain and strong winds during the early hours of the morning which can bring the temperature down to , but this is very rare. Demography The terms "Kuchingite" have been used to describe the people of Kuching, although it is not official. However, the simplest way to call the people of Kuching is only by "orang Kuching", which means "people of Kuching" in English. Ethnicity The Malaysian Census 2010 reports that Kuching has a population of 325,132. The city population (North and South) consists of Malays (146,580), Chinese (120,860), Iban (28,691), Bidayuh (13,681), Non-Malaysian citizens (7,216), other Sarawak Bumiputras (Orang Ulu) (3,250), Melanau (2,078), Indian (1,626) and others (1,140). The Chinese are made up of Hokkien in the city areas and Hakka in the suburbs mainly. Other Chinese subgroups consist of Foochow, Hainanese, Teochew, Cantonese, and Henghua. The Iban, Bidayuh, Dayak and Orang Ulu are mainly Christian, with some still practising Animism, while the Chinese practise either Buddhism, Taoism or Christianity while the most of the Malays and Melanau are Muslim. A number of Hindus, Sikhs and a small number of secularists also exist around the city. There is a sizeable number of non-citizens, who mostly come from the bordering Indonesian region of Kalimantan, most of whom are migrant workers. Since the British period, a small population of South Asian especially Pakistanis have exist around the city by running their business mainly in selling clothes and spices. Other migrants who came during the time included Bugis from the Dutch East Indies and other races from the neighbour Dutch Borneo. Interracial marriages among those of different ethnic backgrounds are common in Kuching, and the city itself is a home to 30 different ethnic groups. Languages Beside being the capital city of Sarawak, Kuching became a business and cultural centre for the Malays of Sarawak. The dialect of Malay spoken in Kuching is known as Bahasa Sarawak (Sarawakian Malay Language), which is a subset of the Malay language. The dialect used in Kuching is a little different from the dialect used in Miri. Since the second largest population in the city is made up of Han Chinese, the Chinese language is also commonly used, particularly Hokkien, Hakka, and Mandarin Chinese. Almost all residents are able to speak English. A number of special private schools that teach English for expatriate children can be found through the city. Economy Kuching is one of the main industrial and commercial centres for Sarawak. Many state-level, national-level, and international commercial banks, as well as some insurance companies establish their headquarters and branches here. The economy is dominated by the primary sector and currently by the tertiary-based industry as the state government wants to aim Sarawak to be transformed into a developed state by 2020. There are 3 industrial areas in Kuching, namely Pending Industrial Estate (Mixed and Light Industries), Demak Laut Industrial Park (Mixed, Light, and Medium Industries), and Sama Jaya Free Industrial Zone (Hi-Tech and electronics industry). This is intended to boost the city's commercial and industrial activity to making it a major growth centre in East Malaysia, as well for the BIMP-EAGA (Brunei-Indonesia-Malaysia-Philippines East ASEAN Growth Area). Kuching hosted numerous national, regional and international conferences, congress, and trade fairs, such as the Malaysia Global Business Forum, Tomorrow's Leaders Summit, International Hydropower Association (IHA) World Congress, ASEAN Tourism Forum, and Routes Asia Conference. Besides, Kuching was chosen as a permanent host for the biennial Asean International Film Festival and Awards (AIFFA). These events are normally held at the Borneo Convention Centre. Kuching Port Authority (KPA), established in 1961, started its operation at Tanah Puteh Port (Sim Kheng Hong Port) in 1975 with annual capacity of 350,000 tonnes. Its operations has since been shifted to Pending and Senari terminals with annual capacity of 2.9 million tonnes and 7 million tonnes respectively. also controls Biawak Oil Jetty that handles petroleum products. Historically, the Chinese have contributed to the city economy since their migration during the Brunei Sultanate period after the discovery of antimony ore and also during the Charles Vyner Brooke administration who encouraged the migration of the overseas Chinese to planting black pepper. Transport Land Roads in the city are under the jurisdiction and maintenance of either the two local councils, i.e. DBKU (Dewan Bandaraya Kuching Utara) and MBKS (Majlis Bandaraya Kuching Selatan), or the state's Public Works Department. Roads of the latter category are either state roads or federal roads. Most major internal roads are dual-carriageways and the city is linked by roads to other towns in Sarawak. These roads are mainly federal roads maintained by the national Public Works Department. The city also famous for a number of roundabouts including the oldest and largest one, known as Datuk Abang Kipali Bin Abang Akip Roundabout. The roundabout are usually landscaped and were efficient to handling traffic congestion. However, traffic lights are more commonly used now as the city traffic continues to rise. As the city is located near the equator, potholes have the tendency to develop on the roads during the monsoon season, usually at the end of the year due to coinciding with winter in the Northern Hemisphere. Roads leading outside of the city to the interior are of a slightly lower quality but are now being upgraded. Highway routes from Kuching include: Kuching–Serian Highway Kuching Bypass Kuching–Kota Samarahan Expressway Tun Salahuddin Bridge Matang Highway Public transport There are two types of taxi operating in the city, the main taxi is the red and yellow while the larger is painted in blue, which is more comfortable but expensive known as the "executive taxis". In 2014, a smartphone taxi booking application named "GrabTaxi" was launched and making the city as the fifth area after Klang Valley, Cyberjaya, Putrajaya, and Johor Bahru that have the applications. The main bus terminal is the Kuching Sentral, which just launched in 2012. It is located in the south of the city, about 5 minutes away from the Kuching International Airport and 20 minutes from the city centre. The terminal serves a long-distance destination to Brunei, Sabah, and West Kalimantan in Indonesia. Another bus terminal is the Old Kuching Bus Terminal, it is still operating as some of the bus companies that supposed to use the new terminal are unwilling to use the facilities due to some ongoing disagreement. Other minibuses or vans services also available in the city. Water Kuching, like most towns in Sarawak, has connections to other urban centres and settlements by water transport. Between the banks of the Sarawak River, near the city centre, many 'tambang' (traditional roofed wooden sampan) can be seen carrying passengers from one riverbank to another. For those staying along the river banks, it is a short way to getting to the city-proper. The wharf for express boats servicing transport to further areas such as Sibu and Bintulu, is located in the east of the city at the Sim Kheng Hong Port (formerly known as the Tanah Puteh Port) in Pending. Air Kuching International Airport (KCH) (ICAO Code : WBGG) is the main gateway for air passengers. The airport's history dates back to the 1940s and today the airport has undergoing many major redevelopment. The airport terminal is listed as the fourth busiest airport in Malaysia according to total passenger movements in 2013. Since 2009, the airport has grown rapidly with an increasing number of passengers and aircraft movement. It is the secondary hub for Malaysia Airlines and AirAsia while became the third hub for MASWings, which serves flights to smaller towns and rural areas in East Malaysia. Other utilities Courts of law and legal enforcement The current court complex is located in Petra Jaya. It contains the High Court, Sessions Court, and the Magistrate Court. Another courts of Syariah and native were also located in the city. The Sarawak Police Contingent Headquarters is located in Badruddin Street. There is only one district headquarters in the city, which is the Kuching District police headquarters located in Simpang Tiga Road. Kuching Prison Complex is located in Puncak Borneo Street. Temporary lock-ups or prison cells are found in most police stations around the city. Healthcare There are many types of health services in the city, such as the main public hospitals, public health clinics, other type of health clinics, mobile clinic, flying doctor service, village clinics, and 1Malaysia clinic. The main hospital is the Sarawak General Hospital which is the oldest hospital since 1923. Another hospital is Rajah Charles Brooke Memorial Hospital. Hospital Sentosa (Sentosa Mental Hospital), opened in 1958, provides psychiatric services for the entire state and known as the second oldest hospital in Sarawak after the main hospital. Normah Medical Specialist Centre in Petra Jaya is the largest private hospital with (130 beds) in Sarawak. In addition, three other large private health facilities are Borneo Medical Centre with (120 beds), Timberland Medical Centre with (100 beds), and KPJ Healthcare with (75 beds). Kuching Specialist Hospital located in BDC was scheduled to open its operation to the public in 2020, with a 70-bed capacity. Education In the city, all schools under the National Education System (government education institution category), are managed by the Kuching Combined Education Office (Pejabat Pelajaran Gabungan Kuching). There are many government or state schools in and around the city. Like other Malaysian schools, schools in the city are divided into four levels of education — pre-school, primary, secondary (lower and upper) and post-secondary (excluding tertiary). Among the well-established and prestigious boarding schools in the city is Sekolah Menengah Sains Kuching, which is located at Batu Kawa and Sekolah Menengah Sains Kuching Utara, which is located at Matang Jaya. Other govermernment secondary schools including some of the oldest and well known are SMK St. Joseph, SMK St. Thomas, SMK St. Teresa and SMK St. Mary as well as others like SMK Greenroad, Kolej Datu Patinggi Abang Haji Abdillah, SMK Tun Abang Haji Openg, SMK Batu Lintang, and SMK Padungan. Kuching has 4 out of 14 Chinese independent schools in Sarawak. These are Chung Hua Middle School No. 1 (古晋中华第一中学), Chung Hua Middle School No. 3 (古晋中华第三中学), Chung Hua Middle School No. 4 (古晋中华第四中学) and Batu Kawa Min Lit secondary school (石角民立中学). There are also two international schools in Kuching namely Tunku Putra International School and Lodge International School. Other private schools in Kuching are Sunny Hill School and St Joseph Private Schools. There are currently no public university campuses in Kuching, apart from the Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences building situated next to the Sarawak General Hospital. The Sarawak state government moved the last remaining public university campus (Universiti Teknologi MARA) from Kuching to Kota Samarahan in 1997 in a long-term initiative to transform Kota Samarahan into an education hub. Kuching is home to three private universities: the Swinburne University of Technology Sarawak Campus, the only branch campus of Swinburne University of Technology outside Australia; Executive College; and UCSI University, Sarawak Campus which houses the Faculty of Hospitality and Management. A polytechnic and community college, both known as Politeknik Kuching Sarawak and Kolej Komuniti Kuching are also located in the city. Other private colleges can be found through the city with most of the colleges are subsidiaries from universities and university colleges established in West Malaysia, such as SEGi College, Sarawak, Sunway College Kuching, Limkokwing Borneo, PTPL Sarawak, Wawasan Open University, Open University Malaysia, and Twintech College Sarawak. There are private institutions conducting franchised programmes from full-fledged universities (apart from running their own courses) such as SATT College (conducting franchised programmes from Universiti Teknologi MARA) and the Institute of Dynamic Management, Sarawak (conducting franchised programmes from Universiti Tun Abdul Razak). The International College of Advanced Technology Sarawak or ICATS is an institution created as the state government's initiative to enhance technical and vocational training education among school leavers. The college was established from the former INTI College Sarawak facilities. Operated by a state-owned subsidiary, ICATS focuses on producing human capital for the hi-tech sector, especially for the development of the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy. Libraries The Sarawak State Library is the major information resource centre and provides information services for the public and private sectors. The library serves Kuching and its outskirts as the main depository of public records. In addition, it administers, monitors, and facilitates the operations of 36 village libraries in the state funded by the National Library of Malaysia. Other public libraries in Kuching include the DBKU City Library and village libraries such as in Bandar Baru Samariang, Kampung Samariang Lama, and Taman Sepakat Jaya. Culture and leisure Attractions and recreation spots Cultural Kuching maintains several museums showcasing its culture and history. The Sarawak State Museum, is one of the finest museums in Asia and known as Kuching's oldest and most historical building, which exhibits collections of the indigenous races in Sarawak. Directly opposite the Sarawak Museum is the Tun Abdul Razak Hall which serves as an exhibition venue and the office of the Sarawak Museum Department. While located right behind the hall is the Islamic Heritage Museum. Other museums in Kuching include the Chinese History Museum, Kuching Cat Museum, Sarawak Timber Museum and Textile Museum Sarawak. Kuching is also home to the first ever planetarium in Malaysia, the Sultan Iskandar Planetarium which adjacent to the Kuching Civic Centre. Historical Interesting historical landmarks and sites of Kuching include The Astana (the former palace of the White Rajahs and currently the official residence of the Yang di-Pertua Negeri of Sarawak), and Fort Margherita. The oldest street of Kuching is the Main Bazaar, a row of 19th century Chinese shophouses located along the Kuching Waterfront overlooking the Sarawak River. It offers the city's best concentration of antique and handicraft shops. The Main Bazaar is part of Kuching's old town, which also includes the Carpenter Street and India Street. The old Courthouse building, which sits in between Carpenter Street and India Street, has undergone major renovation and now houses the Sarawak Tourism Board complex. Some other interesting areas around the central business district include Padungan Street, which is the Chinatown of Kuching. In 2014, calls for the Historic Monuments of Kuching's inclusion in the world heritage list were made public. In 2017, a study was conducted on the possibility of Kuching to be nominated in the world heritage list. Leisure and conservation areas A number of leisure spots and conservation areas can be found in Kuching. The Talang-Satang National Park was established with the primary aim of conserving Sarawak's marine turtle population. It covers a total area of approximately , and comprises all lands below the high tide marks on the respective islands. The park also comprises the coastline and sea surrounding four islands of the southwest coast of Sarawak; Talang Besar, Talang Kecil off Sematan, and Satang Besar and Satang Kecil off Santubong, near Kuching. These four "Turtle Islands" are responsible for 95% of all the turtle landings in Sarawak and the park also includes the Tukong Ara-Banun Island Wildlife Sanctuary, two tiny islets which are important nesting sites for colonies of bridled terns and black-naped terns. Damai, one of Sarawak's main beach resort area, is located on the Santubong Peninsula, about 35 minutes drive from Kuching. The area has sandy beaches at the foot of an imposing jungle-covered mountain. Damai features three world-class resort hotels such as the Damai Beach Resort, Damai Puri Resort and Spa and One Hotel Santubong. Each resort has their own private beach, swimming pool and offers jet-skiing, waterskiing, windsurfing, mountain biking, tennis, squash and fitness centres. There is also an international standard 18-hole golf course designed by the legendary Arnold Palmer located nearby. Other attractions include the Damai Central, Permai Rainforest Resort, Sarawak Cultural Village and the sleepy fishing villages of Santubong and Buntal with their excellent seafood restaurants. While for visitors who like adventurous activities, there is a trekking activity on Mount Santubong. Aside from that, Damai is also one of the places in Sarawak to see the Irrawaddy dolphin as the mammals can be spotted along the Salak River, Santubong estuary and at the Bako-Buntal Bay. The Santubong Peninsula offers a few sites for bird watching with the BirdLife International Organisation has registered the whole area on Bako-Buntal Bay as an 'Important Bird Area'. Between October and March, the Buntal River becomes an important wintering ground for bird migration. Birds which have been spotted by the Malaysian Nature Society (Kuching Branch) at Buntal include a variety of plovers, sandpipers, egrets, terns, and other rare migrants, while resident birds include collared kingfisher, the white-bellied sea eagle, and brahminy kite. National parks in Kuching include the Bako National Park and the Kuching Wetlands National Park as well as the Semenggoh Wildlife Centre which operates an orangutan orphanage and rehabilitation program. Also available near Kuching are the Gunung Gading National Park and the Kubah National Park. Located about 40-minutes drive from Kuching is Santubong, a prominent beach resort area home to numerous world-class beach resorts. Other beaches near Kuching are the Lundu Beach and the Sematan Beach. The Borneo Highlands Resort is also nearby, located 1000-metres above sea level. Other sights The Kuching Waterfront is a 2 kilometre long riverside esplanade stretching from the main hotel and commercial heartland of the city to downtown Kuching. Designed by Sydney architects, the waterfront landscaped is served with food stalls, restaurants, benches and offers an excellent views of the Astana, Fort Margherita, and the New Sarawak State Legislative Assembly Building. The waterfront also features an observation tower, an open-air theatre and musical fountains. The Kuching Orangutan Murals are vital images of a wheelbarrow filled with eight young orangutans and another baby orangutan swinging from a pipe. It was painted by Ernest Zacharevic along Power Street in the city on 27 April 2014. This latest mural is painted in Zacharevic's usual interactive style, with an actual wheelbarrow sliced into half and secured to the wall to enable the public to take selfies while holding onto the handle. On the other hand, the baby orangutan was painted over a nail on the wall, where people can 'place' items in its hand. Shopping Kuching features a number of shopping malls. These include VivaCity Megamall, Aeon Mall Kuching Central, The Spring, Plaza Merdeka, Farley Mall, CityONE Megamall, Kuching Sentral, Emart Lee Ling, Emart Batu Kawa, Emart Tabuan Jaya, Eco Mall, MetroMall, Aeroville Mall, Eastern Mall, Matang Mall, Sarawak Plaza, Riverside Shopping Complex, Majma' Mall, Moyan Square, Genesis Parade, Green Heights Mall, Wisma Saberkas, and many more. More shopping malls are set to open in the city as construction continues. The Satok Weekend Market is located at Medan Niaga Satok and operated in Saturdays and Sundays. A varieties of vegetables and fruits can be found there including other handicrafts, forest produce (such as wild honey), orchid plants, and a whole range of local snacks and delicacies. Entertainment There are five cinemas located around the city, most of them located inside shopping malls buildings (The Spring, CityONE, VivaCity, Riverside, Summer Mall). Most of the cinemas are owned by either Golden Screen Cinemas, MBO Cinemas, Lotus Five Star and TGV Cinemas. Bookaroo, a children's literature festival, travelled from India to Kuching since 2016 and takes place in April on the city every year to featuring the Bookaroo Kuching Fest. The festival invites authors, illustrators, storytellers, and performers from all over the world, urging children to bring books with them. Music Since 1997, Kuching has been host to the Rainforest World Music Festival (RWMF), an annual music festival which brings performers and spectators to the region from all over the world. Hosted by the Sarawak Cultural Village near the Mount Santubong, the festival is now one of the largest musical events in Malaysia. RWMF had been voted as Top 25 Best International Festivals by the British-based magazine Songlines. Radio stations Music radio station set up in Sarawak is Radio Klasik FM (87.6), Nasional FM (88.1), Sarawak FM (88.9), TraXX FM (89.9), Ai FM (90.7), Cats FM (99.3), Hot FM (94.3), Hitz (95.3), Era (96.1), My (96.9), Mix (97.7), One FM (98.3), Lite Sarawak (100.1), Bernama Radio (100.9), Sinar (102.1) and Melody (103.7). International relations Several countries have set up their consulates in Kuching, including Australia, Brunei, China, Denmark, France, Indonesia, Poland and the United Kingdom. Sister cities Kuching currently has ten sister cities: Dali, China. Kunming, China. Xiamen, China. Zhenjiang, China. Bandung, Indonesia. Pontianak, Indonesia. Singkawang, Indonesia. Johor Bahru, Malaysia. Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Guro, South Korea. See also Tua Pek Kong Temple, Kuching Archdiocese of Kuching Kuching Heroes Cemetery List of roads in Kuching References Notes Populated places in Sarawak State capitals in Malaysia Populated places established in 1827 1827 establishments in Asia Cities in Malaysia

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car%20bomb

Car bomb

A car bomb, lorry bomb, or truck bomb, also known as a vehicle-borne improvised explosive device (VBIED), is an improvised explosive device designed to be detonated in an automobile or other vehicles. Car bombs can be roughly divided into two main categories: those used primarily to kill the occupants of the vehicle (often as an assassination) and those used as a means to kill, injure or damage people and buildings outside the vehicle. The latter type may be parked (the vehicle disguising the bomb and allowing the bomber to get away), or the vehicle might be used to deliver the bomb (often as part of a suicide bombing). It is commonly used as a weapon of terrorism or guerrilla warfare to kill people near the blast site or to damage buildings or other property. Car bombs act as their own delivery mechanisms and can carry a relatively large amount of explosives without attracting suspicion. In larger vehicles and trucks, weights of around 7,000 pounds (3,200 kg) or more have been used, for example, in the Oklahoma City bombing. Car bombs are activated in a variety of ways, including opening the vehicle's doors, starting the engine, remote detonation, depressing the accelerator or brake pedals or simply lighting a fuse or setting a timing device. The gasoline in the vehicle's fuel tank may make the explosion of the bomb more powerful by dispersing and igniting the fuel. As a delivery system Car bombs are effective weapons as they are an easy way to transport a large amount of explosives to the intended target. A car bomb also produces copious shrapnel, or flying debris, and secondary damage to bystanders and buildings. In recent years, car bombs have become widely used by suicide bombers. Countermeasures Defending against a car bomb involves keeping vehicles at a distance from vulnerable targets by using roadblocks and checkpoints, Jersey barriers, concrete blocks or bollards, metal barriers, or by hardening buildings to withstand an explosion. The entrance to Downing Street in London has been closed since 1991 in reaction to the Provisional Irish Republican Army campaign, preventing the general public from getting near Number 10. Where major public roads pass near buildings, road closures may be the only option (thus, for instance, in Washington, D.C. the portion of Pennsylvania Avenue immediately in front of the White House is closed to traffic). Historically these tactics have encouraged potential bombers to target "soft" or unprotected targets, such as markets. Suicide usage In the Iraqi and Syrian Civil War, the car bomb concept was modified so that it could be driven and detonated by a driver, but armoured to withstand incoming fire. The vehicle would be driven to its target area, in a similar fashion to a kamikaze plane of WW2. These were known by the acronym SVBIED (from Suicide Vehicle Borne Improvised Explosive Device) or VBIEDs. This saw generally civilian cars with armour plating added, that would protect the car for as long as possible, so that it could reach its intended target. Cars were sometimes driven into enemy troop areas, or into incoming enemy columns. Most often, the SVBIEDs were used by ISIL against Government forces, but also used by Syrian rebels (FSA and allied militias, especially the Al-Nusra Front) against government troops. The vehicles have become more sophisticated, with armour plating on the vehicle, protected vision slits, armour plating over the wheels so they would withstand being shot at, and also in some cases, additional metal grating over the front of the vehicle designed to activate rocket propelled grenades before hitting the actual surface of the vehicle. In some cases trucks were also used, as well as cars. They were sometimes used to start an assault. Generally the vehicles had a large space that would contain very heavy explosives. In some cases, animal drawn carts with improvised explosive devices have been used, generally either mules or horses. Tactically, a single vehicle may be used, or an initial "breakthrough" vehicle, then followed by another vehicle. While many car bombs are disguised as ordinary vehicles, some that are used against military forces have improvised vehicle armour attached to prevent the driver from being shot when attacking a fortified outpost. History Car bombs are preceded by the 16th century hellburners, explosive-laden ships which were used to deadly effect by the besieged Dutch forces in Antwerp against the besieging Spanish. Though using a less refined technology, the basic principle of the hellburner is similar to that of the car bomb. The first reported suicide car bombing (and possibly the first suicide bombing) was the Bath School bombings of 1927, where 45 people, including the bomber, were killed and half of a school was blown up. Mass-casualty car bombing, and especially suicide car bombing, is currently a predominantly Middle Eastern phenomenon. The tactic was first introduced to the region by the Zionist paramilitary organization Lehi, who used it extensively against Palestinian and British civilian and military targets; it was subsequently taken up by Palestinian militants as well. The tactic was used in the Lebanese Civil War by the Shia militia group Hezbollah. A notable suicide car bombing was the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing, when two simultaneous attacks killed 241 U.S. and 58 French peacekeepers. The perpetrator of these attacks has never been positively confirmed. In the Lebanese Civil War, an estimated 3,641 car bombs were detonated. While not an adaptation of a people-carrying vehicle, the WW2 German Goliath remote control mine, shares many parallels with a vehicle-based IED. It approached a target (often a tank or another armoured vehicle) at some speed, and then exploded, destroying itself and the target. It was armoured so that it could not be destroyed en route. However, it was not driven by a person, instead operated by remote control from a safe distance. As a booby trap Operation Car bombs and detonators function in a diverse manner of ways and there are numerous variables in the operation and placement of the bomb within the vehicle. Earlier and less advanced car bombs were often wired to the car's ignition system, but this practice is now considered more laborious and less effective than other more recent methods, as it required a greater amount of work for a system that could often be quite easily defused. While it is more common nowadays for car bombs to be fixed magnetically to the underside of the car, underneath the passenger or driver's seat, or inside of the mudguard, detonators triggered by the opening of the vehicle door or by pressure applied to the brakes or accelerating pedals are also used. Bombs operating by the former method of fixation to the underside of the car more often than not make use of a device called a tilt fuse. A small tube made of glass or plastic, the tilt fuse is not dissimilar to a mercury switch or medical tablet tube. One end of the fuse will be filled with mercury, while the other open end is wired with the ends of an open circuit to an electrical firing system. Naturally, when the tilt fuse moves or is jerked, the supply of mercury will flow to the top of the tube and close the circuit. Thus, as the vehicle goes through the regular bumping and dipping that comes with driving over a terrain, the circuit is completed and the bomb or explosive is allowed to function. As a safety mechanism to protect the bomber, the placer of the bomb may rig a timing device incorporated with the circuit to activate the circuit only after a certain time period, therefore ensuring the bomber will not accidentally activate the bomb before they are able to get clear of the blast radius. History Prior to the 20th century, bombs planted in horse carts had been used in assassination plots, notably in the unsuccessful "machine infernale" attempt to kill Napoleon on 24 December 1800. The first car bomb may have been the one used for the assassination attempt on Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II in 1905 in Istanbul by Armenian separatists, in the command of Papken Siuni belonging to the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Car bombing was a significant part of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) campaign during The Troubles in Northern Ireland. Dáithí Ó Conaill is credited with introducing the car bomb to Northern Ireland.Car bombs were also used by Ulster loyalist groups (for example, by the UVF during the Dublin and Monaghan bombings). PIRA Chief of Staff Seán Mac Stíofáin defines the car bomb as both a tactical and a strategic guerrilla weapon. Strategically, it disrupts the ability of the enemy government to administer the country, and hits simultaneously at the core of its economic structure by means of massive destruction. From a tactical point of view, it ties down a large number of security forces and troops around the main urban areas of the region in conflict. Examples 1920: The Wall Street bombing — Suspected that Italian anarchist Mario Buda (a member of the "Galleanists") parked a horse-drawn wagon filled with explosives and shrapnel in the Financial District of New York City. The blast killed 38 and wounded 143. 1927: The Bath School disaster — Andrew Kehoe used a detonator to ignite dynamite and hundreds of pounds of pyrotol which he had secretly planted inside a school. As rescuers started gathering at the school, Kehoe drove up, stopped, and detonated a bomb inside his shrapnel-filled vehicle, killing himself and the school superintendent, and killing and injuring several others. In total, Kehoe killed 44 people and injured 58 making the Bath School bombing the deadliest act of mass murder in a school in U.S. history. It is possibly the first suicide car bombing in history. Militant group Lehi were the first group to use car bombs in the British Mandate for Palestine. The Viet Cong guerrillas used them at the end of the First Indochina War and throughout the Vietnam War. The OAS used them at the end of the French rule in Algeria. The Sicilian Mafia used them to assassinate independent magistrates up to the early 1990s. The IRA used them frequently during its campaign during the Troubles in Northern Ireland and England. The Omagh bombing by the Real IRA, an IRA splinter group, caused the most casualties in the Troubles from a single car bomb. Former Chilean General Carlos Prats was killed by a car bomb on September 30, 1974, along with his wife. Loyalist organisations in Northern Ireland such as the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and Ulster Defence Association used car bombs against civilians in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The UVF bombs in Dublin and Monaghan caused the most casualties in a single day during the Troubles. The Basque separatist group Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) carried out at least 80 massive car bomb attacks in Spain during the last decade before putting its activities on hold in 2011. Freelance terrorist Carlos the Jackal claimed responsibility for three car bomb attacks on French newspapers accused of pro-Israeli bias during the 1970s. Cleveland mobster Danny Greene frequently used car bombs against his enemies, beginning in 1968. Afterwards, they also began to be used against Greene and his associates. The use of car bombs in Cleveland peaked in 1976, when 36 bombs exploded in the city, most of them car bombs, causing it to be nicknamed "Bomb City." Several people, including innocent bystanders, were killed or wounded. Greene himself was finally killed in a car bomb explosion on October 6, 1977. The German Red Army Faction occasionally used car bombs, such as in an unsuccessful attempt to attack a NATO school for officers in 1984. Constable Angela Taylor died on her way to collect lunch, sole fatality of the Russell Street bombing in Melbourne, Australia on 27 March 1986. 22 others were injured. On 23 November 1986 two members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation carried out the Melbourne Turkish consulate bombing using a car bomb, which resulted in the death of one of the attackers. During the Soviet–Afghan War, at a variety of training camps in the tribal areas of Pakistan, the Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), with the aid of the United States's Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), trained mujahideen in the preparation of car bombs. Car bombs became a regular occurrence during the war, the Afghan civil conflicts which followed, and then during the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan. Agents of the Chilean intelligence agency DINA were convicted of using car bombs to assassinate Orlando Letelier and Carlos Prats, who were exiled opponents of U.S.-backed dictator Augusto Pinochet. Letelier was killed in Sheridan Circle, in the heart of Embassy Row in Washington, D.C. In the 1980s, the Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar used vehicle bombs extensively against government forces and population centers in Colombia and Latin America. The most notable car bombing attack was the DAS Building bombing, which killed 63 and injured about 1,000. From 1979 to early 1983, under the guise of the "Front for the Liberation of Lebanon From Foreigners" IDF commanders Rafael Eitan, Avigdor Ben-Gal and Meir Dagan launched a campaign of bombings, including car, bicycle, and even donkey bombs. Initially conducted as a response to the killing of Israeli civilians at Nahariya. Largely indiscriminate in its targeting of those associated with the PLO in south, Lebanon, the FLLF attacks killed hundreds of Palestinians and Lebanese, mainly in Tyre, SIdon and the surrounding PLO run refugee camps. After 1981, as part of Ariel Sharon's policy of goading the PLO into committing more acts of terror, justifying a military response, FLLF attacks escalated in intensity and scope, spreading to Beirut and northern Lebanon by September. The FLLF even took credit for fictional attacks on the IDF to maintain its cover as a Lebanese organisation. Its most prominent attack on October 1 1981 in West Beirut killed at least 50 and injured over 250 people. Seven other similar bombs were found and defused before they could explode. Suicide car bombs were a regular feature against Israel in the 1982 Lebanon War which lasted from 1982 until Israel's withdrawal in 2000. The bombing campaign was waged by several groups, most prominently Hezbollah. On 26 February 1993, Islamist terrorists led by Ramzi Yousef detonated a Ryder truck filled with explosives in the parking garage of the World Trade Center in New York City. Yousef's plan had been to cause one of the towers to collapse into the other, destroying both and killing thousands of people. Although this was not achieved, six people were killed, 1,402 others injured, and extensive damage was caused. On April 18, 1993 a tanker containing 500 kilograms of explosives exploded near the mosque in Vitez, destroying the offices of the Bosnian War Presidency, killing at least six people and injuring 50 others. The ICTY accepted that this action was a piece of pure terrorism committed by elements within the Croat forces, as an attack on the Bosniak population of Stari Vitez - Vitez old town. HVO members tied a Bosniak man, civilian from a concentration camp,  to the steering wheel and set the truck in motion towards the old town. The Quebec Biker War that lasted from 1994 to 2002 involved the use of car bombings, including one that killed an 11-year-old boy. On 19 April 1995, Timothy McVeigh detonated a Ryder box truck filled with an explosive mixture of ammonium nitrate fertilizer and fuel oil (ANFO) in front of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City during the Oklahoma City bombing, killing 168 people, including 19 children who were in the daycare. On June 25, 1996, a truck bomb destroyed the Khobar Towers military complex in Saudi Arabia, killing 19 United States Air Force (USAF) personnel and injuring 372 persons of all nationalities. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, vehicular explosives were used by Chechen nationalists against targets in Russia. On 20 April 1999, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold planned to use two car bombs as the last act of the Columbine High School massacre, apparently to murder first responders. Both failed to explode. Southeast Asia-based militant Islamist group Jemaah Islamiyah utilized car bombs in their campaigns during the early 2000s, the most prominent being the 2002 Bali bombings, which killed 202 people. Former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri was assassinated by a car bomb during Valentine's Day of 2005. 21 others were also killed. The Tamil Tigers of Sri Lanka frequently made use of car bombs during that country's civil war in a campaign which lasted from 1976 until the group's defeat in 2009. A car bomb which had misfired was discovered in Times Square, New York City on May 1, 2010. The bomb had been planted by Faisal Shahzad. Evidence suggests that the bombing was planned by the Pakistani Taliban. On 11 December 2010, (2010 Stockholm bombings) - a car bomb exploded in central Stockholm in Sweden, slightly injuring two bystanders. Twelve minutes later, an Iraqi-born Swedish citizen accidentally detonated six pipe bombs he was carrying, but only one exploded. The bomber was killed but there were no other casualties. It is believed that the attacks were the work of homegrown terrorists who were protesting Sweden's involvement in the war in Afghanistan and the publication in Sweden of cartoons depicting Muhammad. On 22 July 2011, in the Norway massacre, far-right extremist Anders Behring Breivik detonated a car bomb within the executive government quarter of Oslo, Norway, killing 8 people. During June 2015, in Ramadi, Iraq, a vehicle-borne IED resulted in the collapse of an 8 story tall building during fighting between the Iraqi military forces and Daesh extremists. The Daesh truck bomb was fired upon by a rocket-propelled grenade which resulted in the explosion. On 16 October 2017, Maltese journalist and blogger Daphne Caruana Galizia died in a car bomb attack. On 25 December 2020, a car bomb was detonated in downtown Nashville, Tennessee, injuring at least 8 and killing the perpetrator, Anthony Quinn Warner. Groups that use car bombs Hezbollah member Imad Mughniyah was assassinated by a car bomb in Syria in 2008, allegedly by Mossad. Although it has never been officially acknowledged, the American CIA has occasionally been accused of being behind car bombings. One such attack was the failed assassination attempt on Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah in the Beirut car bombing on 8 March 1985. Although there has been widespread speculation of CIA involvement, this has never been proven conclusively. Various Palestinian militant groups, against both military and civilian Israeli targets. Dissident republicans in Northern Ireland used car bombs in the last two decades, the deadliest attack being the Omagh bombing of 1998. Al-Qaeda, in attacks around the world since the 1990s, most notably the 1998 United States embassy bombings. Militants and criminals in India occasionally utilize car bombs in attacks. This includes Muslim, Sikh, Kashmiri and Naxalite militants, as well as rival politicians within the government and organized crime. A notable recent attack was the 25 August 2003 Mumbai bombings, in which two car bombs killed 54 people. The attack was claimed by the Pakistani-backed Kashmiri separatist group Lashkar-e-Taiba. Since the beginning of the U.S.-led war in Afghanistan in 2001, the Taliban have often employed vehicular explosives against enemy targets. This has included not just cars and trucks but even bicycle bombs. The Iraqi insurgency. An estimated 578 car bombs were detonated in Iraq between June 2003 and June 2006. Car bombs continue to be commonly used. The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, which has employed armored explosive-laden crossovers, full-sized pickup trucks, motorbikes and sport utility vehicles as suicidal tactical units to breach enemy defensive fronts in Syria and Iraq. The use of armored tractors and haul trucks was also recorded over the course of the war. The Pakistani Taliban have occasionally used car bombs in their ongoing conflict with the government of Pakistan. The Juárez Cartel's armed wing, La Línea, used a car bomb to attack police officers in Ciudad Juárez, Mexico on 15 July 2010. The Sinaloa Cartel and the Gulf Cartel were blamed for using car bombs in Nuevo Laredo, Mexico on 24 April 2011 to "heat up" the turf of Los Zetas. See also Deaths by car bomb Improvised explosive device (IED) Insurgency Kamikaze Notes References Mike Davis, Buda's Wagon: A Brief History of the Car Bomb (Verso: New York, 2007). External links Video of a detected car bomb (VBIED) going off A history of the car bomb (Asia Times) "Explosive reading", review by Daniel Swift for the Financial Times Car Bomb - manyriverfilms' award-winning documentary history of the car bomb Terrorism tactics Suicide weapons Improvised explosive devices

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20After%20Time%20%281979%20film%29

Time After Time (1979 film)

Time After Time is a 1979 American science fiction film directed by screenwriter Nicholas Meyer and starring Malcolm McDowell, David Warner, and Mary Steenburgen. Filmed in Panavision, it was the directing debut of Meyer, whose screenplay is based on the premise from Karl Alexander's novel Time After Time (which was unfinished at the time) and a story by Alexander and Steve Hayes. The film presents a story in which British author H. G. Wells uses his time machine to pursue Jack the Ripper into the 20th century. Plot In 1893 London, popular writer Herbert George Wells displays a time machine to his skeptical dinner guests. After he explains how it works (including a "non-return key" that keeps the machine at the traveler's destination and a "vaporizing equalizer" that keeps the traveler and machine on equal terms), police constables arrive at the house searching for Jack the Ripper. A bag with blood-stained gloves belonging to one of Herbert's friends, a surgeon named John Leslie Stevenson, leads them to conclude that Stevenson might be the infamous killer. Wells races to his laboratory, but the time machine is gone. Stevenson has escaped to the future, but because he does not have the "non-return" key, the machine automatically returns to 1893. Herbert uses it to pursue Stevenson to November 5, 1979, where the machine has ended up on display at a museum in San Francisco. He is deeply shocked by the future, having expected it to be an enlightened socialist utopia, only to find chaos in the form of airplanes, automobiles and a worldwide history of war, crime and bloodshed. At an antique shop, Herbert exchanges some British bank notes for present day American money. Growing hungry after a day without food, he enters a McDonald's and is alternately puzzled and pleased with 1979 dining options, noting the similarity between 1890s pommes frites from France and modern French fries. Wells is still ruffled by the idea of dining without tableware. Reasoning that Stevenson would also need to exchange his British money, Herbert asks about him at various banks. At the Chartered Bank of London, he meets employee Amy Robbins, who says she had directed Stevenson to a local hotel. Confronted by his one-time friend Herbert, Stevenson confesses that he finds modern society to be pleasingly violent, stating: "Ninety years ago, I was a freak. Today, I'm an amateur." Herbert demands he return to 1893 to face justice, but Stevenson instead attempts to wrestle the time machine's key from him. Their struggle is interrupted by a maid and Stevenson flees, getting hit by a car during the frantic chase. Herbert follows him to the hospital emergency room and mistakenly gets the impression that Stevenson has died from his injuries. Herbert meets up with Amy Robbins again and she initiates a romance. Stevenson returns to the bank to exchange more money. Suspecting that it was Amy who had led Herbert to him, he finds out where she lives. Herbert, hoping to convince her of the truth, takes a highly skeptical Amy three days into the future. Once there, she is aghast to see a newspaper headline revealing her own murder as the Ripper's fifth victim. Herbert persuades her that they must go back – it is their duty to attempt to prevent the fourth victim's murder, then prevent Amy's. However, they are delayed upon their return to the present and can do no more than phone the police. Stevenson kills again, and Herbert is arrested because of his knowledge of the killing. Amy is left alone, totally defenseless, and at the mercy of the "San Francisco Ripper". While Herbert unsuccessfully tries to convince the police of Amy's peril, she attempts to hide from Stevenson. When the police finally do investigate her apartment, they find the dismembered body of a woman. Now convinced of Herbert's innocence, the police release a now-heartbroken Wells. However, he is contacted by Stevenson, who had actually killed Amy's coworker (revealed to be the dead body in Amy's apartment) and taken Amy hostage in order to extort the time machine key from Wells. Stevenson flees with the key – and Amy as insurance – to attempt a permanent escape in the time machine. Using Amy's car, driving the unfamiliar machine erratically, Herbert manages to follow them back to the museum. While Herbert bargains for Amy's life, she is able to escape. As Stevenson starts up the time machine, Herbert removes the "vaporizing equalizer" from it, causing Stevenson to vanish while the machine does not. As Herbert had explained earlier, this causes the machine to remain in place while its passenger is sent traveling endlessly through time with no way to stop; in effect, he is destroyed. Herbert proclaims that the time has come to return to his own time, in order to destroy a machine that he now knows is too dangerous for primitive mankind. Amy pleads with him to take her along, explaining she has no remaining ties in the 20th century. As they depart to the past, she jokes that she is changing her name to Susan B. Anthony. The film ends with the caption: "H.G. Wells married Amy Catherine Robbins, who died in 1927. As a writer, he anticipated socialism, global war, space travel, and women's liberation. He died in 1946." Cast Malcolm McDowell as Herbert George Wells David Warner as John Leslie Stevenson/Jack the Ripper Mary Steenburgen as Amy Robbins Charles Cioffi as Police Lt. Mitchell Kent Williams as assistant Patti D'Arbanville as Shirley Joseph Maher as Adams Production According to Meyer from the commentary track for the DVD and Blu-ray release of the film, the author of the novel presented Meyer with 55 pages of his unpublished novel and asked Meyer to critique his work. Meyer liked the premise and immediately optioned the story so he could write a screenplay based on the material and develop the story his own way. McDowell was attracted to the material because he was looking for something different from the sex and violence in Caligula, in which he played the title character. While preparing to portray Wells, McDowell obtained a copy of a 78 rpm recording of Wells speaking. McDowell was "absolutely horrified" to hear that Wells spoke in a high-pitched, squeaky voice with a pronounced Southeast London accent, which McDowell felt would have resulted in unintentional humor if he tried to mimic it for the film. McDowell abandoned any attempt to recreate Wells's authentic speaking style and preferred a more "dignified" style. According to David Warner, the studio wanted Mick Jagger for the role of John Leslie Stevenson but director Nicholas Meyer and producer Herb Jaffe fought for Warner to get the role. It was one of the last films scored by veteran composer Miklós Rózsa, who received the 1979 Saturn Award for Best Music. Time After Time was filmed throughout San Francisco, including Cow Hollow, North Beach, the Hyatt Regency hotel, California Academy of Sciences in Golden Gate Park, the Marina District, Ghirardelli Square, Fisherman's Wharf, the Richmond District, the Golden Gate Bridge, Grace Cathedral on Nob Hill, the Embarcadero Center, Chinatown, the Marina Green, the Palace of Fine Arts, Potrero Hill, and the Civic Center. Release The film premiered with a gala presentation at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 7, 1979. Reception Critical response Time After Time received a positive response from critics. Variety described the film as "a delightful, entertaining trifle of a film that shows both the possibilities and limitations of taking liberties with literature and history. Nicholas Meyer has deftly juxtaposed Victorian England and contemporary America in a clever story, irresistible due to the competence of its cast". Janet Maslin of The New York Times similarly lauded, "Time After Time is every bit as magical as the trick around which it revolves". She continued: The interior scenes set in London borrow heavily from the 1960 film The Time Machine, which was based on the 1895 H.G. Wells novella of the same name. Commentators also noticed parallels between Time After Time and Back to the Future Part III in which Mary Steenburgen appeared. She said: Actually, I've played the same scene in that film (Time After Time) and in (BTTF) 'Part III,.. I've had a man from a different time period tell me that he's in love with me, but he has to go back to his own time. My response in both cases is, of course, disbelief, and I order them out of my life. Afterwards, I find out I was wrong and that, in fact, the man is indeed from another time, and I go after him (them) to profess my love. It's a pretty strange feeling to find yourself doing the same scene, so many years apart, for the second time in your career. The casting of Steenburgen for Back to the Future III appears to be deliberately intended to mirror the earlier role. In Time After Time, the woman lives in the 20th century and the time traveller is from the 19th. In Back to the Future III, the woman inhabits the 19th century and the time traveller is from the 20th. In both films, the woman eventually goes back with the time traveller to live in his own time period. Some similar time travel incongruities as well as the modern San Francisco urban setting also appeared in 1986's Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, for which Nicholas Meyer shared writing credit. The details of time travelers from distant eras obtaining and exchanging present day American currency were similar in both films. In 'Star Trek IV', a featured female character, Dr. Gillian Taylor, ends up joining her paramour, Captain James T. Kirk, living in the future, similar to the conclusion of 'Time After Time.' Accolades Nicholas Meyer won the Saturn Award for Best Writing, Mary Steenburgen won the Saturn Award for Best Actress, and Miklós Rózsa won the Saturn Award for Best Music. Saturn Award nominations went to Meyer for Best Director, Malcolm McDowell for Best Actor, David Warner for Supporting Actor, and Sal Anthony and Yvonne Kubis for Best Costumes, and the film was nominated for Best Science Fiction Film. Nicholas Meyer won the Antenne II Award and the Grand Prize at the Avoriaz Fantastic Film Festival and he was nominated for the Edgar Allan Poe Award for Best Motion Picture Screenplay and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. In other media Television On May 12, 2016, the ABC television network announced that it had picked up a Time After Time television series to air in the 2016–2017 television season. The series, executive produced and written by Kevin Williamson, was cancelled after only five episodes. References External links 1979 films 1970s chase films 1970s science fiction adventure films American alternate history films American films American chase films American adventure thriller films American romantic fantasy films American science fiction adventure films English-language films Films about Jack the Ripper Films about time travel Films based on American novels Films based on works by H. G. Wells Cultural depictions of H. G. Wells Films directed by Nicholas Meyer Films set in 1893 Films set in 1979 Films set in London Films set in San Francisco Films set in the Victorian era Films scored by Miklós Rózsa Films shot in Los Angeles Films shot in San Francisco Orion Pictures films Films with screenplays by Nicholas Meyer The Time Machine Warner Bros. films 1970s romantic fantasy films 1979 directorial debut films

158088

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefly%20%28TV%20series%29

Firefly (TV series)

Firefly is an American space Western drama television series, created by writer and director Joss Whedon, under his Mutant Enemy Productions label. Whedon served as an executive producer, along with Tim Minear. The series is set in the year 2517, after the arrival of humans in a new star system, and follows the adventures of the renegade crew of Serenity, a "Firefly-class" spaceship. The ensemble cast portrays the nine characters who live on Serenity. Whedon pitched the show as "nine people looking into the blackness of space and seeing nine different things." The show explores the lives of a group of people, some of whom fought on the losing side of a civil war, who make a living on the fringes of society as part of the pioneer culture of their star system. In this future, the only two surviving superpowers, the United States and China, fused to form the central federal government, called the Alliance, resulting in the fusion of the two cultures. According to Whedon's vision, "nothing will change in the future: technology will advance, but we will still have the same political, moral, and ethical problems as today." Firefly premiered in the U.S. on the Fox network on September 20, 2002. By mid-December, Firefly had averaged 4.7 million viewers per episode and was 98th in Nielsen ratings. It was canceled after 11 of the 14 produced episodes were aired. Despite the relatively short life span of the series, it received strong sales when it was released on DVD and has large fan support campaigns. It won a Primetime Emmy Award in 2003 for Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series. TV Guide ranked the series at No. 5 on their 2013 list of 60 shows that were "Cancelled Too Soon". The post-airing success of the show led Whedon and Universal Pictures to produce Serenity, a 2005 film which continues the story from the series. The Firefly franchise expanded into other media, including comics and a role-playing game. Premise Backstory The series takes place in the year 2517, on a variety of planets and moons. The TV series does not reveal whether these celestial bodies are within one star system, only saying that Serenitys mode of propulsion is a "gravity-drive". Re-runs start with Book or Captain Reynolds providing the following backstory: The film Serenity makes clear that the planets and moons are in an extensive system, and production documents related to the film indicate that there is no faster-than-light travel in this universe. The characters occasionally refer to "Earth-that-was", and the film establishes that long before the events in the series, a large population had emigrated from Earth to a new star system in generation ships: "Earth-that-was could no longer sustain our numbers, we were so many." The emigrants established themselves in this new star system, with "dozens of planets and hundreds of moons", and many of these were terraformed, a process that was only the first step in making a planet habitable. The outlying settlements often did not receive any further support in the construction of their civilizations. This resulted in many border planets and moons having forbidding, dry environments, well-suited to the Western genre. Synopsis The show takes its name from the "Firefly-class" spaceship Serenity that the central characters call home. It resembles a firefly in general arrangement and the tail section, analogous to a bioluminescent insectoid abdomen, lights up during acceleration. The ship was named after the Battle of Serenity Valley, where Sergeant Malcolm Reynolds and Corporal Zoe Alleyne were among the survivors on the losing side. It is revealed in "Bushwhacked" that the Battle of Serenity Valley is widely considered to have sealed the Independents' fate. The Alliance is shown to govern the star system through an organization of "core" planets, following its success in forcibly unifying all the colonies under one government. DVD commentary suggests that the Alliance is composed of two primary "core" systems, one predominantly Western, the other pan-Asian, justifying the mixed linguistic and visual themes of the series. The central planets are firmly under Alliance control, but the outlying planets and moons resemble the American Old West, under little governmental authority. Settlers and refugees on the outlying worlds have relative freedom from the central government but lack the amenities of the high-tech civilization that exists on the inner worlds. The outlying areas of space ("the black") are inhabited by the Reavers, a cannibalistic group of nomadic humans. The captain of Serenity is Malcolm "Mal" Reynolds (Nathan Fillion). The episode "Serenity" establishes that the captain and his first mate Zoe Washburne, née Alleyne (Gina Torres) are veteran "Browncoats" of the Unification War, a failed attempt by the outlying worlds to resist the Alliance. A later episode, "Out of Gas", reveals that Mal bought the spaceship Serenity to live beyond Alliance control. Much of the crew's work consists of cargo runs or smuggling. The main story is that of River Tam (Summer Glau) and her brother Simon (Sean Maher). River is a child prodigy whose brain was subjected to Alliance scientists at a secret government institution; she displays symptoms of schizophrenia and often hears voices. It is later revealed that she is a "reader", one who possesses telepathic abilities. Simon gave up a career as an eminent trauma surgeon in an Alliance hospital to rescue her, and they are fugitives. In the original pilot, "Serenity", Simon joins the crew as a paying passenger with River smuggled on board as cargo. As Whedon states in an episode of a DVD commentary, every show he does is about creating a family. By the last episode, "Objects in Space", the fractured character of River has finally become whole, partly because the others decided to accept her into their "family" on the ship. Signature show elements The show blends elements from the space opera and Western genres, depicting humanity's future in a manner different from most contemporary science fiction programs in that there are no large space battles. Firefly takes place in a multi-social future, primarily a fusion of Western and East Asian societies, where there is gross class inequality. As a result of the Sino-American Alliance, Mandarin Chinese is a common second language; it is used in advertisements, and characters in the show frequently curse in Chinese. According to the DVD commentary on the episode "Serenity", this was explained as the result of China and the United States being the two superpowers that expanded into space. The show features slang not used in contemporary culture, such as adaptations of modern words or new words. "Shiny" is frequently used as the real world slang "cool", and "gorram" is used as a mild swear word. Written and spoken Chinese, as well as Old West dialect, are also employed. As one reviewer noted: "The dialogue tended to be a bizarre purée of wisecracks, old-timey Western-paperback patois, and snatches of Chinese." Tim Minear and Joss Whedon pointed out two scenes that, they believed, articulated the show's mood exceptionally clearly. One scene is in the original pilot "Serenity" when Mal is eating with chopsticks, and a Western tin cup is by his plate; the other is in "The Train Job" pilot when Mal is thrown out of a holographic bar window. The DVD set's "making-of" documentary explains the distinctive frontispiece of the series (wherein Serenity soars over a herd of horses) as Whedon's attempt to capture "everything you need to understand about the series in five seconds." One of the struggles that Whedon had with Fox was the tone of the show, especially with the main character Malcolm Reynolds. Fox pressured Whedon to make Mal more "jolly", as they feared he was too dark in the original pilot, epitomized by the moment he suggests he might "space" Simon and River, throwing them out of the airlock. Fox was not happy that the show involved the "nobodies" who "get squished by policy" instead of the actual policymakers. Cast Main Firefly maintained an ensemble cast that portrayed nine crew members and passengers of the ship, Serenity. These characters fight criminals and schemers, Alliance security forces, the utterly psychotic and brutal Reavers, and the mysterious men with "hands of blue"—who are operatives of a secret agency which is part of the megacorporation referred to in the DVD commentary only as The Blue Sun Corporation. The crew is driven by the need to secure enough income to keep their ship operational, set against their need to keep a low profile to avoid their adversaries. Their situation is incredibly complicated by the divergent motivations of the individuals on board Serenity, but the show's brief run hampered complex characterization. All nine of the main characters appeared in every episode, except "Ariel", from which Book is absent. Nathan Fillion as Malcolm "Mal" Reynolds – the owner and captain of Serenity and former Independent sergeant in the pivotal Battle of Serenity Valley. Malcolm grew up on a ranch and was raised by his mother and the ranch hands. In the Unification War, he fought as a platoon sergeant in the 57th Overlanders of the Independent Army, the "Browncoats". He is cunning, a capable leader, and a skilled fighter. Mal's primary motivation is his will for independence. While he is not above petty theft, smuggling, or even killing to maintain his free lifestyle, he is generally honest in his dealings with others, fiercely loyal to his crew, and closely follows a personal moral code. He is openly antagonistic toward religion as a result of his war experience. Gina Torres as Zoe Alleyne Washburne – second-in-command onboard Serenity, a loyal wartime friend of Captain Reynolds and Wash's wife. Her surname during the Unification War was Alleyne. She was born and raised on a ship and served under Mal during the war as a corporal. Described by her husband as a "warrior woman", she is a capable fighter who keeps calm even in the most dangerous situations. She demonstrates an almost unconditional loyalty to Mal. The only exception noted being her marriage to Wash, which the captain claims was against his orders. Alan Tudyk as Hoban "Wash" Washburne – Serenitys pilot and Zoe's husband. Deeply in love with his wife, Wash expresses jealousy over his wife's "war buddy" relationship and unconditional support of their captain, most particularly in the episode "War Stories", in which he confronts Mal, even as a dissatisfied customer is torturing them. He joined pilot training just to see the stars, which were invisible from the surface of his polluted homeworld, and he joined Serenity despite being highly sought after by other ships. He is light-hearted and tends to make amusing comments, despite the severity of any situation. Morena Baccarin as Inara Serra – a Companion, which is the 26th century cross between a geisha and a courtesan or mistress, who rents one of Serenitys two small shuttles. Inara enjoys high social standing. Her presence confers a degree of legitimacy and social acceptance the crew of Serenity would not have without her on board. Inara displays great dignity, civility, and compassion. There is strong romantic tension between her and Mal, who share many character traits, but each jokingly objects to the other's work as "whoring" or "petty theft", respectively. Both refuse to act on their feelings and try to keep their relationship professional. Adam Baldwin as Jayne Cobb – a mercenary. He and Mal met when they were on opposite sides of a dispute; Mal, while held at gunpoint, offered Jayne his own bunk and a higher cut than his current employer, so Jayne switched sides and shot his then-partners. In the original pilot, "Serenity", he intimates to Mal that he did not betray him because "The money wasn't good enough." However, previously he had pointedly asked the Alliance agent whether he would be required to turn on the captain to help him. In "Ariel", he defends his actions in alerting the authorities regarding Simon and River by claiming he had not intended to betray Mal. He is someone who can be depended on in a fight. He tends to act like a "lummox" who thinks he is the smartest person in space, but occasional hints of intelligence peek through this façade, giving the impression that he acts dumber than he is. As Whedon states several times, Jayne is the man who will ask the questions that no one else wants to. Even though he is a macho character, he has shown a particularly intense fear of Reavers, more so than the rest of the crew. Despite his amoral mercenary persona, he sends a significant portion of his income to his mother, again suggesting that there is more to his character than what he presents to the rest of the crew. Jewel Staite as Kaywinnet Lee "Kaylee" Frye – the ship's mechanic. In the episode "Out of Gas", it is established that she has no formal training, but keeps Serenity running with an intuitive gift for the workings of mechanical equipment. Jewel Staite explains Kaylee's character as being wholesome, sweet, and "completely genuine in that sweetness", adding "She loves being on that ship. She loves all of those people. And she is the only one who loves all of them incredibly genuinely." She has a crush on Simon Tam. Kaylee is the heart of the ship: according to creator Joss Whedon, if Kaylee believes something, it is true. Sean Maher as Simon Tam – a trauma surgeon of the first caliber (top 3% in his class at a top core-planet institution), who is on the run after breaking his sister River out of a government research facility. In the episode "Safe", it is revealed that he and River had a privileged upbringing with access to the best education. In rescuing River over his stern father's severe objections, Simon sacrificed a highly successful future in medicine. His bumbling attempts at a romantic relationship with Kaylee are a recurring subplot throughout the series. At every turn, he seems to find a way to foil his attempts at romance unwittingly. His life is defined by caring for his sister. Summer Glau as River Tam – smuggled onto the ship by her brother. She is a brilliant, compassionate, and intuitive child prodigy. Experiments and invasive brain surgery at an Alliance secret facility left her delusional, paranoid, and at times violent, though her uncanny ability to seemingly sense things before they happen leaves questions as to where the delusions end and reality begins for her. The experiments seemed to have made her a psychic. The experiments also gave her a seemingly innate ability in hand-to-hand combat, and she is capable of killing or incapacitating several opponents with ease. She gets frequent fits of anxiety and experiences post-traumatic flashbacks of her time in the Alliance facility. Her mental instability and uncanny abilities, paired with several erratic and violent acts, are a recurring source of fear and doubt among the crew, especially with Jayne, whom she once slashed with a knife. Jayne frequently requests that River and Simon be taken off the ship. Ron Glass as Derrial Book – a Shepherd (equivalent to a pastor). Although presented as a devout Christian, Book has profound, unexplained knowledge about criminal activities, police corruption, and military strategy, tactics, and weapons. In "Safe", he was shown to have sufficient status in the Alliance to receive emergency medical treatment from an Alliance ship, with no questions asked. He is also proficient in hand-to-hand combat and the use of firearms. While objecting to violence most of the time, on a rescue mission, he joins the fight, stating that while the Bible is quite specific about killing, it is "somewhat fuzzier on the subject of kneecaps." Book is a moral guide for Mal and the rest of the crew, a voice of reason, conscience, and spirituality. At the same time, he seems to get along well with the amoral mercenary Jayne, with the two spotting each other while working out using a bench press. His hidden backstory would have been gradually revealed had the series continued but was instead explored in the 2010 comic book The Shepherd's Tale. Recurring Despite the series' short run, several recurring characters emerged from the inhabitants of the Firefly universe: Mark Sheppard as Badger – an established smuggling middleman on the planet Persephone. He provided jobs for Serenity on at least two occasions. In the DVD commentary for the episode "Serenity", it was revealed that this part was initially written with Whedon himself playing the role. Badger appeared in the original pilot "Serenity" and in "Shindig", with a return in the comic book series Serenity: Those Left Behind. Michael Fairman as Adelai Niska – a criminal kingpin who has a reputation for violent reprisals, including severe, prolonged torture, against those who fail him or even irritate him. He appeared in "The Train Job" and "War Stories". Christina Hendricks as "Saffron" – a con artist whose real name is unknown. She first appeared in the episode "Our Mrs. Reynolds" as Mal's involuntarily acquired wife. She has a habit of marrying her marks during her scams. She returns in the episode "Trash", where Mal jokingly addresses her as "YoSaffBridge", from the three of her aliases known within the show: "Yolanda", "Saffron", and "Bridget". Jeff Ricketts and Dennis Cockrum as "The Hands of Blue" – two anonymous men wearing suits and blue gloves who pursue River, apparently to return her to the institute from which she escaped, as shown in "The Train Job", "Ariel", and the Serenity: Those Left Behind comic. They kill anyone, including Alliance personnel, who had contact with her, using a mysterious hand-held device that causes fatal hemorrhaging in anyone at whom it is aimed. River, during anxiety attacks or psychological meltdowns, has repeated the phrase "Two by two/hands of blue" in a way that resembles poetic meter. This suggests that River has had close experience(s) with them. Episodes {{Episode table |background=#FFCC99 |overall=6|overallR= |title=|titleR= |director= |writer=|writerR= |airdate=20|airdateR= |prodcode=9|prodcodeR= |viewers= |country=U.S. |episodes= {{Episode list | EpisodeNumber = 14 | Title = Objects in Space | DirectedBy = Joss Whedon | WrittenBy = Joss Whedon | OriginalAirDate = | ProdCode = 1AGE11 | Viewers = 4.08 | ShortSummary = River telepathically hears the crewmembers' innermost feelings. When she picks up a gun in Serenity'''s cargo bay (which she perceives as a tree branch), the others discuss if she too dangerous to be kept aboard. Bounty hunter Jubal Early sneaks aboard the ship, intent on claiming the bounty set for River and Simon. Early incapacitates the crew and forces Simon to help him locate River, who has seemingly vanished. While searching the ship, Early recites existential philosophy, claiming to not be evil, simply incentivized to do what is necessary. River's voice appears on the PA system, claiming that River melted and fused with Serenity. Early is disbelieving, but the voice is omniscient, knowing extensive details of Early's delinquent behaviour. The voice muses that Early enjoys violence and is not merely incentivized to be violent. Secretly, the voice individually mobilizes the crew in a plot to force Early off the ship. Early realizes River has snuck aboard his own spacecraft. River tells him she will go willingly. Heading back to his craft to join her, Early is ambushed by Mal, who pushes him away into space – carrying out River’s plan. River is embraced by the crew. Early floats alone in space. | LineColor = ffcc99 }} }} Production Origin Whedon developed the concept for the show after reading The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara chronicling the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War. He wanted to follow people who had fought on the losing side of a war, their experiences afterward as pioneers and immigrants on the outskirts of civilization, much like the post-American Civil War era of Reconstruction and the American Old West. He intended the show to be "a Stagecoach kind of drama with a lot of people trying to figure out their lives in a bleak pioneer environment". Whedon wanted to develop a show about the tactile nature of life, a show where existence was more physical and more difficult. Whedon also read a book about Jewish partisan fighters in World War II. Whedon wanted to create something for television that was more character-driven and gritty than most modern science fiction. Television science fiction, he felt, had become too pristine and rarefied. Whedon wanted to give the show a name that indicated movement and power and felt that "Firefly" had both. This powerful word's relatively insignificant meaning, Whedon felt, added to its allure. He eventually created a ship in the image of a firefly. Format During the pilot episode filming, Whedon was still arguing with Fox that the show should be displayed in widescreen format. Whedon filmed scenes with actors on the edge of both sides so that they could only be shown in widescreen. This led to a few scenes on the DVD (and later Blu-ray) where objects or setups that were not visible in the original 4:3 broadcasts were displayed—such as the scene in the pilot where Wash mimes controlling the ship with a non-existent yoke. The Fox executives rejected the pilot, who felt that it lacked action and that the captain was too "dour". They also disliked a scene in which the crew backed down to a crime boss since the scene implied the crew was "being nothing". Fox told Whedon on a Friday afternoon that he had to submit a new pilot script on Monday morning or the show would not be picked up. Whedon and Tim Minear closeted themselves for the weekend to write what became the new pilot, "The Train Job". At the direction of Fox, they added "larger than life" characters such as the henchman "Crow" and the "hands of blue" men, who also introduced an X-Files-type ending.Whedon, Firefly: the complete series: "Train Job" commentary, track 7. For the new pilot, Fox made it clear that they would not air the episodes in widescreen. Whedon and company felt they had to "serve two masters" by filming widescreen for eventual DVD release but keeping objects in-frame so it could still work when aired in pan and scan full frame. To obtain an immersive and immediate feel, the episodes were filmed in a documentary style with hand-held cameras, giving them the look of "found footage", with deliberately mis-framed and out-of-focus subjects.Whedon, Firefly: the complete series: "Train Job" commentary, track 3 As Whedon related: "...don't be arch, don't be sweeping—be found, be rough and tumble and docu[mentary] and you-are-there". Computer-generated scenes mimicked the motion of a hand-held camera; the style was not used when shooting scenes that involved the central government, the Alliance. Tracking and steady cameras were used to show the sterility of this aspect of the Firefly universe. Another style employed was lens flares harking back to 1970s television. This style was so desired that the director of photography, David Boyd, sent back the cutting-edge lenses which reduced lens flare in exchange for cheaper ones. Unlike other science fiction shows which add sound to space scenes for dramatic effect, Firefly portrays space as silent, because sounds cannot be transmitted in the vacuum of space. Set design Production designer Carey Meyer built the ship Serenity in two parts (one for each level) as a complete set with ceilings and practical lighting installed as part of the set that the cameras could use along with moveable parts.Whedon, Firefly Companion, Vol 1, 11 The two-part set also allowed the second unit to shoot in one section while the actors and first unit worked undisturbed in the other. As Whedon recalled: "...you could pull it away or move something huge so that you could get in and around everything. That meant the environment worked for us and there weren't a lot of adjustments that needed to be made". There were other benefits to this set design. One was that it allowed the viewers to feel they were really in a ship. For Whedon, the design of the ship was crucial in defining the known space for the viewer and that there were not "fourteen hundred decks and a holodeck and an all-you-can-eat buffet in the back." He wanted to convey that it was utilitarian and that it was "beat-up but lived-in. Ultimately, it was home." Each room represented a feeling or character, usually conveyed by the paint color. He explains that as you move from the back of the ship in the engine room, toward the front of the ship to the bridge, the colors and mood progress from extremely warm to cooler. Besides evoking a mood associated with the character who spends the most time in each area, the color scheme also alludes to the heat generated in the ship's tail. Whedon was also keen on using vertical space; having the crew quarters accessible by ladder was important. Another benefit of the set design was that it also allowed the actors to stay in the moment and interact, without having to stop after each shot and set up for the next. This helped contribute to the documentary style Whedon strove for. The set had several influences, including the sliding doors and tiny cubicles reminiscent of Japanese hotels. Artist Larry Dixon has noted that the cargo bay walls are "reminiscent of interlaced, overlapping Asian designs, cleverly reminding us of the American-Chinese Alliance setting while artistically forming a patterned plane for background scale reference." Dixon has also remarked on how the set design contributed to the storytelling through the use of color, depth, and composition, lighting, as well as its use of diagonals and patterned shadows. Their small budget was another reason to use the ship for much of the storytelling. When the characters did go off the ship, the worlds all had Earth atmosphere and coloring because they could not afford to design alien worlds. "I didn't want to go to Yucca Flats every other episode and transform it into Bizarro World by making the sky orange", recalled Whedon. As Meyer recalled: "I think in the end the feel was that we wound up using a lot of places or exteriors that just felt too Western and we didn't necessarily want to go that way; but at some point, it just became the lesser of two evils—what could we actually create in three days?" Music Greg Edmonson composed the musical score for the series. He stated that he wrote for the emotion of the moment. A reviewer averred that he also wrote for the characters, stating: "Edmonson has developed a specialized collection of musical symbolism for the series." To help illustrate the collection, the reviewer gave leitmotifs, or "signatures", various names, noting that "Serenity" recalls the theme of the show and is used when they return to the ship, or when they were meeting in secret; it was "the sound of their home." The slide guitar and fiddle used in this piece are portable instruments that fit the lifestyle of the crew: "the music they make calls up tunes played out in the open, by people who were hundreds of miles away yesterday. 'Serenity' conjures the nomadic lifestyle the crew leads and underlines the western aspect of the show." Another emotional signature was "Sad Violin" used at the end of the Battle of Serenity Valley but also to set up the joke when Mal tells Simon that Kaylee is dead in the episode "Serenity". The most memorable use of "Sad Violin" is at the end of "The Message", when the crew mourned the death of Tracey. This was also the last scene of the last episode the actors shot, and so this was seen by them and Edmonson, as Firefly farewell. To denote danger, "Peril" was used, which is "a low pulse, like a heartbeat, with deep chimes and low strings." The reviewer also noted character signatures. The criminal Niska has a signature: Eastern European or Middle Eastern melodies over a low drone. Simon and River's signature was a piano played sparsely with a violin in the background. This contrasts with the portable instruments of "Serenity": the piano is an instrument that cannot be easily moved and evokes the image of "the distant house and family they both long for." The signatures were mostly established in the first pilot, "Serenity", and helped enhance the narrative. Whedon's use of music in his television shows has been regarded as 'filmic,' in that he has been argued to use it to remind viewers at 'pivotal moments' of earlier events, resulting in a tighter continuity throughout the season. The musical score expressed the social fusion depicted in the show. Cowboy guitar blended with Asian influence produced the atmospheric background for the series. As one reviewer stated: The show's theme song, "The Ballad of Serenity", was written by Joss Whedon and performed by Sonny Rhodes. Whedon wrote the song before the series was greenlit, and a preliminary recording performed by Whedon can be found on the DVD release. The soundtrack to the series was released on CD on November 8, 2005, by Varèse Sarabande. However, Fox Music released a 40-minute soundtrack in September 2005 as a digital EP. "The Ballad of Serenity" was used by NASA as the wake-up song for astronaut Robert L. Behnken and the other crewmembers of STS-130 on February 12, 2010. Casting In casting his nine-member crew, Whedon looked first at the actors and considered their chemistry with others. Cast member Sean Maher recalls, "So then he just sort of put us all together, and I think it was very quick like right out of the gate, we all instantly bonded." All nine cast members were chosen before filming began; while making the original pilot "Serenity", Whedon decided that Rebecca Gayheart was unsuitable for the role of Inara Serra, and shot her scenes in singles so that it would be easier to replace her. Morena Baccarin auditioned for the role and two days later was on the set in her first television show. "Joss brought me down from the testing room like a proud dad, holding my hand and introducing me", Baccarin recalled. Whedon approached Nathan Fillion to play the lead role of Malcolm Reynolds; after Whedon explained the premise and showed him the treatment for the pilot, Fillion was eager for the role. Fillion was called back several times to read for the part before he was cast. He noted that "it was really thrilling. It was my first lead, and I was pretty nervous, but I really wanted that part, and I wanted to tell those stories." Fillion later said he was "heartbroken" when he learned the series had been canceled. Fillion has called his time on Firefly the best acting job he ever had, and compares every job he has had to it. Alan Tudyk applied through a casting office and several months later was called in for an audition, where he met with Whedon. He was called back to test with two candidates for the role of Zoe (Wash's wife) and was told that it was down to him and one other candidate. The Zoes he tested with were not selected (Gina Torres eventually received the role), and Tudyk was sent home but received a call informing him he had the part anyway. His audition tape is included in the special features of the DVD release. Gina Torres, a veteran of several science fiction/fantasy works (Cleopatra 2525, The Matrix Reloaded, Alias, Hercules: The Legendary Journeys), was at first uninterested in doing another science fiction show but "was won over by the quality of the source material". As she recalled, "you had these challenged characters inhabiting a challenging world, and that makes for great storytelling. And no aliens!" For Adam Baldwin, who grew up watching westerns, the role of Jayne Cobb was particularly resonant. Canadian actress Jewel Staite videotaped her audition from Vancouver and was asked to come to Los Angeles to meet Whedon, at which point she was cast for the role of Kaylee Frye, the ship's engineer. Sean Maher recalls reading for the part and liking the character of Simon Tam, but that it was Whedon's personality and vision that "sealed the deal" for him. For the role of Simon's sister, River Tam, Whedon called in Summer Glau for an audition and test the same day. Glau had first worked for Whedon in the Angel episode "Waiting in the Wings". Two weeks later, Whedon called her to tell her she had the part. Veteran television actor Ron Glass has said that until Firefly, he had not experienced or sought a science-fiction or western role. Still, he fell in love with the pilot script and the character of Shepherd Book. Production staff Whedon selected Tim Minear to be the show runner, who serves as the head writer and production leader. According to Whedon, "[Minear] understood the show as well as any human being, and just brought so much to it that I think of it as though he were always a part of it." Many of the other production staff were selected from people Whedon had worked with in the past, except the director of photography David Boyd, who was the "big find" and who was "full of joy and energy." The writers were selected after interviews and script samplings. Among the writers were José Molina, Ben Edlund, Cheryl Cain, Brett Matthews, Drew Z. Greenberg and Jane Espenson. Espenson wrote an essay on the writing process with Mutant Enemy Productions. A meeting is held and an idea is floated, generally by Whedon, and the writers brainstorm to develop the central theme of the episode and the character development. Next, the writers (except the one working on the previous week's episode) meet in the anteroom to Whedon's office to begin 'breaking' the story into acts and scenes. One of the key components to devising acts for the team is deciding where to break for commercial and ensuring the viewer returns. "Finding these moments in the story help give it shape: think of them as tentpoles that support the structure." For instance, in "Shindig", the break for commercial occurs when Malcolm Reynolds is gravely injured and losing the duel. "It does not end when Mal turns the fight around when he stands victorious over his opponent. They're both big moments, but one of them leaves you curious, and the other doesn't." Next, the writers develop the scenes onto a marker-filled whiteboard, featuring "a brief ordered description of each scene." A writer is selected to create an outline of the episode's concept—occasionally with some dialogue and jokes—in one day. The outline is given to showrunner Tim Minear, who revises it within a day. The writer uses the revised outline to write the first draft of the script while the other writers develop the next. This first draft is usually submitted for revision within three to fourteen days; afterward, a second and sometimes third draft is written. After all modifications are made, the final draft would be produced as the 'shooting draft.' Costume Jill Ohanneson, Fireflys original costume designer, brought on Shawna Trpcic as her assistant for the pilot. When the show was picked up, Ohanneson was involved in another job and declined Firefly, suggesting Trpcic for the job. The costumes were chiefly influenced by World War II, the American Civil War, the American Old West, and 1861 samurai Japan. Trpcic used deep reds and oranges for the main cast to express a feeling of "home" and contrasted that with grays and cool blues for the Alliance. Since the characters were often getting shot, Trpcic would make up to six versions of the same costume for multiple takes. For River, mostly jewel tones were used to set her apart from the rest of the Serenity crew. River had boots to contrast with the soft fabrics of her clothes, "because that's who she is—she's this soft, beautiful, sensitive girl, but with this hardcore inner character", recalled Trpcic. The designers also wanted to contrast Simon, River's brother, with the rest of the crew. Whereas they were dressed in cotton, Simon wore wool, stiff fabrics, satins, and silk. He was originally the "dandy", but as the show progressed, he loosened up slightly. For Kaylee, Trpcic studied Japanese and Chinese youth, as originally the character was Asian. Other inspirations for Kaylee's costumes were Rosie the Riveter and Chinese Communist posters. Inara's costumes reflect her high status and are very feminine and attractive. Trpcic designed and created the clothes for the minor character of Badger with Joss Whedon in mind since he intended to play that part. When Mark Sheppard played the role instead, he could fit into the clothes made for Whedon. For the Alliance, besides the grays and cool blues, Trpcic had in mind Nazi Germany, but mixed it with different wars, as the first sketches were "too Nazi". The uniforms of the Alliance soldiers are from the 1997 film Starship Troopers. In the commentary for the pilot episode, Whedon points out that "bad guys wear hats, good guys don't." Unproduced episodes Since the cancellation of the series, various cast and crew members have revealed details they had planned for the show's future: Alan Tudyk had the idea for an episode about a planet that is always day on one side and night on the other. On the night side, Jayne accidentally spills a type of pheromone on himself and the crew, which attracts many dogs. The crew is chased back to the ship by these dogs. There River uses her mind powers to domesticate the dogs. Adam Baldwin wanted to make an episode in which Jayne goes up against Mal as captain of his ship. Tim Minear revealed the secret of Inara's syringe, as seen in the pilot episode; she is infected with a deadly disease. There would have been an episode where Reavers gang-rape her. Because she injected herself with the syringe, all of the Reavers on the ship die. According to Nathan Fillion, there was an episode in which the crew land on a dying planet. The inhabitants try to steal Serenity after explaining to the crew about their need to get off the planet. The problem is that unless they were to run into another ship along the way, with the extra passengers, Serenity would not have enough fuel and oxygen to make it to the closest destination. While everyone else is asleep, Mal takes the ship himself and discovers that help would never have arrived. Broadcast history Firefly consists of a two-hour pilot and thirteen one-hour episodes (with commercials). The series originally premiered in the United States on Fox in September 2002. The episodes were aired out of the intended order. Although Whedon had designed the show to run for seven years, low ratings resulted in cancellation by Fox in December 2002 after only 11 of the 14 completed episodes had aired in the United States. The three episodes unaired by Fox eventually debuted in 2003 on the Sci Fi Channel in the United Kingdom. Prior to cancellation, some fans, worried about low ratings, formed the Firefly Immediate Assistance campaign whose goal was to support the production of the show by sending in postcards to Fox. After it was canceled, the campaign worked on getting another network such as UPN to pick up the series. The campaign was unsuccessful in securing the show's continuation.The A.V. Club cited several actions by the Fox network that contributed to the show's failure, most notably airing the episodes out of sequence, making the plot more difficult to follow. For instance, the double episode "Serenity" was intended as the premiere, and therefore contained most of the character introductions and back-story. However, Fox decided that "Serenity" was unsuitable for opening the series, and "The Train Job" was specifically created to act as a new pilot. In addition, Firefly was promoted as an action-comedy rather than the more serious character study it was intended to be, and the showbiz trade paper Variety noted Fox's decision to occasionally preempt the show for sporting events. Fox remastered the complete series in 1080i high-definition for broadcast on Universal HD, which began in April 2008. On March 12, 2009, the series was the winner of the first annual Hulu awards in the category "Shows We'd Bring Back". The Science Channel began airing the series on March 6, 2011. All episodes aired in the intended order, including episodes "Trash", "The Message" and "Heart of Gold", which were not aired in the original Fox series run. Along with each episode, Dr. Michio Kaku provided commentary about the real-life science behind the show's science fiction. Home media releases A box set containing the 14 completed episodes (including those which had not yet aired in the United States) was released on region 1 DVD on December 9, 2003, region 2 on April 19, 2004, and region 4 on August 2, 2004. The box features the episodes in the original order in which the show's producers had intended them to be broadcast, as well as seven episode commentaries, outtakes and other features. The DVDs feature the episodes as they were shot in 16:9 widescreen, with anamorphic transfers and Dolby Surround audio. By September 2005, its DVD release had sold about 500,000 copies. The series was re-released on Blu-ray Disc on November 11, 2008, comprising three discs; exclusive extras to the Blu-ray release include extra audio commentary from Joss Whedon, Nathan Fillion, Alan Tudyk and Ron Glass for the episode "Our Mrs. Reynolds", as well as an additional featurette, "Firefly" Reunion: Lunch with Joss, Nathan, Alan and Ron. On September 19, 2017, the series was reissued on Blu-ray as a 15th Anniversary Collection. The set included new packaging that came with character cards and a fold-out map of the solar system in which the series is set. Reception Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 77% with an average score of 7.8 out of 10 based on 44 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Firefly earns its audience's adoration with the help of Nathan Fillion's dry delivery, a detailed fantasy world, and compelling storylines – even if it doesn't stand with creator Joss Whedon's most consistent work." Many reviews focused on the show's fusion of Wild West and outer space motifs. TV Guides Matt Roush, for instance, called the show "oddball" and "offbeat" and noted how the series took the metaphor of space operas as Westerns. Roush opined that the shift from space travel to horseback was "jarring", but that once he got used to this, he found the characters cleverly conceived and the writing a crisp balance of action, tension, and humor. Several reviewers, however, criticized the show's setting; Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle felt that the melding of the western and science fiction genres was a "forced hodgepodge of two alarmingly opposite genres just for the sake of being different" and called the series a "vast disappointment", and Carina Chocano of Salon.com said that while the "space as Wild West" metaphor is fairly redundant, neither genre connected to the present. Emily Nussbaum of The New York Times, reviewing the DVD set, noted that the program featured "an oddball genre mix that might have doomed it from the beginning: it was a character-rich sci-fi western comedy-drama with existential underpinnings, a hard sell during a season dominated by Joe Millionaire". The Boston Globe described Firefly as a "wonderful, imaginative mess brimming with possibility". The review further notes the difference between the new series and other programs was that those shows "burst onto the scene with slick pilots and quickly deteriorate into mediocrity... Firefly is on the opposite creative journey." Jason Snell called the show one of the best on television, and one "with the most potential for future brilliance". Tim White, writing for The Objective Standard, focused his review on the show's depiction of heroism. He concludes that "Firefly is not perfectly accurate in its attempts to depict the essential natures of heroism and villainy, but its successes are much more uplifting than its failures are problematic. It's also consistently funny, skillfully written, and passionately acted." Reviewers also compared Firefly to Whedon's other series, Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Chocano noted that the series lacks the psychological tension of Buffy and suggests that this might be attributable to the episodes being aired out of order. MSN, on the other hand, pointed out that after viewing the DVD boxed set, it was easy to see why the program had attracted many die-hard fans. "All of Whedon's fingerprints are there: the witty dialogue, the quirky premises and dark exploration of human fallacy that made Buffy brilliant found their way to this space drama". Reviewers also criticized the predominant use of a heavily Chinese-influenced setting and culture while Asian characters in the show were "practically nonexistent". Writing for Syfy, Alyssa Fikse described the show as a "problematic fave", calling the lack of Asian characters in the show "negligent at best, racist at worst." Mike Le of Racebending.com opined that Asians in Firefly were "virtually faceless, and completely voiceless, in a universe that is supposed to represent a Sino-American future." Sara Casaus of Film Daily noted, "For a world that's half Chinese, there's a bewildering lack of Chinese people." Fandom Firefly generated a loyal base of fans during its three-month original broadcast run on Fox in late 2002. These fans, self-styled Browncoats, used online forums to organize and try to save the series from being canceled by Fox only three months after its debut. Their efforts included raising money for an ad in Variety magazine and a postcard writing campaign to UPN. While unsuccessful in finding a network that would continue the show, their support led to a release of the series on DVD in December 2003. A subsequent fan campaign raised over $14,000 in donations to have a purchased Firefly DVD set placed aboard 250 U.S. Navy ships by April 2004 for recreational viewing by their crews. These and other continuing fan activities eventually persuaded Universal Studios to produce a feature film, Serenity. (The title of Serenity was chosen, according to Whedon, because Fox still owned the rights to the name 'Firefly'). Numerous early screenings of rough film cuts were held for existing fans starting in May 2005 as an attempt to create a buzz to increase ticket sales when the final film cut was released widely on September 30, 2005. The film was not as commercially successful as fans had hoped, opening at number two and making only $40 million worldwide during its initial theatrical release. On June 23, 2006, fans organized the first worldwide charity screenings of Serenity in 47 cities, dubbed as Can't Stop the Serenity or CSTS, an homage to the movie's tagline, "Can't stop the signal". The event raised over $65,000 for Whedon's favorite charity, Equality Now. In 2007, $106,000 was raised; in 2008, $107,219; and in 2009, $137,331. In July 2006, a fan-made documentary was released, titled Done the Impossible, and is commercially available. The documentary relates the story of the fans and how the show has affected them, and features interviews with Whedon and various cast members. Part of the DVD proceeds are donated to Equality Now. NASA Browncoat astronaut Steven Swanson took the Firefly and Serenity DVDs with him on Space Shuttle Atlantis's STS-117 mission in June 2007. The DVDs were added to the media collection on the International Space Station as entertainment for the station's crews. A fan-made, not-for-profit, unofficial sequel to Serenity, titled Browncoats: Redemption, premiered at Dragon*Con 2010 on September 4, 2010. According to the film's creator and producer, Whedon gave "his blessing" to the project. The film was sold on DVD and Blu-ray at the film's website, with all proceeds being distributed among five charities. The film was also screened at various science-fiction conventions across the United States, with admission receipts similarly being donated. All sales ended on September 1, 2011, one year after its premiere, with total revenues exceeding $115,000. Cult status In 2005, New Scientist magazine's website held an internet poll to find "The World's Best Space Sci-Fi Ever". Firefly came in first place, with its cinematic follow-up Serenity in second. In 2012, Entertainment Weekly listed the show at No. 11 in the "25 Best Cult TV Shows from the Past 25 Years", commenting, "as it often does, martyrdom has only enhanced its legend." Brad Wright, co-creator of Stargate SG-1 has said that the 200th episode of SG-1 is "a little kiss to Serenity and Firefly, which was possibly one of the best canceled series in history". In the episode, "Martin Lloyd has come to the S.G.C. [Stargate Command] because even though 'Wormhole X-Treme!' was canceled after three episodes, it did so well on DVD they're making a feature [film]". The follow-up film, Serenity, was voted the best science fiction movie of all time in an SFX magazine poll of 3,000 fans. Firefly was later ranked #25 on TV Guides Top Cult Shows Ever. The name for the Google beta app Google Wave was inspired by this TV series. In an interview on February 17, 2011, with Entertainment Weekly, Nathan Fillion joked that: "If I got $300 million from the California Lottery, the first thing I would do is buy the rights to Firefly, make it on my own, and distribute it on the Internet". This quickly gave rise to a fan-run initiative to raising the funds to purchase the rights. On March 7, 2011, the organizers announced the closure of the project due to lack of endorsement from the creators, with $1 million pledged at the time it was shut down. Joss Whedon, Tim Minear, and cast members Nathan Fillion, Alan Tudyk, Summer Glau, Adam Baldwin, and Sean Maher reunited at the 2012 San Diego Comic-Con for a 10th-anniversary panel. Ten thousand people lined up to get into the panel, and the panel ended with the entire crowd giving the cast and crew a standing ovation. A tenth anniversary special, Browncoats Unite, was shown on the Science Channel on November 11, 2012. The special featured Whedon, Minear, and several of the cast members, in a discussion on the series' history. According to Reasons Julian Sanchez, Fireflys cult following "seems to include a disproportionate number of libertarians." The story themes are often cautionary about too-powerful central authority and its capacity to do bad while being considered by the majority as good. The characters each exhibit traits that exemplify core libertarian values, such as the right to bear arms (Jayne, Zoe), legal prostitution (Inara), freedom of religion (Book), logic and reasoning (Simon), and anti-conscription (River). Joss Whedon notes this theme, saying "Mal is, if not a Republican, certainly a libertarian, he's certainly a less-government kinda guy. He's the opposite of me in many ways." Podcasts The Signal is a Firefly and Serenity-focused podcast developed by fans of the Joss Whedon property. Hosted by Kari Haley and Les Howard, The Signal is a fan-driven podcast dedicated to Joss Whedon's short-lived TV series Firefly (2002) and its film Serenity (2005). Initially created as guerrilla marketing to promote Serenity, the podcast features discussions about the franchise's role-playing game, fan fiction as audio dramas, and interviews (e.g. with PJ Haarsma Jane Espenson, and Marc Gunn). Haley and Howard described the podcast's purpose as "[doing] whatever we can to see that more new Firefly is created in any format." In early 2006, Mur Lafferty described the show as "PG-rated", about an hour long, and publishing an episode every two weeks. That December, The Signal released a compilation album of filk music that had previously featured on the podcast: Songs from the Black; the album featured music by Luke Ski, Lich King, and Greg Edmonson. In 2006, The Signal received a People's Choice Podcast Award in the categories of "TV & Film" and "Best Produced"; it received the former again in 2008. The Signal was awarded the 2007 Parsec Award for "Best Fan Podcast", and in the category of "Best Speculative Fiction Fan or News Podcast (Specific)", it won the 2010 and 2012 Parsecs. Writing for Maximum Fun, Ian Brill praised The Signal as surprisingly professional with well-produced segments, though he unflatteringly compared Haley and Howard to Whedon's character Xander Harris: "They say mildly clever and cutesy things to each other and then sound tremendously satisfied with themselves while saying it." Awards Firefly won the following awards: Emmy Award: Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series, 2003 Visual Effects Society: Best visual effects in a television series, 2003 (episode "Serenity") Saturn Award: Cinescape Genre Face of the Future Award, Male, 2003 (Nathan Fillion) Saturn Award: Saturn Award for Best DVD Release (television), 2004 SyFy Genre Awards: Best Series/Television, 2006 SyFy Genre Awards: Best Actor/Television Nathan Fillion, 2006 SyFy Genre Awards: Best Supporting Actor/Television Adam Baldwin, 2006 SyFy Genre Awards: Best Special Guest/Television Christina Hendricks for "Trash", 2006 SyFy Genre Awards: Best Episode/Television "Trash", 2006 The series was also nominated for the following awards: Visual Effects Society: Best compositing in a televised program, music video, or commercial, 2003 Motion Picture Sound Editors, USA, "Golden Reel Award": Best sound editing in television long form: sound effects/foley, 2003 Hugo Award: Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form, 2003 (episode "Serenity") Hugo Award: Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form, 2004 (episodes "Heart of Gold" and "The Message", which at that time had not been shown on television in the USA) Golden Satellite Award: Best DVD Extras, 2004 Ratings At the time the series was canceled by Fox, it averaged 4.7 million viewers and ranked 98th in Nielsen ratings. In popular culture The cancellation of Firefly is a running gag in the CBS sitcom, The Big Bang Theory, which ran from 2007-2019. The character Sheldon Cooper is a fan of the show. When he and Leonard Hofstadter discuss their roommate agreement, they include a passage in which they dedicate Friday nights to watching Firefly, as Sheldon believes it will last for years. Upon its cancellation, he brands Rupert Murdoch, the owner of Fox, a traitor. During the show's second season, in episode 17 ("The Terminator Decoupling"), Summer Glau appears as herself, encountering Sheldon, Leonard, and their friends on a train to San Francisco. When Raj tries to hit on her, he says that although he is an astrophysicist, she was actually in space during the shooting of Firefly. Glau chides him for believing this, and Raj backtracks, saying, "Those are crazy people!" On the NBC comedy Community, the characters Troy and Abed are fans of the show. They have an agreement that if one of them dies, the other will stage it to look like a suicide caused by the cancellation of Firefly, in the hopes that it will bring the show back. In the 2003 Battlestar Galactica miniseries/pilot, a ship resembling Serenity appears in the background of the scene with Laura Roslin (Mary McDonnell). Serenity is one of several spaceships inserted as cameos into digital effects scenes by Zoic Studios, the company responsible for digital effects in both Firefly and Battlestar Galactica. The webcomic xkcd commented on Firefly's conspicuous absence of Asian characters in the 2009 comic "Well". When a character drops a coin into "The Uncomfortable Truths Well", it responds, "For a universe that's supposed to be half Chinese, Firefly sure doesn't have any Asians." Critics have drawn comparisons and parallels between Firefly and the anime Outlaw Star. The television series Castle, where Fillion plays the lead character Richard Castle, has made ongoing homages to Firefly. Castle has props from Firefly as decorative items in his home, has dressed up as a "space cowboy" for Halloween ("You wore that five years ago", cracked his daughter), speaks Chinese that he learned from "a TV show [he] loved", and has made rapid "two-by-two" finger motions while wearing blue surgical gloves. He has been humorously asked if he has ever heard of a spa known as "Serenity", and Firefly catchphrases such as "shiny", "special hell", and "I was aiming for the head" have been used as punchlines during various dramatic scenes in Castle. He has worked a murder case at a science fiction convention with suspects being the cast of a long-cancelled space opera that only ran for a season, and has had direct and incidental interaction with people portrayed by Firefly cast members.Con Man, a 2015 comedy web series created by Tudyk and co-produced by Fillion, draws on the pair's experiences as cult science fiction actors touring the convention circuit. Though it is not autobiographical, the show's fictional Spectrum echoes Firefly and Tudyk's and Fillion's roles reflect their own Firefly roles. Staite, Torres, Glau, Maher, and Whedon made guest appearances. Maher played himself as a former Firefly actor. Media franchise The popularity of the short-lived series served as the launching point for a media franchise within the Firefly universe, including the feature film Serenity, which addresses many plot points left unresolved by the series' cancellation. Additionally, there are two comic-book mini-series, Serenity: Those Left Behind (3 issues, 104 pages, 2006), Serenity: Better Days (3 issues, 80 pages, 2008) and a one-shot hardcover Serenity: The Shepherd's Tale (56 pages, 2010), along with the one-shots Serenity: Downtime and The Other Half and Serenity: Float Out in which Whedon explored plot strands he had intended to explore further in the series. The comics are set, in plot terms, between the end of the TV series and the opening of the feature film. The two mini-series were later published in collected form as hardcover and paperback graphic novels. A six-issue series titled Serenity: Leaves on the Wind began in January 2014 and the series takes place after the events of the film. A six-issue series titled Serenity: No Power in the 'Verse began in October 2016 and the series is set about 1.5 years after Leaves on the Wind. In July 2018, Boom! Studios announced that they had acquired the comic book and graphic novel publishing license to Firefly with plans to release new monthly comic book series, limited series, original graphic novels, and more. In July 2014, the release of the video game Firefly Online was announced that planned to have the cast reprise their roles. In January 2018, Titan Books announced that they would begin publishing original canon Firefly novels. Five books have so far been released. References Further reading External links Firefly-Serenity Chinese Pinyinary—English translations of the Chinese words and phrases used in Firefly and Serenity'' 2002 American television series debuts 2002 American television series endings Television series set in the 26th century 2000s American science fiction television series English-language television shows Fox Broadcasting Company original programming Libertarian science fiction Saturn Award-winning television series Space adventure television series Space Western television series Television series by 20th Century Fox Television Television series created by Joss Whedon Television series set on fictional planets Television shows filmed in Los Angeles Television series set in the future Television shows adapted into comics

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred%20Phelps

Fred Phelps

Fred Waldron Phelps Sr. (November 13, 1929 – March 19, 2014) was an American minister and disbarred attorney who served as pastor of the Westboro Baptist Church and became known for his homophobic views and protests near the funerals of gay people, military veterans, and disaster victims who he believed were killed as a result of God punishing the U.S. for having "bankrupt values" and tolerating homosexuality. The Westboro Baptist Church, a Topeka, Kansas-based independent fundamentalist ministry that Phelps founded in 1955, has been described by the Southern Poverty Law Center as "arguably the most obnoxious and rabid hate group in America". Its signature slogan, "God Hates Fags", remains the name of the group's principal website. In addition to funerals, Phelps and his followers—mostly his own immediate family members—picketed gay pride gatherings, high-profile political events, university commencement ceremonies, live performances of The Laramie Project, and functions sponsored by mainstream Christian groups with which he had no affiliation, arguing it was their sacred duty to warn others of God's anger. He continued doing so in the face of numerous legal challenges—some of which reached the U.S. Supreme Court—and near-universal opposition and contempt from other religious groups and the general public. Laws enacted at both the federal and state levels for the specific purpose of curtailing his disruptive activities were limited in their effectiveness due to the Constitutional protections afforded to Phelps under the First Amendment. Gay rights supporters denounced him as a producer of anti-gay propaganda and violence-inspiring hate speech, and even Christians from fundamentalist denominations distanced themselves from him. Although Phelps died in 2014, the Westboro Baptist Church remains in operation. It continues to conduct regular demonstrations outside movie theaters, universities, government buildings, and other facilities in Topeka and elsewhere, and is still characterized as a hate group by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. Early life and education Fred Waldron Phelps was born on November 13, 1929, in Meridian, Mississippi, the elder of two children of Catherine Idalette (née Johnston) and Fred Wade Phelps. His father was a railroad policeman for the Columbus and Greenville Railway and a devout Methodist; his mother was a homemaker. In 1935, Catherine Phelps died of esophageal cancer at the age of 28. Her aunt, Irene Jordan, helped care for Fred and his younger sister Martha Jean until December 1944, when the elder Phelps married Olive Briggs, a 39-year-old divorcee. Fred distinguished himself scholastically and was an Eagle Scout. He also was a member of Phi Kappa, a high school social fraternity, president of the Young Peoples Department of Central United Methodist Church and was honored as the best drilled member of the Mississippi Junior State Guard, a unit similar to the Reserve Officer Training Corps. He graduated high school at 16 years old, ranking sixth in his graduating class of 213 students, and was the class orator at his commencement. After graduating from high school he received an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point; but after attending a tent revival meeting, decided to pursue a religious calling instead. In September 1947, at the age of 17, he was ordained a Southern Baptist minister and moved to Cleveland, Tennessee, to attend Bob Jones College (now Bob Jones University in Greenville, South Carolina). A combination of Phelps's refusal of the West Point appointment (which his father had worked hard to obtain), his abandonment of his father's beloved Methodist faith, and his father's remarriage to a divorcee (Phelps would later become an outspoken critic of divorcees) precipitated a lifelong estrangement from his father and stepmother—and by some accounts, from his sister as well. Phelps apparently never spoke to his family members again, and returned all of their letters, birthday cards, and Christmas gifts for his children, unopened. Phelps dropped out of Bob Jones College in 1948. He moved to California and became a street preacher while attending John Muir College in Pasadena. The June 11, 1951 issue of Time magazine included a story on Phelps, who lectured fellow students about "sins committed on campus by students and teachers", including "promiscuous petting, evil language, profanity, cheating, teachers' filthy jokes in classrooms, and pandering to the lusts of the flesh." When the college ordered him to stop, citing a California law that forbade the teaching of religion on any public school campus, he moved his sermons across the street. In October 1951, Phelps met Margie Marie Simms and married her in May 1952. In 1954, Phelps, his pregnant wife, and their newborn son moved to Topeka, Kansas, where he was hired by the East Side Baptist Church as an associate pastor. The following year, the church's leadership opened Westboro Baptist Church on the other side of town, and Phelps became its pastor. Although the new church was ostensibly Independent Baptist, Phelps preached a doctrine very similar to that of the Primitive Baptists, who believe in scriptural literalism — that Christian biblical scripture is literally true — and that only a predetermined number of people selected for redemption before the world was created will be saved on Judgment Day. His vitriolic preaching alienated church leaders and most of the original congregation, who either returned to East Side Baptist or joined other congregations, leaving him with a small following consisting almost entirely of his own relatives and close friends. Phelps was forced to support himself selling vacuum cleaners, baby strollers, and insurance; later, some of his 13 children were reportedly compelled to sell candy door-to-door for several hours each day. In 1972, two companies sued Westboro Baptist for failing to pay for the candy being peddled by the children. Legal career Civil rights cases Early civil rights career Phelps earned a law degree from Washburn University in 1964, and founded the Phelps Chartered law firm. However, in 1969, upon a finding of professional misconduct, authorities suspended him from practicing as a lawyer for two years. Phelps' first notable cases were related to civil rights, and his involvement in civil rights cases in and around Kansas gained him praise from local African-American leaders. "I systematically brought down the Jim Crow laws of this town", he claimed. Phelps' daughter Shirley Phelps-Roper was quoted as saying, "We took on the Jim Crow establishment, and Kansas did not take that sitting down. They used to shoot our car windows out, screaming we were nigger lovers." She added that the Phelps law firm made up one-third of the state's federal docket of civil rights cases. Phelps took cases on behalf of African-American clients alleging racial discrimination by school systems, and a predominantly black American Legion post which had been raided by police, alleging racially based police abuse. Phelps' law firm obtained settlements for some clients. Johnson vs. Topeka Board of Education, et. al. Phelps' national notoriety first came from a 1973 lawsuit (settled in 1978) on behalf of a 10-year-old African-American plaintiff, Evelyn Renee Johnson (some sources say Evelyn Rene Johnson), against the Topeka Board of Education (which had, in 1954, famously lost the pivotal racial discrimination case of Brown vs. Board of Education, ending legal racial segregation in U.S. public schools), and against related local, state and federal officials. In the 1973 case, Phelps argued that the Topeka Board of Education, in violation of the 1954 ruling, had not yet made its schools equal, and by attending Topeka's east-side, predominantly minority schools, the black plaintiff had received an inferior education. Initially, Phelps attempted to file the case as a class action, in the U.S. District Court for Kansas. Asking the court to order an end to the alleged discrimination and suggesting that busing might be at least one remedy, Phelps also sought $100 million in actual damages, plus another $100 million in punitive damages—or, alternatively, $20,000 for each of the 10,000 students he claimed were in the aggrieved class of victims. Nevertheless, the federal district and appellate courts denied the class action filing, limiting the case to Phelps's initial plaintiff, Evelyn Johnson, alone. The case fueled a national debate about racial integration of schools, and prompted the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, by 1974, to order the Topeka board to develop corrective remedies. Topeka's school board did not contest the charges. On the guidance of its insurance provider, it settled the litigation (with no admission of wrongdoing) for $19,500—$12,400 of which went to Phelps. While the settlement drew some praise, controversy arose when the judge ordered the settlement amount sealed at the request of the insurer—apparently with Phelps's approval. (Details leaked out to the media anyway.) Phelps announced he would file more such cases, as class actions, but the insurance company stated it would not pay for any more of them. Later civil rights career In 1986, Phelps sued President Ronald Reagan over Reagan's appointment of a U.S. ambassador to the Vatican, alleging this violated separation of church and state. The case was dismissed by the U.S. district court. Phelps' law firm, staffed by himself and family members, also represented non-white Kansans in discrimination actions against Kansas City Power and Light, Southwestern Bell, and the Topeka City Attorney, and represented two female professors alleging discrimination at Kansas universities. A defeat in his civil rights suit against the City of Wichita and others, on behalf of Jesse O. Rice (the fired executive director of the Wichita Civil Rights Equal Employment Opportunity Commission), among other causes, would lead to further legal actions ending in Phelps' disbarment and censure. In the 1980s, Phelps received awards from the Greater Kansas City Chapter of Blacks in Government and the Bonner Springs branch of the NAACP, for his work on behalf of black clients. A self-published 1994 book by Jon Michael Bell averred that, although Phelps worked on behalf of many black clients, he allegedly expressed racist views. One of his sons, Nate, stated that Phelps largely took civil rights cases for money rather than principle. Nate said that his father "held racist attitudes" and he would use slurs against black clients: "They would come into his office and after they left, he would talk about how stupid they were and call them dumb niggers." His sister, Shirley, denies Nate Phelps' account and claims he never used racist language. Disbarment A formal complaint was filed against Phelps on November 8, 1977, by the Kansas State Board of Law Examiners, due to his conduct during a lawsuit, against a court reporter named Carolene Brady, who had failed to have a court transcript ready for Phelps on the day he asked for it. Although it did not affect the outcome of the case, Phelps sued her for $22,000. In the ensuing trial, Phelps called Brady to the stand, declared her a hostile witness, and then cross-examined her for nearly a week, during which he accused her of being a "slut", tried to introduce testimony from former boyfriends whom Phelps wanted to subpoena, and accused her of a variety of perverse sexual acts, ultimately reducing her to tears on the stand. Phelps lost the case. According to the Kansas Supreme Court: In an appeal, Phelps prepared affidavits swearing to the court that he had eight witnesses whose testimony would convince the court to rule in his favor. Brady obtained sworn, signed affidavits from those eight people in question, all of whom said that Phelps had never contacted them and that they had no reason to testify against Brady. Phelps was found to have made "false statements in violation of DR 7–102(A)(5)". On July 20, 1979, Phelps was permanently disbarred from practicing law in the state of Kansas, although he continued to practice in federal courts. In 1985, nine Federal judges filed a disciplinary complaint against Phelps and five of his children, alleging false accusations against the judges. In 1989, the complaint was settled; Phelps agreed to stop practicing law in Federal court permanently, and two of his children were suspended for a period of six months and one year, respectively. Family life Phelps married Margie M. Simms in May 1952, a year after the couple met at the Arizona Bible Institute. They had 13 children, 54 grandchildren, and 7 great-grandchildren. Nathan Phelps, Fred Phelps' estranged son, claims that the elder Phelps was an abusive father, that he (Nate) never had a relationship with him when he was growing up, and that the Westboro Baptist Church is an organization for his father to "vent his rage and anger." He alleges that, in addition to hurting others, his father used to physically abuse his wife and children by beating them with his fists and with the handle of a mattock to the point of bleeding. Phelps' brother, Mark, has supported and repeated Nathan's claims of physical abuse by their father. Since 2004, over 20 members of the church, mostly family members, have left the church and his family. Religious beliefs Phelps described himself as an Old School Baptist, and stated that he held to all five points of Calvinism. Phelps particularly highlighted John Calvin's doctrine of unconditional election, the belief that God has elected certain people for salvation before birth, and limited atonement, the belief that Christ only died for the elect, and condemns those who believe otherwise. Despite claiming to be an Old School Baptist, he was ordained by a Southern Baptist church, and was rejected and generally condemned by Old School (or Primitive) Baptists. Phelps viewed Arminianism (particularly the views of the Methodist theologian William Elbert Munsey) as a "worse blasphemy and heresy than that heard in all filthy Saturday night fag bars in the aggregate in the world". In addition to John Calvin, Phelps admired Martin Luther and Bob Jones Sr., and approvingly quoted a statement by Jones that "what this country needs is 50 Jonathan Edwardses turned loose in it." Phelps particularly held to equal ultimacy, believing that "God Almighty makes some willing and he leads others into sin", a view he said is Calvinist. However, many theologians would identify him as a Hyper-Calvinist ("hyper" meaning "beyond" or "above" not "extreme"). Phelps opposed such common Baptist practices as Sunday school meetings, Bible colleges and seminaries, and multi-denominational crusades. Although he attended Bob Jones University, and worked with Billy Graham in his Los Angeles Crusade before Graham changed his views on a literal Hell and salvation, Phelps considered Graham the greatest false prophet since Balaam. He also condemned large church leaders, such as Robert Schuller and Jerry Falwell, as well as all Catholics. Church protest activities All of Phelps' demonstrations and other activities during the last 50 years of his life were conducted in conjunction with the congregation of Westboro Baptist Church (WBC), an American unaffiliated Baptist church known for its extreme ideologies, especially those against gay people. The church is widely described as a hate group and is monitored as such by the Anti-Defamation League and Southern Poverty Law Center. It was headed by Phelps until his later years when he took a reduced role in the activities of the church and his family. In March 2014, church representatives said that the church had not had a defined leader in "a very long time," and church members consist primarily of his large family; in 2011, the church stated that it had about 40 members. The church is headquartered in a residential neighborhood on the west side of Topeka about three miles (5 km) west of the Kansas State Capitol. Its first public service was held on the afternoon of November 27, 1955. The church has been involved in actions against gay people since at least 1991, when it sought a crackdown on homosexual activity at Gage Park six blocks northwest of the church. In 2001, Phelps estimated that the WBC had held 40 pickets a week for the previous 10 years. In addition to conducting anti-gay protests at military funerals, the organization pickets other celebrity funerals and public events that are likely to gain media attention. Protests have also been held against Jews, and some protests have included WBC members stomping on the American flag. Lawsuit against Westboro Baptist Church On March 10, 2006, WBC picketed the funeral of Marine Lance Corporal Matthew A. Snyder, who died in combat in Iraq on March 3, 2006. The Snyder family sued Fred Phelps for defamation, invasion of privacy, and intentional infliction of emotional distress. On October 31, 2007, WBC, Fred Phelps and his two daughters, Shirley Phelps-Roper and Rebekah Phelps-Davis, were found liable for invasion of privacy and intentional infliction of emotional distress. A federal jury awarded Snyder's father $2.9 million in compensatory damages, then later added a decision to award $6 million in punitive damages for invasion of privacy and an additional $2 million for causing emotional distress (a total of $10.9 million). The lawsuit named Albert Snyder, father of Matthew Snyder, as the plaintiff and Fred W. Phelps, Sr.; Westboro Baptist Church, Inc.; Rebekah Phelps-Davis; and Shirley Phelps-Roper as defendants, alleging that they were responsible for publishing defamatory information about the Snyder family on the Internet, including statements that Albert and his wife had "raised [Matthew] for the devil" and taught him "to defy his Creator, to divorce, and to commit adultery". Other statements denounced them for raising their son Catholic. Snyder further complained the defendants had intruded upon and staged protests at his son's funeral. The claims of invasion of privacy and defamation arising from comments posted about Snyder on the Westboro website were dismissed on First Amendment grounds, but the case proceeded to trial on the remaining three counts. Albert Snyder, the father of LCpl Matthew A. Snyder, testified: In his instructions to the jury, U.S. District Judge Richard D. Bennett stated that the First Amendment protection of free speech has limits, including vulgar, offensive and shocking statements, and that the jury must decide "whether the defendant's actions would be highly offensive to a reasonable person, whether they were extreme and outrageous and whether these actions were so offensive and shocking as to not be entitled to First Amendment protection". (see also Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, a case in which certain personal slurs and obscene utterances by an individual were found unworthy of First Amendment protection, due to the potential for violence resulting from their utterance). WBC sought a mistrial based on alleged prejudicial statements made by the judge and violations of the gag order by the plaintiff's attorney. An appeal was also sought by the WBC. On February 4, 2008, Bennett upheld the ruling but reduced the punitive damages from $8 million to $2.1 million. The total judgment then stood at $5 million. Court liens were ordered on church buildings and Phelps' law office in an attempt to ensure that the damages were paid. An appeal by WBC was heard on September 24, 2009. The federal appeals court ruled in favor of Phelps and Westboro Baptist Church, stating that their picket near the funeral of LCpl Matthew A. Snyder is protected speech and did not violate the privacy of the service member's family, reversing the lower court's $5 million judgment. On March 30, 2010, the federal appeals court ordered Albert Snyder to pay the court costs for the Westboro Baptist Church, an amount totaling $16,510. Political commentator Bill O'Reilly agreed on March 30 to cover the costs, pending appeal. A writ of certiorari was granted on an appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States, and the oral argument for the case took place on October 6, 2010. Margie Phelps, one of Fred Phelps' children, represented the Westboro Baptist Church. The Court ruled in favor of Phelps in an 8–1 decision, holding that the protesters' speech related to a public issue, and was disseminated on a public sidewalk. Chief Justice John Roberts wrote, for the majority, "As a nation we have chosen ... to protect even hurtful speech on public issues to ensure that we do not stifle public debate." Justice Samuel Alito, the lone dissenter, wrote, "Our profound national commitment to free and open debate is not a license for the vicious verbal assault that occurred in this case." Efforts to discourage funeral protests On May 24, 2006, the United States House and Senate passed the Respect for America's Fallen Heroes Act, which President George W. Bush signed five days later. The act bans protests within of national cemeteries – which numbered 122 when the bill was signed – from an hour before a funeral to an hour after it. Violators face up to a $100,000 fine and up to a year in prison. On August 6, 2012, President Obama signed , the Honoring America's Veterans and Caring for Camp Lejeune Families Act of 2012 which, among other things, requires a and 2-hour buffer zone around military funerals. , nine states had passed laws regarding protests near funeral sites immediately before and after ceremonies: Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maryland Michigan Missouri States that are considering laws are: Nebraska Ohio Oklahoma South Carolina South Dakota Texas Vermont Virginia West Virginia Wisconsin Florida increased the penalty for disturbing military funerals, amending a previous ban on the disruption of lawful assembly. On January 11, 2011, Arizona passed an emergency measure which prohibits protests within of any funeral services, in response to an announcement by the WBC that it planned to protest at 2011 Tucson shooting victim Christina Green's funeral. These bans have been contested. Bart McQueary, having protested with Phelps on at least three occasions, filed a lawsuit in federal court challenging the constitutionality of Kentucky's funeral protest ban. On September 26, 2006, a district court agreed and entered an injunction prohibiting the ban from being enforced. In the opinion, the judge wrote: The American Civil Liberties Union filed a lawsuit in Missouri on behalf of Phelps and Westboro Baptist Church to overturn the ban on the picketing of soldier's funerals. The ACLU of Ohio also filed a similar lawsuit. In the case of Snyder v. Phelps, the 4th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that "distasteful and repugnant" protests surrounding funerals of service members were protected by the First Amendment. But attorneys for the service member's family appealed the decision on the grounds that such speech should not be allowed to inflict emotional distress on private parties exercising their freedom of religion during a funeral service. The Supreme Court heard oral arguments in the case on October 6, 2010, and ruled 8–1 in favor of Phelps in an opinion released on March 2, 2011. The court held that "any distress occasioned by Westboro's picketing turned on the content and viewpoint of the message conveyed, rather than any interference with the funeral itself" and thus could not be restricted. People targeted by Phelps Beginning in the early 1990s, Phelps targeted numerous individuals and groups in the public eye for criticism by the Westboro Baptist Church. Prominent examples include President Ronald Reagan, Princess Diana, Supreme Court Chief Justice William Rehnquist, National Football League star Reggie White, Sonny Bono, comedian George Carlin, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, atheists, Muslims, murdered college student Matthew Shepard, children's television host Fred Rogers, Australian actor Heath Ledger, Comedy Central's Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert, political commentator Bill O'Reilly, film critic Roger Ebert, Catholics, Australians, Swedes, the Irish, and US soldiers killed in Iraq. He also targeted the Joseph Estabrook Elementary School in Lexington, Massachusetts, center of the David Parker controversy. Phelps also picketed memorials to victims of different mass shootings, including the spreading of unfounded theories, such as saying that Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, the perpetrators of the 1999 Columbine High School massacre, were gay, saying that "Two filthy fags slaughtered 13 people at Columbine High." In 2006, in the aftermath of the West Nickel Mines School shooting, where five Amish girls where murdered, Phelps mocked the shooting, saying that it had been caused by Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell's criticism of Westboro. Phelps further planned a protest at the funeral for the five girls murdered, but called it off, opting to spread their messages on a local radio station instead. In 2007 he stated that he would target Jerry Falwell's funeral. Phelps' daughter, Shirley Phelps-Roper, has appeared on Fox News Channel, defending the WBC and attacking homosexuality. She and her children have also appeared on the Howard Stern radio show attempting to promote their agenda and church. Phelps' followers have repeatedly protested the University of Kansas School of Law's graduation ceremonies. In August 2007, in the wake of the Minneapolis I-35W bridge collapse, Phelps and his congregation stated that they would protest at the funerals of the victims. In a statement, the church said that Minneapolis is the "land of the Sodomite damned". Political activities Anti-gay In the movie Hatemongers, members of the Westboro Baptist Church state their children were being "accosted" by homosexuals in Gage Park, about from the Phelps' home (and a mile (1.6 km) northwest of the Westboro Church). Shirley Phelps-Roper says that, in the late 1980s, Fred Phelps claimed to have witnessed a homosexual attempting to lure her then five-year-old son Joshua into some shrubbery. After several complaints to the local government about the large amount of homosexual sex occurring in the park, with no resulting action, the Phelpses put up signs warning of homosexual activity. This resulted in much negative attention for the family. When the Phelpses called on local churches to speak against the activity in Gage Park, the churches also lashed out against the Phelps family, leading to the family protesting homosexuality on a regular basis. In 2005, Phelps and his family, along with several other local congregations, held a signature drive to bring about a vote to repeal two city ordinances that added sexual orientation to a definition of hate crimes and banned the city itself from workplace discrimination based on sexual orientation. Enough signatures were collected to bring the measure to a vote. Topeka voters defeated the repeal measure on March 1, 2005, by a 53–47% margin. In the same election, Phelps' granddaughter Jael was an unsuccessful candidate for the Topeka City Council, seeking to replace Tiffany Muller, the first openly gay member of the council. Electoral politics Phelps ran in Kansas Democratic Party primaries five times, but never won. These included races for governor in 1990, 1994, and 1998, receiving about 15 percent of the vote in 1998. In the 1992 Democratic Party primary for U.S. Senate, Phelps received 31 percent of the vote. Phelps ran for mayor of Topeka in 1993 and 1997. Phelps supported Al Gore in the 1988 Democratic Party presidential primary election. In his 1984 Senate race, Gore had opposed a "gay bill of rights" and stated that homosexuality was not something that "society should affirm", a position Gore had publicly changed by 2000 as his official position. Phelps stated that he supported Gore because of these earlier comments. In 1996 Phelps opposed Clinton's (and Gore's) re-election because of the administration's support for gay rights; the Westboro congregation picketed a 1997 inaugural ball. Saddam Hussein In 1997, Phelps wrote a letter to Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, praising his regime for being "the only Muslim state that allows the Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ to be freely and openly preached on the streets". Arrests and traveling restrictions United States In 1994, Phelps was convicted of disorderly conduct for verbal harassment, and received two suspended 30-day jail sentences. Phelps' 1995 conviction for assault and battery carried a five-year prison sentence, with a mandatory 18 months to be served before he became eligible for parole. Phelps fought to be allowed to remain free until his appeals process went through. Days away from being arrested and sent to prison, a judge ruled that Phelps had been denied a speedy trial and that he was not required to serve any time. United Kingdom On February 18, 2009, two days before the Westboro Baptist Church's first UK picket, the United Kingdom Home Office announced that Fred Phelps and Shirley Phelps-Roper would be refused entry and that "other church members could also be flagged and stopped if they tried to enter Britain". In May 2009, he and his daughter Shirley were placed on the Home Office's "name and shame" list of people barred from entering the UK for "fostering hatred which might lead to inter-community violence". In the media In 1993, Phelps appeared on a first-season episode of the talk show Ricki Lake, alleging that homosexuals and "anyone who carries the AIDS virus" deserved to die. When Phelps and his son-in-law Charles Hockenbarger (married to Phelps’ daughter Rachel) became increasingly belligerent, Lake ordered the Phelps family to leave the studio. During a commercial break, the two were forced off the set and escorted out of the building by security. After Phelps died, Lake tweeted that when he had been on the show, he had told her that she worshipped her own rectum — a remark that led her to take action off-stage to have Phelps removed from the set. The Phelps family was the subject of the 2007 TV program The Most Hated Family in America, presented on the BBC by Louis Theroux. Four years after his original documentary, Theroux produced a follow-up program America's Most Hated Family in Crisis, which was prompted by news of family members leaving the church. Phelps' son Nate has broken ranks with the family and in an interview with Peter W. Klein on the Canadian program The Standard, he characterized his father as abusive and warned the Phelps family could turn violent. Writing in response to Phelps' death in 2014, Theroux described Phelps as "an angry bigot who thrived on conflict", and expressed the view that his death would not lead to any "huge changes" in the church, as he saw it as operating with the dynamics of a large family rather than a cult. Theroux returned for a third documentary in 2019, titled Surviving America's Most Hated Family. Kevin Smith produced a horror film titled Red State featuring a religious fundamentalist villain inspired by Phelps. Phelps appeared in A Union in Wait, a 2001 Sundance Channel documentary film about same-sex marriage, directed by Ryan Butler after Phelps picketed Wake Forest Baptist Church at Wake Forest University over a proposed same-sex union ceremony. Excommunication and death Fred Phelps preached his final Sunday sermon on September 1, 2013. Five weeks later, sermons resumed from various members. On March 15, 2014, Nathan Phelps, Phelps' estranged son, reported that Phelps was in very poor health and was receiving hospice care. He said that Phelps had been excommunicated from the church in August 2013, and then moved into a house where he "basically stopped eating and drinking". His statements were supported by his brother, Mark. Church spokesman Steve Drain declined to answer questions about Phelps' excommunication, and denied that the church had a single leader. The church's official website said that membership status is private and did not confirm nor deny the excommunication. Phelps died of natural causes shortly before midnight on March 19, 2014, at the age of 84. His daughter, Shirley, stated that a funeral for her father would not be held because the church does not "worship the dead". According to Nathan Phelps, Fred Phelps' body was immediately cremated, and according to his granddaughter Megan Phelps-Roper, Phelps' cremated remains were buried in an unmarked grave in Kansas. Phelps had been reportedly suffering from some form of dementia in his final year, and started behaving irrationally. This led to church members believing that God had condemned him. It has been claimed that Phelps "had a softening of heart at the end of his life," according to accounts published in a memoir written by Phelps' granddaughter Megan Phelps-Roper, and reporting from The New Yorker citing former members of the church. This includes an incident in 2013, in which Phelps is said to have stepped outside the church and called over to members of Planting Peace, a nonprofit that bought a house on the other street and painted it with an LGBT rainbow, saying: "You're good people!" In an interview with NPR, Megan Phelps-Roper said this outburst was "the proximate cause" of Phelps being excommunicated, a claim that the church has denied. According to Phelps' grandson and former church member Zach Phelps-Roper, Phelps' actions were regarded as "rank blasphemy" by the church members. Electoral history Democratic primary for Governor of Kansas, 1990 Joan Finney: 81,250 (47.18%) John Carlin: 79,406 (46.11%) Fred Phelps: 11,572 (6.72%) Democratic primary for United States Senate, Kansas 1992 Gloria O'Dell: 111,015 (69.20%) Fred Phelps: 49,416 (30.80%) Democratic primary for Governor of Kansas, 1994 Jim Slattery: 84,389 (53.02%) Joan Wagnon: 42,115 (26.46%) Jim Francisco: 16,048 (10.08%) Leslie Kitchenmaster: 11,253 (7.07%) Fred Phelps: 5,349 (3.36%) Democratic primary for Governor of Kansas, 1998 Tom Sawyer: 88,248 (85.28%) Fred Phelps: 15,233 (14.72%) See also Christianity and homosexuality The Bible and homosexuality References External links Phelps’ life turned from brilliance to hatred from The Topeka Capital-Journal For external links related to Westboro Baptist Church and not Phelps specifically, see this section. Biographical information 1929 births 2014 deaths Activists for African-American civil rights Activists from Kansas Anti-same-sex-marriage activists American activists American civil rights lawyers American conspiracy theorists American critics of Islam American male criminals Baptist ministers from the United States Baptists from Mississippi Bob Jones University alumni Candidates in the 1990 United States elections Candidates in the 1992 United States elections Candidates in the 1994 United States elections Candidates in the 1998 United States elections Christian conspiracy theorists Christian critics of Islam Christian fundamentalists Critics of Judaism Critics of atheism Critics of the Catholic Church Disbarred American lawyers Discrimination against LGBT people in the United States Westboro Baptist Church Former Methodists Kansas Democrats Kansas lawyers Late Modern Christian anti-Judaism Members of the clergy convicted of crimes Obscenity controversies Pasadena City College alumni People excommunicated by Baptist churches People from Meridian, Mississippi People from Topeka, Kansas Theocrats Washburn University School of Law alumni Founders of new religious movements

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20arap%20Moi

Daniel arap Moi

Daniel Toroitich arap Moi ( ; 2 September 1924 – 4 February 2020) was a Kenyan statesman and politician who was the second and longest-serving President of Kenya from 1978 to 2002. He previously served as the third Vice President of Kenya from 1967 to 1978, and succeeded President Jomo Kenyatta following the latter's death. Born into the Tugen sub-group of the Kalenjin people in the Kenyan Rift Valley, Moi studied as a boy at the Africa Inland Mission school before training as a teacher at the Tambach teachers training college, working in that profession until 1955. He then entered politics and was elected a member of the Legislative Council for Rift Valley. As independence approached, Moi joined the Kenyan delegation which travelled to London for the Lancaster House Conferences, where the country's first post-independence constitution was drafted. In 1960 he founded the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) as a rival party to Kenyatta's Kenya African National Union (KANU). Following independence in 1963 Kenyatta, who became Prime Minister and later President of the new nation, convinced Moi to merge the two parties. Kenyatta appointed Moi to his government in 1964 and then promoted him to Vice-President in 1967. Despite opposition from a Kikuyu elite known as the Kiambu Mafia, Kenyatta groomed Moi as his successor, and he took over as president when Kenyatta died in 1978. Initially popular both domestically and in Western countries, who saw his regime as countering against influences from the Eastern Bloc-aligned governments of Ethiopia and Tanzania, Moi's popularity fell around 1990 as the economy stagnated after the end of the Cold War. Following the agitation and external pressure, he was forced to allow multiparty elections in 1991; he then led his party, KANU, to victory in the 1992 and 1997 elections, both of which have generally been regarded as neither free nor fair by independent observers. Constitutionally barred from seeking a third term, Moi chose Uhuru Kenyatta as his successor, but Kenyatta was defeated by opposition leader Mwai Kibaki in the 2002 general election and Kibaki replaced Moi as president. Kenyatta would eventually win the Presidency in the 2013 election. Moi's regime was deemed dictatorial and autocratic, especially before 1992, when Kenya was a one-party state. Human rights organisations such as Amnesty International, as well as a special investigation by the United Nations, accused Moi of human rights abuses during his presidency. Inquiries held after the end of his presidency found evidence that Moi and his sons had engaged in significant levels of corruption, including the 1990s Goldenberg scandal. Moi died on 4 February 2020 at the age of 95. Early life and entry into politics Moi was born Toroitich arap (son of) Moi, Toroitich meaning "welcome home the cattle" in the Rift Valley village of Kuriengwo, which is now in the Sacho division of Baringo County, Moi's father, Kimoi arap Chebii, died in 1928. Moi was only four then and little is known about his mother, Kabon. What is known is that his elder brother, Tuitoek, became his guardian and that he was one of the herdsboys from Sacho location recommended to join the new Africa Inland Mission (AIM) School at Kabartonjo in 1934 before it was shifted to Kapsabet. He was from the Tugen sub-group of the Kalenjin people. At the African Mission School at Kabartonjo, Moi became a Christian and adopted the name Daniel. Moi attended Tambach Teachers Training College, after its relocation from Kabartonjo, from 1945 to 1947. This is after the colonial government denied him a chance to enroll at Alliance High School. He later attended Kagumo Teacher's College. and taught classes at Tambach Teacher's Training College. Later he became the headmaster of a school in the Keiyo District. He worked as a teacher from 1946 until 1955. In 1955 Moi entered politics when he was elected Member of the Legislative Council for Rift Valley. He was the chosen replacement of Dr. John ole Tameno, the former representative who had had to quit due to heavy drinking and suspected connections to the freedom movement. In 1957 Moi was re-elected Member of the Legislative Council for Rift Valley. Moi was part of the Kenyan delegation at the Lancaster House Conferences in London, which drafted the country's first post-independence constitution, and in 1961 became Minister of Education in the pre-independence government. In 1960 he founded the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) with Ronald Ngala as a political alternative to the Kenya African National Union (KANU) led by Jomo Kenyatta. KADU pressed for a federalist constitution, while KANU was in favour of a centralized government. The advantage lay with the numerically stronger KANU, and the first post-independence constitution emphasised national unity, structuring the country as a unitary state. Vice-Presidency After Kenya gained independence on 12 December 1963, Kenyatta convinced Moi that KADU and KANU should be merged to complete the process of decolonisation. Accordingly, KADU dissolved and joined KANU in 1964. The only real challenge to KANU's dominance came from the Kenya People's Union, starting in 1966. That party was banned in 1969, and from that point onward Kenya was a de facto one-party state dominated by the Kĩkũyũ-Luo alliance. However, with an eye on the fertile lands of the Rift Valley populated by members of Moi's Kalenjin tribe, Kenyatta secured their support by first promoting Moi to Minister for Home Affairs in 1964, and then to Vice-President in 1967. As a member of a minority tribe Moi was also an acceptable compromise for the major tribes. Moi was elected to the Kenyan parliament in 1963 from Baringo North. From 1966 until his retirement in 2002 he served as the MP for Baringo Central in addition to his various other offices. However, Moi faced opposition from the Kikuyu elite known as the Kiambu Mafia, who would have preferred one of their own to accede to the presidency. This resulted in an attempt by the constitutional drafting group to change the constitution to prevent the vice-president automatically assuming power in the event of the president's death. However, many senior Kikuyu politicians, including Mwai Kibaki and Charles Njonjo, as well as Kenyatta himself, opposed such a change to the order of succession, fearing it might lead to political instability if Kenyatta died, given his advanced age and perennial illnesses. Thus, Moi's position as successor to Kenyatta was safeguarded. Presidency When Jomo Kenyatta died on 22 August 1978, Moi became acting president. Per the Constitution, a special presidential election for the balance of Kenyatta's term was to be held on 8 November, 90 days later. However, a Cabinet meeting decided that no-one else was interested in running for President and thus various politicians began campaigning across the country for Moi to be declared unopposed. He was therefore sworn in as the second President of Kenya on 14 October 1978 as a result of the walkover electoral process. In the beginning, Moi was popular, with widespread support all over the country. He toured the country and came into contact with the people everywhere, which was in great contrast to Kenyatta's imperious style of government from behind closed doors. However, political realities dictated that he would continue to be beholden to the system of government that Kenyatta had created and to whose headship he had acceded, including the nearly dictatorial powers vested in his office. Despite his popularity, Moi was still unable to fully consolidate his power. From the beginning, anti-communism was an important theme of Moi's government; speaking on the new President's behalf, Vice-President Mwai Kibaki bluntly stated, "There is no room for Communists in Kenya." On 1 August 1982, lower-level Air Force personnel, led by Senior Private Grade-I Hezekiah Ochuka and backed by university students, attempted a coup d'état to oust Moi. The revolt was quickly suppressed by military and police forces commanded by Chief of General Staff Mahamoud Mohamed. There may have been two or even three independent groups attempting to seize power at the same time, for differing reasons, but the most serious was led by prominent Kikuyu politicians and members of the police and armed forces. Moi took the opportunity to dismiss political opponents and consolidate his power. He reduced the influence of Kenyatta's men in the cabinet through a long running judicial enquiry that resulted in the identification of key Kenyatta men as traitors. Moi pardoned them but not before establishing their traitor status in the public view. The main conspirators in the coup, including Ochuka were sentenced to death, marking the last judicial executions in Kenya. He appointed supporters to key roles and changed the constitution to formally make KANU the only legally permitted party in the country. However, this made little practical difference to the political situation, as all significant opposition parties had been outlawed since 1969. Kenya's academics and other intelligentsia did not accept this and educational institutions across the country became the site of movements that sought to introduce democratic reforms. However, Kenyan secret police infiltrated these groups and many members moved into exile. Marxism could no longer be taught at Kenyan universities. The remaining opposition at home went underground. Starting in the late 1980s, Moi's regime faced the end of the Cold War, as well as a national economy stagnating under rising oil prices and falling prices for agricultural commodities. Western governments also became more hostile to the KANU regime, a change of policy from the time of the Cold War, when Kenya had been viewed as an important regional stabilizer, preventing the spread of Soviet influence beyond Ethiopia, Somalia, and Tanzania. During that time, Kenya had received much foreign aid, and the country was accepted as a stable, if authoritarian, regime with Moi and the KANU firmly in charge. Western allies overlooked the increasing degree of political repression, including the use of torture at the infamous Nyayo House torture chambers. Some of the evidence of these torture cells was eventually to be exposed in 2003 after opposition leader Mwai Kibaki became President. However, with the fall of the Soviet Union and a lessening need to counter socialist influence in the region, Western policymakers changed their policy towards Moi, increasingly regarding him as a despotic ruler rather than an important regional stabilizer. Foreign aid was withheld pending compliance with economic and political reforms. One of the key conditions imposed on his regime, especially by the United States through fiery ambassador Smith Hempstone, was the restoration of a multi-party system. Despite his own lack of enthusiasm for the reintroduction of a multi-party system, Moi managed to win over his party who were against the reform. Moi announced his intention to repeal Section 2(A) of the constitution, lifting the ban on opposition parties, at a KANU conference in Kasarani in December 1991. Despite fierce debate and opposition from many delegates, the conference eventually passed the motion unanimously. Despite the presence of opposition parties, Moi and the KANU were returned to power in the first multi-party elections in 1992 and once again in 1997. Both elections were marred by political violence on the part of both the government and opposition forces. Moi skilfully exploited Kenya's mix of ethnic tensions in these contests, gaining a plurality in both elections through a mix of picking up votes across the country while his opponents' support was more concentrated, attracting votes a wide of smaller tribes as well as the Luhya, and taking advantage of fears of Kikuyu domination over the non-Kikuyu majority. In the absence of an effective and organised opposition, Moi had no difficulty in winning. Although it is also suspected that electoral fraud may have occurred, the key to his victory in both elections was a divided opposition. In 1992 he polled 36.3% of the votes, and in 1997 he received 40.4% but both were comfortable victories due to vote-splitting between the various opposition groups, which failed to field a unity opposition candidate. Criticism and corruption allegations In 1999 the findings of NGOs like Amnesty International and a special investigation by the United Nations were published which indicated that human rights abuses were prevalent in Kenya under the Moi regime. Reporting on corruption and human rights abuses by British reporter Mary Anne Fitzgerald from 1987–88 resulted in her being vilified by the government and finally deported. Moi was implicated in the 1990s Goldenberg scandal and subsequent cover-ups, where the Kenyan government subsidised exports of gold far in excess of the foreign currency earnings of exporters. In this case, the gold was smuggled from Congo, as Kenya has negligible gold reserves. The Goldenberg scandal cost Kenya the equivalent of more than 10% of the country's annual GDP. Half-hearted inquiries that began at the request of foreign aid donors never amounted to anything substantial during Moi's presidency. Although it appears that the peaceful transfer of power to Mwai Kibaki may have involved an understanding that Moi would not stand trial for offences committed during his presidency, foreign aid donors reiterated their requests, and Kibaki reopened the inquiry. As the inquiry has progressed, Moi, his two sons, Philip and Gideon (now a Senator), and his daughter, June, as well as a host of high-ranking Kenyans, have been implicated. In testimony delivered in late July 2003, Treasury Permanent Secretary Joseph Magari recounted that, in 1991, Moi ordered him to pay Ksh34.5 million ($460,000) to Goldenberg, contrary to the laws then in force. Wangari Maathai discusses Moi's actions during the 1980s and early 1990s in systematically attempting to dismantle the Greenbelt Movement after Maathai voiced displeasure at the government's attempts to build an office tower in Uhuru Park. According to Maathai, Moi's actions included removing the Greenbelt Movement from government provided office space and attempting to cut off funding from international donors by limiting funding through government sanctioned bodies. Maathai also discusses Moi's tactics during the beginning of the multiparty movement in the 1990s (see Forum for the Restoration of Democracy) whereby Moi announced the military would take over the government before the December 1992 elections. Maathai received communication during that time that an assassination list had been drawn up, and noted the mysterious deaths of Bishop Alexander Muge and Robert Ouko. The Release Political Prisoners party was also formed in the early 1990s to secure the release of political prisoners of the Moi regime and to protest state-sanctioned torture and random imprisonment. The police dispersed the protestors and many of the mothers of these political prisoners from Freedom Corner in Uhuru Park on March 3, 1992. After a yearlong vigil and hunger strike by many of the mothers of these political prisoners in the Anglican All Saints Cathedral near Uhuru Park, the government released 51 prisoners en masse in early 1993. In October 2006, Moi was found by the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes to have taken a bribe from a Pakistani businessman, to award a monopoly of duty-free shops at the country's international airports in Mombasa and Nairobi. The businessman, Ali Nasir, claimed to have paid Moi US$2 million in cash to obtain government approval for the World Duty Free Limited investment in Kenya. On 31 August 2007, WikiLeaks published a secret report that laid bare a web of shell companies, secret trusts and frontmen that his entourage had used to funnel hundreds of millions of pounds into nearly 30 countries. Retirement Moi was constitutionally barred from running in the 2002 presidential elections. Some of his supporters floated the idea of amending the constitution to allow him to run for a third term, but Moi preferred to retire, choosing Uhuru Kenyatta, the son of Kenya's first President, as his successor. However, Mwai Kibaki was elected President by a two to one majority over Kenyatta, which was confirmed on 29 December 2002. Kibaki was then wheelchair bound, having narrowly escaped death in a road traffic accident on the campaign trail. Moi handed over power in a poorly organised ceremony that had one of the largest crowds ever seen in Nairobi in attendance. The crowd was openly hostile to Moi. After leaving office in December 2002, Moi lived in retirement, largely shunned by the political establishment. However, he still retained some popularity with the masses, and his presence never failed to gather a crowd. He spoke out against a proposal for a new constitution in 2005; according to Moi, the document was contrary to the aspirations of the Kenyan people. After the proposal was defeated in a November 2005 constitutional referendum, President Kibaki called Moi to arrange for a meeting to discuss the way forward. On 25 July 2007, Kibaki appointed Moi as special peace envoy to Sudan, referring to Moi's "vast experience and knowledge of African affairs" and "his stature as an elder statesman". In his capacity as peace envoy, Moi's primary task was to help secure peace in southern Sudan, where an agreement, signed in early 2005, was being implemented. At the time, the Kenyan press speculated that Moi and Kibaki were planning an alliance ahead of the December 2007 election. On 28 August 2007, Moi announced his support for Kibaki's re-election and said that he would campaign for Kibaki. He sharply criticised the two opposition Orange Democratic Movement factions, arguing that they were tribal in nature. Moi owned the Kiptagich Tea Factory, established in 1979, which has been involved in controversy. In 2009 the factory was under threat of being closed down by the government during the Mau Forest evictions. Personal life Moi was married to Lena Moi (née Helena Bomett) from 1950 until their separation in 1974, before his assumption of the presidency. Lena's parents, the Paul Bomett family, were pioneer Christians in Eldama Ravine. They respected Moi, the young, tall, handsome and well-mannered orphan boy. It was at the Bometts that Moi sought shelter during school holidays, unable to return home, 160 kilometres away, like the older boys. He would also stay at the home of the Christian family of Isaiah Chesire, the father of Kanu's nominated MP Zipporah Kittony, and former Eldoret North MP Reuben Chesire. In 1950, after leaving Kagumo Teacher's College, Moi, who had been dating Lena, married her in a church wedding officiated by Erik Barnett, the son of Albert Barnett (after whom Kabarnet Town is named) at the AIC mission in Eldama Ravine after he paid two heifers, one ox, and four sheep to the Bomett family. Moi's long-time friend, Francis Cherogony, was the best man. With the marriage, Lena abandoned her career as a teacher and immersed herself in bringing up her family, settling down with Moi at Tambach Government School, where his first two children, Jennifer and Jonathan Kipkemboi, were born in 1952 and 1953 respectively. Daniel arap Moi had eight children, five sons and three daughters. Among the children are Gideon Moi, who had a political career of his own in Kenya and the late Jonathan Toroitich (a former rally driver, died 2019) and Philip Moi (a retired army officer). His older and only brother William Tuitoek died in 1995. He was a lifelong member of the Africa Inland Mission Church, following his enrollment at the church's school in 1934. Moi was the founder and patron of major schools in Kenya which include Moi Educational Centre, Kabarak High School, Kabarak University and Sunshine Secondary Schools, and Sacho Primary and Secondary, among others. Death In October 2019, President Moi was hospitalized under critical condition at The Nairobi Hospital due to complications of pleural effusion. He was discharged in November 2019, only to be hospitalized again days later for knee surgery. He developed respiratory complications and underwent a tracheotomy. A month later, he suffered from gastrointestinal hemorrhage which led to multiple organ failure and was placed on life-support. Moi died at The Nairobi Hospital on the early morning of 4 February 2020, at the age of 95, in the presence of family. However, during Moi's memorial service on 9 February 2020 at his Kabarnet Gardens home in Nairobi, his son, Raymond Moi, claimed that he died aged at least 105 years old. Moi's body lay at the state on parliament building for public view for three days, from 8 February to 10 February 2020. A state funeral service was conducted at Nyayo Stadium on 11 February 2020, before the burial in his Karabak home in Nakuru county. He was buried at his Kabarak home on 12 February 2020, complete with military honors which included a 19-gun salute followed by a missing man formation flyby. His grave is next to his former wife Lena Bomett. Legacy Eponyms Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital Moi Air Base, Nairobi Moi International Airport, Mombasa Moi International Sports Centre, Kasarani, Nairobi Moi Stadium, Kisumu Moi University, Eldoret Roads and streets: Moi Avenue (Mombasa) Moi Avenue (Nairobi) See also Politics of Kenya Presidency of Daniel Moi References External links Moi Africa Institute The looting of Kenya under President Moi Presentation to the National Summit on Africa, Washington, DC (USA) – February 2000 (an AFRICAN CONNECTIONS documentary) 1924 births 2020 deaths People from Baringo County Kalenjin people Kenyan Christians Kenya African National Union politicians Kenyan anti-communists Presidents of Kenya Vice-presidents of Kenya Members of the Legislative Council of Kenya Burials in Kenya

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker%20culture

Hacker culture

The hacker culture is a subculture of individuals who enjoy the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming the limitations of software systems to achieve novel and clever outcomes. The act of engaging in activities (such as programming or other media) in a spirit of playfulness and exploration is termed hacking. However, the defining characteristic of a hacker is not the activities performed themselves (e.g. programming), but how it is done and whether it is exciting and meaningful. Activities of playful cleverness can be said to have "hack value" and therefore the term "hacks" came about, with early examples including pranks at MIT done by students to demonstrate their technical aptitude and cleverness. Therefore, the hacker culture originally emerged in academia in the 1960s around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)'s Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) and MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. Hacking originally involved entering restricted areas in a clever way without causing any major damages. Some famous hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology were placing of a campus police cruiser on the roof of the Great Dome and converting the Great Dome into R2-D2. Richard Stallman explains about hackers who program: Hackers from this subculture tend to emphatically differentiate themselves from what they pejoratively call "crackers"; those who are generally referred to by media and members of the general public using the term "hacker", and whose primary focusbe it to malign or for malevolent purposeslies in exploiting weaknesses in computer security. Definition The Jargon File, an influential but not universally accepted compendium of hacker slang, defines hacker as "A person who enjoys exploring the details of programmable systems and stretching their capabilities, as opposed to most users, who prefer to learn only the minimum necessary." The Request for Comments (RFC) 1392, the Internet Users' Glossary, amplifies this meaning as "A person who delights in having an intimate understanding of the internal workings of a system, computers and computer networks in particular." As documented in the Jargon File, these hackers are disappointed by the mass media and general public's usage of the word hacker to refer to security breakers, calling them "crackers" instead. This includes both "good" crackers ("white hat hackers") who use their computer security related skills and knowledge to learn more about how systems and networks work and to help to discover and fix security holes, as well as those more "evil" crackers ("black hat hackers") who use the same skills to author harmful software (like viruses, trojans, etc.) and illegally infiltrate secure systems with the intention of doing harm to the system. The programmer subculture of hackers, in contrast to the cracker community, generally sees computer security related activities as contrary to the ideals of the original and true meaning of the hacker term that instead related to playful cleverness. History The word "hacker" derives from the seventeenth-century word of a "lusty laborer" who harvested fields by dogged and rough swings of his hoe. Although the idea of "hacking" has existed long before the term "hacker"with the most notable example of Lightning Ellsworth, it was not a word that the first programmers used to describe themselves. In fact, many of the first programmers were from engineering or physics backgrounds. There was a growing awareness of a style of programming different from the cut and dried methods employed at first, but it was not until the 1960s that the term hackers began to be used to describe proficient computer programmers. Therefore, the fundamental characteristic that links all who identify themselves as hackers are ones who enjoy "…the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming and circumventing limitations of programming systems and who tries to extend their capabilities" (47). With this definition in mind, it can be clear where the negative implications of the word "hacker" and the subculture of "hackers" came from. Some common nicknames among this culture include "crackers" who are unskilled thieves who mainly rely on luck. Others include "phreak"which refers to a type of skilled crackers and "warez d00dz"which is a kind of cracker that acquires reproductions of copyrighted software. Furthermore, there are other hackers who are hired to test security, they are called "pentesters" or "tiger teams". Before communications between computers and computer users were as networked as they are now, there were multiple independent and parallel hacker subcultures, often unaware or only partially aware of each other's existence. All of these had certain important traits in common: Creating software and sharing it with each other Placing a high value on freedom of inquiry Hostility to secrecy Information-sharing as both an ideal and a practical strategy Upholding the right to fork Emphasis on rationality Distaste for authority Playful cleverness, taking the serious humorously and humor seriously These sorts of subcultures were commonly found at academic settings such as college campuses. The MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, the University of California, Berkeley and Carnegie Mellon University were particularly well-known hotbeds of early hacker culture. They evolved in parallel, and largely unconsciously, until the Internet, where a legendary PDP-10 machine at MIT, called AI, that was running ITS, provided an early meeting point of the hacker community. This and other developments such as the rise of the free software movement and community drew together a critically large population and encouraged the spread of a conscious, common, and systematic ethos. Symptomatic of this evolution were an increasing adoption of common slang and a shared view of history, similar to the way in which other occupational groups have professionalized themselves but without the formal credentialing process characteristic of most professional groups. Over time, the academic hacker subculture has tended to become more conscious, more cohesive, and better organized. The most important consciousness-raising moments have included the composition of the first Jargon File in 1973, the promulgation of the GNU Manifesto in 1985, and the publication of Eric Raymond's The Cathedral and the Bazaar in 1997. Correlated with this has been the gradual recognition of a set of shared culture heroes, including: Bill Joy, Donald Knuth, Dennis Ritchie, Alan Kay, Ken Thompson, Richard M. Stallman, Linus Torvalds, Larry Wall, and Guido van Rossum. The concentration of academic hacker subculture has paralleled and partly been driven by the commoditization of computer and networking technology, and has, in turn, accelerated that process. In 1975, hackerdom was scattered across several different families of operating systems and disparate networks; today it is largely a Unix and TCP/IP phenomenon, and is concentrated around various operating systems based on free software and open-source software development. Ethics and principles Many of the values and tenets of the free and open source software movement stem from the hacker ethics that originated at MIT and at the Homebrew Computer Club. The hacker ethics were chronicled by Steven Levy in Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution and in other texts in which Levy formulates and summarizes general hacker attitudes: Access to computers-and anything that might teach you something about the way the world works-should be unlimited and total. All information should be free. Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as degrees, age, race, or position. You can create art and beauty on a computer. Computers can change your life for the better. Hacker ethics are concerned primarily with sharing, openness, collaboration, and engaging in the hands-on imperative. Linus Torvalds, one of the leaders of the open source movement (known primarily for developing the Linux kernel), has noted in the book The Hacker Ethic that these principles have evolved from the known Protestant ethics and incorporates the spirits of capitalism, as introduced in the early 20th century by Max Weber. Hack value is the notion used by hackers to express that something is worth doing or is interesting. This is something that hackers often feel intuitively about a problem or solution. An aspect of hack value is performing feats for the sake of showing that they can be done, even if others think it is difficult. Using things in a unique way outside their intended purpose is often perceived as having hack value. Examples are using a dot matrix impact printer to produce musical notes, using a flatbed scanner to take ultra-high-resolution photographs or using an optical mouse as barcode reader. A solution or feat has "hack value" if it is done in a way that has finesse, cleverness or brilliance, which makes creativity an essential part of the meaning. For example, picking a difficult lock has hack value; smashing it does not. As another example, proving Fermat's Last Theorem by linking together most of modern mathematics has hack value; solving a combinatorial problem by exhaustively trying all possibilities does not. Hacking is not using process of elimination to find a solution; it's the process of finding a clever solution to a problem. Uses While using hacker to refer to someone who enjoys playful cleverness is most often applied to computer programmers, it is sometimes used for people who apply the same attitude to other fields. For example, Richard Stallman describes the silent composition 4′33″ by John Cage and the 14th-century palindromic three-part piece "Ma Fin Est Mon Commencement" by Guillaume de Machaut as hacks. According to the Jargon File, the word hacker was used in a similar sense among radio amateurs in the 1950s, predating the software hacking community. Programming The Boston Globe in 1984 defined "hackers" as "computer nuts". In their programmer subculture, a hacker is a person who follows a spirit of playful cleverness and loves programming. It is found in an originally academic movement unrelated to computer security and most visibly associated with free software, open source and demoscene. It also has a hacker ethic, based on the idea that writing software and sharing the result on a voluntary basis is a good idea, and that information should be free, but that it's not up to the hacker to make it free by breaking into private computer systems. This hacker ethic was publicized and perhaps originated in Steven Levy's Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution (1984). It contains a codification of its principles. The programmer subculture of hackers disassociates from the mass media's pejorative use of the word 'hacker' referring to computer security, and usually prefer the term 'cracker' for that meaning. Complaints about supposed mainstream misuse started as early as 1983, when media used "hacker" to refer to the computer criminals involved in The 414s case. In the programmer subculture of hackers, a computer hacker is a person who enjoys designing software and building programs with a sense for aesthetics and playful cleverness. The term hack in this sense can be traced back to "describe the elaborate college pranks that...students would regularly devise" (Levy, 1984 p. 10). To be considered a 'hack' was an honor among like-minded peers as "to qualify as a hack, the feat must be imbued with innovation, style and technical virtuosity" (Levy, 1984 p. 10) The MIT Tech Model Railroad Club Dictionary defined hack in 1959 (not yet in a computer context) as "1) an article or project without constructive end; 2) a project undertaken on bad self-advice; 3) an entropy booster; 4) to produce, or attempt to produce, a hack(3)", and "hacker" was defined as "one who hacks, or makes them". Much of TMRC's jargon was later imported into early computing culture, because the club started using a DEC PDP-1 and applied its local model railroad slang in this computing context. Initially incomprehensible to outsiders, the slang also became popular in MIT's computing environments beyond the club. Other examples of jargon imported from the club are 'losing' ("when a piece of equipment is not working") and 'munged' ("when a piece of equipment is ruined"). Others did not always view hackers with approval. MIT living groups in 1989 avoided advertising their sophisticated Project Athena workstations to prospective members because they wanted residents who were interested in people, not computers, with one fraternity member stating that "We were worried about the hacker subculture". According to Eric S. Raymond, the Open Source and Free Software hacker subculture developed in the 1960s among 'academic hackers' working on early minicomputers in computer science environments in the United States. Hackers were influenced by and absorbed many ideas of key technological developments and the people associated with them. Most notable is the technical culture of the pioneers of the ARPANET, starting in 1969. The PDP-10 AI machine at MIT, running the ITS operating system and connected to the ARPANET, provided an early hacker meeting point. After 1980 the subculture coalesced with the culture of Unix. Since the mid-1990s, it has been largely coincident with what is now called the free software and open source movement. Many programmers have been labeled "great hackers", but the specifics of who that label applies to is a matter of opinion. Certainly major contributors to computer science such as Edsger Dijkstra and Donald Knuth, as well as the inventors of popular software such as Linus Torvalds (Linux), and Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie (Unix and C programming language) are likely to be included in any such list; see also List of programmers. People primarily known for their contributions to the consciousness of the programmer subculture of hackers include Richard Stallman, the founder of the free software movement and the GNU project, president of the Free Software Foundation and author of the famous Emacs text editor as well as the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), and Eric S. Raymond, one of the founders of the Open Source Initiative and writer of the famous text The Cathedral and the Bazaar and many other essays, maintainer of the Jargon File (which was previously maintained by Guy L. Steele, Jr.). Within the computer programmer subculture of hackers, the term hacker is also used for a programmer who reaches a goal by employing a series of modifications to extend existing code or resources. In this sense, it can have a negative connotation of using inelegant kludges to accomplish programming tasks that are quick, but ugly, inelegant, difficult to extend, hard to maintain and inefficient. This derogatory form of the noun "hack" derives from the everyday English sense "to cut or shape by or as if by crude or ruthless strokes" [Merriam-Webster] and is even used among users of the positive sense of "hacker" who produces "cool" or "neat" hacks. In other words, to "hack" at an original creation, as if with an axe, is to force-fit it into being usable for a task not intended by the original creator, and a "hacker" would be someone who does this habitually. (The original creator and the hacker may be the same person.) This usage is common in both programming, engineering and building. In programming, hacking in this sense appears to be tolerated and seen as a necessary compromise in many situations. Some argue that it should not be, due to this negative meaning; others argue that some kludges can, for all their ugliness and imperfection, still have "hack value". In non-software engineering, the culture is less tolerant of unmaintainable solutions, even when intended to be temporary, and describing someone as a "hacker" might imply that they lack professionalism. In this sense, the term has no real positive connotations, except for the idea that the hacker is capable of doing modifications that allow a system to work in the short term, and so has some sort of marketable skills. However, there is always the understanding that a more skillful or technical logician could have produced successful modifications that would not be considered a "hack-job". The definition is similar to other, non-computer based uses of the term "hack-job". For instance, a professional modification of a production sports car into a racing machine would not be considered a hack-job, but a cobbled together backyard mechanic's result could be. Even though the outcome of a race of the two machines could not be assumed, a quick inspection would instantly reveal the difference in the level of professionalism of the designers. The adjective associated with hacker is "hackish" (see the Jargon file). In a very universal sense, hacker also means someone who makes things work beyond perceived limits in a clever way in general, without necessarily referring to computers, especially at MIT. That is, people who apply the creative attitude of software hackers in fields other than computing. This includes even activities that predate computer hacking, for example reality hackers or urban spelunkers (exploring undocumented or unauthorized areas in buildings). One specific example is clever pranks traditionally perpetrated by MIT students, with the perpetrator being called hacker. For example, when MIT students surreptitiously put a fake police car atop the dome on MIT's Building 10, that was a hack in this sense, and the students involved were therefore hackers. Other types of hacking are reality hackers, wetware hackers ("hack your brain"), and media hackers ("hack your reputation"). In a similar vein, a "hack" may refer to a math hack, that is, a clever solution to a mathematical problem. All of these uses have spread beyond MIT. Home computing enthusiasts In yet another context, a hacker is a computer hobbyist who pushes the limits of software or hardware. The home computer hacking subculture relates to the hobbyist home computing of the late 1970s, beginning with the availability of MITS Altair. An influential organization was the Homebrew Computer Club. However, its roots go back further to amateur radio enthusiasts. The amateur radio slang referred to creatively tinkering to improve performance as "hacking" already in the 1950s. A large overlaps between hobbyist hackers and the programmer subculture hackers existed during the Homebrew Club's days, but the interests and values of both communities somewhat diverged. Today, the hobbyists focus on commercial computer and video games, software cracking and exceptional computer programming (demo scene). Also of interest to some members of this group is the modification of computer hardware and other electronic devices, see modding. Electronics hobbyists working on machines other than computers also fall into this category. This includes people who do simple modifications to graphing calculators, video game consoles, electronic musical keyboards or other device (see CueCat for a notorious example) to expose or add functionality to a device that was unintended for use by end users by the company who created it. A number of techno musicians have modified 1980s-era Casio SK-1 sampling keyboards to create unusual sounds by doing circuit bending: connecting wires to different leads of the integrated circuit chips. The results of these DIY experiments range from opening up previously inaccessible features that were part of the chip design to producing the strange, dis-harmonic digital tones that became part of the techno music style. Companies take different attitudes towards such practices, ranging from open acceptance (such as Texas Instruments for its graphing calculators and Lego for its Lego Mindstorms robotics gear) to outright hostility (such as Microsoft's attempts to lock out Xbox hackers or the DRM routines on Blu-ray Disc players designed to sabotage compromised players.) In this context, a "hack" refers to a program that (sometimes illegally) modifies another program, often a video game, giving the user access to features otherwise inaccessible to them. As an example of this use, for Palm OS users (until the 4th iteration of this operating system), a "hack" refers to an extension of the operating system which provides additional functionality. Term also refers to those people who cheat on video games using special software. This can also refer to the jailbreaking of iPhones. Hacker artists Hacker artists create art by hacking on technology as an artistic medium. This has extended the definition of the term and what it means to be a hacker. Such artists may work with graphics, computer hardware, sculpture, music and other audio, animation, video, software, simulations, mathematics, reactive sensory systems, text, poetry, literature, or any combination thereof. Dartmouth College musician Larry Polansky states: Another description is offered by Jenny Marketou: A successful software and hardware hacker artist is Mark Lottor (mkl), who has created the 3-D light art projects entitled the Cubatron, and the Big Round Cubatron. This art is made using custom computer technology, with specially designed circuit boards and programming for microprocessor chips to manipulate the LED lights. Don Hopkins is a software hacker artist well known for his artistic cellular automata. This art, created by a cellular automata computer program, generates objects which randomly bump into each other and in turn create more objects and designs, similar to a lava lamp, except that the parts change color and form through interaction. Hopkins Says: Some hacker artists create art by writing computer code, and others, by developing hardware. Some create with existing software tools such as Adobe Photoshop or GIMP. The creative process of hacker artists can be more abstract than artists using non-technological media. For example, mathematicians have produced visually stunning graphic presentations of fractals, which hackers have further enhanced, often producing detailed and intricate graphics and animations from simple mathematical formulas. Art Burning Man Festival Computer art Computer music Digital art Demoscene Electronic art Electronic art music Electronica Experiments in Art and Technology Generative art Internet art Maker movement Media art Robotic art Software art Hacker art mentions "Vector in Open Space" by Gerfried Stocker 1996. Switch|Journal Jun 14 1998. Eye Weekly "Tag – who's it?" by Ingrid Hein, July 16, 1998. Linux Today "Playing the Open Source Game" by , Jul 5, 1999. Canterbury Christ Church University Library Resources by Subject – Art & Design, 2001. SuperCollider Workshop / Seminar Joel Ryan describes collaboration with hacker artists of Silicon Valley. 21 March 2002 Anthony Barker's Weblog on Linux, Technology and the Economy "Why Geeks Love Linux", Sept 2003. Live Art Research Gesture and Response in Field-Based Performance by Sha Xin Wei & Satinder Gill, 2005. Hackers, Who Are They "The Hackers Identity", October 2014. See also Cowboy coding: software development without the use of strict software development methodologies Demoscene History of free software Maker culture Unix philosophy References Further reading The Jargon File has had a role in acculturating hackers since its origins in 1975. These academic and literary works helped shape the academic hacker subculture: Olson, Parmy. (05-14-2013). We Are Anonymous: Inside the Hacker World of LulzSec, Anonymous, and the Global Cyber Insurgency. . Coleman, Gabriella. (Nov 4, 2014). Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous. Verso Books. . Shantz, Jeff; Tomblin, Jordon (2014-11-28). Cyber Disobedience: Re://Presenting Online Anarchy. John Hunt Publishing. . External links A Brief History of Hackerdom Hack, Hackers, and Hacking (see Appendix A) Gabriella Coleman: The Anthropology of Hackers The Atlantic, 2010. Gabriella Coleman: Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous at Open Library Subcultures Computing and society Do it yourself Hobbies Culture

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral%20panic

Moral panic

A moral panic is a widespread feeling of fear, often an irrational one, that some evil person or thing threatens the values, interests, or well-being of a community or society. It is "the process of arousing social concern over an issue," usually perpetuated by moral entrepreneurs and the mass media, and exacerbated by politicians and lawmakers. Stanley Cohen, who developed the term, states that moral panic happens when "a condition, episode, person or group of persons emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values and interests." While the issues identified may be real, the claims "exaggerate the seriousness, extent, typicality and/or inevitability of harm." The concept of moral panic can now be found in several disciplines, including sociology and criminology, media studies, and cultural studies. Examples of moral panic include the belief in widespread abduction of children by predatory pedophiles; belief in ritual abuse of women and children by Satanic cults; and concerns over the effects of music lyrics. Some moral panics can become embedded in standard political discourse, which include concepts such as "Red Scare" and terrorism. It differs from mass hysteria, which is closer to a psychological illness rather than a sociological phenomenon. History and development Though the term moral panic was used in 1830 by a religious magazine regarding a sermon, it was used in a way that completely differs from its modern social science application. The phrase was used again in 1831, with an intent that is possibly closer to its modern use. Though not using the term moral panic, Marshall McLuhan, in his 1964 book Understanding Media, articulated the concept academically in describing the effects of media. As a social theory or sociological concept, the concept was first developed in the United Kingdom by Stanley Cohen, who introduced the phrase moral panic in a 1967–69 PhD thesis that became the basis for his 1972 book Folk Devils and Moral Panics. In the book, Cohen describes the reaction among the British public to the rivalry between the "mod" and "rocker" youth subcultures of the 1960s and 1970s. Cohen's initial development of the concept was for the purpose of analyzing the definition of and social reaction to these subcultures as a social problem. According to Cohen, a moral panic occurs when a "condition, episode, person or group of persons emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values and interests." To Cohen, those who start the panic after fearing a threat to prevailing social or cultural values are 'moral entrepreneurs', while those who supposedly threaten social order have been described as 'folk devils'. In the early 1990s, Erich Goode and Nachman Ben-Yehuda produced an "attributional" model that placed more emphasis on strict definition than cultural processes. Differences in British and American definitions Many sociologists have pointed out the differences between definitions of a moral panic as described by American versus British sociologists. Kenneth Thompson claimed that American sociologists tended to emphasize psychological factors, while the British portrayed "moral panics" as crises of capitalism. British criminologist Jock Young used the term in his participant observation study of drug consumption in Porthmadog, Wales, between 1967 and 1969. In Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the State and Law and Order (1978), Marxist Stuart Hall and his colleagues studied the public reaction to the phenomenon of mugging and the perception that it had recently been imported from American culture into the UK. Employing Cohen's definition of moral panic, Hall and colleagues theorized that the "rising crime rate equation" performs an ideological function relating to social control. Crime statistics, in Hall's view, are often manipulated for political and economic purposes; moral panics could thereby be ignited to create public support for the need to "police the crisis." Cohen's model of moral panic First to name the phenomenon, Stanley Cohen investigated a series of "moral panics" in his 1972 book Folk Devils and Moral Panics. In the book, Cohen describes the reaction among the British public to the seaside rivalry between the "mod" and "rocker" youth subcultures of the 1960s and 1970s. In a moral panic, Cohen says, "the untypical is made typical." Cohen's initial development of the concept was for the purpose of analyzing the definition of and social reaction to these subcultures as a social problem. He was interested in demonstrating how agents of social control amplified deviance, in that they potentially damaged the identities of those labeled as "deviant" and invited them to embrace deviant identities and behavior. According to Cohen, these groups were labelled as being outside the central core values of consensual society and as posing a threat to both the values of society and society itself, hence the term "folk devils." Setting out to test his hypotheses on mods and rockers, Cohen ended up in a rather different place: he discovered a pattern of construction and reaction with greater foothold than mods and rockersthe moral panic. He thereby identified five sequential stages of moral panic. Characterizing the reactions to the mod and rocker conflict, he identified four key agents in moral panics: mass media, moral entrepreneurs, the culture of social control, and the public. In a more recent edition of Folk Devils and Moral Panics, Cohen suggested that the term "panic" in itself connotes irrationality and a lack of control. Cohen maintained that "panic" is a suitable term when used as an extended metaphor. Cohen's stages of moral panic Setting out to test his hypotheses on mods and rockers, Cohen discovered a pattern of construction and reaction with greater foothold than mods and rockersthe moral panic. According to Cohen, there are five sequential stages in the construction of a moral panic: An event, condition, episode, person, or group of persons is perceived and defined as a threat to societal values, safety, and interests. The nature of these apparent threats are amplified by the mass media, who present the supposed threat through simplistic, symbolic rhetoric. Such portrayals appeal to public prejudices, creating an evil in need of social control (folk devils) and victims (the moral majority). A sense of social anxiety and concern among the public is aroused through these symbolic representations of the threat. The gatekeepers of moralityeditors, religious leaders, politicians, and other 'moral'-thinking peoplerespond to the threat, with socially-accredited experts pronouncing their diagnoses and solutions to the 'threat'. This includes new laws or policies. The condition then disappears, submerges or deteriorates and becomes more visible. Cohen observed further:Sometimes the object of the panic is quite novel and at other times it is something which has been in existence long enough, but suddenly appears in the limelight. Sometimes the panic passes over and is forgotten, except in folk-lore and collective memory; at other times it has more serious and long-lasting repercussions and might produce such changes as those in legal and social policy or even in the way the society conceives itself. Agents of moral panic Characterizing the reactions to the mod and rocker conflict, Cohen identified four key agents in moral panics: mass media, moral entrepreneurs, the culture of social control, and the public. Media – especially key in the early stage of social reaction, producing "processed or coded images” of deviance and the deviants. This involves three processes: exaggeration and distortion of who did or said what; prediction, the dire consequences of failure to act; symbolization, signifying a person, word, or thing as a threat. Moral entrepreneurs – individuals and groups who target deviant behavior Societal control culture – comprises those with institutional power: the police, the courts, and local and national politicians. They are made aware of the nature and extent of the 'threat'; concern is passed up the chain of command to the national level, where control measures are instituted. The public – these include individuals and groups. They have to decide who and what to believe: in the mod and rocker case, the public initially distrusted media messages, but ultimately believed them. Mass media The concept of "moral panic" has also been linked to certain assumptions about the mass media. In recent times, the mass media have become important players in the dissemination of moral indignation, even when they do not appear to be consciously engaged in sensationalism or in muckraking. Simply reporting a subset of factual statements without contextual nuance can be enough to generate concern, anxiety, or panic. Cohen stated that the mass media is the primary source of the public's knowledge about deviance and social problems. He further argued that moral panic gives rise to the folk devil by labelling actions and people. Christian Joppke, furthers the importance of media as he notes, shifts in public attention "can trigger the decline of movements and fuel the rise of others." According to Cohen, the media appear in any or all three roles in moral panic dramas: Setting the agendaselecting deviant or socially problematic events deemed as newsworthy, then using finer filters to select which events are candidates for moral panic. Transmitting the imagestransmitting the claims by using the rhetoric of moral panics. Breaking the silence and making the claim. Goode and Ben-Yehuda’s attributional model In their 1994 book Moral Panics: The Social Construction of Deviance, Erich Goode and Nachman Ben-Yehuda take a social constructionist approach to moral panics, challenging the assumption that sociology is able to define, measure, explain, and ameliorate social problems. Reviewing empirical studies in the social constructionist perspective, Goode and Ben-Yehuda produced an "attributional" model that identifies essential characteristics and placed more emphasis on strict definition than cultural processes. They arrived at five defining "elements," or "criteria," of a moral panic: Concern – there is "heightened level of concern over the behaviour of a certain group or category" and its consequences; in other words, there is the belief that the behavior of the group or activity deemed deviant is likely to have a negative effect on society. Concern can be indicated via opinion polls, media coverage, and lobbying activity. Hostility – there is "an increased level of hostility" toward the deviants, who are "collectively designated as the enemy, or an enemy, of respectable society." These deviants are constructed as "folk devils," and a clear division forms between "them" and "us". Consensus – "there must be at least a certain minimal measure of consensus" across society as a whole, or at least "designated segments" of it, that "the threat is real, serious and caused by the wrongdoing group members and their behaviour." This is to say, though concern does not have to be nationwide, there must be widespread acceptance that the group in question poses a very real threat to society. It is important at this stage that the "moral entrepreneurs" are vocal and the "folk devils" appear weak and disorganized. Disproportionality – "public concern is in excess of what is appropriate if concern were directly proportional to objective harm." More simply, the action taken is disproportionate to the actual threat posed by the accused group. According to Goode and Ben-Yehuda, "the concept of moral panic rests on disproportion." As such, statistics are exaggerated or fabricated, and the existence of other equally or more harmful activity is denied. Volatility – moral panics are highly volatile and tend to disappear as quickly as they appeared because public interest wanes or news reports change to another narrative. Goode and Ben-Yehuda also examined three competing explanations of moral panics: the grass-roots model – the source of panic is identified as widespread anxieties about real or imagined threats. the elite-engineered model – an elite group induces, or engineers, a panic over an issue that they know to be exaggerated in order to move attention away from their own lack of solving social problems. the interest group theory – "the middle rungs of power and status" are where moral issues are most significantly felt. Similarly, writing about the Blue Whale Challenge and the Momo Challenge as examples of moral panics, Benjamin Radford listed themes that he commonly observed in modern versions of these phenomena: Hidden dangers of modern technology. Evil stranger manipulating the innocent. A "hidden world" of anonymous evil people. Topic clusters In over 40 years of extensive study, researchers have identified several general clusters of topics that help describe the way in which moral panics operate and the impact they have. Some of the more common clusters identified are: child abuse, drugs and alcohol, immigration, media technologies, and street crime. Child abuse Exceptional cases of physical or sexual abuse against children have driven policies based on child protection, regardless of their frequency or contradicting evidence from experts. While discoveries about pedophilia in the priesthood and among celebrities has somewhat altered the original notion of pedophiles being complete strangers, their presence in and around the family is hardly acknowledged. Drugs and alcohol Substances used for pleasure like drugs and alcohol are popularly subject to legal action and criminalization due to their alleged harms to the health of those who partake in them or general order on the streets. The most recent examples include methamphetamine, mephedrone, and designer drugs. Immigration A series of moral panic is likely to recur whenever humans migrate to a foreign location to live alongside the native or indigenous population, particularly if the newcomers are of a different skin color. These immigrants may be accused of: bringing alien cultures and refusing to integrate with the mainstream culture; putting strain on welfare, education, and housing systems; and excessive involvement in crime. Media technologies The advent of any new medium of communication produces anxieties among those who deem themselves as protectors of childhood and culture. Their fears are often based on a lack of knowledge as to the actual capacities or usage of the medium. Moralizing organizations, such as those motivated by religion, commonly advocate censorship, while parents remain concerned. According to media studies professor Kirsten Drotner:[E]very time a new mass medium has entered the social scene, it has spurred public debates on social and cultural norms, debates that serve to reflect, negotiate and possibly revise these very norms.… In some cases, debate of a new medium brings about – indeed changes into – heated, emotional reactions … what may be defined as a media panic.Recent manifestations of this kind of development include cyberbullying and sexting. Street crime A central concern of modern mass media has been interpersonal crime. When new types or patterns of crime emerge, coverage expands considerably, especially when said crime involves increased violence or the use of weapons. Sustaining the idea that crime is out of control, this keeps prevalent the fear of being randomly attacked on the street by violent young men. Real-world examples Historic examples Nativist movement and the Know-Nothing Party (1840s–60s) The brief success of the Know-Nothing Party in the 1850s can be understood as resulting from a moral panic over Irish Catholic immigration dating back to the 1840s, particularly as it related to religion, politics, and jobs. Nativist criticism of immigrants from Catholic nations centered upon the control of the Pope over church members. The widespread concern regarding the perceived social threat is exhibited by the showing of the Know-Nothing Party in the Presidential Election of 1856, where they won 21.5% of the total vote share. It is important to note the quick decline in political success for the Know Nothing-Party as a result of a decline in concern for the perceived social threat, an indicative feature of the movements situated in Moral Panic. Red Scare (1919–1920, late 1940s–50s) During the years 1919 to 1920, followed by the late 1940s to the 1950s, the United States had a moral panic over communism and feared being attacked by the Soviet Union. In the late 1940s and the 1950s, a period now known as the McCarthy Era, Senator Joseph McCarthy used his power as a senator to conduct a witch hunt for communists he claimed had infiltrated all levels of American society, including Hollywood, the State Department, and the armed forces. When he began, he held little influence or respect within the Senate, but he exploited Americans' fears of communism (and Congress' desire to not lose re-election) to rise to prominence and keep the hunt going in spite of an increasingly apparent lack of evidence, often accusing those who dared oppose him of being communists themselves. "The Devil's music" (1920s–80s) Over the years, there has been concern of various types of new music causing spiritual or otherwise moral corruption to younger generations, often called "the devil's music." While the types of music popularly labeled as such has changed with time, along with the intended meaning of the term, this basic factor of the moral panic has remained constant. It could thus be argued that this is really a series of smaller moral panics that fall under a larger umbrella. While most notable in the United States, other countries such as Romania have seen exposure to or promotion of the idea as well. Blues was one of the first music genres to receive this label, mainly due to a perception that it incited violence and other poor behavior. In the early 20th century, the blues was considered disreputable, especially as white audiences began listening to the blues during the 1920s. Jazz was another early receiver of the label. At the time, traditionalists considered jazz to contribute to the breakdown of morality. Despite the veiled attacks on blues and jazz as "negro music" often going hand-in-hand with other attacks on the genres, urban middle-class African Americans perceived jazz as "devil's music", and agreed with the beliefs that jazz's improvised rhythms and sounds were promoting promiscuity. Some have speculated that the rock phase of the panic in the 1970s and 1980s contributed to the popularity of the satanic ritual abuse moral panic in the 1980s. Switchblades (1950s) In the United States, a 1950 article titled "The Toy That Kills" in the Women's Home Companion, about automatic knives, or "switchblades", sparked significant controversy. It was further fuelled by highly popular films of the late 1950s, including Rebel Without a Cause (1955), Crime in the Streets (1956), 12 Angry Men (1957), The Delinquents, High School Confidential (1958), and the 1957 Broadway musical, West Side Story. Fixation on the switchblade as the symbol of youth violence, sex, and delinquency resulted in demands from the public and Congress to control the sale and possession of such knives. State laws restricting or criminalizing switchblade possession and use were adopted by an increasing number of state legislatures, and many of the restrictive laws around them worldwide date back to this period. Mods and rockers (1960s) In early 1960s Britain, the two main youth subcultures were Mods and Rockers. The "Mods and Rockers" conflict was explored as an instance of moral panic by sociologist Stanley Cohen in his seminal study Folk Devils and Moral Panics, which examined media coverage of the Mod and Rocker riots in the 1960s. Although Cohen acknowledged that Mods and Rockers engaged in street fighting in the mid-1960s, he argued that they were no different from the evening brawls that occurred between non-Mod and non-Rocker youths throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, both at seaside resorts and after football games. Dungeons & Dragons (1980s–90s) At various times, Dungeons & Dragons and other tabletop role-playing games have been accused of promoting such practices as Satanism, witchcraft, suicide, pornography and murder. In the 1980s and later, some groups, especially fundamentalist Christian groups, accused the games of encouraging interest in sorcery and the veneration of demons. Satanic panic (1980s–90s) The "satanic panic" was a series of moral panics regarding satanic ritual abuse that originated in the United States and spread to other English-speaking countries in the 1980s and 1990s, which led to a string of wrongful convictions. HIV/AIDS (1980s–90s) Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) may lead to or exacerbate other health conditions such as pneumonia, fungal infections, tuberculosis, toxoplasmosis, and cytomegalovirus. A meeting of the British Sociological Association's South West and Wales Study entitled "AIDS: The Latest Moral Panic" was prompted by the growing interest of medical sociologists in AIDS, as well as that of UK health care professionals working in the field of health education. It took place at a time when both groups were beginning to voice an increased concern with the growing media attention and fear-mongering that AIDS was attracting. In the 1980s, a moral panic was created within the media over HIV/AIDS. For example, in Britain, a prominent advertisement by the government suggested that the public was uninformed about HIV/AIDS due to a lack of publicly accessible and accurate information. The media outlets nicknamed HIV/AIDS the "gay plague", which further stigmatized the disease. However, scientists gained a far better understanding of HIV/AIDS as it grew in the 1980s and moved into the 1990s and beyond. The illness was still negatively viewed by many as either being caused by or passed on through the gay community. Once it became clear that this was not the case, the moral panic created by the media changed to blaming the overall negligence of ethical standards by the younger generation (both male and female), resulting in another moral panic. Authors behind AIDS: Rights, Risk, and Reason argued that "British TV and press coverage is locked into an agenda which blocks out any approach to the subject which does not conform in advance to the values and language of a profoundly homophobic culture—a culture that does not regard gay men as fully or properly human. No distinction obtains for the agenda between 'quality' and 'tabloid' newspapers, or between 'popular' and 'serious' television." Similarly, reports of a group of AIDS cases amongst gay men in Southern California which suggested that a sexually transmitted infectious agent might be the etiological agent led to several terms relating to homosexuality being coined for the disease, including "gay plague". Dangerous Dogs (late 1980s–early 1990s) After a series of high-profile dog attacks on children in the United Kingdom, the British press began to engage in a campaign against so-called dangerous dog breeds, especially Pit Bull Terriers and Rottweilers, which bore all the hallmarks of a moral panic. This media pressure led the government to hastily introduce the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991 which has been criticised as "among the worst pieces of legislation ever seen, a poorly thought-out knee-jerk reaction to tabloid headlines that was rushed through Parliament without proper scrutiny." The act specifically focused on Pit Bulls, which were associated with the lower social strata of British society, rather than the Rottweilers and Dobermann-pinschers generally owned by richer social groups. Critics have identified the presence of social class as a factor in the dangerous dogs moral panic, with establishment anxieties about the "sub-proletarian" sector of British society displaced onto the folk devil of the "Dangerous dog". Ongoing historic examples Increase in crime (1970s–present) Research shows that fear of increasing crime rates is often the cause of moral panics. Recent studies have shown that despite declining crime rates, this phenomenon, which often taps into a population's "herd mentality", continues to occur in various cultures. Japanese jurist Koichi Hamai explains how the changes in crime recording in Japan since the 1990s caused people to believe that the crime rate was rising and that crimes were getting increasingly severe. Violence and video games (1970s–present) There have been calls to regulate violence in video games for nearly as long as the video game industry has existed, with Death Race being a notable early example. In the 1990s, improvements in video game technology allowed for more lifelike depictions of violence in games such as Mortal Kombat and Doom. The industry attracted controversy over violent content and concerns about effects they might have on players, generating frequent media stories that attempted to associate video games with violent behavior, in addition to a number of academic studies that reported conflicting findings about the strength of correlations. According to Christopher Ferguson, sensationalist media reports and the scientific community unintentionally worked together in "promoting an unreasonable fear of violent video games". Concerns from parts of the public about violent games led to cautionary, often exaggerated news stories, warnings from politicians and other public figures, and calls for research to prove the connection, which in turn led to studies "speaking beyond the available data and allowing the promulgation of extreme claims without the usual scientific caution and skepticism." Since the 1990s, there have been attempts to regulate violent video games in the United States through congressional bills as well as within the industry. Public concern and media coverage of violent video games reached a high point following the Columbine High School massacre in 1999, after which videos were found of the perpetrators, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, talking about violent games like Doom and making comparisons between the acts they intended to carry out and aspects of games. Ferguson and others have explained the video game moral panic as part of a cycle that all new media go through. In 2011, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association that legally restricting sales of video games to minors would be unconstitutional and deemed the research presented in favour of regulation, as "unpersuasive". War on drugs (1970s–present) Some critics have pointed to moral panic as an explanation for the War on Drugs. For example, a Royal Society of Arts commission concluded that "the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 ... is driven more by 'moral panic' than by a practical desire to reduce harm." Some have written that one of the many rungs supporting the moral panic behind the War on Drugs was a separate but related moral panic, which peaked in the late 1990s, involving media's gross exaggeration of the frequency of the surreptitious use of date rape drugs. News media have been criticized for advocating "grossly excessive protective measures for women, particularly in coverage between 1996 and 1998," for overstating the threat and for excessively dwelling on the topic. For example, a 2009 Australian study found that drug panel tests were unable to detect any drug in any of the 97 instances of patients admitted to the hospital believing their drinks might have been spiked. Sex offenders, child sexual abuse, and pedophilia (1970s–present) The media narrative of a sex offender, highlighting egregious offenses as typical behaviour of any sex offender, and media distorting the facts of some cases, has led legislators to attack judicial discretion, making sex offender registration mandatory based on certain listed offenses rather than individual risk or the actual severity of the crime, thus practically catching less serious offenders under the domain of harsh sex offender laws. In the 1990s and 2000s, there have been instances of moral panics in the United Kingdom and the United States, related to colloquial uses of the term pedophilia to refer to such unusual crimes as high-profile cases of child abduction. The moral panic over pedophilia began in the 1970s after the sexual revolution. While homosexuality was becoming more socially accepted after the sexual revolution, pro-contact pedophiles believed that the sexual revolution never helped pro-contact pedophiles. In the 1970s, pro-contact pedophile activist organizations such as Paedophile Information Exchange (PIE) and North American Man/Boy Love Association (NAMBLA) were formed in October 1974 and December 1978, respectively. Despite receiving some support, PIE received much backlash when they advocated for abolishing or lowering age of consent laws. As a result, people protested against PIE. Until the first half of the 1970s, sex was not yet part of the concept of domestic child abuse, which used to be limited to physical abuse and neglect. The sexual part of child abuse became prominent in the United States due to the encounter of two political agendas: the fight against battered child syndrome by pediatricians during the 1960s and the feminist anti-rape movement, in particular the denunciation of domestic sexual violence. These two movements overlapped in 1975, creating a new political agenda about child sexual abuse. Laura Lowenkron wrote: "The strong political and emotional appeal of the theme of 'child sexual abuse' strengthened the feminist criticism of the patriarchal family structure, according to which domestic violence is linked to the unequal power between men and women and between adults and children." Although the concern over child sexual abuse was caused by feminists, the concern over child sexual abuse also attracted traditional groups and conservative groups. Lowenkron added: "Concerned about the increasing expansion and acceptance of so-called 'sexual deviations' during what was called the libertarian age from the 1960s to the early 1970s," conservative groups and traditional groups "saw in the fight against 'child sexual abuse' the chance" to "revive fears about crime and sexual dangers." In the 1980s, the media began to report more frequently on cases of children being raped, kidnapped, or murdered, leading to the moral panic over sex offenders and pedophiles becoming very intense in the early 1980s. In 1981, for instance, a 6-year-old boy named Adam Walsh was abducted, murdered, and beheaded. Investigators believe the murderer was serial killer Ottis Toole. The murder of Adam Walsh took over nationwide news and led to a moral panic over child abduction, followed by the creation of new laws for missing children. According to criminologist Richard Moran, the Walsh case "created a nation of petrified kids and paranoid parents.... Kids used to be able to go out and organize a stickball game, and now all playdates and the social lives of children are arranged and controlled by the parents." Also during the 1980s, inaccurate and heavily flawed data about sex offenders and their recidivism rates was published. This data led to the public believing sex offenders to have a particularly high recidivism rate; this in turn led to the creation of sex offender registries. Later information revealed that sex offenders, including child sex offenders, have a low recidivism rate. Other highly publicized cases, similar to the murder of Adam Walsh, that contributed to the creation of sex offender registries and sex offender laws include the abduction and murder of 11-year-old boy Jacob Wetterling in 1989; the rape and murder of 7-year-old girl Megan Kanka in 1994; and the rape and murder of 9-year-old girl Jessica Lunsford in 2005. Another contributing factor in the moral panic over pedophiles and sex offenders was the day-care sex-abuse hysteria in the 1980s and early 1990s, including the McMartin preschool trial. This led to a panic where parents became hypervigilant with concerns of predatory child sex offenders seeking to abduct children in public spaces, such as playgrounds. Society's opinion on sex offenders is generally extremely negative, with sex offenders being one of the most hated types of people in society. According to Daniel J. Wood: "Many studies have been conducted to evaluate the public's attitude toward sex offenders and most, to put it bluntly, would like to torture them before they are sentenced to death." Similarly, pedophiles and child molesters are also some of the most hated types of people in society. Pedophilia in particular is extremely despised, which some have referred to as a social stigma. One study reported high levels of anger, fear and social rejection towards pedophiles who have not committed a crime. Moreover, some surveys have ranked child sexual abuse as morally worse than murder. Bestiality (1990-present) There was a moral panic in reaction to a series of horse maimings in southern England during the 1990s, extensively reported in the tabloid and broadsheet press. In the United States, the Enumclaw horse sex case triggered an anti-bestiality frenzy, leading to intense demand for bestiality law in the state of Washington, with stories published on the internet drumming up a moral panic in a wider audience. Contemporary examples Gender and transgender panics (1974–present) Scholars have described aspects of public discourse on gender, homosexuality, and transgender children as being part of a moral panic. The transgender military ban in the United States enacted by president Donald Trump has been described as an effort to advance this moral panic. The anti-gender movement in Latin America and Poland has similarly been described as a moral panic. Human trafficking (2000–present) Many critics of contemporary anti-prostitution activism argue that much of the current concern about human trafficking and its more general conflation with prostitution and other forms of sex work have hallmarks of moral panic. They further argue that this moral panic shares much in common with the 'white slavery' panic of a century earlier, which prompted passage of the 1910 Mann Act. Nick Davies argues that the following major factors contributed towards this effect. Since the collapse of Communism, Europe was flooded with sex workers from Eastern Europe, and the term "sex trafficking" came to mean any organized movement of sex workers, losing the connotation of force and coercion. This change of the definition entered, e.g., into the UK's Sexual Offences Act 2003. Second, academic researchers on sex trade provided a range of estimates of the trafficked persons, including estimates based on various assumptions, up to the very pessimistic ones. The media picked the most alarmist numbers, which were uncritically used by politicians, who in their turn were quoted for further misleading information. Terrorism and Islamic extremism (2001–present) After the September 11 attacks in 2001, some scholars identified a rising fear of Muslims in the western world, which they described as a moral panic. This exaggeration of the threat posed by Islam served a political purpose, contributing to the concept of a global war on terror, including the war in Afghanistan and a war in Iraq. Following the September 11 attacks, there was a dramatic increase in hate crimes against Muslims and Arabs in the United States, with rates peaking in 2001 and later surpassed in 2016. QAnon (2020s) QAnon, a late-2010s to early 2020s far-right conspiracy theory that began on 4chan and which alleged that a secret cabal of Satan-worshipping, cannibalistic pedophiles is running a global child sex-trafficking ring, has been described as a moral panic and compared to the 1980s panic over satanic ritual abuse. Criticism Paul Joosse has argued that while classic moral panic theory styled itself as being part of the "sceptical revolution" that sought to critique structural functionalism, it is actually very similar to Émile Durkheim's depiction of how the collective conscience is strengthened through its reactions to deviance (in Cohen's case, for example, 'right-thinkers' use folk devils to strengthen societal orthodoxies). In his analysis of Donald Trump's victory in the 2016 United States presidential election, Joosse reimagined moral panic in Weberian terms, showing how charismatic moral entrepreneurs can at once deride folk devils in the traditional sense while avoiding the conservative moral recapitulation that classic moral panic theory predicts. Another criticism is that of disproportionality: there is no way to measure what a proportionate reaction should be to a specific action. Writing in 1995 about the moral panic that arose in the UK after a series of murders by juveniles, chiefly that of two-year-old James Bulger by two 10-year-old boys but also including that of 70-year-old Edna Phillips by two 17-year-old girls, the sociologist Colin Hay pointed out that the folk devil was ambiguous in such cases; the child perpetrators would normally be thought of as innocent. In 1995, Angela McRobbie and Sarah Thornton argued "that it is now time that every stage in the process of constructing a moral panic, as well as the social relations which support it, should be revised." Their argument is that mass media has changed since the concept of moral panic emerged so "that 'folk devils' are less marginalized than they once were," and that 'folk devils' are not only castigated by mass media but supported and defended by it as well. They also suggest that the "points of social control" that moral panics used to rest on "have undergone some degree of shift, if not transformation." British criminologist Yvonne Jewkes (2004) has also raised issue with the term 'morality', how it is accepted unproblematically in the concept of 'moral panic' and how most research into moral panics fails to approach the term critically but instead accepts it at face value. Jewkes goes on to argue that the thesis and the way it has been used fails to distinguish between crimes that quite rightly offend human morality, and thus elicit a justifiable reaction, and those that demonise minorities. The public are not sufficiently gullible to keep accepting the latter and consequently allow themselves to be manipulated by the media and the government. Another British criminologist, Steve Hall (2012), goes a step further to suggest that the term 'moral panic' is a fundamental category error. Hall argues that although some crimes are sensationalized by the media, in the general structure of the crime/control narrative the ability of the existing state and criminal justice system to protect the public is also overstated. Public concern is whipped up only for the purpose of being soothed, which produces not panic but the opposite, comfort and complacency. Echoing another point Hall makes, sociologists Thompson and Williams (2013) argue that the concept of 'moral panic' is not a rational response to the phenomenon of social reaction, but itself a product of the irrational middle-class fear of the imagined working-class 'mob'. Using as an example a peaceful and lawful protest staged by local mothers against the re-housing of sex-offenders on their estate, Thompson and Williams show how the sensationalist demonization of the protesters by moral panic theorists and the liberal press was just as irrational as the demonization of the sex offenders by the protesters and the tabloid press. Many sociologists and criminologists (Ungar, Hier, Rohloff) have revised Cohen's original framework. The revisions are compatible with the way in which Cohen theorizes panics in the third Introduction to Folk Devils and Moral Panics. See also Antisemitic canard Blood libel Deviance (sociology) Fear mongering Labeling theory LGBT ideology-free zone List of common misconceptions Major Boobage, a fictional depiction of one Mass hysteria List of mass hysteria cases Moral entrepreneur Persecutory delusion Recovered-memory therapy Satanic ritual abuse Social mania Social panic Social stigma Think of the children Witch-hunt Witch trials in the early modern period References Further reading Author affiliation: Planned Parenthood Federation of America (PPFA) Monod, Sarah Wright ed. Making Sense of Moral Panics: A Framework for Research (Palgrave Studies in Risk, Crime and Society, 2017) External links Barriers to critical thinking Crowd psychology Deviance (sociology) Mass hysteria Moral psychology Panic Social phenomena

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laissez-faire

Laissez-faire

Laissez-faire ( ; from , ) is an economic system in which transactions between private groups of people are free or almost free from any form of economic interventionism (such as regulation and subsidies) other than the enforcement of property laws. As a system of thought, laissez-faire rests on the following axioms: "the individual is the basic unit in society, i.e. the standard of measurement in social calculus; the individual has a natural right to freedom; and the physical order of nature is a harmonious and self-regulating system." Another basic principle of laissez-faire holds that markets should naturally be competitive, a rule that the early advocates of laissez-faire always emphasized. With the aims of maximizing freedom by allowing markets to self-regulate, early advocates of laissez-faire proposed a impôt unique, a tax on land rent (similar to Georgism) to replace all taxes that they saw as damaging welfare by penalizing production. Proponents of laissez-faire argue for a near complete separation of government from the economic sector. The phrase laissez-faire is part of a larger French phrase and literally translates to "let [it/them] do", but in this context the phrase usually means to "let it be" and in expression "laid back." Although never practiced with full consistency, laissez-faire capitalism emerged in the mid-18th century and was further popularized by Adam Smith's book The Wealth of Nations. While associated with capitalism in common usage, there are also non-capitalist forms of laissez-faire, including some forms of market socialism. Etymology and usage The term laissez-faire likely originated in a meeting that took place around 1681 between powerful French Controller-General of Finances Jean-Baptiste Colbert and a group of French businessmen headed by M. Le Gendre. When the eager mercantilist minister asked how the French state could be of service to the merchants and help promote their commerce, Le Gendre replied simply: "Laissez-nous faire" ("Leave it to us" or "Let us do [it]", the French verb not requiring an object). The anecdote on the Colbert–Le Gendre meeting appeared in a 1751 article in the Journal économique, written by French minister and champion of free trade René de Voyer, Marquis d'Argenson—also the first known appearance of the term in print. Argenson himself had used the phrase earlier (1736) in his own diaries in a famous outburst: Vincent de Gournay, a French Physiocrat and intendant of commerce in the 1750s, popularized the term laissez-faire as he allegedly adopted it from François Quesnay's writings on China. Quesnay coined the phrases laissez-faire and laissez-passer, laissez-faire being a translation of the Chinese term wu wei (無為). Gournay ardently supported the removal of restrictions on trade and the deregulation of industry in France. Delighted with the Colbert–Le Gendre anecdote, he forged it into a larger maxim all his own: "Laissez faire et laissez passer" ("Let do and let pass"). His motto has also been identified as the longer "Laissez faire et laissez passer, le monde va de lui même !" ("Let do and let pass, the world goes on by itself!"). Although Gournay left no written tracts on his economic policy ideas, he had immense personal influence on his contemporaries, notably his fellow Physiocrats, who credit both the laissez-faire slogan and the doctrine to Gournay. Before d'Argenson or Gournay, P. S. de Boisguilbert had enunciated the phrase "On laisse faire la nature" ("Let nature run its course"). D'Argenson himself during his life was better known for the similar, but less-celebrated motto "Pas trop gouverner" ("Govern not too much"). The Physiocrats proclaimed laissez-faire in 18th-century France, placing it at the very core of their economic principles and famous economists, beginning with Adam Smith, developed the idea. It is with the Physiocrats and the classical political economy that the term laissez-faire is ordinarily associated. The book Laissez Faire and the General-Welfare State states: "The physiocrats, reacting against the excessive mercantilist regulations of the France of their day, expressed a belief in a 'natural order' or liberty under which individuals in following their selfish interests contributed to the general good. Since, in their view, this natural order functioned successfully without the aid of government, they advised the state to restrict itself to upholding the rights of private property and individual liberty, to removing all artificial barriers to trade, and to abolishing all useless laws". The French phrase laissez-faire gained currency in English-speaking countries with the spread of Physiocratic literature in the late 18th century. George Whatley's 1774 Principles of Trade (co-authored with Benjamin Franklin) re-told the Colbert-LeGendre anecdote; this may mark the first appearance of the phrase in an English-language publication. Herbert Spencer was opposed to a slightly different application of laissez faire—to "that miserable laissez-faire" that leads to men's ruin, saying: "Along with that miserable laissez-faire which calmly looks on while men ruin themselves in trying to enforce by law their equitable claims, there goes activity in supplying them, at other men's cost, with gratis novel-reading!" As a product of the Enlightenment, laissez-faire was "conceived as the way to unleash human potential through the restoration of a natural system, a system unhindered by the restrictions of government". In a similar vein, Adam Smith viewed the economy as a natural system and the market as an organic part of that system. Smith saw laissez-faire as a moral program and the market its instrument to ensure men the rights of natural law. By extension, free markets become a reflection of the natural system of liberty. For Smith, laissez-faire was "a program for the abolition of laws constraining the market, a program for the restoration of order and for the activation of potential growth". However, Smith and notable classical economists such as Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo did not use the phrase. Jeremy Bentham used the term, but it was probably James Mill's reference to the laissez-faire maxim (together with the "Pas trop gouverner" motto) in an 1824 entry for the Encyclopædia Britannica that really brought the term into wider English usage. With the advent of the Anti-Corn Law League (founded 1838), the term received much of its English meaning. Smith first used the metaphor of an invisible hand in his book The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) to describe the unintentional effects of economic self-organization from economic self-interest. Although not the metaphor itself, the idea lying behind the invisible hand belongs to Bernard de Mandeville and his Fable of the Bees (1705). In political economy, that idea and the doctrine of laissez-faire have long been closely related. Some have characterized the invisible-hand metaphor as one for laissez-faire, although Smith never actually used the term himself. In Third Millennium Capitalism (2000), Wyatt M. Rogers Jr. notes a trend whereby recently "conservative politicians and economists have chosen the term 'free-market capitalism' in lieu of laissez-faire". American individualist anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker saw themselves as economic laissez-faire socialists and political individualists while arguing that their "anarchistic socialism" or "individual anarchism" was "consistent Manchesterism". History Europe In Europe, the laissez-faire movement was first widely promoted by the Physiocrats, a movement that included Vincent de Gournay (1712–1759), a successful merchant turned political figure. Gournay is postulated to have adapted the Taoist concept wu wei, from the writings on China by François Quesnay (1694–1774). Gournay held that government should allow the laws of nature to govern economic activity, with the state only intervening to protect life, liberty and property. François Quesnay and Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de l'Aulne took up Gournay's ideas. Quesnay had the ear of the King of France, Louis XV and in 1754 persuaded him to give laissez-faire a try. On September 17, the King abolished all tolls and restraints on the sale and transport of grain. For more than a decade, the experiment appeared successful, but 1768 saw a poor harvest, and the cost of bread rose so high that there was widespread starvation while merchants exported grain in order to obtain the best profit. In 1770, the Comptroller-General of Finances Joseph Marie Terray revoked the edict allowing free trade in grain. The doctrine of laissez-faire became an integral part of 19th-century European liberalism. Just as liberals supported freedom of thought in the intellectual sphere, so were they equally prepared to champion the principles of free trade and free competition in the sphere of economics, seeing the state as merely a passive policeman, protecting private property and administering justice, but not interfering with the affairs of its citizens. Businessmen, British industrialists in particular, were quick to associate these principles with their own economic interests. Many of the ideas of the physiocrats spread throughout Europe and were adopted to a greater or lesser extent in Sweden, Tuscany, Spain and in the newly created United States. Adam Smith, author of The Wealth of Nations (1776), met Quesnay and acknowledged his influence. In Britain, the newspaper The Economist (founded in 1843) became an influential voice for laissez-faire capitalism. Laissez-faire advocates opposed food aid for famines occurring within the British Empire. In 1847, referring to the famine then underway in Ireland, founder of The Economist James Wilson wrote: "It is no man's business to provide for another". More specifically, in An Essay on the Principle of Population, Malthus argued that there was nothing that could be done to avoid famines because he felt he had mathematically proven that population growth tends to exceed growth in food production. However, The Economist campaigned against the Corn Laws that protected landlords in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland against competition from less expensive foreign imports of cereal products. The Great Famine in Ireland in 1845 led to the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. The tariffs on grain which kept the price of bread artificially high were repealed. However, repeal of the Corn Laws came too late to stop the Irish famine, partly because it was done in stages over three years. A group that became known as the Manchester Liberals, to which Richard Cobden (1804–1865) and John Bright (1811–1889) belonged, were staunch defenders of free trade. After the death of Cobden, the Cobden Club (founded in 1866) continued their work. In 1860, Britain and France concluded a trade treaty, after which other European countries signed several similar treaties. The breakdown of laissez-faire as practised by the British Empire was partly led by British companies eager for state support of their positions abroad, in particular British oil companies. United States Frank Bourgin's study of the Constitutional Convention and subsequent decades argues that direct government involvement in the economy was intended by the Founding Fathers. The reason for this was the economic and financial chaos the nation suffered under the Articles of Confederation. The goal was to ensure that dearly-won political independence was not lost by being economically and financially dependent on the powers and princes of Europe. The creation of a strong central government able to promote science, invention, industry and commerce was seen as an essential means of promoting the general welfare and making the economy of the United States strong enough for them to determine their own destiny. Others view Bourgin's study, written in the 1940s and not published until 1989, as an over-interpretation of the evidence, intended originally to defend the New Deal and later to counter Ronald Reagan's economic policies. Historian Kathleen G. Donohue argues that in the 19th century liberalism in the United States had distinctive characteristics and that "at the center of classical liberal theory [in Europe] was the idea of laissez-faire. To the vast majority of American classical liberals, however, laissez-faire did not mean "no government intervention" at all. On the contrary, they were more than willing to see government provide tariffs, railroad subsidies, and internal improvements, all of which benefited producers". Notable examples of government intervention in the period prior to the American Civil War include the establishment of the Patent Office in 1802; the establishment of the Office of Standard Weights and Measures in 1830; the creation of the Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1807 and other measures to improve river and harbor navigation; the various Army expeditions to the west, beginning with Lewis and Clark's Corps of Discovery in 1804 and continuing into the 1870s, almost always under the direction of an officer from the Army Corps of Topographical Engineers and which provided crucial information for the overland pioneers that followed; the assignment of Army Engineer officers to assist or direct the surveying and construction of the early railroads and canals; and the establishment of the First Bank of the United States and Second Bank of the United States as well as various protectionist measures (e.g. the tariff of 1828). Several of these proposals met with serious opposition and required a great deal of horse-trading to be enacted into law. For instance, the First National Bank would not have reached the desk of President George Washington in the absence of an agreement that was reached between Alexander Hamilton and several Southern members of Congress to locate the capitol in the District of Columbia. In contrast to Hamilton and the Federalists was Thomas Jefferson and James Madison's opposing political party, the Democratic-Republicans. Most of the early opponents of laissez-faire capitalism in the United States subscribed to the American School. This school of thought was inspired by the ideas of Hamilton, who proposed the creation of a government-sponsored bank and increased tariffs to favor Northern industrial interests. Following Hamilton's death, the more abiding protectionist influence in the antebellum period came from Henry Clay and his American System. In the early 19th century, "it is quite clear that the laissez-faire label is an inappropriate one" to apply to the relationship between the United States government and industry. In the mid-19th century, the United States followed the Whig tradition of economic nationalism, which included increased state control, regulation and macroeconomic development of infrastructure. Public works such as the provision and regulation transportation such as railroads took effect. The Pacific Railway Acts provided the development of the First Transcontinental Railroad. In order to help pay for its war effort in the Civil War, the United States government imposed its first personal income tax on 5 August 1861 as part of the Revenue Act of 1861 (3% of all incomes over US$800; rescinded in 1872). Following the Civil War, the movement towards a mixed economy accelerated. Protectionism increased with the McKinley Tariff of 1890 and the Dingley Tariff of 1897. Government regulation of the economy expanded with the enactment of the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 and the Sherman Anti-trust Act. The Progressive Era saw the enactment of more controls on the economy as evidenced by the Woodrow Wilson administration's New Freedom program. Following World War I and the Great Depression, the United States turned to a mixed economy which combined free enterprise with a progressive income tax and in which from time to time the government stepped in to support and protect American industry from competition from overseas. For example, in the 1980s the government sought to protect the automobile industry by "voluntary" export restrictions from Japan. In 1986, Pietro S. Nivola wrote: "By and large, the comparative strength of the dollar against major foreign currencies has reflected high U.S. interest rates driven by huge federal budget deficits. Hence, the source of much of the current deterioration of trade is not the general state of the economy, but rather the government's mix of fiscal and monetary policies – that is, the problematic juxtaposition of bold tax reductions, relatively tight monetary targets, generous military outlays, and only modest cuts in major entitlement programs. Put simply, the roots of the trade problem and of the resurgent protectionism it has fomented are fundamentally political as well as economic". A more recent advocate of total laissez-faire has been Objectivist Ayn Rand, who described it as "the abolition of any and all forms of government intervention in production and trade, the separation of State and Economics, in the same way and for the same reasons as the separation of Church and State". This viewpoint is summed up in what is known as the iron law of regulation, which is a theory stating that all government economic regulation eventually leads to a net loss in social welfare. Rand's political philosophy emphasized individual rights (including property rights) and she considered laissez-faire capitalism the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on the protection of those rights. She opposed statism, which she understood to include theocracy, absolute monarchy, Nazism, fascism, communism, socialism and dictatorship. Rand believed that natural rights should be enforced by a constitutionally limited government. Although her political views are often classified as conservative or libertarian, she preferred the term "radical for capitalism". She worked with conservatives on political projects, but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics. She denounced libertarianism, which she associated with anarchism. She rejected anarchism as a naïve theory based in subjectivism that could only lead to collectivism in practice. Models Capitalism A closely related conception is that of raw or pure capitalism, or unrestrained capitalism, that refers to capitalism free of social regulations, with low, minimal or no government and operating almost entirely on the profit motive. Other than laissez-faire economics and anarcho-capitalism, it is not associated with a school of thought. It typically has a bad connotation, which hints towards a perceived need for restraint due to social needs and securities that can not be adequately responded to by companies with just a motive for making profit. Robert Kuttner states that "for over a century, popular struggles in democracies have used the nation-state to temper raw capitalism. The power of voters has offset the power of capital. But as national barriers have come down in the name of freer commerce, so has the capacity of governments to manage capitalism in a broad public interest. So the real issue is not 'trade' but democratic governance". The main issues of raw capitalism are said to lie in its disregard for quality, durability, sustainability, respect for the environment and human beings as well as a lack of morality. From this more critical angle, companies might naturally aim to maximise profits at the expense of workers' and broader social interests. Advocates of laissez-faire capitalism argue that it relies on a constitutionally limited government that unconditionally bans the initiation of force and coercion, including fraud. Therefore, free market economists such as Milton Friedman and Thomas Sowell argue that, under such a system, relationships between companies and workers are purely voluntary and mistreated workers will seek better treatment elsewhere. Thus, most companies will compete for workers on the basis of pay, benefits, and work-life balance just as they compete with one another in the marketplace on the basis of the relative cost and quality of their goods. So-called "raw" or "hyper-capitalism" is a prime motive of cyberpunk in dystopian works such as Syndicate. Socialism Although laissez-faire has been commonly associated with capitalism, there is a similar laissez-faire economic theory and system associated with socialism called left-wing laissez-faire, or free-market anarchism, also known as free-market anti-capitalism and free-market socialism to distinguish it from laissez-faire capitalism. One first example of this is mutualism as developed by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in the 18th century, from which emerged individualist anarchism. Benjamin Tucker is one eminent American individualist anarchist who adopted a laissez-faire system he termed anarchistic socialism in contraposition to state socialism. This tradition has been recently associated with contemporary scholars such as Kevin Carson, Roderick T. Long, Charles W. Johnson, Brad Spangler, Sheldon Richman, Chris Matthew Sciabarra and Gary Chartier, who stress the value of radically free markets, termed freed markets to distinguish them from the common conception which these left-libertarians believe to be riddled with capitalist and statist privileges. Referred to as left-wing market anarchists or market-oriented left-libertarians, proponents of this approach strongly affirm the classical liberal ideas of self-ownership and free markets while maintaining that taken to their logical conclusions these ideas support anti-capitalist, anti-corporatist, anti-hierarchical and pro-labor positions in economics; anti-imperialism in foreign policy; and thoroughly radical views regarding such cultural issues as gender, sexuality and race. Critics of laissez-faire as commonly understood argues that a truly laissez-faire system would be anti-capitalist and socialist. Kevin Carson describes his politics as on "the outer fringes of both free market libertarianism and socialism" and has also been highly critical of intellectual property. Carson has identified the work of Benjamin Tucker, Thomas Hodgskin, Ralph Borsodi, Paul Goodman, Lewis Mumford, Elinor Ostrom, Peter Kropotkin and Ivan Illich as sources of inspiration for his approach to politics and economics. In addition to individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker's big four monopolies (land, money, tariffs and patents), he argues that the state has also transferred wealth to the wealthy by subsidizing organizational centralization in the form of transportation and communication subsidies. Carson believes that Tucker overlooked this issue due to Tucker's focus on individual market transactions whereas he also focuses on organizational issues. As such, the primary focus of his most recent work has been decentralized manufacturing and the informal and household economies. The theoretical sections of Carson's Studies in Mutualist Political Economy are also presented as an attempt to integrate marginalist critiques into the labor theory of value. In response to claims that he uses the term capitalism incorrectly, Carson says he is deliberately choosing to resurrect what he claims to be an old definition of the term in order to "make a point". He claims that "the term 'capitalism,' as it was originally used, did not refer to a free market, but to a type of statist class system in which capitalists controlled the state and the state intervened in the market on their behalf". Carson holds that "capitalism, arising as a new class society directly from the old class society of the Middle Ages, was founded on an act of robbery as massive as the earlier feudal conquest of the land. It has been sustained to the present by continual state intervention to protect its system of privilege without which its survival is unimaginable". Carson argues that in a truly laissez-faire system the ability to extract a profit from labor and capital would be negligible. Carson coined the pejorative term vulgar libertarianism, a phrase that describes the use of a free market rhetoric in defense of corporate capitalism and economic inequality. According to Carson, the term is derived from the phrase vulgar political economy which Karl Marx described as an economic order that "deliberately becomes increasingly apologetic and makes strenuous attempts to talk out of existence the ideas which contain the contradictions [existing in economic life]". Gary Chartier offers an understanding of property rights as contingent yet tightly constrained social strategies, reflective of the importance of multiple, overlapping rationales for separate ownership and of natural law principles of practical reasonableness, defending robust yet non-absolute protections for these rights in a manner similar to that employed by David Hume. This account is distinguished both from Lockean and neo-Lockean views which deduce property rights from the idea of self-ownership and from consequentialist accounts that might license widespread ad hoc interference with the possessions of groups and individuals. Chartier uses this account to ground a clear statement of the natural law basis for the view that solidaristic wealth redistribution by individual persons is often morally required, but as a response by individuals and grass-roots networks to particular circumstances rather than as a state-driven attempt to achieve a particular distributive pattern. He advances detailed arguments for workplace democracy rooted in such natural law principles as subsidiarity, defending it as morally desirable and as a likely outcome of the elimination of injustice rather than as something to be mandated by the state. Chartier has discussed natural law approaches to land reform and to the occupation of factories by workers. He objects on natural law grounds to intellectual property protections, drawing on his theory of property rights more generally and develops a general natural law account of boycotts. He has argued that proponents of genuinely freed markets should explicitly reject capitalism and identify with the global anti-capitalist movement while emphasizing that the abuses the anti-capitalist movement highlights result from state-tolerated violence and state-secured privilege rather than from voluntary cooperation and exchange. According to Chartier, "it makes sense for [freed-market advocates] to name what they oppose 'capitalism.' Doing so calls attention to the freedom movement's radical roots, emphasizes the value of understanding society as an alternative to the state, underscores the fact that proponents of freedom object to non-aggressive as well as aggressive restraints on liberty, ensures that advocates of freedom aren't confused with people who use market rhetoric to prop up an unjust status quo, and expresses solidarity between defenders of freed markets and workers — as well as ordinary people around the world who use "capitalism" as a short-hand label for the world-system that constrains their freedom and stunts their lives". Criticism Over the years, a number of economists have offered critiques of laissez-faire economics. Adam Smith acknowledges some moral ambiguities towards the system of capitalism. Smith had misgivings concerning some aspects of each of the major character-types produced by modern capitalist society, namely the landlords, the workers and the capitalists. Smith claimed that "[t]he landlords' role in the economic process is passive. Their ability to reap a revenue solely from ownership of land tends to make them indolent and inept, and so they tend to be unable to even look after their own economic interests" and that "[t]he increase in population should increase the demand for food, which should increase rents, which should be economically beneficial to the landlords". According to Smith, the landlords should be in favour of policies which contribute to the growth in the wealth of nations, but they often are not in favour of these pro-growth policies because of their own indolent-induced ignorance and intellectual flabbiness. Many philosophers have written on the systems society has created to manage their civilizations. Thomas Hobbes utilized the concept of a "state of nature," which is a time before any government or laws, as a starting point to consider the question. In this time, life would be "war of all against all." Further, "In such condition, there is no place for industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain . . . continual fear and danger of violent death, and the life of man solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Smith was quite clear that he believed that without morality and laws, society would fail. From that perspective, it would be strange for Smith to support a pure Laissez-Faire style of capitalism, and what he does support in Wealth of Nations is heavily dependent on the moral philosophy from his previous work, Theory of Moral Sentiments. Regardless of preferred political preference, all societies require shared moral values as a prerequisite on which to build laws to protect individuals from each other. Adam Smith wrote Wealth of Nations during the Enlightenment, a period of time when the prevailing attitude was, "All things can be Known." In effect, European thinkers, inspired by the likes of Isaac Newton and others, set about to "find the laws" of all things, that there existed a "natural law" underlying all aspects of life. They believed that these could be discovered and that everything in the universe could be rationally demystified and cataloged, including human interactions. Critics and market abolitionists such as David McNally argue in the Marxist tradition that the logic of the market inherently produces inequitable outcomes and leads to unequal exchanges, arguing that Smith's moral intent and moral philosophy espousing equal exchange was undermined by the practice of the free market he championed. According to McNally, the development of the market economy involved coercion, exploitation and violence that Smith's moral philosophy could not countenance. The British economist John Maynard Keynes condemned laissez-faire economic policy on several occasions. In The End of Laissez-faire (1926), one of the most famous of his critiques, Keynes argues that the doctrines of laissez-faire are dependent to some extent on improper deductive reasoning and says the question of whether a market solution or state intervention is better must be determined on a case-by-case basis. The Austrian School economist Friedrich Hayek stated that a freely competitive, laissez-faire banking industry tends to be endogenously destabilizing and pro-cyclical, arguing that the need for central banking control was inescapable. Karl Polanyi's Great Transformation criticizes self-regulating markets as aberrational, unnatural phenomena which tend towards social disruption. See also Anarcho-capitalism Corporatocracy Deregulation Economic liberalism Free market Free-market anarchism Free trade History of economic thought Liberism Libertarianism Market fundamentalism Market socialism Neoliberalism Objectivism Physiocracy Privatization Wu wei References Further reading Gerlach, Cristian (2005) Wu-Wei in Europe: A Study of Eurasian Economic Thought London School of Economics. Bourgin, Frank The Great Challenge: The Myth of Laissez-Faire in the Early Republic (George Braziller Inc., 1989; Harper & Row, 1990). by Christian Gerlach, London School of Economics – March 2005. John Maynard Keynes, The end of laissez-faire (1926). Carter Goodrich, Government Promotion of American Canals and Railroads, 1800–1890 (Greenwood Press, 1960). Goodrich, Carter. "American Development Policy: the Case of Internal Improvements," Journal of Economic History, 16 (1956), 449–60. in JSTOR. Goodrich, Carter. "National Planning of Internal Improvements," Political Science Quarterly, 63 (1948), 16–44. in JSTOR. Johnson, E.A.J., The Foundations of American Economic Freedom: Government and Enterprise in the Age of Washington (University of Minnesota Press, 1973). EISENACH, ELDON J. “NATION & ECONOMY.” The Lost Promise of Progressivism, University Press of Kansas, 2021, pp. 138–86, . MITTERMAIER, KARL, et al. “Individualism and Public Spirit.” The Hand Behind the Invisible Hand: Dogmatic and Pragmatic Views on Free Markets and the State of Economic Theory, 1st ed., Bristol University Press, 2020, pp. 115–48, . de Muijnck, Sam, et al. “Pragmatic Pluralism.” Economy Studies: A Guide to Rethinking Economics Education, Amsterdam University Press, 2021, pp. 301–27, . Williamson, Stephen D., and Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Research Department. Laissez-Faire Banking and Circulating Media of Exchange. no. 382, Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, pp. 1–36, . Schmidt, Jeremy J. “Laissez-Faire Metaphysics.” Water: Abundance, Scarcity, and Security in the Age of Humanity, New York University Press, 2017, pp. 43–67, . McGarity, Thomas O. “[Part One Introduction].” Freedom to Harm: The Lasting Legacy of the Laissez Faire Revival, Yale University Press, 2013, pp. 9–12, . VINER, JACOB. “ADAM SMITH AND LAISSEZ FAIRE.” Essays on the Intellectual History of Economics, edited by Douglas A. Irwin, Princeton University Press, 1991, pp. 85–113, . McGarity, Thomas O. “The Laissez Faire Benchmark.” Freedom to Harm: The Lasting Legacy of the Laissez Faire Revival, Yale University Press, 2013, pp. 13–17, . COLANDER, DAVID, and ROLAND KUPERS. “Laissez-Faire Activism.” Complexity and the Art of Public Policy: Solving Society’s Problems from the Bottom Up, Princeton University Press, 2014, pp. 214–36, . Bowen, Howard R., et al. “Social Responsibilities and Laissez Faire.” Social Responsibilities of the Businessman, University of Iowa Press, 2013, pp. 14–21, . BLADEN, VINCENT. “Laissez Faire.” From Adam Smith to Maynard Keynes: The Heritage of Political Economy, University of Toronto Press, 1974, pp. 91–95, . Perkins, Dwight H. “Government Intervention versus Laissez-Faire in Northeast Asia.” East Asian Development, Harvard University Press, 2013, pp. 66–99, . CALVO, CHRISTOPHER W. “LAISSEZ-FAIRE IN THE AMERICAN TRADITION.” The Emergence of Capitalism in Early America, 1st ed., University Press of Florida, 2020, pp. 27–74, . STRICKER, FRANK. “Discipline for the Unemployed; Laissez-Faire for Business (1873–1920).” American Unemployment: Past, Present, and Future, University of Illinois Press, 2020, pp. 15–38, . MAGGOR, NOAM. “Cultivating the Laissez-Faire Metropolis.” Brahmin Capitalism: Frontiers of Wealth and Populism in America’s First Gilded Age, Harvard University Press, 2017, pp. 53–95, . BLASER, MARIO. “Laissez-Faire Progress: INVISIBILIZING THE YRMO.” Storytelling Globalization from the Chaco and Beyond, Duke University Press, 2010, pp. 41–62, . Howell, Chris. “The Construction of the Collective Laissez-Faire System, 1890–1940.” Trade Unions and the State: The Construction of Industrial Relations Institutions in Britain, 1890-2000, Princeton University Press, 2005, pp. 46–85, . LEACOCK, STEPHEN. “Laissez Faire and Legislation.” My Recollection of Chicago and the Doctrine of Laissez Faire, edited by Carl Spadoni, University of Toronto Press, 1998, pp. 35–40, . Strum, Philippa. “FROM LAISSEZ-FAIRE CAPITALISM TO WORKER-MANAGEMENT.” Brandeis: Beyond Progressivism, University Press of Kansas, 1993, pp. 24–48, . HALEVI, LEOR. “Paper Money and Consummate Men: Capitalism and the Rise of Laissez-Faire Salafism.” Modern Things on Trial: Islam’s Global and Material Reformation in the Age of Rida, 1865–1935, Columbia University Press, 2019, pp. 96–130, . KOLOZI, PETER. “IN SEARCH OF THE WARRIOR-STATESMAN: The Critique of Laissez-Faire Capitalism by Brooks Adams and Theodore Roosevelt.” Conservatives Against Capitalism: From the Industrial Revolution to Globalization, Columbia University Press, 2017, pp. 51–76, . Palley, Thomas I. “Milton Friedman: The Great Laissez-Faire Partisan.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 41, no. 49, Economic and Political Weekly, 2006, pp. 5041–43, . HOLROYD, CARIN LEE. “Governments and International Trade: An Intellectual Analysis.” Government, International Trade, and Laissez-Faire Capitalism: Canada, Australia, and New Zealand’s Relations with Japan, McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002, pp. 15–39, . Simons, Henry C., William Breit, Roger L. Ransom, and Robert M. Solow. “RADICAL PROPONENT OF LAISSEZ-FAIRE.” In The Academic Scribblers, 207–21. Princeton University Press, 1998. . Henry, John F. “The Ideology of the Laissez Faire Program.” Journal of Economic Issues, vol. 42, no. 1, Association for Evolutionary Economics, 2008, pp. 209–24, . Adams, Walter, and James W. Brock. “The Impact of Economic Power Is Discussed; Public Policy Interests in Economic Liberty and Democratic Process Yield a Conundrum.” Antitrust Economics on Trial: A Dialogue on the New Laissez-Faire, Princeton University Press, 1991, pp. 115–28, . Lal, Deepak. “From Laissez Faire to the Dirigiste Dogma.” Reviving the Invisible Hand: The Case for Classical Liberalism in the Twenty-First Century, Princeton University Press, 2006, pp. 48–61, . FRIED, BARBARA H. “THE EMPTY IDEA OF PROPERTY RIGHTS.” The Progressive Assault on Laissez Faire: Robert Hale and the First Law and Economics Movement, Harvard University Press, 1998, pp. 71–107, . Rodgers, Daniel T. “Twilight of Laissez-Faire.” Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age, Harvard University Press, 1998, pp. 76–111, . External links Laissez-faire at Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Free-market anarchism Capitalism Classical liberalism Economic history of France Economic liberalism Ideologies of capitalism Individualism Market socialism Minarchism Political movements Political theories Right-wing politics Right-libertarianism Market socialism

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar%20Bradley

Omar Bradley

Omar Nelson Bradley (February 12, 1893April 8, 1981) was a senior officer of the United States Army during and after World War II, rising to the rank of General of the Army. Bradley was the first chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and oversaw the U.S. military's policy-making in the Korean War. Born in Randolph County, Missouri, Bradley worked as a boilermaker before entering the United States Military Academy at West Point. He graduated from the academy in 1915 alongside Dwight D. Eisenhower as part of "the class the stars fell on." During World War I, Bradley guarded copper mines in Montana. After the war, Bradley taught at West Point and served in other roles before taking a position at the War Department under General George Marshall. In 1941, Bradley became commander of the United States Army Infantry School. After the U.S. entrance into World War II, Bradley oversaw the transformation of the 82nd Infantry Division into the first American airborne division. He received his first front-line command in Operation Torch, serving under General George S. Patton in North Africa. After Patton was reassigned, Bradley commanded II Corps in the Tunisia Campaign and the Allied invasion of Sicily. He commanded the First United States Army during the Invasion of Normandy. After the breakout from Normandy, he took command of the Twelfth United States Army Group, which ultimately comprised forty-three divisions and 1.3 million men, the largest body of American soldiers ever to serve under a single field commander. After the war, Bradley headed the Veterans Administration. He was appointed as Chief of Staff of the United States Army in 1948 and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1949. In 1950, Bradley was promoted to the rank of General of the Army, becoming the last of the nine individuals promoted to five-star rank in the United States Armed Forces. He was the senior military commander at the start of the Korean War, and supported President Harry S. Truman's wartime policy of containment. He was instrumental in persuading Truman to dismiss General Douglas MacArthur in 1951 after MacArthur resisted administration attempts to scale back the war's strategic objectives. Bradley left active duty in 1953 (though remaining on "active retirement" for the next 27 years). He continued to serve in public and business roles until his death in 1981 at age 88. Early life and education Omar Nelson Bradley, the son of schoolteacher John Smith Bradley (1868–1908) and his wife Mary Elizabeth (née Hubbard) (1875–1931), was born into poverty in rural Randolph County, Missouri, near Moberly. Bradley was named after Omar D. Gray, a local newspaper editor admired by his father, and a local physician, Dr. James Nelson. He was of British ancestry, his ancestors having emigrated from Great Britain to Kentucky in the mid-1700s. He attended at least eight country schools where his father taught. The elder Bradley never earned more than $40 a month in his lifetime, while he taught school and sharecropped, the latter with the aid of all the family. They never owned a wagon, horse, or a mule. When Omar was 15, his father died. The youth credited his father with passing on to him his love of books, baseball and shooting. His mother moved with him to Moberly, where she remarried. Bradley graduated from Moberly High School in 1910. He was an outstanding student and athlete who was chosen captain of both the baseball and track teams. Bradley was working as a 17-cents-an-hour boilermaker at the Wabash Railroad when he was encouraged by his Sunday school teacher at Central Christian Church in Moberly to take the entrance examination for the United States Military Academy (USMA) at West Point, New York. Bradley had been saving his money to enter the University of Missouri in Columbia, where he intended to study law. He finished second in the West Point placement exams, held at Jefferson Barracks Military Post in St. Louis, Missouri. The first-place winner was unable to accept the Congressional appointment, however, and the nomination was passed to Bradley in August 1911. While Bradley was attending the academy, his devotion to sports prevented him from excelling academically; but he still ranked 44th in a class of 164. He was a baseball star and often played on semi-pro teams for no remuneration (to ensure his eligibility as an amateur to represent the academy). He was considered one of the most outstanding college players in the nation during his junior and senior seasons at West Point, noted as both a power hitter and an outfielder, with one of the best arms in his day. He rejected multiple offers to play professional baseball, choosing to pursue his Army career. While stationed at West Point as an instructor, in 1923 Bradley became a Freemason. He became a member of the West Point Lodge #877, Highland Falls, New York and continued with them until his death. Bradley married Mary Quayle, who had grown up across the street from him in Moberly. Her father, the town's popular police chief, had died when she was young. The pair attended Central Christian Church and Moberly High School together. On the cover of the 1910 Moberly High School yearbook, The Salutar, they were shown across from each other, although they did not date during those years. His picture bore the description "calculative" and hers "linguistic." She earned a college degree in education. West Point and early military career At West Point, Bradley played three years of varsity baseball including the 1914 team. Every player on that team who remained in the army ultimately became a general. Bradley graduated from West Point in 1915 as part of a class that produced many future generals, and which military historians have called "the class the stars fell on". Bradley's Cullum Number is 5356. There were ultimately 59 general officers in that graduating class, among whom Bradley and Dwight D. Eisenhower attained the rank of General of the Army. Eisenhower was elected in 1952 in a landslide victory as 34th President of the United States. Among the numerous others who became generals were Joseph T. McNarney, Henry Aurand, James Van Fleet, Stafford LeRoy Irwin, John W. Leonard, Joseph May Swing, Paul J. Mueller, Charles W. Ryder, Leland Hobbs, Vernon Prichard, John B. Wogan, Roscoe B. Woodruff, John French Conklin, Walter W. Hess, and Edwin A. Zundel. Bradley was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Infantry Branch of the United States Army and was first assigned to the 14th Infantry Regiment. He served on the Mexico–United States border in 1915, defending it from incursions due to the Mexican civil war. When the United States entered World War I in April 1917 (see the American entry into World War I), he was promoted to captain and sent to guard the Butte, Montana copper mines, considered of strategic importance. Bradley, who was assigned to command the second battalion of the 14th Infantry, joined the 19th Division in August 1918, which was scheduled for European deployment, but the influenza pandemic and the armistice with Germany on November 11, 1918, that fall intervened. From September 1919 until September 1920, Bradley served as assistant professor of military science at South Dakota State College (now University) in Brookings, South Dakota. Between the wars, he taught and studied. From 1920 to 1924, Bradley taught mathematics at West Point. He was promoted to major in 1924 and took the advanced infantry course at Fort Benning, Georgia. After brief duty in Hawaii, Bradley was selected to study at the U.S. Army Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas in 1928–29. Upon graduating, he served as an instructor in tactics at the U.S. Army Infantry School. While Bradley was serving in this assignment, the assistant commandant, Lieutenant Colonel George Marshall described him as "quiet, unassuming, capable, with sound common sense. Absolute dependability. Give him a job and forget it." From 1929, Bradley taught again at West Point, studying at the U.S. Army War College in 1934. Bradley was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1936 and worked at the War Department; after 1938 he was directly reporting to U.S. Army Chief of Staff Marshall. In February 1941, Bradley was promoted to (wartime) temporary rank of brigadier general (bypassing the rank of colonel.) (This rank was made permanent by the Army in September 1943). The temporary rank was conferred to allow him to command the U.S. Army Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia (he was among the first from his class to reach even a temporary rank of general officer; first was his West Point classmate Luis Esteves, who was promoted Brigadier general in October 1940). In February 1942, two months after the American entry into World War II, Bradley was made a temporary major general (a rank made permanent in September 1944) and took command of the 82nd Infantry Division (soon to be redesignated as the 82nd Airborne Division) before succeeding Major General James Garesche Ord as commander of the 28th Infantry Division in June. Louisiana Maneuvers The Louisiana Maneuvers were a series of U.S. Army exercises held around Northern and Western-Central Louisiana, including Fort Polk, Camp Claiborne and Camp Livingston, in 1940 and 1941. The exercises, which involved some 400,000 troops, were designed to evaluate U.S. training, logistics, doctrine, and commanders. Overall, headquarters were in the Bentley Hotel in Alexandria. Many Army officers present at the maneuvers later rose to very senior roles in World War II, including Bradley, Mark Clark, Dwight Eisenhower, Walter Krueger, Lesley J. McNair and George Patton. Lieutenant Colonel Bradley was assigned to General Headquarters during the Louisiana Maneuvers but as a courier and observer in the field, he gained invaluable experience for the future. Colonel Bradley assisted in the planning of the maneuvers, and kept the General Staff in Washington, D.C. abreast of the training that was occurring during the Louisiana Maneuvers. Bradley later said that Louisianans welcomed the soldiers with open arms. Some soldiers even slept in some of the residents' houses. Bradley said it was so crowded in those houses sometimes when the soldiers were sleeping, there would hardly be any walking room. Bradley also said a few of the troops were disrespectful towards the residents' land and crops, and would tear down crops for extra food. However, for the most part, residents and soldiers established good relations. World War II Bradley's personal experiences in the war are documented in his award-winning book A Soldier's Story, published by Henry Holt & Co. in 1951. It was re-released by The Modern Library in 1999. The book is based on an extensive diary maintained by his aide de camp, Chester B. Hansen, who ghost wrote the book using that diary. Hansen's diary is maintained by the U. S. Army Heritage and Education Center, Carlisle Barracks, PA. On March 25, 1942, Bradley, recently promoted to major general, assumed command of the newly activated 82nd Infantry Division. Bradley oversaw the division's transformation into the first American airborne division and took parachute training. In August the division was re-designated as the 82nd Airborne Division and Bradley relinquished command to Major General Matthew B. Ridgway. Bradley then took command of the 28th Infantry Division, which was a National Guard division with soldiers mostly from the state of Pennsylvania. Bradley did not receive a front-line command until early 1943, after Operation Torch. He had been given VIII Corps after being succeeded by Lloyd D. Brown as commander of the 28th Division, but instead was sent to North Africa to be Eisenhower's front-line troubleshooter. At Bradley's suggestion, II Corps, which had just suffered a great defeat at the Kasserine Pass, was overhauled from top to bottom, and Eisenhower installed George S. Patton as corps commander in March 1943. Patton requested Bradley as his deputy, but Bradley retained the right to represent Eisenhower as well. Bradley succeeded Patton as commander of II Corps in April and directed it in the final Tunisian battles of April and May. Bradley was promoted to Brevet Lieutenant General in June 1943 and continued to command II Corps in the Allied Invasion of Sicily. Normandy 1944 Bradley moved to London as commander in chief of the American ground forces preparing to invade France in 1944. For D-Day, Bradley was chosen to command the US First Army, which, alongside the British Second Army, made up General Montgomery's 21st Army Group. On June 10, General Bradley and his staff debarked to establish a headquarters ashore. During Operation Overlord, he commanded three corps directed at the two American invasion targets, Utah Beach and Omaha Beach. During July he inspected the modifications made by Curtis G. Culin to Sherman tanks, that led to the Rhino tank. Later in July, he planned Operation Cobra, the beginning of the breakout from the Normandy beachhead. Operation Cobra called for the use of strategic bombers using huge bomb loads to attack German defensive lines. After several postponements due to weather, the operation began on July 25, 1944, with a short, very intensive bombardment with lighter explosives, designed so as not to create more rubble and craters that would slow Allied progress. Bradley was horrified when 77 planes bombed short and dropped bombs on their own troops, including General Lesley J. McNair: However, the bombing was successful in knocking out the enemy communication system, rendering German troops confused and ineffective, and opened the way for the ground offensive by attacking infantry. Bradley sent in three infantry divisions—the 9th, 4th and 30th—to move in close behind the bombing. The infantry succeeded in cracking the German defenses, opening the way for advances by armored forces commanded by Patton to sweep around the German lines. As the build-up continued in Normandy, the Third Army was formed under Patton, Bradley's former commander, while General Hodges succeeded Bradley in command of the First Army; together, they made up Bradley's new command, the 12th Army Group. By August, the 12th Army Group had swollen to over 900,000 men and ultimately consisted of four field armies. It was the largest group of American soldiers to ever serve under one field commander. Falaise Pocket Hitler's refusal to allow his army to flee the rapidly advancing Allied pincer movement created an opportunity to trap an entire German Army Group in northern France. After the German attempt to split the US armies at Mortain (Operation Lüttich), Bradley's Army Group and XV Corps became the southern pincer in forming the Falaise Pocket, trapping the German Seventh Army and Fifth Panzer Army in Normandy. The northern pincer was formed of Canadian forces, part of British General Sir Bernard Montgomery's 21st Army Group. On August 13, 1944, concerned that American troops would clash with Canadian forces advancing from the north-west, Bradley overrode Patton's orders for a further push north towards Falaise, while ordering XV Corps to "concentrate for operations in another direction". Any American troops in the vicinity of Argentan were ordered to withdraw. This order halted the southern pincer movement of General Haislip's XV Corps. Though Patton protested the order, he obeyed it, leaving an exit—a "trap with a gap"—for the remaining German forces. Around 20,000–50,000 German troops (leaving almost all of their heavy material) escaped through the gap, avoiding encirclement and almost certain destruction. They would be reorganized and rearmed in time to slow the Allied advance into the Netherlands and Germany. Most of the blame for this outcome has been placed on Bradley. Bradley had incorrectly assumed, based on Ultra decoding transcripts, that most of the Germans had already escaped encirclement, and he feared a German counterattack as well as possible friendly fire casualties. Though admitting that a mistake had been made, Bradley placed the blame on General Montgomery for moving the British and Commonwealth troops too slowly, though the latter were in direct contact with a large number of SS Panzer, paratroopers, and other elite German forces. Germany The American forces reached the "Siegfried Line" or "Westwall" in late September. The success of the advance had taken the Allied high command by surprise. They had expected the German Wehrmacht to make stands on the natural defensive lines provided by the French rivers, and had not prepared the logistics for the much deeper advance of the Allied armies, so fuel ran short. Eisenhower faced a decision on strategy. Bradley favored an advance into the Saarland, or possibly a two-thrust assault on both the Saarland and the Ruhr Area. Montgomery argued for a narrow thrust across the Lower Rhine, preferably with all Allied ground forces under his personal command as they had been in the early months of the Normandy campaign, into the open country beyond and then to the northern flank into the Ruhr, thus avoiding the Siegfried Line. Although Montgomery was not permitted to launch an offensive on the scale he had wanted, George Marshall and Hap Arnold were eager to use the First Allied Airborne Army to cross the Rhine, so Eisenhower agreed to Operation Market Garden. Bradley opposed Operation Market Garden, and bitterly protested to Eisenhower the priority of supplies given to Montgomery, but Eisenhower, mindful of British public opinion regarding damage from V-1 missile launches in the north, refused to make any changes. Bradley's Army Group now covered a very wide front in hilly country, from the Netherlands to Lorraine. Despite having the largest concentration of Allied army forces, Bradley faced difficulties in prosecuting a successful broad-front offensive in difficult country with a skilled enemy. General Bradley and his First Army commander, General Courtney Hodges eventually decided to attack through a corridor known as the Aachen Gap towards the German township of Schmidt. The only nearby military objectives were the Roer River flood control dams, but these were not mentioned in contemporary plans and documents. Bradley and Hodges' original objective may have been to outflank German forces and prevent them from reinforcing their units further north in the Battle of Aachen. After the war, Bradley would cite the Roer dams as the objective. After the war Chester Wilmot quoted correspondence with the developer of the tanks, Major General Percy Hobart, to the effect that the failure to use such tanks was a major contributing factor to the losses at Omaha Beach, and that Bradley had deferred the decision whether to use the tanks to his staff who had not taken up the offer, other than in respect of the DD (swimming) tanks. However a later memo from the 21st Army Group is on record as relaying two separate requests from the First Army, one dealing with the DD tanks and "Porpoises" (towed waterproof trailers), the other with a variety of other Funnies. The second list gives not only items of specific interest with requested numbers, but items known to be available that were not of interest. The requested items were modified Shermans, and tank attachments compatible with Shermans. Noted as not of interest were Funnies that required Churchill or Valentine tanks, or for which alternatives were available from the US. Of the six requested types of Funnies, the Sherman Crocodile is known to have been difficult to produce, and the Centipede never seems to have been used in combat. Richard Anderson considers that the press of time prevented the production of the other four items in numbers beyond the Commonwealth's requirements. Given the heavier surf and the topography of Omaha Beach, it is unlikely that the funnies would have been as useful there as they were on the Commonwealth beaches. Post-war Veterans Administration President Truman appointed Bradley to head the Veterans Administration for two years after the war. He served from August 15, 1945, to November 30, 1947 and is credited with doing much to improve its health care system and with helping veterans receive their educational benefits under the G. I. Bill of Rights. Bradley's influence on the VA is credited with helping shape it into the agency it is today. He was a regular visitor to Capitol Hill and lobbied on behalf of veterans' benefits in testimony before various congressional veteran affairs committees. Due to his numerous contributions to the Veterans Administration, the Secretary of Veterans Affairs' primary conference room at the headquarters of the Department of Veterans Affairs is named in Bradley's honor. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Bradley became the Army Chief of Staff in 1948. After assuming command, Bradley found a U.S. military establishment badly in need of reorganization, equipment, and training. As Bradley himself put it, "the Army of 1948 could not fight its way out of a paper bag." On August 11, 1949, President Harry S. Truman appointed Bradley the first Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. After his initial 1948 plan to expand the Army and modernize its equipment was rejected by the Truman Administration, Bradley reacted to the increasingly severe postwar defense department budget cutbacks imposed by Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson by publicly supporting Johnson's decisions, going so far as to tell Congress that he would be doing a "disservice to the nation" if he asked for a larger military force. Bradley also suggested that official Navy protests of Secretary Johnson's canceling the supercarrier were due to improper personal or political, even mutinous motives, calling Navy admirals "fancy dans who won't hit the line with all they have on every play unless they can call the signals", and who were in "open rebellion against the civilian control." In his second memoir, Bradley would later state that not arguing more forcefully in 1948 and 1949 for a sufficient defense budget "was a mistake... perhaps the greatest mistake I made in my postwar years in Washington." On September 22, 1950, he was promoted to the rank of General of the Army, the fifth—and last—person to achieve that rank. That same year, Bradley was made the first Chairman of the NATO Military Committee. He remained on the committee until August 1953, when he left active duty. During his service, Bradley visited the White House over 300 times and was frequently featured on the cover of Time magazine. In 1950 Bradley was elected as an honorary member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati in recognition of his outstanding service to his country. Korean War As Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Bradley was the senior military officer at the outset of the Korean War. When North Korea invaded South Korea in June 1950, Bradley was faced with re-organizing and deploying an American military force that was a shadow of its World War II counterpart. The impact of the Truman administration's defense budget cutbacks were now keenly felt, as poorly equipped American troops, lacking sufficient tanks, anti-tank weapons, or artillery were driven down the Korean peninsula to Pusan in a series of costly rearguard actions. In a postwar analysis of the unpreparedness of U.S. Army forces deployed to Korea during the summer and fall of 1950, Army Major General Floyd L. Parks stated that "Many who never lived to tell the tale had to fight the full range of ground warfare from offensive to delaying action, unit by unit, man by man...[T]hat we were able to snatch victory from the jaws of defeat...does not relieve us from the blame of having placed our own flesh and blood in such a predicament." Bradley was the chief military policy maker during the Korean War, and supported Truman's original plan of 'rolling back' Communist aggression by conquering all of North Korea. When Chinese Communists entered North Korea in late 1950 and again drove back American forces, Bradley agreed that rollback had to be dropped in favor of a strategy of containment of North Korea. The containment strategy was subsequently adopted by the Truman administration for North Korea, and applied to communist expansion worldwide. Never an admirer of General Douglas MacArthur, Bradley was instrumental in convincing Truman to dismiss MacArthur as the overall commander in the Korean theatre after MacArthur resisted administration attempts to scale back strategic objectives in the Korean War. In his testimony to the U.S. Congress, Bradley strongly rebuked MacArthur for his support of victory at all costs in the Korean War. Soon after Truman relieved MacArthur of command in April 1951, Bradley said in Congressional testimony, "Red China is not the powerful nation seeking to dominate the world. Frankly, in the opinion of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, this strategy would involve us in the wrong war, at the wrong place, at the wrong time, and with the wrong enemy." Retirement Bradley left active military service in August 1953, but remained on active duty by virtue of his rank of General of the Army. He chaired the Commission on Veterans' Pensions, commonly known as the "Bradley Commission", in 1955–1956. In January 1956, Bradley became one of the founding members of the President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities, later the President's Intelligence Advisory Board. In retirement, Bradley held a number of positions in commercial life, including Chairman of the Board of the Bulova Watch Company from 1958 to 1973. He frequently visited Moberly, Missouri, which he described as his hometown and his favorite city in the world. He was a member of the Moberly Rotary Club, regularly played near handicap golf at the Moberly Country Club course, and had a "Bradley pew" at Central Christian Church. His memoirs, A Soldier's Story (ghostwritten by aide-de-camp Chester B. Hansen who kept a daily diary for him during the war), was published in 1951. Bradley started work on his autobiography A General's Life: An Autobiography (1983) before his death; it was coauthored with Clay Blair, who completed it posthumously. In this work, Bradley criticized British Field Marshal Montgomery's 1945 claims to have won the Battle of the Bulge. On December 1, 1965, Bradley's wife, Mary, died of leukemia. He met Esther Dora "Kitty" Buhler and married her on September 12, 1966; they were married until his death. As a horse racing fan, Bradley spent much of his leisure time at racetracks in California. He was often invited to present the trophies to the winners. He was a lifetime sports fan, especially of college football. He was the 1948 Grand Marshal of the Tournament of Roses and attended several subsequent Rose Bowl games. (He was driven in his black limousine through Pasadena; it had a personalized California license plate "ONB" and a red plate with 5 gold stars. He frequently was given a police motorcycle escort to the Rose Bowl on New Year's Day.) He also was prominent at the Sun Bowl in El Paso, Texas, and the Independence Bowl in Shreveport, Louisiana in later years. In 1967-1968 Bradley served as a member of President Lyndon Johnson's Wise Men, a high-level advisory group considering policy for the Vietnam War. Bradley was a hawk and recommended against withdrawal. Following the death of Dwight D. Eisenhower in March 1969, Bradley was the only surviving 5-star officer in the US Armed Forces. In 1970, Bradley served as a consultant for the film Patton. Screenwriters Francis Ford Coppola and Edmund H. North wrote most of the film based on Bradley's memoir, A Soldier's Story, and the biography, Patton: Ordeal and Triumph, by Ladislas Farago. The screenwriters did not have access to General Patton's diaries nor did they interview his family. They relied upon observations by Bradley and other military contemporaries when attempting to reconstruct Patton's thoughts and motives. In a review of the film Patton, S.L.A. Marshall, who knew both Patton and Bradley, stated that "The Bradley name gets heavy billing on a picture of [a] comrade that, while not caricature, is the likeness of a victorious, glory-seeking buffoon...Patton in the flesh was an enigma. He so stays in the film...Napoleon once said that the art of the general is not strategy but knowing how to mold human nature...Maybe that is all producer Frank McCarthy and Gen. Bradley, his chief advisor, are trying to say." While Bradley knew Patton personally, it was known that Bradley despised Patton both personally and professionally, though in the film they're portrayed as close friends. In 1971 Bradley was the subject of an episode of the TV show This Is Your Life. Bradley attended the 30th anniversary of D-Day at Normandy, France on June 6, 1974, participating in various parades. On January 10, 1977, Bradley was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Gerald Ford. In 1978, Bradley received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member General Jimmy Doolittle. Bradley was the keynote speaker at Pointe du Hoc, Normandy, France on June 6, 1979, for the 35th anniversary of D-Day. While seated in a wheelchair, he performed an open ranks inspection of the U.S. representative army unit, the 84th Army Band from VII Corps HQ, Stuttgart, West Germany. Bradley lived during his last years in Texas at a special residence on the grounds of the William Beaumont Army Medical Center, part of the complex which supports Fort Bliss. One of Bradley's last public appearances was as the guest of honor at the inauguration of President Ronald Reagan on January 20, 1981. Omar Bradley died on April 8, 1981, in New York City of a cardiac arrhythmia, a few minutes after receiving an award from the National Institute of Social Sciences. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery, next to his two wives. General Bradley served on active duty continuously from August 1, 1911, until his death on April 8, 1981 – a total of 69 years, 8 months and 7 days. His was the longest active duty career in the history of the United States Armed Forces. Recognition and legacy Bradley's posthumous autobiography, A General's Life, was published in 1983. Bradley began the book but found writing difficult, and hired writer Clay Blair to help shape the work. After Bradley's death, Blair continued the writing. He used Bradley's first-person voice. The resulting book is also based on Blair's interviews of people in Bradley's circles, and on Bradley's personal papers. Bradley is known for saying, "Ours is a world of nuclear giants and ethical infants. We know more about war than about peace, more about killing than we know about living." The U.S. Army's M2 Bradley infantry fighting vehicle and M3 Bradley cavalry fighting vehicle are named after General Bradley. Bradley's hometown, Moberly, Missouri, classifies him as a "favorite son" and is planning a library and museum in his honor. Bradley Leadership Symposia have been held in Moberly, honoring him as a teacher of young officers. On February 12, 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives, the Missouri Senate, the Missouri House, the County of Randolph and the City of Moberly recognized Bradley's birthday as General Omar Nelson Bradley Day. On May 5, 2000, the United States Postal Service issued a series of Distinguished Soldiers stamps in which Bradley was honored. Summary of service Assignment history August 1, 1911: Cadet, United States Military Academy, West Point June 12, 1915: 14th Infantry Regiment September 10, 1919: ROTC professor, South Dakota State College September 13, 1920: Instructor, United States Military Academy September 15, 1924: Infantry School Student, Fort Benning, Georgia October 1, 1925: Battalion Commander, 27th Infantry Regiment June 10, 1927: Office of National Guard and Reserve Affairs, Hawaiian Department August 31, 1928: Student, Command and General Staff School August 1, 1929: Instructor, United States Army Infantry School, Fort Benning, Georgia August 18, 1933: Student, United States Army War College June 30, 1934: Plans and Training Officer, United States Military Academy June 1, 1938: War Department General Staff, G-1 Chief of Operations Branch and Assistant Secretary of the General Staff March 5, 1941: Commandant, U.S. Army Infantry School, Fort Benning, Georgia February 19, 1942: Commanding General, 82nd Infantry Division June 25, 1942: Commanding General, 28th Infantry Division April 16, 1943: Commanding General, II Corps, North Africa and Sicily September 9, 1943: Commanding General, Field Forces European Theater March 6, 1944: Commanding General, First Army August 1, 1944: Commanding General, 12th Army Group August 15, 1945: Administrator of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Administration February 7, 1948: United States Army Chief of Staff August 15, 1949: Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff August 19, 1953: Remained on active duty without an assignment Orders, decorations and medals United States Combat Infantryman Badge (honorary) Army Staff Identification Badge Four Overseas Service Bars Foreign orders Grand Cross, Legion of Honour (France) Grand Cross, Order of the Crown (Belgium) Grand Cross, Order of the Oak Crown (Luxembourg) Grand Cross, Order of George I (Greece) Grand Cross, Order of the Phoenix (Greece) Grand Cross, Military Order of Savoy (Italy) Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (United Kingdom) Grand Officer, Order of the Liberator (Argentina) Grand Officer, Order of Military Merit (Brazil) Grand Officer, Order of Orange-Nassau (Netherlands) Commander, Order of the White Lion (Czechoslovakia) Commander of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite (Morocco) Commander's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta (Poland) Order of Suvorov (1st class) (Soviet Union) Order of Kutuzov (1st class) (Soviet Union) Foreign decorations and medals French Croix de guerre with silver-gilt palm War Cross WWII (Belgium) with palm Czechoslovak War Cross 1939–1945 Luxembourg War Cross Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal Dates of rank Source: * – Discharged as Major and appointed Captain November 4, 1922; acts June 30, 1922 and September 14, 1922 ** – Bradley's effective date for permanent brigadier general in the Regular Army is earlier than his effective date of promotion for permanent colonel. While serving as a temporary lieutenant general in early 1943, Bradley was notified that he would be promoted to permanent colonel with an effective date of October 1, 1943. At the time, promotions to permanent brigadier and major general had been withheld for more than two years, except for Delos C. Emmons, Henry H. Arnold, and Dwight Eisenhower. President Franklin D. Roosevelt lifted the moratorium after Bradley was notified that he would be promoted to colonel, but before the October 1 effective date. In determining whom to promote after the lifting of Roosevelt's moratorium, Marshall consulted with Eisenhower, and they agreed to promote Bradley and several others. Marshall and Eisenhower then arranged the effective dates of promotion to brigadier general based on where they wanted each of the individuals selected to rank in terms of seniority. Bradley's date of rank for permanent brigadier general was then set as September 1, 1943—even though this was before his October 1, 1943 effective date for promotion to colonel—based on where Eisenhower and Marshall wanted Bradley to fall in terms of seniority as a brigadier general. Bradley's and the other promotions to brigadier general on which Marshall and Eisenhower had conferred were not acted on until mid-October 1943 because Congress had to approve a waiver for those generals, including Bradley, who did not yet have 28 years of service. As a result, his October 1, 1943 date for promotion to permanent colonel was allowed to remain in effect. When Congress acted in mid-October to approve Bradley's time in service waiver and promotion to permanent brigadier general, his effective date for brigadier general was backdated to September 1, 1943. The September 1, 1943 date for permanent brigadier general enabled Bradley to line up with his peers where Marshall and Eisenhower intended for purposes of seniority. The effective postdated (and then backdated) date of rank for Bradley's promotion to permanent brigadier general—September 1, 1943—thus came before the effective postdated date of rank for his promotion to colonel—October 1, 1943. References Further reading Blair, Clay (2003). The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950–1953. Naval Institute Press. . Blumenson, Martin (1990). General Bradley's Decision at Argentan (August 13, 1944). University of Michigan Library Press. Blumenson, Martin (1993). The Battle of the Generals: The Untold Story of the Falaise Pocket, The Campaign That Should Have Won World War II. William Morrow & Co. . Bradley, Omar N. and Blair, Clay (1983). A General's Life: An Autobiography. p. 752. New York: Simon & Schuster. . Bradley, Omar N. (1951). A Soldier's Story. New York: Holt Publishing Co. . Cowley, Robert; Parker, Geoffrey (1996). The Reader's Companion to Military History. Houghton Mifflin Company. . D'Este, Carlo (1995). Patton: A Genius for War. Harper Perennial. . Jordan, Jonathan W. (2011). Brothers Rivals Victors: Eisenhower, Patton, Bradley, and the Partnership that Drove the Allied Conquest in Europe. NAL. . Lavoie, Jeffrey D. Lavoie. The Private Life of General Omar N. Bradley. Jefferson McFarland, 2015. . MacLean, Colonel French L. The Fifth Field: The Story of the 96 American Soldiers Sentenced to Death and Executed in Europe and North Africa in World War II, Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, 2013, . Ossad, Steven L. Omar Nelson Bradley: America's GI General (U of Missouri Press, 2017) Weigley, Russell F. (1981). Eisenhower's Lieutenants: The Campaign of France and Germany 1944–1945. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. . Whiting, Charles (2000). The Battle of Hurtgen Forest. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press. . External links Chester B. Hansen Collection – Hansen was the aide of GEN (and GOA) Bradley during and after World War II. US Army Heritage and Education Center, Carlisle, Pennsylvania Omar Nelson Bradley, Lt. General FUSAG 12TH AG – Omar Bradley's D-Day June 6, 1944 Maps restored, preserved and displayed at Historical Registry The American Presidency Project United States Army Officers 1939–1945 Generals of World War II |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- 1893 births 1981 deaths American five-star officers United States Army personnel of World War I Army Black Knights baseball players Army Black Knights football players Burials at Arlington National Cemetery Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Commanders of the Order of Polonia Restituta Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath Military personnel from Missouri NATO military personnel Operation Overlord people People from Moberly, Missouri Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France) Recipients of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army) Recipients of the Legion of Merit Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal Recipients of the Order of Kutuzov, 1st class Recipients of the Order of Suvorov, 1st class Recipients of the Silver Star United States Army Chiefs of Staff United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni United States Army War College alumni United States Department of Veterans Affairs officials United States Military Academy alumni Writers from Missouri Graduates of the United States Military Academy Class of 1915 Recipients of the Czechoslovak War Cross American people of British descent United States Army generals of World War II United States Army generals South Dakota State University faculty United States Military Academy faculty United States Army personnel of the Korean War

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil%20Wayne

Lil Wayne

Dwayne Michael Carter Jr. (born September 27, 1982), known professionally as Lil Wayne, is an American rapper. He is regarded by many contemporaries as one of the most influential hip hop artists of his generation, and often cited as one of the greatest rappers of all time. His career began in 1995, at the age of 12, when he was signed by rapper Birdman, joining Cash Money Records as the youngest member of the label. From then on, Wayne was the flagship artist of Cash Money Records before ending his association with the company in June 2018. In 1995, Wayne was put in a duo with label-mate B.G. (at the time known as Lil Doogie) and they recorded an album, True Story, released that year, although Wayne (at the time known as Baby D) only appeared on three tracks. Wayne and B.G. soon joined the southern hip hop group Hot Boys, with Cash Money label-mates Juvenile and Turk in 1997; they released their debut album Get It How U Live! in October that year. The Hot Boys became popular following the release of the album Guerrilla Warfare (1999) and the song "Bling Bling". Lil Wayne's solo debut album Tha Block Is Hot (1999) was his solo breakthrough, and he reached higher popularity with his fourth album Tha Carter (2004) and fifth album Tha Carter II (2005), as well as several mixtapes and collaborations throughout 2006 and 2007. He gained more prominence within the music industry with his sixth album Tha Carter III (2008), with first-week sales of over one million copies in the US. The album won the Grammy Award for Best Rap Album and included successful singles "A Milli", "Got Money" (featuring T-Pain), and "Lollipop" (featuring Static Major)—the latter being his first single to reach number one on the Billboard Hot 100. In February 2010, Wayne released his seventh studio album, Rebirth, which experimented with rap rock and was met with generally negative reviews. A month later in March 2010, Lil Wayne began serving an 8-month jail sentence in New York after being convicted of criminal possession of a weapon stemming from an incident in July 2007. His eighth studio album I Am Not a Human Being (2010) was released during his incarceration, while his 2011 album Tha Carter IV was released following his release. Tha Carter IV sold 964,000 copies in its first week in the United States. His twelfth studio album Tha Carter V was released in 2018 after multiple delays. Wayne's thirteenth album, Funeral, was released in early 2020. Lil Wayne has sold over 120 million records worldwide, including more than 20 million albums and 70 million digital tracks in the United States, making him one of the world's best-selling music artists. He has won five Grammy Awards, 11 BET Awards, four Billboard Music Awards, two MTV Video Music Awards and eight NAACP Image Awards. On September 27, 2012, he became the first male artist to surpass Elvis Presley with the most entries on the Billboard Hot 100, with 109 songs. Lil Wayne also currently serves as the chief executive officer (CEO) of his own label, Young Money Entertainment. Early life Dwayne Michael Carter Jr. was born on September 27, 1982, and spent his first few years in the impoverished Hollygrove neighborhood of New Orleans, Louisiana. His mother, a cook, gave birth to him when she was 19 years old. His parents divorced when he was two and his father permanently abandoned the family. When CBS interviewer Katie Couric asked why he used the name Wayne instead of his given name, Carter explained that "I dropped the D because I'm a junior and my father is living and he's not in my life and he's never been in my life. So I don't want to be Dwayne, I'd rather be Wayne". Asked if his father knew of this, Carter replied, "He knows now". Carter has said that he considers his deceased stepfather Reginald "Rabbit" McDonald to be his real father. Carter has a tattoo dedicated to McDonald. Carter was enrolled in the gifted program at Lafayette Elementary School. He later attended Eleanor McMain Secondary School for two years, where he was an honor student and a member of the drama club, playing the Tin Man in the school's production of The Wiz. After matriculating to Marion Abramson Senior High School, Carter dropped out at age 14 to focus on his musical career. Carter wrote his first rap song at age eight. In the summer of 1991, he met rapper and Cash Money Records co-founder Bryan "Baby" Williams (known currently as Birdman), who mentored him and encouraged his love of hip-hop; Birdman included Carter on several Cash Money tracks, and Carter would often record freestyle raps on Williams' answering machine. In 1994, at age 12, Carter suffered a near-fatal self-inflicted gunshot wound to the chest. At the time he said the injury was accidental. Decades later Carter claimed that it was an attempted suicide after he was told by his mother that he would have to end his rap-related associations. Carter credits off-duty police officer Robert Hoobler, who he calls "Uncle Bob", with saving his life by insisting the dying child be driven immediately to hospital in a police car rather than waiting for an ambulance to become available. Other accounts indicate that several officers played a part in deciding on and implementing that course of action. Career 1997–1999: Career beginnings and Hot Boys In 1997, Carter joined the Hot Boys along with rappers Juvenile, B.G., and Turk. At age 14, Carter was the youngest member at the time. Hot Boys' debut album Get It How U Live! was released the same year, followed in 1999 by the group's major-label debut Guerrilla Warfare, which reached No. 1 on the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart and No. 5 on the Billboard 200. During their career, the Hot Boys had two charting singles, "We on Fire" from Get It How U Live! and "I Need a Hot Girl" from Guerrilla Warfare. Carter was also featured on Juvenile's single "Back That Azz Up", which reached No. 18 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 5 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks. Let 'Em Burn, a compilation album of unreleased tracks recorded during 1999 and 2000, came out in 2003, several years after the group disbanded. It reached No. 3 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart and No. 14 on the Billboard 200. 1999–2004: Tha Block Is Hot, Lights Out, and 500 Degreez Carter's debut solo album, Tha Block Is Hot, was released when he was 17 and featured significant contributions from the Hot Boys. It debuted at number 3 on the Billboard 200 and was later certified platinum by the RIAA. The album earned Carter a 1999 Source magazine nomination for "Best New Artist", and also became a Top Ten hit. The lead single was "Tha Block Is Hot". After the release of Tha Block Is Hot, Carter was featured on the single "Bling Bling", with B.G., Juvenile, and Big Tymers. Carter's verse appeared only on the radio version of the song, while on the album version he performed on the chorus. His second album, Lights Out, was released in 2000, and failed to attain the level of success achieved by his debut but was certified gold by RIAA. Critics noted the lack of coherent narratives in his verses as evidence that he had yet to mature to the level of his fellow Hot Boys. The lead single was "Get Off the Corner", which was noticed for an improvement in its lyrical content and style. The second single, which received less attention, was "Shine" featuring the Hot Boys. Near the release of Lights Out, Carter was featured on the single, "Number One Stunna" with Big Tymers and Juvenile, which peaked at number 24 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart. Carter's third album, 500 Degreez, was released in 2002. It followed the format of his previous two, with significant contributions from the Hot Boys and Mannie Fresh. While being certified gold like its predecessor, it also failed to match the success of his debut. The title was a reference to the recently estranged Hot Boys member Juvenile's recording, 400 Degreez. The lead single was "Way of Life" which failed to match the success of his previous singles. After the release of 500 Degreez, Carter was featured on the single "Neva Get Enuf" by 3LW. 2004–2006: Tha Carter, Tha Carter II, and Like Father, Like Son In the summer of 2004, Carter's fourth studio album, Tha Carter, was released, marking what critics considered advancement in his rapping style and lyrical themes. In addition, the album's cover art featured the debut of Wayne's now-signature dreadlocks. Tha Carter gained Wayne significant recognition, selling 878,000 copies in the United States, while the single "Go DJ" became a Top 5 Hit on the R&B/Hip-Hop chart. After the release of Tha Carter, Lil Wayne was featured in Destiny's Child's single "Soldier" with T.I., which peaked at number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 and the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs charts. Tha Carter II, the follow-up to the original Tha Carter album, was released in December 2005, this time without production by longtime Cash Money Records producer Mannie Fresh, who had left the label. Tha Carter II sold more than 238,000 copies in its first week of release, debuting at number 2 on the Billboard 200 albums chart, and went on to sell 2,000,000 copies worldwide. The lead single "Fireman" became a hit in the US, peaking at 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Other singles included "Grown Man" with Currensy, "Hustler Musik", and "Shooter" with R&B singer Robin Thicke. Carter also appeared on a remix of Bobby Valentino's "Tell Me", which rose to number 13 on the U.S. R&B Charts. In 2005, Carter was named president of Cash Money, and in the same year he founded Young Money Entertainment as an imprint of Cash Money. However, as of late 2007, Carter reported having stepped down from the management of both labels and had handed management of Young Money over to Cortez Bryant. In 2006, Carter collaborated with Birdman for the album Like Father, Like Son, whose first single "Stuntin' Like My Daddy", reached number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100. 2006–2007: Mixtapes and collaborations Instead of a follow-up solo album, Carter began to reach his audience through a plethora of mixtapes and guest appearances on a variety of pop and hip hop singles. Of his many mixtapes, Dedication 2 and Da Drought 3 received the most media exposure and critical review. Dedication 2, released in 2006, paired Carter with DJ Drama and contained the acclaimed socially conscious track "Georgia Bush", in which Carter critiqued former US president George W. Bush's response to the effects of Hurricane Katrina on the city of New Orleans. Da Drought 3 was released the following year and was available for free legal download. It contained Carter rapping over a variety of beats from recent hits by other musicians. A number of prominent hip hop magazines such as XXL and Vibe covered the mixtape. Christian Hoard of Rolling Stone magazine considered the mixtapes Da Drought 3 and The Drought Is Over 2 (The Carter 3 Sessions) "among the best albums of 2007". Despite no album release for two years, Carter appeared in numerous singles as a featured performer, including "Gimme That" by Chris Brown, "Make It Rain" by Fat Joe, "You" by Lloyd, and "We Takin' Over" by DJ Khaled (also featuring Akon, T.I., Rick Ross, Fat Joe, and Birdman), "Duffle Bag Boy" by Playaz Circle, "Sweetest Girl (Dollar Bill)" by Wyclef Jean (also featuring Akon), and the remix to "I'm So Hood" by DJ Khaled (also featuring T-Pain, Young Jeezy, Ludacris, Busta Rhymes, Big Boi, Fat Joe, Birdman, and Rick Ross). All these singles charted within the top 20 spots on the Billboard Hot 100, Hot Rap Tracks, and Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs charts. On Birdman's 2007 album, 5 * Stunna, Carter appeared on the singles "100 Million" and "I Run This" among several other tracks. Carter also appeared on tracks from albums Getback by Little Brother, American Gangster by Jay-Z, and Graduation by Kanye West and Insomniac by Enrique Iglesias. "Make it Rain", a Scott Storch production that peaked at number 13 on the Hot 100 and number two on the Hot Rap Tracks chart, was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for 2008. Vibe magazine ranked a list of 77 of Lil Wayne's songs from 2007 and ranked his verse in DJ Khaled's "We Takin Over" as his best of 2007, with "Dough Is What I Got" (a freestyle over the beat of Jay-Z's "Show Me What You Got") from Da Drought 3. At the end of 2007, an MTV poll selected Lil Wayne as "Hottest MC in the Game", The New Yorker magazine ranked him "Rapper of the Year", and GQ magazine named him "Workaholic of the Year". In 2008 he was named "Best MC" by Rolling Stone. Another article, built around Lil Wayne's 2007 mixtape work, cites his creative practice as an example of post-performance creative practice. 2007–2010: Tha Carter III, We Are Young Money, and Rebirth In 2007, Carter stated that he would reunite with Hot Boys, with plans to release an album after B.G.'s solo album Too Hood to Be Hollywood was completed. Tha Carter III was originally scheduled to be released in 2007, but it was delayed after several recordings were leaked and distributed through mixtapes, including The Drought Is Over Pt. 2 and The Drought Is Over Pt. 4. Lil Wayne initially planned to release The Leak, a separate album with leaked songs and four additional tracks, on December 18, 2007, with Tha Carter III delayed to March 18, 2008. Instead, The Leak became an EP with five songs and was released digitally on December 25, 2007. Tha Carter III was released on June 10, 2008, with first-week sales of over 1 million copies, the first to do so since 50 Cent's The Massacre (2005). The album's first single "Lollipop", featuring Static Major, became the Carter's most successful song at the time, topping the Billboard Hot 100 and becoming his first top 10 single as a solo artist and his first number one on the chart. The third single "Got Money", featuring T-Pain, peaked at number 13 on the Billboard 100. Tha Carter III went on to win four Grammy Awards, including best rap album and best rap song, which he won for "Lollipop". On July 14, 2008, the Recording Industry Association of America certified Tha Carter III two times platinum. In October 2008, Lil Wayne announced plans to MTV News to re-release the album with new tracks, including a duet with Ludacris and remixes of "A Milli". Carter also appeared on R&B singles "Girls Around the World" by Lloyd, "Love In This Club, Part II" by Usher, "Official Girl" by Cassie, "I'm So Paid" by Akon, "Turnin' Me On" by Keri Hilson, and "Can't Believe It" by T-Pain; rap singles "My Life" by The Game, "Shawty Say" by David Banner, "Swagga Like Us" by T.I., "Cutty Buddy" by Mike Jones, All My Life (In the Ghetto) by Jay Rock and the remix to "Certified" by Glasses Malone; and pop single "Let It Rock" by new Cash Money artist Kevin Rudolf. In 2008, Carter performed at the Voodoo Experience in October in New Orleans, which was described by Jonathan Cohen of Billboard as his biggest hometown headlining set of his career. He also performed at the Virgin Mobile Music Fest with Kanye West, where they performed the remix of "Lollipop" and lip-synced to Whitney Houston's "I Will Always Love You". Lil Wayne also performed at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards with Kid Rock ("All Summer Long"), Leona Lewis ("DontGetIt (Misunderstood)") and T-Pain ("Got Money") and performed "Lollipop" and "Got Money" on the season premiere of Saturday Night Live. He later performed at the homecoming rally at Vanderbilt University and the 2008 BET Hip Hop Awards, where he received 12 nominations. He won eight awards at the BET Hip Hop Awards, one of which included the "MVP" title. After M.I.A. dropped out of performing on the I Am Music Tour due to her pregnancy, Jay-Z performed "Mr. Carter" with Lil Wayne at select shows. Following Tha Carter III achievement of selling over 3 million copies, becoming 2008's best-selling record, Carter re-signed with Cash Money Records for a multi-album deal. On November 11, 2008, Carter became the first hip hop act to perform at the Country Music Association Awards, playing "All Summer Long" alongside Kid Rock, in which Carter inaudibly strummed guitar strings alongside the guitarist in Kid Rock's band. Shortly after, Wayne was nominated for eight Grammys – the most for any artist nominated that year. He was then named the first MTV Man of the Year at the end of 2008. He won the Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance for "A Milli", Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for his appearance in T.I.'s single "Swagga Like Us", and Best Rap Song for "Lollipop". Tha Carter III won the award for Best Rap Album. MTV News listed Carter number two on their 2009 list of the Hottest MCs In The Game. On January 6, 2009, Carter was a guest debater against Skip Bayless on the "1st & 10" segment of ESPN First Take. On February 10, 2009, he appeared on ESPN's Around the Horn and beat out veterans Woody Paige, Jay Mariotti and fellow New Orleanian Michael Smith to win that show's episode. Prior to the 2009 Grammy Awards, Wayne was featured in an interview with Katie Couric. On February 7, 2009, he presented the Top Ten List on CBS's Late Show with David Letterman. On April 24, 2009, he appeared on The View, discussing his GED and addictions. In September 2009, Carter was profiled in an episode of VH1's Behind the Music and was a presenter of the 2009 MTV Movie Awards. In film, Carter produced and composed music for and starred in the direct-to-video film Hurricane Season. A documentary of Carter, titled The Carter, was released at the Sundance Film Festival. On December 23, 2009, Carter released a collaboration album with Young Money, We Are Young Money, with its lead single being "Every Girl". The second single was "BedRock", featuring Lloyd, with the third being "Roger That". On May 24, 2010, the album was certified gold by the RIAA with over 500,000 copies sold. Carter is featured on the song, "Revolver", with Madonna for her greatest hits album, Celebration (2009). He was also featured on a Weezer song, "Can't Stop Partying", on Raditude (2009). In late 2008, Carter announced plans to reissue Tha Carter III with leftover recordings, and was to be titled Rebirth, originally scheduled to be released on April 7, 2009, before being delayed several times. Rebirth instead became his sixth solo album, released on February 2, 2010. To support its release and that of We Are Young Money, Carter was featured on the cover of Rolling Stone and headlined the 'Young Money Presents: America's Most Wanted Music Festival', a United States and Canada–only concert tour which began on July 29, 2009. "Prom Queen", the first official single, debuted on January 27, 2009, immediately after a live Internet broadcast on Ustream of his concert in San Diego. It peaked at number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100 charts. On December 3, 2009, the second single, "On Fire", produced by Cool & Dre "On Fire" peaked at number 33 on the Billboard Hot 100 charts. "Drop the World", which features Eminem, was the third single from the Rebirth. 2010–2013: I Am Not a Human Being series and Tha Carter IV In an interview on MTV's Mixtape Monday, Carter asserted the possibility of Tha Carter IV. He later announced that it would be released in late 2009 before the holiday season. Birdman had previously stated that Tha Carter IV would be packaged with Rebirth as a double disc album. However, Carter denied this idea saying that "Tha Carter IV deserves Tha Carter IV", adding that We Are Young Money may be packaged with Rebirth. However, both albums were released separately. Originally thought to be an EP, Carter released his tenth album, I Am Not a Human Being, on his 28th birthday, September 27, 2010. The album has sold over 953,000 copies in the U.S. and spawned successful single "Right Above It", which peaked at No. 6 on the Billboard Hot 100. Tha Carter IV was later delayed into 2011, after Lil Wayne began recording from scratch after his release from prison. He described his first song since his release as "a 2010 version of A Milli on steroids". The album's lead single, "6 Foot 7 Foot" featuring Cory Gunz, was released on December 15, 2010, and made available for digital download on iTunes on December 16, 2010. The song is produced by Bangladesh, who also produced "A Milli". On March 8, 2011, Carter released another song, "We Back Soon", produced by StreetRunner, though it was not included on the official track listing of Tha Carter IV. The second single, "John", was released on March 24, 2011, which features Rick Ross and is produced by Polow Da Don. The album's artwork was unveiled on April 20, 2011. The album was originally scheduled to be released on May 16, 2011, but Mack Maine had confirmed its delay until June 21. On May 26, 2011, the third single, "How to Love", was released. A song called "Dear Anne (Stan Part 2)" was released in June. Carter said the song was a throwaway track from Tha Carter III and was originally supposed to be on Tha Carter IV, but decided not to put it on there because of its age. Carter said that he liked the beat, but not the lyrics, and was thinking about revamping the song. In July 2011, Carter confirmed in an interview with MTV that Tha Carter IV was finished, and was released on August 29, 2011. For preparation for Tha Carter IV, Carter released a mixtape, Sorry 4 the Wait, with all the beats coming from other artist's songs, similar to his mixtape No Ceilings. Tha Carter IV debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, with first-week sales of 964,000 copies, making it Carter's third chart-topping album of his career. On January 8, 2012, according to Nielsen SoundScan was elected the seventh artist (second male artist) all-time best-selling tracks digital with 36,788,000 million to the end of 2011. In October 2011, it was reported that Carter was working on sequels to both I Am Not a Human Being and Rebirth. In January 2012, Birdman announced that he and Carter had finished recording Like Father, Like Son 2. On November 22, 2012, he announced that Tha Carter V would be his final album. After numerous delays, I Am Not a Human Being II was released on March 26, 2013, debuting at number two on the Billboard 200 selling 217,000 copies in its first week; "My Homies Still", "Love Me", and "No Worries" were released as singles prior to its release. The album was met with generally mixed reviews, with most critics noticing the declining quality of his releases. Carter toured North America with 2 Chainz and T.I. on the second America's Most Wanted Festival. On May 3, 2013, Pepsi dropped Carter, who was a spokesperson for Mountain Dew, due to offensive lyrics about civil rights icon Emmett Till. On September 1, 2013, Carter released the fifth instalment of the "Dedication" mixtape series, with Dedication 5. The mixtape featured 29 tracks, with guest appearances from The Weeknd, Chance The Rapper, Jae Millz, Birdman, T.I., Vado, Kidd Kidd, and 2 Chainz among other members of Young Money. 2014–2019: Free Weezy Album and Tha Carter V On February 10, 2014, Drake tweeted "CARTER V". On October 18, 2013, Cash Money Records Vice President of Promotion Mel Smith, tweeted: "Happy Friday!! New YMCMB music coming soon!! Carter 5." Nearly four months later, in an interview with The Griffin, released on February 14, 2014, Smith spoke on the upcoming album: "We're very close to dropping the album. It's going to be a huge surprise to everyone, it's an incredible album ... I can't release the date because he wants to surprise people, he wants his true fan base to get excited, but he's worked extremely hard on it and you won't be disappointed." On February 15, 2014, during the NBA All-Star Weekend festivities at Sprite's NBA All-Star concert at the House of Blues in New Orleans, Carter appeared as a special guest during Drake's set and performed various hits. Carter and Drake then announced that Tha Carter V would be released on May 5, 2014. However, on March 27, 2014, Carter's manager Cortez Bryant announced that the album had been delayed. Carter then serviced Tha Carter Vs first single "Believe Me", which features vocals from Drake, to mainstream urban radio in the United States on May 6, 2014. Three more singles, "Krazy", "Grindin'" (featuring Drake) and "Start a Fire" (featuring Christina Milian), were also released for the album. On December 4, 2014, just five days before the album was due to be released again, Carter issued a statement saying the album would not be released on its expected release date, due to his displeasure with Cash Money Records label-boss Birdman, refusing to release the album although it had been completed. Carter also expressed his feelings by stating he felt both he and his creativity were being held "prisoner". On January 20, 2015, Carter self-released Sorry 4 the Wait 2, a sequel to his 2011 mixtape, to compensate for the continued delay of Tha Carter V. Upon Sorry for the Wait 2s release, it was said Wayne disses Birdman and Cash Money Records, several times throughout the mixtape. Birdman was reported to be upset with this. In late January 2015, Carter sued Birdman and Cash Money Records for $51 million. In February 2015, due to Tha Carter Vs delay, Carter announced that a free album would be released prior to the fifth installment in his popular series. In June 2015, Carter joined Jay-Z's TIDAL, as an artist owner, kicking off the partnership by exclusively releasing a single on the service titled "Glory". He's also announced plans on his own TIDAL X concert series. On July 4, 2015, Carter released Free Weezy Album, exclusively through TIDAL, under Young Money and Republic Records. Carter and Birdman supposedly reconciled after being seen at Drake's NYE Party, at Miami's Club Liv, and in studio. On January 27, 2016, when rapper 2 Chainz released his "Felt Like Cappin" EP, Carter is featured on the lead single titled "Back On That Bullshit". On March 4, 2016, 2 Chainz released his third studio album, ColleGrove. The album was initially a collaborative effort between 2 Chainz and Carter, but due to his record label issues, only 2 Chainz was credited as the primary artist. In 2017, Carter announced that he signed with Roc Nation. Later, Carter revealed that there was no official paperwork that he signed to the label. On June 28, 2016, Carter was one of the main singers in the song "Sucker for Pain", along with Wiz Khalifa and Imagine Dragons, for the DC Comics film Suicide Squad. X Ambassadors and Ty Dolla Sign were also featured in the song. On August 8, 2017, he released the song "Like a Man" with sound engineer Onhel. On June 7, 2018, it was announced that Carter had been released from Cash Money Records and will be releasing Tha Carter V via Universal Records. In September 2016, Carter's song "No Mercy" debuted as the theme song for Skip and Shannon: Undisputed sports talk on FS1. Carter is a frequent guest on the program. On Christmas 2017, Carter released the mixtape Dedication 6, the sixth instalment of the "Gangsta Grillz" chronology. The second part was released on January 26, 2018. Tha Carter V was finally released on September 27, 2018, debuting at number one on the US Billboard 200 with 480,000 album-equivalent units, including 140,000 pure album sales. It is the second-largest streaming week for an album behind Drake's Scorpion with 433 million streams. It is also Carter's fourth US number-one album. Every song on the album charted on the Billboard 100, while simultaneously charting 4 songs in the top 10, also becoming the first artist to debut two songs in the top 5. 2020–present: Funeral, Young Money Radio, re-releases, I Am Not a Human Being III, Trust Fund Babies and Tha Carter VI While Carter was working on Tha Carter V, it was announced that his next album would be titled Funeral. On January 23, 2020, he revealed the album's release date and album artwork. Funeral was released on January 31, and debuted at number-one on the US Billboard 200, with 139,000 album-equivalent units, becoming his fifth US number-one album. The album received generally positive reviews from music critics. On February 2, 2020, Lil Wayne competed in Season 3 of The Masked Singer after the Super Bowl LIV as "Robot". He was the first to be eliminated. Carter featured on Lil Baby's track "Forever", a track from Baby's second studio album, My Turn, which was released on February 28, 2020. Carter also participates in the music video for the song, which was released on March 3, 2020. This marked the second collaboration for the two artists in 2020, with the first being on Carter's single "I Do It". On April 24, 2020, Lil Wayne along with Dash Radio, launched his own radio show, Young Money Radio, on Apple Music. Wayne described the show as having "heavyweights calling in discussing sports, music, comedy, everything!". On July 3, Lil Wayne released his eleventh studio album, Free Weezy Album (2015) on streaming services to commemorate its five-year anniversary. The album charted at number 77 on the Billboard 200 the following week. On May 29, Wayne released the deluxe edition of Funeral featuring artists such as Doja Cat, Tory Lanez, Lil Uzi Vert, Benny The Butcher, Conway the Machine and Jessie Reyez. On August 28, Wayne released another old project, his 2009 mixtape No Ceilings, for commercial release. He also celebrated the release by collaborating with ASAP Ferg on the song "No Ceilings". Wayne was featured on YoungBoy Never Broke Again's album Top on the track "My Window", released on September 11. His verse received praise from critics. On September 25, he released the deluxe edition of his twelfth album Tha Carter V, to celebrate the album's two-year anniversary; it consists of songs that did not make the cut on the original album. On November 27, 2020, Lil Wayne released the mixtape No Ceilings 3, while announcing the album I Am Not a Human Being III for 2021, although it would not be released that year due to delays. On October 1, 2021, Wayne and Rich the Kid released a collaborative mixtape titled Trust Fund Babies, along with a music video for the single "Feelin' Like Tunechi". The mixtape took roughly a month and a half to record. On their working relationship, Wayne said, "For me, it's the chemistry, it's the camaraderie because first of all, Rich like my little bro and me and Rich been rockin' for a minute". Wayne is currently working on Tha Carter VI. Future projects Carter has announced several possible upcoming projects, including a collaborative album entitled I Can't Feel My Face with Harlem-based rapper Juelz Santana, that has been in production for several years. In late 2011, it was announced by Mack Maine that Carter and Juelz Santana had gone back to work on their collaborative album I Can't Feel My Face, which had been delayed for a few years due to "label politics". On June 19, 2008, Carter and T-Pain formed a duo called T-Wayne with plans to release an album, titled He Raps, He Sings; however, those plans have died down due to much of the material recorded for the album being leaked. T-Pain ultimately released T-Wayne in 2017. According to an interview with Drake, in the December 2011 issue of XXL, plans for an upcoming album with Carter had been scrapped for the time being because of the Jay-Z and Kanye West collaboration album Watch the Throne (2011). In April 2012, on the premiere of MTV's Hip Hop POV, Carter sat down with Amanda Seales and spoke briefly about an album he put together titled Devol (loved, backwards), an album full of "love songs" that he wrote during his imprisonment at Rikers Island. In May 2013 he confirmed the album will still be released. Carter's once ongoing litigation with Cash Money prevented numerous completed projects from being released. In January 2017, Young Money revealed the title of a planned Carter album called Velvet. The album ended up leaking online in November 2018. Retirement plans On March 29, 2011, in an interview with Hot 97's Angie Martinez, Carter announced that he would retire at age 35; saying "I have four kids", and that "I would feel selfish still going to the studio when it's such a vital point in their lives." He said in November 2012 that Tha Carter V will be his last album as he wanted to go into other interests. In March 2014, Carter reconfirmed at SXSW that Tha Carter V will be his last album during his keynote with interviewer Elliot Wilson. In September 2016, in regards to his contract dispute with Cash Money, he indicated a possible retirement on Twitter saying "I AM NOW DEFENSELESS and mentally DEFEATED" and then said, "I leave gracefully and thankful I luh my fanz but I'm done." Many rappers responded with respect and encouragement. Personal life Relationships and children Carter has four children. His first child, daughter Reginae, was born November 29, 1998, when he was 16, to his high school sweetheart Toya Johnson. They later married on Valentine's Day 2004 and divorced in 2006. Internet rumors started circulating in August 2008 that Carter's daughter had died in a car crash, which however he quickly cleared up as false saying "Please allow me to dispel any rumors or speculations and report that my daughter is alive, healthy and surrounded by family who cares and loves her dearly. The rumors are completely false and unfounded; neither Reginae nor any other member of my family has been involved in any car accident." His second child, Dwayne III, was born on October 22, 2008, at The Christ Hospital in Cincinnati to radio broadcaster Sarah Vivan. His third child, Cameron, was born to actress Lauren London on September 9, 2009. His fourth child, Neal, was born on November 30, 2009, to singer Nivea. Trina also became pregnant with Carter's child, but later suffered a miscarriage. In July 2014, it was rumored that Carter was dating singer Christina Milian whom he attended the ESPY Awards with. They later confirmed their relationship in mid-2015 after which they received criticism from their interconnected exes, singer Nivea and songwriter The-Dream. They split at the end of 2015 after collaborating on various singles, videos, and concert dates. Wayne was engaged to model La'Tecia Thomas, but called off the engagement in May 2020. In June 2020, it was announced that Wayne had started dating Denise Bidot, another model. In November 2020, they reportedly broke up over Wayne's endorsement of Donald Trump. Shortly after, it was reported that the couple had reconciled. Beliefs and interests In an interview with Blender, Carter revealed one of his favorite bands from childhood to be rock group Nirvana, and cites them as a major influence in his music. Carter got his first tattoo at age 14 of his dad's name and his second was "Cash Money" across his stomach. His tattoos have grown to include a Jay-Z verse on his leg, "I Am Music" on his forehead and teardrops on his cheeks among many others. His most recent one is "Baked" on his forehead stylized as the Baker Skateboards logo. While playing in Newark Symphony Hall, Carter professed his belief "in God and His son, Jesus". During his 2011 tour in Australia with Eminem, before beginning his bracket he proclaimed his belief in God. One Christian minister says Carter's stated religiosity and the un-religious lyrical content of his music are incongruous. After earning his GED, Carter enrolled at the University of Houston in January 2005. He dropped out in the same year due to his conflicting schedule. He also revealed on The View that he switched to the University of Phoenix and majored in psychology taking online courses. An article in Urb magazine in March 2007 asserted that Carter had been earning high grades at Houston. On September 24, 2008, Carter published his first blog for ESPN in their issue, ESPN The Magazine. Carter revealed he was a fan of tennis, the Green Bay Packers, the Boston Bruins, the Los Angeles Lakers and the Boston Red Sox. To commemorate the Packers' making it to Super Bowl XLV, he spoofed Wiz Khalifa's hit song "Black and Yellow" (which were the colors of the Packers' opponents, the Pittsburgh Steelers) in a song titled "Green and Yellow". He released a second version of the song in 2021, which was requested by the Packers, and updated with the current roster.Carter has continued writing for ESPN, notably reporting at the ESPN Super Bowl party. Carter made his debut on ESPN's daily sports round table show Around The Horn on February 10, 2009. Carter now currently sings the intro song "No Mercy" for the Fox Sports 1 sports debate show Undisputed. Carter received criticism after a video released by TMZ showed him apparently stepping on the U.S. flag. Carter later explained that "It was never my intention to desecrate the flag of the United States", and that he was shooting a video for a song on his upcoming album, "God Bless Amerika". He says the purpose of the flag was to show that "behind the American Flag was the Hoods of America". In late 2016, Carter made statements critical of the Black Lives Matter movement, saying, "I don't feel connected to a damn thing that ain't got nothin' to do with me. If you do, you crazy as shit," adding that his status as a wealthy black man who has white fans is evidence that black people are valued in the United States. In 2016, Carter purchased Player's Rep. Sports Agency, and became Young Money APAA sports, which hired NFL's first female sports agent, Nicole Lynn. She currently represents Seth Roberts, Cory Nelson, Jordan Evans, Malik Jefferson, Eric Harris, Quennen Williams, as well as NCAA coaches, and two former #1 Pro Softball draft picks. On October 29, 2020, less than a week before the presidential election, Carter posted an image of him and President Donald Trump to Twitter. In the caption for the photo, Carter revealed that he and Trump had recently met to discuss criminal justice reform and Trump's Platinum Plan, an initiative which aims to raise access to capital in Black communities by almost $500 billion. Carter claimed Trump "listened to what we had to say today and assured he will and can get it done". Health problems On October 25, 2012, Carter's private jet, bound for Los Angeles, made an emergency landing in Texas due to an in-flight medical episode. Lil Wayne was transferred to a local hospital upon arrival. TMZ and other media sources said that Carter had suffered a seizure aboard the plane. His publicist denied this, saying that he was in fact treated for "a severe migraine and dehydration". The following day, while flying from Texas to Los Angeles, Carter's private jet was reportedly again forced to make an emergency landing, this time in Louisiana, after he suffered a second seizure and required further hospitalization. His representative said that the reports of Carter's condition had been exaggerated, and that he was resting at his Louisiana home. In a November 2012 interview with MTV, Carter revealed that he was taking seizure medication, on doctors' orders, due to the aforementioned incidents. On March 14, 2013, TMZ reported that Carter had been treated at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles on the evening of March 12, after suffering seizures while on a music video set with Young Money rapper Nicki Minaj. He was reportedly released in the early hours of March 13. On March 15, TMZ published a second story, claiming that hours after his release on March 13, Carter was found unconscious after experiencing further seizures, and was brought back to Cedars-Sinai, where he was admitted to the intensive care unit in critical condition. The article alleged the latest seizures were found to be linked to high amounts of codeine in Carter's system, possibly due to binging on purple drank after his initial hospital release. Multiple celebrities, including Drake and Birdman, were photographed on March 15 and 16 visiting Carter at Cedars-Sinai. Several members of Young Money Entertainment, including president Mack Maine, criticized media reports on Carter's hospitalization, particularly those of TMZ, alleging that they exaggerated the severity of his condition and falsely implied that he was on his deathbed (such as by saying that he was in a medically induced coma), triggering what the Washington Post called "the most overheated celebrity deathwatch in recent years". In separate interviews on March 18, Mack Maine and Birdman disputed TMZ's reports, and stated that in fact there were not multiple seizures or multiple hospital visits. They explained that after Carter began seizing on the way to the music video shoot on March 12, an ambulance was called and he was transported to the hospital, where he was admitted and remained continuously thereafter. They also refuted the claims that Carter's seizures are drug-induced, saying that they are an ongoing problem for which doctors have been unable to identify a cause. Carter was released from the hospital late on March 18, following a six-day stay. Lil Wayne addressed his condition via a vlog, on March 21 saying he was more than good. Carter had two seizures in June 2016, during a cross-country flight from Wisconsin to California, and landed in Omaha, Nebraska. His plane was only two minutes in air when the second seizure occurred and was forced to land in Omaha once again. Less than a month later, he had another seizure, supposedly due to not taking his epilepsy medication. Carter canceled a Las Vegas show on September 3, 2017, having had a seizure in a Chicago hospital earlier that day, where he was brought after being found unconscious in a hotel room. Philanthropy On February 19, 2008, Carter and Cortez Bryant revisited their alma mater McMain Secondary School to get students to design an invitation to the gala introducing Carter's nonprofit One Family Foundation. Other ventures Young Money Entertainment Books Carter wrote a memoir of his experience in Rikers Island called Gone Til' November: A Journal of Rikers Island that was released October 11, 2016. Cannabis industry In December 2019, Carter announced his own cannabis brand under the name of GKUA Ultra Premium. Legal issues Arrests and incarceration On July 22, 2007, Carter was arrested in New York City following a performance at the Beacon Theatre; the New York City Police Department discovered Carter and another man smoking marijuana near a tour bus. After taking Carter into custody, police discovered a .40 caliber pistol near his person. The gun, which was registered to his manager, was in a bag located near the rapper. He was charged with criminal possession of a weapon and marijuana. Following a performance at Qwest Arena in Boise, Idaho, Carter was arrested October 5, 2007 on felony fugitive charges after Georgia authorities accused the rapper of possessing a controlled substance. The incident was later described as a "mix-up" and the fugitive charges were dropped. On January 23, 2008, Carter was arrested alongside two others. His tour bus was stopped by Border Patrol agents near Yuma, Arizona. A K-9 Unit recovered of marijuana, almost of cocaine, of ecstasy, and $22,000 in cash. Carter was charged with four felonies: possession of narcotic drug for sale, possession of dangerous drugs, misconduct involving weapons and possession of drug paraphernalia. He was granted permission to travel outside of the state and remain out of custody on the $10,185 bond he posted. On May 6, 2008, Carter returned to court in Arizona to plead not guilty to the charges. A bench warrant was issued on March 17, 2010, when Carter did not show for a final trial management conference. However, he was already incarcerated, serving a one-year sentence in Rikers Island on weapons charges. On June 22, 2010, Carter pleaded guilty to the charges. As part of the plea deal he was able to serve 36 months of probation, which he was sentenced to on June 30, 2010. On December 18, 2009, Carter and 11 others were detained at the Falfurrias, Texas border patrol checkpoint after an unknown amount of marijuana was found on two of his tour buses. On October 22, 2009, Carter pleaded guilty to attempted criminal possession of a weapon. He was due for sentencing in February 2010 and was expected to receive a one-year county jail sentence, but on February 9, 2010, Carter's attorney announced that the sentencing was delayed until March 2 due to dental surgery, which was performed on February 16. The surgery included eight root canals, the replacement of several tooth implants, as well as the addition of a few new implants and work on his remaining original teeth. On March 2, 2010, sentencing was postponed again when the courthouse reported a fire in the basement. On March 8, 2010, Carter was given a one-year sentence, which he served in Rikers Island. His lawyer said the rapper expected to be held in protective custody, separated from other prisoners. In May 2010, Carter was found by Rikers Island correctional staff to be in possession of contraband (an MP3 player, charger, and headphones). In April 2010, Carter's friends created a website called Weezy Thanx You, which publishes letters written by Carter while incarcerated. In the first letter, titled "Gone 'til November", Carter said he was staying in good spirits thinking about his children and spending his time working out regularly and reading the Bible every day. Carter was released from Rikers Island Jail on November 4, 2010, after serving eight months of his year-long sentence. On December 12, 2020, Carter pleaded guilty to a federal firearms charge brought against him by the U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of Florida. This plea stemmed from an incident during December of the previous year, when Carter was arrested in Florida after transporting a loaded handgun on his private jet from California. As a convicted felon, he is barred from possessing such weapons. He was pardoned by U.S. President Donald Trump on January 19, 2021, his last full day in office. Lawsuits On July 24, 2008, Abkco Music Inc filed a lawsuit against Carter for copyright infringement and unfair competition, specifically referring to Tha Carter III track "Playing with Fire". In the lawsuit, Abkco says that the song was obviously derived from The Rolling Stones' "Play with Fire", to which Abkco owns the rights. Subsequently, "Playing with Fire" was removed from the track list of Tha Carter III on all online music stores and replaced with the David Banner produced track, "Pussy Monster". In February 2009, production company RMF Productions filed a $1.3 million lawsuit against Carter following a $100,000 advance payment for three shows, all of which were cancelled by the artist. In October 2009, Carter, Birdman, Cash Money Records, and various music distribution outlets were sued for copyright infringement by Thomas Marasciullo, who says his voice was used without permission. The rappers asked him to record some "Italian-styled spoken word recordings" in 2006. The lyrics were allegedly used on "Respect" and other tracks from the rappers' collaboration album Like Father, Like Son and Birdman's 5 * Stunna. In March 2011, producer Deezle (Darius Harrison) sued Carter and his parent labels Cash Money Records over unpaid royalties from Tha Carter III. In May 2011, producer Bangladesh also filed a lawsuit against Weezy & Co. over unpaid royalties as well. In early June 2011, another producer named David Kirkwood filed a lawsuit against Young Money Entertainment and Cash Money Records on claims that the labels have failed to pay him over $1.5 million in royalties and production services for his work on the album, also including his songwriting on "Love Me or Hate Me", a bonus song featured only on the deluxe edition of the album. Also in June 2011, Dallas producers Play-N-Skillz filed a lawsuit against him, saying Carter owes them at least $1 million in unpaid royalties for "Got Money" from his album Tha Carter III. The single has sold over 2 million copies since being released. In July 2011, Done Deal Enterprises, a production company based in Georgia, filed suit against Carter, Universal Music Group, Cash Money Records and Young Money Entertainment, claiming copyright infringement. The lawsuit alleges Carter stole the song "BedRock", featured on the compilation album We Are Young Money, and seeks damages of $15 million. Feuds Juvenile Carter began feuding with former Hot Boys member and Cash Money Records labelmate Juvenile in 2002, after Juvenile took offense to Carter naming his third studio album 500 Degreez, a diss aimed towards Juvenile whose last album was named 400 Degreez. Juvenile responded with a diss track on his 2002 album 600 Degreez, titled "A Hoe". In the song, Juvenile questions Carter's sexuality, and says he's a fake gangster. The two squashed their beef for a short period in 2004, with Carter and Birdman appearing in the music video for Juvenile and Soulja Slim's song, Slow Motion. Carter later paid tribute to the Hot Boys with a song called "I Miss My Dawgs" on 2004's Tha Carter. Juvenile responded by calling the song "fake", and criticized Carter for releasing a tribute song and later promoting the album on BET and having "nothing good to say about them". The two eventually reconciled once again, and Juvenile re-signed with Cash Money Records in 2014. Young Buck Young Buck released a song called "Off Parole", featuring Tony Yayo, which insulted Carter. Young Buck said that Carter could not be angry, because Young Buck spoke the truth. Young Buck also said "You think you got a problem with Juve and B.G.; you'll have a true problem with me", referring to the Cash Money-Juvenile/B.G feud. One of the reasons 50 Cent stated he was dismissing Young Buck was what he called "inconsistent behavior" which included appearing on stage with Carter, then seemingly dissing him on records with G-Unit. After he was dismissed, Young Buck appeared in the music video "My Life" by The Game, which featured Carter in the vocals. As of 2009, Young Buck and Carter have squashed their beef and also linked up to record a track "Up's and Down's" for Young Buck's Back On My Buck Shit mixtape. Pusha T Tension between Wayne and American rapper, Pusha T, had been going on for years, beginning soon after Clipse and Birdman worked on "What Happened to That Boy", the latter's 2002 single. In 2006, Wayne felt the Clipse song "Mr. Me Too" was directed at him which caused more tension between the two. In 2012 after much speculation that Pusha T was subliminally dissing Canadian rapper and Wayne's Young Money signee Drake in several songs, the speculation heightened after the release of Pusha T's "Exodus 23:1" song. Lil Wayne quickly responded on online social networking service Twitter and later released a diss track titled "Goulish". In the first verse Wayne raps "Fuck Pusha T and anybody that love him / His head up his ass, I'mma have to head-butt him". Pusha T called Wayne's diss track "horrible" and said he felt it did not deserve a response. Both men have downplayed the feud, with Wayne saying he's over it. However, in late November, Pusha T dissed Wayne and Birdman on a new Ludacris song titled "Tell Me What They Mad For". However, once the feud between Lil Wayne and Birdman arose, Pusha T sent out a tweet encouraging Lil Wayne to sign to G.O.O.D. Music, which also insulted Birdman for his hand-rubbing habit. Jay-Z In a 2009 interview with Tropical TV, Birdman disputed the MTV poll that voted Jay-Z "The Hottest MC in the Game", stating that Lil Wayne was a better rapper and made more money. In early 2011, when Jay-Z and Kanye West's single "H•A•M" was released, Jay-Z took shots at Birdman, saying "Really, you got Baby money" and "[you] ain't got my lady's money!". On August 24, 2011, a song called "It's Good" by Lil Wayne (featuring Drake and Jadakiss) was leaked online and included Lil Wayne responding "Talkin' 'bout baby money? I gotcha baby money. Kidnap your bitch, get that, How much you love your lady? money". Jadakiss later absolved himself of involvement in any brewing beef on his official Twitter feed. Discography Studio albums Tha Block Is Hot (1999) Lights Out (2000) 500 Degreez (2002) Tha Carter (2004) Tha Carter II (2005) Tha Carter III (2008) Rebirth (2010) I Am Not a Human Being (2010) Tha Carter IV (2011) I Am Not a Human Being II (2013) Free Weezy Album (2015) Tha Carter V (2018) Funeral (2020) I Am Not a Human Being III (TBA) Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations See also List of artists who reached number one in the United States List of best-selling music artists in the United States List of best-selling singles in the United States List of best-selling singles worldwide List of best-selling albums by year in the United States List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart References External links 1982 births Living people 20th-century American singers 21st-century American male actors 21st-century American rappers 21st-century American singers African-American business executives African-American businesspeople African-American male actors African-American male rappers African-American male singers African-American songwriters American businesspeople convicted of crimes American chief executives American hip hop singers American male rappers American male singers American male television actors American music industry executives American people convicted of drug offenses American people of Nigerian descent American shooting survivors Bloods Businesspeople from New Orleans Cash Money Millionaires members Cash Money Records artists Gangsta rappers Grammy Award winners for rap music Hot Boys members Male actors from New Orleans People with epilepsy Pop rappers Rappers from New Orleans Recipients of American presidential pardons Republic Records artists Singers from Louisiana Songwriters from Louisiana Southern hip hop musicians Trap musicians Universal Motown Records artists Universal Records artists University of Phoenix alumni World Music Awards winners Young Money Entertainment artists

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20Chechen%20War

Second Chechen War

The Second Chechen War (, ) was an armed conflict in Chechnya and the border regions of the North Caucasus between the Russian Federation and the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, fought from August 1999 to April 2000. In August 1999, Islamist fighters from Chechnya infiltrated Russia's Dagestan region, declaring it an independent state and calling for holy war. During the initial campaign, Russian military and pro-Russian Chechen paramilitary forces faced Chechen separatists in open combat and seized the Chechen capital Grozny after a winter siege that lasted from December 1999 until February 2000. Russia established direct rule over Chechnya in May 2000 although Chechen militant resistance throughout the North Caucasus region continued to inflict heavy Russian casualties and challenge Russian political control over Chechnya for several years. Both sides carried out attacks against civilians. These attacks drew international condemnation. In mid-2000, the Russian government transferred certain military responsibilities to pro-Russian Chechen forces. The military phase of operations was terminated in April 2002, and the coordination of the field operations was given first to the Federal Security Service and then to the Ministry of Internal Affairs in the summer of 2003. By 2009, Russia had severely disabled the Chechen separatist movement and large-scale fighting ceased. Russian army and interior ministry troops ceased patrolling. Grozny underwent reconstruction efforts and much of the city and surrounding areas were rebuilt quickly. Sporadic violence continued throughout the North Caucasus; occasional bombings and ambushes targeting federal troops and forces of the regional governments in the area still occur. In April 2009, the government operation in Chechnya officially ended. As the bulk of the army was withdrawn, the responsibility for dealing with the low-level insurgency was shouldered by the local police force. Three months later, the exiled leader of the separatist government, Akhmed Zakayev, called for a halt to armed resistance against the Chechen police force from August and said he hoped that "starting with this day Chechens will never shoot at each other". This marked the complete end of the Chechen conflict. The exact death toll of the conflict is unknown. Russian casualties are around 7,500 (official Russian casualty figures) or about 14,000 according to the Committee of Soldiers' Mothers. Unofficial sources estimate a range of 25,000 to 50,000 dead or missing, mostly Chechen civilians. Names The Second Chechen war is also known as the Second Chechen Campaign () or the Second Russian invasion of Chechnya from the rebel Chechen point of view. Historical basis of the conflict Russian Empire Chechnya is an area in the Northern Caucasus which has constantly fought against foreign rule, including the Ottoman Turks in the 15th century. The Russian Terek Cossack Host was established in lowland Chechnya in 1577 by free Cossacks who were resettled from the Volga to the Terek River. In 1783, Russia and the Georgian kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, under which Kartl-Kakheti became a Russian protectorate. To secure communications with Georgia and other regions of the Transcaucasia, the Russian Empire began spreading its influence into the Caucasus region, starting the Caucasus War in 1817. Russian forces first moved into highland Chechnya in 1830, and the conflict in the area lasted until 1859, when a 250,000-strong army under General Baryatinsky broke down the highlanders' resistance. Frequent uprisings in the Caucasus also occurred during the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78. Soviet Union Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Chechens established a short-lived Caucasian Imamate which included parts of Chechnya, Dagestan and Ingushetia; there was also the secular pan-Caucasian Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus. The Chechen states were opposed by both sides of the Russian Civil War and most of the resistance was crushed by Bolshevik troops by 1922. Then, months before the creation of the Soviet Union, the Chechen Autonomous Oblast of the Russian SFSR was established. It annexed a part of territory of the former Terek Cossack Host. Chechnya and neighboring Ingushetia formed the Chechen–Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936. In 1941, during World War II, a Chechen revolt broke out, led by Khasan Israilov. In 1944 Chechens were deported to the Kazakh and Kirghiz SSRs in an act of ethnic cleansing; this was done under the false pretext of Chechen mass collaboration with Nazi Germany. An estimated 1/4 to 1/3 of the Chechen population perished due the harsh conditions. Many scholars recognize the deportation as an act of genocide, as did the European Parliament in 2004. In 1992 the separatist government built a memorial dedicated to the victims of the acts of 1944. The Pro-Russian government would later demolish this memorial. Tombstones which were an integral part of the memorial were found planted on the Akhmad Kadyrov Place next to granite steles honoring the losses of the local pro-Russian power. First Chechen War During the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Chechnya declared independence. In 1992, Chechen and Ingush leaders signed an agreement splitting the joint Chechen–Ingush republic in two, with Ingushetia joining the Russian Federation and Chechnya remaining independent. The debate over independence ultimately led to a small-scale civil war since 1992, in which the Russians covertly tried to oust the government of Dzhokhar Dudayev. The First Chechen War began in 1994, when Russian forces entered Chechnya to restore constitutional order. Following nearly two years of brutal fighting, with a death toll exceeding one hundred thousand by some estimates, the 1996 Khasavyurt ceasefire agreement was signed and Russian troops were withdrawn from the republic. Prelude to the Second Chechen War Chaos in Chechnya Following the first war, the government's grip on the chaotic republic was weak, especially outside the ruined capital Grozny. The areas controlled by separatist groups grew larger and the country became increasingly lawless. The war ravages and lack of economic opportunities left large numbers of heavily armed and brutalized former separatist fighters with no occupation but further violence. The authority of the government in Grozny was opposed by extremist warlords like Arbi Barayev who according to some sources was in cooperation with the FSB. Abductions and raids into other parts of the Northern Caucasus by various Chechen warlords had been steadily increasing. In place of the devastated economic structure, kidnapping emerged as the principal source of income countrywide, procuring over $200 million during the three-year independence of the chaotic fledgling state. It has been estimated that up to 1,300 people were kidnapped in Chechnya between 1996 and 1999, and in 1998 a group of four Western hostages was murdered. In 1998, a state of emergency was declared by the authorities in Grozny. Tensions led to open clashes like the July 1998 confrontation in Gudermes in which some 50 people died in fighting between Chechen National Guard troops and the Islamist militias. Russian–Chechen relations 1996–1999 Political tensions were fueled in part by allegedly Chechen or pro-Chechen terrorist and criminal activity in Russia, as well as by border clashes. On 16 November 1996, in Kaspiysk (Dagestan), a bomb destroyed an apartment building housing Russian border guards, killing 68 people. The cause of the blast was never determined, but many in Russia blamed Chechen separatists. Three people died on 23 April 1997, when a bomb exploded in the Russian railway station of Armavir (Krasnodar Krai), and two on 28 May 1997, when another bomb exploded in the Russian railway station of Pyatigorsk (Stavropol Krai). On 22 December 1997, forces of Dagestani militants and Chechnya-based Arab warlord Ibn al-Khattab raided the base of the 136th Motor Rifle Brigade of the Russian Army in Buynaksk, Dagestan, inflicting heavy casualties. The 1997 election brought to power the separatist president Aslan Maskhadov. In 1998 and 1999, President Maskhadov survived several assassination attempts, blamed on the Russian intelligence services. In March 1999, General Gennady Shpigun, the Kremlin's envoy to Chechnya, was kidnapped at the airport in Grozny and ultimately found dead in 2000 during the war. On 7 March 1999, in response to the abduction of General Shpigun, Interior Minister Sergei Stepashin called for an invasion of Chechnya. However, Stepashin's plan was overridden by the prime minister, Yevgeny Primakov. Stepashin later said: According to Robert Bruce Ware, these plans should be regarded as contingency plans. However, Stepashin did actively call for a military campaign against Chechen separatists in August 1999 when he was the prime minister of Russia. But shortly after his televised interview where he talked about plans to restore constitutional order in Chechnya, he was replaced in the PM's position by Vladimir Putin. In late May 1999, Russia announced that it was closing the Russian-Chechnya border in an attempt to combat attacks and criminal activity; border guards were ordered to shoot suspects on sight. On 18 June 1999, seven servicemen were killed when Russian border guard posts were attacked in Dagestan. On 29 July 1999, the Russian Interior Ministry troops destroyed a Chechen border post and captured an 800-meter section of strategic road. On 22 August 1999, 10 Russian policemen were killed by an anti-tank mine blast in North Ossetia, and, on 9 August 1999, six servicemen were kidnapped in the Ossetian capital Vladikavkaz. Invasion of Dagestan The Invasion of Dagestan was the trigger for the Second Chechen War. On 7 August 1999, Shamil Basayev (in association with the Saudi-born Ibn al-Khattab, Commander of the Mujahedeen) led two armies of up to 2,000 Chechen, Dagestani, Arab and international mujahideen and Wahhabist militants from Chechnya into the neighboring Republic of Dagestan. This war saw the first (unconfirmed) use of aerial-delivered fuel air explosives (FAE) in mountainous areas, notably in the village of Tando. By mid-September 1999, the militants were routed from the villages they had captured and pushed back into Chechnya. At least several hundred militants were killed in the fighting; the Federal side reported 275 servicemen killed and approximately 900 wounded. Bombings in Russia Before the wake of the Dagestani invasion had settled, a series of bombings took place in Russia (in Moscow and in Volgodonsk) and in the Dagestani town of Buynaksk. On 4 September 1999, 62 people died in an apartment building housing members of families of Russian soldiers. Over the next two weeks, the bombs targeted three other apartment buildings and a mall; in total over 350 people were killed. A criminal investigation of the bombings was completed in 2002. The results of the investigation, and the court ruling that followed, concluded that they were organized by Achemez Gochiyaev, who remains at large, and ordered by Khattab and Abu Omar al-Saif (both of whom were later killed), in retaliation for the Russian counteroffensive against their incursion into Dagestan. Six other suspects have been convicted by Russian courts. However, Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) agents were caught by local police for planting one of the bombs, but were later released on orders from Moscow. Many observers, including State Duma deputies Yuri Shchekochikhin, Sergei Kovalev and Sergei Yushenkov, cast doubts on the official version and sought an independent investigation. Some others, including David Satter, Yury Felshtinsky, Vladimir Pribylovsky and Alexander Litvinenko, as well as the secessionist Chechen authorities, claimed that the 1999 bombings were a false flag attack coordinated by the FSB in order to win public support for a new full-scale war in Chechnya, which boosted the popularity of Prime Minister and former FSB Director Vladimir Putin, brought the pro-war Unity Party to the State Duma in the 1999 parliamentary election, and secured Putin as president within a few months. 1999–2000 Russian offensive Air war In late August and early September 1999, Russia mounted a massive aerial campaign over Chechnya, with the stated aim of wiping out militants who invaded Dagestan earlier in the same month. On 26 August 1999, Russia acknowledged bombing raids in Chechnya. The Russian air strikes were reported to have forced at least 100,000 Chechens to flee their homes to safety; the neighbouring region of Ingushetia was reported to have appealed for United Nations aid to deal with tens of thousands of refugees. On 2 October 1999, Russia's Ministry of Emergency Situations reported that 78,000 people had fled the air strikes in Chechnya; most of them went to Ingushetia, where they were arrived at a rate of 5,000 to 6,000 a day. As of 22 September 1999, Deputy Interior Minister Igor Zubov said that Russian troops had surrounded Chechnya and were prepared to retake the region, but the military planners were advising against a ground invasion because of the likelihood of heavy Russian casualties. Land war The Chechen conflict entered a new phase on 1 October 1999, when Russia's new Prime Minister Vladimir Putin declared the authority of Chechen President Aslan Maskhadov and his parliament illegitimate. At this time, Putin announced that Russian troops would initiate a land invasion but progress only as far as the Terek River, which cuts the northern third of Chechnya off from the rest of the republic. Putin's stated intention was to take control of Chechnya's northern plain and establish a cordon sanitaire against further Chechen aggression; he later recalled that the cordon alone was "pointless and technically impossible," apparently because of Chechnya's rugged terrain. According to Russian accounts, Putin accelerated a plan for a major crackdown against Chechnya that had been drawn up months earlier. The Russian army moved with ease in the wide open spaces of northern Chechnya and reached the Terek River on 5 October 1999. On this day, a bus filled with refugees was reportedly hit by a Russian tank shell, killing at least 11 civilians; two days later, Russian Su-24 fighter bombers dropped cluster bombs on the village of Elistanzhi, killing some 35 people. On 10 October 1999, Maskhadov outlined a peace plan offering a crackdown on renegade warlords; the offer was rejected by the Russian side. He also appealed to NATO to help end fighting between his forces and Russian troops, without effect. On 12 October 1999, the Russian forces crossed the Terek and began a two-pronged advance on the capital Grozny to the south. Hoping to avoid the significant casualties that plagued the first Chechen War, the Russians advanced slowly and in force, making extensive use of artillery and air power in an attempt to soften Chechen defences. Many thousands of civilians fled the Russian advance, leaving Chechnya for neighbouring Russian republics. Their numbers were later estimated to reach 200,000 to 350,000, out of the approximately 800,000 residents of the Chechen Republic. The Russians appeared to be taking no chances with the Chechen population in its rear areas, setting up "filtration camps" in October in northern Chechnya for detaining suspected members of bandformirovaniya militant formations (literally: "bandit formations"). On 15 October 1999, Russian forces took control of a strategic ridge within artillery range of the Chechen capital Grozny after mounting an intense tank and artillery barrage against Chechen fighters. In response, President Maskhadov declared a gazavat (holy war) to confront the approaching Russian army. Martial law was declared in Ichkeria and reservists were called, but no martial law or state of emergency had been declared in Chechnya or Russia by the Russian government. The next day, Russian forces captured the strategic Tersky Heights, within sight of Grozny, dislodging 200 entrenched Chechen fighters. After heavy fighting, Russia seized the Chechen base in the village of Goragorsky, west of the city. On 21 October 1999, a Russian Scud short-range ballistic missile strike on the central Grozny marketplace killed more than 140 people, including many women and children, and left hundreds more wounded. A Russian spokesman said the busy market was targeted because it was used by separatists as an arms bazaar. Eight days later Russian aircraft carried out a rocket attack on a large convoy of refugees heading into Ingushetia, killing at least 25 civilians including Red Cross workers and journalists. Two days later Russian forces conducted a heavy artillery and rocket attack on Samashki; some claimed that civilians were killed in Samashki in revenge for the heavy casualties suffered there by Russian forces during the first war. On 12 November 1999, the Russian flag was raised over Chechnya's second largest city, Gudermes, when the local Chechen commanders, the Yamadayev brothers, defected to the federal side; the Russians also entered the bombed-out former Cossack village of Assinovskaya. The fighting in and around Kulary continued until January 2000. On 17 November 1999, Russian soldiers dislodged separatists in Bamut, the symbolic separatist stronghold in the first war; dozens of Chechen fighters and many civilians were reported killed, and the village was levelled in the FAE bombing. Two days later, after a failed attempt five days earlier, Russian forces managed to capture the village of Achkhoy-Martan. On 26 November 1999, Deputy Army Chief of Staff Valery Manilov said that phase two of the Chechnya campaign was just about complete, and a final third phase was about to begin. According to Manilov, the aim of the third phase was to destroy "bandit groups" in the mountains. A few days later Russia's Defense Minister Igor Sergeyev said Russian forces might need up to three more months to complete their military campaign in Chechnya, while some generals said the offensive could be over by New Year's Day. The next day the Chechens briefly recaptured the town of Novogroznensky. On 1 December 1999, after weeks of heavy fighting, Russian forces under Major General Vladimir Shamanov took control of Alkhan-Yurt, a village just south of Grozny. The Chechen and foreign fighters inflicted heavy losses on the Russian forces, reportedly killing more than 70 Russian soldiers before retreating, suffering heavy losses of their own. On the same day, Chechen separatist forces began carrying out a series of counter-attacks against federal troops in several villages as well as in the outskirts of Gudermes. Chechen fighters in Argun, a small town five kilometres east of Grozny, put up some of the strongest resistance to federal troops since the start of Moscow's military offensive. The separatists in the town of Urus-Martan also offered fierce resistance, employing guerilla tactics Russia had been anxious to avoid; by 9 December 1999, Russian forces were still bombarding Urus-Martan, although Chechen commanders said their fighters had already pulled out. On 4 December 1999, the commander of Russian forces in the North Caucasus, General Viktor Kazantsev, claimed that Grozny was fully blockaded by Russian troops. The Russian military's next task was the seizure of the town of Shali, 20 kilometres south-east of the capital, one of the last remaining separatist-held towns apart from Grozny. Russian troops started by capturing two bridges that link Shali to the capital, and by 11 December 1999, Russian troops had encircled Shali and were slowly forcing separatists out. By mid-December the Russian military was concentrating attacks in southern parts of Chechnya and preparing to launch another offensive from Dagestan. Siege of Grozny The Russian assault on Grozny began in early December, accompanied by a struggle for neighbouring settlements. The battle ended when the Russian army seized the city on 2 February 2000. According to official Russian figures, at least 134 federal troops and an unknown number of pro-Russian militiamen died in Grozny. The separatist forces also suffered heavy losses, including losing several top commanders. Russian Defense Minister Igor Sergeyev said that 2,700 separatists were killed trying to leave Grozny. The separatists said they lost at least 500 fighters in the mine field at Alkhan-Kala. The siege and fighting devastated the capital like no other European city since World War II. In 2003 the United Nations called Grozny the most destroyed city on Earth. The Russians also suffered heavy losses as they advanced elsewhere, and from Chechen counterattacks and convoy ambushes. On 26 January 2000, the Russian government announced that 1,173 servicemen had been killed in Chechnya since October, more than double the 544 killed reported just 19 days earlier. Battle for the mountains Heavy fighting accompanied by massive shelling and bombing continued through the winter of 2000 in the mountainous south of Chechnya, particularly in the areas around Argun, Vedeno and Shatoy, where fighting involving Russian paratroopers had raged since 1999. On 9 February 2000, a Russian tactical missile hit a crowd of people who had come to the local administration building in Shali, a town previously declared as one of the "safe areas", to collect their pensions. The attack was a response to a report that a group of fighters had entered the town. The missile is estimated to have killed some 150 civilians, and was followed by an attack by combat helicopters causing further casualties. Human Rights Watch called on the Russian military to stop using FAE, known in Russia as "vacuum bombs", in Chechnya, concerned about the large number of civilian casualties caused by what it called "widespread and often indiscriminate bombing and shelling by Russian forces". On 18 February 2000, a Russian army transport helicopter was shot down in the south, killing 15 men aboard, Russian Interior Minister Vladimir Rushailo announced in a rare admission by Moscow of losses in the war. On 29 February 2000, United Army Group commander Gennady Troshev said that "the counter-terrorism operation in Chechnya is over. It will take a couple of weeks longer to pick up splinter groups now." Russia's Defense Minister, Marshal of the Russian Federation Igor Sergeyev, evaluated the numerical strength of the separatists at between 2,000 and 2,500 men, "scattered all over Chechnya." On the same day, a Russian VDV paratroop company from Pskov was attacked by Chechen and Arab fighters near the village of Ulus-Kert in Chechnya's southern lowlands; at least 84 Russian soldiers were killed in the especially heavy fighting. The official newspaper of the Russian Ministry of Defense reported that at least 659 separatists were killed, including 200 from the Middle East, figures which they said were based on radio-intercept data, intelligence reports, eyewitnesses, local residents and captured Chechens. On 2 March 2000, an OMON unit from Podolsk opened fire on a unit from Sergiyev Posad in Grozny; at least 24 Russian servicemen were killed in the incident. In March a large group of more than 1,000 Chechen fighters, led by field commander Ruslan Gelayev, pursued since their withdrawal from Grozny, entered the village of Komsomolskoye in the Chechen foothills and held off a full-scale Russian attack on the town for over two weeks; they suffered hundreds of casualties, while the Russians admitted to more than 50 killed. On 29 March 2000, about 23 Russian soldiers were killed in a separatist ambush on an OMON convoy from Perm in Zhani-Vedeno. On 23 April 2000, a 22-vehicle convoy carrying ammunition and other supplies to an airborne unit was ambushed near Serzhen-Yurt in the Vedeno Gorge by an estimated 80 to 100 "bandits", according to General Troshev. In the ensuing four-hour battle the federal side lost 15 government soldiers, according to the Russian defence minister. General Troshev told the press that the bodies of four separatist fighters were found. The Russian Airborne Troops headquarters later stated that 20 separatists were killed and two taken prisoner. Soon, the Russian forces seized the last populated centres of the organized resistance. (Another offensive against the remaining mountain strongholds was launched by Russian forces in December 2000.) Restoration of federal government Russian President Vladimir Putin established direct rule of Chechnya in May 2000. The following month, Putin appointed Akhmad Kadyrov interim head of the pro-Moscow government. This development met with early approval in the rest of Russia, but the continued deaths of Russian troops dampened public enthusiasm. On 23 March 2003, a new Chechen constitution was passed in a referendum. The 2003 Constitution granted the Chechen Republic a significant degree of autonomy, but still tied it firmly to Russia and Moscow's rule, and went into force on 2 April 2003. The referendum was strongly supported by the Russian government but met a harsh critical response from Chechen separatists; many citizens chose to boycott the ballot. Akhmad Kadyrov was assassinated by a bomb blast in 2004. Since December 2005, his son Ramzan Kadyrov, leader of the pro-Moscow militia known as kadyrovtsy, has been functioning as the Chechnya's de facto ruler. Kadyrov has become Chechnya's most powerful leader and, in February 2007, with support from Putin, Ramzan Kadyrov replaced Alu Alkhanov as president. Insurgency Guerrilla war in Chechnya Guerrilla phase by year: 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 Although large-scale fighting within Chechnya had ceased, daily attacks continued, particularly in the southern portions of Chechnya and spilling into nearby territories of the Caucasus, especially after the Caucasus Front was established. Typically small separatist units targeted Russian and pro-Russian officials, security forces, and military and police convoys and vehicles. The separatist units employed IEDs and sometimes combined for larger raids. Russian forces retaliated with artillery and air strikes, as well as counter-insurgency operations. Most soldiers in Chechnya were kontraktniki (contract soldiers) as opposed to the earlier conscripts. While Russia continued to maintain a military presence within Chechnya, federal forces played less of a direct role. Pro-Kremlin Chechen forces under the command of the local strongman Ramzan Kadyrov, known as the kadyrovtsy, dominated law enforcement and security operations, with many members (including Kadyrov himself) being former Chechen separatists who had defected since 1999. Since 2004, the Kadyrovtsy were partly incorporated into two Interior Ministry units, North and South (Sever and Yug). Two other units of the Chechen pro-Moscow forces, East and West (Vostok and Zapad), were commanded by Sulim Yamadayev (Vostok) and Said-Magomed Kakiyev (Zapad) and their men. On 16 April 2009, the head of the Federal Security Service, Alexander Bortnikov, announced that Russia had ended its "anti-terror operation" in Chechnya, claiming that stability had been restored to the territory. "The decision is aimed at creating the conditions for the future normalisation of the situation in the republic, its reconstruction and development of its socio-economic sphere," Bortnikov stated. While Chechnya had largely stabilised, there were still clashes with militants in the nearby regions of Dagestan and Ingushetia. Suicide attacks Between June 2000 and September 2004, Chechen insurgents added suicide attacks to their tactics. During this period, there were 23 Chechen-related suicide attacks in and outside Chechnya, notably the hostage taking at an elementary school in Beslan, in which at least 334 people died. Assassinations Both sides of the war carried out multiple assassinations. The most prominent of these included the 13 February 2004 killing of exiled former separatist Chechen President Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev in Qatar, and the 9 May 2004 killing of pro-Russian Chechen President Akhmad Kadyrov during a parade in Grozny. Caucasus Front While anti-Russian local insurgencies in the North Caucasus started even before the war, in May 2005, two months after Maskahdov's death, Chechen separatists officially announced that they had formed a Caucasus Front within the framework of "reforming the system of military–political power." Along with the Chechen, Dagestani and Ingush "sectors," the Stavropol, Kabardin-Balkar, Krasnodar, Karachai-Circassian, Ossetian and Adyghe jamaats were included. This meant that practically all the regions of Russia's south were involved in the hostilities. The Chechen separatist movement took on a new role as the official ideological, logistical and, probably, financial hub of the new insurgency in the North Caucasus. Increasingly frequent clashes between federal forces and local militants continued in Dagestan, while sporadic fighting erupted in the other southern Russia regions, such as Ingushetia, and notably in Nalchik on 13 October 2005. Human rights and terrorism Human rights and war crimes Russian officials and Chechen separatists have regularly and repeatedly accused the opposing side of committing various war crimes including kidnapping, murder, hostage taking, looting, rape, and assorted other breaches of the laws of war. International and humanitarian organizations, including the Council of Europe and Amnesty International, have criticized both sides of the conflict for "blatant and sustained" violations of international humanitarian law. Western European rights groups estimate there have been about 5,000 forced disappearances in Chechnya since 1999. American Secretary of State Madeleine Albright noted in her 24 March 2000 speech to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights: We cannot ignore the fact that thousands of Chechen civilians have died and more than 200,000 have been driven from their homes. Together with other delegations, we have expressed our alarm at the persistent, credible reports of human rights violations by Russian forces in Chechnya, including extrajudicial killings. There are also reports that Chechen separatists have committed abuses, including the killing of civilians and prisoners.... The war in Chechnya has greatly damaged Russia's international standing and is isolating Russia from the international community. Russia's work to repair that damage, both at home and abroad, or its choice to risk further isolating itself, is the most immediate and momentous challenge that Russia faces. According to the 2001 annual report by Amnesty International: There were frequent reports that Russian forces indiscriminately bombed and shelled civilian areas. Chechen civilians, including medical personnel, continued to be the target of military attacks by Russian forces. Hundreds of Chechen civilians and prisoners of war were extra judicially executed. Journalists and independent monitors continued to be refused access to Chechnya. According to reports, Chechen fighters frequently threatened, and in some cases killed, members of the Russian-appointe civilian administration and executed Russian captured soldiers. The Russian government failed to pursue any accountability process for human rights abuses committed during the course of the conflict in Chechnya. Unable to secure justice domestically, hundreds of victims of abuse have filed applications with the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). In March 2005 the court issued the first rulings on Chechnya, finding the Russian government guilty of violating the right to life and even the prohibition of torture with respect to civilians who had died or forcibly disappeared at the hands of Russia's federal troops. Many similar claims were ruled since against Russia. Dozens of mass graves containing hundreds of corpses have been uncovered since the beginning of the First Chechen War in 1994. As of June 2008, there were 57 registered locations of mass graves in Chechnya. According to Amnesty International, thousands may be buried in unmarked graves including up to 5,000 civilians who disappeared since the beginning of the Second Chechen War in 1999. In 2008, the largest mass grave found to date was uncovered in Grozny, containing some 800 bodies from the First Chechen War in 1995. Russia's general policy to the Chechen mass graves is to not exhume them. Terrorist attacks Between May 2002 and September 2004, the Chechen and Chechen-led militants, mostly answering to Shamil Basayev, launched a campaign of terrorism directed against civilian targets in Russia. About 200 people were killed in a series of bombings (most of them suicide attacks), most of them in the 2003 Stavropol train bombing (46), the 2004 Moscow metro bombing (40), and the 2004 Russian aircraft bombings (89). Two large-scale hostage takings, the 2002 Moscow theater hostage crisis and the 2004 Beslan school siege, resulted in the deaths of multiple civilians. In the Moscow stand-off, FSB Spetsnaz forces stormed the building on the third day using an unknown incapacitating chemical agent that proved to be lethal without sufficient medical care, resulting in deaths of 133 out of 916 hostages. In Beslan, some 20 hostages had been executed by their captors before the assault, and the ill-prepared assault itself (started hastily after explosions in the gym that had been rigged with explosives by the terrorists) resulted in 294 more casualties among the 1128 hostages, as well as heavy losses among the special forces. Other issues Pankisi crisis Russian officials have accused the bordering republic of Georgia of allowing Chechen separatists to operate on Georgian territory and permitting the flow of militants and materiel across the Georgian border with Russia. In February 2002, the United States began offering assistance to Georgia in combating "criminal elements" as well as alleged Arab mujahideen activity in Pankisi Gorge as part of the War on Terrorism. Without resistance, Georgian troops have detained an Arab man and six criminals, and declared the region under control. In August 2002, Georgia accused Russia of a series of secret air strikes on purported separatists havens in the Pankisi Gorge in which a Georgian civilian was reported killed. On 8 October 2001, a UNOMIG helicopter was shot down in Georgia in Kodori Valley gorge near Abkhazia, amid fighting between Chechens and Abkhazians, killing nine including five UN observers. Georgia denied having troops in the area, and the suspicion fell on the armed group headed by Chechen warlord Ruslan Gelayev, who was speculated to have been hired by the Georgian government to wage proxy war against separatist Abkhazia. On 2 March 2004, following a number of cross-border raids from Georgia into Chechnya, Ingushetia, and Dagestan, Gelayev was killed in a clash with Russian border guards while trying to get back from Dagestan into Georgia. Unilateral ceasefire of 2005 On 2 February 2005, Chechen separatist president Aslan Maskhadov issued a call for a ceasefire lasting until at least 22 February (the day preceding the anniversary of Stalin's deportation of the Chechen population). The call was issued through a separatist website and addressed to President Putin, described as a gesture of goodwill. On 8 March 2005, Maskhadov was killed in an operation by Russian security forces in the Chechen community of Tolstoy-Yurt, northeast of Grozny. Shortly following Maskhadov's death, the Chechen separatist council announced that Abdul-Khalim Sadulayev had assumed the leadership, a move that was quickly endorsed by Shamil Basayev (Basayev himself died in July 2006). On 2 February 2006, Sadulayev made large-scale changes in his government, ordering all its members to move into Chechen territory. Among other things, he removed First Vice-Premier Akhmed Zakayev from his post (although later Zakayev was appointed a Foreign Minister). Sadulayev was killed in June 2006, after which he was succeeded as the separatist leader by the veteran terrorist commander Doku Umarov. Amnesties As of November 2007, there were at least seven amnesties for separatist militants, as well as federal servicemen who committed crimes, declared in Chechnya by Moscow since the start of the second war. The first one was announced in 1999 when about 400 Chechen switched sides. (However, according to Putin's advisor and aide Aslambek Aslakhanov most of them were since killed, both by their former comrades and by the Russians, who by then perceived them as a potential "fifth column".) Some of the other amnesties included one during September 2003 in connection with the adoption of the republic's new constitution, and then another between mid-2006 and January 2007. According to Ramzan Kadyrov, himself former separatist, more than 7,000 separatist fighters defected to the federal side ("returned to the peaceful life") by 2005. In 2006 more than 600 militants in Chechnya and adjacent provinces reportedly surrendered their arms in response to a six-month amnesty "for those not involved in any serious crimes". In 2007, the International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights published a report entitled Amnestied People as Targets for Persecution in Chechnya, which documents the fate of several persons who have been amnestied and subsequently abducted, tortured and killed. Government censorship of the media coverage The first war, with its extensive and largely unrestricted coverage (despite deaths of many journalists), convinced the Kremlin more than any other event that it needed to control national television channels, which most Russians rely on for news, to successfully undertake any major national policy. By the time the second war began, federal authorities had designed and introduced a comprehensive system to limit the access of journalists to Chechnya and shape their coverage. The Russian government's control of all Russian television stations and its use of repressive rules, harassment, censorship, intimidation and attacks on journalists almost completely deprived the Russian public of the independent information on the conflict. Practically all the local Chechen media are under total control of the pro-Moscow government, Russian journalists in Chechnya face intense harassment and obstruction leading to widespread self-censorship, while foreign journalists and media outlets too are pressured into censoring their reports on the conflict. In some cases Russian journalists reporting on Chechnya were jailed (Boris Stomakhin) or kidnapped (Andrei Babitsky), and foreign media outlets (American Broadcasting Company) banned from Russia. Russia's step came in retaliation for ABC's broadcast of an interview with Shamil Basayev, the Chechen rebel leader who ordered and/or carried out some of the worst terrorist acts in the country's history, including the school siege in Beslan that left 330 people dead. The Russian-Chechen Friendship Society was shut down on "extremism and national hatred" charges. According to a 2007 poll only 11 percent of Russians said they were happy with media coverage of Chechnya. Effects Civilian losses In the Second Chechen War, over 60,000 combatants and non-combatants were killed. Civilian casualty estimates vary widely. According to the pro-Moscow Chechnya government, 160,000 combatants and non-combatants died or have gone missing in the two wars, including 30,000–40,000 Chechens and about 100,000 Russians; while separatist leader Aslan Maskhadov (deceased) repeatedly claimed about 200,000 ethnic Chechens died as a consequence of the two conflicts. As in the case of military losses, these claims can not be independently verified. According to a count by the Russian human rights group Memorial in 2007, up to 25,000 civilians have died or disappeared since 1999. According to Amnesty International in 2007, the second war killed up to 25,000 civilians since 1999, with up to another 5,000 people missing. However, the Russian-Chechen Friendship Society set their estimate of the total death toll in two wars at about 150,000 to 200,000 civilians. Environmental damage Environmental agencies warn that the Russian republic of Chechnya, devastated by war, now faces ecological disaster. A former aide to Boris Yeltsin believes Russian bombing has rendered Chechnya an "environmental wasteland." There is a special concern over widespread oil spills and pollution from sewers damaged by war (the water is polluted to a depth of 250 m), and chemical and radioactive pollution, as a result of the bombardment of chemical facilities and storages during the conflict. Chechnya's wildlife also sustained heavy damage during the hostilities, as animals that had once populated the Chechen forests have moved off to seek safer ground. In 2004, Russian government has designated one-third of Chechnya a "zone of ecological disaster" and another 40% "a zone of extreme environmental distress". Land mines Chechnya is the most land mine-affected region worldwide. Since 1994 there have been widespread use of mines, by both sides (Russia is a party to the 1980 Convention on Conventional Weapons but not the 1996 protocol on land mines and other devices). The most heavily mined areas of Chechnya are those in which separatists continue to put up resistance, namely the southern regions, as well as the borders of the republic. No humanitarian mine clearance has taken place since the HALO Trust was evicted by Russia in December 1999. In June 2002, Olara Otunnu, the UN official, estimated that there were 500,000 land mines placed in the region. UNICEF has recorded 2,340 civilian land mine and unexploded ordnance casualties occurring in Chechnya between 1999 and the end of 2003. Military losses Military casualty figures from both sides are impossible to verify and are generally believed to be higher. In September 2000, the National Endowment for Democracy compiled the list of casualties officially announced in the first year of the conflict, which, although incomplete and with little factual value, provide a minimum insight in the information war. According to the figures released by the Russian Ministry of Defence on in August 2005, at least 1,250 Russian Armed Forces soldiers have been killed in action 1999–2005. This death toll did not include losses of Internal Troops, the FSB, police and local paramilitaries, of whom all at least 1,720 were killed by October 2003. The independent Russian and Western estimates are much higher; the Union of the Committees of Soldiers' Mothers of Russia for instance estimated about 2,000 Russian Army servicemen have been killed between 1999 and 2003. Political radicalization of the separatist movement The Chechens had become increasingly radicalized. Former Soviet Armed Forces officers Dzhokhar Dudayev and Aslan Maskhadov have been succeeded by people who rely more on Islamist, rather than the secular nationalistic feelings of the population. While Dudayev and Maskhadov were seeking from Moscow recognition of the independence of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, other leaders spoke out more about the need to expel Russia from the territory of the whole North Caucasus, an impoverished mountain region inhabited mostly by Muslim, non-Russian ethnic groups. In April 2006, asked whether negotiations with Russians are possible, the top separatist commander Doku Umarov answered: "We offered them many times. But it turned out that we constantly press for negotiations and it's as if we are always standing with an extended hand and this is taken as a sign of our weakness. Therefore we don't plan to do this any more." In the same month, the new separatist spokesman Movladi Udugov said that attacks should be expected anywhere in Russia: "Today, we have a different task on our hands – total war, war everywhere our enemy can be reached. (...) And this means mounting attacks at any place, not just in the Caucasus but in all Russia." Reflecting growing radicalization of the Chechen-led militants, Udugov said their goal was no longer Western-style democracy and independence, but the Islamist "North Caucasian Emirate". This trend ultimately resulted in the October 2007 declaration of Caucasus Emirate by Doku Umarov where he also urged for a global Jihad, and the political schism between the moderates and the radical Islamists fighting in Chechnya and the neighbouring regions with ties in the Middle East. Some commanders, still fighting along with Doku Umarov, like Anzor Astemirov, have publicly denounced the idea of a global Jihad, but keep fighting for the independence of Caucasus states. The struggle has garnered support from Muslim sympathizers around the world nonetheless, and some of them have been willing to take up arms. Many commentators think it is likely that Chechen fighters have links with international Islamist separatist groups. The BBC said in an online Q&A on the conflict: "It has been known for years that Muslim volunteers have traveled to Chechnya to join the fight, reportedly after attending training camps in Afghanistan or Pakistan." Projecting back from the post-9/11 period, some have linked Chechen resistance to Russia to the al-Qaida global jihad movement. However, the number of foreign jihad fighters in Chechnya was at most in the hundreds. Most Western observers prior to 11 September regarded the alleged al-Qaida links claimed by Russian government with skepticism. The Clinton and Bush administrations, as well as other NATO governments, uniformly dismissed Moscow's rhetoric concerning the existence of Chechens in Afghanistan and Afghans in Chechnya as Soviet-style "agitprop" (agitation-propaganda) until 11 September occurred. Islamic radicalisation process has also affected on Chechen separatist movement's support abroad. In 2013, the Tsarnaev brothers launched a suicide attack in Boston in claim of jihad, accusing the United States for killing Muslims of Iraq, Afghanistan and Palestine, weakened sympathy for Chechen resistance from Russia globally and increased xenophobia against Chechens and Muslims in the United States. Rampant Islamic terrorism in Europe and the exclusive role of the Chechens on the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, most notably Abu Omar al-Shishani, also dragged Chechen separatist movement in jeopardy due to increasing anti-Islamic sentiment on the rise in Europe, even in some of the countries in Europe like Poland, who supported Chechens during and after conflicts with Russia. Impact on the Chechen population According to a 2006 report by Médecins Sans Frontières, "the majority of Chechens still struggle through lives burdened by fear, uncertainty and poverty." A survey conducted by MSF in September 2005 showed that 77% of the respondents were suffering from "discernible symptoms of psychological distress". As of 2008, the infant mortality rate stood at 17 per 1,000, the highest in Russia; There are reports of a growing number of genetic disorders in babies and unexplained illnesses among school children. One child in 10 is born with some kind of anomaly that requires treatment. Some children whose parents can afford it are sent to the neighbouring republic of Dagestan, where treatment is better; Chechnya lacks sufficient medical equipment in most of its medical facilities. According to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), since 1994 to 2008 about 25,000 children in Chechnya have lost one or both parents. A whole generation of Chechen children is showing symptoms of psychological trauma. In 2006, Chechnya's pro-Moscow deputy health minister, said the Chechen children had become "living specimens" of what it means to grow up with the constant threat of violence and chronic poverty. In 2007, the Chechen interior ministry has identified 1,000 street children involved in vagrancy; the number was increasing. According to official statistics, Chechnya's unemployment rate in August 2009 was 32.9%. By 2017, this figure had decreased to 13.9%. Many people remain homeless because so much of Chechnya's housing was destroyed by the Russian federal forces and many people have not yet been given compensation. Not only the social (such as housing and hospitals) and economic infrastructure but also the foundations of culture and education, including most of educational and cultural institutions, were destroyed over the course of the two wars in Chechnya. However ongoing reconstruction efforts have been rebuilding the region at a quick pace over the past few years, including new housing, facilities, paved roads and traffic lights, a new mosque, and restoration of electricity to much of the region. Governmental, social and commercial life remain hobbled by bribery, kidnapping, extortion and other criminal activity; reports by the Russian government estimate that the organized crime sector is twice the Russian average and the government is widely perceived to be corrupt and unresponsive. Hundreds of thousands of Chechens were displaced by the conflict, including 300,000 at the height of the conflict in 2000. Most of them were displaced internally in Chechnya and in neighbouring republic of Ingushetia, but thousands of refugees also went into exile, with, as of 2008, most of them residing in the European Union countries. Impact on the Russian population The start of the war bolstered the domestic popularity of Vladimir Putin as the campaign was started one month after he had become Russian prime minister. The conflict greatly contributed to the deep changes in the Russian politics and society. Since the Chechen conflict began in 1994, cases of young veterans returning embittered and traumatized to their home towns have been reported all across Russia. Psychiatrists, law-enforcement officials, and journalists have started calling the condition of psychologically scarred soldiers "Chechen syndrome" (CS), drawing a parallel with the post-traumatic stress disorders suffered by Soviet soldiers who fought in Afghanistan. According to Yuri Alexandrovsky, deputy director of the Moscow Serbsky Institute in 2003, at least 70% of the estimated 1.5 million Chechnya veterans suffered CS. Many of the veterans came back alcoholic, unemployable and antisocial. Thousands were also physically disabled for life and left with very limited help from the government. According to the 2007 study by Memorial and Demos human rights organisations, Russian policemen lose their qualifications and professional skills during their duty tours in Chechnya. This conflict was linked to the rising brutality and general criminalisation of the Russian police forces. According to human rights activists and journalists, tens of thousands of police and security forces that have been to Chechnya learned patterns of brutality and impunity and brought them to their home regions, often returning with disciplinary and psychological problems. Reliable numbers on police brutality are hard to come by, but in a statement released in 2006, the internal affairs department of Russia's Interior Ministry said that the number of recorded crimes committed by police officers rose 46.8% in 2005. In one nationwide poll in 2005, 71% of respondents said they didn't trust their police at all; in another, 41% Russians said they lived in fear of police violence. According to Amnesty International, torture of detainees in Russia is now endemic. Since 2007, police officers from outside Caucasus are now not only being sent to Chechnya, but to all the region's republics. The wars in Chechnya, and the associated Caucasian terrorism in Russia, were a major factor in the growth of intolerance, xenophobia, and racist violence in Russia, directed in a great part against the people from Caucasus. The Russian authorities were unlikely to label random attacks on people of non-Russian ethnicity as racist, preferring calling it "hooliganism". The number of murders officially classified as racist more than doubled in Russia between 2003 and 2004. The violence included acts of terrorism such as the 2006 Moscow market bombing which killed 13 people. In 2007, 18-year-old Artur Ryno claimed responsibility for 37 racially motivated murders in the course of one year, saying that "since school [he] hated people from the Caucasus." On 5 June 2007, an anti-Chechen riot involving hundreds of people took place in the town of Stavropol in southern Russia. Rioters demanded the eviction of ethnic Chechens following the murder of two young Russians who locals believed were killed by Chechens. The event revived memories of a recent clash between Chechens and local Russians in Kondopoga over an unpaid bill, when two Russians were killed. The Caucasians also face ethnic-related violence in the ranks of Russian Army. Status In 2005, there were about 60,000 Federal troops in Chechnya, but that number has since decreased significantly. Tony Wood, a journalist and author who has written extensively about Chechnya, estimated there were about 8,000 local security forces remaining in the region . Independent analysts say there are no more than 2,000 armed terrorists combatants still fighting, while Russia says only a few hundred remain. There is still some sporadic fighting in the mountains and south of the republic, but Russia has scaled down its presence significantly leaving the local government to stabilize things further. In February 2008 the President of the separatist Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, Dokka Umarov, spoke of "thousands of fighters" when he addressed a speech to all his fighters in the mountains. Most of the more prominent past Chechen separatist leaders have died or have been killed, including former president Aslan Maskhadov and leading warlord and terrorist attack mastermind Shamil Basayev. Meanwhile, the fortunes of the Chechen independence movement sagged, plagued by the internal disunity between Chechen moderates and Islamist radicals and the changing global political climate after 11 September 2001, as well as the general war-weariness of the Chechen population. Large-scale fighting has been replaced by guerrilla warfare and bombings targeting federal troops and forces of the regional government, with the violence often spilling over into adjacent regions. Since 2005, the insurgency has largely shifted out of Chechnya proper and into the nearby Russian territories, such as Ingushetia and Dagestan; the Russian government, for its part, has focused on the stabilization of the North Caucasus. Throughout the years Russian officials have often announced that the war is over. In April 2002, President Vladimir Putin's declared that the war in Chechnya was over. The Russian government maintains the conflict officially ended in April 2002, and since then has continued largely as a peacekeeping operation. In a 10 July 2006, interview with the BBC, Sergei Ivanov, Russia's then–prime minister and former minister of defense, said that "the war is over," and that "the military campaign lasted only 2 years." Ramzan Kadyrov, the current president of the Chechnya, has also stated the war is over. Others believe the war ended in 2003 with the passage of a Moscow-backed constitutional referendum and the election of pro-Moscow president Akhmad Kadyrov, while some consider the conflict on-going. Some independent observers, including Álvaro Gil-Robles, the human rights envoy for the Council of Europe, and Louise Arbour, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, have said that the war has largely concluded as of 2006. The separatists denied that the war was over, and guerrilla warfare continued throughout the North Caucasus. Colonel Sulim Yamadayev, Chechnya's second most powerful loyalist warlord after Kadyrov, also denied that the war is over. In March 2007, Yamadayev claimed there were well over 1,000 separatists and foreign Islamic militants entrenched in the mountains of Chechnya alone: "The war is not over, the war is far from being over. What we are facing now is basically a classic partisan war and my prognosis is that it will last two, three, maybe even five more years." According to the CIA factbook, Russia has severely disabled the Chechen separatist movement, although sporadic violence still occurs throughout the North Caucasus. The overall security situation in Chechnya remains exceedingly difficult to accurately report due to the near monopoly the Russian government has on media covering the issue. In May 2007, Amnesty International refuted claims by the government that the conflict has ended, stating "while large-scale military operations have been reduced, the conflict continues." The strength of the separatists has for many years been unknown. Although Russia has killed a lot of separatists throughout the war, many young fighters have joined the separatists. An estimation, based on the war reports, shows that in the past three years Federal casualties are higher than the number of coalition casualties of the War in Afghanistan (2001–present). With the abolition of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and the proclamation of the Caucasus Emirate by the president of the separatist movement Dokka Umarov, the conflict in Chechnya and the rest of the North Caucasus is often referred to as the "War in the North Caucasus". The Russian government has given no new name to the conflict while most international observers still refer to it as a continuation of the Second Chechen War. In late April 2008, the Human Rights Commissioner for the Council of Europe, Thomas Hammarberg, visited Russia's Caucasian republics. After wrapping up the week-long visit, he said he observed a number of positive developments in Chechnya, and that there was "obvious progress". He also noted that the judicial system in Chechnya was functioning properly. According to Hammarberg, missing people and the identification of missing bodies were still the two biggest human rights issues in the region, and he expressed his wish that further efforts be done to clarify the issue. President Putin responded to his comments, saying that the visit was of "great significance", and that Russia will take into account what the council had to say. Counter-insurgency operations have been conducted by Russian army in Chechnya since 1999. President of Chechnya, and former separatist, Ramzan Kadyrov declared this phase to end in March 2009. On 27 March 2009, President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev met with Alexander Bortnikov, the Director of the Federal Security Service to discuss the official ending of counter-terrorism operations in Chechnya. Medvedev directed the National Anti-Terrorism Committee, which Bortnikov also heads, to report to the Russian government on this issue, which will then be decided by the Russian parliament. However Medvedev asserted that situation in Chechnya must remain under direct control of the FSB. Close to 480 active insurgents are currently fighting in the mountains under leadership of field commander Doku Umarov according to official data. On 16 April 2009, the counter-terrorism operation in Chechnya was officially ended. People of the Second Chechen War Russian political leaders and commanders President of Russia (in chronological order) Boris Yeltsin (died 2007), Vladimir Putin Chiefs of the FSB, the GRU, and the General Staff of the Armed Forces Nikolai Patrushev – Valentin Korabelnikov – Anatoly Kvashnin, Yuri Baluyevsky Commander of the Joint Group of Forces in the North Caucasus (in chronological order) Vladimir Moltenskoy, Sergey Makarov, Valery Baranov (maimed 2004), Yakov Nedobitko Commander of the North Caucasus Military District (in chronological order) Viktor Kazantsev, Gennady Troshev, Vladimir Boldyrev, Alexander Baranov Defence Minister of the Russian Federation (in chronological order) Igor Sergeyev, Sergei Ivanov, Anatoliy Serdyukov Interior Minister of Russia (in chronological order) Vladimir Rushailo, Boris Gryzlov, Rashid Nurgaliyev Military commandant of Chechnya Yevgeniy Abrashin, Ivan Babichev, Grigory Fomenko, Leonid Krivonos President of the Chechen Republic (in chronological order) Akhmad Kadyrov (assassinated 2004), Alu Alkhanov, Ramzan Kadyrov Pro-Russian Chechen commanders and politicians Salman Abuyev (assassinated 2001), Artur Akhmadov, Ruslan Alkhanov, Abu Arsanukayev, Aslambek Aslakhanov, Movladi Baisarov (assassinated 2006), Shamil Burayev, Zina Batyzheva, Odes Baysultanov, Alimbek Delimkhanov, Adam Demilkhanov, Adam Deniyev (assassinated 2000), Rudnik Dudayev †, Taus Dzhabrailov, Bislan Gantamirov, Musa Gazimagomadov (died 2003), Hussein Isayev (assassinated 2004), Idris Gaibov, Muslim Ilyasov, Zelimkhan Kadyrov (died 2004), Said-Magomed Kakiyev, Nusreda Khabuseyeva †, Magomed Khambiyev, Ibragim Khultygov, Rezvan Kutsuyev, Supyan Makhchayev, Malik Saidullayev, Sultan Satuyev, Movsar Temirbayev, Raybek Tovzayev (killed 2001), Ruslan Tsakayev (died 2003), Said-Selim Tsuyev, Dzhabrail Yamadayev (assassinated 2003), Khalid Yamadayev, Ruslan Yamadayev, Sulim Yamadayev, Alambek Yasayev, Aud Yusupov †, Akhmad Zavgayev (assassinated 2002), and others Russian commanders and politicians Sergey Abramov, Mukhu Aliyev, Aslambek Aslakhanov, Mikhail Babich, Viktor Barsukov, Aleksandr Bespalov, Yuri Budanov (imprisoned 2003–2009, assassinated 2011), Boris Fadeyev, Gaidar Gadzhiyev (assassinated 2001), Magomed Gazimagomedov, Nikolai Goridov (assassinated 2002), Aleksandr Kayak (assassinated 2005), Oleg Khotin, Alexander Kolmakov, Dzhabrail Kostoyev (assassinated 2006), Abukar Kostoyev (killed 2004), Anatoly Kyarov (assassinated 2008), Alexander Lentsov, Adilgerei Magomedtagirov, Magomedali Magomedov, Ibragim Malsagov, Mikhail Malofeyev (killed 2000), Valery Manilov, Mark Metsayev †, Magomed Omarov (assassinated 2005), Boris Podoprigora, Aleksandr Potapov, Anatoly Pozdnyakov (assassinated 2001), Mikhail Rudchenko (assassinated 2002), Yan Sergunin (assassinated 2004), Vladimir Shamanov, Igor Shifrin (assassinated 2002), Georgy Shpak, German Ugryumov (died 2001), Pavel Varfolomeyev (assassinated 2001), Sergei Yastrzhembsky, Sergei Zveryev (assassinated 2000), Murat Zyazikov, and others Separatist political leaders and commanders President of Ichkeria (in chronological order) Aslan Maskhadov (killed 2005), Sheikh Abdul Halim (killed 2006), Dokka Umarov (killed 2013) Chechen separatist commanders and politicians Salman Abuyev (defected), Aslambek Abdulkhadzhiev (killed 2002), Artur Akhmadov (defected), Ilyas Akhmadov, Uvais Akhmadov, Ruslan Alikhadzhyev (forcibly disappeared 2000), Ruslan Alkhanov (defected), Vakha Arsanov (killed or murdered in captivity 2005), Turpal-Ali Atgeriev (died or murdered in captivity 2002), Akhmed Avtorkhanov (killed 2005), Arbi Barayev (killed 2001), Movsar Barayev (killed 2002), Shamil Basayev (killed 2006), Rizvan Chitigov (killed 2005), Lecha Dudayev (killed 2000), Suleiman Elmurzayev (killed 2007), Idris Gaibov (defected), Ruslan Gelayev (killed 2004), Sultan Geliskhanov (captured 2006), Lecha Islamov (died or murdered in captivity 2005), Aslambek Ismailov (killed 2000), Khunkarpasha Israpilov (killed 2000), Magomed Khambiyev (defected), Umar Khambiyev, Ibragim Khultygov (defected), Isa Munayev (killed 2015), Isa Muskiyev (killed 2006), Abu Movsayev (killed 2000), Khozh-Ahmed Noukhayev (unknown fate), Salman Raduyev (died or murdered in captivity 2002), Salautdin Temirbulatov (imprisoned), Movladi Udugov, Yamadayev brothers (defected), Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev (assassinated 2004), Akhmed Zakayev, and others North Caucasian and foreign militant leaders Anzor Astemirov (killed 2010), Muslim Atayev (killed 2005), Alan Digorsky, Ilias Gorchkhanov (killed 2005), Rappani Khalilov (killed 2007), Ibn al-Khattab (assassinated 2002), Abdul Madzhid (killed September 2008), Rasul Makasharipov (killed 2005), Muhannad (killed 2011), Abu Hafs al-Urduni (killed 2006), Abu al-Walid (killed 2004), Akhmed Yevloyev (captured 2010), and others Other associated people Journalists Andrei Babitsky, Supian Ependiyev (killed 1999), Adlan Khasanov (killed 2004), Ramzan Mezhidov (killed 1999), Anna Politkovskaya (assassinated 2006), Roddy Scott (killed 2002), Fatima Tlisova, and others Victims of human rights abuses Ruslan Alikhadzhyev (kidnapped 2000, presumed dead), Shakhid Baysayev (kidnapped 2000, presumed dead), Zura Bitiyeva (murdered with her family 2003), Elza Kungayeva (kidnapped, raped and murdered 2000), Nura Luluyeva (kidnapped and murdered 2000), Zelimkhan Murdalov (forcibly disappeared 2001, presumed dead), Malika Umazheva (murdered 2002), Khadzhi-Murat Yandiyev (forcibly disappeared 2000, presumed dead), and others Various Ruslan Aushev, Shamil Beno, Aleksey Galkin, Nur-Pashi Kulayev (imprisoned 2006, unknown fate), Sergei Lapin (imprisoned 2005), Timur Mutsurayev, Lidia Yusupova, and others See also Guerrilla phase of the Second Chechen War International response to the Second Chechen War References Publications Bibliography "Three Worlds Gone Mad" Author: Robert Young Pelton [ A Dirty War: A Russian Reporter in Chechnya] Author: Anna Politkovskaya [ A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya] Author: David R. Stone (preview available) [ A Small Corner of Hell: Dispatches from Chechnya] Author: Anna Politkovskaya (preview available) [ Allah's Mountains: The Battle for Chechnya] Author: Sebastian Smith (preview available) [ Chechnya: From Nationalism to Jihad] Author: James Hughes (preview available) [ Chechnya: From Past To Future] Author: Richard Sakwa and others (preview available) [ Chechnya: Life in a War-Torn Society] Author: Valery Tishkov (preview available) [Chechnya: The Case for Independence] Author: Tony Wood [ Chechnya: To the Heart of a Conflict] Author: Andrew Meier [ Chienne de Guerre: A Woman Reporter Behind the Lines of the War in Chechnya] Author: Anne Nivat [ Crying Wolf: The Return of War to Chechnya] Author: Vanora Bennett [ My Jihad] Author: Aukai Collins [ One Soldier's War] Author: Arkady Babchenko. [ Open Wound: Chechnya 1994–2003] Author: Stanley Greene [ Putin's Russia] Author: Anna Politkovskaya [ Russia's Chechen Wars 1994–2000: Lessons from Urban Combat] Author: Olga Oliker (preview available) [ Russia's Islamic Threat] Author: Gordon M. Hahn [ Russia's Restless Frontier: The Chechnya Factor in Post-Soviet Russia] Author: Dmitri Trenin, Anatol Lieven (preview available) [ Russia's Wars with Chechnya 1994–2003] Author: Michael Orr [ Russian Military Reform, 1992–2002] Author: Anne Aldis, Roger N. McDermott [ Russo-Chechen Conflict, 1800–2000: A Deadly Embrace] Author: Robert Seely (preview available) [ The Angel of Grozny: Orphans of a Forgotten War] Author: Asne Seierstad [ The Chechen Wars: Will Russia Go the Way of the Soviet Union?] Author: Matthew Evangelista (preview available) [ The Lone Wolf and the Bear: Three Centuries of Chechen Defiance of Russian Rule] Author: Moshe Gammer (preview available) [ The Oath: A Surgeon Under Fire] Author: Khassan Baiev [ The Wolves of Islam: Russia and the Faces of Chechen Terror] Author: Paul J. Murphy (preview available) [ "Welcome to Hell": Arbitrary Detention, Torture, and Extortion in Chechnya] Author: Human Rights Watch (preview available) External links Timelines and chronologies BBC Timeline: Chechnya Summaries CHECHNYA: TWO FEDERAL INTERVENTIONS Conflict Studies Research Centre Second Chechnya War – 1999–??? GlobalSecurity.Org Human rights issues Video: Is it safe in Chechnya? A European human rights body has described the situation in Russia's Chechen republic as critical (21 April 2008) Council of Europe resolutions on 'The human rights situation in the Chechen Republic': Resolution 1323 (2003) Resolution 1403 (2004) Human Rights Violations in Chechnya Society for the Russian–Chechen Friendship The Trauma of ongoing War in Chechnya Doctors Without Borders Articles "The North Caucasus," Russian Analytical Digest No. 22 (5 June 2007) Critical media coverage of Chechnya stifled Shifting Battlefields of the Chechen War (April 2006) The Chechen resistance movement: 2006 in review Jamestown Foundation ISN Case Study: The North Caucasus on the Brink (August 2006) Wars of independence Conflicts in 1999 Conflicts in 2000 Dirty wars Post-Soviet conflicts 2 Wars involving Chechnya 1999 in Russia 2000 in Russia

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayard%20Rustin

Bayard Rustin

Bayard Rustin (; March 17, 1912 – August 24, 1987) was an African American leader in social movements for civil rights, socialism, nonviolence, and gay rights. Rustin worked with A. Philip Randolph on the March on Washington Movement, in 1941, to press for an end to racial discrimination in employment. Rustin later organized Freedom Rides, and helped to organize the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to strengthen Martin Luther King Jr.'s leadership and teaching King about nonviolence; he later served as an organizer for the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. Rustin worked alongside Ella Baker, a co-director of the Crusade for Citizenship, in 1954; and before the Montgomery bus boycott, he helped organize a group, called "In Friendship," amongst Baker, George Lawrence, Stanley Levison of the American Jewish Congress, and some other labor leaders. "In Friendship" provided material and legal assistance to those being evicted from their tenant farms and households in Clarendon County, Yazoo, and other places. Rustin became the head of the AFL–CIO's A. Philip Randolph Institute, which promoted the integration of formerly all-white unions and promoted the unionization of African Americans. During the 1970s and 1980s, Rustin served on many humanitarian missions, such as aiding refugees from Vietnam and Cambodia. At the time of his death in 1987, he was on a humanitarian mission in Haiti. Rustin was a gay man and, due to criticism over his sexuality, he usually acted as an influential adviser behind the scenes to civil-rights leaders. In the 1980s, he became a public advocate on behalf of gay causes, speaking at events as an activist and supporter of human rights. Later in life, while still devoted to securing workers' rights, Rustin joined other union leaders in aligning with ideological neoconservatism, and (after his death) President Ronald Reagan praised him. On November 20, 2013, President Barack Obama posthumously awarded Rustin the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Early life and education Rustin was born in West Chester, Pennsylvania, to Florence Rustin and Archie Hopkins, but raised by his maternal grandparents, Julia (Davis) and Janifer Rustin, as the ninth of their twelve children; growing up he believed his biological mother was his older sister. His grandparents were relatively wealthy local caterers who raised Rustin in a large house. Julia Rustin was a Quaker, although she attended her husband's African Methodist Episcopal Church. She was also a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). NAACP leaders such as W.E.B. Du Bois and James Weldon Johnson were frequent guests in the Rustin home. With these influences in his early life, in his youth Rustin campaigned against racially discriminatory Jim Crow laws. One of the first documented realizations Rustin had of his sexuality was when he mentioned to his grandmother that he preferred to spend time with males rather than females. She responded, "I suppose that's what you need to do". In 1932, Rustin entered Wilberforce College, a historically black college (HBCU) in Ohio operated by the AME Church. Rustin was active in a number of campus organizations, including the Omega Psi Phi fraternity. He was expelled from Wilberforce in 1936 after organizing a strike, and later attended Cheyney State Teachers College (now Cheyney University of Pennsylvania). Cheyney honored Rustin with a posthumous "Doctor of Humane Letters" degree at its 2013 commencement. After completing an activist training program conducted by the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC), Rustin moved to Harlem in 1937 and began studying at City College of New York. There he became involved in efforts to defend and free the Scottsboro Boys, nine young black men in Alabama who were accused of raping two white women. He joined the Young Communist League for a small period of time in 1936, before becoming disillusioned with the party. Soon after arriving in New York City, he became a member of Fifteenth Street Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers). Rustin was an accomplished tenor vocalist, an asset that earned him admission to both Wilberforce University and Cheyney State Teachers College with music scholarships. In 1939, he was in the chorus of the short-lived musical John Henry that starred Paul Robeson. Blues singer Josh White was also a cast member and later invited Rustin to join his band, "Josh White and the Carolinians". This gave Rustin the opportunity to become a regular performer at the Café Society nightclub in Greenwich Village, widening his social and intellectual contacts. A few albums on Fellowship Records featuring his singing, such as Bayard Rustin Sings a Program of Spirituals, were produced from the 1950s through the 1970s. Evolving affiliations At the direction of the Soviet Union, the Communist Party USA (CPUSA) and its members were active in the civil rights movement for African Americans. The CPUSA, at the time following Stalin's "theory of nationalism", favored the creation of a separate nation for African Americans to be located in the American Southeast where the greatest proportion of the black population was concentrated. In 1941, after Germany invaded the Soviet Union, Communist International ordered the CPUSA to abandon civil rights work and focus on supporting U.S. entry into World War II. Disillusioned, Rustin began working with members of the Socialist Party of Norman Thomas, particularly A. Philip Randolph, the head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters; another socialist mentor was the pacifist A. J. Muste, leader of the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR). FOR hired Rustin as a race relation secretary in the late summer of 1941. The three of them proposed a march on Washington, D.C. in 1941 to protest racial segregation in the armed forces and widespread discrimination in employment. Meeting with President Roosevelt in the Oval Office, Randolph respectfully and politely, but firmly told President Roosevelt that African Americans would march in the capital unless desegregation occurred. To prove their good faith, the organizers canceled the planned march after Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 (the Fair Employment Act), which banned discrimination in defense industries and federal agencies. The leader of the organizers, Randolph, canceled the march against Rustin's advisement. The armed forces were not desegregated until 1948, under an Executive Order issued by President Harry S. Truman. Randolph felt that FOR had succeeded in their goal and wanted to dissolve the committee. Again, Rustin disagreed with him and voiced his differing opinion in a national press conference, which he later regretted. Rustin traveled to California to help protect the property of the more than 120,000 Japanese Americans (most of whom were U.S.-born citizens) who had been imprisoned in internment camps. Impressed with Rustin's organizational skills, A.J. Muste appointed him as FOR's secretary for student and general affairs. Rustin was also a pioneer in the movement to desegregate interstate bus travel. In 1942, he boarded a bus in Louisville, bound for Nashville, and sat in the second row. A number of drivers asked him to move to the back, according to Southern practice of Jim Crow, but Rustin refused. The bus was stopped by police 13 miles north of Nashville and Rustin was arrested. He was beaten and taken to a police station but was released uncharged. He spoke about his decision to be arrested, and how that moment also clarified his witness as a gay person, in an interview with the Washington Blade: In 1942, Rustin assisted two other FOR staffers, George Houser and James Farmer, and activist Bernice Fisher as they formed the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). Rustin was not a direct founder, but was later described as "an uncle of CORE". CORE had been conceived as a pacifist organization based on the writings of Mohandas Gandhi, who used non-violent resistance against British rule in India. CORE was also influenced by his protégé Krishnalal Shridharani's book War without Violence. As declared pacifists who refused induction into the military, Rustin, Houser, and other members of FOR and CORE were convicted of violating the Selective Service Act. From 1944 to 1946, Rustin was imprisoned in Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary, where he organized protests against segregated dining facilities. During his incarceration, he also organized FOR's Free India Committee. After his release from prison, he was frequently arrested for protesting against British colonial rule, in both India and Africa. Just before a trip to Africa while college secretary of the FOR, Rustin recorded a 10-inch LP for the Fellowship Records label. He sang spirituals and Elizabethan songs, accompanied on the harpsichord by Margaret Davison. Influence on the Civil Rights Movement Rustin and Houser organized the Journey of Reconciliation in 1947. This was the first of the Freedom Rides to test the ruling of the Supreme Court of the United States in Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia that banned racial discrimination in interstate travel as unconstitutional. Rustin and CORE executive secretary George Houser recruited a team of fourteen men, divided equally by race, to ride in pairs through Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Kentucky. The NAACP opposed CORE's Gandhian tactics as too meek. Participants in the Journey of Reconciliation were arrested several times. Arrested with Igal Roodenko and Joe Felmet, Rustin served twenty-two days on a chain gang in North Carolina for violating state Jim Crow laws regarding segregated seating on public transportation. In 1948, Rustin traveled to India to learn techniques of nonviolent civil resistance directly from the leaders of the Gandhian movement. The conference had been organized before Gandhi's assassination earlier that year. Between 1947 and 1952, Rustin also met with leaders of independence movements in Ghana and Nigeria. In 1951, he formed the committee to Support South African Resistance, which later became the American Committee on Africa. Rustin was arrested in Pasadena, California, in January 1953 for sexual activity with two men in their 20s, in a parked car. Originally charged with vagrancy and lewd conduct, he pleaded guilty to a single, lesser charge of "sex perversion" (as sodomy was officially referred to in California then, even if consensual) and served 60 days in jail. This was the first time that his homosexuality had come to public attention (and for which he was posthumously pardoned). He had been and remained candid in private about his sexuality, although homosexual activity was still criminalized throughout the United States. Rustin resigned from the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR) because of his convictions. They also greatly affected Rustin's relationship with A. J. Muste, the director of the FOR. Muste had already tried to change Rustin's sexuality earlier in their relationship with no success. Later in Rustin's life, they continued their relationship with more tension than they had previously. Rustin became the executive secretary of the War Resisters League. Later, in Montana, an American Legion chapter made his conviction in Pasadena public to try to cancel his lectures in the state. Rustin served as an unidentified member of the American Friends Service Committee's task force to write "Speak Truth to Power: A Quaker Search for an Alternative to Violence," published in 1955. This was one of the most influential and widely commented upon pacifist essays in the United States. Rustin had wanted to keep his participation quiet, as he believed that his known sexual orientation would be used by critics as an excuse to compromise the 71-page pamphlet when it was published. It analyzed the Cold War and the American response to it, and recommended non-violent solutions. Rustin took leave from the War Resisters League in 1956 to advise minister Martin Luther King Jr. of the Baptist Church on Gandhian tactics. King was organizing the public transportation boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, which became known as the Montgomery bus boycott. According to Rustin, "I think it's fair to say that Dr. King's view of non-violent tactics was almost non-existent when the boycott began. In other words, Dr. King was permitting himself and his children and his home to be protected by guns." Rustin convinced King to abandon the armed protection, including a personal handgun. In a 1964 interview with Robert Penn Warren for the book Who Speaks for the Negro?, Rustin also reflected that his integrative ideology began to differ from King's. He believed a social movement "has to be based on the collective needs of people at this time, regardless of color, creed, race." The following year, Rustin and King began organizing the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Many African American leaders were concerned that Rustin's sexual orientation and past Communist membership would undermine support for the civil rights movement. After the organization of the SCLC, Rustin and King planned a march. However, they did not plan on the march to be included in the Democratic National Convention. This did not sit well with U.S. Representative Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Powell threatened to leak to the press rumors of a fake affair between Rustin and King. King, acting in his interests, canceled the march, and Rustin left his position in the SCLC. King received criticism for this action from Harper's magazine, which wrote about him, "Lost much moral credit ... in the eyes of the young". Although Rustin was open about his sexual orientation and his convictions were a matter of public record, the events had not been discussed widely beyond the civil rights leadership. Rustin did not let this setback change his direction in the movement. March on Washington Despite shunning from some civil rights leaders, A few weeks before the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in August 1963, South Carolina Senator Strom Thurmond railed against Rustin as a "Communist, draft-dodger, and homosexual," and had his entire Pasadena arrest file entered in the record. Thurmond also produced a Federal Bureau of Investigation photograph of Rustin talking to King while King was bathing, to imply that there was a same-sex relationship between the two. Both men denied the allegation of an affair. Rustin became involved in the March on Washington in 1962 when he was recruited by A. Philip Randolph. The march was planned to be a commemoration of the Emancipation Proclamation one hundred years earlier. Rustin was instrumental in organizing the march. He drilled off-duty police officers as marshals, bus captains to direct traffic, and scheduled the podium speakers. Eleanor Holmes Norton and Rachelle Horowitz were aides. Despite King's support, NAACP chairman Roy Wilkins did not want Rustin to receive any public credit for his role in planning the march. Roy Wilkins said, "This march is of such importance that we must not put a person of his liabilities at the head." Because of this conflict, Randolph served as the director of the march and Rustin as his deputy. During the planning of the march, Rustin feared his previous legal issues would pose a threat to the march. U.S. Senator Strom Thurmond attacked him about them three weeks before the march. Nevertheless, Rustin did become well known. On September 6, 1963, a photograph of Rustin and Randolph appeared on the cover of Life magazine, identifying them as "the leaders" of the March. New York City school boycott At the beginning of 1964, Reverend Milton Galamison and other Harlem community leaders invited Rustin to coordinate a citywide boycott of public schools to protest their de facto segregation. Prior to the boycott, the organizers asked the United Federation of Teachers Executive Board to join the boycott or ask teachers to join the picket lines. The union declined, promising only to protect from reprisals any teachers who participated. More than 400,000 New Yorkers participated in a one-day February 3, 1964 boycott. Historian Daniel Perlstein notes that "newspapers were astounded both by the numbers of black and Puerto Rican parents and children who boycotted and by the complete absence of violence or disorder from the protesters." It was, Rustin stated, and newspapers reported, "the largest civil rights demonstration" in American history. Rustin said that "the movement to integrate the schools will create far-reaching benefits" for teachers as well as students. The protest demanded complete integration of the city's schools (which would require some whites to attend schools in black neighborhoods), and it challenged the coalition between African Americans and white liberals. An ensuing white backlash affected relations among the black leaders. Writing to black labor leaders, Rustin denounced Galamison for seeking to conduct another boycott in the spring and soon abandoned the coalition. Rustin organized a May 18 March which called for "maximum possible" integration. Perlstein recounts. "This goal was to be achieved through such modest programs as the construction of larger schools and the replacement of junior high schools with middle schools. The UFT and other white moderates endorsed the May rally, yet only four thousand protesters showed up, and the Board of Education was no more responsive to the conciliatory May demonstration than to the earlier, more confrontational boycott." When Rustin was invited to speak at the University of Virginia in 1964, school administrators tried to ban him, out of fear that he would organize a school boycott there. From protest to politics In the spring of 1964, Rev. Martin Luther King was considering hiring Rustin as executive director of SCLC but was advised against it by Stanley Levison, a longtime activist friend of Rustin's. He opposed the hire because of what he considered Rustin's growing devotion to the political theorist Max Shachtman. "Shachtmanites" have been described as an ideologically cultish group with ardently anti-communist positions, and attachments to the Democratic Party and the AFL-CIO. At the 1964 Democratic National Convention, which followed Freedom Summer in Mississippi, Rustin became an adviser to the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP); they were trying to gain recognition as the legitimate, non-Jim Crow delegation from their state, where blacks had been officially disenfranchised since the turn of the century (as they were generally throughout the South) and excluded from the official political system. DNC leaders Lyndon Johnson and Hubert Humphrey offered only two non-voting seats to the MFDP, with the official seating going to the regular segregationist Mississippi delegation. Rustin, following a line set by Shachtman and AFL-CIO leaders, urged the MFDP to take the offer. MFDP leaders, including Fannie Lou Hamer and Bob Moses, angrily rejected the arrangement; many of their supporters became highly suspicious of Rustin. Rustin's attempt to compromise appealed to the Democratic Party leadership. After the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Rustin advocated closer ties between the civil rights movement and the Democratic Party, specifically the party's base among the white working class, many of whom still had strong union affiliations. With Tom Kahn, Rustin wrote an influential article in 1964 called "From Protest to Politics," published in Commentary magazine; it analyzed the changing economy and its implications for African Americans. Rustin wrote presciently that the rise of automation would reduce the demand for low-skill high-paying jobs, which would jeopardize the position of the urban African American working class, particularly in northern states. He believed that the working class had to collaborate across racial lines for common economic goals. His prophecy has been proven right in the dislocation and loss of jobs for many urban African Americans due to the restructuring of industry in the coming decades. Rustin believed that the African American community needed to change its political strategy, building and strengthening a political alliance with predominately white unions and other organizations (churches, synagogues, etc.) to pursue a common economic agenda. He wrote that it was time to move from protest to politics. Rustin's analysis of the economic problems of the Black community was widely influential. Rustin argued that since black people could now legally sit in the restaurant after the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, they needed to be able to afford service financially. He believed that a coalition of progressive forces to move the Democratic Party forward was needed to change the economic structure. He also argued that the African American community was threatened by the appeal of identity politics, particularly the rise of "Black power." He thought this position was a fantasy of middle-class black people that repeated the political and moral errors of previous black nationalists, while alienating the white allies needed by the African American community. Nation editor and Harvard Law Professor Randall Kennedy noted later that, while Rustin had a general "disdain of nationalism," he had a "very different attitude toward Jewish nationalism" and was "unflaggingly supportive of Zionism." Commentary editor-in-chief Norman Podhoretz had commissioned the article from Rustin, and the two men remained intellectually and personally aligned for the next 20 years. Podhoretz and the magazine promoted the neoconservative movement, which had implications for civil rights initiatives as well as other economic aspects of the society. In 1985, Rustin publicly praised Podhoretz for his refusal to "pander to minority groups" and for opposing affirmative action quotas in hiring as well as black studies programs in colleges. Because of these positions, Rustin was criticized as a "sell-out" by many of his former colleagues in the civil rights movement, especially those connected to grassroots organizing. They charged that he was lured by the material comforts that came with a less radical and more professional type of activism. Biographer John D'Emilio rejects these characterizations, and "portrays the final third of Rustin's life as one in which his reputation among his former allies was routinely questioned. After decades of working outside the system, they simply could not accept working within the system." However, Randall Kennedy wrote in a 2003 article that descriptions of Rustin as "a bought man" are "at least partly true", noting that his sponsorship by the AFL-CIO brought him some financial stability but imposed boundaries on his politics. Kennedy notes that despite Rustin's conservative turn in the mid-1960s, he remained a lifelong socialist, and D'Emilio argues that in the final phase of his life, Rustin remained on the left: "D'Emilio explains, even as Rustin was taking what appeared to be a more "conservative" turn, he remained committed to social justice. Rustin was making radical and ambitious demands for a basic redistribution of wealth in American society, including universal healthcare, the abolition of poverty, and full employment." Labor movement: Unions and social democracy Rustin increasingly worked to strengthen the labor movement, which he saw as the champion of empowerment for the African American community and for economic justice for all Americans. He contributed to the labor movement's two sides, economic and political, through the support of labor unions and social-democratic politics. He was the founder and became the Director of the A. Philip Randolph Institute, which coordinated the AFL-CIO's work on civil rights and economic justice. He became a regular columnist for the AFL-CIO newspaper. On the political side of the labor movement, Rustin increased his visibility as a leader of the American movement for social democracy. In early 1972, he became a national co-chairman of the Socialist Party of America. In December 1972, when the Socialist Party changed its name to Social Democrats, USA (SDUSA) by a vote of 73–34, Rustin continued to serve as national co-chairman, along with Charles S. Zimmerman of the International Ladies Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU). In his opening speech to the December 1972 Convention, Co-Chairman Rustin called for SDUSA to organize against the "reactionary policies of the Nixon Administration"; Rustin also criticized the "irresponsibility and élitism of the 'New Politics' liberals". In later years, Rustin served as the national chairman of SDUSA. During the 1960s, Rustin was a member of the League for Industrial Democracy. He would remain a member for years, and became vice president during the 1980s. Foreign policy Like many liberals and some socialists, Rustin supported President Lyndon B. Johnson's containment policy against communism, while criticizing specific conduct of this policy. In particular, to maintain independent labor unions and political opposition in Vietnam, Rustin and others gave critical support to U.S. military intervention in the Vietnam War, while calling for a negotiated peace treaty and democratic elections. Rustin criticized the specific conduct of the war, though. For instance, in a fundraising letter sent to War Resisters League supporters in 1964, Rustin wrote of being "angered and humiliated by the kind of war being waged, a war of torture, a war in which civilians are being machine-gunned from the air, and in which American napalm bombs are being dropped on the villages." Along with Allard Lowenstein and Norman Thomas, Rustin worked with the CIA-sponsored Committee on Free Elections in the Dominican Republic, which lent international credibility to a 1966 ballot effectively rigged against the socialist former president, Juan Bosch. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Rustin worked as a human rights and election monitor for Freedom House. In 1970, Rustin called for the U.S. to send military jets in the fight against Arab states by Israel; referring to a New York Times article he authored, Rustin wrote to Prime Minister Golda Meir "...I hope that the ad will also have an effect on a serious domestic question: namely, the relations between the Jewish and the Negro communities in America." Rustin was concerned about unity between two groups that he argued faced discrimination in America and abroad, and also believed that Israel's democratic ideals were proof that justice and equality would prevail in the Arab territories despite the atrocities of war. His former colleagues in the peace movement considered it to be a profound betrayal of Rustin's nonviolent ideals. Rustin maintained his strongly anti-Soviet and anti-communist views later in his life, especially with regard to Africa. Rustin co-wrote with Carl Gershman (a former director of Social Democrats, USA and future Ronald Reagan appointee) an essay entitled "Africa, Soviet Imperialism & the Retreat of American Power," in which he decried Russian and Cuban involvement in the Angolan Civil War and defended the military intervention by apartheid South Africa on behalf of the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). "And if a South African force did intervene at the urging of black leaders and on the side of the forces that clearly represent the black majority in Angola, to counter a non-African army of Cubans ten times its size, by what standard of political judgment is this immoral?" Rustin accused the Soviet Union of a classic imperialist agenda in Africa in pursuit of economic resources and vital sea lanes, and called the Carter Administration "hypocritical" for claiming to be committed to the welfare of blacks while doing too little to thwart Russian and Cuban expansion throughout Africa. In 1976, Rustin was a member of the anti-communist Committee on the Present Danger (CPD), founded by politician Paul Nitze. Nitze was a member of Team B, the independent analysts commissioned by George Bush to scrutinize the CIA's assessments of the Soviet nuclear threat. CPD promoted Team B's controversial intelligence claims about Soviet foreign policy, using them as an argument against arms control agreements such as SALT II. This cemented Rustin's leading role in the neoconservative movement. Soviet Jewry movement The plight of Jews in the Soviet Union reminded Rustin of the struggles that blacks faced in the United States. Soviet Jews faced many of the same forms of discrimination in employment, education, and housing, while also being prisoners within their own country by being denied the chance to emigrate by Soviet authorities. After seeing the injustice that Soviet Jews faced, Rustin became a leading voice in advocating for the movement of Jews from the Soviet Union to Israel. He worked closely with Senator Henry Jackson of Washington, who introduced legislation that tied trade relations with the Soviet Union to their treatment of Jews. In 1966 he chaired the historic Ad hoc Commission on Rights of Soviet Jews organized by the Conference on the Status of Soviet Jews, leading a panel of six jurors in the commission's public tribunal on Jewish life in the Soviet Union. Members of the panel included Telford Taylor, the Nuremberg war trial prosecutor and Columbia University professor of law, Dr. John C. Bennett, president of the Union Theological Seminary; Reverend George B. Ford, pastor emeritus of the Corpus Christi Church; Samuel Fishman representing United Automobile Workers; and Norman Thomas, veteran Socialist leader. The commission collected testimonies from Soviet Jews and compiled them into a report that was delivered to the secretary-general of the United Nations. The report urged the international community to demand that the Soviet authorities allow Jews to practice their religion, preserve their culture, and emigrate from the USSR at their will. The testimonies from Soviet Jews were published by Moshe Decter, the executive secretary of the Conference on the Status of Soviet Jews, in a book— Redemption! Jewish freedom letters from Russia, with a foreword by Rustin. Through the 1970s and 1980s Rustin wrote several articles on the subject of Soviet Jewry and appeared at Soviet Jewry movement rallies, demonstrations, vigils, and conferences, in the United States and abroad. He co-sponsored the National Interreligious Task Force on Soviet Jewry. Rustin allied with Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan, an outspoken advocate for Soviet Jewry, and worked closely with Senator Henry Jackson, informing the Jackson–Vanik amendment, vital legislation that restricted United States trade with the Soviet Union in relation to its treatment of Jews. Gay rights Davis Platt, Bayard's partner from the 1940s, said "I never had any sense at all that Bayard felt any shame or guilt about his homosexuality. That was rare in those days. Rare." Rustin did not engage in any gay rights activism until the 1980s. He was urged to do so by his partner Walter Naegle, who has said that "I think that if I hadn't been in the office at that time, when these invitations [from gay organizations] came in, he probably wouldn't have done them." Due to the lack of marriage equality at the time, Rustin and Naegle took the then not unusual step to solidify their partnership and protect their union legally through adoption: in 1982 Rustin adopted Naegle, 30 years old at the time. Naegle explained that Bayard: Rustin testified in favor of New York State's Gay Rights Bill. In 1986, he gave a speech "The New Niggers Are Gays" in which he asserted: Also in 1986, Rustin was invited to contribute to the book In the Life: A Black Gay Anthology. He declined, explaining: I was not involved in the struggle for gay rights as a youth... I did not "come out of the closet" voluntarily—circumstances forced me out. While I have no problem with being publicly identified as homosexual, it would be dishonest of me to present myself as one who was in the forefront of the struggle for gay rights... I fundamentally consider sexual orientation to be a private matter. As such, it has not been a factor which has greatly influenced my role as an activist. Death and beliefs Rustin died on August 24, 1987, of a perforated appendix. An obituary in The New York Times reported, "Looking back at his career, Mr. Rustin, a Quaker, once wrote: 'The principal factors which influenced my life are 1) nonviolent tactics; 2) constitutional means; 3) democratic procedures; 4) respect for human personality; 5) a belief that all people are one. Rustin was survived by Walter Naegle, his partner of ten years. Rustin's personal philosophy is said to have been inspired by combining Quaker pacifism with socialism (as taught by A. Philip Randolph), and the theory of non-violent protest popularized by Mahatma Gandhi. President Ronald Reagan issued a statement on Rustin's death, praising his work for civil rights and "for human rights throughout the world". He added that Rustin "was denounced by former friends, because he never gave up his conviction that minorities in America could and would succeed based on their individual merit". Legacy According to journalist Steve Hendrix, Rustin "faded from the shortlist of well-known civil rights lions", in part because he was active behind the scenes, and also because of public discomfort with his sexual orientation and former communist membership. In addition, Rustin's tilt toward neo-conservatism in the late 1960s led him into a disagreement with most civil rights leaders. But, the 2003 documentary film Brother Outsider: The Life of Bayard Rustin, a Sundance Festival Grand Jury Prize nominee, and the March 2012 centennial of Rustin's birth have contributed to renewed recognition of his extensive contributions. Rustin served as chairman of Social Democrats, USA, which, The Washington Post wrote in 2013, "was a breeding ground for many neoconservatives". French historian Justin Vaïsse classifies him as a "right-wing socialist" and "second age neoconservative", citing his role as vice-chair of the Coalition for a Democratic Majority, which was involved in the second incarnation of the Committee on the Present Danger. According to Daniel Richman, former clerk for United States Supreme Court justice Thurgood Marshall, Marshall's friendship with Rustin, who was open about his homosexuality, played a significant role in Marshall's dissent from the court's 5–4 decision upholding the constitutionality of state sodomy laws in the later overturned 1986 case Bowers v. Hardwick. Several buildings have been named in honor of Rustin, including the Bayard Rustin Educational Complex located in Chelsea, Manhattan; Bayard Rustin High School in his hometown of West Chester, Pennsylvania; Bayard Rustin Library at the Affirmations Gay/Lesbian Community Center in Ferndale, Michigan; the Bayard Rustin Social Justice Center in Conway, Arkansas, and the Bayard Rustin Center for Social Justice in Princeton, New Jersey. Rustin is one of two men who have both participated in the Penn Relays and had a school, West Chester Rustin High School, named in his honor that participates in the relays. 1990s and 2000s In 1995, a Pennsylvania State Historical Marker was placed at Lincoln and Montgomery Avenues, West Chester, Pennsylvania, on the grounds of Henderson High School, which he attended. A 1998 anthology movie, Out of the Past, featured letters and archival footage of Rustin. The West Chester Area School District voted in 2002 to approve the creation of Bayard Rustin High School in a 6–3 vote. Those in favor mentioned Rustin's involvement in the civil rights movement, and opposition was tied to Rustin's sexuality and political views. The school opened in 2006. In July 2007 after a year's collaboration starting in June 2006, a group of San Francisco Bay Area Black LGBT community leaders officially formed the Bayard Rustin Coalition (BRC), with the permission of the Estate of Bayard Rustin. The BRC promotes greater Black participation in the electoral process, advances civil and human rights issues, and promotes the legacy of Rustin. 2010s In 2011, the Bayard Rustin Center for LGBTQA Activism, Awareness, and Reconciliation was announced at Guilford College, a Quaker school. Formerly the Queer and Allied Resource Center, the center was rededicated in March 2011 with the permission of the Estate of Bayard Rustin and featured a keynote address by social justice activist Mandy Carter. In 2012, Rustin was inducted into the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public display which celebrates LGBTQ history and people. In 2013, Rustin was selected as an honoree in the United States Department of Labor Hall of Honor. On August 8, 2013, President Barack Obama awarded Rustin the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest award in the United States. The citation in the press release stated: Bayard Rustin was an unyielding activist for civil rights, dignity, and equality for all. An advisor to the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., he promoted nonviolent resistance, participated in one of the first Freedom Rides, organized the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, and fought tirelessly for marginalized communities at home and abroad. As an openly gay African American, Mr. Rustin stood at the intersection of several of the fights for equal rights. At the White House ceremony on November 20, 2013, President Obama presented Rustin's award to Walter Naegle, his partner of ten years at the time of Rustin's death. In 2014, Rustin was one of the inaugural honorees in the Rainbow Honor Walk, a walk of fame in San Francisco's Castro neighborhood noting LGBTQ people who have "made significant contributions in their fields". In April 2018, the Montgomery County Board of Education in Maryland voted to name the Bayard Rustin Elementary School after Rustin. Canadian writer Steven Elliott Jackson wrote a play that stages an imaginary meeting and one-night-stand between Rustin and Walter Jenkins of the Johnson administration called The Seat Next to the King. The play won the award for Best Play at the 2017 Toronto Fringe Festival. In June 2019, Rustin was one of the inaugural fifty American "pioneers, trailblazers, and heroes" inducted on the National LGBTQ Wall of Honor within the Stonewall National Monument (SNM) in New York City's Stonewall Inn. The SNM is the first U.S. national monument dedicated to LGBTQ rights and history, and the wall's unveiling was timed to take place during the 50th anniversary of the Stonewall riots. In 2018, the Bayard Rustin Center for Social Justice was established in Princeton, New Jersey, with Naegle acting as Board Member Emeritus. It is a community activist center and safe space for LGBTQ kids, intersectional families, and marginalized people. 2020s In January 2020, California State Senator Scott Wiener, chair of the California Legislative LGBT Caucus, and Assemblywoman Shirley Weber, chair of the California Legislative Black Caucus, called for Governor Gavin Newsom to issue a pardon for Rustin's 1953 arrest for having sex with a man in a car, citing Rustin's legacy as a civil rights icon. Newsom issued the pardon on February 5 while also announcing a new process for fast-tracking pardons for those convicted under historical laws making homosexuality illegal. In 2021, Higher Ground Productions, founded by Michelle and Barack Obama, announced production of Rustin, a biopic about Rustin's life directed by George C. Wolfe and starring Colman Domingo in the titular role. Publications Interracial primer, New York: Fellowship of Reconciliation, 1943 Interracial workshop: progress report, New York: Sponsored by Congress of Racial Equality and Fellowship of Reconciliation, 1947 Journey of reconciliation: report, New York : Fellowship of Reconciliation, Congress of Racial Equality, 1947 We challenged Jim Crow! a report on the journey of reconciliation, April 9–23, 1947, New York: Fellowship of Reconciliation, Congress of Racial Equality, 1947 "In apprehension how like a god!", Philadelphia: Young Friends Movement 1948 The revolution in the South", Cambridge, Massachusetts. : Peace Education Section, American Friends Service Committee, 1950s Report on Montgomery, Alabama New York: War Resisters League, 1956 A report and action suggestions on non-violence in the South New York: War Resisters League, 1957 Civil rights: the true frontier, New York: Donald Press, 1963 From protest to politics: the future of the civil rights movement, New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1965 The city in crisis, (introduction) New York: A. Philip Randolph Educational Fund, 1965 "Black power" and coalition politics, New York, American Jewish Committee 1966 Which way? (with Daniel Patrick Moynihan), New York: American Press, 1966 The Watts "Manifesto" & the McCone report., New York, League for Industrial Democracy 1966 Fear, frustration, backlash: the new crisis in civil rights, New York, Jewish Labor Committee 1966 The lessons of the long hot summer, New York, American Jewish Committee 1967 The Negro community: frustration politics, sociology and economics Detroit: UAW Citizenship-Legislative Department, 1967 A way out of the exploding ghetto, New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1967 The alienated: the young rebels today and why they're different, Washington, D.C.: International Labor Press Association, 1967 "Right to work" laws: a trap for America's minorities. New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute 1967 Civil rights: the movement re-examined (contributor), New York: A. Philip Randolph Educational Fund, 1967 Separatism or integration, which way for America?: a dialogue (with Robert Browne), New York, A. Philip Randolph Educational Fund, 1968 The Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, an analysis, New York, American Jewish Committee 1968 The labor-Negro coalition, a new beginning, Washington? D.C.: American Federationist?, 1968 The anatomy of frustration, New York: Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, 1968 Morals concerning minorities, mental health and identity, New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1969 Black studies: myths & realities, (contributor) New York: A. Philip Randolph Educational Fund, 1969 Conflict or coalition?: the civil rights struggle and the trade union movement today, New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1969 Three essays, New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1969 Black rage, White fear: the full employment answer: an address, Washington, D.C.: Bricklayers, Masons & Plasterers International Union 1970 A word to black students, New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1970 The failure of black separatism, New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1970 The blacks and the unions (contributor), New York: A. Philip Randolph Educational Fund, 1971 Down the line; the collected writings of Bayard Rustin, Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1971 Affirmative action in an economy of scarcity (with Norman Hill), New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1974 Seniority and racial progress (with Norman Hill), New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1975 Have we reached the end of the second reconstruction?, Bloomington, Indiana: The Poynter Center, 1976 Strategies for freedom: the changing patterns of Black protest, New York: Columbia University Press 1976 Africa, Soviet imperialism and the retreat of American power, New York: Social Democrats, USA (reprint), 1978 South Africa: is peaceful change possible? a report (contributor), New York: New York Friends Group, 1984 Time on two crosses: the collected writings of Bayard Rustin, San Francisco: Cleis Press, 2003 I Must Resist: Bayard Rustin's Life in Letters: City Lights, 2012 See also List of civil rights leaders Timeline of the civil rights movement References Bibliography Anderson, Jervis. Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1997). Bennett, Scott H. Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963 (Syracuse Univ. Press, 2003). . Branch, Taylor. Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–63 (New York: Touchstone, 1989). Carbado, Devon W. and Donald Weise, editors. Time on Two Crosses: The Collected Writings of Bayard Rustin (San Francisco: Cleis Press, 2003). D'Emilio, John. Lost Prophet: Bayard Rustin and the Quest for Peace and Justice in America (New York: The Free Press, 2003). D'Emilio, John. Lost Prophet: The Life and Times of Bayard Rustin (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2004). Frazier, Nishani (2017). Harambee City: Congress of Racial Equality in Cleveland and the Rise of Black Power Populism. University of Arkansas Press. . Haskins, James. Bayard Rustin: Behind the Scenes of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Hyperion, 1997). Hirschfelder, Nicole. Oppression as Process: The Case of Bayard Rustin (Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter, 2014). Kates, Nancy and Bennett Singer (dirs.) Brother Outsider: The Life of Bayard Rustin (2003) King, Martin Luther Jr.; Carson, Clayborne; Luker, Ralph & Penny A. Russell The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr.: Volume IV: Symbol of the Movement, January 1957 – December 1958. University of California Press, 2000. Le Blanc, Paul and Michael Yates, A Freedom Budget for All Americans: Recapturing the Promise of the Civil Rights Movement in the Struggle for Economic Justice Today (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2013). Podair, Jerald E. "Bayard Rustin: American Dreamer" (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Pub., 2009). Lewis, David L. King: A Biography. (University of Illinois Press, 1978). . Rustin, Bayard. Down the Line: The Collected Writings of Bayard Rustin (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1971). External links SNCC Digital Gateway: Bayard Rustin, Documentary website created by the SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, telling the story of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee & grassroots organizing from the inside-out Bayard Rustin – Who Is This Man? Bayard Rustin FB Memorial Page FBI file on Bayard Rustin Bayard Rustin, Civil Rights Leader, from Quakerinfo.org Brother Outsider, a documentary on Rustin Randall Kennedy, "From Protest to Patronage." The Nation Biography on Bayard Rustin High School's website Guide to the Papers of Bayard Rustin at the American Jewish Historical Society. Bayard Rustin Collected Papers finding aid at the Swarthmore College Peace Collection 1912 births 1987 deaths 20th-century African-American activists 20th-century LGBT people 20th-century Quakers Activists from Pennsylvania African-American Christians Activists for African-American civil rights American anti–Vietnam War activists American Christian pacifists American Christian socialists American Christian Zionists American democratic socialists American Quakers American social democrats Cheyney University of Pennsylvania alumni Community organizing Converts to Quakerism Freedom Riders LGBT African Americans LGBT people from Pennsylvania LGBT Protestants LGBT rights activists from the United States Members of Social Democrats USA Members of the Socialist Party of America Nonviolence advocates People from West Chester, Pennsylvania People who have received posthumous pardons Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Quaker socialists War Resisters League activists

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunsmoke

Gunsmoke

Gunsmoke is an American radio and television Western drama series created by director Norman Macdonnell and writer John Meston. It is set in and around Dodge City, Kansas in the 1870s, during the settlement of the American West. The central character is lawman Marshal Matt Dillon, played by William Conrad on radio and James Arness on television. When aired in the United Kingdom, the television series was initially titled Gun Law, later reverting to Gunsmoke. The radio series ran from 1952 to 1961. John Dunning wrote that among radio drama enthusiasts, "Gunsmoke is routinely placed among the best shows of any kind and any time." The television series ran for 20 seasons from 1955 to 1975, and lasted for 635 episodes. At the end of its run in 1975, Los Angeles Times columnist Cecil Smith wrote: "Gunsmoke was the dramatization of the American epic legend of the west. Our own Iliad and Odyssey, created from standard elements of the dime novel and the pulp Western as romanticized by [Ned] Buntline, [Bret] Harte, and [Mark] Twain. It was ever the stuff of legend." Radio series (1952–1961) In the late 1940s, CBS chairman William S. Paley, a fan of the Philip Marlowe radio series, asked his programming chief, Hubell Robinson, to develop a hardboiled Western series, a show about a "Philip Marlowe of the Old West". Robinson instructed his West Coast CBS vice president, Harry Ackerman, who had developed the Philip Marlowe series, to take on the task. Ackerman and his scriptwriters, Mort Fine and David Friedkin, created an audition script called "Mark Dillon Goes to Gouge Eye" based on one of their Michael Shayne radio scripts, "The Case of the Crooked Wheel" from mid-1948. Two versions were recorded. The first, recorded in June 1949, was very much like a hardboiled detective series and starred Michael Rye (credited as Rye Billsbury) as Dillon; the second, recorded in July 1949, starred Straight Arrow actor Howard Culver in a more Western, lighter version of the same script. CBS liked the Culver version better, and Ackerman was told to proceed. A complication arose, though; Culver's contract as the star of Straight Arrow would not allow him to do another Western series. The project was shelved for three years, when producer Norman Macdonnell and writer John Meston discovered it while creating an adult Western series of their own. Macdonnell and Meston wanted to create a radio Western for adults, in contrast to the prevailing juvenile fare such as The Lone Ranger and The Cisco Kid. Gunsmoke was set in Dodge City, Kansas, during the thriving cattle days of the 1870s. Dunning notes, "The show drew critical acclaim for unprecedented realism." Radio cast and character biographies The radio series first aired on CBS on April 26, 1952, with the episode "Billy the Kid", written by Walter Newman, and ended on June 18, 1961. The show stars William Conrad as Marshal Matt Dillon, Howard McNear as Doc Charles Adams, Georgia Ellis as Kitty Russell, and Parley Baer as Dillon's assistant, Chester Wesley Proudfoot. Matt Dillon Matt Dillon was played on radio by William Conrad and on TV by James Arness. Two versions of the same pilot episode titled "Mark Dillon Goes to Gouge Eye" were produced with Rye Billsbury and Howard Culver playing Marshal "Mark" Dillon as the lead, not yet played by Conrad. Conrad was one of the last actors to audition for the role of Marshal Dillon. With a resonantly powerful and distinctive voice, Conrad was already one of radio's busiest actors. Though Meston championed him, Macdonnell thought Conrad might be overexposed. During his audition, however, Conrad won over Macdonnell after reading only a few lines. Dillon, as portrayed by Conrad, was a lonely, isolated man, toughened by a hard life. Macdonnell later claimed, "Much of Matt Dillon's character grew out of Bill Conrad." Meston relished the upending of cherished Western fiction clichés and said that few Westerns gave any inkling of how brutal the Old West was in reality. Many episodes were based on man's cruelty to man and woman, in as much as the prairie woman's life and the painful treatment of women as chattels were touched on well ahead of their time in most media. As originally pitched to CBS executives, this was to be an adult Western, not a grown-up Hopalong Cassidy. Dunning writes that Meston was especially disgusted by the archetypal Western hero and set out "to destroy [that type of] character he loathed". In Meston's view, "Dillon was almost as scarred as the homicidal psychopaths who drifted into Dodge from all directions." Chester Chester was played by Parley Baer on radio, and by Dennis Weaver on television. Chester's character had no surname until Baer ad libbed "Proudfoot" during an early rehearsal. Initial Gunsmoke scripts gave him no name at all; his lines were simply to be spoken by "Townsman". Again, Conrad's sense of what the program would be supervened, and Chester was born. Chester's middle initial was given as "W" in the June 15, 1958, episode "Old Flame", and a few episodes later, on the July 7, 1958, episode "Marshal Proudfoot", his middle name, and that of his 10 siblings, is revealed to be Wesley. The amiable Waco expatriate was usually described as Dillon's "assistant", but in the December 13, 1952, episode "Post Martin", Dillon described Chester as Dillon's deputy. Contradicting this description, in the July 5, 1954, episode "Hank Prine" (episode 116, minute 3:02), Dillon corrects a prisoner who describes Chester as his "deputy", stating "Chester is not my deputy", though they both agree Chester acts like he is. Whatever his title, Chester was Dillon's foil, friend, partner, and in an episode in which Chester nearly dies ("Never Pester Chester"), Dillon allows that Chester was the only person he could trust. The TV series changed the newly limping Chester's last name from Proudfoot to Goode. (Parley Baer had played the character with a whiny and slightly elderly voice; the limp given to the TV version gave him a similar element of weakness without having to cast an older actor). Weaver went on to star in the NBC Mystery Movie police drama McCloud. Weaver, despite standing 6'2", often looked small compared to Arness' height at 6'7". Doc Adams Howard McNear starred as Dr. Charles Adams in the radio series, with Milburn Stone portraying Dr. Galen Adams in the television version. In the radio series, "Doc" Adams was initially a self-interested and somewhat dark character with a predilection for constantly attempting to increase his revenue through the procurement of autopsy fees. However, McNear's performances steadily became more warm-hearted and sympathetic. Most notably, this transformation began during (and progressed steadily following) the July 1952 episode "Never Pester Chester", in which a physician with a more compassionate and devoted temperament is essential to the plotline when Chester is near-fatally injured by two trouble-making Texas drovers. Doc Adams' backstory evokes a varied and experienced life: In some episodes, he had educational ties to Philadelphia; in others, he spent time as ship's doctor aboard the gambling boats that plied the Mississippi River, which provided a background for his knowledge of New Orleans (and acquaintance with Mark Twain). In the January 31, 1953, episode "Cavalcade", a fuller history is offered, though subsequent programs kept close listeners' heads spinning. In "Cavalcade", his real name is Calvin Moore, educated in Boston, and he practiced as a doctor for a year in Richmond, Virginia, where he fell in love with a beautiful young woman, who was also being courted by a wealthy young man named Roger Beauregard. Beauregard forced Doc into fighting a duel with him, resulting in Beauregard's being shot and killed. Though it was a fair duel, as a Yankee and an outsider, Doc was forced to flee. The young woman fled after him and they were married in St. Louis, but two months later, she died of typhus. Doc wandered throughout the territories until he settled in Dodge City 17 years later under the name of "Charles Adams". The Adams moniker was another Conrad invention, borrowing the surname from cartoonist Charles Addams as a testament to Doc's initially ghoulish comportment. Miss Kitty Kitty was played by actress Georgia Ellis on radio, and by Amanda Blake on TV. Ellis first appeared in the radio episode "Billy the Kid" (April 26, 1952) as "Francie Richards" - a former girlfriend of Matt Dillon's and the widow of a criminal, but the character of "Miss Kitty" did not appear until the May 10, 1952, episode "Jaliscoe". Sometime in 1959, Ellis was billed as Georgia Hawkins instead of Georgia Ellis. Amanda Blake appeared in over 500 episodes of the television series, with her last being the April 1, 1974, episode titled, "The Disciple". In the radio series, Kitty's profession was hinted at, but never explicit; in a 1953 interview with Time, Macdonnell declared, "Kitty is just someone Matt has to visit every once in a while". The magazine observed that she is "obviously not selling chocolate bars". An out-take from the program makes this obvious. The television show first portrayed Kitty as a saloon employee (dance-hall girl/prostitute), then from season two, episode 36 ("Daddy-O"), as half-owner of the Long Branch Saloon. Distinction from other radio Westerns Gunsmoke was often a somber program, particularly in its early years. Dunning writes that Dillon "played his hand and often lost. He arrived too late to prevent a lynching. He amputated a dying man's leg and lost the patient anyway. He saved a girl from brutal rapists, then found himself unable to offer her what she needed to stop her from moving into ... life as a prostitute." Some listeners, such as Dunning, argue the radio version was more realistic. Episodes were aimed at adults and featured some of the most explicit content of their time, including violent crimes, scalpings, massacres, and opium addicts. Many episodes ended on a somber note, and villains often got away with their crimes. Nonetheless, due to the subtle scripts and outstanding ensemble cast, over the years, the program evolved into a warm, often humorous celebration of human nature. Despite Gunsmoke's realism in some areas, the show took liberties with accuracy in others. The program was set after the arrival of the railroad in Dodge City (1872) and Kansas had been a state since 1861. A U.S. Marshal (actually a deputy marshal, only the senior officer in the district holds the title "marshal") would not be based in Dodge City and would not be involved in local law enforcement. Apart from the doleful tone, Gunsmoke is distinct from other radio Westerns, as the dialogue is often slow and halting, and due to the outstanding sound effects, listeners have a palpable sense of the prairie setting. The effects are subtle but multilayered, giving the show a spacious feel. John Dunning wrote, "The listener heard extraneous dialogue in the background, just above the muted shouts of kids playing in an alley. He heard noises from the next block, too, where the inevitable dog was barking." Gunsmoke is unique from other Westerns in that it was unsponsored in the first few years of production. The program got its support from CBS in the first two years. Series producers said that if the show were sponsored, they would have to "clean the show up". The producers wanted to find a sponsor that would allow them to keep the show the way it was. Talk of adapting Gunsmoke to television Not long after the radio show began, talk began of adapting it to television. Privately, Macdonnell had a guarded interest in taking the show to television, but publicly, he declared, "our show is perfect for radio", and he feared, as Dunning writes, "Gunsmoke confined by a picture could not possibly be as authentic or attentive to detail." "In the end", wrote Dunning, "CBS simply took it away from Macdonnell and began preparing for the television version." Conrad and the others were given auditions, but they were little more than token efforts—especially in Conrad's case, due to his obesity. However, Meston was kept as the main writer. In the early years, most of the TV episodes were adapted from the radio scripts, often using identical scenes and dialogue. Dunning wrote, "That radio fans considered the TV show a sham and its players impostors should surprise no one. That the TV show was not a sham is due in no small part to the continued strength of Meston's scripts." Macdonnell and Meston continued the radio version of Gunsmoke until 1961, making it one of the most enduring vintage radio dramas. Conrad directed two television episodes, in 1963 and 1971, while McNear appeared on six, playing characters other than Doc, including three times as storekeeper Howard Rudd. Television series (1955–1975) The TV series ran from September 10, 1955, to March 31, 1975, on CBS, with 635 total episodes. It was the second Western television series written for adults, premiering on September 10, 1955, four days after The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp. The first 12 seasons aired Saturdays at 10 pm, seasons 13 through 16 aired Mondays at 7:30 pm, and the last four seasons aired Mondays at 8 pm. During its second season in 1956, the program joined the list of the top-10 television programs broadcast in the United States. It quickly moved to number one and stayed there until 1961. It remained among the top-20 programs until 1964. Longevity records The television series was the longest-running, primetime, live-action television series at 20 seasons, until September 2019 with the 21st-season premiere of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. The original Law and Order, which was cancelled in 2010 after tying Gunsmoke's longevity record for a live-action, primetime television series, would return air its 21 season in February 2022 as well. , it had the highest number of scripted episodes for any U.S. primetime, commercial, live-action television series. On April 29, 2018, The Simpsons surpassed the show for the most scripted episodes. Some foreign-made programs have been broadcast in the U.S. and contend for the position as the longest-running prime-time series. , Gunsmoke was rated fourth globally, after Doctor Who (1963–present), Taggart (1983–2010), and The Bill (1984–2010). Gunsmoke was the last fictional primetime show that debuted in the 1950s to leave the air and only three shows from the 1960s lasted past its final season in 1974–75. Character longevity James Arness and Milburn Stone portrayed their Gunsmoke characters for 20 consecutive years, a feat later matched by Kelsey Grammer as the character Frasier Crane, but over two half-hour sitcoms (Cheers and Frasier). This feat would be surpassed by Mariska Hargitay, who has portrayed the character Olivia Benson on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit for over 23 consecutive years to date. George Walsh, the announcer for Gunsmoke, began in 1952 on the radio series and continued until the television series was canceled in 1975. Transition to TV from radio When Gunsmoke was adapted for television in 1955, contrary to a campaign to persuade the network, the network was not interested in bringing either Conrad or his radio costars to the television medium. Conrad's weight was rumored to be a deciding factor. Denver Pyle was also considered for the role, as was Raymond Burr, who was ultimately also seen as too heavy for the part. Charles Warren, television Gunsmokes first director, said, "His voice was fine, but he was too big. When he stood up, his chair stood with him." It has long been rumored that John Wayne was offered the role of Matt Dillon; according to Dennis Weaver's comments on the 50th Anniversary DVD, disc one, episode "Hack Prine", John Wayne was never even considered for the role; to have done so would have been preposterous, since Wayne was a top movie leading man. The belief that Wayne was asked to star is disputed by Warren. Although he agrees Wayne encouraged Arness to take the role, Warren says, "I hired Jim Arness on the strength of a picture he's done for me ... I never thought for a moment of offering it to Wayne." According to Thomas "Duke" Miller, a TV/movie/celebrity expert, this story was told to him by legendary actor James Stewart: "Jimmy said he was in the office with Charles Warren when Mr. Wayne came in. Mr. Warren asked Wayne if he knew James Arness, and Mr. Wayne said yes. Mr. Warren told Mr. Wayne about the transition of the show from radio to TV, and Mr. Wayne readily agreed that James Arness would be a terrific choice for the part of Matt Dillon. I have no reason to doubt the story, because Jimmy absolutely knew everybody." In the end, the primary roles were all recast, with Arness taking the lead role of Marshal Matt Dillon (on the recommendation of Wayne, who also introduced the pilot), Dennis Weaver playing Chester Goode, Milburn Stone being cast as Dr. G. "Doc" Adams (later Galen "Doc" Adams), and Amanda Blake taking on the role of Miss Kitty Russell. Macdonnell became the associate producer of the TV show and later the producer. Meston was named head writer. Additional casting Chester and Festus Haggen are perhaps Dillon's most recognizable sidekicks, though others became acting deputies for - to -year stints: Quint Asper (Burt Reynolds) (1962–65), Thad Greenwood (Roger Ewing) (1965–67), and Newly O'Brien (Buck Taylor) (1967–75), who served as both back-up deputy and doctor-in-training, having some studies in medicine through his uncle, which then continued under Doc Adams. In 1962, Burt Reynolds was added to the show's lineup, as the "halfbreed" blacksmith Quint Asper, and performed that role from the year just before the departure of Chester Goode and to just after the appearance of Festus Haggen. Three of the actors, who played Dodge deputies, Ken Curtis, Roger Ewing, and Buck Taylor, had previous guest roles. Curtis, a big band and Western singer (Tommy Dorsey Orchestra, Shep Fields Band, Sons of the Pioneers), had five previous guest roles, including one in 1963 as a shady ladies' man named Kyle Kelly ("Lover Boy," season 9, show two [episode 307]). Curtis first appeared in the 1959 episode "Jayhawkers" (season four, episode 21 [episode 138]), wherein he played Phil Jacks, a Texas cowboy, with Jack Elam as his boss during a cattle drive from Texas. Curtis was reared in Las Animas, Colorado, and for a time was a son-in-law of director John Ford. In 1963, Weaver left the series to pursue a broader acting career in TV series and films. In 1964, Curtis was signed as a regular to play the stubbornly illiterate hillbilly Festus Haggen. The character, heretofore a comic feature, came to town in a 1962 episode titled "Us Haggens" to avenge the death of his twin brother Fergus, and decided to stay in Dodge when the deed was done. Initially on the fringes of Dodge society, Festus was slowly phased in as a reliable sidekick and part-time deputy to Matt Dillon when Reynolds left in 1965. When Milburn Stone left the series for heart bypass surgery in 1971, Pat Hingle played his temporary replacement, Dr. John Chapman, for several episodes. His presence was at first roundly resisted by Festus, a bickersome but close friend of Doc Adams's. Character back stories The back stories of some of the main characters were largely left to the imagination of the viewer. Matt Dillon spent his early years in foster care, knew the Bible, was a wayward, brawling cowboy, and was later mentored by a caring lawman. In a few episodes, he mentions having spent some time in the army. Kitty Russell was born in New Orleans and reared by a flashy foster mother (who once visited Dodge), although her father visited Dodge on one occasion and wished to have her return to New Orleans. Barkeep Sam is said to be married, but no wife is ever seen. Quint Asper's white father was killed by white scavengers. Thad Greenwood's father, a storekeeper, was harassed to death by a trio of loathsome ne'er-do-well thieves. Chester Goode is known to be one of many brothers raised by an aunt and uncle, and on one occasion, he mentions his mother; he refers to past service in the cavalry and years as a cattle driver in Texas. The cause of Chester's stiff right leg is never given, but it is shown as his own leg and not a prosthesis. No direct reference to his disability is ever made in the script, although some oblique moments paint the free-spirited, comic deputy with a darker tone. Newly O'Brien was named after a physician uncle who ignited his interest in medicine. While Dillon and Miss Kitty clearly have a close personal relationship, the two never marry. In a July 2, 2002, Associated Press interview with Bob Thomas, Arness explained, "If they were man and wife, it would make a lot of difference. The people upstairs decided it was better to leave the show as it was, which I totally agreed with." In the episode "Waste", featuring Johnny Whitaker as a boy with a prostitute mother, her madam questions Dillon as to why the law overlooks Miss Kitty's enterprise. Apparently, bordellos could exist "at the law's discretion," (meaning the marshal's). As a historical matter, prior to the First World War, few laws criminalized prostitution in the United States. The nearest that Matt and Miss Kitty have to a romantic evening together is when they try to have dinner over the Long Branch Saloon ("A Quiet Day In Dodge", 1973). Unfortunately, Marshal Dillon has been going over 30 hours without sleep, and when Kitty is distracted, he falls soundly asleep. The nearest Miss Kitty gets to being married is when she has to pretend to be married to Cavalry Sgt. Holly to save her from a robber gang ("Sergeant Holly", 1970). By the time of the "Gold Train" episode, Kitty remembers when she first met Matt – 17 years before. Miss Kitty was written out in 1974. The actress said she was tired and quit to protect the cast and crew she loved so much. When Blake decided not to return for the show's 20th (and final) season, the character was said to have returned to New Orleans. She was replaced by the hoarse-voiced, matronly actress Fran Ryan (known to many as the second Doris Ziffel on CBS's Green Acres.) For over a decade on television, a sign hung over Doc's office that read "Dr. G. Adams". Milburn Stone was given free rein to choose the character's first name. The actor chose the name of the ancient Greek physician and medical researcher Galen. He is first referred to in this manner by Theodore Bikel as "Martin Kellums" in the season-10 episode, "Song for Dying", aired February 13, 1965. Radio and TV character differences Differences were noted between the characters on the radio and TV versions of Gunsmoke. In the radio series, Doc was acerbic, somewhat mercenary, and borderline alcoholic, at least in the program's early years. On radio's Gunsmoke, Doc Adams's real name was Dr. Calvin Moore. He came west and changed his name to escape a charge of murder. The television Doc, though still crusty, was in many ways softer and warmer. Nothing in the radio series suggested that Chester Proudfoot was disabled; this merely visual feature was added to the Chester Goode character on television because of actor Dennis Weaver's athletic build, to emphasize Chester's role as a follower and not an independent agent. Miss Kitty, who after the radio series ended, was said by some to have engaged in prostitution, began in that role in the television series, working in the Long Branch Saloon. In an earlier 1956 episode ("How to Cure a Friend", season two, episode seven), the owner of the Long Branch was named Bill Pence (a role played by at least three different actors over the years). A later episode ("Daddy O", season two, episode 36, filmed in 1956 and aired in 1957) begins with Chester pointing out to Matt (who had been out of town) a new sign under the Long Branch Saloon sign saying "Russell & Pence, Proprietors". In that same episode, John Dehner portrayed a dubious New Orleans businessman claiming to be Kitty's father, who tried to talk her into selling her half interest in the Long Branch and returning to New Orleans with him as a partner in his alleged freight business. In another 1956 episode (involving a new saloon girl named "Rena Decker", who causes four deaths by provoking men into fighting over her), Miss Kitty identifies herself as half-owner of the Long Branch with Mr. Pence (played by Judson Pratt). Subsequently, Miss Kitty transitioned to sole owner. Although early film episodes showed her descending from her second-floor rooms in the saloon with Matt, or showed her or one of her girls leading a cowboy up to those same rooms, these scenes disappeared later on, and viewers were guided to see Miss Kitty just as a kindhearted businesswoman. Format From 1955 to 1961, Gunsmoke was a half-hour show (retitled Marshal Dillon in syndication). It then went to an hour-long format. The series was retitled Gun Law in the UK. The Marshal Dillon syndicated reruns of half-hour episodes lasted from 1961 until 1964 on CBS, originally on Tuesday nights within its time in reruns. Popularity Gunsmoke was TV's number-one-ranked show from 1957 to 1961 before slipping into a decline after expanding to an hour. In 1967, the show's 12th season, CBS planned to cancel the series, but widespread viewer reaction (including a mention in Congress and the behind-the-scenes pressure from Babe Paley, the wife of CBS's longtime president William S. Paley) prevented its demise. On the Biography Channel's Behind The Scenes: Gilligan's Island (2002), Gilligan's Island producer Sherwood Schwartz states that Babe pressured her husband not to cancel Gunsmoke in 1967, so the network cut Gilligan's Island, instead. The show continued in its new time slot at 8 pm on Mondays. This scheduling move led to a spike in ratings that had it once again rally to the top 10 in the Nielsen ratings, which again saved the series when CBS purged most of its rural content in 1971. The series remained in the top 10 until the 1973–74 television season. In September 1975, despite still ranking among the top-30 programs in the ratings, Gunsmoke was cancelled after a 20-year run; it was replaced by Mary Tyler Moore spin-offs Rhoda and Phyllis (though Rhoda actually debuted while Gunsmoke was still airing first-run). Thirty TV Westerns came and went during its 20-year tenure, and Gunsmoke was the sole survivor, with Alias Smith and Jones and Bonanza both leaving the airwaves years earlier in January 1973. The entire cast was stunned by the cancellation, as they were unaware that CBS was considering it. According to Arness, "We didn't do a final, wrap-up show. We finished the 20th year, we all expected to go on for another season, or two or three. The (network) never told anybody they were thinking of cancelling." The cast and crew read the news in the trade papers. This seemed to have been a habit of CBS. Three other popular shows, Gilligan's Island, Lost in Space, and The Incredible Hulk, met the same fate, in the same, abrupt manner. TV movies In 1987, CBS commissioned a reunion movie titled Gunsmoke: Return to Dodge. James Arness and Amanda Blake returned in their iconic roles of Matt Dillon and Miss Kitty, with Fran Ryan returning as Kitty's friend/saloon-owner Hannah and Buck Taylor as Newly O'Brian. Doc Adams and Festus Haggen were not featured in the film. Milburn Stone had died 7 years earlier in 1980 and the role of Doc was not recast. Ken Curtis balked at the salary offer he received and said that he should be paid based on Festus' importance in the character hierarchy. The screenwriters responded to Curtis' absence by making Newly the new Dodge City marshal. The film, shot in Alberta, featured a now-retired Marshal Dillon being attacked and a vengeful former rival returning to Dodge City to entrap him. In 1990, the second telefilm, Gunsmoke: The Last Apache, premiered. Since Amanda Blake had died the year before, the writers decided to revisit a 1973 episode for the movie. The episode was based on "Matt's Love Story". In the episode, Matt loses his memory and his heart during a brief liaison with "Mike" Yardner (played by Michael Learned, better known for playing Olivia in The Waltons). In the film, Learned returns as Mike, who reveals to Marshal Dillon that he is the father of their daughter, Beth (played by Amy Stock-Poynton) and asks him for help in saving her from a band on Apaches. Other films included Gunsmoke: To the Last Man (1992), Gunsmoke: The Long Ride (1993), and Gunsmoke: One Man's Justice (1994). Arness appeared in all five made-for-television movies. Episodes Primetime Emmy Award wins and nominations 1955 (presented March 17, 1956) Best Action or Adventure Series – nominated (winner: Disneyland) 1956 (presented March 16, 1957) Best Continuing Performance by an Actor in a Dramatic Series: James Arness – nominated (winner: Robert Young for Father Knows Best) 1957 (presented April 15, 1958) Best Continuing Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Dramatic or Comedy Series: James Arness – nominated (winner: Robert Young for Father Knows Best) Best Continuing Supporting Performance by an Actor in a Dramatic or Comedy Series: Dennis Weaver – nominated (winner: Carl Reiner for Caesar's Hour) Best Dramatic Series with Continuing Characters won Best Editing of a Film for Television: Mike Pozen for "How to Kill a Woman" – won Best Teleplay Writing (Half-Hour or Less): John Meston for "Born to Hang" – nominated (winner: Paul Monash for Schlitz Playhouse of Stars – "The Lonely Wizard") 1958 (presented May 6, 1959) Best Actor in a Leading Role (Continuing Character) in a Dramatic Series: James Arness – nominated (winner: Raymond Burr for Perry Mason) Best Supporting Actor (Continuing Character) in a Dramatic Series: Dennis Weaver – won Best Supporting Actress (Continuing Character) in a Dramatic Series: Amanda Blake – nominated (winner: Barbara Hale for Perry Mason) Best Western Series – nominated (winner: Maverick) 1965–1966 (presented May 22, 1966) Individual Achievements in Music - Composition: Morton Stevens for "Seven Hours to Dawn" – nominated (winner: Laurence Rosenthal for Michelangelo: The Last Giant) 1967–1968 (presented May 19, 1968) Outstanding Achievement in Musical Composition: Morton Stevens for "Major Glory" (winner: Earle Hagen for I Spy – "Laya") Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Drama: Milburn Stone – won 1969–1970 (presented by June 7, 1970) Outstanding Achievement in Film Sound Editing: Norman Karlin and Richard E. Raderman – won (tied with Alex Bamattre, Michael Colgan, Douglas H. Grindstaff, Joe Kavigan, Bill Lee, and Josef E. Von Stroheim for ABC Movie of the Week: The Immortal) Syndication All 635 episodes of the television series, and almost all 480 episodes of the radio show, still exist. In syndication, the entire 20-year run of Gunsmoke is separated into three packages by CBS Television Distribution: 1955–1961 half-hour episodes: These episodes are sometimes seen in their original format and sometimes in the Marshal Dillon format. When first-run, prime-time episodes of Gunsmoke expanded to an hour in fall 1961, CBS-TV reran the half-hour episodes as Marshal Dillon on the network on Tuesday nights from 1961 through 1964. These were later rerun in syndication. General syndication ended in the 1980s, but they do air occasionally on cable TV. Local stations would show the retitled Marshal Dillon version of the series, while the series under the original Gunsmoke title (with some episodes under the Marshal Dillon retitling) were seen in the late 1990s on TV Land and later Hallmark Channel. STARZ! Westerns Channel aired this version under the Marshal Dillon title. RetroPlex also aired two half-hour episodes under the original Gunsmoke title, although the episodes are advertised as Marshal Dillon, on Saturday nights from 8 to 9 pm Eastern time. MeTV announced that it would begin the half-hour black-and-white episodes beginning on January 2, 2017. 1961–1966 one-hour black-and-white episodes: These episodes have not been widely seen in regular syndication since the 1980s, although selected episodes did air from the mid-1980s through the early 1990s on CBN Cable/The Family Channel, and later on Encore Westerns on a three-year contract that ended around 2006. As of January 2010, Encore Westerns was again airing the episodes. In October 2015, MeTV announced that it would begin airing the one-hour black-and-white episodes on October 26. 1966–1975 one-hour color episodes: The last nine seasons of the Western, the most widely syndicated episodes of the entire series run, are still aired on some local stations, as well as nationally on TV Land and MeTV. Home media In 2006, as part of Gunsmokes 50th anniversary on TV, certain selected episodes were released on DVD in three different box sets. Twelve episodes, from 1955 to 1964, were selected for the Gunsmoke: Volume I box set, and another twelve episodes, from 1964 to 1975, were selected for the Gunsmoke: Volume II box set. Both sets are also available as a combined single "Gift Box Set". A third unique DVD box set, known as Gunsmoke: The Directors Collection, was also released with 10 selected episodes from certain seasons throughout the series' 20-year history. All of these box sets are available on Region 1 DVD from Paramount Home Entertainment and CBS DVD. Additionally, Paramount Home Entertainment and CBS DVD have released the series in its entirety on DVD for 13 years between 2007 and 2020 in Region 1 (all of the seasons except for season one and seasons sixteen through twenty were split into two volumes). A complete series box set was released on May 5, 2020. All DVDs have been released with English audio and close captioning from season 1 to 5 and starting season 6 English SDH. Regular cast; major characters U.S. Marshal Matt Dillon (1955–1975): James Arness Dr. Galen "Doc" Adams, M.D. (1955–1975): Milburn Stone Kathleen "Kitty" Russell (1955–1974): Amanda Blake Chester B. Goode (1955–1964): Dennis Weaver Festus Haggen (1964–1975): Ken Curtis Cast Sam Noonan (bartender; 1955–1959): Bert Rumsey Clem (bartender; 1959–1961): Clem Fuller Sam Noonan (bartender; 1961–1973): Glenn Strange Jim Buck (stage driver; 1957–1962) and Floyd (bartender; 1974–75): Robert Brubaker Quint Asper (blacksmith; 1962–1965): Burt Reynolds Deputy Marshal Clayton Thaddeus "Thad" Greenwood (1965–1967): Roger Ewing Newly O'Brian (gunsmith/Deputy Marshal; 1967–1975): Buck Taylor Wilbur Jonas (storekeeper, 1955–1963): Dabbs Greer Howie Uzzell (hotel clerk, 1955–1975): Howard Culver Moss Grimmick (stableman; 1955–1963): George Selk Bill Pence (Long Branch owner/co-owner 1955?–56–?): Judson Pratt Bill Pence, (1958–1961): Barney Phillips Jim Buck (stagecoach driver; 1957–1962): Robert Brubaker Louie Pheeters (town drunk; 1961–1970): James Nusser Ma Smalley (boardinghouse owner; 1961–1972): Sarah Selby Hank Miller (stableman; 1963–1975): Hank Patterson Mr. Bodkin (banker; 1963–1970): Roy Roberts Barney Danches (telegraph agent; 1965–1974): Charles Seel Roy (townsperson; 1965–1969): Roy Barcroft Halligan (rancher; 1966–1975): Charles Wagenheim Mr. Lathrop (storekeeper; 1966–1975): Woody Chambliss Nathan Burke (freight agent; 1966–1975): Ted Jordan Percy Crump (undertaker; 1966–1972): Kelton Garwood (later credited as Jonathan Harper) Ed O'Connor (rancher; 1968–1972): Tom Brown Judge Brooker (1970–1975): Herb Vigran Dr. John Chapman (1971): Pat Hingle Miss Hannah (saloon owner; 1974–75): Fran Ryan Awards In TV Guide′s April 17, 1993, issue celebrating 40 years of television, the all-time-best-TV programs were chosen. "No contest, this [Gunsmoke] was the TV western." Entertainment Weekly (February 19, 1999, issue) ranked the premiere of Gunsmoke as No. 47 in the "100 Greatest Moments in Television". Entertainment Weekly, in 1998, ranked Gunsmoke as No. 16 in The 100 Greatest TV Shows of all time. In a 1998 TV Guide poll of 50,000, Gunsmoke was ranked as CBS's best western and James Arness was ranked as CBS's best "Gunslinger". James Arness (Matt), Milburn Stone (Doc), Ken Curtis (Festus), Dennis Weaver (Chester), and Amanda Blake (Kitty) are all inductees of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum. In 1997, the episode "The Jailer" was ranked No. 28 on TV Guides 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time. In 2002, TV Guide ranked Gunsmoke as No. 40 in the 50 greatest television shows of all time. In 2013, TV Guide ranked it as #27 on their list of the 60 Best Series. In 2019, the radio episode "The Cabin" was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Recording Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Miscellaneous Dodge City's Boot Hill Museum has a tribute to Gunsmoke, including set furniture from the 1960s and an old television tuned to the show. Signed photographs from the show's actors and other memorabilia are on display including a vest worn by Sam the Bartender and a dress worn by Miss Kitty. Despite a rumor to the contrary, Albert Einstein never appeared on Gunsmoke. Albert Einstein died on April 18, 1955, months before Gunsmoke aired. The fact checking website Snopes attributes the likely origin of the rumor to Stephen Hawking appearing in an episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation in 1993. Actor Brent Spiner was quoted at the time as saying it was "the most notable moment in television history since Albert Einstein guest-starred on Gunsmoke." Although Spiner's remark was a joke, someone wrote to TV Guide in 1994 to ask if Einstein really had appeared on the show. The anime and manga Trigun, a western-themed gunslinger tale, directly references the series by naming the planet on which it is set planet Gunsmoke. The graphic novel series HIGH MOON, a werewolf western tale, has numerous references to the series by naming characters – like Doc McNear – after Gunsmoke actors. Author David Gallaher often cites Gunsmoke as an influence. German-American political philosopher and Plato scholar Leo Strauss was a fervent fan of Gunsmoke. Strauss "had one vice, or rather obsession. He would never miss a Saturday night TV program called Gunsmoke, a western about Marshall Matt Dillon in Dodge City, Kansas, and his many exploits. Strauss once said that the situation in the Old West was an excellent representation, unintentional or not, of what Hobbes meant by the state of nature." The series was filmed at the present site of California Lutheran University (CLU) and nearby Wildwood Regional Park in Thousand Oaks, California. Notable guest stars (partial list, alphabetical): Willie Aames, Rico Alaniz, Jack Albertson, Mabel Albertson, Claude Akins, John Anderson (12 times), Richard Anderson, Tige Andrews, R. G. Armstrong, Jean Arthur, John Astin Edward Asner, Val Avery, Lew Ayres, Jim Backus, Trevor Bardette, Patricia Barry, John Drew Barrymore, Richard Basehart, Ed Begley, Ralph Bellamy, James Best, Dan Blocker, Randy Boone, Bruce Boxleitner, Ray Boyle, Lane Bradbury (13 times), Scott Brady, Eric Braeden, Peter Breck, Beau Bridges, Morgan Brittany, William Boyett, Charles Bronson, James Brown, Joyce Bulifant, Michael Burns, Gary Busey, Sebastian Cabot, Frank Cady, David Canary, Harry Carey, Jr., David Carradine, John Carradine, Jack Cassidy, Mary Castle, Peggie Castle, Lonny Chapman, Andy Clyde, Phyllis Coates, Lee J. Cobb, Michael Cole, Don Collier, Chuck Connors Mike Connors, Tim Considine, Pat Conway, Elisha Cook, Jr., Ben Cooper, Glenn Corbett, Noreen Corcoran, Alex Cord, Robert L. Crawford, Jr., Brandon Cruz, Robert Culp, Royal Dano (13 times), Kim Darby Bette Davis, Jim Davis (11 times), Richard Deacon, Gloria DeHaven, John Dehner (12 times), Bruce Dern William Devane, Angie Dickinson, James Doohan, Richard Dreyfuss, Buddy Ebsen, Barbara Eden, Jack Elam, (15 episodes)], Sam Elliott, Jena Engstrom (two episodes), Gene Evans (ten episodes), Shug Fisher, Paul Fix Jay C. Flippen, Med Flory, Constance Ford, Harrison Ford, Jodie Foster, Ron Foster, Anne Francis, Dean Fredericks, Bert Freed, Victor French (18 times) Beverly Garland, Leif Garrett, Sean Garrison, Lisa Gerritsen, Melissa Gilbert, Harold Gould, Karen Grassle, Virginia Gregg, James Gregory, Tom Greenway Kevin Hagen, Ron Hagerthy, Alan Hale, Jr., Lynn Hamilton, Mariette Hartley, Ron Hayes, Vinton Hayworth, Anne Helm, Katherine Helmond, Earl Holliman, Ron Howard, Bo Hopkins, Dennis Hopper, Rodolfo Hoyos, Jr., Marsha Hunt Josephine Hutchinson, Betty Hutton, Steve Ihnat, John Ireland, Richard Jaeckel, Vivi Janiss, Salome Jens, Arch Johnson, Brad Johnson, Ben Johnson, Chubby Johnson I. Stanford Jolley, L. Q. Jones, Robert Karnes, Don Keefer, DeForest Kelley, Jack Kelly, Ricky Kelman, Dan Kemp, Adam Kennedy, Douglas Kennedy, George Kennedy, Richard Kiley, Brett King, Wright King (eight times), Werner Klemperer, Jack Klugman, Robert Knapp (seven times) Ted Knight, Diane Ladd, Martin Landau Allan Lane, Louise Latham, Harry Lauter, Anna Lee, June Lockhart, Jack Lord, Keye Luke, Dayton Lummis, Tyler MacDuff, Elizabeth MacRae, Barton MacLane, George Macready, Rose Marie, Scott Marlowe, Nora Marlowe, Ross Martin Strother Martin, Darren McGavin, Peggy McCay, Howard McNear, Patrick McVey, Tyler McVey, Vera Miles, Denny Scott Miller, John Mitchum, Roger Mobley, Ricardo Montalbán, Erin Moran, Harry Morgan, Read Morgan (12 times) Wayne Morris, Anna Karen Morrow, Richard Mulligan, Diana Muldaur, Burt Mustin, Gene Nelson, Leslie Nielsen, Leonard Nimoy, Jimmy Noel, Jeanette Nolan, Nick Nolte, Carroll O'Connor, Simon Oakland, Warren Oates, Susan Olsen, Cliff Osmond Manuel Padilla, Jr., Gregg Palmer (20 times), Michael Parks, John Payne, Lauri Peters, Brock Peters, William Phipps, John Pickard (12 times), Slim Pickens, Suzanne Pleshette, Eve Plum, Judson Pratt, Andrew Prine, Ainslie Pryor, Denver Pyle (14 times), Chips Rafferty (Australian actor), Dack Rambo, Gilman Rankin Pernell Roberts, Wayne Rogers, Ruth Roman, Katharine Ross, Bing Russell (7 times), Kurt Russell, Albert Salmi, John Saxon, Jacqueline Scott (nine episodes), Johnny Seven, Karen Sharpe William Shatner, Dan Sheridan, Tom Simcox, Robert F. Simon, Tom Skerritt, Jeremy Slate, John Smith, Quintin Sondergaard, David Soul, Aaron Spelling, Loretta Swit, Harry Dean Stanton, Frank Sutton, Gloria Talbott, Russ Tamblyn, William Tannen, Vic Tayback Dub Taylor, Robert Totten (also a director), Harry Townes (seven times), Daniel J. Travanti, Forrest Tucker, Lurene Tuttle, Cicely Tyson, Robert Urich, Joan Van Ark, Lee Van Cleef, Warren Vanders (12 times), Mitch Vogel, Joyce Van Patten, Robert Vaughn, Jan-Michael Vincent, Gary Vinson Jon Voight, Lesley Ann Warren, Ruth Warrick, David Wayne, Adam West, James Westerfield, Jack Weston, Johnny Whitaker, James Whitmore, Robert J. Wilke, Elen Willard, Bill Williams, Van Williams, Chill Wills, Terry Wilson, William Windom, Morgan Woodward (19 times), Ian Wolfe, Dana Wynter, and Anthony Zerbe. Spin-off Gunsmoke had one spin-off series, Dirty Sally, a semicomedy starring Jeanette Nolan as an old woman and Dack Rambo as a young gunfighter, leaving Dodge City for California to pan for gold. The program lasted 13 weeks and aired in the first half of 1974, a year before Gunsmoke ended. Notable directors Andrew McLaglen Richard Whorf Arnold Laven Arthur Hiller Dennis Weaver Gene Nelson Irving J. Moore John Rich Leo Penn Marc Daniels Mark Rydell Peter Graves Philip Leacock Robert Totten Sam Peckinpah Sobey Martin Tay Garnett Victor French Vincent McEveety William Conrad Gunnar Hellström (23 episodes) Music The Gunsmoke radio theme song and later TV theme is titled "Old Trails", also known as "Boothill". The Gunsmoke theme was composed by Rex Koury. The original radio version was conducted by Koury. The TV version was thought to have been first conducted by CBS west coast music director Lud Gluskin. The lyrics of the theme, never aired on the radio or television show, were recorded and released by Tex Ritter in 1955. Ritter was backed on that Capitol record by Rex Koury and the radio Gunsmoke orchestra. William Lava composed the original theme music for television, as noted in the program credits. Other notable composers included: Elmer Bernstein Jerry Goldsmith Bernard Herrmann Jerome Moross Franz Waxman Products The Gunsmoke brand was used to endorse numerous products, from cottage cheese to cigarettes. The Heartland toy company included an 8" (1/9th scale) plastic Matt Dillion figure as well as his horse "Buck" (aka "Old Faithful Buck") in their line of famous TV cowboys and their horses during the 1950s. Lowell Toy Manufacturing Corporation ("It's a Lowell Game") issued Gunsmoke as their game No. 822. Other products include Gunsmoke puzzles, In 1985, Capcom released a video game for the arcade (and its corresponding game for the NES in 1988) with a Western theme, called Gun.Smoke. Other than the Western theme, the show and game have no relationship whatsoever. Comics Dell Comics published numerous issues of their Four Color comics series on Gunsmoke (including issues #679, 720, 769, 797, 844 and, in 1958–1962, #6–27). Gold Key Comics continued with issues #1–6 in 1969–70. A comic strip version of the series ran in British newspapers for several years under the show's UK title, Gun Law. Hardcover comic BBC Gunsmoke Annuals were marketed in Great Britain under the authority of the BBC which had broadcasting rights there. Gunsmoke comics in Spanish were published under the title Aventura la ley del revolver (Gun-Law Adventures). Books In 1957, Ballantine Books published a collection of short stories. Each story is based on a half-hour Gunsmoke episode. Although a photo of James Arness and the CBS TV logo are on the book cover, in at least one story Matt introduces Chester as "Chester Proudfoot", an indication that the stories are actually adapted from radio scripts. Whitman Books published Gunsmoke by Robert Turner in 1958, and Gunsmoke: "Showdown on Front Street" by Paul S. Newman in 1969 ... In 1970, Popular Library published the following paperback book written by Chris Stratton: Gunsmoke In 1974, Award Books published the following paperback books written by Jackson Flynn based on the TV series: Gunsmoke #1: "The Renegades" Gunsmoke #2: "Shootout" Gunsmoke #3: "Duel at Dodge City" Gunsmoke #4: "Cheyenne Vengeance" In 1998, Boulevard Books published the following paperbacks written by Gary McCarthy based on the TV series: Gunsmoke Gunsmoke: "Dead Man's Witness" Gunsmoke: "Marshal Festus" A series of novels based upon the television series written by Joseph A. West with forewords by James Arness was published by Signet: Gunsmoke: "Blood, Bullets and Buckskin", January 2005 () Gunsmoke: "The Last Dog Soldier", May 2005 () Gunsmoke: "Blizzard of Lead", September 2005 () Gunsmoke: "The Reckless Gun", May 2006 () Gunsmoke: "Dodge the Devil", October 2006 () Gunsmoke: "The Day of the Gunfighter", January 2007 () "Gunsmoke: An American Institution, Celebrating 50 Years of Television's Best Western" Written by Ben Costello, Foreword by Jim Byrnes, and Introduction by Jon Voight and published by Five Star Publications, Inc.(now Story Monsters LLC) Published 1 edition (December 22, 2012), Independent E-book Gunsmoke: Battlefield Dodge, June 2015 Episodes Reruns and syndication The program currently airs on four major venues: TV Land, which has carried the show since its inception in 1996, Encore Westerns, INSP, and Weigel Broadcasting's MeTV digital subchannel network. Individual stations such as KFWD in Dallas also carry the series in their markets. It has also been shown on satellite channel CBS Action in the UK, Ireland and Poland. The series also appears intermittently on MeTV's themed sister network Decades, which CBS holds a partial interest in; it appears on the schedule depending on the theme and year a particular day has. Notes References Further reading John Dunning, On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio, Oxford University Press, 1998. SuzAnn Barabas & Gabor Barabas, Gunsmoke: A Complete History and Analysis of the Legendary Broadcast Series, McFarland & Company, Inc., 1990. Bill Carter, "NBC Will Bring Back All Three Law & Order Shows", The New York Times, May 14, 2007. David R. Greenland, The Gunsmoke Chronicles: A New History of Television's Greatest Western'', BearManor Media, 2013. External links Listen to the entire Gunsmoke radio series Listen to the complete series of the radio version of Gunsmoke Zoot Radio, over 450 free Gunsmoke radio shows Listen to radio Gunsmoke at OldClassicRadio 1950s American radio programs 1950s Western (genre) television series 1955 American television series debuts 1960s American radio programs 1960s Western (genre) television series 1970s Western (genre) television series 1975 American television series endings American radio dramas American television series revived after cancellation Black-and-white American television shows CBS Radio programs CBS original programming Dell Comics titles Dodge City, Kansas English-language television shows Gold Key Comics titles Nielsen ratings winners Period radio series Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series winners Radio programs adapted into television shows Television franchises Television series based on radio series Television series by CBS Studios Television shows adapted into comics Television shows set in Kansas United States Marshals Service in fiction United States National Recording Registry recordings Western (genre) radio series

175228

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleroi

Charleroi

Charleroi (, , ; ) is a city and a municipality of Wallonia, located in the province of Hainaut, Belgium. By 1 January 2008, the total population of Charleroi was 201,593. The metropolitan area, including the outer commuter zone, covers an area of with a total population of 522,522 by 1 January 2008, ranking it as the 5th most populous in Belgium after Brussels, Antwerp, Liège, and Ghent. The inhabitants are called Carolorégiens or simply Carolos. Geography The municipality of Charleroi straddles both banks of the river Sambre in an area marked by industrial activities (coal mining and steel industry), which has been nicknamed the Pays Noir ("Black Country"), part of the larger sillon industriel. Even though most of the factories have closed since the 1950s, the landscape remains dotted with spoil tips and old industrial buildings. Charleroi lies around south of Brussels. The municipality comprises: I. the central district of Charleroi and the following former municipalities, now districts, merged into Charleroi in 1977: II. Dampremy III. Lodelinsart IV. Gilly V. Montignies-sur-Sambre VI. Couillet VII. Marcinelle VIII. Mont-sur-Marchienne IX. Marchienne-au-Pont X. Monceau-sur-Sambre XI. Goutroux XII. Roux XIII. Jumet XIV. Gosselies XV. Ransart Neighboring municipalities: a. Les Bons Villers b. Fleurus c. Châtelet d. Gerpinnes e. Ham-sur-Heure-Nalinnes f. Montigny-le-Tilleul g. Fontaine-l'Évêque h. Courcelles i. Pont-à-Celles Climate Similar to the rest of Belgium Charleroi has an oceanic climate as a result of the Gulf Stream influence warming winters, while also moderating summer warmth in spite of its inland position. History The Charleroi area was already settled in the prehistoric period, with traces of metallurgical and commercial activities along the Sambre. Several public buildings, temples and villas were built in the area in the Roman period. Burial places, with jewels and weapons, have been found. The first written mention of a place called Charnoy dates from a 9th-century offering in the Lobbes abbey, which lists various neighboring towns and related tithe duties. During the Middle Ages, Charnoy was one of the many small hamlets in the area, with no more than about 50 inhabitants, part of the County of Namur. Foundation Spanish territorial losses in the 1659 Treaty of the Pyrenees left a gap between the key fortresses of Mons and Namur; to fill this, Francisco Castel Rodrigo, then Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, expropriated land around Charnoy to build a fortress near the Sambre. In September 1666, it was renamed Charle-roi, or King Charles, in honour of five-year-old Charles II of Spain; the chronogram FVNDATVR CAROLOREGIVM (MDCLVVVI) can be found in the register of the parish of Charnoy. Construction had only just begun when the War of Devolution with France began in 1667, and the Spanish withdrew. France retained the town under the 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, and its fortifications were completed by Vauban. A bridge was built over the Sambre, connecting the Ville Haute and Ville Basse, with incentives offered to persuade people to settle there. The French relinquished control in 1678, and although it changed hands several times over the next 50 years, the town remained part of the Netherlands until the foundation of modern Belgium. 1666–1830 Shortly after its foundation, the new city was in turn besieged by the Dutch, ceded to the Spanish in 1678 (Treaty of Nijmegen), taken by the French in 1693, ceded again to the Spanish in 1698 (Treaty of Rijswijk), then taken by the French, the Dutch and the Austrians in 1714 (Treaty of Baden). The French Prince of Conti took the city again in 1745, but it was ceded back to Austria in 1748, beginning a period of prosperity under Joseph II. Glass, steel and coal industries, which had already sprung up a century earlier, could now flourish. Trouble began again in 1790, the year of the civil uprising that eventually led to the United States of Belgium. The Austrians occupied the city, were forced out by the French after the Battle of Jemappes on 6 November 1792, and took it back again four months later. On 12 June 1794, the French revolutionary Army of Sambre-et-Meuse under the command of Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, invested Charleroi and won a decisive victory in the ensuing Battle of Fleurus. The city took the revolutionary name of Libre-sur-Sambre until 1800. After France's defeat in 1814, the whole area was annexed to the Netherlands, and new walls were built around the city. Napoleon stayed in Charleroi for a couple of days in June 1815, just before the Battle of Waterloo. 1830 to present The Belgian Revolution of 1830 gave the area its freedom from the Netherlands and ushered in a new era of prosperity, still based mostly on glass, metallurgy and coal, hence the area's name, Pays Noir ("Black Country"). After the Industrial Revolution, Charleroi benefited from the increased use of coke in the metallurgical industry. People from across Europe were attracted by the economic opportunities, and the population grew rapidly. Following the Industrial revolution in Wallonia, Charleroi from the 1850s–1860s became one of the most important places where labor strikes broke out. In 1886, 12 strikers were killed by the Belgian army in Roux. In the 1880s, miners in Hainaut were recruited by the Dominion Coal Company in Glace Bay, Nova Scotia. These miners were anxious to flee the repression following bloody strikes and riots in Liège and Charleroi during the Walloon Jacquerie of 1886. Walloon miners from Charleroi also emigrated to Alberta, Canada. The working men of Charleroi always played an important role in Belgian general strikes and particularly during the Belgian general strike of 1936, the general strike against Leopold III of Belgium, and the 1960–1961 winter general strike. By 1871, the fortified walls around the city were completely torn down. Heavy fighting took place during World War I due to the city's strategic location on the Sambre. The city was badly damaged with further destruction only being prevented by a treaty agreed with the German forces which required the payment of 10 million Belgian Francs, foodstuffs, vehicles and armaments. Magazine Spirou, which featured the popular cartoon characters Lucky Luke and the Smurfs, was launched by the publishing company Éditions Dupuis in 1938. After World War II, Charleroi witnessed a general decline of its heavy industry. Following the merger with several surrounding municipalities in 1977, the city ranks as the largest city in Wallonia and the 4th largest in Belgium. Politics The Socialist Party (Parti Socialiste or PS) has had a stronghold in Charleroi for some time. However, in October 2006, mayor Jacques Van Gompel of the PS was jailed on fraud and forgery charges. Léon Casaert, also of the PS, became the new mayor, elected by PS, MR and cdH majorities. The MR resigned from the coalition just before the 2007 general election, citing official charges of corruption leveled against a PS alderman in Charleroi. After the 2007 general election, the PS placed the Charleroi local party section under full supervision of Paul Magnette, with the city executive resigning. Mayor Casaert was charged with fraud on 18 June 2007, but would only step down after a new city executive had been formed. In April 2010, the director of technical services of Charleroi, Henri Stassens, was convicted in court of fraud and corruption. Municipal elections (*)Under the local list name "C+" (**)Under alternative name Landmarks The belfry, part of the City Hall, was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1999 as part of the Belfries of Belgium and France site. The Maison Dorée was built in 1899 by Art Nouveau architect Alfred Frère. Its name is derived from the golden sgraffiti that adorn the façade. The city is home to several museums of fine art, glass and other disciplines, as well as a significant one specializing in photography, in the Mont-sur-Marchienne district. In remembrance to the Jews of Charleroi being murdered by the Nazi regime, the German artist Gunter Demnig has collocated nine Stolpersteine in Charleroi. Economy The municipality contains an industrial area for electrical engineering and the production of iron, steel, glass and chemicals. The conglomerate ArcelorMittal subdivided its Industeel unit to encompass the Charleroi steelworks. Charleroi is in the center of a coal basin. Even so, due to the widespread loss in industrial power in the area since the 1970s, the area suffered some of the highest unemployment and poverty rates in Europe for most of the 1980s and 1990s. However, from the early 2000s, the overall economy of the area has diversified to include health care, transportation and telecommunications. Nevertheless, the poverty rates are still significant. Education Charleroi is Belgium's biggest city without having its own university. Since 1966, the University of Louvain is implemented in Charleroi, with three faculties, on its UCLouvain Charleroi campus based in the city center and in Montignies-sur-Sambre, including the Louvain School of Management and, more recently, the Louvain School of Engineering, organising Bachelor's and Master's degrees, and research. Other universities have since started operations in Charleroi, including the Universities of Namur, Mons and the Université libre de Bruxelles. Primary and secondary schools Secondary schools include: Athénée Royal Jules Destrée Athénée Royal Orsini Dewerpe Athénée Royal Les Marlaires Athénée Royal Vauban Athénée Royal Yvonne Vieslet Centre Educatif Communal Secondaire — La Garenne Institut d'Enseignement Technique Secondaire de l’UT Institut Jean Jaurès de l’UT Centre Educatif Communal Secondaire de Couillet-Marcinelle Institut Provincial d’Enseignement Secondaire Paramédical La Samaritaine Transport Air The Brussels South Charleroi Airport in Gosselies, north of the centre, opened in 1919 as a flight school. Later, it housed the Fairey aircraft-factory building. Gosselies is now used as an alternate airport for Brussels. Low-cost carrier Ryanair is the largest airline to provide service there; others include Wizz Air, Jetairfly. Seasonal holiday charters also use the airport. A new terminal opened in January 2008, replacing a much smaller building which had exceeded capacity. Brussels is north of Charleroi Airport. Rail Charleroi is connected by train to other Belgian major cities through the main Charleroi-South railway station. The city also has a secondary railway station, Charleroi-West, on the Charleroi-to-Ottignies line. Public transport Public transport is provided by TEC (Transport En Commun), the Walloon public transport service. The greater Charleroi region is served by bus lines and a light-rail Metro system, (Métro Léger de Charleroi). Part of the latter is famous for incorporating one of the few remnants of the Vicinal, the former Belgian national tramway network. Charleroi Metro The Charleroi Metro is equally famous for the parts of the system which were never built, partially built or fully completed but not opened. It was planned in the 1960s as a 48 km (30 mi.) light-rail network, operating on the heavy rail metro infrastructure, consisting of eight branch lines radiating from a central loop downtown. However, only one line (to Petria), part of another line (to Gilly) and three-quarters of the loop were actually built and opened to traffic, all from 1976 to 1996. Another branch line toward the suburb of Châtelet (Châtelineau) was almost fully built, to the extent of installing power cables, escalators and still-working electric signals in the first three stations but was never opened as passenger numbers would be too low to economically justify the extra staff. The high costs of construction, a decline in Charleroi's traditional "smokestack" industries and questioning of the scope of the whole project in proportion to the actual demand for it are cited as reasons for the original plan's becoming unfulfilled. The central loop and the Gilly branch as far as Soleilmont were completed in 2012, with funds from the European Investment Bank. The Gosselies branch opened as a street-level tramline in 2013. In June 2021 it was announced that €60m will be allocated to refurbish and open the long-ago completed but never served inner section of the Châtelet "ghost" line, and extend it to the new hospital development in the area. Crime During the 1990s, Charleroi was notorious for some violence due to its high poverty and unemployment rates. Marc Dutroux lived in Marcinelle, a suburb of Charleroi. On 6 August 2016, a man attacked two policewomen with a machete. Sports Charleroi is home to a number of champion teams in various sports. Spirou Charleroi in basketball has been an eight-times winner in the Basketball League Belgium. La Villette Charleroi in table tennis is the most successful club in the Champions League with five titles and has been the Belgian champion multiple times. Action 21 Charleroi in futsal has won one UEFA Futsal Cup and nine titles in the Belgian Division 1. In football, Royal Charleroi SC and ROC Charleroi have finished second in the Belgian Pro League. The 30,000-capacity Stade du Pays de Charleroi was a venue at UEFA Euro 2000. Notable people from Charleroi Born in Charleroi Jean-Marie Andre, scientist Pierre Carette, extreme-left terrorist Alexandre Czerniatynski, football player Jules Delhaize, 19th-century grocer and businessman, founder of what would become the Delhaize Group Louis Delhaize, founder of the Louis Delhaize Group Jules Destrée, lawyer and politician, born in Marcinelle, 19th century Karel Erjavec, Slovenian lawyer and politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs; born in Aiseau Albert Frère, businessman and the richest person in Belgium Régis Genaux, football player Emile Grumieaux, painter, born in Gosselies Axel Hervelle, Real Madrid basketball player Paul-François Huart-Chapel, industrialist, 19th century Jean-Pierre Lecocq (1947–1992), molecular biologist and entrepreneur Georges Lemaître (1894–1966), priest, and astronomer, 20th century Fabrice Lig, music producer, 20th century Joseph Maréchal, Jesuit priest, philosopher, 20th century Didier Matrige, painter and draughtsman, 20th century Joëlle Milquet, politician, 20th century Chantal Mouffe, political theorist, 20th century François-Joseph Navez, painter, 18th century Paul Pastur, lawyer and politician Gaston Salmon (1878–1917) – épée fencer, Olympic champion Marcel Thiry, poet, 19th century Jeanne Toussaint (1887–1976), jeweller Raymond Troye, wartime writer, 20th century Annette Vande Gorne, composer Fernand Verhaegen, painter and etcher, born in Marchienne-au-Pont, 19th century Resided in Charleroi Robert Arcq, writer Paul Cuvelier, painter and comics artist Muriel Degauque, suicide bomber in Iraq Marc Dutroux, convicted child molester and serial killer Arthur Grumiaux, violinist René Magritte, painter Johan Nunez, drummer for Nightrage/Firewind Arthur Rimbaud, poet Paul Verlaine, poet Twin cities Hirson, France Saint-Junien, France Schramberg, Germany Waldkirch, Germany Manoppello, Italy Casarano, Italy Follonica, Italy Himeji, Japan Donetsk, Ukraine Pittsburgh, US Uşak, Turkey Alvdal, Norway Bjugn, Norway See also Aéropole Science Park Dauphines Charleroi ICDI affair List of municipalities in Wallonia Municipalities of Belgium R. Charleroi S.C. R.O.C. Charleroi References External links - Official web site Unofficial history of tramways in Charleroi Urban adventurers explore and photograph an unused Métro line "Welcome to Charleroi: Tourism trebles in the world's ugliest town" Scotsman newspaper, April 7, 2009 Cities in Wallonia Sub-municipalities of Charleroi Municipalities of Hainaut (province) World Heritage Sites in Belgium 1666 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire Vauban fortifications in Belgium

175850

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Rennie

Michael Rennie

Michael Rennie (born Eric Alexander Rennie; 25 August 1909 – 10 June 1971) was a British film, television and stage actor, who had leading roles in a number of Hollywood films, including his portrayal of the space visitor Klaatu in the science fiction film The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951). In a career spanning more than 30 years, Rennie appeared in more than 50 films and in several American television series. Early years and career Eric Alexander Rennie was born in Idle near Bradford, West Riding of Yorkshire, the second son of a Scottish wool mill owner, James Rennie, and his English wife Amelia (née Dobby). He had an elder brother William, younger brother Gordon and sister Edith. Rennie's family owned a wool business which had operated for over 150 years and were relatively well off. He was educated at the Leys School, Cambridge. He went to work at the family wool mill in Bradford, but did not enjoy it. He worked in a number of occupations, including a stint as a car salesman, and sweeping floors in his uncle's steel ropes factory. He eventually decided (at the time of his 26th birthday, in 1935) on a career as an actor. He retained his surname but adopted Michael as his professional name. He cited Ronald Colman as his role model. Early British films The 6' 4" tall Rennie attracted the interest of a casting director at Gaumont British who took him on as an extra. Rennie said this was a deliberate strategy so he could learn how films were made. Head of production Michael Balcon said Rennie was taken on "because he was good-looking and athletic. He knew nothing of acting, but was given a contract to play small parts and to work as stand-in for players such as Robert Young and John Loder." Rennie's first screen acting was an uncredited bit part in the Alfred Hitchcock film Secret Agent (1936), standing in for Robert Young. Balcon says he saw Rennie act in a scene in East Meets West (1936) and fired him immediately afterwards. Balcon wrote "I had seen the rushes of that day's filming and had at once decided that Rennie was far too inexperienced to justify big screen parts." The 1937 screen test, which exists in the British Film Institute (BFI) archives under the title "Marguerite Allan and Michael Rennie Screen Test", did not lead to a film career for either performer. Balcon says Rennie "took his setback well, left the studios, and went off to learn his job in repertory." Rennie worked mostly in Yorkshire, eventually becoming a star with the York Repertory Company. Among his roles were as Professor Henry Higgins in Pygmalion. He also played other bit parts and minor unbilled roles in other films, including The Man Who Could Work Miracles (1936), Conquest of the Air (1937), The Squeaker (1937), Gangway (1937), The Divorce of Lady X (1938), Bank Holiday (1938), This Man in Paris (1939) and The Briggs Family (1940). He later said he strove to perfect a "mid-Atlantic accent" that could easily be understood by American as well as British audiences which resulted in people thinking he was Canadian. World War II Rising fame Shortly after the outbreak of war in Europe on 1 September 1939, Rennie began to receive offers for larger film roles, including This Man Is Dangerous (1940), Dangerous Moonlight (1941) and Pimpernel Smith (1941). Rennie auditioned again for Michael Balcon, now head of Ealing Studios, and was cast in Ships with Wings. While that film was being prepared, Rennie continued repertory work and accepted a one-line role in George Formby's Turned Out Nice Again. Balcon says Rennie "declared that he enjoyed it as he was playing a motor salesman, and this reminded him of the days when he tried to sell cars – without securing a single buyer." Rennie had his first big film role in the suspense drama Tower of Terror (1941). This starred Wilfrid Lawson in the lead role as a crazed Dutch lighthouse keeper in the German-occupied Netherlands, while the second-billed Rennie and third-billed Movita had the romantic leads. In a 1951 interview Rennie said this was his worst part. Michael Balcon also used him in The Big Blockade (1942). He was called a "rapidly rising newcomer". Another profile referred to him as an "athletic, Gable-ish young man." War service Rennie enlisted in the RAF Volunteer Reserve on 27 May 1941. "There has been a pause in Rennie's film career", wrote Balcon in 1942. "But there will be parts awaiting him when the war is over". He was officially discharged on 4 August 1942, and then on the following day, he was commissioned "for the emergency" as pilot officer number 127347 on probation in the General Duties Branch of the RAFVR. On 5 February 1943, he was promoted to flying officer on probation. He resigned his commission on 1 May 1944 (not discharged on disability, as the studio publicity stated). Rennie had carried out his basic training near Torquay in Devon, after which he was sent to the United States for fighter pilot training under the Arnold Plan. In this programme, pilots of the RAF were trained by United States Army Air Forces instructors. One of his fellow students was RAF Sgt Jack Morton, who told an anecdote about when he and Rennie were in the same class: At the end of our primary course we were posted to a Basic Flying School at Cochran Field, Macon, Georgia. The class which completed the course at Cochran Field was now split up, half were posted to Napier Field, Dothan, Alabama, to train on single-engine planes, and the remainder were posted to twin-engine schools. Like Cochran, Napier Field was a large permanent Air Corps Base and most of us were quite content to stay on the camp when we had time off. One of the cadets on our course had told us that he was a film actor, but no one took him seriously. We had to admit that he was right however when a film came to the camp cinema called Ships with Wings starring Michael Rennie. Film stardom I'll Be Your Sweetheart and The Wicked Lady With the end of the war in Europe in May 1945, Rennie was given his first film break, when cast alongside Margaret Lockwood, then at the peak of her popularity, in the musical I'll Be Your Sweetheart (1945), directed by Val Guest for Gainsborough Studios. Rennie was billed below Lockwood and Vic Oliver, given an "introducing" credit, but his character was the actual protagonist of the film. The movie was not a large hit but Rennie received excellent notices, including a review from the US trade paper Variety who said his performance made the film "noteworthy" and that he was "likely Hollywood material... the best bet in the way of a new male star to have come out of a British studio in many years. Rennie not only has a lot on the ball as a straight lead, he knows the value of visual tricks. Femmes will go for him in a big way." He followed this in another movie with Lockwood at Gainsborough, the sensual costume adventure The Wicked Lady (both 1945). Rennie was the fifth lead, beneath Lockwood, James Mason, Patricia Roc and Griffith Jones. but it was a good part (the one true love of Lockwood's character) and an excellent project to be associated with – the year's biggest box-office hit, subsequently being listed ninth on a list of top ten highest-grossing British films of all time. Rennie's prestige was also raised when he was given a single prominent scene as a commander of Roman centurions in Gabriel Pascal's production of George Bernard Shaw's Caesar and Cleopatra (also 1945), starring Vivien Leigh and Claude Rains. The film's expense caused it to lose a large amount of money, despite it being highly successful at the box office, particularly in the U.S. Rennie was now established as a leading actor. One report called him "the bobbysoxers' dark idol... Gainsborough's 1945 discovery." He was mobbed by female fans on a personal appearance tour. Gainsborough teamed him with one of their biggest female stars Phyllis Calvert in the melodrama The Root of All Evil (1947). In July 1946 it was announced Rennie had signed a five-year contract with Maurice Ostrer's new company, Premiere Productions, worth £300,000 – making him the highest paid film star in Britain. Maurice Ostrer Rennie's first film under the new contract was White Cradle Inn (1947), shot in Switzerland with Madeleine Carroll. Rennie had been "loaned out" to another company to make it but then he made his first for Ostrer at Premiere, The Idol of Paris (1948). The film did so badly that Ostrer left the film industry. Rennie made films for independent producers and his career momentum began to fade: Uneasy Terms (1948); Golden Madonna (1949) (again with Calvert); and two comedies for Val Guest: Miss Pilgrim's Progress (1949) and The Body Said No! (1950). He had what may be considered Rennie's only role as one of two central characters in a fully-fledged love story in the 47-minute episode "Sanatorium", the longest of the Somerset Maugham tales constituting the omnibus film Trio (1950); the 40-year-old Rennie and the 20-year-old Jean Simmons play patients and doomed lovers in the title institution, which caters to victims of tuberculosis. Hollywood career 20th Century Fox Rennie was one of several English actors cast in the 20th Century Fox medieval adventure story The Black Rose (1950), shot in England starring Tyrone Power and Orson Welles. Rennie was specifically cast as the 13th-century King Edward I, whose 6' 2" (1.88 m) frame gave origin to his historical nickname "Longshanks". He was fifth-billed after Cécile Aubry and Jack Hawkins. Rennie became good friends with Power, who spoke well of the actor to Fox executives. Rennie's performance impressed Fox's studio head, Darryl F. Zanuck, who offered him a role in a film shot in Canada, The 13th Letter (1951). Directed by Otto Preminger, it was a remake of the French film Le Corbeau (The Raven, 1943), with the setting changed to the Canadian province of Quebec. Fox was so pleased with Rennie's work that it offered him a seven-year contract in November 1950. The Day the Earth Stood Still After Claude Rains turned down the role, Rennie received top billing in his next film, The Day the Earth Stood Still (also 1951), the first postwar, large-budget, "A" science-fiction film. It was a serious, high-minded exploration of mid-20th century suspicion and paranoia, combined with a philosophical overview of humanity's coming place in the larger universe. Rennie said director Robert Wise told him to do the role "with dignity but not with superiority". (The story was later dramatised in 1954 on Lux Radio Theatre, with Rennie and Billy Gray recreating their original film roles. Seven years later, on 3 March 1962, when The Day the Earth Stood Still made its television premiere on NBC's NBC Saturday Night at the Movies, Rennie appeared in a two-minute introductory prologue before the start of the film.) Rennie went on to support Power in I'll Never Forget You (1951) then had good roles in the ensemble drama Phone Call from a Stranger (1952) (where he played an American) and in the wartime spy thriller, 5 Fingers (1952), as the agent who tracks down James Mason's spy. He did some narration for The Desert Fox: The Story of Rommel (1951) and would provide voice overs for several Fox films, such as Pony Soldier (1952), Titanic (1953), The Desert Rats (1953), Prince Valiant (1954). Les Misérables Buoyed by the strong critical reception and profitability of The Day the Earth Stood Still, Fox assigned much of the credit to the central performance of Rennie. Convinced that it had a potential leading man under contract, the studio decided to produce a new version of Les Misérables (1952) as a vehicle for him. The film was directed by Lewis Milestone, known for his early sound version of All Quiet on the Western Front. Rennie's performance was respectfully, but not enthusiastically, received by the critics. Ultimately, Les Misérables returned an extremely modest profit and put an end to any further attempts to promote the 43-year-old Rennie as a potential star. This caused the studio to cancel a project he was attached to in 1952 — Arms of Venus. He was, however, launched on a thriving career as a top supporting actor at Fox, often playing figures of authority, such as military officers or doctors. Supporting actor at Fox Rennie was second-billed in Sailor of the King (also known as Single-Handed, 1953), as an admiral, but it was very much in support of Jeffrey Hunter. He was leading man to Jeanne Crain in a thriller, Dangerous Crossing (1953), which re-used sets and props from Titanic (also 1953) for which Rennie spoke the closing narration. He had a showy role as Saint Peter in The Robe (1953), the first movie in CinemaScope and the biggest hit of the year. The star was Richard Burton, who had essentially taken Rennie's place on the Fox lot as their "resident British star". Rennie supported Power once more in King of the Khyber Rifles (1954), as a brigadier in British India, then played his first villain for Fox, an evil Khan in the "eastern", Princess of the Nile (1954), opposite Jeffrey Hunter. He reprised his role as Peter in Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954) and was lent out for Mambo (1954). In Désirée (1954), Rennie played the future Charles XIV John of Sweden opposite Marlon Brando as Napoleon Bonaparte. The film was popular though is not as highly regarded as other Brando films from this time. Soldier of Fortune (1955), was another hit, with Rennie as the head of British police in Hong Kong supporting Clark Gable and Susan Hayward. On TV he played the attorney in an adaptation of The Letter (1955) with John Mills. He also received good reviews for his performance as an art dealer in "A Man of Taste" (1955) for Climax with Zsa Zsa Gabor. Rennie enjoyed live TV. "You have greater performances as opposed to those in a filmed series", he said. "You are able to build and sustain a role in live TV whereas you have the problem of cutting, stopping and starting in a filmed show." Based on the positive reaction to his two turns as the Apostle Peter, Fox assigned him another third-billed, top-tier role as a stalwart man of God, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra, who, between 1749 and his death in 1784, founded missions in Alta California. The film was Seven Cities of Gold (1955), with Richard Egan and Anthony Quinn. His next film was The Rains of Ranchipur (1955), assigned him fifth billing after the lead romantic teaming of Lana Turner and Richard Burton. As Turner's character's cuckolded husband, Lord Esketh, Rennie maintained his typical dignity and stiff upper lip. He supported Ginger Rogers in Teenage Rebel (1956) and had a good role as the man murdered by James Mason in Island in the Sun (1957), Darryl Zanuck's popular melodrama. His contract with Fox then wound up. Post-20th Century-Fox Rennie began his freelancing career supporting Cornel Wilde in Omar Khayyam (1957) at Paramount. He returned to Britain to play the lead in a war film Battle of the V-1 (1958). He was going to co-produce and star in a war film for Eros Films about bomb disposal experts. Getaway, but it was not made. Scheduling conflicts meant he missed out on a role in The Vikings (1958), being replaced by James Donald. He had top billing in a mountaineering film for Disney, Third Man on the Mountain (1959), although he was really the support for James MacArthur. Irwin Allen gave him a leading part at Fox, casting him as adventurer Lord John Roxton in an adaptation of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's The Lost World (1960), a tale of a jungle expedition that finds prehistoric monsters in South America; the film also starred Claude Rains, Jill St. John and Richard Haydn. No longer bound by the no-television clause in his studio contract, he began his association with the medium. The Third Man and Mary Mary Rennie became a familiar face on television, taking the role of Harry Lime in The Third Man (1959–65), an Anglo-American syndicated television series very loosely derived from the film. It ran for several years but the schedule meant Rennie had plenty of time off to work on other projects. "Every scene of every show I do for money", he said. At the start of the 1960s, Michael Rennie made his only Broadway appearance in Mary, Mary playing Dirk Winsten, a jaded film star. After two previews, the sophisticated five-character marital comedy written by Jean Kerr and directed by Joseph Anthony opened at the Helen Hayes Theatre on 8 March 1961. It ran for a very successful 1,572 performances, closing at the Morosco Theatre on 12 December 1964. Rennie stayed with the production less than five months and was replaced by Michael Wilding in July 1961. When Warner Bros. cast the film version in early 1963, Rennie, along with leading man Barry Nelson and supporting actor Hiram Sherman (who joined the play two years after the opening in the part first played by John Cromwell) were the only Broadway cast members to carry over. Debbie Reynolds was given the title role created by Barbara Bel Geddes, and Warner's contract player Diane McBain, whom the studio saw as a potential star of the future, took over "the socialite part" essayed by Betsy von Furstenberg. Mervyn LeRoy produced and directed the film, which opened at Radio City Music Hall on 25 October 1963. Later career During the 1960s, Rennie made guest appearances on such series as The Barbara Stanwyck Show, The Americans, Route 66 (a portrayal of a doomed pilot in the two-part episode "Fly Away Home"); Alfred Hitchcock Presents; Perry Mason (one of four actors in four consecutive episodes substituting for series star Raymond Burr, who was recovering from surgery); Wagon Train (a 90-minute colour episode as an English big game hunter); The Great Adventure (in an instalment of this anthology series about remarkable events in American history, he portrayed Confederate president Jefferson Davis); Daniel Boone, (in the episodes "The Sound of Wings" and "First in War, First in Peace"); Lost in Space (another two-part episode—as an all-powerful alien zookeeper, "The Keeper", he worked one last time with his Third Man co-star Jonathan Harris); The Time Tunnel (as Captain Smith of the Titanic, in the series' premiere episode); Batman (as the villainous Sandman, in league with Julie Newmar's Catwoman); three episodes of The Invaders (as a benign variation of the Klaatu persona, culminating in a parallel plot also involving an assembly of world leaders); an episode of I Spy ("Lana"); and two episodes of The F.B.I.; and was a THRUSH agent in an episode of The Man From U.N.C.L.E. (1967 TV series) ("The Thrush Roulette Affair"/Barnaby Partridge). Also Branded. Final films Rennie's later films included Ride Beyond Vengeance (1966), Cyborg 2087 (1967), the all-star Hotel (1967), Death on the Run (1968), and The Young, the Evil and the Savage (1968). He completed what amounted to guest roles in two films, The Power and The Devil's Brigade (both 1968), before moving to Switzerland in the latter part of that year. His final seven feature films were filmed in Britain, Italy, Spain and, in the case of Surabaya Conspiracy, the Philippines. Personal life Rennie was married twice: first to Joan England (1912–1974) (1938–1945), then to actress Margaret (Maggie) McGrath (1919–2017) (1947–1960); their son, David Rennie, is an English circuit judge in Lewes, Sussex, England. Both marriages ended in divorce. When divorcing his second wife, she fainted on the stand during cross-examination. Rennie revealed he had been separated from her since November 1953. (Her mother had been murdered in 1954.) He had a son, John Marshall (born 1944), with his longtime friend and mistress, Renée (née Gilbert), whose later married name was Taylor. Renée was the sister of the British film director Lewis Gilbert. During the war years, they lived coincidentally in flats in the White House in Albany Street near Regent's Park in London (now a hotel). The White House was a favourite location to live during the war years. It was built in the shape of a white cross and was such a good navigation mark for the Luftwaffe, that it was rumoured that there were standing orders to avoid bombing it – hence its popularity with celebrities and the wealthy. Although Rennie offered to accept paternity on discovering the news of her pregnancy, Renée refused, as she was unwilling to jeopardise his growing success as a romantic lead in major feature films. However, Rennie kept a watchful eye on John Marshall over the years, even after his marriage to Maggie McGrath, and both families remained in constant touch until Rennie's death. In fact Renée and Maggie lived for many years in the 1970s and 1980s within 200 yards of each other in Barnes and were close friends. Both Michael Rennie and his sister Bunny were very fond of Renée's family. Coincidentally the British Film Institute's database lists Rennie as also having a son, John M. Taylor, who is described as "a producer." John Marshall Rennie used the pseudonym "Taylor" during his long career in the industry to avoid accusations of nepotism. Michael Rennie was also briefly engaged to Mary Gardner, the former wife of Hollywood director Otto Preminger. In 1959, Preminger was divorcing Mary and claimed Rennie was having an affair with her. In 1958, Rennie said he earned $117,000 a year which provided him with $36,000 net. Death Under three years after leaving Hollywood, he journeyed to his mother's home in Harrogate, Yorkshire, following the death of his brother. It was there that he died suddenly of an aortic aneurysm on 10 June 1971. After his cremation, his ashes were interred in Harlow Hill Cemetery, Harrogate. Complete filmography Secret Agent (1936) as Army Captain (uncredited) The Man Who Could Work Miracles (1936) as San Francisco Cop (uncredited) Conquest of the Air (1936) (uncredited) Gypsy (1937) (uncredited) Gangway (1937) as Ship's Officer (uncredited) The Squeaker (1937) as Medical Examiner (uncredited) The Divorce of Lady X (1938) as Minor Role (uncredited) Bank Holiday (1938) as Guardsman (uncredited) This Man in Paris (1949) (uncredited) The Briggs Family (1940) as Plainclothes Policeman (uncredited) This Man Is Dangerous (1941) as Inspector Turned Out Nice Again (1941) as Diner (uncredited) Dangerous Moonlight (1941) as Kapulski "Pimpernel" Smith (1941) as Prison Camp Officer (uncredited) Tower of Terror (1941) as Anthony Hale Ships with Wings (1942) as Lieut. Maxwell The Big Blockade (1942) as Royal Air Force: George The Sky's the Limit (1943, Short) as George I'll Be Your Sweetheart (1945) as Bob Fielding The Wicked Lady (1945) as Kit Locksby Caesar and Cleopatra (1945) as 1st Centurion The Root of All Evil (1947) as Charles Mortimer White Cradle Inn (1947) as Rudolph Morning Departure (1948, TV Movie) as Lt.-Cmdr. Stanford The Idol of Paris (1948) as Hertz Uneasy Terms (1948) as Slim Callaghan The Golden Madonna (1949) as Mike Christie Miss Pilgrim's Progress (1950) as Bob Thane Trio (1950) as Major Templeton (segment "Sanatorium") The Black Rose (1950) as King Edward The Body Said No! (1950) as Himself The 13th Letter (1951) as Dr. Pearson The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) as Klaatu The House in the Square, also known as I'll Never Forget You (1951) as Roger Forsyth The Desert Fox: The Story of Rommel (1951) as Narrator (uncredited) Phone Call from a Stranger (1952) as Dr. Robert Fortness Five Fingers (1952) as Colin Travers Les Misérables (1952) as Jean Valjean Pony Soldier (1952) as Ending Narrator (uncredited) Titanic (1953) as End Narrator (uncredited) The Desert Rats (1953) as Narrator (uncredited) Sailor of the King (1953) as Lt. Richard Saville Dangerous Crossing (1953) as Dr. Paul Manning The Robe (1953) as Apostle Peter King of the Khyber Rifles (1953) as Brig. Gen. J. R. Maitland Prince Valiant (1954) as Narrator (uncredited) Princess of the Nile (1954) as Rama Khan Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954) as Peter Mambo (1954) as Enrico Marisoni Désirée (1954) as Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte Soldier of Fortune (1955) as Inspector Merryweather Seven Cities of Gold (1955) as Father Junipero Serra The Rains of Ranchipur (1955) as Lord Albert Esketh Teenage Rebel (1956) as Jay Fallon Island in the Sun (1957) as Hilary Carson Omar Khayyam (1957) as Hasani Sabah Battle of the V-1 (1958) as Stefan Third Man on the Mountain (1959) as Captain John Winter The Lost World (1960) as Lord John Roxton Mary, Mary (1963) as Dirk Winsten Mark Dolphin (1965, TV Movie) Ride Beyond Vengeance (1966) as Brooks Durham Mr. Paracelaus, Who Are You? (1966, TV Movie) Cyborg 2087 (1966) as Garth A7 Hotel (1967) as Geoffrey – Duke of Lanbourne Death on the Run (1967) as Major Worthington Clark The Young, the Evil, and the Savage (1968) as Inspector Durand The Power (1968) as Arthur Nordlund The Devil's Brigade (1968) as General Mark Clark The Last Chance (1968) as George McConnell European Eye (1968, TV Movie) as Martin Purcell Giugno '44 – Sbarcheremo in Normandia (Seven into Hell) (1968) as Blynn Subterfuge (1968) as Goldsmith The Battle of El Alamein (1969) as Gen. Bernard Law Montgomery Stoney (1969) as Harvey Ward Los Monstruos del Terror, also known as Dracula vs. Frankenstein (1970) as Dr. Odo Warnoff Partial list of TV appearances Wagon Train (1957), episode “The John Cameron Story” as John Cameron Route 66 (1961), episode "Fly Away Home" – as Summers The Virginian (TV series) (1963), episode "Vengeance Is the Spur" Perry Mason (1963), episode "The Case of the Libelous Locket" – as Professor Edward Lindley The Alfred Hitchcock Hour (1963), episode "The Long Silence" – as Ralph Manson Lost in Space (1965) – as The Keeper – two episodes Bonanza (1965), episode "Once a Doctor" – as Prof. Poppy / Dr. P.A. Mundy Batman (1966) – as The Sandman – two episodes The Time Tunnel (1966), episode #1 "Rendezvous With Yesterday" – as the captain of the Titanic The F.B.I. (1967), episode "The Conspirators" as Conrad Letterman The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (1967), episode "The THRUSH Roulette Affair" as Barnaby Partridge The Invaders (1967), episode "The Innocent" as Magnus The Invaders (1968), episode "Summit Meeting" – two part episode. References External links The Complete Michael Rennie – Fan site 1909 births 1971 deaths 20th Century Fox contract players 20th-century English male actors British World War II fighter pilots British expatriate male actors in the United States Deaths from aortic aneurysm English male film actors English male stage actors English male television actors English people of Scottish descent Male actors from Yorkshire People educated at The Leys School People from Idle, West Yorkshire Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve personnel of World War II Royal Air Force officers Royal Air Force pilots of World War II Western (genre) television actors

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Florida

History of Florida

The history of Florida can be traced to when the first Native Americans began to inhabit the peninsula as early as 14,000 years ago. They left behind artifacts and archeological evidence. Florida's written history begins with the arrival of Europeans; the Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León in 1513 made the first textual records. The state received its name from that conquistador, who called the peninsula La Pascua Florida in recognition of the verdant landscape and because it was the Easter season, which the Spaniards called Pascua Florida (Festival of Flowers). This area was the first mainland realm of the United States to be settled by Europeans. Thus, 1513 marked the beginning of the American frontier. From that time of contact, Florida has had many waves of colonization and immigration, including French and Spanish settlement during the 16th century, as well as entry of new Native American groups migrating from elsewhere in the South, and free blacks and fugitive slaves, who in the 19th century became allied with the Native Americans as Black Seminoles. Florida was under colonial rule by Spain from the 16th century to the 19th century, and briefly by Great Britain during the 18th century (1763–1783) before becoming a territory of the United States in 1821. Two decades later, on March 3, 1845, Florida was admitted to the Union as the 27th U.S. state. Florida is nicknamed the "Sunshine State" due to its warm climate and days of sunshine. Florida's sunny climate, many beaches, and growth of industries have attracted northern migrants within the United States, international migrants, and vacationers since the Florida land boom of the 1920s. A diverse population, urbanization, and a diverse economy would develop in Florida throughout the 20th century. In 2014, Florida with over 19 million people, surpassed New York and became the third most populous state in the U.S. The economy of Florida has changed over its history, starting with natural resource exploitation in logging, mining, fishing, and sponge diving; as well as cattle ranching, farming, and citrus growing. The tourism, real estate, trade, banking, and retirement destination businesses would develop as economic sectors later on. Early history Geology The foundation of Florida was located in the continent of Gondwana at the South Pole 650 million years ago (Mya). When Gondwana collided with the continent of Laurentia 300 Mya, it had moved further north. 200 Mya, the merged continents containing what would be Florida, had moved north of the equator. By then, Florida was surrounded by desert, in the middle of a new continent, Pangaea. When Pangaea broke up 115 mya, Florida assumed a shape as a peninsula. The emergent landmass of Florida was Orange Island, a low-relief island sitting atop the carbonate Florida Platform which emerged about 34 to 28 million years ago. When glaciation locked up the world's water, starting 2.58 million years ago, the sea level dropped precipitously. It was approximately lower than present levels. As a result, the Florida peninsula not only emerged, but had a land area about twice what it is today. Florida also had a drier and cooler climate than in more recent times. There were few flowing rivers or wetlands. First Floridians Paleo-Indians entered what is now Florida at least 14,000 years ago, during the last glacial period. With lower sea levels, the Florida peninsula was much wider, and the climate was cooler and much drier than in the present day. Fresh water was available only in sinkholes and limestone catchment basins, and paleo-Indian activity centered around these relatively scarce watering holes. Sinkholes and basins in the beds of modern rivers (such as the Page-Ladson site in the Aucilla River) have yielded a rich trove of paleo-Indian artifacts, including Clovis points. Excavations at an ancient stone quarry (the Container Corporation of America site in Marion County) yielded "crude stone implements" showing signs of extensive wear from deposits below those holding Paleo-Indian artifacts. Thermoluminescence dating and weathering analysis independently gave dates of 26,000 to 28,000 years ago for the creation of the artifacts. The findings are controversial, and funding has not been available for follow-up studies. As the glaciers began retreating about 8000 BC, the climate of Florida became warmer and wetter. As the glaciers melted, the sea level rose, reducing the land mass. Many prehistoric habitation sites along the old coastline were slowly submerged, making artifacts from early coastal cultures difficult to find. The paleo-Indian culture was replaced by, or evolved into, the Early Archaic culture. With an increase in population and more water available, the people occupied many more locations, as evidenced by numerous artifacts. Archaeologists have learned much about the Early Archaic people of Florida from the discoveries made at Windover Pond. The Early Archaic period evolved into the Middle Archaic period around 5000 BC. People started living in villages near wetlands and along the coast at favored sites that were likely occupied for multiple generations. The Late Archaic period started about 3000 BC, when Florida's climate had reached current conditions and the sea had risen close to its present level. People commonly occupied both fresh and saltwater wetlands. Large shell middens accumulated during this period. Many people lived in large villages with purpose-built earthwork mounds, such as at Horr's Island, which had the largest permanently occupied community in the Archaic period in the southeastern United States. It also has the oldest burial mound in the East, dating to about 1450 BC. People began making fired pottery in Florida by 2000 BC. By about 500 BC, the Archaic culture, which had been fairly uniform across Florida, began to fragment into regional cultures. The post-Archaic cultures of eastern and southern Florida developed in relative isolation. It is likely that the peoples living in those areas at the time of first European contact were direct descendants of the inhabitants of the areas in late Archaic and Woodland times. The cultures of the Florida panhandle and the north and central Gulf coast of the Florida peninsula were strongly influenced by the Mississippian culture, producing two local variants known as the Pensacola culture and the Fort Walton culture. Continuity in cultural history suggests that the peoples of those areas were also descended from the inhabitants of the Archaic period. In the panhandle and the northern part of the peninsula, people adopted cultivation of maize. Its cultivation was restricted or absent among the tribes who lived south of the Timucuan-speaking people (i.e., south of a line approximately from present-day Daytona Beach, Florida to a point on or north of Tampa Bay.) Peoples in southern Florida depended on the rich estuarine environment and developed a highly complex society without agriculture. European contact and aftermath At the time of first European contact in the early 16th century, Florida was inhabited by an estimated 350,000 people belonging to a number of tribes. (Anthropologist Henry F. Dobyns has estimated that as many as 700,000 people lived in Florida in 1492.) The Spanish Empire sent Spanish explorers recording nearly one hundred names of groups they encountered, ranging from organized political entities such as the Apalachee, with a population of around 50,000, to villages with no known political affiliation. There were an estimated 150,000 speakers of dialects of the Timucua language, but the Timucua were organized as groups of villages and did not share a common culture. Other tribes in Florida at the time of first contact included the Ais, Calusa, Jaega, Mayaimi, Tequesta and Tocobaga. Early explorers such as Alvaro Mexia wrote about them; other information has been learned through archeological research. The populations of all of these tribes decreased markedly during the period of Spanish control of Florida, mostly due to epidemics of newly introduced infectious diseases, to which the Native Americans had no natural immunity. The diminished population of the original natives allowed outside groups, such as the Seminoles, to move into the area starting about 1700. At the beginning of the 18th century, when the indigenous peoples were already much reduced in populations, tribes from areas to the north of Florida, supplied with arms and occasionally accompanied by white colonists from the Province of Carolina, raided throughout Florida. They burned villages, wounded many of the inhabitants and carried captives back to Charles Towne to be sold into slavery. Most of the villages in Florida were abandoned, and the survivors sought refuge at St. Augustine or in isolated spots around the state. Many tribes became extinct during this period and by the end of the 18th century. Some of the Apalachee eventually reached Louisiana, where they survived as a distinct group for at least another century. The Spanish evacuated the few surviving members of the Florida tribes to Cuba in 1763 when Spain transferred the territory of Florida to the British Empire following the latter's victory against France in the Seven Years' War. In the aftermath, the Seminole, originally an offshoot of the Creek people who absorbed other groups, developed as a distinct tribe in Florida during the 18th century through the process of ethnogenesis. They have three federally recognized tribes: the largest is the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, formed of descendants since removal in the 1830s; others are the smaller Seminole Tribe of Florida and the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida. Colonial battleground First Spanish rule (1513–1763) Juan Ponce de León, a famous Spanish conqueror and explorer, is usually given credit for being the first European to sight Florida in 1513, but he probably had predecessors. Florida and much of the nearby coast is depicted in the Cantino planisphere, an early world map which was surreptitiously copied in 1502 from the most current Portuguese sailing charts and smuggled into Italy a full decade before Ponce sailed north from Puerto Rico on his voyage of exploration. Ponce de León may not have even been the first Spaniard to go ashore in Florida; slave traders may have secretly raided native villages before Ponce arrived, as he encountered at least one indigenous tribesman who spoke Spanish. However, Ponce's 1513 expedition to Florida was the first open and official one. He also gave Florida its name, which means "full of flowers." Another dubious legend states that Ponce de León was searching for the Fountain of Youth on the island of Bimini, based on information from natives. On March 3, 1513, Juan Ponce de León organized and equipped three ships for an expedition departing from "Punta Aguada", Puerto Rico. The expedition included 200 people, including women and free blacks. Although it is often stated that he sighted the peninsula for the first time on March 27, 1513 and thought it was an island, he probably saw one of the Bahamas at that time. He went ashore on Florida's east coast during the Spanish Easter feast, Pascua Florida, on April 7 and named the land La Pascua de la Florida. After briefly exploring the land south of present-day St. Augustine, the expedition sailed south to the bottom of the Florida peninsula, through the Florida Keys, and up the west coast as far north as Charlotte Harbor, where they briefly skirmished with the Calusa before heading back to Puerto Rico. From 1513 onward, the land became known as La Florida. After 1630, and throughout the 18th century, Tegesta (after the Tequesta tribe) was an alternate name of choice for the Florida peninsula following publication of a map by the Dutch cartographer Hessel Gerritsz in Joannes de Laet's History of the New World. Further Spanish attempts to explore and colonize Florida were disastrous. Ponce de León returned to the Charlotte Harbor area in 1521 with equipment and settlers to start a colony, but was soon driven off by hostile Calusa, and de León died in Cuba from wounds received in the fighting. Pánfilo de Narváez's expedition explored Florida's west coast in 1528, but his violent demands for gold and food led to hostile relations with the Tocobaga and other native groups. Facing starvation and unable to find his support ships, Narváez attempted return to Mexico via rafts, but all were lost at sea and only four members of the expedition survived. Hernando de Soto landed in Florida in 1539 and began a multi-year trek through what is now the southeastern United States in which he found no gold but lost his life. In 1559 Tristán de Luna y Arellano established the first settlement in Pensacola but, after a violent hurricane destroyed the area, it was abandoned in 1561. The horse, which the natives had hunted to extinction 10,000 years ago, was reintroduced into North America by the European explorers, and into Florida in 1538. As the animals were lost or stolen, they began to become feral. In 1564, René Goulaine de Laudonnière founded Fort Caroline in what is now Jacksonville, as a haven for Huguenot Protestant refugees from religious persecution in France. Further down the coast, in 1565 Pedro Menéndez de Avilés founded San Agustín (St. Augustine) which is the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in any U.S. state. It is second oldest only to San Juan, Puerto Rico, in the United States' current territory. From this base of operations, the Spanish began building Catholic missions. All colonial cities were founded near the mouths of rivers. St. Augustine was founded where the Matanzas Inlet permitted access to the Matanzas River. Other cities were founded on the sea with similar inlets: Jacksonville, West Palm Beach, Fort Lauderdale, Miami, Pensacola, Tampa, Fort Myers, and others. On September 20, 1565, Menéndez de Avilés attacked Fort Caroline, killing most of the French Huguenot defenders. Two years later, Dominique de Gourgue recaptured the settlement for France, this time slaughtering the Spanish defenders. St. Augustine became the most important settlement in Florida. Little more than a fort, it was frequently attacked and burned, with most residents killed or fled. It was notably devastated in 1586, when English sea captain and sometime pirate Sir Francis Drake plundered and burned the city. Catholic missionaries used St. Augustine as a base of operations to establish over 100 far-flung missions throughout Florida. They converted 26,000 natives by 1655, but a revolt in 1656 and an epidemic in 1659 proved devastating. Pirate attacks and British raids were unrelenting, and the town was burned to the ground several times until Spain fortified it with the Castillo de San Marcos (1672) and Fort Matanzas (1742). Throughout the 17th century, English settlers in Virginia and Carolina gradually pushed the boundaries of Spanish territory south, while the French settlements along the Mississippi River encroached on the western borders of the Spanish claim. In 1702, Governor of Carolina James Moore and allied Yamasee and Creek Indians attacked and razed the town of St. Augustine, but they could not gain control of the fort. In 1704, Moore and his soldiers began burning Spanish missions in north Florida and executing Indians friendly with the Spanish. The collapse of the Spanish mission system and the defeat of the Spanish-allied Apalachee Indians (the Apalachee massacre) opened Florida up to slave raids, which reached to the Florida Keys and decimated the native population. The Yamasee War of 1715–1717 in the Carolinas resulted in numerous Indian refugees, such as the Yamasee, moving south to Florida. In 1719, the French captured the Spanish settlement at Pensacola. Fugitive slaves The border between the British colony of Georgia and Spanish Florida was never clearly defined, and was the subject of constant harassment in both directions, until it was ceded by Spain to the U.S. in 1821. The Spanish Crown, beginning with King Charles II in 1693, encouraged fugitive slaves from the British North American colonies to escape and offered them freedom and refuge if they converted to Catholicism. This was well known through word of mouth in the colonies of Georgia and South Carolina, and hundreds of enslaved African Americans escaped to their freedom. They settled in a buffer community north of St. Augustine, called Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose, the first settlement made of free blacks in North America. This infuriated colonists in the British North American colonies. The British and their colonies made war repeatedly against the Spanish, especially in 1702 and again in 1740, when a large force under James Oglethorpe sailed south from Georgia and besieged St. Augustine, but was unable to take the Castillo de San Marcos. Creek and Seminole Native Americans, who had established buffer settlements in Florida at the invitation of the Spanish government, also welcomed many of those slaves. In 1771, Governor John Moultrie wrote to the English Board of Trade that "it has been a practice for a good while past, for negroes to run away from their Masters, and get into the Indian towns, from whence it proved very difficult to get them back." When British officials pressed the Seminole to return runaway slaves, they replied that they had "merely given hungry people food, and invited the slaveholders to catch the runaways themselves." British rule (1763–1783) In 1763, Spain traded Florida to the Kingdom of Great Britain for control of Havana, Cuba, which had been captured by the British during the Seven Years' War. It was part of a large expansion of British territory following the country's victory in the Seven Years' War. Almost the entire Spanish population left, taking along most of the remaining indigenous population to Cuba. The British divided the territory into East Florida and West Florida. The British soon constructed the King's Road connecting St. Augustine to Georgia. The road crossed the St. Johns River at a narrow point, which the Seminole called Wacca Pilatka and the British named "Cow Ford", both names ostensibly reflecting the fact that cattle were brought across the river there. The British government gave land grants to officers and soldiers who had fought in the French and Indian War in order to encourage settlement. In order to induce settlers to move to the two new colonies reports of the natural wealth of Florida were published in England. A large number of British colonists who were "energetic and of good character" moved to Florida, mostly coming from South Carolina, Georgia and England, though there was also a group of settlers who came from the colony of Bermuda. This would be the first permanent English-speaking population in what is now Duval County, Baker County, St. Johns County, and Nassau County. The British built good public roads and introduced the cultivation of sugar cane, indigo, and fruits, as well the export of lumber. As a result of these initiatives northeastern Florida prospered economically in a way it never did under Spanish rule. Furthermore, the British governors were directed to call general assemblies as soon as possible in order to make laws for the Floridas and in the meantime they were, with the advice of councils, to establish courts. This would be the first introduction of much of the English-derived legal system which Florida still has today, including trial-by-jury, habeas corpus, and county-based government. A Scottish settler named Dr Andrew Turnbull transplanted around 1,500 indentured settlers, from Menorca, Majorca, Ibiza, Smyrna, Crete, Mani Peninsula, and Sicily, to grow hemp, sugarcane, indigo, and to produce rum. Settled at New Smyrna, within months the colony suffered major losses primarily due to insect-borne diseases and Native American raids. Most crops did not do well in the sandy Florida soil. Those that survived rarely equaled the quality produced in other colonies. The colonists tired of their servitude and Turnbull's rule. On several occasions, he used African slaves to whip his unruly settlers. The settlement collapsed and the survivors fled to safety with the British authorities in St. Augustine. Their descendants survive to this day, as does the name New Smyrna. In 1767, the British moved the northern boundary of West Florida to a line extending from the mouth of the Yazoo River east to the Chattahoochee River (32° 28′north latitude), consisting of approximately the lower third of the present states of Mississippi and Alabama. During this time, Creek Indians migrated into Florida and formed the Seminole tribe. Florida in the Revolutionary War When representatives from thirteen North American colonies declared independence from Great Britain in 1776, many Floridians condemned the action. East and West Florida were backwater outposts whose populations included a large percentage of British military personnel and their families. There was little trade in or out of the colonies, so they were largely unaffected by the Stamp Act Crisis of 1765 and other taxes and policies which brought other British colonies together in common interest against a shared threat. Thus, a majority of Florida residents were Loyalists, and both East and West Florida declined to send representatives to any sessions of the Continental Congress. During the American Revolutionary War, some Floridians actually helped lead raids into nearby states. Continental forces attempted to invade East Florida early in the conflict, but they were defeated on May 17, 1777 at the Battle of Thomas Creek in today's Nassau County when American Colonel John Baker surrendered to the British. Another American incursion into the same area was repelled at the Battle of Alligator Bridge on June 30, 1778. The two Floridas remained loyal to Great Britain throughout the war. However, Spain, participating indirectly in the war as an ally of France, captured Pensacola from the British in 1781. The Peace of Paris (1783) ended the Revolutionary War and returned all of Florida to Spanish control, but without specifying the boundaries. The Spanish wanted the expanded northern boundary Britain had made to West Florida, while the new United States demanded the old boundary at the 31st parallel north. This border controversy was resolved in the 1795 Treaty of San Lorenzo when Spain recognized the 31st parallel as the boundary. Departure of the British When the Floridas returned to Spain in 1783 there was a nearly complete exodus of the few English colonists and the many Tories who had fled there from the revolted colonies, and made East Florida more populous and prosperous than it ever was as a Spanish colony. Second Spanish rule (1783–1821) Spain's reoccupation of Florida involved the arrival of some officials and soldiers at St. Augustine and Pensacola but very few new settlers. Most British residents had departed, leaving much of the territory depopulated and unguarded. North Florida continued to be the home of the newly amalgamated black–native American Seminole culture and a haven for people escaping slavery in the southern United States. Settlers in southern Georgia demanded that Spain control the Seminole population and capture runaway slaves, to which Spain replied that the slave owners were welcome to recapture the runaways themselves. Americans began moving into northern Florida from the backwoods of Georgia and South Carolina. Though technically not allowed by the Spanish authorities, the Spanish were never able to effectively police the border region, and a mix of American settlers, escaped slaves, and Native Americans would continue to migrate into Florida unchecked. The American migrants, mixing with the few remaining settlers from Florida's British period, would be the progenitors of the population known as Florida Crackers. Republic of West Florida Ignoring Spanish territorial claims, American settlers, along with some remaining British settlers, established a permanent foothold in the western end of West Florida during the first decade of the 1800s. In the summer of 1810, they began planning a rebellion against Spanish rule which became open revolt in September. The rebels overcame the Spanish garrison at Baton Rouge and proclaimed the "Free and Independent Republic of West Florida" on September 23. (None of it was within what is today the state of Florida.) Their flag was the original "Bonnie Blue Flag", a single white star on a blue field. On October 27, 1810, most of the Republic of West Florida was annexed by proclamation of President James Madison, who claimed that the region was included in the Louisiana Purchase and incorporated it into the newly formed Territory of Orleans. Some leaders of the newly declared republic objected to the takeover, but all had deferred to arriving American troops by mid-December 1810. The Florida Parishes of the modern state of Louisiana include most of the territory claimed by the short-lived Republic of West Florida. Spain sided with Great Britain during the War of 1812, and the U.S. annexed the Mobile District of West Florida to the Mississippi Territory in May 1812. The surrender of Spanish forces at Mobile in April 1813 officially established American control over the area, which was eventually divided between the states of Alabama and Mississippi. Republic of East Florida In March 1812, Americans took control of Amelia Island on the Atlantic coast declared that they were a republic free from Spanish rule. The revolt was organized by General George Matthews of the U.S. Army, who had been authorized to secretly negotiate with the Spanish governor for American acquisition of East Florida. Instead, Matthews organized a group of frontiersmen in Georgia, who arrived at the Spanish town of Fernandina and demanded the surrender of all of Amelia Island. Upon declaring the island a republic, he led his volunteers along with a contingent of regular army troops south towards St. Augustine. Upon hearing of Matthews' actions, Congress became alarmed that he would provoke war with Spain, and Secretary of State James Monroe ordered Matthews to return all captured territory to Spanish authorities. After several months of negotiations on the withdrawal of the Americans and compensation for their foraging through the countryside, the countries came to an agreement, and Amelia Island was returned to the Spanish in May 1813. First Seminole War The unguarded Florida border was an increasing source of tension late in the second Spanish period. Seminoles based in East Florida had been accused of raiding Georgia settlements, and settlers were angered by the stream of slaves escaping into Florida, where they were welcomed. Negro Fort, an abandoned British fortification in the far west of the territory, was manned by both Indians and blacks. The United States Army would lead increasingly frequent incursions into Spanish territory, including the 1817–1818 campaign against the Seminole Indians by Andrew Jackson that became known later as the First Seminole War. Jackson took temporary control of Pensacola in 1818, and though he withdrew due to Spanish objections, the United States continued to effectively control much of West Florida. According to Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, this was necessary because Florida had become "a derelict open to the occupancy of every enemy, civilized or savage, of the United States, and serving no other earthly purpose than as a post of annoyance to them." End of Spanish control After Jackson's incursions, Spain decided that Florida had become too much of a burden, as it could not afford to send settlers or garrisons to properly occupy the land and was receiving very little revenue from the territory. Madrid therefore decided to cede Florida to the United States. The transfer was negotiated as part of the Adams–Onís Treaty, which also settled several boundary disputes between Spanish colonies and the U.S. in exchange for American payment of $5,000,000 in claims against the Spanish government. The treaty was signed in 1819 and took effect in 1821, and the United States formally took possession of Florida on July 17, 1821. Territory and statehood Florida Territory (1822–1845) Florida became an organized territory of the United States on March 30, 1822. The Americans merged East Florida and West Florida (although the majority of West Florida was annexed to Territory of Orleans and Mississippi Territory), and established a new capital in Tallahassee, conveniently located halfway between the East Florida capital of St. Augustine and the West Florida capital of Pensacola. The boundaries of Florida's first two counties, Escambia and St. Johns, approximately coincided with the boundaries of West and East Florida respectively. The free blacks and Indian slaves, Black Seminoles, living near St. Augustine, fled to Havana, Cuba to avoid coming under US control. Some Seminole also abandoned their settlements and moved further south. Hundreds of Black Seminoles and fugitive slaves escaped in the early nineteenth century from Cape Florida to The Bahamas, where they settled on Andros Island. As settlement increased, pressure grew on the United States government to remove the Indians from their lands in Florida. Many settlers in Florida developed plantation agriculture, similar to other areas of the Deep South. To the consternation of new landowners, the Seminoles harbored and integrated runaway blacks, and clashes between whites and Indians grew with the influx of new settlers. In 1832, the United States government signed the Treaty of Payne's Landing with some of the Seminole chiefs, promising them lands west of the Mississippi River if they agreed to leave Florida voluntarily. Many Seminoles left then, while those who remained prepared to defend their claims to the land. White settlers pressured the government to remove all of the Indians, by force if necessary, and in 1835, the U.S. Army arrived to enforce the treaty. The Second Seminole War began at the end of 1835 with the Dade Massacre, when Seminoles ambushed Army troops marching from Fort Brooke (Tampa) to reinforce Fort King (Ocala). They killed or mortally wounded all but one of the 110 troops. Between 900 and 1,500 Seminole warriors effectively employed guerrilla tactics against United States Army troops for seven years. Osceola, a charismatic young war leader, came to symbolize the war and the Seminoles after he was arrested by Brigadier General Joseph Marion Hernandez while negotiating under a white truce flag in October 1837, by order of General Thomas Jesup. First imprisoned at Fort Marion, he died of malaria at Fort Moultrie in South Carolina less than three months after his capture. The war ended in 1842. The U.S. government is estimated to have spent between $20 million ($ in dollars) and $40 million ($ in dollars) on the war; at the time, this was considered a large sum. Almost all of the Seminoles were forcibly exiled to Creek lands west of the Mississippi; several hundred remained in the Everglades. Statehood (1845) On March 3, 1845, Florida became the 27th state of the United States of America. Its first governor was William Dunn Moseley. Almost half the state's population were enslaved African Americans working on large cotton and sugar plantations, between the Apalachicola and Suwannee rivers in the north central part of the state. Like the people who owned them, many slaves had come from the coastal areas of Georgia and the Carolinas. They were part of the Gullah–Geechee culture of the Lowcountry. Others were enslaved African Americans from the upper South who had been sold to traders taking slaves to the deep South. In the 1850s, with the potential transfer of ownership of federal land to the state, including Seminole land, the federal government decided to convince the remaining Seminoles to emigrate. The Army reactivated Fort Harvie and renamed it to Fort Myers. Increased Army patrols led to hostilities, and eventually a Seminole attack on Fort Myers which killed two United States soldiers. The Third Seminole War lasted from 1855 to 1858 which ended with most of the remaining Seminoles, mostly women and children moving to Indian Territory. In 1859, another 75 Seminoles surrendered and were sent to the West, but a small number continued to live in the Everglades. On the eve of the Civil War, Florida had the smallest population of the Southern states. It was invested in plantation agriculture, which was dependent on the labor of enslaved African Americans. By 1860, Florida had 140,424 people, of whom 44% were enslaved and fewer than 1,000 were free people of color. Florida also had one of the highest per capita murder rates prior to the Civil War, thanks to a weakened central government, the institution of slavery, and a troubled political history. Civil War through late 19th century Following Abraham Lincoln's election in 1860, Florida joined other Southern states in seceding from the Union. Secession took place January 10, 1861, and after less than a month as an independent republic, Florida became one of the founding seven states of the Confederate States of America. During the Civil War, Florida was an important supply route for the Confederate Army. Therefore, Union forces operated a naval blockade around the entire state, and Union troops occupied major ports such as Cedar Key, Jacksonville, Key West, and Pensacola. Though numerous skirmishes occurred in Florida, including the Battle of Natural Bridge, the Battle of Marianna and the Battle of Gainesville, the only major battle was the Battle of Olustee near Lake City. Reconstruction era During the Reconstruction era that followed the Civil War, moderate Republicans took charge of the state, but they became deeply factionalized and lost public support. Florida was a peripheral region that attracted little outside attention. The state was thinly populated, had relatively few freedmen, had played no great role in the war and saw little violence, and increasingly became a haven for sunshine-hunting Northerners. The moderate regime plunged into complicated maneuvering and infighting. It drafted a conservative constitution. The extended contest between liberals and radicals inside the Republican Party alienated so many voters that the Democrats took power. They rigged elections, disenfranchised Black voters, and made the state a reliable part of the "Solid South". A state convention was held in 1868 to rewrite the constitution. After meeting the requirements of Congress, including ratification of the 13th and 14th Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, Florida was readmitted to the Union on June 25, 1868. This did not end the struggle for political power among groups in the state. Southern whites objected to freedmen's political participation and complained of illiterate representatives to the state legislature. But of the six members who could not read or write during the seven years of Republican rule, four were white. After Federal troops left the South in 1877, conservative white Democrats engaged in voter suppression and intimidation, regaining control of the state legislature. This was accomplished partly through violent actions by white paramilitary groups targeting freedmen and their allies to discourage them from voting. Disfranchisement From 1885 to 1889, after regaining power, the white-dominated state legislature passed statutes to impose poll taxes and other barriers to voter registration and voting, in order to eliminate voting by blacks and poor whites. These two groups had threatened white Democratic power with a populist coalition. As these groups were stripped from voter rolls, white Democrats established power in a one-party state, as happened across the South. In this period, white violence rose against blacks, particularly in the form of lynchings, which reached a peak around the turn of the century. The Great Freeze of 1894-5 ruined citrus crops, which had a detrimental ripple effect on the economy of Central Florida in particular. By 1900 the state's African Americans numbered more than 200,000, roughly 44 percent of the total population. This was the same proportion as before the Civil War, and they were effectively disenfranchised. Not being able to vote meant they could not sit on juries, and were not elected to local, state or federal offices. They also were not recruited for law enforcement or other government positions. After the end of Reconstruction, the Florida legislature passed Jim Crow laws establishing racial segregation in public facilities and transportation. Separate railroad cars or sections of cars for different races were required beginning in 1887. Separate waiting rooms at railroad stations were required beginning in 1909. Without political representation, African Americans found that their facilities were underfunded and they were pushed into a second-class position. For more than six decades, white Democrats controlled virtually all the state's seats in Congress, which were apportioned based on the total population of the state rather than only the whites who voted. Since 1900 In 1900, Florida was largely agricultural and frontier; most Floridians lived within 50 miles of the Georgia border. The population grew from 529,000 in 1900 to 18.3 million in 2009. The population explosion began with the great land boom of the 1920s as Florida became a destination for vacationers and a southern land speculator's paradise. People from throughout the Southeast migrated to Florida during this time, creating a larger southern culture in the central part of the state, and expanding the existing one in the northern region. By 1920, Florida had the highest rate of lynchings per capita, although the overall total had declined. Violence of whites against blacks continued into the post-World War II period, and there were lynchings and riots in several small towns in the early 1920s. Florida had the only recorded lynching in 1945, in October after the war's end, when a black man was killed after being falsely accused of assaulting a girl. In the 1920s, many developers invested in land in the southern part of the State in areas such as Miami, and Palm Beach attracting more people in the Southern States. When the Crash came in 1929, prices of houses plunged, but the sunshine remained. Hurt badly by the Great Depression and the land bust, Florida, along with many other States, kept afloat with federal relief money under the Franklin D. Roosevelt Administration. After World War II, the state would grow dramatically going from having a population of 2.7 million in 1950 to 16 million by 2000. It would go from being the 27th most populated state in 1940 to being the 4th by 2000. Florida's strong population growth would follow other states in the southern and western United States. It would follow the same trend as many residents moving to the state were from the Midwest and Northeastern US. Many new residents in Florida were elderly and as a result the average age in Florida would increase from 28.8 in 1950 to 39.3 by 2000. Technological reasons behind Florida's growth included air conditioning and DDT. Race relations After World War I, there was a rise in lynchings and other racial violence directed by whites against blacks in the state, as well as across the South. It was due in part from strains of rapid social and economic changes, as well as competition for jobs, and lingering resentment resulting from the Reconstruction after the Civil War, as well as tensions among both black and white populations created by the return of black veterans. Whites continued to resort to lynchings to keep dominance, and tensions rose. Florida led the South and the nation in lynchings per capita from 1900 to 1930. A second incarnation of the Ku Klux Klan, from WWI until 1925, encouraged suppression of blacks and other minorities. White mobs committed massacres, accompanied by wholesale destruction of black houses, churches, and schools, in the small communities of Ocoee, November 1920; Perry in December 1922; and Rosewood in January 1923. The governor appointed a special grand jury and special prosecuting attorney to investigate Rosewood and Levy County, but the jury did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute. Rosewood was never resettled. To escape segregation, lynchings, and civil rights suppression, 40,000 African Americans migrated from Florida to northern cities in the Great Migration from 1910 to 1940. That was one-fifth of their population in 1900. They sought better lives, including decent-paying jobs, better education for their children, and the chance to vote and participate in political life. Many were recruited for jobs with the Pennsylvania Railroad. Boom of 1920s The 1920s were a prosperous time for much of the nation, including Florida. The state's new railroads opened up large areas to development, spurring the Florida land boom of the 1920s. Investors of all kinds, many from outside Florida, raced to buy and sell rapidly appreciating land in newly platted communities such as Miami and Palm Beach. Led by entrepreneurs Carl Fisher and George Merrick, Miami was transformed by land speculation and ambitious building projects into an emerging metropolis. A growing awareness in the areas surrounding Florida, along with the Northeast about the attractive south Florida winter climate, along with local promotion of speculative investing, spurred the boom. A majority of the people who bought land in Florida hired intermediaries to accomplish the transactions. By 1924, the main issues in state elections were how to attract more industry and the need to build and maintain good roads for tourists. During the time frame, the population grew from less than one million in 1920, to 1,263,540 in 1925. By 1925, the market ran out of buyers to pay the high prices, and soon the boom became a bust. The 1926 Miami Hurricane, which nearly destroyed the city further depressed the real estate market. In 1928 another hurricane struck Southern Florida. The 1928 Okeechobee hurricane made landfall near Palm Beach, severely damaging the local infrastructure. In townships near Lake Okeechobee, the storm breached a dike separating the water from land, creating a storm surge that killed over 2,000 people and destroying the towns of Belle Glade and Pahokee. Tourists continued to arrive in Florida by train. The introduction of the automobile resulted in an increased number traveling on sometimes macadamized, sometimes dirt roads. The destination was usually Miami or Miami Beach. Roadside attractions included orange shops and alligator wrestling. Tourism was confined to the winter months. Summers were uncomfortably hot for visitors. Prohibition Prohibition had been popular in north Florida, but was opposed in the rest of the south, which became a haven for speakeasies and rum-runners in the 1920s. During 1928–32 a broad coalition of judges, lawyers, politicians, journalists, brewers, hoteliers, retailers, and ordinary Floridians organized to try to repeal the ban on alcohol. When the federal government legalized near beer and light wine in 1933, the wet coalition launched a successful campaign to legalize these beverages at the state level. Floridians subsequently joined in the national campaign to repeal the 18th Amendment, which succeeded in December 1933. The following November, state voters repealed Florida's constitutional ban on liquor and gave local governments the power to legalize or outlaw alcoholic beverages. Great Depression The Great Depression began with the Stock Market crash of 1929. By that time, the economy had already declined in much of Florida from the collapse three years earlier of the land boom. During the late 1920s and early 1930s Florida would face a variety of problems with some of them stemming from the collapse of the Florida Land Boom and the Great Depression. Two hurricanes with one occurring in 1926 and another in 1928 would hurt the state further economically. The state government would be in debt which was then a violation of Florida's Constitution and over 150 municipalities would also be in debt as they had defaulted on there municipal bonds which had mainly been issued as a way to pay for infrastructure during the Florida land boom. Many property owners often owned taxes to local governments which further worsened the situation. A separate issue would be with Florida's virgin timber crop being virtually cut down by the 1930s. During the New Deal (1933–40) a variety of projects would be built by the Works Progress Administration (WPA). There would be work camps for the young men of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). Apart from the New Deal being implemented, Florida would see David Sholtz become elected as Governor in 1932. As governor, he would manage to implement social welfare programs while simultaneously expanding the amount of tax revenue received by the state government and getting it out of debt. He would also be strongly aligned with President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and was a personal friend of his. Toward the end of Sholtz's tenure his reputation among Floridians which was previously positive would decline as his ethics became questioned. As a result Fred P. Cone would become elected as governor in 1936. While being governor he would be incredibly hands-off and had a fiscally conservative approach. From 1930 to 1935, college students selected Fort Lauderdale, Daytona Beach, and Panama City Beach as great places to take a spring break and party. The 1960s film Where the Boys Are increased attendance in Fort Lauderdale to 50,000 annually. When this figure increased to 250,000 in 1985, the city began to pass laws restricting student activities. As a result, students moved to Daytona Beach from 1980–1990s. The figure for Fort Lauderdale dropped to 20,000; 350,000 visited Daytona Beach. Daytona Beach passed laws constraining underage drinking. Students then began patronizing Panama City, where 500,000 visited in 2013. Florida legalized gambling in 1931 allowing a Parimutuel betting establishment. By 2014, there were 30 such establishments, generating $200 million in state taxes and fees. Anticipating war, the Army and Navy decided to use the state as a primary training area. The Navy chose the coastal areas, the Army, the inland areas. In 1940, the population was about 1.5 million. Average annual income was $308 ($ in dollars). World War II and the development of the space industry In the years leading up to World War II, 100 ships were sunk off the coast of Florida. More ships sank after the country entered the war. About 248,000 Floridians served in the war. Around 50,000 of these were African Americans. The state became a major hub for the United States Armed Forces. Naval Air Station Pensacola was originally established as a naval station in 1826 and became the first American naval aviation facility in 1917. The entire nation mobilized for World War II and many bases, especially air bases, were established in Florida, to include: Naval Air Station Whiting Field Naval Air Station Ellyson Field Tyndall Field Dale Mabry Army Airfield Naval Air Station Jacksonville Naval Station Mayport Naval Air Station Cecil Field Camp Blanding Naval Air Station Daytona Beach Naval Air Station DeLand Naval Air Station Sanford Orlando Army Air Base Pinecastle Army Airfield Kissimmee Army Airfield Naval Air Station Banana River Naval Air Station Melbourne Lakeland Army Airfield Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale Naval Air Station Miami Naval Air Station Richmond Page Field Army Airfield Naval Air Station Key West Naval Station Key West Homestead Army Air Field Numerous others were also established that exist today as military installations/facilities, civilian airports, or other facilities under different names. Present day Eglin Air Force Base, Hurlburt Field, and MacDill Air Force Base (now the home of U.S. Central Command and U.S. Special Operations Command) were also developed as U.S. Army Air Forces installations during this time. During the Cold War, Florida's coastal access and proximity to Cuba encouraged the development of these and other military facilities. Since the end of the Cold War, the military has closed some facilities, including major bases such as NAS Sanford, McCoy AFB, NAS Cecil Field, and NTC Orlando, and realigned others such as Homestead AFB being transferred to the Air Force Reserve Command and realigned as Homestead Air Reserve Base, or NAS Saufley Field realigned as NETPDC Saufley Field, but their presence is still significant in the state and local economies. Apart from military bases, Florida would also be home to 22 prisoner of war camps. Starting in May 1943, the Allied powers would sent captured Nazi soldiers to the United States with about of 10,000 of them going to 22 camps in Florida. Many of these camps would be located in or near military bases. The population increased by 46% during the 1940s. Because of Cape Canaveral's relative closeness to the equator, compared to other potential locations, it was chosen in 1949 as a test site for the country's nascent missile program. Patrick Space Force Base and the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station launch site began to take shape as the 1950s progressed. By the early 1960s, the Space Race was in full swing. As programs were expanded and employees joined, the space program generated a huge boom in the communities around Cape Canaveral. This area is now collectively known as the Space Coast and features the Kennedy Space Center. It is also a major center of the aerospace industry. To date, all manned orbital spaceflights launched by the United States, including the only men to visit the Moon, have been launched from Kennedy Space Center. Migrations and the civil rights movement Florida's population mix has changed. After World War II, Florida was transformed as the development of air conditioning and the Interstate highway system encouraged migration by residents of the North and Midwest. Prior to development, Florida salt marshes were capable of producing large numbers of mosquitoes. The salt marsh mosquito does not lay its eggs in standing water, preferring moist sand or mud instead. Biologists learned to control them by "source reduction", the process of removing the moist sand needed by the mosquitoes to breed. To achieve this goal, large sections of coastal marshes were either ditched or diked to remove the moist sand that the mosquitoes required to lay eggs on. Together with chemical controls, it yielded a qualified success. In 1950, Florida was ranked twentieth among the states in population; 50 years later it was ranked fourth, and 14 years later was number three. Due to low tax rates and warm climate, Florida became the destination for many retirees from the Northeast, Midwest and Canada. The Cuban Revolution of 1959 resulted in a large wave of Cuban immigration into South Florida, which transformed Miami into a major center of commerce, finance and transportation for all of Latin America. Emigration from Haiti, other Caribbean states, and Central and South America continues to the present day. Like other states in the South, Florida had many African-American leaders who were active in the civil rights movement. In the 1940s and '50s, a new generation started working on issues, emboldened by veterans who had fought during World War II and wanted to gain more civil rights. Harry T. Moore built the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Florida, rapidly increasing its membership to 10,000. Because Florida's voter laws were not as restrictive as those of Georgia and Alabama, he had some success in registering black voters. In the 1940s he increased voter registration among blacks from 5 to 31% of those age-eligible. But the state had white groups who resisted change, to the point of attacking and killing blacks. In December 1951 whites bombed the house of activists Harry Moore and his wife Harriette, who both died of injuries from the blast. Although their murders were not solved then, a state investigation in 2006 reported they had been killed by an independent unit of the Ku Klux Klan. Numerous bombings were directed against African Americans in 1951–1952 in Florida. In the early postwar period, the state's population had changed markedly by migration of new groups, as well as emigration of African Americans, 40,000 of whom moved north in earlier decades of the 20th century during the Great Migration. By 1960 the number of African Americans in Florida had increased to 880,186, but declined proportionally to 18% of the state's population. This was a much smaller proportion than in 1900, when the census showed they comprised 44% of the state's population, while numbering 231,209 persons. 2000 presidential election controversy Florida became the battleground of the controversial 2000 US presidential election which took place on November 7, 2000. The count of the popular votes was extremely close, triggering automatic recounts. These recounts triggered accusations of fraud and manipulation, and brought to light voting irregularities in the state. Subsequent recount efforts degenerated into arguments over mispunched ballots, "hanging chads", and controversial decisions by Florida secretary of state Katherine Harris and the Florida Supreme Court. Ultimately, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Bush v. Gore to end all recounts, allowing Harris to certify the election results. The final official Florida count gave the victory to George W. Bush over Al Gore by 537 votes, a 0.009% margin of difference. The process was extremely divisive, and led to calls for electoral reform in Florida. Florida has the strictest laws penalizing and disenfranchising felons and other criminals, even if they have served their sentences. Together with other penalties, it excluded many minorities who may have voted for the Democratic candidate. Everglades, hurricanes, drilling and the environment Long-term scientific attention has focused on the fragility of the Everglades. In 2000 Congress authorized the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) at $8 billion. The goals are to restore the health of the Everglades ecosystem and maximize the value to people of its land, water, and soil., Hurricane Andrew in August 1992 struck Homestead, just south of Miami, as a Category 5 hurricane, leaving forty people dead, 100,000 homes damaged or destroyed, more than a million people left without electricity, and damages of $20–30 billion. Much of South Florida's sensitive vegetation was severely damaged. The region had not seen a storm of such power in decades. Besides heavy property damage, the hurricane nearly destroyed the region's insurance industry. The western panhandle was damaged heavily in 1995, with hurricanes Allison, Erin, and Opal hitting the area within the span of a few months. The storms increased in strength during the season, culminating with Opal's landfall as a Category 3 in October. Florida also suffered heavily during the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season, when four major storms struck the state. Hurricane Charley made landfall in Charlotte County area and cut northward through the peninsula, Hurricane Frances struck the Atlantic coast and drenched most of central Florida with heavy rains, Hurricane Ivan caused heavy damage in the western Panhandle, and Hurricane Jeanne caused damage to the same area as Frances, including compounded beach erosion. Damage from all four storms was estimated to be at least $22 billion, with some estimates going as high as $40 billion. In 2005, South Florida was struck, by Hurricanes Katrina and Wilma. The panhandle was struck by Hurricane Dennis. Florida has historically been at risk from hurricanes and tropical storms. These have resulted in higher risks and property damage as the concentration of population and development has increased along Florida's coastal areas. Not only are more people and property at risk, but development has overtaken the natural system of wetlands and waterways, which used to absorb some of the storms' energy and excess waters. Environmental issues include preservation and restoration of the Everglades, which has moved slowly. There has been pressure by industry groups to drill for oil in the eastern Gulf of Mexico but so far, large-scale drilling off the coasts of Florida has been prevented. The federal government declared the state an agricultural disaster area because of 13 straight days of freezing weather during the growing season in January 2010. Oranges have been grown and sold in Florida since 1872. Production dropped 59% from the 2008–9 season to the 2016–7 season. The decline was mostly due to canker, citrus greening disease, and hurricane damage. Fishing In 2009–2010, "there were hardly any fish off Florida...they are finding fish all over Florida" in 2016. The federal government believes this is due to federal restraints on fishing. Infrastructure Consistent with usage throughout the country, more than 51% of homes in Florida in 2015 use mobile phones or wireless only. Tourism During the late 19th century, Florida became a popular tourist destination as Henry Flagler's railroads expanded into the area. In 1891, railroad magnate Henry Plant built the luxurious Tampa Bay Hotel in Tampa; the hotel was later adapted for use as the campus for the University of Tampa. Flagler built the Florida East Coast Railway from Jacksonville to Key West. Along the route he provided grand accommodations for passengers, including the Ponce de Leon Hotel in St. Augustine, the Ormond Hotel in Ormond Beach, the Royal Poinciana Hotel and the Breakers Hotel in Palm Beach, and the Royal Palm Hotel in Miami. In February 1888, Florida had a special tourist: President Grover Cleveland, the first lady, and his party visited Florida for a couple of days. He visited the Subtropical Exposition in Jacksonville, where he made a speech supporting tourism to the state; he took a train to St. Augustine, meeting Henry Flagler; and a train to Titusville, where he boarded a steamboat and visited Rockledge. On his return trip, he visited Sanford and Winter Park. Flagler's railroad connected cities on the east coast of Florida. This created more urbanization along that corridor. Development also followed the construction of Turnpikes I-95 in east Florida, and I-75 in west Florida. These routes aided tourism and urbanization. Northerners from the East Coast used I-95 and tended to settle along that route. People from the MidWest tended to use I-75, and settled along the west coast of Florida. Theme parks Florida's first theme parks were developed in the 1930s and included Cypress Gardens (1936) near Winter Haven, and Marineland (1938) near St. Augustine. Disney World Disney selected Orlando over several other sites for an updated and expanded version of their Disneyland Park in California. In 1971, the Magic Kingdom, the first component of the resort, opened and became Florida's best-known attraction, attracting tens of millions of visitors a year. It stimulated the development of other attractions, as well as large tracts of housing and related businesses. The Orlando area became an international resort and convention destination, featuring a wide variety of themed parks. Other area theme parks include Universal Orlando Resort and SeaWorld. Boating In 2017, 50,000 vessels were damaged by Hurricane Irma. This resulted in about $500 million worth of damage, predominately in the Florida Keys. See also Florida Historical Society History of the Southern United States Indigenous people of the Everglades region List of Royal Governors of La Florida Maritime History of Florida Museum of Florida History State Library and Archives of Florida T. T. Wentworth Jr. Florida State Museum Time Capsules in Florida Women's suffrage in Florida History of places in Florida History of Brevard County, Florida History of Florida State University History of Fort Lauderdale, Florida History of Jacksonville, Florida History of Miami, Florida Timeline of Orlando, Florida History of Pensacola, Florida History of Sarasota, Florida History of St. Petersburg, Florida History of Tampa, Florida History of Tallahassee, Florida History of the University of Florida History of West Palm Beach, Florida History of Ybor City Notes References - Total pages: 294 Gallay, Alan. The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670–1717. Yale University Press. 2002. . Milanich, Jerald T. Florida's Indians From Ancient Time to the Present. University Press of Florida. 1998. Milanich, Jerald T. Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe. University Press of Florida. 1995. Purdy, Barbara A. Florida's People During the Last Ice Age. University Press of Florida. 2008. - Total pages: 521 Further reading Surveys Burnett, Gene M. Florida's Past: People and Events That Shaped the State. Pineapple Press: 1998. . Colburn, David R. and deHaven-Smith, Lance. Government in the Sunshine State: Florida since Statehood. (1999). 168 pp. Colburn, David R. and Landers, Jane L., eds. The African American Heritage of Florida. (1995). 392 pp. Fernald, Edward A. and Purdum, Elizabeth, eds. Atlas of Florida. (1992). 280 pp. Gannon, Michael. The New History of Florida. University Press of Florida: 1996. . 480pp Gannon, Michael. Florida: A Short History (2003) 192 pages George, Paul S., ed. A Guide to the History of Florida. (1989). 300 pp. Manley, Walter W., II and Brown, Canter Jr., eds. The Supreme Court of Florida, 1917–1972 (2007) Mormino, Gary R. Land of Sunshine, State of Dreams: A Social History of Modern Florida (2006) Indians and colonial Brown, Robin C. Florida's First People: 12,000 Years of Human History. Pineapple Press: 1994. . Henderson, Ann L., and Gary R. Mormino. Spanish Pathways in Florida: 1492–1992. Pineapple Press: 1991. . Landers, Jane. Black Society in Spanish Florida. University of Illinois Press: 1999. Milanich, Jerald T. Florida's Indians from Ancient Times to the Present. (1998). 224 pp. Murphree, Daniel S. Constructing Floridians: Natives and Europeans in the Colonial Floridas, 1513–1783 (2007) To 1900 Baptist, Edward E. Creating an Old South: Middle Florida's Plantation Frontier before the Civil War. (2002) 408 pp. online review Brown, Canter, Jr. Ossian Bingley Hart: Florida's Loyalist Reconstruction Governor. (1997). 320 pp. on reconstruction Hoffman, Paul E. Florida's Frontiers. (History of the Trans-Appalachian Frontier series.) (2002). 470 pp. Klingman, Peter D. "Race and Faction in the Public Career of Florida's Josiah T. Walls." in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era (1982). 59–78. Klingman, Peter D. Josiah Walls: Florida's Black Congressman of Reconstruction (1976). Kokomoor, Kevin. "A Re-assessment of Seminoles, Africans, and Slavery on the Florida Frontier", Florida Historical Quarterly, Fall 2009, Vol. 88 Issue 2, pp 209–236 Nulty, William H. Confederate Florida: The Road to Olustee. (1990). Revels, Tracy J. Grander in Her Daughters: Florida's Women during the Civil War. (2004) 221 pp. online review Richardson, Joe M. "Jonathan C. Gibbs: Florida's Only Negro Cabinet Member." Florida Historical Quarterly 42.4 (1964): 363–368. in JSTOR Rivers, Larry Eugene. Slavery in Florida: Territorial Days to Emancipation. (2000). 369 pp. online review Rivers, Larry Eugene, and Brown, Canter, Jr. Laborers in the Vineyard of the Lord: The Beginnings of the AME Church in Florida, 1865–1895. (2001). 244 pp. history of the leading black denomination; online review Brown, Canter Jr. and Larry Eugene Rivers. For a Great and Grand Purpose: The Beginnings of the AMEZ Church in Florida, 1864–1905.(2004) 268ppl the other large black church online review Sprague, John T. The Florida War. (1964), on Seminole war 597 pp. Taylor, Robert A. Rebel Storehouse: Florida in the Confederate Economy. (1995). 218 pp. online review 20th century Akin, Edward N. Flagler: Rockefeller Partner and Florida Baron. (1988). 305 pp. Colburn, David R. and deHaven-Smith, Lance. Florida's Megatrends: Critical Issues in Florida. (2002). 161 pp. online review Colburn, David R. From Yellow Dog Democrats to Red State Republicans: Florida and Its Politics since 1940. (2007) 272pp online review Colburn, David R. and Scher, Richard K. Florida's Gubernatorial Politics in the Twentieth Century. (1980). 342 pp. Kleinberg, Eliot. War in Paradise: Stories of World War II in Florida. (1999). 96pp. Klingman, Peter D. Neither Dies nor Surrenders: A History of the Republican Party in Florida, 1867–1970. (1984). 233 pp. Manley, Walter W., II and Canter Brown. The Supreme Court of Florida, 1917–1972. (2006). 428 pp. online review Newton, Michael. The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Florida. (2001). 260 pp. Mormino, Gary. Land of Sunshine, State of Dreams: A Social History of Modern Florida. (2005) 474 pp. online review Peirce, Neal R. The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States. 1974 Rowe, Anne E. The Idea of Florida in the American Literary Imagination. (1986). 159 pp. Stuart, John A., and John F. Stack, eds. The New Deal in South Florida: Design, Policy, and Community Building, 1933–1940. 263 pp. online review Vickers, Raymond B. Panic in Paradise: Florida's Banking Crash of 1926. (1994). 336 pp. Wagy, Tom R. Governor LeRoy Collins of Florida: Spokesman of the New South. (1985). 264 pp. Democratic governor 1955–61 Regions, social and economic history Carlson, Amanda B., and Robin Poynor, eds. Africa in Florida: Five Hundred Years of African Presence in the Sunshine State (University Press of Florida, 2014) 462 pp. heavily illustrated. Drobney, Jeffrey. Lumbermen and Log Sawyers: Life, Labor, and Culture in the North Florida Timber Industry, 1830–1930. (1997). 241 pp. Faherty, William Barnaby Florida's Space Coast: The Impact of NASA on the Sunshine State. (2002) 224pp online review Grant, Roger H. Rails through the Wiregrass: A History of the Georgia & Florida Railroad (2007) Hann, John H. Apalachee: The Land between the Rivers. (1988). 450 pp. Hollander, Gail M. Raising Cane in the 'Glades: The Global Sugar Trade and the Transformation of Florida (2007) McNally, Michael J. Catholic Parish Life on Florida's West Coast, 1860–1968. (1996). 503 pp. Middleton, Sallie. "Space Rush: Local Impact of Federal Aerospace Programs on Brevard and Surrounding Counties", Florida Historical Quarterly, Fall 2008, Vol. 87 Issue 2, pp 258–289 Mormino, Gary R. Land of Sunshine, State of Dreams: A Social History of Modern Florida (2006) Otis, Katherine Ann. "Everything Old Is New Again: A Social and Cultural History of Life on the Retirement Frontier, 1950–2000" PhD dissertation; Dissertation Abstracts International, 2008, Vol. 69 Issue 4, p 1513–1513 Stronge, William B. The Sunshine Economy: An Economic History of Florida since the Civil War (2008) Turner, Gregg M. A Journey into Florida Railroad History (2008) Environment Barnes, Jay. Florida's Hurricane History. (1998). 330 pp. Barnett, Cynthia. Mirage: Florida and the Vanishing Water of the Eastern U.S. (2007). 240 pp. online review Grunwald, Michael, "Swamped: Harry Truman, South Florida, and the Changing Political Geography of American Conservation", in The Environmental Legacy of Harry S. Truman, ed. Karl Boyd Brooks, pp 75–88. (Kirksville: Truman State University Press, 2009) . xxxvi, 145 pp.  Kendrick, Baynard. A History of Florida Forests (2 vol 2007) McCally, David. The Everglades: An Environmental History. (1999). 215 pp. Miller, James J. An Environmental History of Northeast Florida. (1998). 223 pp. Ogden, Laura. "The Everglades Ecosystem and the Politics of Nature", American Anthropologist, March 2008, Vol. 110 Issue 1, pp 21–32 Poole, Leslie Kemp. Saving Florida: Women's Fight for the Environment in the Twentieth Century (University Press of Florida, 2015). x, 274 pp. Williams, John M. and Duedall, Iver W. Florida Hurricanes and Tropical Storms, 1871–2001. (2002). 176 pp. online review Primary sources Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell, and James David Glunt, eds. Florida Plantation Records: From the Papers of George Noble Jones. (University Press of Florida, 2006). 596 pp. ; Originally published in 1927. Romans, Bernard. A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida. ed. by Kathryn E. Holland Braund, (1999). 442 pp. online review travel in 1770s External links Florida Bureau of Archeological Research Florida Memory over 500,000 photographs and documents from the State Archives of Florida. Boston Public Library, Map Center. Maps of Florida, various dates. "Map of the Peninsula of Florida" from ca. 1639 via the World Digital Library A History of Central Florida Podcast Florida Digital Newspaper Library hosted at the George A. Smathers Libraries at the University of Florida P. K. Yonge Library of Florida History Florida Florida

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1912%20Summer%20Olympics

1912 Summer Olympics

The 1912 Summer Olympics (), officially known as the Games of the V Olympiad () and commonly known as Stockholm 1912, were an international multi-sport event held in Stockholm, Sweden, between 5 May and 22 July 1912. Twenty-eight nations and 2,408 competitors, including 48 women, competed in 102 events in 14 sports. With the exception of tennis (starting on 5 May) and football and shooting (both starting on 29 June), the games were held within a month with an official opening on 6 July. It was the last Olympics to issue solid gold medals and, with Japan's debut, the first time an Asian nation participated. Stockholm was the only bid for the games, and was selected in 1909. The games were the first to have art competitions, women's diving, women's swimming, and the first to feature both the decathlon and the new pentathlon, both won by Jim Thorpe. Electric timing was introduced in athletics, while the host country disallowed boxing. Figure skating was rejected by the organizers because they wanted to promote the Nordic Games. United States won the most gold medals (25), while Sweden won the most medals overall (65). These were the final Olympic Games for 8 years due to the disruption of the First World War. The next Olympic Games were held in 1920 (the Summer in Antwerp). Host selection Following the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, the authorities in Sweden immediately sought to ensure that the next games would be held there. There were two Swedish members of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) at the time, Viktor Balck and Clarence von Rosen. The pair proposed to the Swedish governing bodies of athletics and gymnastics in order to ensure that they backed any potential bid. Support was given by the national associations on 18 April 1909 for a bid to host the Olympics in Stockholm on the basis that suitable financial arrangements could be made. King Gustaf V was petitioned on 6 May 1909 following the publication of preliminary plans for the Stockholm bid that the expected cost of hosting the Games would be 415,000 kronor (£23,050 or $115,250). The Government accepted the petition on behalf of the King and supported the bid. On 28 May, at the meeting of the IOC in Berlin, the Swedish representatives declared that they had full financial support for hosting the next Games in Stockholm. A deal was made with the German IOC representative on the basis that Berlin would host the 1916 Summer Olympics. Pierre de Coubertin spoke at the meeting about his concerns that Sweden should ensure that the Games take place, as he did not want a repeat of the problems with Italy hosting the 1908 Games. He also expressed a desire that "the Games must be kept more purely athletic; they must be more dignified, more discreet; more in accordance with classic and artistic requirements; more intimate, and, above all, less expensive." The Games were duly awarded to Sweden to host in Stockholm as the only nominated host city for the 1912 Summer Olympics. Organization The news that Stockholm was to host the 1912 Olympics was received with enthusiasm by the Swedish public. The organizing committee took de Coubertin's words to heart, and aimed to achieve an Olympic Games which removed those elements which detracted from earlier Games. The committee was elected in the autumn of 1909, with Balck voted as the President of the committee, and Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf selected as Honorary President. The committee's first meeting took place on 7 October, and on 11 October they delegated the arrangements for the individual branches of sports to the relevant governing bodies in Sweden. There were four exceptions to this, with the game shooting, modern pentathlon and mountain ascents retained by the Olympic committee, and the horse riding competitions being organized by Prince Carl, Duke of Västergötland, who was the inspector of the Swedish cavalry. Altogether there were 187 members of these committees. The official invitation to compete in the Games was issued on 18 November 1910 to 27 countries, either directly or through their representative on the IOC. A further 15 countries were to have been invited, but as they had no IOC representatives, the Swedish authorities were unsure how to proceed. Once the organizing committee for the Games received confirmation of the athletic associations in each of the 15 countries, they too were sent invitations. Some 61,800 entry forms were printed for the use of the various nations. Free transport was arranged for the invited nations' equipment, and a discount of 50 percent was arranged for competitors and delegates on the state run railway. A daily newspaper which only covered the Olympics was arranged to be published during the Games, in both English and Swedish. Further arrangements were made for the general arrival of visitors in order to entertain them whilst they were not at the Games; a pleasure garden was opened north of the Olympic Stadium, and a series of indoor tennis courts were converted into a restaurant. Venues Twelve sports venues were used in the 1912 Summer Olympics. This marked the first time that more than one venue would be used for the football tournament, which has been the case ever since. Stockholm Olympic Stadium served as one of the equestrian venues for the 1956 Summer Olympics. Råsunda Stadium served as a venue for the 1958 FIFA World Cup and the 1995 FIFA Women's World Cup. In the initial bid document it was identified that a new stadium would be needed, initially envisaged as being located in the Östermalm Athletic Grounds. In order to save funds, it was expected that only one of the stadium's stands would be permanent, with the other three made of wood and dismantled following the Games. The cost of that stadium was estimated at 235,000 Kronor. Arrangements were made with the individual national committees to provide the use of Östermalm Athletic Grounds and Traneberg. The cycling road race was held around Mälaren, the third largest lake in Sweden. The water events, including the swimming and the rowing, were held at Djurgårdsbrunnsviken, where a stadium was built. Kaknäs was already used as a shooting range, but alterations were needed to accommodate shooting events. Although it was not used as the Olympic stadium as originally intended, Östermalm hosted the lawn tennis and fencing competitions after a tennis pavilion was moved there from another location. Five other locations were considered in addition to the Östermalm Athletic Grounds to locate the Olympic Stadium. The Stockholm Olympic Stadium was built on the site of the former Stockholm Athletic Grounds in order to retain the other locations for other uses during the Games. By placing it to the north of the city, the Olympic Stadium was within the immediate vicinity of other pre-existing sporting venues. Initial funding was given to the sum of 400,000 Kr for a timber stadium but Torben Grut, the architect, also drew up alternative plans for a stone stadium. Following discussions with the Swedish Central Association for the Application of Athletics, it was decided that the stone version should be built, and further funds were made available through a national lottery once guarantees were made that no further funding was to be asked for in order to build the stadium. However it was found that the original estimate for the stone stadium would still be too expensive, and the plans were once more modified in order to simplify the design and reduce costs. An agreement was entered into with a contractor on 2 November 1910 that it would be transferred complete by 25 May 1912. Opening ceremony The Games of the V Olympiad were opened on 6 July 1912. The Swedish Royal Family left Stockholm Palace at 10:40am, and were received at the Olympic Stadium by members of the IOC. Three thousand competing athletes had already assembled in the nearby Östermalm Athletic Grounds, and began to enter the stadium in alphabetical order by nation according to the Swedish spelling. The Swedish team entered last, but unlike the later tradition, the Greek team did not enter first. A hymn was sung, a traditional Swedish chant was conducted and prayers were read first in Swedish and then in English. Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf addressed the King on behalf of the Swedish Olympic Association. King Gustav V then declared the Games officially open by a long speech: Afterwards a trumpet fanfare was played and the Crown Prince called for cheers for the King. The athletes in their national groups marching out of the stadium in order ended the ceremony. Events The Swedish delegation at the IOC meeting in Berlin on 28 May 1909 had proposed a simple Olympic schedule containing only "pure" athletics, swimming, gymnastics and wrestling. However other countries requested that the schedule be more comprehensive, and with that in mind they put forward a further programme at the IOC meeting in 1911 which was met with approval. The sports which were added were the tug of war, cycling, fencing, football, horse riding, lawn tennis, rowing, shooting, skating and yacht racing. The question of adding skating to the programme was discussed once more on 7 February 1910, with the decision being made to drop it from the schedule. It was felt to be unsuitable because it was a winter sport, and it was to be part of the Nordic Games the following year. Boxing was removed from the programme as it was unappealing to the Swedes. Art competitions were considered at a further meeting on 14 February 1910, and were subsequently added to the programme, but now art competitions are no longer regarded as official Olympic events by the International Olympic Committee. As a result, now the 1912 Summer Olympics programme considered composed of 14 sports encompassing 18 disciplines and 102 events. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses. Athletics The athletic events saw the introduction of a fully automatic timing system developed by R. Carlstedt. It involved attaching electromagnets to chronometers in a system which attached a control lamp to the starting gun for each race. This resulted in the firing of the gun starting a timer which was then stopped by one of the judges at the finishing line. The final of the men's 100 metres was expected to be a mostly American affair, and it ended up with six athletes, only one of whom was not from the United States. It suffered from seven false starts before the athletes finally got away, with Ralph Craig winning the gold medal by in front of second place Alvah Meyer. Donald Lippincott won bronze, 15 cm behind second man. Kanakuri Shizō, a Japanese marathon runner, went missing during the race. He lost consciousness by heatstroke and a farming family helped him to stop at a party taking place in a villa on the marathon route in order to quench his thirst, then caught a train to Stockholm and left the country the next day. He returned to Japan without notifying race officials. 50 years later, after being invited back by the Swedish authorities, he completed the race with an (unofficial) time of 54 years, 8 months, 6 days, 8 hours, 32 minutes and 20.3 seconds. Portuguese Francisco Lázaro died from heat exhaustion while running the marathon, the only athlete to die during the running of an Olympic marathon. American Jim Thorpe won the pentathlon and the newly created decathlon. Thorpe's gold medals were stripped by the International Olympic Committee in 1913, after the IOC learned that Thorpe had taken expense money for playing baseball, violating Olympic amateurism rules, before the 1912 Games. This moved everyone else up in the rankings. In 1982, the IOC was convinced that the disqualification had been improper, as no protest against Thorpe's eligibility had been brought within the required 30 days, and reinstated Thorpe's medals. The replicas were presented to his children in 1983, 30 years after Thorpe's death. New Olympic records were set in the majority of track and field events, with only the men's 200 metres, 10 km walk, standing high jump, standing broad jump, hop, step and jump, and the hurdle competitions failing to have new records set. Tell Berna captured a gold for the 3000m and Henry S. "Harry" Babcock took gold for the pole vault, setting an Olympic Record at 3.95m. Hannes Kolehmainen was the most successful in setting records at the games, with new Olympic Records set in the 5,000, 10,000 metre and cross country races. Cycling The cycling events at the 1912 Games were limited to a road race around Lake Mälaren, which had already been a successful route for a yearly cycling race. Although not originally in the schedule, several countries requested that track cycling be added; however, the organizing committee stuck by their plans not to build a new track cycling stadium as the only one in Stockholm had been destroyed in order for the Olympic Stadium to be built. In addition, Germany had specifically requested Cycle-Polo and Figure-Cycling to be added to the programme, both of which requests were turned down by the committee. It was decided to hold the road race as a time trial, and to outlaw any non-competitive cyclists acting as pacemakers. Nineteen nations entered 151 athletes into the competition, which was a greater number than expected by the committee. The largest group was from Great Britain, who had entered twelve competitors from England, another twelve from Scotland, and a further nine from Ireland. The race began on 7 July, with the athletes leaving in groups. The first group left at 2am, with the remaining groups leaving at intervals of two minutes. The distance raced was , with South African Rudolph Lewis winning the gold medal in the individual race. Frederick Grubb of Great Britain won the silver medal, and Carl Schutte of the United States won the bronze. However, the average positions of the Swedish team were better than their competitors', and so the Swedish team won the gold medal for the team competition. The silver and bronze medals followed the individual victories, going to Great Britain and the United States respectively – giving Grubb and Schutte a second medal each of the same varieties. Diving All of the medals in the men's competitions were split between the diving teams of the Swedish and German teams. The men's high dive was a Swedish white out, with Swedish divers taking all three medal positions. Erik Adlerz took the gold medal, and proceeded to take the gold medal for Sweden in the 10 metre platform too. Albert Zürner took the silver for Germany, and Gustaf Blomgren won the bronze medal for Sweden. Another white out occurred in the 3 metre springboard with all three medals going to the German team, with Paul Günther taking gold, Hans Luber in the silver medal position and Kurt Behrens in bronze. A 10-metre platform event also took place for women, with Sweden taking two more medals, Greta Johansson in gold and Lisa Regnell in silver. Great Britain's Isabelle White won the bronze medal. The remaining finalists were all from Sweden. Equestrian Equestrian made its first appearance at a modern Olympics in the 1912 Games. Although competitions involving horse riding had been included in the programme of 1900, this was the first appearance of modern Olympic staples such as dressage, eventing and show jumping. It was expected that the competitors would be military personnel as they would have had the cavalry experience to compete. The competition was split between the military competitions, prize riding and prize jumping. In the military competition, seven countries put forward competitors for the individual and team eventing. Each nation put forward four athletes with the exception of Denmark, which only put forward three. Some of the countries also nominated reserves in addition to their main athletes. The total length of the course was with the start and finish both in the grounds of the Field Riding Club. The heat was such on the day of the event that competitors lost as much as in weight. Swede Axel Nordlander won the individual competition, and led the Swedish eventing team to victory as well, earning himself two gold medals. In second place in the individual competition was German Friedrich von Rochow, who also earned a second silver medal as the team from Germany placed second overall. Only the bronze medals were split up between nationalities, with the American team taking the bronze for the team event while Frenchman Jacques Cariou won the individual medal. Two additional countries entered for the dressage, although only Sweden entered the maximum number of competitors. The event resulted in Sweden taking all three medals, with the gold going to Carl Bonde, the silver to Gustaf Adolf Boltenstern and the bronze to Hans von Blixen-Finecke. The individual show jumping competition was the only individual equestrian event at the 1912 Olympics in which Sweden won no medals, with the gold medal instead going to Cariou of the French to add to his bronze medal from the dressage, Rabod von Kröcher taking the silver for Germany, and Emmanuel de Blommaert winning the bronze for Belgium. The team event saw Sweden take another gold medal, with the French team second and the German team, featuring Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia, in the bronze medal position. Fencing The foil competition became a full Olympic event, having appeared at the 1908 Games as a demonstration sport. Nedo Nadi and Pietro Speciale of Italy took the gold and silver medals respectively, and Richard Verderber of Austria placed third. There were individual and team events in both épée and sabre. The épée team event saw Belgium take the gold medal and Great Britain and the Netherlands in second and third place respectively. A member of the Belgian team went on to take the individual title as well, with Paul Anspach taking the gold medal. Ivan Joseph Martin Osiier of Denmark took the silver medal, and another Belgian who was not in the team event, Philippe le Hardy de Beaulieu, won the bronze medal. The sabre competition was dominated by the competitors from Hungary, with their team taking the gold medal over Austria and the Netherlands. The individual competition saw a shut out by Hungarian athletes with Jenő Fuchs winning the overall competition, Béla Békessy in second and Ervin Mészáros in third. Football Thirteen countries signalled their intention to enter football teams for the 1912 Olympics. A standard cup tie system was implemented, with the final deciding the gold and silver medallists and a third/fourth position playoff deciding the bronze medal winner. Only FIFA affiliated teams were allowed to take part, with the public draw for the tournament taking place on 18 June 1911. The tournament itself started on 29 June. In the first round Finland defeated Italy 3–2, Austria beat Germany 5–1 and the Netherlands emerged victorious over Sweden 4–3. The team from Great Britain, who had won the gold medal at the 1908 Summer Games, were given a bye to the second round, where they faced Hungary and won 7–0. Finland also won their match, defeating Russia 2–1. Denmark matched the British scoreline, winning 7–0 against Norway, and the Netherlands won against Austria 3–1. The semi final matches pitted Great Britain against Finland, where they won 4–0, and Denmark against the Netherlands, ending in a 4–1 victory for Denmark. The Netherlands won the third/fourth place playoff by the biggest scoreline of the tournament, beating Finland 9–0. Later on the same day the final was played in the Olympic Stadium, where Great Britain retained its gold medal against Denmark in front of 25,000 spectators. Goals from Harold Walden, Arthur Berry and two from Gordon Hoare helped Britain to win by a margin of 4–2. Gymnastics The gymnastic competition at the 1912 Games featured a single individual competition and three team events in addition to a variety of displays by the various teams. The Swedish team naturally won the Gymnastics event of the Swedish system, referred to in the programme as "Team Competition I", with fellow Scandinavian teams Denmark and Norway taking the second and third positions. The all around team competition came second, with Italy taking the gold. In addition, one of the Italian team members, Alberto Braglia, won the individual gold for the same event. Louis Ségura of the French team won the individual silver, while another member of the Italian team, Adolfo Tunesi, won the individual bronze. The all around team competition saw Hungary take the silver medal and the team from Great Britain in third place. The final team competition allowed for a free choice of movements and apparatus. This was another all Scandinavian affair, with the Norwegian team emerging victorious, Finland in second and Denmark in the bronze medal position. Modern pentathlon Modern pentathlon was competed for at the 1912 Games, marking its first appearance in the Olympics. It was for these games that the five events of shooting, swimming, equestrian, fencing and cross country running were decided to make up the pentathlon. The competition was spread out across five days from 7 through to 12 July, ending with the cross country race. Only men participated in the event, although a woman named Helen Preece was briefly enrolled to compete until the organizing committee ultimately denied her entry. For the shooting element, each competitor was allowed to bring their own pistol. The American competitor George S. Patton (later better known as the Second World War US Army General) used a Colt revolver, while the Danish competitors preferred the Danish Army service pistol, the Germans and Norwegians used the Luger P08 pistol and the Swedes used a target practice pistol by Smith & Wesson. The shooting part of the competition was won by Gösta Åsbrink, with Georg de Laval and Gösta Lilliehöök in second and third place respectively, all three representing Sweden. The swimming event was three lengths, each of , with the athletes split into eight heats and times going forward to calculate positions. Ralph Clilverd of Great Britain won this event, with Edmond Bernhardt of Austria in second and de Laval in third. The fencing competition saw each competitor face off against each other. Several opponents were noted for their particular skill in the event with Åke Grönhagen of Sweden coming first with 24 wins, Jean de Mas Latrie of France second with 23, Sidney Stranne of Sweden in third with 21 and Patton of the United States close behind with 20. Thirteen of the competitors cleared the equestrian course without any penalties, with Grönhagen winning the event, Bror Mannström of Sweden in second and de Laval third. The cross country run was over 4,000 metres and started in the Olympic Stadium itself. The event was run as a time trial with competitors leaving one minute apart. As this was the final event, the winning competitors were announced after the race, with Lilliehöök winning the gold medal, Åsbrink taking silver and de Laval, bronze. The highest placed non-Swedish competitor was Patton, who finished fifth. Rowing The rowing events at the 1912 Olympics did not prove popular with the public. This was put down to the "fatigue" of the public due to the volume of sporting events. The eight competition was split into heats, with two teams in each heat. The two British crews were lucky not to be drawn against each other, with the team from Leander Club facing New College, Oxford in the final. Leander won by a length with a time of 6:15. The coxed four followed a similar format to the eights, with the German team from Ludwigshafener Ruderverein defeating Britain's Thames Rowing Club in the final. The competition for the coxed four, inriggers was much smaller, with only four nations competing. The Danish team defeated Sweden in the final. The single sculls heats proved controversial with the first round race between Mart Kuusik and Alfred Heinrich being re-run after a protest by Heinrich. In addition, Cecil McVilly was disqualified in the first round after colliding with the boat of Martin Stahnke. Wally Kinnear of Great Britain defeated Polydore Veirman of Belgium in the final, with Kinnear winning the matchup easily. Sailing The yachts for the sailing competition assembled at Nynäshamn on 19 July, along with the other vessels that were to take part in an Olympic regatta. The racing itself started the following day with the 12 metre class. There were only three nations and yachts competing in this event, the hosts Sweden, as well as Norway and Finland. Norway won the gold medal, Sweden the silver and Finland came in last place, winning bronze. The 10 metre class had the same number of countries entering it, although this time Sweden entered two yachts and Russia competed instead of Norway. The Swedish yacht Kitty was the winning vessel, with the Finnish boat in second and the Russians coming third. A slightly improved field was featured in the 8 metre class, with four countries entering two yachts each. The medals were awarded to exactly the same nations as the 12 metre class, another all Scandinavian affair. The 6 metre class saw the most diverse field of any of the sailing events at the 1912 Olympics: six countries entered a total of nine yachts. France and Denmark competed in their only sailing event, along with Sweden, sending two yachts each. Those three nations were the successful in the event, with the French yacht Mac Miche taking the gold, the Danish Nurdug II taking silver and the Swedish Kerstin placing third. Shooting There were eighteen shooting events at the 1912 Olympics, of which eight were team events. The competition was split predominantly into three sections: military rifle shooting, shooting with miniature rifles, pistols and revolvers, and clay bird and running deer shooting. The Swedish and American competitors were the most successful at the competition, with seven gold medals each, although Sweden won a total of seventeen medals while the United States team won fourteen. 64-year-old Oscar Swahn, part of the Swedish single shot running deer team, is still the oldest gold medal winner in Olympic history. Swimming In swimming, Hawaiian Duke Kahanamoku won the 100 metre freestyle for the United States, who also saw Harry Hebner win gold in the 100 metre backstroke. The Canadian team also took two gold medals, both by George Hodgson in the 400 and 1,500 metre events. The German swimming team won all three medals in the 200 metre breaststroke, with the gold going to Walter Bathe, who won a further gold in the 400 metre breaststroke. The Australasian team was victorious in the men's relay, with the United States finishing in the silver medal position and Great Britain placing third. The 1912 Games saw the implementation of swimming events for women, with the 100 metre freestyle and 400 metre team relay taking place. Fanny Durack won the individual contest, breaking the world record for the distance in the fourth heat. Her fellow Australian Mina Wylie won the silver medal, and Jennie Fletcher of Great Britain came third to take the bronze medal. The British team had further success in the women's relay, winning the team relay with the German team in second place and the Austrian team in third. Because only four countries entered the relay there were no heats; only a final was held. The United States did not field a women's team. Eight years later in Antwerp the American women would compete for the first time and sweep 7 out of 7 available medals. In 1924, the United States would enter the largest women's team of any nation. New Olympic Records were set in all swimming events at the 1912 Games. Tennis Tennis on covered courts was agreed initially for the 1912 Games, with competitions run for gentlemen's singles and doubles, ladies' singles, and mixed doubles. The outdoor tournament was confirmed once the Östermalm Athletic Grounds were completed in late 1911, with the plans modified to have both indoor and outdoor tournaments. Six countries sent players for the covered court competitions, with representatives from Sweden, Great Britain, Denmark, France, Australasia, and Bohemia appearing. Included in this lineup was Australasia's only competitor, Anthony Wilding from New Zealand, who was also the reigning Wimbledon gentlemen's champion. The indoor knockout competition started on 5 May, and continued as expected until the semi-final round where Wilding was beaten by Britain's Charles P. Dixon. The British player met Frenchman André Gobert in the final, but Gobert was victorious over the Englishman in straight sets. Wilding took the bronze medal in a playoff against another British player, Arthur Lowe. The outdoors tennis competition saw 70 players enter from 12 nations. However, Great Britain did not enter any competitors as the dates of the outdoor competition clashed with the 1912 Wimbledon Championships, despite attempts by the British authorities to convince the Olympic organizing committee to change the dates. Other noted tennis players refused to compete at the Olympics and instead attended Wimbledon. The gold and silver medals in the gentlemen's singles ended up being decided between two South Africans, with Charles Winslow and Harold Kitson playing each other. Winslow won the match and the gold medal, 7–5, 4–6, 10–8, 8–6. The duo also competed as a pair in the gentlemen's doubles and took the gold medal, beating the Austrians Felix Pipes and Arthur Zborzil. Marguerite Broquedis of France defeated Dorothea Koring of Germany in the ladies' singles for the gold medal. In the mixed doubles Koring teamed up with Heinrich Schomburgk to win the gold, the duo defeating Sigrid Fick and Gunnar Setterwall of Sweden in the final. Tug of war The tug of war competition was scheduled to take place between 7 and 12 July, with two matches taking place each day. However, out of the five countries which elected to enter the competition, only two actually appeared. Great Britain arrived for its match against Bohemia, but the opposition team was nowhere to be found. Britain was duly declared the winner. The same thing happened once more for the second match, with the Swedish team, made up of policemen from Stockholm, arriving to find that the Austrian team had not arrived. Sweden was announced as the winners of the match in the Austrians' absence. On the second day of the competition, Great Britain took on Sweden, the only occasion where both teams actually turned up for the bout. The British team were made up of the winners of the gold medal in the same event at the 1908 Games, with the exception of John Sewell and Mathias Hynes. As the British team also consisted of policemen, the bout ended up effectively being between the City of London Police and the Stockholm Police, with the Swedish team winning 2–0. Due to the non-appearance of the team from Luxembourg, that one match ended up being the entire tug of war event at the 1912 Olympics. Sweden was awarded the gold medal and Great Britain the silver. Water polo The water polo tournament was set up on a modified elimination system as there were six teams entered. The first round saw the British team defeating the Belgian team, Sweden defeating the French team and Austria defeating Hungary. Lots were drawn to determine which match would take place in the second round as there were three teams left in the competition. Great Britain were drawn to face Sweden, who they defeated. Austria automatically qualified for the final against the winner of the Britain-Sweden matchup. Great Britain won the gold medal in the event, defeating Austria 8–0. Playoff matches were then played between each pair of defeated teams in order to decide the second and third places. Sweden and Belgium played off after a further three matches to decide the silver and bronze medal positions, with Sweden emerging victorious 4–2. Wrestling The nations at the 1912 Games entered a total of 267 wrestlers, although the actual competitors who appeared in Sweden were fewer, with 171 actually turning up to compete. Greco-Roman wrestling was the only style of wrestling competed for at the Games. The bouts took place in the open air in an area of the Olympic stadium, with the wrestlers split according to weight into five divisions: featherweight, lightweight, middleweight A (later referred to as middleweight), middleweight B (later referred to as light heavyweight) and heavyweight. The skills of the competitors from Finland were noted in the featherweight competition, with Kaarlo Koskelo taking the gold medal, while German Georg Gerstäcker took silver and a further medal went to Finland with Otto Lasanen taking bronze. The lightweight class drew the most attention from the public, with Emil Väre winning gold after beating all of his opponents by pin rather than by points. Swedish wrestlers Gustaf Malmström and Edvin Mattiasson took the silver and bronze medals respectively. Claes Johanson won Sweden's only gold medal in the light heavyweight competition, with his fellow finalist from Russia, Martin Klein, retiring before fighting Johanson in the final. This was due to the semi final match between Klein and Alfred Asikainen of Finland lasting 11 hours and forty minutes, although they took breaks for refreshments every half-hour. Klein was awarded the silver medal and Asikainen the bronze. The light heavyweight competition saw another marathon length match, with the bout between Anders Ahlgren of Sweden and Ivar Böhling of Finland for the gold medal lasting more than nine hours. The match was then declared a draw with both athletes being awarded the silver medal as neither won the match. The bronze medal went to Hungary's Béla Varga, who was defeated by Ahlgren in the semi final match. Yrjö Saarela of Finland was victorious in the heavyweight competition after having placed second in the light heavyweight event at the 1908 Games. Johan Olin took another medal for Finland with the silver and Søren Marinus Jensen repeated his bronze medal at the 1908 Olympics with another for Denmark. Art competitions The 1912 Summer Olympics saw the introduction of art competitions at the Summer Olympics. Events were implemented for literature, sculpture, painting, architecture and music. Walter Winans won the gold medal for his sculpture, An American Trotter, which added to his previous gold medal for the running deer (double shot) competition at the 1908 Olympics and the silver medal in the running deer competition in 1912. Baron Pierre de Coubertin, President of the IOC and founder of the modern Olympic movement, won the gold medal for literature. He actually entered the competition under the pseudonyms of Georges Hohrod and Martin Eschbach from Germany. With the exception of the sculpture competition, only gold medals were issued. Italian Riccardo Barthelemy won the medal for music with his Olympic Triumphal March, and fellow countryman Giovanni Pellegrini won the gold for painting. The Swiss architects Eugène-Edouard Monod and Alphonse Laverrière shared the gold for their stadium design. The sole silver medal, for sculpture, went to Frenchman Georges Dubois for his Model of the entrance to a modern stadium. Demonstration sports In the evening of 7 July, demonstrations took place in the Olympic Stadium of sports from the Swedish island of Gotland. These began at 7:30pm with a demonstration of Pärk, a type of tennis with seven players a side. At the same time, at the other end of the stadium, a type of Icelandic wrestling called Glima was demonstrated. Once those displays had concluded, further demonstrations were made of the Swedish sport varpa, similar to quoits, and stångstörtning, a version of the caber toss. Baseball was also demonstrated at the Games. A game was played between the United States, the nation where the game was developed, and Sweden, the host nation. The game was held on Monday, 15 July 1912 and started at 10 a.m. on the Ostermalm Athletic Grounds in Stockholm. The Americans were represented by various members of the American Olympic track and field athletics delegation, while the Swedish team was the Vesterås Baseball Club, which had been formed in 1910 as the first baseball club in Sweden. Four of the Americans played for Sweden, as the Swedish pitchers and catchers were inexperienced. One Swede eventually relieved Adams and Nelson, the American pitchers. Six innings were played, with the Americans not batting in the sixth and allowing the Swedes to have six outs in their half of the inning. The game was umpired by George Wright, a retired American National League baseball player. Participating nations Twenty-eight nations competed at the 1912 Games. Egypt participated for the first time, as did Iceland, Portugal, and Serbia. Japan also made their Olympic debut, marking the first appearance of an Asian country at an Olympic Games. Chile made its first appearance as a national team, with fourteen athletes attending the Games, although it had previously entered one individual at the 1896 Games. This was also the first time that athletes from Armenia had competed in the Olympics, as part of the team from Turkey (the officially recognised name for the Ottoman Empire). Serbia's appearance was the only time it attended an Olympic Games as an independent nation until the 2008 Summer Olympics, almost one hundred years later. This was the last Olympics that allowed "private entries", i.e. individual athletes that were not part of a country's officially selected team. Arnold Jackson was one such private entry; he won the 1500 metres by 0.1 seconds, ahead of an American trio, in what was acclaimed at the time to be "the greatest race ever run". His medal is still credited to the United Kingdom, however. Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees Medal count These are the top 10 nations that won medals at the 1912 Games. The medals themselves included solid gold medals, the last time these were given out. See also References External links International sports competitions in Stockholm Summer Olympics Olympic Games in Sweden 1910s in Stockholm Multi-sport events in Sweden Summer Olympics Summer Olympics by year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoodoo%20%28spirituality%29

Hoodoo (spirituality)

Hoodoo is a set of spiritual practices, traditions, and beliefs which was created and concealed from slaveholders by enslaved Africans in North America. Hoodoo evolved from various traditional African religions and practices, and in the American South, incorporated various elements of indigenous botanical knowledge. Hoodoo is an African diaspora tradition created during the time of slavery in the United States, and is an esoteric system of African-American occultism. Many of the practices are similar to other African Diaspora traditions as the practices come from the Bakongo people in Central Africa. During the transatlantic slave trade, about 40 percent of Africans taken to the United States were Bantu-Kongo. Hoodoo is a syncretic spiritual system that combines Christianity that was forced on enslaved Africans, Islam brought over by enslaved West African Muslims, and Spiritualism. This tradition is part of the African-American cultural heritage of spirituality and religion. Following the Great Migration of African-Americans, Hoodoo spread throughout the United States. Practitioners of Hoodoo are called rootworkers, conjure doctors, conjure man or conjure woman, root doctors, Hoodoo doctors, and swampers. Regional synonyms for hoodoo include conjure or rootwork. Etymology The first documentation of the word Hoodoo in the English language appeared in 1870. Its origins are obscure but it's believed to originate as an alteration of the word voodoo – a word that has its origin in the Ewe and Fon languages of Ghana and Benin – referring to divinity. The Akan word odu meaning medicine is also considered to be a possible etymological origin. Another probable etymology is the Hausa word hu'du'ba which means resentment and retribution. Another possible etymological origin of the word hoodoo comes from the word Hudu which comes from the Ewe language spoken in the West African countries of Ghana and Togo. The word Hudu means spirit work. The Oxford English Dictionary cited the Sunday Appeal's definition of Hoodoo as an African dialect with practices similar to the mysteries of Obi (Obeah) in the Caribbean. Origins Background Approximately over 12 million enslaved Africans from various ethnic groups were transported to the Americas from the 16th to 19th centuries (1514 to 1867) as part of the transatlantic slave trade. The transatlantic slave trade to the United States occurred between 1619 and 1808, and the illegal slave trade in the United States occurred between 1808 and 1860. Between 1619 and 1860 approximately 500,000 enslaved Africans were transported to the United States. The ethnic groups brought to the United States during the years of the slave trade were Kongo, Igbo, Akan, Mandé, Yoruba, Fon, Ewe, and Fulbe, among many others. After the arrival of diverse African ethnic groups to the United States, Hoodoo was created by enslaved African Americans for their spiritual survival as a form of resistance against slavery. "Because the African American community did not have the same medical or psychological aids as the European American society, its members were forced to rely on each other for survival." As a result, free and enslaved African Americans relied on Hoodoo for their protection. Diverse African ethnic groups from West and Central Africa all worked on the same plantations. These diverse African ethnic groups in the United States over time merged into one larger ethnic group called African-Americans who are the creators of Hoodoo. The practice of Hoodoo unified enslaved Africans of diverse origin in America. Despite this ethnic diversity on American plantations, West and Central Africans all brought from Africa their own forms of conjure that developed into the practice known as Hoodoo; what united them was their use of conjure for liberation. For example, the practice of the ring shout in Hoodoo unified diverse African ethnic groups on slave plantations. Counterclockwise circle dancing was (and is) practiced in Central and West Africa to communicate with the ancestors and for spirit possession. Enslaved Africans in the United States united under the ring shout, and this unity of diverse Africans in America created an African American identity. Moreover, author Tony Kail conducted research in African American communities in Memphis, Tennessee and traced the origins of Hoodoo practices to West and Central Africa. In Memphis, Kail interviewed Black rootworkers and wrote about African American Hoodoo practices and history in his book A Secret History of Memphis Hoodoo. For example, Kail recorded at former slave plantations in the American South, "The beliefs and practices of African traditional religions survived the Middle Passage (the Transatlantic slave trade) and were preserved among the many rootworkers and healers throughout the South. Many of them served as healers, counselors and pharmacists to slaves enduring the hardships of slavery." Sterling Stuckey was a professor of American history who specialized in the study of American slavery and African-American slave culture and history in the United States, asserted that African culture in America developed into a unique African-American spiritual and religious practice that was the foundation for conjure, black theology, and liberation movements. Stuckey provides examples in slave narratives, African-American quilts, Black churches, and the continued cultural practices of African Americans. Central African influence The Bantu-Kongo origins in Hoodoo practice are evident. According to academic research, about 40 percent of Africans shipped to the United States during the slave trade came from Central Africa's Kongo region. Emory University created an online database that shows the voyages of the trans-atlantic slave trade. This database shows many slave ships primarily leaving Central Africa. Ancient Kongolese spiritual beliefs and practices are present in Hoodoo such as the Kongo cosmogram. The basic form of the Kongo cosmogram is a simple cross (＋) with one line. The Kongo cosmogram symbolizes the rising of the sun in the east and the setting of the sun in the west, and represents cosmic energies. The horizontal line in the Kongo cosmogram represents the boundary between the physical world (realm of the living) and the spiritual world (realm of the ancestors). The vertical line of the cosmogram is the path of spiritual power from God at the top traveling to the realm of the dead below where the ancestors reside. The cosmogram, or dikenga, however, is not a unitary symbol like a Christian cross or a national flag. The physical world resides at the top of cosmogram and the spiritual (ancestral) world resides at the bottom of the cosmogram. At the horizonal line is a watery divide that separates the two worlds from the physical and spiritual, and thus the "element" of water has a role in African American spirituality. The Kongo cosmogram cross symbol has a physical form in Hoodoo called the crossroads where Hoodoo rituals are performed to communicate with spirits, and to leave ritual remains to remove a curse. The Kongo cosmogram is also called the Bakongo cosmogram and the "Yowa" cross. The crossroads is spiritual (a supernatural crossroads) that symbolizes communication between the worlds of the living and the world of the ancestors that is divided at the horizontal line. Counterclockwise sacred circle dances in Hoodoo are performed to communicate with ancestral spirits using the sign of the Yowa cross. Communication with the ancestors is a traditional practice in Hoodoo that was brought to the United States during the slave trade originating among Bantu-Kongo people. In Savannah, Georgia in a historic African American church called the First African Baptist Church, the Kongo cosmogram symbol was found in the basement of the church. African Americans punctured holes in the basement floor of the church to make a diamond shaped Kongo cosmogram for prayer and meditation. The church was also a stop on the Underground Railroad. The holes in the floor provided breathable air for escaped slaves hiding in the basement of the church. In an African American church in the Eastern Shore of Virginia, Kongo cosmograms were designed into the window frames of the church. The church was built facing an axis of an east-west direction so the sun rises directly over the church steeple in the east. The burial grounds of the church also show continued African American burial practices of placing mirrorlike objects on top of graves. The Kongo cosmogram sun cycle also influenced how African Americans in Georgia prayed. It was recorded that some African Americans in Georgia prayed at the rising and setting of the sun. On another plantation in Maryland archeologists unearthed artifacts that showed a blend of Central African and Christian spiritual practices among enslaved people. This was Ezekial's Wheel in the bible that blended with the Central African Kongo cosmogram. The Kongo cosmogram is a cross (+) sometimes enclosed in a circle that resembles the Christian cross. This may explain the connection enslaved Black Americans had with the Christian symbol the cross as it resembled their African symbol. The cosmogram represents the universe and how human souls travel in the spiritual realm after death entering into the ancestral realm and reincarnating back into the family. Also, the Kongo cosmogram is evident in hoodoo practice among Black Americans. Archeologists unearthed on a former slave plantation in South Carolina clay bowls made by enslaved Africans that had the Kongo cosmogram engraved onto the clay bowls. These clay bowls were used by African Americans for ritual purposes. The Kongo cosmogram symbolizes the birth, life, death and rebirth cycle of the human soul, and harmony with the universe. The Ring shout in Hoodoo has its origins from the Kongo region with the Kongo cosmogram (Yowa Cross) and ring shouters dance in a counterclockwise direction that follows the pattern of the rising of the sun in the east and the setting of the sun in the west, and the ring shout follows the cyclical nature of life represented in the Kongo cosmogram of birth, life, death, and rebirth. Through counterclockwise circle dancing, ring shouters built up spiritual energy that resulted in the communication with ancestral spirits, and led to spirit possession. Enslaved African Americans performed the counterclockwise circle dance until someone was pulled into the center of the ring by the spiritual vortex at the center. The spiritual vortex at the center of the ring shout was a sacred spiritual realm. The center of the ring shout is where the ancestors and the Holy Spirit reside at the center. The ring shout tradition continues in Georgia with the McIntosh County Shouters. In 1998, in a historic house in Annapolis, Maryland called the Brice House archeologists unearthed Hoodoo artifacts inside the house that linked to Central Africa's Kongo people. These artifacts are the continued practice of the Kongo's Minkisi and Nkisi culture in the United States brought over by enslaved Africans. For example, archeologists found artifacts used by enslaved African Americans to control spirits by housing spirits inside caches or bundles called Nkisi. These spirits inside objects were placed in secret locations to protect an area or bring harm to slaveholders. The artifacts uncovered at the James Brice House were Kongo cosmogram engravings drawn as crossroads (an X) inside the house. This was done to ward a place from a harsh slaveholder. Nkisi bundles were found in other plantations in Virginia and Maryland. For example, Nkisi bundles were found for the purpose of healing or misfortune. Archeologists found objects believed by the enslaved African American population in Virginia and Maryland to have spiritual power, such as coins, crystals, roots, fingernail clippings, crab claws, beads, iron, bones, and other items that were assembled together inside a bundle to conjure a specific result for either protection or healing. These items were hidden inside enslaved peoples dwellings. These practices were held in secret away from slaveholders. In Kings County in Brooklyn, New York at the Lott Farmstead Kongo related artifacts were found on the site. The Kongo related artifacts were a Kongo cosmogram engraved onto ceramics and Nkisi bundles that had cemetery dirt and iron nails left by enslaved African Americans. The iron nails researchers suggests were used to prevent whippings from slaveholders. Also, the Kongo cosmogram engravings were used as a crossroads for spiritual rituals by the enslaved African American population in Kings County. Historians suggests Lott Farmstead was a stop on the Underground Railroad for freedom seekers (runaway slaves). The Kongo cosmogram artifacts were used as a form of spiritual protection against slavery and for enslaved peoples protection during their escape from slavery on the Underground Railroad. In Darrow, Louisiana at the Ashland-Belle Helene Plantation historians and archeologists unearthed Kongo and West-Central African practices inside slave cabins. Enslaved Africans in Louisiana conjured the spirits of Kongo ancestors and water spirits by using sea shells. Other charms were found in several slave cabins, such as silver coins, beads, polished stones, bones, and were made into necklaces or worn in their pockets for protection. These artifacts provided examples of African rituals at Ashland Plantation. Slaveholders tried to stop African practices among their slaves, but enslaved African Americans disguised their rituals by using American materials and applying an African interpretation to them and hiding the charms in their pockets and making them into necklaces concealing these practices from their slaveholders. In Talbot County, Maryland at the Wye House plantation where Frederick Douglass was enslaved in his youth, Kongo related artifacts were found. Enslaved African Americans created items to ward off evil spirits by creating a Hoodoo bundle near the entrances to chimneys which was believed to be where spirits enter. The Hoodoo bundle contained pieces of iron and a horse shoe. Enslaved African Americans put eyelets on shoes and boots to trap spirits. Archeologists also found small carved wooden faces. The wooden carvings had two faces carved into them on both sides which was interpreted to mean an African American conjurer who was a two-headed doctor. Two-headed doctors in Hoodoo means a person who can see into the future, and has knowledge about spirits and things unknown. At Levi Jordan Plantation in Brazoria, Texas near the Gulf Coast, researchers suggests the plantation owner Levi Jordan may have transported captive Africans from Cuba back to his plantation in Texas. These captive Africans practiced a Bantu-Kongo religion in Cuba, and researchers excavated Kongo related artifacts at the site. For example, archeologists found in one of the cabins called the "curer's cabin" remains of an nkisi nkondi with iron wedges driven into the figure to activate its spirit. Researchers found a Kongo bilongo which enslaved African Americans created using materials from white porcelain creating a doll figure. In the western section of the cabin they found iron kettles and iron chain fragments. Researchers suggests the western section of the cabin was an altar to the Kongo spirit Zarabanda. On a plantation in Kentucky called Locust Grove in Jefferson County, archeologists and historians found amulets made by enslaved African Americans that had the Kongo cosmogram engraved onto coins and beads. Blue beads were found among the artifacts, and in African spirituality blue beads attract protection to the wearer. In slave cabins in Kentucky and on other plantations in the American South, archeologists found blue beads and were used by enslaved people for spiritual protection. Enslaved African Americans in Kentucky combined Christian practices with traditional African beliefs. The word "goofer" in goofer dust has Kongo origins, it comes from the "Kongo word 'Kufwa' which means to die." The mojo bag in Hoodoo has Bantu-Kongo origins. Mojo bags are called "toby" and the word toby derives from the Kongo word tobe. The word mojo also originated from the Kikongo word mooyo. The word mooyo means that natural ingredients have their own indwelling spirit that can be utilized in mojo bags to bring luck and protection. The mojo bag or conjure bag derived from the Bantu-Kongo minkisi. The Nkisi singular, and Minkisi plural, is when a spirit or spirits inhabit an object created by hand from an individual. These objects can be a bag (mojo bag or conjure bag) gourds, shells, and other containers. Various items are placed inside a bag to give it a particular spirit or job to do. Mojo bags and minkisis are filled with graveyard dirt, herbs, roots, and other materials by the spiritual healer called Nganga. The spiritual priests in Central Africa became the rootworkers and Hoodoo doctors in African American communities. In the American South, conjure doctors create mojo bags similar to the Ngangas minkisi bags as both are fed offerings with whiskey. Other examples of Kongo origins of the mojo bag is found in the story of Gullah Jack. Gullah Jack was an African from Angola who carried a conjure bag (mojo bag) onto a slave ship leaving Zanzibar for the United States. In South Carolina, Gullah Jack used the spiritual knowledge he had with him from Angola and made protective charms for other enslaved people for their spiritual protection. Other Bantu-Kongo origins in Hoodoo is making a cross mark (Kongo cosmogram) and stand on it and take an oath. This practice is done in Central Africa and in the United States in African American communities. The Kongo cosmogram is also used as a powerful charm of protection when drawn on the ground, the solar emblems or circles at the end and the arrows are not drawn just the cross marks which looks like an X. Other Bantu-Kongo practices present in Hoodoo are the use of conjure canes. Conjure canes in the United States are decorated with specific objects to conjure specific results and conjure spirits. This practice was brought to the United States during the transatlantic slave trade from Central Africa. Several conjure canes are used today in some African American families. In Central Africa among the Bantu-Kongo, ritual healers are called banganga and use ritual staffs (now called conjure canes in Hoodoo). These ritual staffs of the banganga conjure spirits and healing for people. The banganga healers in Central Africa became the conjure doctors and herbal healers in African American communities in the United States. The Harn Museum of Art at the University of Florida collaborated with other world museums to compare African American conjure canes with ritual staffs from Central Africa and found similarities between the two, and other aspects of African American culture that originated from Bantu-Kongo people. Bakongo spiritual protections influenced African American yard decorations. In Central Africa, Bantu-Kongo people decorated their yards and entrances to doorways with baskets and broken shiny items to protect from evil spirits and thieves. This practice is the origin of the bottle tree in Hoodoo. Throughout the American South in African American neighborhoods, there are some houses that have bottle trees and baskets placed at entrances to doorways for spiritual protection against conjure and evil spirits. An African American man in North Carolina buried a jar under the steps with water and string in it for protection. If someone conjured him the string would turn into a snake. The man interviewed called it inkabera. Bantu-Kongo burial practices by African Americans were found in Florida. Researchers noticed the similarities of grave sites of African Americans in Florida and those of the Bakongo people in Central Africa. Headstones with a T shape were seen in Black cemeteries and at grave sites in the Kongo region. The T shape headstone peculiar to black cemeteries in north Florida during the 1920s through the 1950s corresponds to the lower half of the Kongo cosmogram that symbolizes the realm of the ancestors and spiritual power. In Bantu-Kongo spirituality the spirit realm is in the color white. African Americans decorated the graves of their family members with white items such as white conch seashells. Seashells represent the watery divide located on the horizontal line of the Kongo cosmogram that is a boundary between the realm of the living and the realm of the dead. By placing seashells on graves, African Americans were creating a boundary (barrier) between the recently deceased and them, keeping the spirit in the realm of the dead below the Kongo cosmogram. The practice of placing seashells on top of graves in African American cemeteries continued beyond the 1950s, and was found in Archer, Florida. Researchers found other continued Bakongo burial practices in black cemeteries in Florida. In the Kongo region, Bakongo people placed broken objects on top of graves so the recently deceased can travel to the land of the dead. The broken items symbolize the person's connection to the world of the living was broken by their death, and they need to return to the realm of the dead. This practice was found in African American cemeteries in Florida and among the Gullah Geechee people in the Sea Islands in the United States. The conjure practices of African Americans in Georgia was influenced by Bakongo and other West African ethnic groups when a slave ship the Wanderer illegally imported 409 enslaved Africans to Jekyll Island, Georgia in 1858. Historians from Southern Illinois University in the Africana Studies Department documented about 20 title words from the Kikongo language are in the Gullah language. These title words indicate continued African traditions in hoodoo and conjure. The title words are spiritual in meaning. In Central Africa, spiritual priests and spiritual healers are called Nganga. In the South Carolina Lowcountry among Gullah people a male conjurer is called Nganga. Some Kikongo words have a "N" or "M" in the beginning of the word. However, when Bantu-Kongo people were enslaved in South Carolina the letters N and M were dropped from some of the title names. For example, in Central Africa the word to refer to spiritual mothers is Mama Mbondo. In the South Carolina Lowcountry in African American communities the word for a spiritual mother is Mama Bondo. In addition during slavery, it was documented there was a Kikongo speaking slave community in Charleston, South Carolina. Dr. Robert Farris Thompson was a professor at Yale University and conducted academic research in Africa and the United States and traced Hoodoo's (African American conjure) origins to Central Africa's Bantu-Kongo people in his book Flash of the Spirit: African & Afro-American Art & Philosophy. Thompson was an African Art historian and found through his study of African Art the origins of African Americans' spiritual practices to certain regions in Africa. Former academic historian Albert J. Raboteau in his book, Slave Religion: The "Invisible Institution" in the Antebellum South, traced the origins of Hoodoo (conjure, rootwork) practices in the United States to West and Central Africa. These origins developed a slave culture in the United States that was social, spiritual, and religious. Professor Eddie Glaude at Princeton University defines Hoodoo as part of African-American religious life with practices influenced from Africa that fused with Christianity creating an African-American religious culture for liberation. West African influence Another African origin in Hoodoo is the mojo bag. The mojo bag in Hoodoo has West and Central African origins. The word mojo comes from the West African word mojuba. Mojo bags are called gris-gris bag, toby, conjure bag, and mojo hand. Another West African influence in Hoodoo is Islam. As a result of the transatlantic slave trade, some West African Muslims that practiced Islam were enslaved in the United States. Prior to their arrival to the American South, West African Muslims blended Islamic beliefs with traditional West African spiritual practices. On plantations in the American South enslaved West African Muslims kept some of their traditional Islamic culture. They practiced the Islamic prayers, wore turbans, and the men wore the traditional wide leg pants. Some enslaved West African Muslims practiced Hoodoo. Instead of using Christian prayers in the creation of charms, Islamic prayers were used. Enslaved black Muslim conjure doctors' Islamic attire was different from the other slaves, which made them easy to identify and ask for conjure services regarding protection from slaveholders. The Mandigo (Mandinka) were the first Muslim ethnic group imported from Sierra Leone in West Africa to the Americas. Mandingo people were known for their powerful conjure bags called gris-gris (later called mojo bags in the United States). Some of the Mandingo people were able to carry their gris-gris bags with them when they boarded slave ships heading to the Americas bringing the practice to the United States. Enslaved people went to enslaved black Muslims for conjure services requesting them to make gris-gris bags (mojo bags) for protection against slavery. The West African Yoruba origins are evident in Hoodoo. For example, the Yoruba trickster deity called Eshu-Elegba resides at the crossroads, and the Yoruba people leave offerings for Eshu-Elegba at the crossroads. The crossroads has spiritual power in Hoodoo, and rituals are performed at the crossroads, and there is a spirit that resides at the crossroads to leave offerings for. However, the spirit that resides at the crossroads in Hoodoo is not named Eshu-Elegba because many of the African names of deities were lost during slavery; but the belief that a spirit resides at the crossroads and one should provide offerings to it originates from West Africa. The Yoruba crossroad spirit Eshu-Elegba became the man of the crossroads in Hoodoo. Folklorist Newbell Niles Puckett, recorded a number of crossroads rituals in Hoodoo practiced among African-Americans in the South and explained its meaning. Puckett wrote..."Possibly this custom of sacrificing at the crossroads is due to the idea that spirits, like men, travel the highways and would be more likely to hit upon the offering at the crossroads than elsewhere." In addition to leaving offerings and performing rituals at the crossroads, sometimes spiritual work or "spells" are left at the crossroads to remove unwanted energies. In Annapolis, Maryland, archeologists uncovered evidence for West African and Central African practices. A Hoodoo spiritual bundle that contained nails, a stone axe and other items was found embedded four feet in the streets of Maryland near the capital. The axe inside the Hoodoo bundle showed a cultural link to the Yoruba people's deity Shango. Shango was (and is) a feared Orisha in Yorubaland, because he is associated with lightning and thunder, and this fear and respect towards thunder and lightning survived in African American communities. Folklorist Puckett wrote..."and thunder denotes an angry creator." Puckett recorded a number of beliefs surrounding the fear and respect for thunder and lightning in the African American community. In Hoodoo objects struck by lightning hold great power. However, the name Shango and other African deity names were lost during slavery. Therefore, the name Shango does not exist in Hoodoo, but just the name the Thunder God. Enslaved and free blacks in New York were known among the whites in the area to take an oath to thunder and lightning. During the 1741 slave conspiracy in New York, African American men took an oath to thunder and lightning. Other Yoruba influences in Hoodoo is the use of iron. Horseshoes are made from iron a metal. In West Africa, blacksmiths are respected because they are connected to the spirit of metal (iron). Among the Yoruba, the Orisha spirit Ogun corresponds to iron, and Ogun is called the "god of iron." West African people enslaved in the United States kept the respect for enslaved blacksmiths on the plantation, and recognition for iron. Horseshoes are made from metal and are used for protection in Hoodoo. In Maryland archeologists unearthed at the Wye House artifacts that linked to the Yoruba people's spiritual belief and practice in the reverence of Ogun, which is why African-Americans incorporate horseshoes and metal tools in Hoodoo because there is a spirit that corresponds to metal that can be invoked for protection from physical and spiritual harm. Yoruba cultural influences survived in Hoodoo, but the names and symbols of Orisha spirits are not present in Hoodoo because that information was lost during slavery; therefore just the natural elements that corresponds to each Orisha remain. In addition, at the Kingsmill Plantation in Williamsburg, Virginia, enslaved blacksmiths created spoons that historians suggest have West African symbols carved onto them that have a spiritual cosmological meaning. In Alexandria, Virginia historians found in a slave cabin a wrought-iron figure made by an enslaved blacksmith in the eighteenth century which looked similar to Ogun statues made by blacksmiths in West Africa by the Yoruba, Fon, Mande and Edo people. West African blacksmiths enslaved in the United States were highly respected and feared by enslaved blacks because they had the ability to forge weapons. Gabriel Prosser was an African American enslaved in Richmond, Virginia and was a blacksmith. In 1800, Gabriel Prosser planned a slave revolt in Virginia. Historians assert that Prosser became the leader of the planned rebellion because he was a blacksmith, and enslaved people respected and feared blacksmiths because of their ability to forge weapons and their connection to the spirit of iron. Prosser and other enslaved blacksmiths made weapons for the rebellion, but the revolt never happened because two slaves informed the authorities. Hoodoo also has Vodun origins. For example, a primary ingredient used in goofer dust is snakeskins. Snakes (serpents) are revered in West African spiritual practices, because they represent divinity. The West African Vodun water spirit Mami Wata holds a snake in one hand. This reverence for snakes came to the United States during the slave trade, and in Hoodoo snakeskins are used in the preparation of conjure powders. Puckett explained that the origin of snake reverence in Hoodoo originates from snake (serpent) honoring in West Africa's Vodun tradition. It was documented from a former slave in Missouri that conjurers took dried snakes and frogs and ground them into powders to "Hoodoo people." A conjurer made a powder from a dried snake and a frog and put it in a jar and buried it under the steps of the target's house to "Hoodoo the person." When the targeted individual walked over the jar they had pain in their legs. Snakes in Hoodoo are used for healing, protection, and to curse people. Water spirits, called Simbi, are also revered in Hoodoo which comes from West African and Central African spiritual practices. When Africans were brought to the United States to be enslaved, they blended African spiritual beliefs with Christian baptismal practices. Enslaved Africans prayed to the spirit of the water and not to the Christian God when they baptized church members. Some African Americans prayed to Simbi water spirits during their baptismal services. The West African Igbo origins are also evident in Hoodoo. Ambrose Madison, a prominent planter in colonial Virginia and grandfather of U.S. President James Madison, died at his plantation (Mount Pleasant, later renamed Montpelier) as a result of an unknown illness. According to research from historian Douglass Chambers, it was believed by Ambrose Madison's family that he was poisoned by three of his Igbo slaves. The evidence that Igbo slaves poisoned Madison is limited; however, the book does offer some information about Igbo people in Virginia. According to academic research, the majority of West Africans imported to Virginia during the slave trade were Igbo. The Igbo people's spiritual practice is called Odinani that was brought to the United States during the transatlantic slave trade. Igbo people had their own herbal knowledge and spiritual practices that shaped Hoodoo in the United States. Communication with ancestors is an important practice in Hoodoo that originated from West and Central Africa. The Igbo people believe family members can reincarnate back into the family line. To ensure this process proper burial ceremonies are performed. Igbo people and other ethnic groups in West Africa have two burials for their family members one physical and one spiritual. Burial ceremonies of African Americans was influenced by the culture of Igbo people's belief in the care and respect for the dead and ancestors. If family members were not given a proper burial the soul suffered in the afterlife. African Americans in Virginia practiced the two burial ceremonies of their dead that was influenced by the Igbo people. The first burial is physical which is placing the body in the grave, and the second burial is spiritual which involves celebrating the person's life before they died and mourning the loss. These practices ensured relatives would return to the ancestral realm or reincarnate back into the family. Hoodoo practices also include how African Americans bury their dead. The pouring of libations over an ancestor or recently deceased family member's grave is a way to honor and elevate their spirit. This practice is done in Virginia and other African American communities in the United States which originated from West Africa. Other spiritual practices of African Americans in Virginia can be traced to the Igbo people. The conjure (Hoodoo) practices of Black rootworkers in Virginia was documented in slave narratives. For example, some Black conjure doctors used conjure canes to contact spirits. The conjure cane documented in Virginia had a snake wrapped around it. Black rootworkers and Igbo woodcrafters in Virginia carved snakes onto their canes. Some African Americans in Virginia are descendants of Igbo people, and their conjure practices are similar. For example, pythons (snakes) are revered among the Igbo because they are messengers of God and represent divinity. This snake reverence among Igbo people was brought to Virginia during the transatlantic slave trade. Other conjure practices traced to the Igbo people is the practice of burying jars and other items to cause misfortune on people. All the person had to do was to walk over it and the magic caused a negative effect in their life. This practice of hiding spiritual items to cause misfortune was found in other parts of Africa. At Stagville Plantation located in Durham County, North Carolina archeologists found artifacts made by enslaved African Americans that linked to spiritual practices found in West Africa. The artifacts found was a divining stick, walking stick, and cowrie shells. Stagville Plantation was owned by a wealthy slaveholding family called the Bennehan family; they enslaved 900 African American people. Stagville was one of many large slave plantations in the American South. Inside the Bennehan house, a walking stick was found placed in between the walls to curse the Bennehan family. An enslaved person secretly placed a walking stick to put evil spirits on their enslavers, putting a curse on the family for enslaving them. The walking stick was carved into an image of a West African snake spirit (deity) called Damballa. In West-Central Africa and in African-American communities, only initiates trained in the secrets of the serpent and spirits were allowed to have a conjure stick. These sticks conjured illness and healing, and the spirit of a conjure stick can warn the conjurer of impending danger. Cowrie shells were found on the site and was used by enslaved African Americans to connect with the spiritual element of water "to ensure spiritual guidance over bodies of water." In West Africa, cowrie shells were used for money and corresponds to African water spirits. Other African cultural survivals among the Gullah people is giving their children African names. Linguists noticed identical or similar sounding names in the Gullah Geechee Nation that can be traced to Sierra Leone, a country in West Africa. Some African Americans in South Carolina and Georgia continue to give their children African names. This is done for spiritual and cultural reasons. The spiritual reason is for their ancestors to provide their children spiritual power and spiritual protection. The cultural reason is so their children will know what region in Africa their ancestry is from. The practice of carving snakes onto "conjure sticks" to remove curses, evil spirits, and bring healing was found in African American communities in the Sea Islands among the Gullah Geechee people. Snake reverence in African American Hoodoo originated from West African societies. Another practice in Hoodoo that has its origins from West Africa is to moistened conjure bags and luck balls with whiskey (rum). It is believed that conjure bags and luck balls have a spirit, and to keep its spirit alive conjurers feed them whisky once a week. The practice has its roots from the Guinea Coast of Africa. The practice of foot track magic in Hoodoo has its origins from Ghana. A person's foot track is used to send someone away by mixing their foot track with herbs, roots, and insects, specific ingredients used in Hoodoo to send someone away, and grind into a powder and place the powder in a container and throw it into a flowing river that leaves town and in a few days the person will leave town. Among the Tshi people in Ghana, spirit possession is not limited to people, but objects inanimate and animate can become possessed by spirits. This same belief among blacks in the South was documented by folklorist Puckett. Archeologists in New York discovered continued West-Central African burial practices in a section of Lower Manhattan, New York City which is now the location of the African Burial Ground National Monument. Archeologists and historians noted about 15,000 Africans were buried in a section of Lower Manhattan that was named the "Negroes Burial Ground." Over 500 artifacts were excavated showing continued African traditions in New York City's African American community. Some of the artifacts came from West Africa. Only 419 Africans buried were exhumed, and from their discoveries archeologists and historians found African cultural retention in African Americans burial practices. At the site, 146 beads were found and nine within that number came from West Africa. The other beads were manufactured in Europe but were used by enslaved and free people for their burial practices incorporating an African spiritual interpretation to European beads. For example, many of the Africans buried including women, men, and children had beads, waist beads, and wristlets. Beads in African society bring protection, wealth, fertility, and health to the wearer. In West Africa, African women wear beads around their waist for beauty. At the African Burial Ground, archeologists found beads wrapped around the waist of the burial remains of enslaved African American women. Also, about 200 shells were found with African remains. Beads, shells, and iron bars are associated with the Yoruba deity Olokun a spirit that owns the sea. Shells are associated with water and help the soul transition in the afterlife, because seashells help the soul move from the realm of the living into the realm of the dead (ancestors) which is associated with water. Other artifacts found at the African Burial Ground were shiny objects and reflective materials. These were used by Africans to communicate with spirits, because shiny and reflective materials were able to capture the "flash of the spirit." Between 1626 and 1660s, the majority of Africans imported to colonial New York were from the Kongo Angolan region, because New York was colonized by the Dutch. Historians and archeologists found Kongo related artifacts at the African Burial Ground such as minkisi and Nkisi bundles buried with African remains. These Nkisi and minkisi bundles became the conjure bags in Hoodoo. After 1679, the majority of Africans imported to colonial New York were from West Africa because colonial rule of New York shifted from the Dutch to the English in 1664. West Africans imported to the colony were Akan, Yoruba, Fon, and other ethnic groups. These diverse African ethnic groups brought their traditional cultures with them and adorned their dead with adornments made from American materials but had an African design and meaning to them. Archeologists found a Ghanaian burial practice that was a funerary clay pipe with a Ghanaian design called ebua was found with the remains of an African American woman. In addition, archeologists excavated conjure bags (mojo bags) at the site. The conjuring bundles had crystals, roots, beads, feathers, animal parts, and other items to communicate with spirits and for protection. Other artifacts found at the site that linked to West Africa researchers suggests was the finding of an Akan Sankofa Symbol found on a coffin. The Akan Sankofa Adinkra symbol means to remember ones ancestors, and look to the future while not forgetting the past. In addition, West African spiritual beliefs mixed with the Christian faith, and free and enslaved West Africans started their own African Methodist Episcopal Zion Churches in New York City. The African Burial Ground reserved a location called the Ancestral Libation Chamber for people to perform spiritual ceremonies to pay their respect for the enslaved and free Africans buried at the monument. African Americans and other African descended peoples continue to travel to the African Burial Ground from across the country and around the world and perform libation ceremonies to honor the 15,000 plus African people buried in New York City. The Ashanti people in West Africa also had their own cross symbol that influenced African Americans interpretation of the Christian cross. African American spirituality was influenced by the culture of the Ashanti people. Baptismal services of African Americans during and after chattel slavery was similar to the Ashanti peoples water immersions in West Africa where African water spirits are called. In African American baptismal services and in West African water immersions both wear white clothing and are taken place at rivers where the water spirits reside. However, in Black communities, baptismal services (water immersions) there was a blend of Christian, West African, and Central African influence of African American baptismal services. Other West African influences in African-American spirituality is seen in quilt making. African American women made quilts incorporating West African crosses and the Bakongo cross of the Kongo cosmogram. For example, an African American woman named Harriet Powers made quilts using Bakongo and other West African symbols. On one of Harriet Powers quilts was a cross with four suns showing Bakongo influence quilting the Kongo cosmogram onto her quilts. Other African symbols were seen in Powers quilts. However, scholars suggests Harriet Powers cross symbols may also be a West African cross, as West Africans also had crosses as symbols, but the meaning and use of crosses in West Africa was different from the Bakongo people in Central Africa. Fon influence and artistic style was seen in Powers quilts as well. Harriet Powers was born enslaved in Georgia in 1837, and scholars suggest Powers may have been of Bakongo or Dahomean descent. African-American quilts are influenced by American quilt making and West African designs. Adinkra symbols and other African symbols are sewed into fabrics for spiritual purposes. Quilt makers in the African American community also sewed mojo bags and placed roots, bones, and other items inside bags for protection. Another example, was Louiza Francis Combs. Louiza Francis Combs was born in Guinea and came to the United States in the 1860s. Her quilts incorporate West African features of "a red striped pattern, patchwork, and two broad asymmetrical panels." This pattern design is similar to the Mande peoples religious concepts that evil spirits travel in a straight path, and to protect ones self from evil spirits broken lines and fragmented shapes are sewn into fabrics and quilts. Some of the meanings of the African symbols sewed into quilts were held secret. Scholars suggests some of the African American women who made quilts might have been in a secret society that retained the true spiritual meanings of the symbols seen in their quilts. Only initiates trained in quilt making received the spiritual meanings of the African symbols. Some of the symbols mention the crossroads, the Kongo cosmogram, and the ancestors. Certain colors are used in quilts to protect from evil and invoke ancestral spirits. Scholars interviewed an African American quilt maker in Oregon and have found Yoruba inspirations in her quilts. Her quilts looked similar to the Egungun regalia patterns of the Yoruba people in West Africa, where she incorporated "striped-piecing techniques that pay tribute to her ancestors." Haitian influence Zora Neale Hurston, an African-American cultural anthropologist and Hoodoo initiate, reported in her essay, Hoodoo in America, that conjure had its highest development along the Gulf Coast, particularly in New Orleans and its surrounding rural areas. These regions were settled by Haitian immigrants at the time of the overthrow of the French rule in Haiti by Toussaint Louverture. Thirteen-hundred Haitians (of African descent, along with their White ex-masters) were driven out, and the nearest French refuge was the province of Louisiana, then under Spanish control. African Haitians brought with them their conjure rituals modified by European cultural influences, such as Catholicism. While some retained Haitian Vodou practices, others developed their own regional Hoodoo. Unlike the continental North American slaves, slaves in the Caribbean islands were encouraged to make themselves as much at home as possible in their bondage, and thus retained more of their West African customs and language. Hoodoo practices at Congo Square were documented by Folklorist Puckett. African Americans poured libations at the four corners of Congo Square at midnight during a dark moon. In New Orleans, an African American found under their bed a hollowed out acorn with hair from a dead person inside it, and the four sides of the acorn was pierced with four holes, and two small chicken feathers were drawn through the acorn which were crossed inside it. According to Puckett, the acorn charm was similar to cutch-nut charms made by people in the West African country of Ghana. The Haitian Revolution and the conjure used during the revolution inspired other slave revolts in the United States. For example, in 1822 a free black named Denmark Vesey planned a slave revolt in Charleston, South Carolina that was modeled after the Haitian Revolution. "Denmark Vesey, a carpenter and formerly enslaved person, allegedly planned an enslaved insurrection to coincide with Bastille Day in Charleston, South Carolina in 1822. Vesey modeled his rebellion after the successful 1791 slave revolution in Haiti. His plans called for his followers to execute the white enslavers, liberate the city of Charleston, and then sail to Haiti before the white power structure could retaliate." Denmark Vesey's co-conspirator was an enslaved Gullah conjurer named Gullah Jack. Gullah Jack was known to carry a conjure bag with him at all times for his spiritual protection. For the slaves spiritual protection, Gullah Jack gave them rootwork instructions for a possible slave revolt planned by his co-conspirator Denmark Vesey. Gullah Jack instructed the enslaved to eat a peanut butter-like mash, eat parched corn meal, and carry crab claws for their protection. The plan was to free those enslaved through armed resistance and the use of conjure. Denmark Vesey and Gullah Jack were not successful because their plan was revealed and stopped. From other historical research and records, Gullah Jack performed a ceremony and made the enslaved eat a half-cooked fowl. One of the slaves said that he could not talk about the conspiracy as Jack bound his speech with conjure. According to records, Jack "charmed" enslaved men to join the revolt. Botanical developments African Americans had their own herbal knowledge that was brought from West and Central Africa to the United States. European slave traders selected certain West African ethnic groups for their knowledge of rice cultivation to be used in the United States on slave plantations. The region of Africa ethnic groups were taken from for rice cultivation was called the "Rice Coast." African countries in the Rice Coast are Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. These areas were suitable for rice cultivation in Africa because rice grows in moist semitropical environments, and European slave traders selected ethnic groups from these regions and enslaved them in the United States in the Sea Islands an area that is moist and similar to tropical areas for rice cultivation. During the transatlantic slave trade a variety of African plants were brought from Africa to the United States for cultivation; they were, okra, sorghum, yam, benneseed (sesame), watermelon, black-eyed peas, and kola nuts. "West African slaves brought not only herbal knowledge with them across the Atlantic; they also imported the actual seeds. Some wore necklaces of wild liquorice seeds as a protective amulet. Captains of slaving vessels used native roots to treat fevers that decimated their human cargo. The ships’ hellish holds were lined with straw that held the seeds of African grasses and other plants that took root in New World soil." African plants brought from Africa to North America were cultivated by enslaved African Americans for medicinal and spiritual use for the slave community, and cultivated for white American slaveholders for their economic gain. African Americans mixed their knowledge of herbs from Africa with European and regional Native American herbal knowledge. In Hoodoo, African Americans used herbs in different ways. For example, when it came to the medicinal use of herbs, African Americans learned some medicinal knowledge of herbs from Native Americans; however, the spiritual use of herbs and the practice of Hoodoo (conjuring) remained African in origin. Enslaved African Americans also used their African knowledge of herbs to poison their enslavers. During slavery, some enslaved African Americans served as community doctors for Blacks and whites, despite many white Americans were cautious of black doctors because some enslaved Africans did poison their enslavers. Enslaved Africans found herbal cures for animal poisons and diseases that helped black and white Americans during slavery. For example, African traditional medicine proved beneficial during a smallpox outbreak in the colony of Boston, Massachusetts. An enslaved African named Onesimus was enslaved by Cotton Mather who was a minister in the colony. Boston was plagued by several smallpox outbreaks since the 1690s. Onesimus "introduced the practice of inoculation to colonial Boston" which helped reduce the spread of smallpox in the colony. Onesimus told Mather that when he was in Africa, Africans performed inoculations to reduce the spread of diseases in their societies. An enslaved man was given his freedom when he discovered a cure for a snake bite using herbal medicines. Enslaved African Americans most oftentimes treated their own medical problems themselves using the herbal knowledge they brought with them from Africa and some herbal knowledge learned from regional Native Americans. Many slaveholders were ignorant on how to treat their slaves medical conditions, and some slaveholders did not care for the health of their slaves just their labor. What made it more difficult for enslaved people were laws passed on the prevention for enslaved African Americans to provide medical care for themselves. Slaveholders passed preventative medical laws on their slaves because they feared enslaved people would poison them with their herbal knowledge. In 1748, Virginia passed a law to prevent African Americans from administering medicines, because white Americans feared African American folk practitioners would poison them with their herbal knowledge. However, some white Americans in Virginia continued to rely on African American herbal doctors because their cures were better than the white doctors. In addition, in 1749 in South Carolina the General Assembly passed a law prohibiting slaves from practicing medicine or dispensing medication. In South Carolina the punishment was death if an African American was caught using medicines. Slaveholders feared a possible slave revolt and being poisoned by their slaves, so much so that white Americans refused to provide enslaved African Americans medical knowledge. Any European medicines incorporated by African Americans came from African Americans curiosity, and not from slaveholders or other white Americans teaching enslaved African Americans herbal knowledge during slavery. Many of the medicines used by white Americans were chemical, while African Americans used the natural herbs and roots and made them into teas. According to an autobiographical account written by a former African American slave named, Reverend Irving E. Lowery, who was born enslaved in Sumter County, South Carolina in September of 1850, he recalled an incident where an enslaved woman named Mary on the Frierson plantation was believed to have died from conjure. The rumor on the Frierson plantation was that an enslaved woman named Epsey from another plantation poisoned Mary because they were in a love freud with the same man. Mary was favored as a potential love partner from enslaved men on the Frierson plantation and other plantations nearby because she was pretty. A man Epsey wanted did not want her but Mary. According to Lowery's written account, it was rumored that Epsey received a poison from an enslaved conjurer and secretly adminstered it to Mary which killed Mary six months later. This account from Rev. Irving E. Lowery indicates enslaved people poisoned their slaveholders and their rivals. Irving wrote that many of the conjure practices of enslaved blacks in Sumter County was influenced by Vodun from West Africa. Among enslaved people there was a spiritual belief to refuse to plow a field in a straight path. Some enslaved people believed in the West African Mande concept that evil spirits travel in a straight path, and to protect from evil spirits, enslaved African Americans deviated from plowing fields in a straight path to break lines for spiritual protection against malevolent spirits. Enslaved African American women used their knowledge of herbs to have miscarriages during pregnancy to prevent slaveholders from owning their children and to prevent their children being born into slavery. In the nineteenth-century, black women used herbs such as penny royal and senna to induce abortion. Enslaved African Americans only trusted their own doctors and not white doctors, because enslaved doctors cures were better than white doctors. African American enslaved and free learned the local flora, and knew what plants to use for treating illnesses. Enslaved herbal doctors were the primary doctors on slave plantations, and some of them also practiced conjure. Before and after the Civil War, African Americans adjusted to their environments and learned the local flora from indigenous peoples, books, and their study of plants. Europeans also brought their own plants from Europe to the United States for herbal cures in America which African Americans incorporated European herbs into their herbal practice. Agricultural scientist George Washington Carver was called a root doctor (practitioners of Hoodoo who can treat illnesses with plants) by blacks because of his knowledge of using plants to heal the body. Zora Neale Hurston conducted research in African American communities and documented the herbal practices of Blacks. African American rootworkers sometimes served two roles, a herbal doctor or conjure doctor. African American herbal doctors used their knowledge of herbs to treat diseases, such as heart disease, arthritis, cold, flu, and other illnesses. African American conjure doctors used herbs to remove curses, evil spirits, and bring good-luck, and sometimes there were a few African American rootworkers that did both. Hurston documented a traditional Hoodoo herb gatherer called a swamper. This person gathers their herbs and roots from swamps (wetlands). Rather a Hoodoo practitioner is a swamper or not, collecting certain roots and herbs in nature requires a prayer before taking the root or herb, an offering to the spirit of the plants, and a ceremony. If there are snakes that guard herbs and roots the snakes should not be killed by the Hoodoo practitioner. It was documented in an Ohio slave narrative that enslaved African Americans combined conjure with herbal healing. Spiritual charms imbued with power through prayer was combined with herbal teas to treat chronic illness. Traditional herbal healing remains a continued practice in the Gullah Geechee Nation. Gullah people gather roots from their backyards and gardens and make medicines to heal diseases and treat illnesses. In northeast Missouri, historians and anthropologists interviewed African Americans and found continued West African herbal traditions of using roots and herbs to treat illnesses. The knowledge of how to find herbs in nature and make them into teas and tonics continued in African American communities. The remedy most commonly used in black communities in northeast Missouri to ward and fight off catching a cold was carrying a small bag of Ferula assafoedita; the folk word is asfidity, a plant from the fennel family. In other regions of the South, African Americans made asfeddity balls placed around a baby's neck to relieve pain. The inside of the beech tree bark was boiled in water to treat cold and pneumonia. Bay leaf was used by African Americans to attract money by placing a bay leaf next to a dollar bill inside a wallet or a purse and the person will always attract money. Coffee grounds are used to predict the future. To cause misfortune in a family's home, cayenne pepper is mixed with sulfur and crossing incense and sprinkled around the home of the target. To bring relief from corns and callouses baking soda, castor oil, and lard is made into a paste and wrapped around the affected area using a cloth. To cure cuts, African Americans place spider webs and turpentine on wounds. Devil shoestring placed in the pocket brings good luck, and will trip up the devil. It is believed that placing an egg in the hand of a murder victim when they are in their coffin will cause the murderer to surrender to the police in three days. Mustard seeds sprinkled around the bed before going to sleep will protect someone from a boo hag (a person who can astral travel and leave their body at will and attack people in their sleep) from draining their life force. To treat heart ailments nutmeg was ground into a powder and mixed with water and drunk once a week. To bring the body temperature down jimson weed was tied around the head and ears. To treat measles, pine leaves (mullen leaves) was boiled into a tea. To treat the common cold pine straw was made into a tea. Salt is used to prevent a troublesome person from returning to your home by throwing salt behind the person as they walked out the house and they would never return. To cleanse the soul and spirit salt baths are taken. To prevent evil spirits from entering the home sulfur was sprinkled around the outside of the house. The bark from a red oak tree was boiled into a tea to reduce a fever or chills. The term smelling meant someone had the ability to detect spirits by scent; smelling cinnamon, nutmeg and ginger meant spirits were present. To ease frequent coughs and colds liquid tar was added to hot water. Authors Pyatt and Johns interviewed African American rootworkers and folk practitioners in the South and have found similarities of folk ways of African Americans to Africans in West Africa in the Vodun religion regarding the belief in spirits and how to protect from evil spirits, and treating illnesses using natural medicines was influenced by African and Native American herbal remedies. African American midwives were the primary care for pregnant Black women and nursing mothers during and after slavery. By the mid-twentieth century, licenses were required for all women to become a midwife. Prior to certification, segregation laws prevented black women from entering hospitals that provided medical care for white people. Also, many African Americans did not trust white medical doctors, because some were known to conduct medical experiments on Blacks. African American women midwives provided medical care for nursing and pregnant Black women in their communities by treating them with herbal medicines. In addition, many African American midwives practiced Hoodoo. Hoodoo and midwife practices were combined in African American communities. During childbirth, African American midwives spiritually protected the house because it is believed that evil spirits might harm a new born spirit being born into the world. Protective charms were placed inside and outside of the house, and Black midwives prayed for spiritual protection for the mother and new born baby. After the baby was born, the umbilical cord called the navel string by midwives and the afterbirth was burned or buried. Proper handling of the umbilical cord and placenta ensured the mother would have another child. If these items were not properly handled by the midwives it is believed the woman would not have any more children. Cosmology God Since the 19th century there has been Christian influence in Hoodoo thought. African American Christian conjurers believe their powers to heal, hex, trick, and divine comes from God. This is particularly evident in relation to God's providence and his role in retributive justice. For example, though there are strong ideas of good versus evil, cursing someone to cause their death might not be considered a malignant act. One practitioner explained it as follows:"In hoodooism, anythin' da' chew do is de plan of God undastan', God have somepin to do wit evah' thin' you do if it's good or bad, He's got somepin to do wit it ... jis what's fo' you, you'll git it." A translation of this is, "In hoodooism, anything that you do is the plan of God, understand? God has something to do with everything that you do whether it's good or bad, he's got something to do with it... You'll get what's coming to you." Several African spiritual traditions recognized a genderless supreme being who created the world, was neither good nor evil, and which did not concern itself with the affairs of mankind. Lesser spirits were invoked to gain aid for humanity's problems. God as a conjurer Not only is Yahweh's providence a factor in Hoodoo practice, but Hoodoo thought understands the deity as the archetypal Hoodoo doctor. From this perspective, biblical figures are often recast as Hoodoo doctors and the Bible becomes a source of spells and is, itself, used as a protective talisman. This can be understood as a syncretic adaptation for the religion. By blending the ideas laid out by the Christian Bible, the faith is made more acceptable. This combines the teachings of Christianity that Africans brought to America were given and the traditional beliefs they brought with them. This practice in Hoodoo of combining African traditional beliefs with the Christian faith is defined as Afro-Christianity. Afro-Christianity is Christianity from an African American perspective. During slavery, free and enslaved black Hoodoo doctors identified as Christian, and some root workers were pastors. By identifying as Christian, African American conjurers were able to hide their Hoodoo practices in the Christian religion. The beginnings of the African American church has its roots in African traditions. When Africans were enslaved in America they brought their religious worldviews with them that was synchronized with Christianity. These African worldviews in Black churches are, a belief in a Supreme deity, ancestral spirits that can be petitioned through prayer for assistance in life, spirit possession, laying on of hands to heal, ecstatic forms of worship using drums with singing and clapping, and respecting and living in harmony with nature and the spirits of nature. For example, in Hoodoo the divine can be commanded to act through the use of mojo bags, prayers, spiritual works or "spells" and laying tricks. One does not have to wait on God, but can command the divine to act at will through the use of Hoodoo rituals. This is what makes African American Christianity in Hoodoo different from other forms of Christianity. By seeing God in this way, Hoodoo practices are preserved in and outside the Black church. Also, ghosts and haunts can be controlled in Hoodoo because they emanate from God. Rootworkers control spirits through the use of Hoodoo rituals by capturing spirits using the spiritual tools used in Hoodoo. The difference between Afro-Christianity and European American Christianity is that spirits can be controlled by using the herbal ingredients in nature, because the herbs and nature have a spirit, and if the spirits of nature and the divine can be influenced so can other spirits such as ghosts. During the 1930s, some observers of African American Christianity (or Afro-Christianity) saw how church services of African Americans was similar to Voodoo ceremonies. The possession during a baptismal service at a black Spiritual church was no different from a possession in a Voodoo ceremony, as the body movements, babbling in sounds, eye rolls, and other body jerks were similar. However, in Black churches it is called touched by the Holy Spirit, in Voodoo ceremonies African spirits mount or possess participants, but the response of possession is the same. The origins of Afro-Christianity began with Bantu-Kongo people in Central Africa. Prior to Bakongo people coming to the United States and enslaved on plantations, Bakongo (Bantu-Kongo) people were introduced to Christianity from European missionaries and some converted to the Christian faith. Bantu-Kongo people's sacred symbol is a cross called the Kongo cosmogram (+) that looks similar to the Christian Cross. A form of Kongo Christianity was created in Central Africa. Bantu-Kongo people combined Kongo spiritual beliefs with the Christian faith that were nature spirits and spirits of dead ancestors. The concepts of Kongo Christianity among the Bakongo people was brought to the United States during the transatlantic slave trade and developed into Afro-Christianity among African Americans that is seen in Hoodoo and in some Black churches. As a result, African American Hoodoo and Afro-Christianity developed differently and was not influenced by European American Christianity as some African Americans continued to believe in the African concepts about the nature of spirits and the cosmos coming from the Kongo cosmogram. A recent work on hoodoo lays out a model of hoodoo origins and development. Mojo Workin: The Old African American Hoodoo System by Katrina Hazzard-Donald discusses what the author calls the ARC or African Religion Complex which was a collection of eight traits which all the enslaved Africans had in common and were somewhat familiar to all held in the agricultural slave labor camps known as plantations communities. Those traits included naturopathic medicine, ancestor reverence, counter clockwise sacred circle dancing, blood sacrifice, divination, supernatural source of malady, water immersion and spirit possession. These traits allowed Culturally diverse Africans to find common culturo-spiritual ground. According to the author, hoodoo developed under the influence of that complex, the African divinities moved back into their natural forces, unlike in the Caribbean and Latin America where the divinities moved into Catholic saints. Moses as a conjurer Hoodoo practitioners often understand the biblical figure Moses in similar terms. Hurston developed this idea in her novel Moses, Man of the Mountain, in which she calls Moses, "the finest Hoodoo man in the world." Obvious parallels between Moses and intentional paranormal influence (such as magic) occur in the biblical accounts of his confrontation with Pharaoh. Moses conjures, or performs magic "miracles" such as turning his staff into a snake. However, his greatest feat of conjure was using his powers to help free the Hebrews from slavery. This emphasis on Moses-as-conjurer led to the introduction of the pseudonymous work the Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses into the corpus of hoodoo reference literature. In the twentieth century, The Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses was cheaply printed and sold in spiritual shops near black neighborhoods and purchased by African-Americans. Bible as a talisman In Hoodoo, "All hold that the Bible is the great conjure book in the world." It has many functions for the practitioner, not the least of which is a source of spells. This is particularly evident given the importance of the book Secrets of the Psalms in hoodoo culture. This book provides instruction for using psalms for things such as safe travel, headache, and marital relations. The Bible, however, is not just a source of spiritual works but is itself a conjuring talisman. It can be taken "to the crossroads", carried for protection, or even left open at specific pages while facing specific directions. This informant provides an example of both uses: Whenevah ah'm afraid of someone doin' me harm ah read the 37 Psalms an' co'se ah leaves the Bible open with the head of it turned to the east as many as three days. Author, Theophus Harold Smith, explained in his book, Conjuring Culture: Biblical Formations in Black America, that the Bible's place is an important tool in Hoodoo for African Americans' spiritual and physical liberation. The bible was used in slave religion as a magical formula that provided information on how to use herbs in conjure and how to use the bible to conjure specific results and spirits to bring about change in the lives of people, which is a continued practice today. Root workers remove curses reading scriptures from the Bible. At the same time as root workers can remove a curse using the Bible, they can also place curses on people with the Bible. Enslaved and free blacks used the Bible as a tool against slavery. Free and enslaved people that could read found the stories of the Hebrews in the Bible in Egypt similar to their situation in the United States as enslaved people. The Hebrews in the Old Testament were freed from slavery in Egypt under the leadership of Moses. Examples of enslaved and free blacks using the Bible as a tool for liberation were Denmark Vesey's slave revolt in South Carolina in 1822 and Nat Turner's insurrection in Virginia in 1831. Vesey and Turner were ministers, and utilized the Christian faith to galvanize enslaved people to resist slavery through armed resistance. In Denmark Vesey's slave revolt, Vesey's co-conspirator was an enslaved Gullah conjurer named Gullah Jack who gave the slaves rootwork instructions for their spiritual protection for a possible slave revolt. Gullah Jack and Denmark Vesey attended the same church in Charleston, South Carolina and that was how they knew each other. However, Nat Turner was known among the slaves to have dreams and visions that came true. In the Hoodoo tradition, dreams and visions comes from spirits, such as the ancestors or the Holy Spirit in the Christian faith. Relying on dreams and visions for inspiration and knowledge is an African practice blended with the Christian faith among enslaved and free African Americans. After Nat Turner's rebellion, laws were passed in Virginia to end the education of free and enslaved blacks, and only allow white ministers to be present at all church services for enslaved people. White ministers preached obedience to slavery, while enslaved and free black ministers preached resistance to slavery using the stories of the Hebrews and Moses in the Old Testament of the Bible. There was a blend of African spiritual practices in both slave revolts of Vesey and Turner. Vesey and Turner used the Bible, and conjure was used alongside the Bible. Nat Turner's mother came from a slave ship from Africa. Research has not determined what part of Africa Nat Turner's mother is from. However, Turner's mother had a profound spiritual influence in his life. His mother taught him about African spirituality that was evident in his life as he used visions and celestial interpretation of planetary bodies to understand messages from spirit. Turner believed the eclipse of the sun was a message from God to start a slave rebellion. Academic research from Virginia records on the Nat Turner slave revolt suggests that an occult religious ritual anointed Turner's raid. These practices among the enslaved population created a Hoodoo Christian Church or Hoodoonized version of Christianity on slave plantations, where enslaved Africans escaped into the woods at night and practiced a blend of African spirituality with Christianity. Hoodoo countered European American Christianity as enslaved African Americans reinterpreted Christianity to fit their situation in America as enslaved people. For example, God was seen as powerful and his power can help free enslaved people. This created an "invisible institution" on slave plantations as enslaved Africans practiced the ring shout, spirit possession, and healing rituals to receive messages from spirit about freedom. These practices were done in secret away from slaveholders. This was done in the Hoodoo church among the enslaved. Nat Turner had visions and omens which he interpreted came from spirit, and that spirit told him to start a rebellion to free enslaved people through armed resistance. Turner combined African spirituality with Christianity. Conjuring the Spirit of High John Mojo Workin: The Old African American Hoodoo System also discusses the "High John the Conqueror root" and myth as well as the "nature sack." In African American folk stories, High John the Conqueror was an African prince who was kidnapped from Africa and enslaved in the United States. He was a trickster, and used his wit and charm to deceive and outsmart his slaveholders. After the American Civil War, before High John the Conqueror returned to Africa, he told the newly freed slaves that if they ever needed his spirit for freedom his spirit would reside in a root they could use. According to some scholars, the origin of High John the Conqueror may have originated from African male deities such as Elegua who is a trickster spirit in West Africa. By the twentieth century, white drugstore owners began selling High John the Conqueror products with the image of a white King on their labels commercializing Hoodoo. Zora Neal Hurston documented some history about High John the Conqueror from her discussions with African Americans in the South in her book, The Sanctified Church. Some African Americans believed High John the Conqueror freed the slaves, and that President Abraham Lincoln and the Civil War did not bring freedom for Blacks. According to one woman, Aunt Shady Anne Sutton interviewed by Hurston, she said: "These young Negroes reads they books and talk about the war freeing the Negroes, by Aye Lord! A heap sees, but a few knows. 'Course, the war was a lot of help, but how come the war took place? They think they knows, but they don't. John de Conqueror had done put it into the white folks to give us our freedom." Anne Sutton said High John de Conqueror taught Black people about freedom and to prepare for their freedom in an upcoming war. The High John the Conqueror root used by African Americans prevented whippings from slaveholders and provided freedom from chattel slavery. The root given to Frederick Douglass was a High John root that prevented Douglass from being whipped and beaten by a slave-breaker. Former slave Henry Bibb used the High John root to protect himself by chewing and spitting the root towards his enslaver. Spirits A spirit that torments the living is known as a Boo Hag. Spirits are conjured to cure or kill people, and predict the future. Spirits can also help people find things. One slave narrative from South Carolina mentioned a pastor who spoke to spirits to help him find some hidden money. This record from a slave narrative revealed how Hoodoo and the Black church was intertwined. Another slave narrative from Indiana mentioned a location that the African American population refused to enter because "it was haunted by the spirits of black people who were beaten to death." This location was so feared by the blacks in the area that they placed a fence around it. Also wearing a silver dime worn around the ankle or neck can protect someone from evil spirits and conjure. Another method to protect from evil spirits was to carry a small bag filled with salt and charcoal. Another spirit feared in Hoodoo is the plat eye. The play eye is a one-eyed ghost that can morph into various forms. It is conjured when a person buries the head of a murdered man inside a hole with treasure. Communication with spirits and the dead (ancestors) is a continued practice in Hoodoo that originated from West and Central Africa. Nature spirits in Hoodoo called Simbi originates from West-Central Africa, and Simbi spirits are associated with water and magic in Africa and in Hoodoo. Simbi singular, and Bisimbi plural, are African water spirits. This belief in water spirits was brought to the United States during the transatlantic slave trade and continues in the African American community in the practice of Hoodoo and Voodoo. The Bisimbi are water spirits that reside in gullies, streams, fresh water, and outdoor water features (fountains). Academic research on the Pooshee Plantation and Woodboo Plantation in South Carolina, showed a continued belief of African water spirits among enslaved African Americans. Both plantations are "now under the waters of Lake Moultrie." The earliest known record of simbi spirits was recorded in the nineteenth century by Edmund Ruffin who was a wealthy slaveholder from Virginia, and traveled to South Carolina "to keep the slave economic system viable through agricultural reform." In Ruffin's records he spelled simbi, cymbee, because he did not know the original spelling of the word. In Ruffin's records, he recorded a few conversations he had with some of the enslaved people. One enslaved boy said he saw a cymbee spirit running around a fountain one night when he was trying to get a drink of water. Another enslaved man said he saw a cymbee spirit sitting on a plank when he was a boy before it glided into the water. The Simbi (cymbee) spirits can help with healing, fertility, and prosperity. Baptismal services are done by rivers to invoke the blessings of the Simbi spirits to bring healing, fertility, and prosperity to people. West Africans and African Americans wear white clothing to invoke the water spirits during water ceremonies. Simbi spirits reside in forests, mountains, and the water and are responsible for the life and growth of nature. These beings are feared and respected. Simbi spirits are the guardians of the lands and the people that reside there. If someone disrespected a simbi by destroying the simbi's natural habitat, that simbi could take their life by drowning them in water. To obtain the powers of the simbi spirits, Bakongo people in Central Africa and African Americans in the Georgia and South Carolina Lowcountry collect rocks and seashells and create minkisi bundles. The appearance of the simbi spirits are male or female. Some have long black hair and resemble mermaids, while others look like albinos. In African-American folklore there is a story about a girl named Sukey meeting a mermaid named Mama Jo. Mama Jo in the story helps and protects Sukey and financially supported her by giving her gold coins. This story comes from the belief in Simbi spirits in West-Central Africa that came to the United States during the trans-atlantic slave trade. In West-Central Africa, there are folk stories of people meeting mermaids. It is believed one's soul returns to God after death, however their spirit may still remain on Earth. Spirits can interact with the world by providing good fortune or bringing bad deeds. Other spirits revered in Hoodoo are the ancestors. In Hoodoo, the ancestors are important spirits that intercede in people's lives. Ancestors can intercede in the lives of people by providing guidance and protection. The practice of ancestral veneration in Hoodoo originated from African practices. However, if ancestors are not venerated they can cause trouble in their families lives. Ancestors are venerated through prayers and offerings. In Hoodoo, ancestors can appear in people's dreams to provide information and guidance. Parents who died suddenly or by accidental death are believed to return in spirit and visit their children. This causes spiritual harm on the child as the spirit of the parent might haunt their children. To prevent this from happening, small children and babies of the deceased parent are passed over the coffin of the deceased to prevent the spirit of the parent from returning to visit their children. Former slave Reverend Irving E. Lowrey recorded this practice in his slave narrative when he visited the funeral of Mary an enslaved woman who died from being poisoned, and her small infact was passed over her coffin so her spirit want return and visit her baby which would haunt and scare the baby. Lowrey wrote in his narrative: "Mary's baby was taken to the graveyard by its grandmother, and before the corpse was deposited in the earth, the baby was passed from one person to another across the coffin. The slaves believed that if this was not done it would be impossible to raise the infant. The mother's spirit would come back for her baby and take it to herself. This belief is held by many of the descendants of these slaves, who practice the same thing at the present day." The practice of passing babies and small children over coffins to prevent the spirits of deceased parents from visiting their children continues in Gullah Geechee communities in the Sea Islands of South Carolina and Georgia. To have a strong connection with the ancestors in Hoodoo, graveyard dirt is sometimes used. Graveyard dirt from the grave of an ancestor provides protection. Graveyard dirt taken from the grave of a person who is not an ancestor is used to harm an enemy or for protection. However, before taking graveyard dirt one must pay for it with three pennies or some other form of payment. Graveyard dirt is another primary ingredient used in goofer dust. Graveyard dirt is placed inside mojo bags (conjure bags) to carry a spirit or spirits with you, if they are an ancestor or other spirits. Dirt from graveyards provides a way to have connections to spirits of the dead. To calm the spirits of ancestors, African Americans leave the last objects used by their family members and lay them on top of their grave as way to acknowledge them and it has the last essence or spirit of the person before they died. The cemetery is seen as a final resting place for the dead and as a doorway to the realm of the spirits. In hoodoo, the spirits of the dead can be petitioned or conjured to carry out certain tasks for the conjurer that are positive or negative. This practice of ancestral reverence, using graveyard dirt, working with spirits of the dead, and decorating graves of family members and giving food offerings to dead relatives so they will not haunt the family, originated from Central Africa's Kongo region that was brought to the United States during the transatlantic slave trade. Also, the West African practice of pouring libations continues in the practice of Hoodoo. Libations are given in Hoodoo as an offering to honor and acknowledge the ancestors. Destiny In West African religions, people are given a destiny from God. It is believed someone can alter parts of their destiny through rituals and conjure. The belief in destiny in Hoodoo has its roots in West African religions. A skilled conjurer can alter a person's destiny through divinities or evil forces. This means a conjurer can shorten someone's life by conjuring death onto them. A conjurer can protect a person's destiny from another conjurer who is trying to change it. To know a person's destiny divination is used. Divination is also used to know what rituals should be performed and what charms should be worn to either protect or alter a person's destiny. Practices "Seeking" process In a process known as "seeking" a Hoodoo practitioner will ask for salvation of a person's soul in order for a Gullah church to accept them. A spiritual leader will assist in the process and after believing the follower is ready they will announce it to the church. A ceremony will commence with much singing, and the practice of a ring shout. The word "shout" derived from the West African Muslim word saut, meaning "dancing or moving around the Kaaba." The ring shout in Black churches (African American churches) originates from African styles of dance. Counterclockwise circle dancing is practiced in West and Central Africa to invoke the spirits of the ancestors and for spirit possession. The ring shout and shouting looks similar to African spirit possession. In Hoodoo, African Americans perform the ring shout to become touched or possessed by the Holy Spirit and to communicate with the spirits of dead ancestors. African Americans replaced African spirits with the Christian God (Holy Spirit) during possession. In African American churches this is called "catching the spirit." African Americans use music, clapping, and singing during the ring shout and in modern-day shouting in Black churches to bring down the spirit. The singing during the ring shout has Christian meaning using biblical references. During slavery enslaved Africans were forced to become Christian which resulted in a blend of African and Christian spiritual practices that shaped Hoodoo. As a result, Hoodoo was and continues to be practiced in some Black churches in the United States. In the Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor area, praise houses are places where African Americans gather to have church and perform healing rituals and the ring shout. The ring shout in Hoodoo has its origins in the Kongo region of Africa with the Kongo cosmogram. During the ring shout African Americans shuffle their feet on the floor or ground without removing their feet from the floor in order to create static electricity from the earth to connect with the spiritual energy of the earth. By connecting with the spiritual energy of the earth they are also connecting with the spirit of the creator because God created the earth; this is bringing down the spirit. Also, this is done to connect with ancestral spirits. This practice includes singing and clapping. The spiritual energy intensifies until someone is pulled into the center of the ring shout by the spirit that was brought down. This is done to allow spirit to enter and govern the ring. Researchers noticed the African American ring shout look similar to counterclockwise circle dances in West Africa. In West Africa during a funeral, a counterclockwise circle dance is performed to send the soul to the ancestral realm (land of the dead), because energy and souls travel in a circle. This practice in West Africa continued in the Gullah Geechee Nation where African Americans perform a ring shout over a person's grave to send their soul to the ancestral realm. In addition, the ring shout is performed for other special occasions not associated with death. The ring shout continues today in Georgia with the McIntosh County Shouters. In 2016, Vice News went to St. Helena Island, South Carolina and interviewed African Americans in the Gullah Geechee Nation and recorded some of their spiritual traditions and cultural practices. Their recordings showed African cultural and spiritual practices that survived in the Gullah Nation in South Carolina. The video showed a ring shout, singing, and other traditions. In addition, African Americans in South Carolina are fighting to keep their traditions alive despite gentrification of some of their communities. In 2017, the Smithsonian Institution interviewed African Americans and recorded the ring shout tradition practiced in the Gullah Geechee Nation in Georgia. The songs sung during the ring shout and in shouting originated from their ancestors from Africa who replaced African songs and chants with Christian songs and biblical references. Hoodoo initiations This seeking process in Hoodoo accompanied with the ring shout is also an initiation into Hoodoo. African Americans in the Sea Islands (Gullah Geechee people) performed initiations of community members by combining West African initiation practices with Christian practices called "Seeking Jesus." Young people spent time in nature "seeking Jesus," and received guidance from Black religious leaders. The spiritual mothers of the African American community provided prophetic guidance to those "seeking." After their initiation, initiates were accepted into the religious black community. Zora Neale Hurston wrote about her initiation into Hoodoo in her book Mules and Men published in 1935. Hurston explained her initiation into Hoodoo included wrapped snakeskins around her body, and lying on a couch (sofa) for three days nude so she could have a vision and acceptance from the spirits. In addition to lying on a couch nude wrapped in snakeskins for her initiation, Hurston had to drink the blood of the Hoodoo doctors who initiated her from a wine glass cup. There are other ways people become a Hoodoo doctor. One is through a mentor under an apprenticeship or they were born into a family of practitioners. Initiations are not required to become a Hoodoo doctor or rootworker. Bottle tree Hoodoo is linked to a popular tradition of bottle trees in the United States. According to gardener and glass bottle researcher Felder Rushing, the use of bottle trees came to the Old South from Africa with the slave trade. The use of blue bottles is linked to the "haint blue" spirit specifically. Glass bottle trees have become a popular garden decoration throughout the South and Southwest. According to academic research, the origins of bottle trees practiced by African Americans has its origins from the Kongo region. The bottle tree practice was found in the Kongo region in Central Africa and in the Caribbean practiced by Blacks. African descended people in the African Diaspora decorated trees with bottles, plates, pieces of broken pots, and other items to drive away evil. This practice was brought to the United States during the transatlantic slave trade. The purpose of bottle trees is to protect a home or a location from evil spirits by trapping evil spirits inside the bottles. How bottle trees worked was that spirits would be attracted to the sunlight that is seen flickering inside the bottle as the sunlight passes through it trapping the spirit in the bottle and banishing the spirit with sunlight. Sometimes items such as stones or graveyard dirt is placed inside the bottle to further attract the spirit to the bottle in order to trap it. Personal concerns In Hoodoo, personal concerns are used such as, hair, nail-clippings, blood, bones, and other bodily fluids are mixed with ingredients for either a positive or a negative effect. These items are placed inside conjure bags or jars and mixed with roots, herbs, animal parts, and graveyard dirt from a murdered victim's grave and sometimes ground into a powder. The cursed items are buried under a person's steps to cause misfortune. To prevent from being "fixed" (cursed) it is considered a good idea to burn loose hairs, combed or fallen from the head, so a conjurer cannot make a cursing powder from a person's hair. Placing personal concerns in containers and burying them to cause harm was found in West African countries of Nigeria and Benin. Spirit mediation The purpose of Hoodoo was to allow people access to supernatural forces to improve their lives. Hoodoo is purported to help people attain power or success ("luck") in many areas of life including money, love, health, and employment. As in many other spiritual and medical folk practices, extensive use is made of herbs, minerals, parts of animals' bodies, an individual's possessions, candles, colored candles, incense, and other spiritual tools are used in Hoodoo to bring healing, protection, love and luck. For example, to prevent separation of a husband and wife couples relied on rootwork and conjure. One example documented in a slave narrative was to take a rabbit's forefoot, a loadstone, take nine hairs from the top of the head, and place all ingredients in a red flannel bag and bury it under the steps at the front door. To protect from conjure, a hole was punched through a dime and a string was inserted inside the hole and the dime was tied to the left ankle. In Hoodoo, men who want to keep their wife faithful will take her slip or piece of her bra and for each night tie nine knots with it, and the man should wear this in his pocket which will prevent his wife from having an affair. Chickens are used in rootwork and conjure to find a "work" (spell) a conjurer buried in the ground to cause misfortune. In West-Central Africa and in the Gullah Geechee Nation in the South Carolina and Georgia Lowcountry, chickens are free to roam the property as they have a natural spiritual ability to locate cursed items buried in the ground. How Hoodoo magic works is by working with the spirits of roots, herbs, insects, calling ancestors, and other spirits to activate the work for manifestation. Contact with ancestors or other spirits of the dead is an important practice within the conjure tradition, and the recitation of psalms from the Bible is also considered spiritually influential in Hoodoo. Due to Hoodoo's great emphasis on an individual's spiritual power to affect desired change in the course of events, Hoodoo's principles are believed to be accessible for use by any individual of faith.Hoodoo practice does not require a formally designated minister. Offerings The West and Central African practice of leaving food offerings for deceased relatives and to feed the spirits either ancestors or petition other spirits that are not ancestors by giving them offerings of food, water, or rum (whiskey) continues in the practice of Hoodoo. Providing spirits offerings of libation empowers the spirits because it feeds them. Also it honors the spirits by acknowledging their existence. These offerings of food and liquids and the pouring of libations are left at gravesites or at a tree. This practice of offerings and libations is practiced in the Central African country of Gabon and other parts of Africa and was brought to the United States during the transatlantic slave trade. Animal sacrifice Animal sacrifice is a traditional practice in Africa. It is done as an offering to the spirits, and also to ask a spirit to provide protection, healing, and other requests. When Africans were enslaved in the United States the practice continued in Voodoo and Hoodoo. The animals that are sacrificed are chickens. In West Africa among the Yoruba, blood sacrifices are left for Eshu-Elegba at the crossroads. The crossroads is a spiritual door way to the spiritual realm where Eshu-Elegba resides. This practice was brought to the United States during the transatlantic slave trade, and African Americans into the twentieth century performed animal blood sacrifices at the crossroads. Eshu-Elegba became the crossroads spirit or the man of the crossroads in Hoodoo. In Hoodoo, animal sacrifice has become a rare practice in the African American community. However, animal sacrifice was documented in Hoodoo even into the late nineteenth century and into mid-twentieth century. For example, in Hoodoo, animal sacrifices are sometimes done at the crossroads as an offering to the crossroad spirit and to ask the spirit or spirits for a request. At Stagville Plantation located in Durham County, North Carolina, enslaved Africans performed animal sacrifice to call forth spirits for assistance in the slave community. At the Kingsley Plantation at Fort George Island, Florida, archeologists found evidence of West African animal sacrifice inside a slave cabin. West-Central African people were illegally imported into Florida after 1814 by plantation owner Kingsley. The African people imported were Igbo, Senegambian, Angolan, and from Zanzibar. The spiritual cultures of these enslaved Africans fused into one Voodoo and Hoodoo culture on the plantation. Archeologists found inside a slave cabin in the northeast section an intact sacrificed chicken and other charms (blue beads and red clay brick) for rituals to conjure spirits for protection. In 1883 in Alabama, a rootworker sacrificed a chicken to leave a blood offering to the spirits to remove a spiritual work (spell). An African American man in North Carolina sacrificed a chicken at a crossroads "asking salvation from an epidemic" from a disease that killed off his farm animals. Zora Neale Hurston recorded in her book Mules and Men an animal sacrifice of nine black chickens in the twentieth century. A Hoodoo man named Turner in New Orleans, Louisiana performed an animal sacrifice for a client who wanted her brother in-law to leave her alone. Turner sat at his snake altar and meditated on his clients situation, and afterwards told Hurston to purchase nine black chickens and some Four Thieves Vinegar. Turner and Hurston performed a ritual including the nine black chickens and Four Thieves Vinegar at night to ask the spirits and the spirits of the chickens sacrificed for his clients brother in-law to stop bothering her. The ritual included Turner dancing in a circle swirling the chickens in his hand, and killed them by taking off their heads, and Hurston continued to beat the ground with a stick in order to produce a rhythmic sound in sync with Turner's dancing. Where the ritual took place Four Thieves Vinegar was poured onto the ground. In some African American Spiritual churches, the sacrifice of live chickens to heal church members was practiced in a Spiritual church in New Orleans by Mother Catherine Seals in the early to mid-twentieth century. Divination Divination in Hoodoo originated from African practices. In West-Central Africa, divination was (and is) used to determine what an individual or a community should know that is important for survival and spiritual balance. In Africa and in Hoodoo, people turn to divination seeking guidance about major changes in their life from an elder or a skilled diviner. This practice was brought to the United States during the transatlantic slave trade and was later influenced by other systems of divination. There are several forms of divination traditionally used in Hoodoo. Cleromancy Cleromancy is the practice of casting small objects such as shells, bones, stalks, coins, nuts, stones, dice, and sticks for an answer from spirit. The use of bones, sticks, shells and other items is a form of divination used in Africa and in Hoodoo in the United States. Cartomancy Cartomancy is the practice of using Tarot and poker playing cards to receive messages from spirit. This form of divination was added later in Hoodoo. There are some Hoodoo practitioners that use both. Dominoe divination Rootworkers also divine with dominoes. Astrology Practitioners sometimes incorporate planetary and elemental energies in their spiritual work (spells). Rootworkers in Indiana trained under African-American astrologers in black communities. Numerology is also used in Hoodoo and combined with astrology for spiritual works. African-Americans in Indiana (in the 1980s into present day) combine numerology, astrology, African mysticism and Voodoo and Hoodoo creating a new spiritual divination practice and system of magic unique to African-Americans. For example, Nat Turner took the sign of an eclipse of the sun as a sign from God to start his slave revolt in Southampton County, Virginia in 1831. Augury The practice of Augury is deciphering phenomena (omens) that are believed to foretell the future, often signifying the advent of change. Before his rebellion, Nat Turner had visions and omens from spirit to free the enslaved through armed resistance. In African American communities a child born with a caul over their face is believed to have psychic gifts to see spirits and see into the future. This belief in the caul on a baby's face brings psychic gifts was found in West Africa in Benin (Dahomey). After the baby is born, the caul is taken off the baby's face and is preserved and used to drive away (or banish) ghosts. It is believed a child born at midnight will have second sight or extrasensory perception about events. Oneiromancy Oneiromancy is a form of divination based upon dreams. Former slaves talked about receiving messages from ancestors and spirits about impending danger or advice about how to save money. Walking boy The walking boy was a traditional form of divination practiced by African Americans on slave plantations, and the practiced continued after chattel slavery. A conjurer would take a bottle and tie a string to it and place a bug inside the bottle. The conjurer pulled the bottle as the bug moved. What ever direction the bug moved inside the bottle the conjurer knew where a spell bottle was buried that caused misfortune or where the person lived who buried the bottle. In the history of Hoodoo, Aunt Caroline Dye was a Hoodoo woman born enslaved in Spartanburg, South Carolina, and moved to Arkansas in her adult life. Aunt Caroline Dye was known for her psychic abilities, and used a deck of cards and provided spiritual readings for black people and whites. Aunt Caroline Dye's psychic abilities were so well known that several blues songs were written about her by African American blues musicians. History Antebellum era Hoodoo developed as a primarily Central and West African retention. From Central Africa, Hoodoo has Bakongo magical influence from the Bukongo religion incorporating the Kongo cosmogram, water spirits called Simbi, and some Nkisi and Minkisi practices. The West African influence is Vodun from the Fon and Ewe people in Benin and Togo and some elements from the Yoruba religion. After their contact with European slave traders, Africans were forced to become Christian which resulted in a blend of African spiritual beliefs with the Christian faith. Enslaved and free Africans also learned some regional indigenous botanical knowledge after they arrived to the United States. The extent to which Hoodoo could be practiced varied by region and the temperament of the slave owners. For example, the Gullah people of the coastal Southeast experienced an isolation and relative freedom that allowed retention of various traditional West African cultural practices; whereas rootwork in the Mississippi Delta, where the concentration of enslaved African-Americans was dense, was practiced under a large cover of secrecy. The reason for secrecy among enslaved and free African Americans was that slave codes prohibited large gatherings of enslaved and free blacks. Slaveholders experienced how slave religion ignited slave revolts among enslaved and free blacks, and some leaders of slave insurrections were black ministers or conjure doctors. The Code Noir in French colonial Louisiana, prohibited and made it illegal for enslaved Africans to practice their traditional religions. Article III in the Code Noir states: "We forbid any public exercise of any religion other than Catholic." The Code Noir and other slave laws resulted in enslaved and free African Americans to conduct their spiritual practices in secluded areas such as woods (hush arbors), churches, and other places. Enslaved people created methods to decrease their noise when they practiced their spirituality. In a slave narrative from Arkansas, enslaved people prayed under pots to decrease their noise to prevent nearby whites from hearing them have church. A former slave in Arkansas named John Hunter said the slaves went to a secret house only they knew and turn the iron pots face up and their slaveholder could not hear them. Enslaved people also placed sticks under wash pots about a foot from the ground to decrease their noise as the sound they made during their rituals went into the pots. Former slave and abolitionist William Wells Brown, wrote in his book, My southern home, or, The South and its people published in 1880, discussed the life of enslaved people in St. Louis, Missouri. Brown recorded a secret Voudoo ceremony at midnight in the city of St. Louis. Enslaved people circled around a cauldron, and a Voudoo queen had a magic wand, and snakes, lizards, frogs, and other animal parts were thrown into the cauldron. During the ceremony spirit possession took place. Brown also recorded other conjure (Hoodoo) practices among the enslaved population. Enslaved Africans in America held on to their African culture. Scholars assert that Christianity did not have much of an influence on some of the enslaved Africans as they continued to practice their traditional spiritual practices, and that Hoodoo was a form of resistance against slavery whereby enslaved Africans hid their traditions using the Christian religion against their slaveholders. This branch of Christianity among the enslaved was concealed from slaveholders in "invisible churches." Invisible churches were secret churches where enslaved African Americans combined Hoodoo with Christianity. Enslaved and free black ministers preached resistance to slavery and that the power of God through praise and worship and Hoodoo rituals will free enslaved people from bondage. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (W. E. B. Du Bois) studied African American churches in the early twentieth century. Du Bois asserts that the early years of the Black church during slavery on plantations was influenced by Voodooism. Known hoodoo spells date back to the era of slavery in the colonial history of the United States. A slave revolt broke out in 1712 in colonial New York, with enslaved Africans revolting and set fire to buildings in the downtown area. The leader of the revolt was a free African conjurer named Peter the Doctor who made a magical powder for the slaves to be rubbed on the body and clothes for their protection and empowerment. The Africans that revolted were Akan people from Ghana. Historians suggests the powder made by Peter the Doctor probably included some cemetery dirt to conjure the ancestors to provide spiritual militaristic support from ancestral spirits as help during the slave revolt. The Bakongo people in Central Africa incorporate cemetery dirt into minkisi conjuring bags to activate it with ancestral spirits, and during the slave trade Bakongo people were brought to colonial New York. The New York slave revolt of 1712 and others in the United States, showed a blending of West and Central African spiritual practices among enslaved and free blacks. Conjure bags, also called mojo bags, were used as a form of resistance against slavery. William Webb helped enslaved people on a plantation in Kentucky resist their oppressors with the use of mojo bags. Webb told the slaves to gather some roots and put them in bags and "march around the cabins several times and point the bags toward the master's house every morning." After the slaves did what they were instructed by Webb, the slaveholder treated his slaves better. Another enslaved African named Dinkie, known by the slaves as Dinkie King of Voudoos and the Goopher King, on a plantation in St. Louis, used goofer dust to resist a cruel overseer (a person who is an overseer of slaves). Dinkie was an enslaved man on a plantation who never worked like the other slaves. He was feared and respected by blacks and whites. Dinkie was known to carry a dried snakeskin, frog and lizard, and sprinkled goofer dust on himself and spoke to the spirit of the snake to wake up its spirit against the overseer. Henry Clay Bruce who was a black abolitionist and writer, recorded his experience of enslaved people on a plantation in Virginia hired a conjurer to prevent slaveholders from selling them to plantations in the Deep South. Louis Hughes, an enslaved man who lived on plantations in Tennessee and Mississippi, had a mojo bag that he carried to prevent slaveholders from whipping him. The mojo bag Hughes carried on him was called a "voodoo bag," by the slaves in the area. Former slave and abolitionist Henry Bibb wrote in his autobiography Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Henry Bibb, An American Slave, Written by Himself that he sought the help of several conjurers when he was enslaved. Bibb went to the conjurers (Hoodoo doctors) and hoped the charms provided to him from the conjure doctors would prevent slaveholders from whipping and beating him. The conjurers provided Bibb with conjure powders to sprinkle around the bed of the slaveholder, put conjure powders in the slaveholder's shoes, and carry a bitter root and other charms on him for his protection against slaveholders. In Alabama slave narratives, it was documented that former slaves used graveyard dirt to escape from slavery on the Underground Railroad. Freedom seekers rubbed graveyard dirt on the bottom of their feet or put graveyard dirt in their tracks to prevent slave catcher's dogs from tracking their scent. Former slave Ruby Tartt from Alabama, said there was a conjurer who could "Hoodoo the dogs." An enslaved conjurer could conjure confusion in the slave catcher's dogs which prevented whites from catching runaway slaves. In other narratives, enslaved people made a jack ball to know if a slave would be whipped or not. Enslaved people chewed and spit the juices of roots near their enslavers secretly to calm the emotions of the slaveholders which prevented whippings. Enslaved people relied on conjurers to prevent whippings and being sold further South. A story from a former slave named, Mary Middleton, a Gullah woman from the South Carolina Sea Islands told of an incident of a slaveholder who was physically weakened from conjure. A slaveholder beat one his slaves badly. The slave he beat went to a conjurer and that conjurer made the slaveholder weak by sunset. Middleton said, "As soon as the sun was down, he was down too, he down yet. De witch done dat." Another slave story talked about an enslaved woman named Old Julie who was a conjure woman and was known among the slaves on the plantation to conjure death. Old Julie conjured so much death, her slaveholder sold her away to stop her from killing people on the plantation with conjure. Her enslaver put her on a steamboat to take her to her new slaveholder in the Deep South. According to the stories of freedmen after the Civil War, Old Julie used her conjure powers to turn the steamboat around back to where the boat was docked, which forced her slaveholder who tried to sell her away to keep her. Frederick Douglass, who was a former slave, and an abolitionist and author, wrote in his autobiography that he sought spiritual assistance from an enslaved conjurer named Sandy Jenkins. Sandy told Douglass to follow him into the woods where they found a root that Sandy told Douglass to carry in his right pocket to prevent any white man from whipping him. Douglass carried the root on his right side instructed by Sandy and hoped the root would work when he returned to the plantation. The cruel slave-breaker Mr. Covey told Douglass to do some work, but as Mr. Covey approached Douglass, Douglass had the strength and courage to resist Mr. Covey and defeated him after they fought. Covey never bothered Douglass again. In his autobiography, Douglass believed the root given to him by Sandy prevented him from being whipped by Mr. Covey. Hoodoo or conjure for African Americans is a form of resistance against white supremacy. African American conjurers were seen as a threat by white Americans because enslaved people went to free and enslaved conjurers to receive charms for protection and revenge against their slaveholders. During the era of slavery, occultist Paschal Beverly Randolph began studying the occult and traveled and learned spiritual practices in Africa and Europe. Randolph was a mixed race free black man who wrote several books on the occult. In addition, Randolph was an abolitionist and spoke out against the practice of slavery in the South. After the American Civil War, Randolph educated freedmen in schools for former slaves called Freedmen's Bureau Schools in New Orleans, Louisiana, where he studied Louisiana Voodoo and Hoodoo in African American communities, documenting his findings in his book, Seership, The Magnetic Mirror. In 1874, Randolph organized a spiritual organization called Brotherhood of Eulis in Tennessee. Through his travels, Randolph documented the continued African traditions in Hoodoo practiced by African Americans in the South. Randolph documented two African American men of Kongo origin that used Kongo conjure practices against each other. The two conjure men came from a slave ship that docked in Mobile Bay in 1860 or 1861. According to Randolph, the words Hoodoo and Voodoo are African dialects, and the practices of Hoodoo and Voodoo are similar to Obi (Obeah) in the Caribbean. The Caribbean influence in Hoodoo is evident in African American languages. For example, the word used to describe a rootworkers or Voodoo priest's pharmacy house (a house filled with herbs for herbal healing and conjure) is called an Obi hut or Obeah hut. Post-emancipation The term "Hoodoo" was first documented in American English in 1870 as a noun (the practice of hoodoo) or as a transitive verb, as in "I hoodoo you," an action carried out by varying means. The hoodoo could be manifest in a healing potion, or in the exercise of a parapsychological power, or as the cause of harm which befalls the targeted victim. In African-American Vernacular English (AAVE), Hoodoo is often used to refer to a paranormal consciousness or spiritual hypnosis, or a spell, but Hoodoo may also be used as an adjective in reference to a practitioner, such as "Hoodoo man." According to Paschal Berverly Randolph, the word Hoodoo is an African dialect. According to scholars, the origin of the word hoodoo and other words associated with the practice were traced to the Bight of Benin and Senegambia. For example, in West Africa the word gris-gris (a conjure bag) is a Mande word. The word wanga (another word for mojo bag) comes from the Kikongo language. The mobility of Black people from the rural South to more urban areas in the North is characterized by the items used in Hoodoo. White pharmacists opened their shops in African American communities and began to offer items both asked for by their customers, as well as things they themselves felt would be of use. Examples of the adoption of occultism and mysticism may be seen in the colored wax candles in glass jars that are often labeled for specific purposes such as "Fast Luck" or "Love Drawing." There were some African Americans that sold Hoodoo products in the black community. An African American woman, Mattie Sampson, worked as a sales person in an active mail order business selling hoodoo products to her neighbors in Georgia. Since the opening of Botanicas, Hoodoo practitioners purchase their spiritual supplies of novena candles, incense, herbs, conjure oils and other items from spiritual shops that service practitioners of Vodou, Santeria, and other African Traditional Religions. Hoodoo spread throughout the United States as African-Americans left the delta during the Great Migration. As African Americans left the South during the Great Migration, they took the practice of Hoodoo to other black communities in the North. Benjamin Rucker, also known as Black Herman, provided Hoodoo services for African Americans in the North and the South when he traveled as a stage magician. Benjamin Rucker was born in Virginia in 1892. Rucker learned stage magic and conjure from an African American named Prince Herman (Alonzo Moore). After Prince Herman's death, Rucker changed his name in honor of his teacher to Black Herman. Black Herman traveled between the North and South and provided conjure services in black communities, such as card readings, crafting health tonics, and other services. However, Jim Crow laws pushed Black Herman to Harlem, New York's black community where he operated his own hoodoo business and provided rootwork services to his clients. For some African Americans that practiced rootwork, providing hoodoo services in the black community for African Americans to obtain love, money, employment, and protection from the police was a way to help black people during the Jim Crow era in the United States so blacks can gain employment to support their families, and for their protection against the law. As black people traveled to northern areas, Hoodoo rituals were modified because there were not a lot of rural country areas to perform rituals in woods or near rivers. Therefore, African-Americans improvised their rituals inside their homes or secluded areas in the city. Herbs and roots needed were not gathered in nature but bought in spiritual shops. These spiritual shops near black neighborhoods sold botanicals and books used in modern Hoodoo. The Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses is a grimoire that was made popular by European immigrants. Purportedly based on Jewish Kabbalah, it contains numerous signs, seals, and passages in Hebrew related to the prophet Moses' ability to work wonders. Though its authorship is attributed to Moses, the oldest manuscript dates to the mid-19th century. However, the Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses is not traditional in Hoodoo. White Americans marketed Hoodoo to African Americans for their own personal profit which was not planned to maintain the African traditions in Hoodoo. The incorporation of European grimoires into Hoodoo began in the twentieth century during the Great Migration as African Americans left the South to live and work in Northern cities living near European immigrants. However, the Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses has become a part of modern Hoodoo, because African Americans connected to the story of Moses freeing the Hebrews from slavery in Egypt, and Moses' magical powers against the Egyptians. Also, African Americans practiced Hoodoo centuries before the introduction of European grimoires. Hoodoo developed on slave plantations in the United States, and enslaved and free blacks used conjure as a form of resistance against slavery. Conjure practices in the slave community and among free blacks remained Central and West African in origin which Hoodoo practices included the ring shout, dream divination, Bible conjure, spiritual use of herbs, conjure powders, conjure bags (mojo bags), and drawing Kongo cosmogram engravings (an X) on floors to protect themselves from a harsh slaveholder. For example, Gullah Jack was an African from Angola who brought a conjure bag onto a slave vessel leaving Angola going to the United States for his spiritual protection against slavery. "Blacks utilized conjure as a form of resistance, revenge, and self-dense." After the American Civil War into the present day with the Black Lives Matter movement, Hoodoo practices in the African American community also focus on spiritual protection from police brutality. Today, Hoodoo and other African Traditional Religions are present in the Black Lives Matter movement as one of many methods against police brutality and racism in the black community. Black American keynote speakers that are practitioners of Hoodoo spoke at an event at The Department of Arts and Humanities at California State University about the importance of Hoodoo and other African spiritual traditions practiced in social justice movements to liberate black people from oppression. African Americans in various African diaspora religions spiritually heal their communities by establishing healing centers that provide emotional and spiritual healing from police brutality. In addition, altars with white candles and offerings are placed in areas where an African American was murdered by police, and libation ceremonies and other spiritual practices are performed to heal the soul that died from racial violence. Hoodoo and the Spiritual church movement The Spiritual church movement in the United States began in the mid-nineteenth century. The African American community was a part of this movement beginning in the early twentieth century, and several spiritual churches were in African American communities. African Americans started independent spiritual churches as a way for them to hide their African practices from whites by synchronizing African traditions with the Christian faith. Some Black Spiritual churches incorporated elements of Hoodoo and Voodoo practices. There were some spiritual churches documented by Zora Neale Hurston that incorporated Hoodoo practices. A spiritual church in New Orleans led by an African American woman named Mother Catherine Seals performed Hoodoo to heal her clients. Mother Catherine Seals healed a church member sacrificing a chicken by slitting it live and tied it to a person's leg for two days. This is a continued African tradition of using chickens to heal and conjure protection. Other African Diaspora practices Mother Catherine Seals incorporated into her Spiritual church was noted by Zora Neale Hurston was Seals reverence to a Haitian Vodou snake loa spirit Damballa. A snake design was painted on a wall at Mother Seals church. Another African American Spiritual church leader had a plastic snake on his altar. Snake reverence among African Americans in Voodoo and Hoodoo originates from West Africa. An African American named Washington "Doc" Harris founded the Saint Paul Spiritual Holy Temple in Memphis, Tennessee. The Spiritual church was nicknamed by the blacks in the area as "Voodoo Village." Although no actual Voodoo took place inside his Spiritual church; however, Hoodoo was practiced in the church. Doc Harris was known to make mojo bags that looked similar to the Kongo-based minkisi bundles, and he removed curses from people using Hoodoo. Doc Harris built his church in a secluded area in the black community so he and his family can practice their traditions in private. African Americans in Spiritual churches blended African spiritual traditions and African spirits with Christianity creating a uniquely African-American religion. African American Hoodoo religious and spiritual leaders in Spiritual churches did not refer to themselves as rootworkers or Hoodoo doctors, but as "spiritual advisors," to avoid negative attention from their community and the local authorities. Hiding Hoodoo practices inside Black churches was necessary for African Americans because some people were lynched for practicing Hoodoo. In September 1901 the newspaper, the Chicago Tribune, reported two people were lynched for practicing hoodooism. Despite these circumstances, African American spiritual churches provided food and other services for the black community. Hoodoo and the Sanctified church Another spiritual institution African Americans hid their Hoodoo practices was in the Sanctified Church. Bishop Charles Harrison Mason and other African American ministers founded the Church of God in Christ in the early twentieth century which has a predominantly African American membership. Author Zora Neal Hurston wrote in her book The Sanctified Church, the spiritual beliefs and conjure practices of the Black congregation in Sanctified Churches. African Americans talked about nailing a horse shoe over the door to ward off evil and making conjure balls to remove diseases. British historians traced the origins of the creation of conjure balls in hoodoo to the West African practice of creating gris-gris charms and the Central African practice of creating minkisi containers. As white spiritual merchants exploited Hoodoo and turned it into just tricks and spells, African Americans moved more of the traditional Hoodoo practices of animal sacrifice, incorporating animal parts in spiritual work, Holy Ghost shouting, the ring shout, and other practices were synchronized with Christianity which took the Hoodoo practiced by African Americans underground. Some Sanctified Churches in African American communities still incorporate Hoodoo. African American religious institutions are not just places of worship and spirituality, but are also places to discuss injustices in their communities and how to unite to bring about political and spiritual transformations for African Americans. Hoodoo In literature Zora Neale Hurston often employs Hoodoo imagery and references into her literature. In Sweat, the protagonist Delia is a washwoman with a fear of snakes. Her cruel husband, Sykes, is a devotee of Li Grande Zombi and uses her ophidiophobia against her to establish dominance. Delia learns Voodoo and Hoodoo and manages to hex Sykes. Another book by Zora Neale Hurston features hoodoo hexes and spells as well as a Hoodoo doctor. Zora Neale Hurston's professional career was an anthropologist and a writer. Hurston documented African American folklore and spiritual practices in Black communities in the United States and the Caribbean. Hurston traveled to Eatonville, Florida and New Orleans, Louisiana and wrote about the spiritual practices of Blacks publishing her findings in books and articles providing readers knowledge of African American spirituality. Charles Waddell Chesnutt was a mixed race African American author who wrote African-American folklore in his literature using fiction to reference the culture of Hoodoo is his writings. In 1899, Chesnutt published The Conjure Woman that tells the story of African Americans after the Civil War and how they used conjure to fix their everyday problems. In addition, Chesnutt does not portray the African American characters in the book as racially inferior to whites. The African Americans in the book use their wit and intelligence combining hoodoo practices to solve their problems. The style of writing is phonetic. Chesnutt wrote the book how African Americans in the South spoke during his time. This allows readers an example of African American Vernacular and culture. Also, the book discusses the North's economic opportunist exploitation of the South during the Reconstruction Era and how African Americans navigated through this process in their communities. Another writer who focused on African American spirituality in their literature is Ishmael Reed. Ishmael Reed criticizes the erasure of the African American from the American frontier narrative, as well as exposing the racist context of the American dream and the cultural evolution of the military-industrial complex. He explores the role of Hoodoo in the forging of a uniquely African-American culture. Reed writes about the Neo-hoo-doo aesthetic in aspects of African American culture such as dance, poetry and quilting. His book Mumbo Jumbo has many references to hoodoo. Mumbo Jumbo has been considered as representing the relationship between the westernized African American narrative and the demands of the western literary canon, and the African tradition at the heart of hoodoo that has defied assimilation. In his book Yellow Back Radio Broke-Down, the protagonist the Loop Garoo kid acts as an American frontier travelling with the hoodoo church and cursing 'Drag Gibson' the monocultural white American landowner. In Mama Day by Gloria Naylor, Mama day is a conjure woman with an encyclopedic knowledge of plants and the ability to contact her ancestors. The book focuses on benevolent aspects of Hoodoo as a means of elders helping the community and carrying on a tradition, with her saving Bernice's fertility. Sassafrass, Cypress & Indigo also explores the deep connection between community empowerment and Hoodoo, in the story, Indigo has healing abilities and makes hoodoo dolls. Toni Morrison makes references to African American spirituality in her literature. Morrison's novel, Song of Solomon published in 1977, tells the story of the character Milkman an African American in search of his African ancestors. Milkman lived in the North but returned to the South in search of his ancestry. By the end of the book Milkman learns he comes from a family of African medicine people and gained his ancestral powers and his soul flew back to Africa after he died. Morrison's idea of Milkman flying back to Africa was inspired by a historical event in Georgia that has become apart of African American folklore of flying Africans. In 1803, a slave ship landed on the coast of Georgia in St. Simons Island with captive Africans from Nigeria with a cargo of Igbo people. Some of the Igbo people chose suicide than a life time of slavery by walking into the swamp and drowning. This location became known as Igbo landing in Georgia. According to African American folklore, the Igbos that committed suicide their souls flew back to Africa. Slave narratives In the 1930s, the Federal Writers' Project part of the Works Progress Administration during the Great Depression, provided jobs for unemployed writers to write and collect the experiences of former slaves. Writers, black and white, documented the experiences of the last generation of African Americans born into slavery. Former African American slaves told writers about their slave experience which provided readers a glimpse into the lives of the enslaved. Slave narratives revealed the culture of African Americans during slavery. African American former slaves talked about conjure, rootwork, and Hoodoo. Former slaves talked about healing with herbs, removing curses using Hoodoo, talking to spirits, using graveyard dirt to curse people, divination with cards and a walking boy, Hoodoo in Black churches, hiding conjure practices from their enslavers, cursing their slaveholders using Hoodoo, animal sacrifice, and other conjure practices. Some of the African American former slaves told writers what region of Africa their family is from. These regions were the Kongo or regions in West Africa. Former slaves talked about their families culture came from a family member from Africa. Slave narratives are good sources to know how slavery impacted the lives of African Americans, and how Hoodoo was used by the enslaved to free themselves. The Library of Congress has 2,300 first-person accounts from former slaves in their digital archive. In slave narratives, African Americans revealed some of them were kidnapped directly from Africa and brought to America. These slave narratives coincide with the illegal slave trade. In 1807, the 9th United States Congress passed an act that prohibited the importation of slaves from Africa. However, this act did not stop illegal smuggling of enslaved Africans to the United States. The illegal slave trade continued into the 1860s, and sometimes resulted in a re-Africanization of African American culture with the importation of new Africans to the United States. Some of these illegal slave trades were documented in American history. For example, the slave ship the Wanderer landed in Jekyll Island, Georgia in 1858 with a cargo of 409 Africans. The Wanderer departed near the Congo River in Central Africa. In the 1930s, a local chapter of the Federal Writers' Project in Savannah, Georgia called the Georgia Writers' Project interviewed former slaves and descendants of former slaves who either came directly from Africa on the slave ship the Wanderer or a family member came from Africa on the Wanderer and published their findings in a book called, "Drums and Shadows Survival Studies Among the Georgia Coastal Negroes." The Georgia Writers' Project documented Hoodoo and conjure practices among African Americans in Georgia and traced the practices to West Africa and the Kongo region as some African Americans know what region in Africa a family member is from. One woman interviewed in St. Simons, Georgia said her father came from Africa on the slave ship the Wanderer. She thinks her father was Igbo and he talked about his life in Africa and the culture there and how it survived in her family. Other African Americans interviewed talked about the origins of their conjure practices came from the Ewe and Kongo people. For example, in West Africa graveyard dirt is placed inside conjure bags for protection against Juju. The West African practice of using graveyard dirt continues in the United States in black communities today in the African American tradition of Hoodoo. Africatown located north of Mobile, Alabama is another example of the illegal slave trade and African culture in the United States. In 2012, Africatown was placed on the National Register of Historic Places for its significance in African American history. On July 8, 1860, the slave ship Clotilda was the last slave ship to transport Africans to the United States. The Clotilda entered the Mississippi Sound in Alabama with 110 Africans. The Africans imported to Alabama illegally came from West Africa, and the ethnic groups coming from the region were Yoruba, Fon, Ewe, and Atakora. Each group brought their religions and languages. Some in the group practiced West African Vodun, Islam, and the Yoruba religion. Mobile, Alabama became the home for these diverse Africans where their religious and spiritual practices blended with Christianity. After the Civil War, a group of 32 Africans founded their own community calling it Africatown. In their community, they practiced African burial practices of their dead. African names were given to their children so they will know what region in Africa their ancestry is from. Zora Neale Hurston wrote a book about Africatown called, Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo". Hurston interviewed Cudjoe Lewis one of the founders of Africatown and one of few who survived the last Middle Passage to the United States. Scholars estimate about 250,000 enslaved Africans were brought to the United States illegally between 1808 and 1859. This resulted in the further Africanization of African American spirituality in the coastal regions of the Southeast, because many of the North American slave ships landed in the coastal areas in the South. Hoodoo in blues music Several African American blues singers and musicians composed songs about the culture of Hoodoo. They were W.C. Handy, Bessie Smith, Robert Johnson, Big Lucky Carter, Al Williams and others. African American blues performers was influenced by the culture of Hoodoo and wrote songs about mojo bags, love workings, and spirits. "While the blues captured the black experience in song, they also served as a prime conduit for African American supernatural beliefs." Hoodoo remained a concealed practice in Black America. African American blues performers brought Hoodoo out from the secret communities of black neighborhoods into the awareness of the American mainstream population. For many white Americans in the mid-twentieth century, they were introduced to the practice of hoodoo by listening to African American blues musicians. In the lyrics of blues, singers revealed tricks to keep lovers faithful. One blues song by Gertrude Ma Rainey called Louisiana Hoodoo Blues mentioned a hoodoo work to keep a man faithful: "Take some of you hair, boil it in a pot, Take some of your clothes, tie them in a knot, Put them in a snuff can, bury them under the step, Then you wouldn't want, baby, nobody else." In 1957 the Muddy Waters song Got My Mojo Working spoke about the spiritual power of the mojo bag. Another blues musician in Hoodoo is Robert Johnson. Robert Johnson is known in the history of Hoodoo for his song about selling his soul to the devil (a black man with a cane) at the crossroads to become a better musician. Some authors suggests the origins of this practice in Hoodoo about crossroads spirits comes from Africa. According to Kail's conversations with a New Orleans Voudou priestess Papa Legba is a spirit that resides at crossroads and opens the doors to the spirit realm. He carries a cane and is a black man, just like in the story of Robert Johnson. However, Papa Legba is more associated with Haitian Vodou and not Hoodoo. Papa Legba's origins may come from the Yoruba West African trickster spirit Eshu-Elegba who also resides at crossroads. Traditional Hoodoo vs. Marketeered Hoodoo The culture of Hoodoo was created by African Americans. There are regional styles to this tradition, and as African Americans traveled the tradition of Hoodoo changes according to African Americans' environment. Hoodoo includes reverence to ancestral spirits, African-American quilt making, animal sacrifice, herbal healing, Bakongo and Igbo burial practices, Holy Ghost shouting, praise houses, snake reverence, African American churches, spirit possession, nkisi and minkisi practices, Black Spiritual churches, Black theology, the ring shout, the Kongo cosmogram, Simbi nature spirits, graveyard conjure, the crossroads spirit, making conjure canes, incorporating animal parts, pouring of libations, Bible conjure, and conjuring in the African American tradition. By the twentieth century, white drugstore owners and mail-order companies owned by white Americans changed the culture of Hoodoo. The Hoodoo that is practiced outside the African American community is not the Hoodoo that was created by African Americans. It is called "marketeered" Hoodoo. Other words for marketeered Hoodoo are commercialized or tourist Hoodoo. Hoodoo was modified by white merchants and replaced with fabricated practices and tools while some of the Hoodoo practices by African Americans in the twentieth century into the present day went underground. Marketeered Hoodoo spread further outside the African American community into other communities when Hoodoo was marketed on the internet. There are a plethora of videos on the internet of people fabricating spells calling them Hoodoo and others claiming to be experts on Hoodoo and offering paid classes and writing books. As a result, people outside of the African American community think that marketeered Hoodoo is authentic Hoodoo. Scholars are concerned about the number of people who are not from the African American community writing books on Hoodoo, because they have reduced Hoodoo to just spells and tricks. That Hoodoo is all about how to hex people and cast candle spells for love and money. This portrays Hoodoo negatively, and turned it materialistic. For example, High John the Conqueror in African American folk stories is a black man from Africa enslaved in the United States whose spirit resides in a root that is used in Hoodoo. White American drugstore owners replaced conjure doctors in African American communities, and began putting an image of a white man on their High John the Conqueror product labels. As a result, some people do not know the African American folk hero High John the Conqueror is a black man. This is problematic, because it takes away from the voices of African Americans, and makes white spiritual merchants the authority on Hoodoo. The Hoodoo that is practiced by African Americans is defined by scholars as "Old Black Belt Hoodoo." Traditional Hoodoo of African American people went into hiding by the twentieth century into the present day. There is a spiritual philosophy in Hoodoo, and the tradition does have its own theology that is missing which was taken out by the spiritual merchants who wanted to profit from an African American spiritual tradition. Charlatans used Hoodoo to make money, and changed the tradition as a form of selfish magic that is all about spells for love, money, and hexes in order to sale candles, oils, and trinkets. This kind of Hoodoo presented by charlatans not from the black community is the Hoodoo that most people know. The Spiritual church, the Sanctified church, and praise houses in black communities is where traditional Hoodoo continues to be practiced by African Americans. According to some scholars, the research and understanding of African American Hoodoo should be examined from the Black American experience, and not from the interpretation of marketeers and exploiters that is found in books and online published by people who are not African American. White Americans want to appropriate Black culture and claim it as their own for profit, and to say they created or taught African Americans their culture. With the advent of the internet, African-American music and culture has become consumed more rapidly around the world on a daily basis. The internet resulted in the mass consumption and appropriation and sometimes mocking of black culture by whites and non-blacks in social media. Differences with voodoo religions Hoodoo shows evident links to the practices and beliefs of Fon and Ewe Vodun spiritual folkways. In the 1930s, the Georgia Writers' Project interviewed African Americans in Georgia who were one generation removed from the Ewe people and have found West African origins of the practice of Hoodoo. African Americans in Georgia told writers that a relative either their father, mother, or a grandparent came from West Africa. African Americans conjure practices in Georgia are similar to the Ewe people in West Africa. For example, how to make conjure bags (mojo bags), using graveyard dirt in conjure bags, how to conjure spirits, making conjure powders using animal parts with herbs and roots, and other conjure practices. The folkway of Vodun is a more standardized and widely dispersed spiritual practice than Hoodoo. Vodun's modern form is practiced across West Africa in the nations of Benin, Togo, and Burkina Faso, among others. In the Americas, the worship of the Vodoun loa is syncretized with Roman Catholic saints. The Vodou of Haiti, Voodoo of Louisiana, Vodú of Cuba, and the Vudú of the Dominican Republic are related more to Vodun than to Hoodoo. See also Black Seeds: The History of Africans in America References External links Hoodoo in America The Hoodoo Tarot 365 Days of Hoodoo by Stephanie Rose Bird | eBook Hoodoo:The Folk Magic of the African Diaspora Hoodoo: An Ancient African & Afro-diaspora Tradition Hoodoo: An Ancient African & Afro-diaspora Tradition Hoodoo: An Ancient African & Afro-diaspora Tradition African-American cultural history African Americans and religion Christianity and religious syncretism Folk religion Folklore of the Southern United States Religion in the Southern United States Supernatural legends

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20New%20Zealand%20Air%20Force

Royal New Zealand Air Force

The Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) (, "New Zealand Warriors of the Sky"; previously , "War Party of the Blue") is the aerial service branch of the New Zealand Defence Force. It was formed from New Zealand elements of the British Royal Air Force, becoming an independent force in 1923, although many RNZAF aircrew continued to serve in the Royal Air Force until the end of the 1940s. The RNZAF fought in World War II, Malaya, Korean War, Vietnam and the Gulf War as well as undertaking various United Nations peacekeeping missions. From a 1945 peak of over 1,000 combat aircraft the RNZAF has shrunk to a strength of around 49 active aircraft in 2021, primarily focusing on maritime patrol and transport duties in support of the Royal New Zealand Navy and the New Zealand Army. The RNZAF's air combat capability ended in 2001, under the Fifth Labour Government with the disbanding of the A-4 Skyhawk and Aermacchi MB-339 based squadrons. The Air Force is led by an air vice-marshal who holds the appointment of Chief of Air Force. The RNZAF motto is the same as that of the Royal Air Force, Per ardua ad astra, meaning "Through adversity to the stars". History New Zealand's military aviation began in 1913 when the New Zealand Army was presented with two Blériot monoplanes by the United Kingdom. These machines were grounded after a young woman was given a joyride. Both aircraft were however handed back after war broke out. World War I In the Great War, New Zealand aircrew flew as part of the Royal Flying Corps (British Army), British Royal Naval Air Service, and the Australian Flying Corps. New Zealand pilots serving with British Empire forces saw service in all theatres. Fifteen became aces, with the top scorer being Keith Caldwell having, depending on how it is counted, more than 24 victories. The government assisted two private schools to train pilots for the conflict. The Walsh brothers flying school at Auckland was founded by Leo and Vivian Walsh—pioneers who had made the first controlled flight in New Zealand. From 1915 pilots trained on the Walsh Brothers Flying Boats including Curtiss machines, aircraft of their own design and, later in the war, the first two aircraft made by Boeing. In 1916 Sir Henry Wigram established the Canterbury Aviation Company at Sockburn, Christchurch, and purchased Caudron biplanes from Britain for pilot training. He gave the aerodrome, later Wigram Aerodrome, to the government for defence purposes. At the end of the war many New Zealand pilots stayed with the new Royal Air Force and several had attained high rank by the outbreak of World War II. Others returned to New Zealand and, serving part-time, provided the nucleus of the New Zealand Permanent Air Force (NZPAF). New Zealand Permanent Air Force At the close of hostilities Great Britain offered an Imperial Gift to each of the Dominions of a hundred war-surplus combat aircraft. New Zealand was the last to respond and least enthusiastic. When the 33 total aircraft, Avro 504s, Bristol F.2 Fighters and, De Havilland designed, Airco DH.4s and Airco DH.9s did reach New Zealand they were either placed in storage or loaned to the flying schools, barnstormers and nascent commercial operators. Several of the military aircraft were heavily modified—a 504 becoming a 3-seat floatplane and a DH-9 acquiring an enclosed passenger cabin. The importance of aviation in war was belatedly recognised, largely thanks to the efforts of visionary parliamentarian Sir Henry Wigram. On 14 June 1923 the New Zealand Permanent Air Force was gazetted: a part of the Army initially staffed by a total of four officers and two other ranks as full-time staff, plus the New Zealand Air Force with 102 officers on the Reserve lists. It was initially equipped with the surviving Avro 504K, the DH.4s, DH.9s and Bristol Fighters. These operated from an airfield outside Christchurch at Sockburn. In 1926 Wigram donated £2,500 for the purchase of modern fighters and Gloster Grebes were acquired. Sockburn was later renamed RNZAF Station Wigram, a name adopted by the suburb which grew up around the airfield. It is the site of the present Royal New Zealand Air Force Museum. A trickle of new-build Bristol Fighters and other new types joined the NZPAF in the late 1920s and early 1930s. A Lewis gun-equipped De Havilland Gipsy Moth floatplane took part in naval operations against rebels in Samoa. The NZPAF's first action came in 1930 when the Moth dropped an improvised bomb made out of a treacle tin on to a ship suspected of gun-running. The bomb did no damage, and the target turned out to be a local missionary vessel. A territorial wing of the New Zealand Air Force was raised in 1930 with three squadrons at Hobsonville (with flights at Hamilton and Napier), Wellington and Christchurch though without equipment. A fourth squadron planned for Dunedin had not been raised even by July 1939. More creditably, Fairey IIIFs made a dramatic maritime rescue and in the aftermath of the Napier earthquake the NZPAF flew in urgently needed supplies and medical equipment. Like other western air arms a major expansion began from the mid-1930s. The NZPAF ordered twelve Vickers Vildebeests in 1933–34 to form two bomber-reconnaissance flights at Hobsonville and Wigram. In 1937 29 Blackburn Baffins were purchased specifically to equip the Territorial Air Force for coastal reconnaissance work. An initial shipment of 16 Vickers Vincent bomber-reconnaissance biplanes arrived in July 1939. More modern British types eventually arrived, including significant numbers of Airspeed Oxfords, Avro 626s, Fairey Gordons. The NZPAF was renamed the Royal New Zealand Air Force in 1934 and became an independent service in 1937. World War II At the outbreak of World War II the primary equipment of the RNZAF was to be 30 Vickers Wellington bombers ordered in 1938. The aircraft were completed and about to be delivered in 1939; but with the outbreak of war in Europe increasingly likely, the New Zealand government offered the aircraft with RNZAF crews to the United Kingdom in August 1939. They became No. 75 Squadron RAF. Many other New Zealanders were serving in the Royal Air Force. The primary role of the RNZAF was to take advantage of New Zealand's distance from the conflict by training aircrew as part of the Empire Air Training Scheme, alongside the other major former British colonies, Canada, Australia and South Africa. For this task large numbers of de Havilland Tiger Moths, Airspeed Oxfords and North American Harvards were manufactured or assembled locally; second-hand biplanes—such as Hawker Hinds and Vickers Vincents—were also acquired, as well as other types for specialised training such as Avro Ansons and Supermarine Walruses. Only when German surface raiders and Japanese submarines became active was it realised that a combat force would be needed in New Zealand in addition to the trainers. New Zealanders serving with the RAF The majority of RNZAF personnel served with RAF units, six RNZAF Article XV squadrons, which were RNZAF units attached to RAF formations, and the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm (FAA). They served in Europe, the Mediterranean, South East Asia and other theatres. Commonwealth personnel under RAF operational control were pooled for operational practicality and many RNZAF airmen also served with Royal Australian Air Force or Royal Canadian Air Force Article XV squadrons. New Zealanders in the RAF itself included pilots, such as the first RAF ace of the war, Flying Officer Cobber Kain and Alan Deere (whose book Nine Lives was one of the early post-war accounts of combat); and leaders such as the World War I ace, Air Chief Marshal Sir Keith Park, who commanded No. 11 Group RAF in the Battle of Britain and went on to the air defence of Malta (and, in the closing stages of the war, Commonwealth air units under South East Asia Command) and Air Marshal Sir Arthur Coningham Air Tactical Commander during the Normandy landings in June 1944 (Coningham and Park had remained with the RAF after WWI). Three RNZAF pilots were awarded the Victoria Cross while serving with the RAF. James Allen Ward, a Sergeant Pilot with 75 Squadron, was first, when he climbed out onto the wing of his Vickers Wellington bomber to smother an engine fire in flight on 7 July 1941. In 1943 then Wing Commander Leonard Trent continued to lead an extremely hazardous, but vital, attack at the head of 487 Squadron until every aircraft was shot down. The same year, Flying Officer Lloyd Trigg, serving with No. 200 Squadron RAF was piloting a Consolidated B-24 Liberator bomber when it encountered a U-boat on the surface off the African coast. He attacked U-468 but as he did so, the aircraft was hit by the U-boat's anti-aircraft fire and burst into flames. The aircraft continued the attack and sank the U-boat but crashed shortly afterwards, with all the crew being killed. The crew's actions were reported by the U-boat's survivors, and the Victoria Cross was awarded as a result. The first NZ squadron to serve with the RAF was not strictly an Article XIV squadron. No. 75 Squadron RAF was formed by RNZAF aircrews and Vickers Wellington bombers in August 1939. The squadron later flew Short Stirlings, Avro Lancasters and Avro Lincolns. Through accident or design, other RAF units came to be mostly manned by RNZAF pilots, including No. 67 Squadron RAF (which ace Geoffrey Fisken served with) and No. 243 Squadron RAF in Singapore, No. 258 Squadron RAF in the UK. Several Grumman Martlet and Grumman Hellcat units of the FAA also had New Zealanders in their ranks, leading some texts to claim these types were used by the RNZAF. New Zealand Article XV Squadrons included No. 485, which flew Supermarine Spitfires throughout the war; No. 486 (Hawker Hurricanes, Hawker Typhoons and Hawker Tempests); No. 487, (Lockheed Venturas and de Havilland Mosquitoes); No. 488, (Brewster Buffaloes, Hurricanes, Bristol Beaufighters and Mosquitoes); No. 489, (Bristol Blenheims, Bristol Beauforts, Handley Page Hampdens, Beaufighters and Mosquitoes); and No. 490, equipped with Consolidated Catalinas and Short Sunderlands. RNZAF in the Pacific The presence of German raiders led to the formation of New Zealand-based combat units—initially rearming types, like the Vildebeest, and hurriedly converting impressed airliners, such as the de Havilland DH.86 to carry bombs. Lockheed Hudsons were obtained early in 1941 to take over this role. No. 5 Squadron with Vickers Vincents and Short Singapores was sent to protect Fiji. In December 1941 Japan attacked and rapidly conquered much of the area to the north of New Zealand. With the apparent threat of imminent invasion New Zealand was forced to look to her own defence, as well as to help the United Kingdom. Trainers and more airliners in New Zealand were camouflaged and armed and various types, such as the North American Harvard, Hawker Hind, Airspeed Oxford and even the de Havilland Tiger Moth, formed shadow bomber, army co-operation and fighter squadrons for use in the event of invasion. Hudsons moved forward into the South Pacific while No. 5 Squadron, at RNZAF Station Laucala Bay in Fiji, commenced operations against the Japanese despite its obsolete equipment. In New Zealand preparations intensified and in 1942 three Groups were established to direct air and, if necessary, air defence operations. Northern Group RNZAF was located in Auckland, Central Group RNZAF in Wellington and Southern Group RNZAF in Christchurch. The vulnerability of New Zealand to Axis naval activity was demonstrated when a submarine-launched Japanese float plane overflew Wellington and Auckland, where it was chased ineffectually by a Tiger Moth. As few combat-capable aircraft were available at home and Britain was unable to help, New Zealand turned to the United States and signed a Lend-Lease agreement. Gradually at first, America was able to supply New Zealand with aircraft for use in the Pacific Theatre— initially, in 1942, Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawks and additional Harvards and Hudsons. The fall of Singapore led to some evacuated RNZAF pilots, that had been serving in the RAF there, becoming available in New Zealand. These men provided an experienced nucleus around which new fighter squadrons, the first being No. 14 Squadron RNZAF formed at Masterton, were established. From mid-1943, at Guadalcanal, starting with No. 15 and No. 14 Squadrons, several RNZAF Kittyhawk units fought with distinction. Several RNZAF pilots became aces against the Japanese, including Geoff Fisken, the Commonwealth's leading ace in the Pacific war. Other squadrons flew the elderly but effective Douglas Dauntless and, later, the modern Grumman Avenger torpedo bomber. From 12 October 1943, as part of Operation Cartwheel, RNZAF aircraft joined an allied air campaign against Japanese held airfields and the port of Rabaul. The RNZAF took on a significant part of the maritime reconnaissance task with Catalina (and later Sunderland) flying boats and Hudson bombers. The role of the RNZAF changed as the allies moved onto the offensive. The Americans, leaders of the Allied nations in the Pacific, planned to bypass major Japanese strongholds, instead capturing a handful of island bases to provide a supply chain for an eventual attack on Japan itself. The Allied advance started from the South Pacific. The RNZAF was part of the force tasked with securing the line of advance by incapacitating bypassed Japanese strongholds, for example, Rabaul. As the war progressed the older types were replaced with more powerful modern aircraft; Kittyhawks gave way to Vought F4U Corsairs, while Hudsons were replaced by Venturas. At the close of war the RNZAF was planning to bring 320 North American P-51 Mustangs into service as part replacement for the F4U. At its peak, in the Pacific, the RNZAF had 34 squadrons – 25 of which were based outside New Zealand and in action against Japanese forces. Thirteen of these squadrons were equipped with Corsairs six with Venturas, two with Catalinas, two with Avengers and two with Douglas Dakota transport aircraft. The RNZAF also had a squadron of Dauntless dive bombers, several mixed transport and communications squadrons, a flight of Short Sunderlands and almost 1,000 training machines. To administer units in the South Pacific, No. 1 (Islands) Group RNZAF was formed on 10 March 1943. In addition to this, several hundred RNZAF personnel saw action with RAF squadrons or the FAA in Burma, Singapore and the South Pacific. By 1945 the RNZAF had over 41,000 personnel, including just over 10,000 aircrew who served with the RAF in Europe and Africa. Wartime RNZAF Squadrons New Zealand Units embedded in the Royal Air Force Postwar RNZAF In the post war period the RNZAF dealt progressively with demobilisation and disposal of its large obsolete fleet, rearmament to support the Cold War, some loss of training opportunities with the American suspension of ANZUS Treaty obligations in protest at New Zealand becoming a nuclear free zone, social changes which saw women become combat pilots, and most recently loss of fast jets as part of the continuing funding cuts, that have seen the air force decline from over a thousand aircraft to just fifty. Following the Second World War, No. 14 Squadron RNZAF was sent to Japan as part of the occupation J Force. The rest of the air force rapidly divested itself of aircraft and manpower and settled mainly into training and transport mode before the advent of the rejuvenated No. 14 Squadron RNZAF and No. 75 Squadron RNZAF. From 1949 Compulsory Military Training reinvigorated the reserve component of the Air Force. The four Territorial squadrons, No. 1 Squadron RNZAF (Auckland), Wellington, Canterbury and No. 4 Squadron, Territorial Air Force, at Taieri Aerodrome, Mosgiel, Otago, were equipped with the 30 Mustangs re-activated from storage, along with a few Tiger Moths and Harvards for each squadron. No. 4 Squadron TAF was active from at least 1951–55. From 1952–57 No. 6 Flying Boat Squadron operated as a Territorial unit at Hobsonville, flying Catalinas and later Sunderlands. A Gloster Meteor arrived in 1945, introducing the jet age. The force was equipped from 1946 with the De Havilland Mosquito before the arrival of De Havilland Vampires. Initially used in peacekeeping in Cyprus and Singapore the Vampires were supplemented by loaned De Havilland Venoms and, later, English Electric Canberras, both of which saw action in the Malayan Emergency and subsequent confrontation with Indonesia. Internal communications and transport and other services were maintained by No. 42 Squadron RNZAF. It supported the Army and Navy using Grumman TBM-1 Avengers (to tow drogue targets for gunnery), the Territorial Air Force's North American P-51D Mustangs and North American Harvards, the VIPs with De Havilland Devons, also used for support, communications and multi-engine conversion training, and Douglas C-47, Douglas DC-6, and Handley Page Hastings for VIP and communications support. Nos. 5 and 6 Squadrons traded their lend-lease Catalinas for Short Sunderland MR5s operating in maritime patrol and search and rescue roles from Hobsonville and Laucala Bay, Fiji. 6 Squadron was disbanded while 5 Squadron received P-3B Orions in 1965. A research flight helped develop Aerial Topdressing. In 1957, the Territorial Air Force (TAF) was formally disbanded following a review of New Zealand's local defences. Early Cold War Modernisation The Chief of Air Staff appointed in June 1962 was Air Vice Marshal Ian G. Morrison, who was to oversee the modernisation of the RNZAF. Greener stated that Morrison '..saw the three elements of the Air Force—strike capability, transport, and maritime patrol—as being of equal value, and sought improvements in aircraft in each area. The following aircraft were purchased or put on order. Douglas A-4 Skyhawk - Primary Light Attack/Fighter Aircraft Lockheed P-3 Orion - Maritime Patrol Lockheed C-130 Hercules - Transport Aircraft Bell 47 - Training Helicopter Bell UH-1 - Utility Helicopter Westland Wasp - Naval based helicopter Morrisons modernisation program saw the RNZAF switch primarily from British to American aircraft, reflecting the strategic alliances at the time. The arrival of the Bell 47 introduced the helicopter to the RNZAF. Much of the postwar period the RNZAF was administered through two groups. Operations Group RNZAF at Auckland at one time supervising Strike, Transport and Maritime Operations Wings. Operations Group was formed on 1 July 1965, initially under the command of Air Commodore K.W. Trigance. At RNZAF Station Wigram in the outskirts of Christchurch was Training Group RNZAF, active by May 1948. It was operational to the early 1970s at least, responsible for training and support. On 1 June 1972, Training Group become Support Group RNZAF, which included the Command and Staff College, No. 1 Technical Training School, the Aerospace Medical Unit, and No. 1 Stores Depot RNZAF at RNZAF Te Rapa. Later No. 1 Repair Depot RNZAF at RNZAF Base Woodbourne joined the organisation. Malayan Emergency The Malayan Emergency was declared by the British government on 18 June 1948 after several rubber plantation workers were killed in a revenge attack over the deaths of labour activists killed in police charges. This led to the creation of the Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA), a communist guerrilla organisation which fought for an independent Malaya free from colonialism, and for equal rights for women and all races. New Zealand's first contribution came in 1949, when C-47 Dakotas of RNZAF No. 41 Squadron were attached to the Royal Air Force's Far East Air Force. The C-47s were used to airdrop supplies to British and Malay forces fighting the MNLA, away from their usual station location in Hong Kong. By the time the aircraft were withdrawn in late 1951, 211 sorties had been carried out, dropping 284,000 kg of supplies. In 1955, the RNZAF established bases in Singapore and Malaysia. No. 41 Squadron moved to Changi, while No. 14 Squadron relocated to Tengah. On 1 May 1955, the air force carried out its first strike mission since the end of World War II, and its first with jet aircraft, using de Havilland Vampires of No. 14 Squadron RNZAF. In 1955, the squadron was re-equipped with de Havilland Venoms and carried out 115 strike missions, which fell into two categories – 'Firedogs' (pre-planned bombing, strafing, and rocket attacks against guerrilla targets) and 'Smash Hits' (immediate on-call strikes against opportunity targets in response to a guerilla raid or 'hot' information). The squadron was replaced in 1958 by No. 75 Squadron flying English Electric Canberras from their operational station in Tengah. In July 1955 No. 41 Squadron returned to Malaya and resumed supply dropping operations in support of anti-guerrilla forces, this time using the Bristol Freighter. Bristol Freighter serial NZ5901 crashed in the Cameron Highlands during supply drop operations on 10 December 1956. The aircraft flew into a valley and collided with a 4000 foot fog shrouded ridge. SQNLDR Alexander Tie, FLTOFF William Devescovi, FLTOFF Douglas Nelson and 5 passengers were killed, while a single passenger survived and was later rescued. Antarctic Flight The RNZAF Antarctic Flight was formed in 1956 to assist the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, equipped with an Auster Mk.7c purchased from the UK Air Ministry (NZ1707), De Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otter (NZ6081), and a De Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver (NZ6001, changed to NZ6010 to remove overlapping numbers with an RNZAF Gloster Meteor), with hardened and equipped with skis. It helped transport men, dog teams and supplies, and carried out geological mapping over the summers of 1956, 1957 and 1958 before disbanding in 1960. Operations in Antarctica resumed in 1965 when a Hercules flew the first of what have become annual summer flights from Christchurch to the continent. To the present day, the RNZAF operates both Boeing 757 and Lockheed C-130 Hercules to Phoenix Airfield, Williams Field, and the Ice Runway. Vietnam War From 1962, the primary RNZAF contribution to the Vietnam war was No. 40 Squadron RNZAF and No. 41 Squadron RNZAF providing troop transport for New Zealand, Australian and American troops using Handley Page Hastings, Bristol 170 Freighter and Lockheed C-130 Hercules. he first New Zealand combat troops were airlifted to South Vietnam by No. 40 Squadron in 1965. Aircraft made regular supply runs from Singapore to Saigon. The distinctive shape of the Bristol Freighter in particular became a familiar sight at Tan Son Thut Air Base alongside their South Vietnamese and American counterparts. In 1965, the personnel of No. 14 Squadron RNZAF, equipped with Canberra bombers hoped for an attachment to United States Air Force squadrons flying the B-57 (The American Derivative of the English Electric Canberra). Air Vice-Marshall Ian Morrison was reluctant to have New Zealand's aircraft involved, due to fears of being able to sustain the high attrition rate of aircraft lost over North Vietnam, of particular concern with the aging New Zealand variants of the Canberra. However, Canberra bombers were deployed in a non combat role, with crew observing American operations, and deploying to South Vietnam to conduct joint training with the USAF. In June 1996, No. 9 Squadron RAAF had gone to South Vietnam and based itself at Vung Tau, equipped with Bell UH-1 Iroquois aircraft .Politically and operationally, it was advantageous for the RNZAF to assist the Australians, who were facing a shortage of available pilots. In all, 16 RNZAF officers would serve in operational service in Vietnam with No. 9 Squadron RAAF. Flight Lieutenant Bill Waterhouse, the RNZAF's only Maori helicopter pilot at the time was killed in January 1969 flying an Iroquois in Canberra while preparing for service in South Vietnam. The RNZAF additionally provided assistance in a Forward Air Control role in Vietnam flying with USAF squadrons with O-1, O-2 and OV-10 aircraft. A small detachment of RNZAF ground crew from No. 75 Squadron RNZAF were also attached to a U.S Marine Corps VMA-311 A-4 Skyhawk unit at Chu Lai. RNZAF personnel were numerous in the New Zealand Services Medical Team (NZSMT) and one went on to be part of the subsequent New Zealand Army Training Team (NZATTV.) RNZAF personnel were also posted to HQ V Force and worked primarily in Saigon in a range of liaison duties. One RNZAF member of the NZSMT, Sgt Gordon Watt, was killed by an improvised trap in 1970, the RNZAF's only casualty of the war. A plaque and memorial toWatt is on display at the Ohakea Base Medical flight, and there is also the "Gordon Watt Memorial Award" for the RNZAF's top medic award, named in his honour. Flights to support the medical team at Qui Nhon and the New Zealand embassy in Saigon continued after the withdrawal of New Zealand ground forces in 1971. In early April 1975 the squadron established a detachment at Tan Son Nhat International Airport near Saigon to evacuate New Zealand personnel from the country as North Vietnamese forces rapidly advanced. The last No. 41 Squadron flight out of the country departed on 21 April carrying 38 embassy staff (including the New Zealand Ambassador) and refugees, just prior to the fall of Saigon. ANZUK, and ANZUS Co-operation Following the end of conflict in Vietnam, the RNZAF adopted a stronger maritime focus. Long range surveillance patrols became more frequent in the waters around New Zealand as P-3 Orion crews and Navy embedded Westland Wasp Helicopters hunted for Soviet and Chinese submarines and vessels in New Zealand's Exclusive Economic Zone. At the same time, aircrews adopted closer ties with the United States and Australia through the ANZUS alliance. The first overseas deployment of the new A-4 Skyhawk's occurred in 1971 to RAAF Base Williamtown and HMAS Albatross in Australia. Skyhawk crews would be supported by Hercules, Andover, and later Boeing 727 aircraft to provide ground support crew and allow the setup of mobile TACAN stations. Additionally eight single seater Skyhawk's were sent to Singapore to participate in Exercise Vanguard. Deployments occurred on a regular basis to Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia. No. 14 Squadron took up the role of advanced training. It briefly operated a small number (up to four) of two-seat A-4 Skyhawks and two-seat T.11 Vampires before re-equipping with 16 BAC Strikemaster light attack aircraft in 1972. Bristol Freighters, Douglas Dakotas and De Havilland Devon were replaced by Hawker Siddeley Andover and second hand Fokker F-27 Frendships. Additionally, three Boeing 727 aircraft were purchased in 1981 for use as air transport. Cessna 421C Golden Eagle aircraft were also used for transport and VIP duties. Another major change during this decade was the integration of the Women's Royal New Zealand Air Force into the Air Force in 1977, removing most restrictions on their employment and career opportunities, with the exception of some aircrew branches. The Kin Nan Incident The Kin Nan Incident occurred in March 1976. The Kin Nan was a Taiwanese squid fishing boat operating illegally within New Zealand waters. Following a failure to reply to warning shots and messages from two RNZN Patrol boats, several Skyhawks, were sent to intercept the ship, armed with Zuni rockets and 20mm rounds. A Skyhawk operated by Jim Jennings (NZ6206) fired a 53 round burst at the boat, causing it to stop and allow the Navy to board it. The Skyhawk involved is still preserved at the Museum of Transport and Technology in Auckland. Joint Exercises Throughout the 1970s, RNZAF Ohakea would also see significant visits from the Royal Air Force, United States Air Force and Royal Australian Air Force. The RNZAF participated in a number of ANZUS joint exercises in this period: Exercise TRIAD 1976 Exercise RIMPAC 1978 Exercise Kangaroo 1981 Exercise Cope Thunder 1981-1984 Exercise TRIAD 1984 Fourth Labour Government, anti nuclear legislation and ANZUS split Following the end of the US friendly Muldoon government, and the subsequent election of David Lange and the Fourth Labour Government, the RNZAF severed overt military ties with the United States and United Kingdom, with the New Zealand military reoriented towards more globalist and international roles such as United Nations peacekeeping. Under the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987, territorial sea, land and airspace of New Zealand became nuclear-free zones. This had a dramatic effect on the efficiencies of the Air Force's combat squadrons. With the lack of opportunities to practice operations skills, it became extremely difficult to maintain pace with the Air Forces New Zealand had traditionally worked with. By the late 1980s, the RNZAF held an active role in United Nations operations in the Sinai Peninsula and Iran. This time period also saw the end of involvement in Singapore. No. 1 Squadron was deactivated in December 1984, and its Andovers were transferred to No. 42 Squadron. Project Kahu By the 1980s, the Skyhawks were reaching the end of their effective use. Three options were considered; the purchase of more capable second hand aircraft such as the F-4 Phantom II, new aircraft such as the F-16 Fighting Falcon, or an upgrade for the A-4 Skyhawk. Eventually, a comprehensive upgrade to the Skyhawk was chosen, along with the purchase of used A-4G Skyhawks from the Royal Australian Navy. The Skyhawk upgrade was extremely comprehensive, including a new radar, HOTAS controls, glass cockpit with HUD and new inertial navigation system. The aircraft also received armament upgrades including the capability to fire AIM-9L Sidewinders, AGM-65 Mavericks and GBU-16 Paveway II laser-guided bombs. The cost of the project was NZ$140 million and gave the RNZAF Skyhawks the electronic “eyes and ears” of a modern fighter aircraft such as the F-16 Fighting Falcon or F/A-18 Hornet. Despite cooling of NZ-US relations over New Zealands new anti-nuclear policy, the US Congress gave its approval in December 1985, while other work was accomplished by New Zealand based companies such as Pacific Aerospace. To complement these upgrades, 18 new Aermacchi MB-339 were introduced as an advanced jet trainer, replacing the British Aerospace Strikemaster. Wing Commander Ian Gore said "The Skyhawk has gone from an aircraft with no systems you could rely on, to one with the capability of modern front-line fighters, at a fraction of the cost." Flight Lieutenant Murray Neilson noted: "We were constantly surprised how well we performed in air-to-air combat against superior aircraft, especially the F-16 … Kahu has brought the Skyhawk into the 1990s." The 1997 White Paper commented further: "The aircraft are old but sturdy. They have been rewinged and seven years ago were given a major upgrade. They have sufficient life left to perform effectively into the next decade." However, while the upgrades took place, it was further planned to eventually replace the Skyhawk fleet with leased F-16 Aircraft from the United States in the near future. 50th Anniversary of the RNZAF The 50th anniversary of the RNZAF was celebrated with a gold painted Skyhawk and large scale formations with Skyhawks and Strikemasters. An airshow at RNZAF Ohakea was held, with visiting aircraft from the Royal Air Force and Royal Australian Air Force. In February 1991 No. 2 Squadron was reformed, then relocated to HMAS Albatross in Australia with the updated Kahu Skyhawks to provide the Australian Defence Force (ADF), particularly the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), with Air Defence Support, participating in exercises with RAN warships. The squadron was equipped with two A-4K and four TA-4K aircraft supported by 50 to 60 personnel. The highlight of the RAN exercises was the successful sinking of the decommissioned HMAS Adroit in August 1994 by No. 2 Squadron Skyhawks. No. 2 Squadron continued to provide air defence training to the ADF until November 2001. Post War Reductions The end of the Cold War saw dramatic changes in the composition of the RNZAF. With government policies from the Fourth Labour Government urging to reduce public spending, the RNZAF began to consolidate its facilities, lead by Minister of Defence Bob Tizard. The Air Force Stores Depot at Te Rapa was closed in 1992, with redevelopment into The Base Shopping Centre. On 14 September 1995, the closing parade was held for the first established RNZAF airfield, RNZAF Station Wigram in Christchurch. The support base RNZAF Shelly Bay, located on Wellington's Miramar peninsula also closed. The helicopter and former seaplane base RNZAF Hobsonville was sold to Housing New Zealand, and is being redeveloped as a residential area by the Hobsonville Land Company. Initially the RNZAF remained a tenant on the land, however all remaining units based there have now relocated to other sites. Both Wigram and Hobsonvillle have been redeveloped into housing areas, while Shelly Bay remains abandoned. Following the neoliberal ideology of the 1990s, non core activities such as maintenance and food catering have been privatized and contracted out. On 30 April 1995 Operations Group and Support Group were brought together to form RNZAF Air Command, under the leadership of an air commodore. Air Command was itself disbanded in 2001 when the post became the Air Component Commander at Headquarters Joint Forces New Zealand, located at Trentham, Upper Hutt. Peacekeeping Operations and Overseas Deployments in the 1990s and 2000s Despite the significant reduction in budget and manpower, international deployments by the Air Force were expanded. During the Gulf War, two Hercules and personnel of No. 40 Squadron were deployed to the Gulf War, where they operated as part of a Royal Air Force Hercules Squadron. No. 2 Squadron RNZAF continued service at Nowra in New South Wales, Australia, providing training for the Royal Australian Navy and conversion for RNZAF Skyhawk pilots. No. 42 Squadron spent five months deployed in Somalia, with three Andover transport planes. Humanitarian airlifts were conducted by Hercules and Boeing aircraft of No. 40 Squadron in the Middle East and Rwanda. No. 40 Squadron also provided air transport support to the NZ Army contingent in Bosnia. The RNZAF had a sizable involvement in the Bougainville conflict, involving C-130 transport aircraft UH-1 Iroquois, and Westland Wasp helicopters. Both the Iroquois and Wasps were painted in a highly visible orange 'Orange Roughie Red' colour scheme prior to deployment in Bougainville. Aircraft also supported several UN missions such as UNTAET while carrying out peacetime tasks for governmental and civilian purposes. Westland Wasp helicopters were replaced with Kaman SH-2 Seasprite helicopters, awaiting further orders of SH-2G Super Seasprites. 21st century government defence changes In 1999, the National Government selected an order of 28 F-16A/B Fighting Falcon aircraft to replace the fleet of A-4 Skyhawks but this procurement was cancelled in 2001 following election by the incoming Labour Government under Helen Clark. This was followed by the disbanding of No 2 and No 75 Skyhawk squadrons and the No 14 Aermacchi squadron, removing the RNZAF's air combat capability. Subsequently, most of the RNZAF's fighter pilots left New Zealand to serve in the Royal Australian Air Force and the Royal Air Force. By 2003 the RNZAF was reduced to a total of 53 aircraft and 2,523 personnel (including civilian employees). In 2005 the New Zealand Ministry of Defence selected the NHI NH90 helicopter to replace the RNZAF's ageing fleet of 14 UH-1H Iroquois. The NZ government allocated NZ$550 million to replace the Iroquois and a small fleet of Bell 47 (Sioux) training helicopters. In late 2005 the government announced that the surviving A-4Ks and Aermacchi MB-339Cs, 17 of each type, (not counting A-4s in museums), were to be sold to US company Tactical Air Systems for use in jet training, subject to the US government approval. Tactical Air Systems announced RNZAF colour schemes would be preserved, "out of respect for the history and traditions of the RNZAF". The US State Department expressed concerns about having two squadrons of combat jets operating over the US in private hands so the aircraft were put into storage at Woodbourne. The Aermacchi fleet is still in flying condition but the A-4K fleet was covered in protective latex and moved to outside storage in 2007 to make way for the C-130H upgrade. It is most likely that the A-4Ks will be donated to museums or remain at RNZAF Base Woodbourne for training purposes for RNZAF Technicians, as the cost of refurbishing them (estimated at $34 million) was deemed too expensive by the government. In November 2011, a private defence contractor in the United States, Draken International, purchased eight of the stored RNZAF A-4K Skyhawks and nine of the Aermacchi MB-339s. The aircraft are utilised for commercial air services as an adversary squadron. New Zealand took an option to purchase C-130J Hercules from Lockheed Martin as a part of an Australian purchase in the late 1990s but following the 1999 election the new Labour government decided not to proceed with the purchase. Instead a NZD$226m service life extension programme (LEP) was arranged with L3 Spar Aerospace of Canada in 2004. This involved replacement of various mechanical, avionic, and structural components, and the design and installation of flight deck communications and navigation improvements to meet evolving air traffic management regulations. The first aircraft was modified in Canada with the rest to be modified by the Air New Zealand subsidiary, Safe Air, in Blenheim, New Zealand. Safe Air has since dropped the contract, causing the Ministry of Defence to form a team of contractors and RNZAF supervisors to finish the LEP project. The LEP will see the C-130 Hercules with the most flying hours in the world remain in use until about 2025. Since 2001, RNZAF P-3K Orions and C-130 Hercules have made periodic deployments in support of Operation Enduring Freedom and the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan. The Naval Support Flight was separated from 3 Squadron to re-form 6 Squadron in October 2005. In October 2007 the government announced it had selected the Agusta A109 as the preferred replacement for the Sioux helicopters. Defence Minister Phil Goff declared "In common with the Seasprite helicopter already in service and the eight new NH-90s on order for the RNZAF, the A109 is wheeled and capable of deployment from our Navy vessels". Chief of Air Force, Air Vice-Marshal Graham Lintott, said the A109 "will provide an effective platform to train aircrew in basic helicopter operations plus the advanced skills required to operate both the Navy SH-2G Seasprite and the highly capable RNZAF NH90 helicopter that will come into service in 2010." In 2008 the Defence Minister expressed the desire to return to service all 17 Aermacchi trainers to supplement Army and Navy operations. Prime Minister John Key said at the time that it was extremely unlikely that any jet training would be restored in 2010. Plans to close RNZAF Whenuapai (and consolidate all operations to Ohakea) made by the previous government, were overturned in March 2009. , the RNZAF maintain 3 Air Bases (Whenuapai, Ohakea, Woodbourne) and Air Movements Terminals located at Wellington International Airport, and Christchurch International Airport. 2010 Anzac Day UH-1H Iroquois Crash and Operational Failings Accident Three servicemen of No. 3 Squadron RNZAF were killed, and a fourth seriously injured when their Iroquois NZ3806 BLACK 2 crashed in heavy fog, while travelling in a group of two other aircraft the early morning from RNZAF Base Ohakea to Wellington, as part of a flypast for the ANZAC Day dawn service. The Iroquois crashed into steep terrain near Pukerua Bay, located in the hills above the Centennial Highway, about 40 km northeast of Wellington. The aircraft was described by One News reporter Michael Parkin as "flattened and not recognisable..one little grey dot in green bush". It was reported that significant low lying cloud was present in the area. Flight Lieutenant Hayden Madsen, Flying Officer Daniel Gregory and Corporal Benjamin Carson were killed in the accident, while Sergeant Stevin Creeggan sustained serious injuries and was required to be sent to Wellington Hospital for treatment. Rescue operations and recovery of the bodies were conducted by another UH-1H aircraft from No. 3 Squadron RNZAF, as well as a Wellington Westpac Rescue Helicopter BK117, although efforts were hampered by the heavy fog in the area. Residents of the local Pukerua Bay area were woken early in the morning by the noise of low flying helicopters, before hearing a loud bang. ANZAC services around the country made special mention of the accident. However, at times, including with a speech from Governor-General Sir Anand Satyanand, limited knowledge on the number of crew passed away was evident at the highest level, initially stating that 4 deaths had occurred, rather than 3. This was found to have been due to incorrect information provided to the Minister of Defence. Members of the Royal New Zealand Air Force Band performed Edward Elgar's rendition of For the Fallen in memoriam. Prime Minister John Key reported the news to crowds at ANZAC Cove, stating: "Our thoughts and our heartfelt condolences go out to the families of the lost, along with the servicemen and women of the Royal New Zealand Air Force, as they mourn the loss of three good mates." A full military funeral service with guard of honour was held for the three fallen servicemen at RNZAF Base Ohakea. Aftermath The Court of Inquiry found that a number of factors had created an environment where the crew had underestimated operating risks and, consequently, undertook inadequate preparation, particular in regards to the use of night vision equipment, and preparing for inclement weather. The current advent of instrument meteorological conditions was thought to have resulted in an overload of crew capacity, compounded with low flying experience and training deficiencies in the RNZAF as a whole. The air force's accident report cited training problems particularly in regards to instrument flying and night vision goggles, with the lack of instructor manuals or guides due to resourcing and logistical issues. Additionally the report found that four of the six pilots in the formation three helicopters did not have adequate flying qualifications for the flight, and the lead pilot was not qualified to lead the formation, stating that at present the air force was unable to "adequately and reliably ensure safe and effective military air operations". Several issues with the chain of command and restrictions of operating in Wellington airspace were also highlighted. It also found there was a culture of "rule breaking" among No. 3 Squadron. Furthermore, the analysis report stated that the need to minimize accommodation costs incurred by No. 3 Squadron due to pressure on the Air Force budget contributed to the decision to fly early in the morning, rather than during daylight hours of the previous day. After suffering serious injuries from the crash, Sergeant Stevin Creeggan returned to service in January 2011. However, after claiming poor support, and an unsupportive culture of assistance and medical care, Creeggan left the Air Force in 2014. The New Zealand Herald stated: "As Stevin struggled with new health issues, and reintegration into the air force, it became apparent no one would be held accountable for his injuries, or the deaths of his colleagues. Worse, it seemed to the Creeggans that Stevin's insistence on medical treatment for shoulder and eye problems was meeting resistance. He found himself working in a small room, effectively shuffling paper, alone and distant from his colleagues." in 2014, the New Zealand Defence Force pleaded guilty on failing to provide an adequately safe workplace in a private prosecution taken by Creeggan, and ordered to pay a total reparation of $90,000 Creeggan told the Wellington District Court of his injuries and health problems, as well as survivor's guilt. Lawyer Tim MacKenzie said that the Air Force had failed to ensure the crew had sufficient training and experience, allowing a lax culture, which may have led personnel to believe they could cut corners. Defence Force lawyer, Nigel Luci-Smith, said it accepts it failed to prevent the tragedy, additionally stating that the New Zealand Defence Force unreservedly apologises to the men and their families and the people of New Zealand for the short-comings that failed to prevent loss of life and the injuries to Sergeant Creeggan. Several debates were held in parliament as to the cause of inadequate training and resources, with some attributing this to the significant cuts made to the Air Force under the previous Helen Clark led Labour Government, while others were critical of Minister of Defence Jonathan Coleman. Recent activities In recent years the RNZAF has been involved in a number of domestic incidents, especially natural disasters that have hit the region. Following the 2009 Samoa earthquake and tsunami the RNZAF deployed several P-3 Orions initially to assess the damage and search for bodies in the immediate aftermath of the incident. The day after the tsunami a C-130 Hercules carrying mobile morgues, medical staff and supplies to the area helped with recovery efforts. Following this the RNZAF worked closely with the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), the US Navy and US Air Force to provide airlifts and supply drops for several weeks after the disaster. RNZAF also provided assistance on the ground in both Samoa and Tonga. The RNZAF and Air New Zealand also arranged for the evacuation of all tourists from Samoa to Auckland. In the aftermath of the 2010 Canterbury earthquake on 4 September 2010 a C-130 Hercules transported Search and Rescue Teams from Whenuapai Air Base to Christchurch that morning to aid in relief efforts. This was followed later in the afternoon by the deployment from Ohakea Air Base of two Iroquois Helicopters which provided aerial reconnaissance and damage assessments. Due to disrupted supplies at Christchurch Airport an RNZAF fuel tanker was also despatched from Ohakea Air Base to supply these aircraft. Responding to the February 2011 Christchurch earthquake the RNZAF deployed three C-130 Hercules, two Boeing 757s, a P-3 Orion, three Beechcraft B200 aircraft and three Bell UH-1H helicopters to assist the people of Christchurch. The aircraft flew around the clock to deploy police and medical personnel. C-130s and B757s also acted as aero-medical aircraft and evacuated victims and tourists to Wellington and Auckland in the North Island. This was the single biggest movement of personnel and freight by the RNZAF in its history. C-130s from the RAAF and RSAF were also deployed to the area and worked in conjunction with the RNZAF. In December 2011 the Russian fishing vessel Sparta struck an iceberg in the Ross Sea, RNZAF C-130s made two flights from New Zealand to McMurdo Station in Antarctica, air-dropping supplies to the crew en route. In 2013 the RNZAF sent one C-130 Hercules to the Philippines after a hurricane for disaster relief and evacuation of locals. Following the disappearance of Malaysian Airlines flight MH-370 in March 2014, an RNZAF P-3K2 Orion was deployed to RAAF Base Butterworth to assist with the search for the Boeing 777. The Orion aircraft and crew was then re-tasked and conducted their operations from RAAF Base Pearce near Perth, Western Australia, searching the Southern Indian Ocean for MH-370 alongside other international aircraft and crews. To safeguard trade routes from the threat of piracy, a P-3K2 Orion was deployed to the Middle East from July 2014 until December 2015. The Orion conducted anti-piracy and maritime surveillance activities in support of the Combined Maritime Forces coalition in the region. Responding to Cyclone Winston that devastated Fiji in February 2016 the RNZAF deployed a P-3 Orion, C-130 Hercules and Boeing 757, and two NH-90s aboard . Specialist NZ Fire Service teams and NZ Army engineers flew to Fiji in the Boeing 757. In response to the 2016 Kaikoura earthquake the magnitude 7.8 earthquake devastated North Canterbury and Kaikoura. The RNZAF deployed four NH-90 helicopters, C-130 Hercules, and a P-3K2 Orion for survey damage. The RNZAF NH-90s were tasked with evacuating over 1000 tourists and transporting food and supplies to the town of Kaikoura and surrounding areas. The US Navy and Royal Malaysian Air Force also offered helicopters to assist with the evacuation of tourists and transportation of rescue personnel. The Royal New Zealand Navy's multi-role vessel and off-shore patrol vessel were deployed to Kaikoura to provide aid supplies and evacuate people. , and , in New Zealand waters for the RNZN's 75th birthday celebrations in Auckland, were redirected by their respective governments to assist. Nearly 200 people had been airlifted out of Kaikoura by late evening on 15 November, with about 1,000 still to be evacuated on the following morning. 2021 Evacuation of Afghanistan Following the Fall of Kabul on 15 August 2021, the New Zealand Government dispatched a single C-130 Hercules plane (NZ7005) with a contingent of troops to assist in the evacuation of New Zealand citizens and Afghans who had aided the NZ Defence Force from Kabul's Hamid Karzai International Airport. On 26 August, the RNZAF suspended its evacuation flights following the 2021 Kabul airport attacks. By that stage, about 300 of the 520 people in Afghanistan registered with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade had been evacuated. By 28 August, the NZDF had evacuated 370 people from Afghanistan who were flown to the United Arab Emirates, awaiting transportation to New Zealand. Active bases and facilities Air bases RNZAF Base Auckland, Auckland. RNZAF Base Ohakea, Bulls, Manawatu. RNZAF Base Woodbourne, Blenheim, Marlborough. Support facilities Air Movements Rongotai, Wellington International Airport, Wellington. Air Movements Harewood, Christchurch International Airport, Christchurch. Training areas Kaipara Bombing Range, Kaipara, Auckland. Raumai Bombing Range, Ohakea, Manawatu. RNZAF Dip Flat, Nelson Lakes. Museums Air Force Museum of New Zealand, Wigram, Christchurch. Current strength The RNZAF's force operates in conjunction with the rest of the New Zealand Defence Force. The chain of command runs from Defence Force headquarters at Aitken Street in central Wellington to Headquarters Joint Forces New Zealand (HQ JFNZ) at Trentham in Upper Hutt. Under the Commander Joint Forces New Zealand (a rear admiral, air vice marshal, or major general, depending on rotation) is the Air Component Commander, an Air Commodore. The Air Component Commander directs the RNZAF through the triservice staff of HQ JFNZ. No. 485 Wing RNZAF, established at RNZAF Base Auckland on 1 July 2002, supervises the operational squadrons. It draws its heritage from the former Strike Wing, which parented 14 and 75 Squadrons at RNZAF Base Ohakea for many years. Strike Wing adopted its badge from the former No. 485 Squadron RAF of the Second World War. When Strike Wing disbanded with the retirement of the Skyhawks, a new name had to be found for the supervisory wing, as Strike Wing at Ohakea was to merge with the Operations Wing in Auckland. The result was that the World War II numbering of the original squadron was chosen. Nos 485 and 488 Wings were disestablished in early 2015 and effectively replaced by Base Commanders. Woodbourne was the first base to make the change, synchronised with a routine change of command; Ohakea and Auckland followed. As part of the same reorganisation, the headquarters of No. 209 (Expeditionary Support) Squadron was disestablished, and RNZAF Security Forces, Air Movements, Aviation Refuelling, RNZAF Rescue Fire, Base Medical Flight, Survival Training Centre and other sub-units reassigned into what is now known as Operations Squadron. Current flying squadrons Other units RNZAF Police RNZAF Security Forces RNZAF Base Auckland No. 230 (Mission Support) Squadron – Headquarters for the Intelligence and Communications sections Aeronautical Standards and Safety Office Aviation Medicine Unit RNZAF Parachute Training and Support Unit RNZAF Survival Training Centre RNZAF Military Working Dog Training School Operations Squadron RNZAF Base Ohakea Air Power Development Centre (APDC) Operations Squadron No. 230 (Mission Support) Squadron – Small operational detachment Headquarters Material Support Wing RNZAF Base Woodbourne Command and Recruit Training Squadron – Airman and Officer initial training. Also houses promotional courses, and all RNZAF Security Forces training Ground Training Wing – Initial trade training for most technical career fields Equipment Current inventory Central Flying School The Central Flying School (CFS) is the smallest flying unit, which commenced operations in January 1957. The primary role is the training of Qualified Flying Instructors, and the review process of maintenance and flying instruction standards. The school also operates the Historic Aircraft Flight, which allows selected instructors to fly older types like the Harvard and Tiger Moth. Their more public role has been carried out with the flying display teams the Red Checkers, and the now current team the Black Falcons. Retired aircraft Some notable combat aircraft that were operated by the air force consisted of the de Havilland Vampire, BAC Strikemaster, A-4K/TA-4K Skyhawk and the CT-4 Airtrainer. Transport aircraft were the Bristol Type 170, C-47 Dakota, Auster Autocar, Airspeed Consul, Boeing 727, and the Short Sunderland. Helicopters consisted of the Westland Wasp, Bell 47G and the Bell UH-1H. Training aircraft were the Airspeed Oxford. Symbols, flags and emblems The RNZAF ensign was approved in 1939, based on the ensign of the Royal Air Force, with the letters "NZ" inserted within the roundel. Until the 1950s NZPAF and RNZAF aircraft flew with Royal Air Force roundels; sometimes only the "NZ" prefix to the serial number revealed its nationality within the Commonwealth. A white kiwi or silver fern on a black background or a New Zealand flag frequently appeared on RNZAF aircraft, and also on RAF aircraft with NZ aircrew. Map outlines of New Zealand with a Kiwi superimposed appeared on the tails of Canberras flown from Singapore in the Malayan Emergency; Venoms used in the conflict had a white kiwi on a black tail. From the mid-1950s RNZAF roundels were modified by a fern frond within the inner red circle. Several colours were tried, including green, gold and finally white. The first two were too difficult to spot and the last looked too much like a white feather that further attempts with ferns were dropped and the Kiwi bird was adopted at the end of the 1960s. To assist camouflage in the 1980s the white was sometimes eliminated, giving a red kiwi within a blue circle (e.g. on Hercules, Aermacchis and Skyhawks). The kiwi roundel is now frequently a black circle around a black kiwi (Hercules, Iroquois) or two-tone grey (Orion, Sea Sprite). The nose is always forward and on wings the legs are inwards, towards to the fuselage. Ranks and uniform RNZAF rank titles and uniform remain similar to the Royal Air Force. The rank structure of the RNZAF was established within the context of the desire to ensure that the service remained separate from both the Army and Navy. The rank structure for the RNZAF came to be Junior Ranks: Recruit, Aircraftman, Leading Aircraftman. Non-Commissioned Officers: Corporal, Sergeant, Flight Sergeant, Warrant Officer. Commissioned Officers: Officer Cadet, Pilot Officer, Flying Officer, Flight Lieutenant, Squadron Leader, Wing Commander, Group Captain, Air Commodore, Air Vice Marshal, Air Marshal. RNZAF service dress uniform is deep blue in colour with light blue coloured rank worn on the sleeves of the uniform. There are many variations of the uniform that RNZAF personnel wear during the course of their duties. Since 2010 the shoulder identifier says "ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE", this was to correct a perceived confusion with the uniform of the New Zealand Police, despite many other more obvious differences. General Purpose Uniform (GPU) In March 2015 the RNZAF began trialling a two piece blue uniform. This uniform is designed to replace personnel wearing Disruptive Pattern Material (DPM) which has been in service since the 1980s. As of March 2016, GPU had become the primary working dress for the RNZAF, replacing the DPM uniform. The new GPU uniform is to distinguish the RNZAF from NZ Army personnel of which there tended to be some confusion from the general public due to the same DPM uniform being worn. When deployed overseas on missions RNZAF ground personnel wear the Multiterrain Camouflage Uniform more commonly known as MCU. The RNZAF is currently conducting a review of both the GPU and MCU uniform in favour of having one Multicam uniform for all ground units. A decision is expected in 2020. Aircrew uniform In 2016 as part of the Air Warrior project, RNZAF aircrew began trialling MultiCam uniform to replace the DPM variant they have been using since the late 1980s. Trials for the uniform will be completed in 2016. For all flying duties aircrew wear a Nomex flame retardant green coloured one or two piece flight suit. Operations to a desert environment see aircrew wear a sand coloured version of the green uniform. Aircrew Flying Badges and Uniform Name Patches RNZAF badges closely follow the style inherited from the Royal Air Force, with a badge worn on the left breast. A key difference is that pilot's wings bear the letters NZ rather than RAF, and that the single wing of other aircrew still have the letters of the trade they represent. Rank structure and insignia Display teams Black Falcons The Black Falcons (Continuation) are the current aerobatic display team of the Royal New Zealand Air Force, replacing their predecessor "The Red Checkers". In January 2016 the Central Flying School (CFS) began flying 11 Beechcraft T-6 Texan II, sharing the aircraft with No. 14 Squadron. The team is made up of Qualified Flying Instructors of the Central Flying School and No.14 Squadron. The bulk of the team generally come from CFS, with the Team Leader (Falcon 1), normally also holding the post of Officer Commanding Central Flying School. The new team's first display was scheduled for the 2017 Wings over Wairarapa airshow, although bad weather caused the displays to be cancelled. Instead the first display was held at the RNZAF 80th Anniversary Air Tattoo at the team's home base, RNZAF Base Ohakea the following week. Previous Display Teams Black Falcons (Original) - Aermacchi MB-339 Red Checkers - CT/4 Airtrainer Kiwi Red - A-4 Skyhawk RAGNSBQGAT - A-4 Skyhawk Jetobatics - De Havilland Vampire Additionally, further unnamed aerobatics teams briefly formed for airshows and demonstration events. Future of the RNZAF The Royal New Zealand Air Force has a number of plans to modernise its fleet and improve its capabilities. These are described in the Defence Capability Plan 2019 and the Major Projects Report 2020. The primary focus for further investments in defence capability will be the replacement of existing maritime surveillance and transport capability. These two aspects represent the bulk of RNZAF capability. Following the replacement of these aircraft, facilities and systems, the focus of increased investment will be on delivering greater effectiveness for government objectives. While several projects are underway, the financial restrictions bought by the COVID-19 pandemic, global and national economic downturn, the future of several of these projects are in doubt. Although discussed in the media and defence circles from time to time, there has been no plans to re-instate the strike wing under the 2019 Defence Capability Plan. The strike wing was disbanded under the Labour Government in 2001 without replacement of the A-4 Skyhawk and Aermacchi MB-339 aircraft. Future Air Mobility Capability New Zealand took an option to purchase C-130J Hercules from Lockheed Martin as a part of an Australian purchase in the late 1990s but following the 1999 election the new Labour government under Helen Clark decided not to proceed with the purchase, choosing to perform a life extension program for the existing C-130H aircraft. New Zealand possesses some of the earliest C-130H Hercules off the Lockheed production line, with the most recorded flying hours in the world remaining in use. In September 2017, the National Party led government approved the Future Air Mobility Capability project to identify options for an affective and flexible air transport capability that would be able to support the armed forces operations. Several aircraft were considered, with various aircraft performing demonstration visits including the Airbus A400M Atlas, Boeing C-17 Globemaster III, Embraer KC-390 Millennium, Kawasaki C-2, and Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules. In June 2019 the Lockheed Martin C-130J-30 Hercules was identified due to its mature platform, and flexibility and continuity with the RNZAF's existing fleet of aircraft. On 5 June 2020 the Government announced that a fleet of five C-130J-30 would replace the current fleet of C-130H Hercules operated by the Royal New Zealand Air Force for tactical airlift operations. The C-130J had been selected as the preferred platform in 2019 and the aircraft and a full mission flight simulator are being acquired through the United States' Foreign Military Sales (FMS) process. Deliveries are scheduled to commence in 2024, with all five aircraft in country by mid-2025. The two Boeing 757 aircraft operated by the Air Force are in severe need of replacement, due to significant technical and operational issues. However, due to financial constraints, a replacement is not scheduled until at least 2028. The capability will be able to move personnel and cargo within the South Pacific, to Antarctica, and in support of coalition operations further afield, supporting missions from humanitarian and disaster relief to operations in high-risk conflict zones. Air Surveillance Maritime Patrol The need to replace the RNZAF's aging P-3 Orion maritime patrol aircraft was outlined in the Strategic Defence Policy Statement in 2018. In July 2018, the government approved the acquisition of four Boeing P-8A Poseidon aircraft. The key tasks which will be performed by the new aircraft will be: Participation in international task groups and exercises Environmental Monitoring Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief Protection of New Zealand's Exclusive Economic Zone and the Southern Ocean It will be able to engage in warfare, as they are armed with torpedoes, harpoon anti-ship missiles and other weapons, and are able to drop and monitor sonobuoys and hunt submarines. The P-8A aircraft are scheduled for delivery from the United States in 2024. The acquisition of the aircraft will coincide with No. 5 Squadron RNZAF relocating from RNZAF Base Auckland to RNZAF Base Ohakea. First work on upgrading instrastructure at Ohakea began by the Minister of Defence Ron Mark in November 2019, with the construction of new hangars, ground services and training facilities. Progress on this infrastructure was halted for a short time due to COVID-19 but as of 2021, construction is continuing. As of 2021 Royal New Zealand Air Force aircrew continue to be trained on the new aircraft in the United States. This ensures New Zealand will have enough qualified personnel to operate the P-8As when they arrive in New Zealand. In September 2020 the inaugural Royal New Zealand Air Force crew for the P-8A graduated training at Jacksonville Florida, USA. The team is the first New Zealand crew to transition to the P-8A and will now begin work to qualify as instructors to help train the rest of 5 Squadron's aircrews as they transition from the P-3K2 Orion to the P-8A Poseidon. Enhanced Maritime Awareness Capability The Enhanced Maritime Awareness Capability project will support the Government's maritime security strategy, providing air surveillance capabilities in New Zealand's Exclusive Economic Zone and the Southern Ocean. This additional capability will free up the new P-8A maritime patrol aircraft fleet to fly more missions in the South Pacific and further afield. Investment in a range of capabilities will be considered, including satellites, unmanned aerial vehicles and traditional fixed-wing aircraft. See also Military history of New Zealand New Zealand Defence Force List of squadrons of the RNZAF List of aircraft of the Royal New Zealand Air Force and Royal New Zealand Navy List of individual weapons of the New Zealand armed forces List of New Zealand military bases RNZAF Security Forces List of World War I aces from New Zealand List of former Royal New Zealand Air Force stations New Zealand Air Training Corps Disbandment of the RNZAF air combat force Air Force Museum of New Zealand New Zealand Defence College Black Falcons References Citations Bibliography Dawson, Bee (2017) Laucala Bay: The Story of the RNZAF in Fiji 1939 to 1967 (Softback), Random House, Lambert, Max (ed.): 1989 Air New Zealand Almanac, New Zealand Press Association, 1988, Sanders, James: A Long Patrol, An Illustrated History of No 1 Squadron RNZAF, 1986, Century Hutchinson, Auckland, . External links Military history of New Zealand Military units and formations established in 1923 1923 establishments in New Zealand New Zealand Defence Force

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleaford

Sleaford

Sleaford is a market town and civil parish in the North Kesteven district of Lincolnshire, England, which includes Quarrington to the south-west, Holdingham to the north and Old Sleaford to the east. The town is on the edge of the fertile Fenlands, north-east of Grantham, west of Boston, and south of Lincoln. Its population of 17,671 at the 2011 Census made it the largest settlement in the North Kesteven district. Bypassed by the A17 and the A15, it is linked to Lincoln, Newark, Peterborough and King's Lynn. Sleaford railway station is on the Nottingham to Skegness (via Grantham) and Peterborough to Lincoln Lines. The first settlement formed in the Iron Age where a prehistoric track crossed the River Slea. It was a tribal centre and home to a mint for the Corieltauvi in the 1st centuries BC and AD. Evidence of Roman and Anglo-Saxon settlement has been found. The medieval records differentiate between Old and New Sleaford, the latter emerging by the 12th century around the present-day market place and St Denys' Church; Sleaford Castle was also built at that time for the Bishops of Lincoln, who owned the manor. Granted the right to hold a market in the mid-12th century, New Sleaford developed into a market town and became locally important in the wool trade, while Old Sleaford declined. From the 16th century, the landowning Carre family kept tight control over the town – it grew little in the early modern period. The manor passed from the Carre family to the Hervey family by the marriage of Isabella Carre to John Hervey, 1st Earl of Bristol in 1688. The town's common land and fields were legally enclosed by 1794, giving ownership mostly to the Hervey family. This coincided with canalisation of the Slea. The Sleaford Navigation brought economic growth until it was superseded by the railways in the mid-1850s. In the 20th century, the sale of farmland around Sleaford led to the development of large housing estates. The subsequent availability of affordable housing combined with the town's educational facilities and low crime rates made it an attractive destination for home-buyers and the town's population underwent the fastest growth of any Lincolnshire town in the 1990s. Sleaford was mainly an agricultural town until the 20th century with a cattle market. Seed companies such as Hubbard and Phillips and Sharpes International were established in the late 19th century. The arrival of the railway made the town favourable for malting, but industry has declined. In 2011, the commonest occupations were in wholesale and retail trading, health and social care, public administration, defence and manufacturing. Regeneration of the town centre has helped to regenerate the earlier industrial areas, including construction of the National Centre for Craft & Design on an old wharf. History Etymology The earliest records of the place-name Sleaford are found in a charter of 852 as Slioford and in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as Sliowaford. In the Domesday Book (1086), it is recorded as Eslaforde and in the early 13th century as Sliforde. In the 13th century Book of Fees it appears as Lafford. The name is formed from the Old English words and , together meaning 'ford over a muddy or slimy river'. Early period Archaeological material from the Bronze Age and earlier has been recovered and excavations have shown there was unsustained late-Neolithic and Bronze Age human activity in the vicinity. The earliest known permanent settlement dates from the Iron Age, where a track northwards from Bourne crossed the River Slea. Although only sparse pottery evidence has been found for the middle Iron Age period, 4,290 pellet mould fragments, probably used for minting and dated to 50 BC–AD 50, have been uncovered south-east of the modern town centre, south of a crossing of the River Slea and near Mareham Lane in Old Sleaford. The largest of its kind in Europe, the deposit has led archaeologists to consider that the site in Old Sleaford as one of the largest Corieltauvian settlements in the period and possibly a tribal centre. During the Roman occupation of Britain (AD 43–409), the settlement was "extensive and of considerable importance". Its location beside the Fens may have made it economically and administratively significant as a centre for stewards and owners of fenland estates. There are signs of a road connecting Old Sleaford to Heckington (about east), where Roman tile kilns have been uncovered and may imply the presence of a market. When the first roads were built by the Romans, Sleaford was bypassed as "less conveniently located" and more "geared to native needs". A smaller road, Mareham Lane, which the Romans renewed, ran through Old Sleaford, and south along the fen edge towards Bourne. Where it passed through Old Sleaford, excavations have shown a large stone-built domestic residence, associated farm buildings, corn-driers, ovens and field systems, all from the Roman period, and a number of burials. Other Roman remains, including a burial, have been excavated in the town. Middle Ages There is little evidence of continuous settlement between the late Roman and Anglo-Saxon periods but the Saxons did establish themselves eventually. South of the modern town, a 6th to 7th-century cemetery has been uncovered with an estimated 600 burials, many showing signs of pagan burial rites. The now ruined Church of St Giles/All Saints at Old Sleaford has been discovered and excavations of the market place in 1979 uncovered Anglo-Saxon remains from the 8th–9th centuries, indicating some form of enclosure with domestic features. The earliest documentary reference to Sleaford occurs in a 9th-century charter, when it was owned by Medehamstede Abbey in Peterborough, a Mercian royal foundation. There is little evidence of estate structure until the late Saxon period, but there may have been a market and court before the Norman conquest and it may well have been an economic and jurisdictional centre for surrounding settlements. The Slea played a big part in the town's economy: it never ran dry or froze, and by the 11th century it supported a dozen watermills. The mills and others in nearby Quarrington and the lost hamlet of Millsthorpe, formed the "most important mill cluster in Lincolnshire". In the later Middle Ages, the Romano-British settlement became known as Old Sleaford, while New Sleaford was a settlement centred on St Denys' Church and the market place. The Domesday Book (1086) has two entries under Eslaforde (Sleaford) recording land held by Ramsey Abbey and the Bishop of Lincoln. The location of the manors recorded in Domesday is unclear. One theory endorsed by Maurice Beresford is that they focused on the settlement at Old Sleaford, due to evidence that New Sleaford was planted in the 12th century by the bishop to increase his income, a development associated with the construction of Sleaford Castle between 1123 and 1139. Beresford's theory has been criticised by the local historians Christine Mahany and David Roffe who have reinterpreted the Domesday material and argued that in 1086 the Bishop's manor included the church and associated settlement which became "New" Sleaford. A charter to hold a fair on the feast day of St Denis was granted by King Stephen to Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, in 1136–1140. Between 1154 and 1165, Henry II granted the bishop of Lincoln the right to hold a market at Sleaford; Bishop Oliver Sutton argued in 1281 that his right to hold a market and fair had existed since time immemorial. In 1329, Edward III confirmed the market. In 1401, Henry IV granted the bishop fairs on the feast days of St Denis and St Peter's Chains. A survey of 1258 is the first to mention burgage tenure; tenants in the nearby hamlet of Holdingham held tofts with other land, while those in New Sleaford held only tofts, indicating that demesne farming centred on the hamlet. The town later had at least two guilds comparable to those found in developed towns. However, there was no formal charter outlining its freedoms; it was not a centre of trade, and tight control by the bishops meant the economy was mainly geared to serve them. So it retained a strong tradition of demesne farming well into the 14th century. As the economic initiative passed more to burgesses and middlemen who formed ties with nearby towns such as Boston, evidence suggests that Sleaford developed a locally important role in the wool trade. In the Lay Subsidy of 1334, New Sleaford was the wealthiest settlement in the Flaxwell wapentake, with a value of £16 0s. 8d.1/4d. Meanwhile, Old Sleaford, an "insignificant" place since the end of the Roman period, declined and may have been deserted by the 16th century. Early modern period The manor of Old Sleaford was owned in the late 15th and early 16th centuries by the Hussey family, but John Hussey, 1st Baron Hussey of Sleaford was executed for treason for his part in the Lincolnshire Rising. The manor and his residence at Old Place reverted to the Crown and were later sold to Robert Carre. George Carre or Carr from Northumberland had settled in Sleaford by 1522 when he was described as a wool merchant. His son Robert bought Hussey's land and the castle and manor of New Sleaford from Edward Clinton, 1st Earl of Lincoln. His eldest surviving son Robert, founded Carre's Grammar School in 1604, and his youngest son Edward was created a baronet; his son founded Sleaford Hospital in 1636. The last male descendant died in 1683 and the heiress, Isabella Carre, married John Hervey, Earl of Bristol, in whose family the estates remained until the 1970s. The Carres and Herveys had a strong influence: while extracting dues from their tenants, they took leading tradesmen to the Exchequer Court to gain legal force behind their monopoly on charging tolls on market and cattle traders and for driving animals through the town. Industry was slow to take hold. By the second half of the 18th century, Cogglesford Mill was the only working corn mill in the town. An old mill at the junction of Westgate and Castle Causeway supplied hemp to the growing rope-making business of the Foster and Hill families. As local historian Simon Pawley wrote, "In many respects, things had changed little [by 1783] since the survey of 1692," with few of the buildings or infrastructure being improved. Major changes to agriculture and industry took place in the last decade of that century. From the Middle Ages, Sleaford was surrounded by three open fields known as North, West and Sleaford Fields. When these were enclosed in 1794, over 90 per cent of the of the open land was owned by Lord Bristol. Despite the costs of fencing and re-organisation, the system was easier to farm and cottages were built closer to fields, while the landowner could charge more rent owing to the increased profitability of the land; those who lost out were the cottagers, who could no longer keep a few animals grazing on the common land at no cost. The process allowed the land boundaries and pathways to be tidied; Drove Lane, running to Rauceby, was shifted north and straightened. Industrial development Canalisation of the River Slea began in the 1790s. Canals in England were constructed from the 1760s to make inland trade easier; Sleaford's businessmen were keen to benefit from these. Sleaford Navigation opened in 1794. It eased the export of farm produce to the Midlands and the import of coal and oil. Mills along the Slea benefited and wharves were constructed around Carre Street. Between 1829 and 1836 the navigation's toll rights increased in value 27 times over. The railways emerged in the 19th century as an alternative to canals and arrived at the town in 1857, when a line from Grantham to Sleaford opened. This made trading easier and improved communications, but led to the decline of the Navigation Company. Income from tolls decreased by 80 per cent between 1858 and 1868; it made its first loss in 1873 and was abandoned in 1878. The town's rural location and transport links led in the late 19th century to the rise of two local seed merchants: Hubbard and Phillips, and Charles Sharpe; the former took over the Navigation Wharves, and the latter was trading in the US and Europe by the 1880s. The railway, Sleaford's rural location and its artesian wells, were key factors in the development of the Bass & Co maltings complex at Mareham Lane (1892–1905). Sleaford's population more than doubled from 1,596 in 1801 to 3,539 in 1851. Coinciding with this is the construction or extension of public buildings, often by the local contractors Charles Kirk and Thomas Parry. The gasworks opened in 1839 to provide lighting in the town. Sleaford's Poor Law Union was formed in 1836 to cater for the town and the surrounding 54 parishes. A workhouse was built by 1838, able to house 181 inmates. Despite these advances, the slums around Westgate were crowded, lacking in sanitation and ridden by disease; the local administration failed to deal with the matter until 1850, when a report on the town's public health by the General Board of Health heavily criticised the situation and set up a Local Board of Health to undertake public works. By the 1880s, Lord Bristol had allowed clean water to be pumped into the town, but engineering problems and a reluctance to sell land to house the turbines had delayed the introduction of sewers. Post-industrial period Although hardly damaged in the First and Second World Wars, Sleaford has close links with the Royal Air Force due to proximity to several RAF bases, including RAF Cranwell and RAF Waddington. Lincolnshire's topography – flat and open countryside – and its location in the east of the country made it ideal for the airfields being constructed in the First World War. Work began on Cranwell in late 1915; it was designated an RAF base in 1918 and the RAF College opened in 1920 as the world's first air academy. A Cranwell branch railway linking Sleaford station with the RAF base opened in 1917 and closed in 1956. During the Second World War, Lincolnshire was "the most significant location for bomber command" and Rauceby Hospital, south-west of Sleaford, was requisitioned by the RAF as a specialist burns unit which the plastic surgeon Archibald McIndoe regularly visited. Sleaford's population remained static between the wars, but the Great Depression in the 1930s caused unemployment to rise. The Council housing put up along Drove Lane proved insufficient for the low-income families after the Westgate slums were cleared in the 1930s; Jubilee Grove opened in that decade to meet the demand. In the post-war period, there were housing developments at St Giles Avenue, the Hoplands, Russell Crescent, Jubilee Grove and Grantham Road. Parts of the town were redeveloped: in 1958, the Bristol Arms Arcade opened, the Corn Exchange was demolished in the 1960s and the Waterside Shopping Precinct opened in 1973, as did Flaxwell House, designed to house a department store, though later becoming the national headquarters for Interflora. By 1979, the major landowner, Victor Hervey, 6th Marquess of Bristol, was heavily in debt and sold most of his estates in Sleaford and Quarrington. The estate office closed in 1989. Much of the land went to property developers and subsequent decades brought new housing and a considerable rise in population. According to a council report, people were attracted to the town by "the quality of life, low crime rates, relatively low house prices and good-quality education". From 1981 to 2011, Sleaford's population rose from 8,000 to 18,000; the growth rate in 1991–2001 was the fastest of any town in the county. The infrastructure struggled to cope, especially with increased traffic congestion. Two bypasses opened and a one-way system was introduced, a process that Simon Pawley argues accelerated the decline of the High Street. In the early 2000s, the Single Regeneration Budget of £15 million granted to Sleaford improved the town centre and funded development of the Hub (from 2011 to 2021, the National Centre for Craft & Design) in the old Navigation wharves area. Geography Topography Sleaford is the principal market town in the North Kesteven district of Lincolnshire. The civil parish includes the hamlet of Holdingham to the north east and the village of Quarrington to the south east, both of which merge with the town. Sleaford lies some 43 feet (13 m) above sea level close to Lincoln Cliff, a Limestone scarp running north–south through Lindsey and Kesteven. The bedrock under the western half of the town belongs to the Great Oolite Group of Jurassic Sandstone, Limestone and Argillaceous rocks formed 168−165 million years ago; Kellaways and Oxford Clay formations, dated to 165–156 million years ago, underlie the eastern half. Alluvium deposits are found along the Slea's course, and Fen sand and gravel are found to the east and south. The town is on the edge of the Fens, a low-lying region of the East of England which, before drainage from the 17th to the 20th centuries, were marshy and liable to flooding. Draining has revealed nutrient-rich soils and allowed 88 per cent of the land to be cultivated, mainly as arable. Most of it qualifies amongst the most productive farmland in the country. Two Local Nature Reserves sit within the civil parish boundaries: Lollycocks Field, providing mostly wildflower and wetlands habitats alongside Eastgate, and Mareham Pastures, consisting of wildflower meadows, new woodland, hedges and open grassland. Climate Lincolnshire's position in the east of Britain brings a sunnier, warmer climate than average. It is one of the driest counties. Although it may vary depending on altitude and proximity to the coast, the mean average temperature for the East of England is approximately 9 °C to 10.5 °C; the highest temperature recorded in the region was 37.3 °C at Cavendish on 10 August 2003. On average, the region experiences 30 days of rainfall in winter and 25 in summer, with 15 days of thunder and 6–8 days of hail per year; on 25 August 2001, hail the size of golf balls were reported in Sleaford and other parts of central Lincolnshire. Wind tends to affect the north and west of the country more than the East, and Lincolnshire tends to get no more than two days of gale per year (where gale is a gust of wind at >34 knots, sustained for at least 10 minutes). Despite this, tornadoes form more often in the East of England than elsewhere; Sleaford suffered them in 2006 and 2012, both causing damage to property. Governance Politics Before 1832, Sleaford was in the Lincolnshire parliamentary constituency, which encompassed all of the county except for four boroughs. In the 1818 election, 49 of the 2,000 people living in New and Old Sleaford and Quarrington qualified to vote. In 1832, the Reform Act widened the franchise and divided Lincolnshire. Sleaford was in the South Lincolnshire constituency that elected two members to Parliament. Following the 1867 reforms, the South Lincolnshire constituency's borders were redrawn, but Sleaford remained within it. The franchise was widened by the reforms so that roughly 15% (202) of males in Sleaford and Quarrington could vote in 1868. The constituency was abolished in 1885 and the Sleaford constituency formed. It merged with the Grantham seat in 1918. In 1997, Sleaford was reorganised into Sleaford and North Hykeham. From 1999 until 2020, Lincolnshire elected members of the European Parliament as part of the East Midlands constituency. Local government From the early medieval period, New Sleaford was in the Flaxwell wapentake and Old Sleaford in the Ashwardhurn one. Sleaford Poor Law Union, overseen by a Board of Guardians, was founded in 1836. A Local Board of Health was formed in 1851. After the Public Health Act 1872 established Urban and Rural Sanitary Districts (USD or RSD), Sleaford USD incorporated New and Old Sleaford, Holdingham and Quarrington, while the Sleaford RSD included all other parishes in the Poor Law Union. The Local Government Act 1894 converted the Board of Health and USD into the Sleaford Urban District Council; in 1899, the town became the administrative base of Kesteven County Council. In 1973, Sleaford Urban District merged with the North and East Kesteven Rural Districts to form North Kesteven, a district of Lincolnshire; by statutory instrument, Sleaford civil parish became the urban district's successor, thus merging Quarrington, New Sleaford, Old Sleaford and Holdingham civil parishes. Sleaford Town Council, the parish-level local government body beneath the district council, consists of 18 councillors from six wards: Castle, Holdingham, Mareham, Navigation, Quarrington and Westholme. The Chairman of the Town Council is also the Mayor of Sleaford. The six wards are also represented on North Kesteven District Council, although Mareham and Quarrington are merged into a single ward. Sleaford sends one councillor to Lincolnshire County Council. Sleaford Town Council has offices on Carre Street and the District Council offices are in the Lafford Terrace building on Eastgate, which was purchased by the council in 1934. Sleaford Urban District Council was granted a coat of arms on 26 October 1950 and after it was abolished the arms were used by its successor, Sleaford Town Council. The arms are blazoned: Gules on a Chevron Or three Estoiles Sable on a Chief Argent as many Trefoils slipped Vert. The trefoils in the chief are from the arms of the Marquess or Bristol, while the lower portion of the shield is the arms of the Carre family. Its crest is blazoned: On a Wreath of the Colours an Eagle wings extended and head downwards and to the sinister proper holding in the beak an Ear of Wheat stalked and leaved Or, the eagle symbolises Sleaford's links with the Royal Air Force and the ear of wheat represents agriculture. Public services Policing is provided by the Lincolnshire Police, fire-fighting by the Lincolnshire Fire and Rescue Service and ambulance services by the East Midlands Ambulance Service. The police station is on Boston Road, although older premises on Kesteven Street were erected in 1845 and reconstructed in 1912. The fire and ambulance services share accommodation on Eastgate which opened in 2018; the fire station had previously been on Church Lane and the ambulance service had operated from Kesteven Street. The United Lincolnshire Hospitals NHS Trust provides services at three hospitals, Pilgrim Hospital in Boston, Grantham and District Hospital, and Lincoln County Hospital. In 1879, an Act of Parliament was passed to set up a water company for the town; pumping machinery was installed and works constructed in 1880 to provide a clean water supply to the town. In 1948, the council took over the company and in 1962 its operation was handed to the Kesteven Water Board, which was absorbed by the Anglian Water Authority in 1973. The County Council promoted a Bill to Parliament to build an electricity generating station which passed in 1900. It was built at the cost of £6,700 in 1901 on Castle Causeway and remained there until nationalisation in 1948. Following nationalisation, electricity was provided by the East Midlands Electricity Board until it was privatised in 1990. A "virtually carbon neutral" straw-burning power-station at Sleaford opened in 2013; capable of supplying electricity to 65,000 homes, it is powered by straw bales from farms within a radius. Most electricity generated is fed into the National Grid and the facility provides free heat to public buildings in the town. The Sleaford Gas Light Company was formed in 1838. The following year gas lighting was provided and a gasworks was constructed in Eastgate. In 1866, the company was incorporated; in 1895–96, the works were rebuilt and lit the town until the company was nationalised in 1948. Gas ceased to be made there in the 1960s and the original buildings were retained, although later extensions were demolished in 1966–1968. Sleaford Library houses a local and family history section and microfiche machine. It was refurbished in 2010, but, as of 2014, was listed by the county council as "undersized". Economy Employment Sleaford served the surrounding agricultural communities and the town maintained a weekly market throughout the 19th century and a livestock market on Northgate from 1874 until 1984. According to a 2010 council report, the public sector was the town's main employer, along with agriculture and manufacturing. Unemployment was lower than the national average as were wages reflecting pay in the food processing and agricultural industries. At the 2011 Census, the largest group of working-age persons by economic activity are those in full-time employment, who make up 43.8 per cent of this section of the population, while 15 per cent are part-time employees and 7.7 per cent are self-employed; 15 per cent of the working-age population were retired, 4.2 per cent unemployed, with 40 per cent of those in long-term unemployment and roughly one third aged 16 to 24. The largest socio-economic grouping is those working in lower-tier managerial or administrative roles (21.9 per cent), followed by semi-routine (17.8 per cent), routine (15 per cent) and intermediate (12.5 per cent) occupations; no other group comprised 10 per cent or more. In terms of industry, the most common, based on those working in the sector, are the wholesale and retail trades (including automotive repairs) at 16.9 per cent, health and social care (13.4 per cent), public administration and defence (13.3 per cent) and manufacturing (10.9 per cent), with no other groups representing 10 per cent or more. An unemployment survey of Lincolnshire in 2014 found that the county experienced a decline in unemployment (based on Jobseekers Allowance claimants) by 29 per cent over the preceding 12 months, while the county's unemployment rate was marginally below the national average. Regeneration In 2011 North Kesteven District Council produced a 25-year strategy to regenerate the town, since its rapid growth since the 1990s had outgrown improvements to its infrastructure. It planned future residential developments and outlined ways to improve the town centre. It suggested developing more parking around the centre and reverting parts of the one-way system, developing southern Southgate and turning Money's Yard into an attraction to link with the National Centre for Craft and Design. North Kesteven District Council granted planning permission for a £56 m project to redevelop the derelict Bass Maltings site by converting it into residential and retail space and creating about 500 permanent jobs. The development including a supermarket was delayed when the town council opposed a link road through part of the recreation ground. Tesco, who had pledged to invest in a £20 million store in the development withdrew in January 2015 following financial set-backs. Transport The A17 road from Newark-on-Trent to King's Lynn bypasses Sleaford from Holdingham Roundabout to Kirkby la Thorpe. It ran through the town until the bypass opened in 1975. The Holdingham roundabout connects the A17 to the A15 road from Peterborough to Scawby. It also passed through Sleaford until 1993, when its bypass was completed. Three roads meet at Sleaford's market place: Northgate (B1518), Southgate and Eastgate (B1517). A one-way system set up in 1994 creates a circuit around the town centre. The railways arrived in the 19th century. Early proposals to bring a line to Sleaford failed, but in 1852 plans were made to build the Boston, Sleaford and Midland Counties Railway and its Act of Parliament passed in 1853. The line from Grantham opened in 1857; Boston was connected in 1859, Bourne in 1871 and Ruskington on Great Northern and Great Eastern Joint Railway in 1882. Sleaford is a stop on the Peterborough to Lincoln Line and the Poacher Line, from Grantham to Skegness. Grantham, roughly by road and two stops on the Poacher Line, is a major stop on the East Coast Main Line. Trains from Grantham to London King's Cross take approximately 1 hour 15 minutes. The River Slea through the town was converted into use as a canal for much of the 19th century. Plans to canalise it were drawn up in 1773, but faced opposition from land-owners who feared it might affect the drainage of fens. Plans were approved in 1791 with the support of Brownlow Bertie, 5th Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven who owned estates and quarries that he hoped would benefit. An Act of Parliament passed in 1792, establishing the Sleaford Navigation, which opened two years later. After falling revenues due to competition from the railways, the navigation company closed in 1878. The river, although no longer navigable, passes under Carre Street and Southgate. The Nine Foot Drain, also unnavigable, meets the Slea just before Southgate. Demography Ethnicity The 2011 census gave an ethnicity count of: 93.57% White British 4.04% White other 1.09% Asian or Asian British 0.26% Black or Black British 0.05% Arab 0.12% Other 0.87% Mixed The resident population at the 2011 Census was 17,671, which accounts for some 15 per cent of the population of the North Kesteven District; the urban area contained 8,690 houses. The town's population grew by 39% between 1991 and 2001, the fastest growth rate of any town in Lincolnshire. The district population is predicted to rise by 29 per cent between 2008 and 2033, compared with a national average of 18 per cent; in 2013, county councillors approved plans to build 4,500 new homes. A joint planning strategy report found that "This growth has largely been the result of people moving to the area attracted by the quality of life, low crime rates, relatively low house prices and good-quality education." The 2011 Census revealed that approximately 93.6 per cent of the town's resident population were White British; the second largest ethnic group was White Irish at approximately 3.4 per cent, followed by Asian (including Asian British) at 1.09 per cent; no other ethnic group represented 1% or more of the population; 88.5 per cent of residents were born in England and 4.41 per cent in other parts of the United Kingdom; 4.3 per cent were from EU countries, with 2.5 per cent coming from EU member states which joined after 2001. Between December 2013 and November 2014, 1,289 criminal acts were reported, of which 43.9 per cent were classed as anti-social behaviour, making it the largest portion of reported crimes. In 2010, recorded crime levels were amongst the lowest in the country and, for the year ending June 2014, the crime rate in the North Kesteven district is the lowest in Lincolnshire at 24.38 crimes per thousand residents. Religion Population Most people in the town identify as Christian. At the 2011 Census, 70.3 per cent of residents identified as Christian, while 21.8 per cent reported no religion, and 6.6 per cent did not state a religion; no other religious group comprised 1 per cent or more of the population. The 2001 Census recorded that 81.6 per cent of Sleaford residents identified as Christian, nearly ten percentage points higher than the national figure (71.8 per cent); 11.5 per cent of the town's residents had no religion and 6 per cent did not disclose a religion. In the Compton Census (1676), New Sleaford had a Conformist population of 576 people, no "Papists" and 6 Non-conformists. In the 19th century, it had a sizeable Non-conformist population and a large Anglican congregation; at the 1851 Census of Religious Worship, an estimated 2,000 people attended Non-conformist places of worship, while an estimated 600–700 people attended Anglican services in the parish. The Wesleyans met in Westgate in the early 19th century; by 1848, the congregation had set up in Northgate, an area known for its taverns and poor tenements. Ecclesiastical history New Sleaford had a church and priest by the time of the Domesday Book (1086) and the vicarage was founded in 1274. During the Commonwealth (1649–60), the vicar was expelled and replaced by Puritan ministers, the last of whom was removed following the Restoration in 1660 and replaced with an Anglican clergyman. In 1616, the vicarage was valued at £8 and in 1872 at £180. As of 2015, the ecclesiastical parish of St Denys, Sleaford, encloses the town of Sleaford and hamlet of Holdingham north of the railway line and does not include Quarrington. It falls within the Lafford Deanery, the Lincoln Archdeaconry and the Diocese of Lincoln. The patron is the Bishop of Lincoln and the incumbent vicar is the Rev. Philip Anthony Johnson, who was instituted in 2013. Old Sleaford was in the possession of Ramsey Abbey at the time of Domesday and later Haverholme Priory, and was eventually served by a vicar; the church was dedicated either to St Giles or to All Saints. At the Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536–41), the king took over collection of the tithes, eventually leasing them to Thomas Horseman and then selling them to Robert Carre. In the 17th century, the rectory of Quarrington and the vicarage were combined to form the parish of Quarrington with Old Sleaford. The parish boundaries of New Sleaford and Quarrington with Old Sleaford were last altered in 1928. The prebendary of New Sleaford or Lafford had a seat in the Lincoln Cathedral; it is not known when it was established, but it was confirmed by the Pope in 1146 and 1163, and was in the patronage of the bishop. Sleaford's tithes paid to the prebendary were valued at £11 19s. 7d. (£11.98) in 1616. After the enclosure of Sleaford's fields, a farm at Holdingham Anna was allotted to the prebendary in place of the tithes. The Prebendal Court of Sleaford had jurisdiction over New and Old Sleaford and Holdingham to grant administration and probate. The parishes of New and Old Sleaford were in the peculiar jurisdiction of the predendary until 1846, when they became part of Aswardhurn and Lafford Rural Deanery. In 1866 they were placed in Aswardhurn and Lafford No. 2 Rural Deanery, from 1884 in the Lafford No. 2 Rural Deanery, the Lafford South Rural Deanery from 1910, and since 1968, the Lafford Rural Deanery. Places of worship The Anglican parish church, St Denys, fronts onto the market place; the oldest parts date to the late-12th century and the broach-spire, built around 1220, is one of the oldest in England. Non-conformist meetings took place on Hen Lane (later Jermyn Street) from about 1776. The Congregationalists who met there constructed a chapel on Southgate in 1867–1868 (extended in 2007); in 1972, it became Sleaford United Reformed Church, which merged with Sleaford Community Church to form Riverside Church in 2008. Wesleyans first met in the 1790s at the house of Thomas Fawcett on Westgate. They built a chapel nearby in 1802, which was replaced in 1823; it housed the congregation until 1848 when a larger one was built on North Street. It was demolished and replaced by another on the same site in 1972. A Baptist chapel was built in Old Sleaford in 1811 to house a congregation of 250, it served the Strict Baptists until possibly the mid-20th century. The premises have been converted into a house. A Wesleyan Reform Methodist chapel opened in West Banks in 1864, but since 1896 has been occupied by the Salvation Army. The Fens were increasingly cultivated after the Napoleonic Wars, prompting migrant Catholic Irish farm-workers to move to the area. By 1879 a Roman Catholic missionary, Father Hermann Sabela, was conducting services in the town. A Catholic school and chapel were built in 1881 on land in Jermyn Street and in 1888, Our Lady of Good Counsel Roman Catholic Church, opened beside it. The incumbent priest is Father Michael John Bell, who was appointed in 2001. Mass is held on Sundays and throughout the week. The Sleaford Muslim Community Association met in St Deny's Church Hall during the early 2000s. A prayer hall was opened in Station Road in 2015 which has a custom dome and small minarets on it. Protests were planned by the English Defence League, but were cancelled. Sleaford Spiritualist Church opened in about 1956 on Westgate. Education Primary Sleaford has four primary schools. In 1726 William Alvey bequeathed land to fund teaching children in Sleaford. The school and master's house for Alvey's Endowed School, a national school, was built in 1851. New buildings for the infants' school were constructed in 1888. William Alvey Church of England School is housed in the same buildings. It became an academy in 2012. St Botolph's School is a Church of England Primary School, which opened at its current site in 2002. Church Lane School is housed in buildings constructed in 2002, when the original school house was demolished; in 2013, it had 201 children on roll. Our Lady of Good Counsel Roman Catholic School had 155 pupils on roll in 2011. In 1835, there were eight day schools and three Sunday schools in New Sleaford and two daily schools in Old Sleaford. An infant school in the old playhouse on Westgate opened in 1855; Wesleyan schools attached to the chapel on North Street accommodated up to 200 pupils. In addition to private girls' schools, short-lived private schools for boys were established by Mr Herring and Charles Boyer in 1851, Henry Carruthers, and Edwin Reginald Dibben in 1870 in competition with the grammar school. Charles Kirk built a school and chapel at Quarrington in 1867. It became St Botolph's Primary School and in 2002 moved to a new site. In 1879, an art school was established in Duke Street in connection with the Science and Art Department; by 1896, two Wesleyan schools and a Catholic school were also in operation. Secondary The town has three secondary schools with sixth forms: Carre's Grammar School, a boys' grammar school, Kesteven and Sleaford High School, a selective academy girls' grammar school, and St George's Academy, formerly St George's College of Technology, and before that Sleaford (County) Secondary Modern School (mixed non-selective secondary school). The grammar schools are selective and pupils are required to pass the Eleven plus exam. St George's is not selective. The co-educational Joint Sixth Form consortium allows pupils to choose subjects taught at all three schools. Carre's Grammar School was founded in 1604 by a bequest of Robert Carre of Aswarby. It has received Specialist Sports and Science statuses, became an academy in 2011 and was judged to be "good" by Ofsted in 2013, at which time it had 817 pupils, including the co-educational sixth form. Sleaford and Kesteven High School for Girls was established in 1902. It has specialist art status, became an academy in 2011 and was judged to be "good" by Ofsted in 2013, at which time there were 825 pupils on roll, including those in the co-educational sixth form. St George's opened in 1908 as Sleaford Council School. It has received specialist technology college status, converted to an academy in 2010 and operates a satellite school at Ruskington. St George's had 2,247 pupils on roll in 2012, across both sites and including the sixth form; when assessed by Ofsted in that year, was judged to be "good". Culture The National Centre for Craft & Design opened as The Hub in 2003 with support from a Single Regeneration Budget grant. It attracts 90,000 visitors on average each year and houses exhibitions of applied and contemporary art. The Playhouse theatre on Westgate was constructed in 1825 and sold in 1856 to be converted into an infants school and later a library and offices. In 1994, Sleaford Little Theatre bought and restored it and in 2000 it opened to the public. The Sleaford Picturedrome opened in 1920; the cinema closed in 2000 and the building became a snooker hall and then a nightclub that closed in 2008. Sleaford Museum Trust was formed in the 1970s to collect and preserve historical artefacts from the town's history. A Heritage Lottery Fund grant of more than £94,000 in December 2013 allowed the trust to establish a museum on Southgate, which opened in April 2015. Sleaford and District Civic Trust was founded in 1972 to "preserve the best features" of the town. There is a volunteer twinning association, the Sleaford and District Town Twinning Association, which was founded in 1999. The association has created and maintains links and annual visits with Marquette-lez-Lille in France since 1999, and with Fredersdorf-Vogelsdorf in Germany since 2009. Sport Sleaford Town F.C. played in the United Counties League Premier Division for the 2014–15 season. Formed as Sleaford Amateurs F.C. in 1920, the club was renamed Sleaford Town in 1968. In 2007 it moved to its present grounds at Eslaforde Park. Sleaford Rugby FC's clubhouse opened in 1999 off the A153. Sleaford Golf Club was founded in 1905 and had roughly 100 members the following year, which increased to 193 in 1911. The original golf course has been altered. In 2014, the club had roughly 600 members. Sleaford Cricket Club has grounds at London Road; the earliest record of the club is in 1803. The town is also home to Bristol Bowls Club, and an all-discipline gymnastics club founded in 1996. An outdoor lido opened in 1872 on riverside land owned by the Bristol estate but handed over to the community as public baths. Indoor facilities were built in the 20th century and the old lido became Sleaford Leisure Centre. In 2011 Kesteven District Council received a grant of £2.85 million, to fund reconstruction of the centre and its gym. Sleaford Town Runners is a running club based in the town, Affiliated to UK Athletics, Association of Running Clubs, and ClubMark. Training meetings are held twice a week, and runners from the club participate in a wide range of events including weekly parkruns, 10ks, half marathons, marathons and ultra marathons. Sleaford Town Runners organise the popular Rauceby Ripper cross country race every February which is attended by a wide range of club runners from the county and beyond. Local media The main radio stations for the county are BBC Radio Lincolnshire, broadcasting on 94.9 FM and 104.7 FM frequencies, and the commercial station Lincs FM, on 102.2, 96.7 and 97.6 FM. The town's local newspapers are the Sleaford Standard (founded in 1924), the Sleaford Advertiser (founded in 1980) and the Sleaford Target (founded in 1984). Historically, the Sleaford Gazette operated between 1854 and 1960; the Sleaford Journal ran from at least 1884 until it was incorporated into the Gazette in December 1929, while the Sleaford Telegraph ran from 1888 to 1889 and the Sleaford Guardian was in print for a year from 1945 to 1946. Landmarks A small number of medieval buildings remain standing in the town. St Denys' Church and St Botolph's in Quarrington date to the 12th and 13th centuries respectively, while Sleaford's half-timbered vicarage is 15th century. St Denys' Church is noted for its tracery and its stone broach spire is one of the oldest in England. Cogglesford Mill is the only remaining watermill in town and is a testament to the economic importance of the River Slea from the late-Saxon period onwards. The Bishops of Lincoln used the medieval town as a base, constructing the now-ruined Sleaford Castle, and as a means of extracting produce and wealth through demesne farming and by granting a market and limited freedoms to the town. As a result, the oldest areas are the market place and the four roads which meet there: Northgate, Southgate, Eastgate and Westgate; many 18th- and 19th-century buildings are found in this area. Buildings dating from these centuries include William Alvey's baroque house on Northgate, the Manor House on Northgate inset with medieval masonry, and Sessions House on the Market Place. The Carre family founded the grammar school which was rebuilt in 1834, the hospital, rebuilt in 1830, and the almshouses, rebuilt 1857, while the Victorian builders Charles Kirk and Thomas Parry constructed or added to numerous public buildings and private residences, including Lafford Terrace and their own houses on Southgate and at Westholme. During the Industrial Revolution, the Slea was canalised in 1794 and the Sleaford Navigation Company constructed offices and wharves along Carre Street. The canal brought trade, while the Gothic-fronted gasworks on Eastgate lit the town from 1839. Benjamin Handley and Anthony Peacock financed and benefited from the navigation and founded the bank that took over Alvey's House on Northgate and later added a Baroque extension; Henry Handley, a Member of Parliament, is commemorated by the Handley Memorial on Southgate, a Gothic monument in the style of an Eleanor Cross. During the 1850s, the railways arrived and the station was built in a Gothic style. Sleaford's agricultural location and new transport links encouraged seed trading and malting in the late 19th century: the seed merchant Charles Sharpe's house, The Pines, is on Boston Road. The massive Bass and Company maltings complex, constructed in brick off Mareham Lane between 1892 and 1905, is grade II*listed and has a frontage more than 1,000 feet long. Sleafordians The Handley family were well-connected with business; Benjamin Handley was a lawyer, prominent in the Navigation Company and partner in the local bank Peacock, Handley and Kirton. His son, Henry, was M.P. for South Lincolnshire; after his death, the residents erected a monument to him on Southgate. Robert Armstrong Yerburgh the son of Rev. Richard Yerburgh, vicar of New Sleaford, was twice M.P. for Chester. Sir Thomas Meres, politician was educated at the grammar school. Sir Robert Pattinson, also educated at the grammar, was M.P. for Grantham and Sleaford and chairman of Kesteven County Council. The religious controversialist Henry Pickworth was born in New Sleaford and challenged the opponent of Quakerism Francis Bugg to an open debate at Sleaford. John Austin, a religious writer, was educated at the grammar school. William Scoffin served as the town's Presbyterian minister and preached there for more than forty years, while Benjamin Fawcett, Presbyterian minister, was born and educated at Sleaford. Andrew Kippis, the Presbyterian minister, biographer and Fellow of the Royal Society, attended the Grammar School. The portrait painter Charles Haslewood Shannon (1863–1937), was born in Sleaford. Richard Banister, the oculist, practised for 14 years in Sleaford, where he trained in couching cataracts. Henry Andrews astronomer and astrologer, worked in Sleaford during his youth. The royalist poet Thomas Shipman was educated at Carre's Grammar School, as was novelist Henry Jackson; Joseph Smedley, the actor and comedian, built the theatre in 1824, before settling in the town in 1842, establishing a printing business and dying in North Street; and Charles Haslewood Shannon, the artist, was born in the town. The actress and comedian Jennifer Saunders was born in Sleaford. In popular culture, the singer Lois Wilkinson of the Caravelles was born in the town; glamour model Abi Titmuss grew up in Ruskington and was educated at Kesteven and Sleaford High School; and Bernie Taupin, Elton John's lyricist, was born in the town. Eric Thompson who narrated The Magic Roundabout television series, was born in a house on Jermyn Street. In sport, the professional footballer Mark Wallington who played for Leicester City, Derby County and Lincoln City, grew up in Sleaford and, after retiring, taught Physical Education at St George's Academy. In academia, the botanist David H. N. Spence was born in Sleaford; and the sociologist Sheila Allen attended Kesteven and Sleaford High School. See also Sleaford (disambiguation) Sleaford Town Runners References Notes Citations Bibliography Further reading Pawley, S. (1992). "Democracy and proper drains: public health and landed influence in late-nineteenth-century Sleaford", Lincolnshire Past and Present, no. 7. (Society for Lincolnshire History and Archaeology) Ranger, William (1850). Report to the General Board of Health on a Preliminary Inquiry into the Sewerage, Drainage, and Supply of Water, and the Sanitary Condition of the Inhabitants of the Parish of New Sleaford, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. External links Sleaford Town Council Towns in Lincolnshire Civil parishes in Lincolnshire Market towns in Lincolnshire North Kesteven District

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Manley

Michael Manley

Michael Norman Manley ON OCC (10 December 1924 – 6 March 1997) was a Jamaican politician who served as the fourth Prime Minister of Jamaica from 1972 to 1980 and from 1989 to 1992. Manley championed a democratic socialist program, and has been described as a populist. According to opinion polls, he remains one of Jamaica's most popular prime ministers. Early life Michael Manley was the second son of premier Norman Washington Manley and artist Edna Manley. He attended the Antigua State College and then served in the Royal Canadian Air Force during World War II. In 1945, he enrolled at the London School of Economics. At the LSE, he was influenced by Fabian socialism and the writings of Harold Laski. He graduated in 1949, and returned to Jamaica to serve as an editor and columnist for the newspaper Public Opinion. At about the same time, he became involved in the trade union movement, becoming a negotiator for the National Workers Union. In August 1953, he became a full-time official of that union. Entry into politics When his father was elected premier of Jamaica in 1955, Manley resisted entering politics, not wanting to be seen as capitalizing on his family name. However, in 1962, he accepted an appointment to the Senate of the Parliament of Jamaica. He won election to the Jamaican House of Representatives for the Central Kingston constituency in 1967. After his father's retirement in 1969, Manley was elected leader of the People's National Party, defeating Vivian Blake. He then served as leader of the Opposition, until his party won in the general elections of 1972. Domestic reforms In the 1972 Jamaican general election, Manley defeated the unpopular incumbent Prime Minister, Hugh Shearer of the Jamaica Labour Party, as his People's National Party swept to a landslide victory with 37 of 53 seats. He instituted a series of socio-economic reforms that produced mixed results. Although he was a Jamaican from an elite family, Manley's successful trade union background helped him to maintain a close relationship with the country's poor majority, and he was a dynamic, popular leader. Unlike his father, who had a reputation for being formal and businesslike, the younger Manley moved easily among people of all strata and made Parliament accessible to the people by abolishing the requirement for men to wear jackets and ties to its sittings. In this regard he started a fashion revolution, often preferring the Kariba suit, a type of formal bush-jacket suit with trousers and worn without a shirt and tie. Under Manley, Jamaica established a minimum wage for all workers, including domestic workers. In 1974, the PNP under Manley adopted a political philosophy of Democratic Socialism. In 1974, Manley proposed free education from primary school to university. The introduction of universally free secondary education was a major step in removing the institutional barriers to private sector and preferred government jobs that required secondary diplomas. The PNP government in 1974 also formed the Jamaica Movement for the Advancement of Literacy (JAMAL), which administered adult education programs with the goal of involving 100,000 adults a year. Land reform expanded under his administration. Historically, land tenure in Jamaica has been rather inequitable. Project Land Lease (introduced in 1973), attempted an integrated rural development approach, providing tens of thousands of small farmers with land, technical advice, inputs such as fertilizers, and access to credit. An estimated 14 percent of idle land was redistributed through this program, much of which had been abandoned during the post-war urban migration or purchased by large bauxite companies. The minimum voting age was lowered to 18 years, while equal pay for women was introduced. Maternity leave was also introduced, while the government outlawed the stigma of illegitimacy. The Masters and Servants Act was abolished, and a Labour Relations and Industrial Disputes Act provided workers and their trade unions with enhanced rights. The National Housing Trust was established, providing "the means for most employed people to own their own homes," and greatly stimulated housing construction, with more than 40,000 houses built between 1974 and 1980. Subsidised meals, transportation and uniforms for schoolchildren from disadvantaged backgrounds were introduced, together with free education at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Special employment programmes were also launched, together with programmes designed to combat illiteracy. Increases in pensions and poor relief were carried out, along with a reform of local government taxation, an increase in youth training, an expansion of day care centres. and an upgrading of hospitals. A worker's participation programme was introduced, together with a new mental health law and the family court. Free health care for all Jamaicans was introduced, while health clinics and a paramedical system in rural areas were established. Various clinics were also set up to facilitate access to medical drugs. Spending on education was significantly increased, while the number of doctors and dentists in the country rose. Project Lend Lease, an agricultural programme designed to provide rural labourers and smallholders with more land through tenancy, was introduced, together with a National Youth Service Programme for high school graduates to teach in schools, vocational training, and the literacy programme, comprehensive rent and price controls, protection for workers against unfair dismissal, subsidies (in 1973) on basic food items, and the automatic recognition of unions in the workplace. Manley was the first Jamaican prime minister to support Jamaican republicanism (the replacement of the constitutional monarchy with a republic). In 1975, his government established a commission into constitutional reform, which recommended that Jamaica become a republic. In July 1977, after a march to commemorate the Morant Bay Rebellion, Manley announced that Jamaica would become a republic by 1981. This did not occur, however. Diplomacy Manley developed close friendships with several foreign leaders, foremost of whom were Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, Olof Palme of Sweden, Pierre Trudeau of Canada and Fidel Castro of Cuba. With Cuba just north of Jamaica, he strengthened diplomatic relations between the two island nations, much to the dismay of United States policymakers. Manley expressed support for anti-colonial African movements such as the MPLA during the Angolan Civil War, where the MPLA successfully fought off, with Cuban military help, the rival UNITA movement, which was backed by apartheid South Africa and the US. The US labelled Jamaican support for the MPLA as "hostile", and the US government was critical of the Manley government for their close relationship with Fidel Castro's Cuba. When Henry Kissinger visited Jamaica in 1975, he warned Manley against supporting the MPLA and Cuba. More broadly there was a deterioration of relations between the United States and Jamaica during Manley's tenure beginning with the Nixon administration and continuing on with the Ford Administration due to allegations of CIA activities on the island. Attempts at an improvement of relations were made during the Carter Administration. In 1977, Manley visited President Jimmy Carter at the White House to remedy the situation. Details of the meeting, however, were never disclosed. In a speech given at the 1979 meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement, Manley strongly pressed for the development of what was called a natural alliance between the Non-Aligned movement and the Soviet Union to battle imperialism: "All anti-imperialists know that the balance of forces in the world shifted irrevocably in 1917 when there was a movement and a man in the October Revolution, and Lenin was the man." Despite some international opposition, Manley deepened and strengthened Jamaica's ties with Cuba. In diplomatic affairs, Manley believed in respecting the different systems of government of other countries and not interfering in their internal affairs. Violence Manley was Prime Minister when Jamaica experienced a significant escalation of its political culture of violence. Supporters of his opponent Edward Seaga and the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) and Manley's People's National Party (PNP) engaged in a bloody struggle which began before the 1976 election and ended when Seaga was installed as Prime Minister in 1980. While the violent political culture was not invented by Seaga or Manley, and had its roots in conflicts between the parties from as early as the beginning of the two-party system in the 1940s, political violence reached unprecedented levels in the 1970s. Indeed, the two elections accompanied by the greatest violence were those (1976 and 1980) in which Seaga was trying to unseat Manley. In response to a wave of killings in 1974, Manley oversaw the passage of the Gun Court Act and the Suppression of Crime Act, giving the police and the army new powers to seal off and disarm high-violence neighborhoods. The Gun Court imposed a mandatory sentence of indefinite imprisonment with hard labour for all firearms offences, and ordinarily tried cases in camera, without a jury. Manley declared that "There is no place in this society for the gun, now or ever." Violence flared in January 1976 in anticipation of elections. A state of emergency was declared by Manley's party the PNP in June and 500 people, including some prominent members of the JLP, were accused of trying to overthrow the government and were detained, without charges, in the South Camp Prison at the Up-Park Camp military headquarters. Elections were held on 15 December in the 1976 Jamaican general election, while the state of emergency was still in effect. The PNP was returned to office, winning 47 seats to the JLP's 13. The turnout was a very high 85 percent. The state of emergency continued into the next year. Extraordinary powers granted the police by the Suppression of Crime Act of 1974 continued to the end of the 1990s. The Jamaican economy suffered as a result of spiralling oil prices in the late 1970s, and Manley felt compelled to accept the harsh terms imposed by the International Monetary Fund, which demanded a cut in the civil service, a devaluation of the currency, a lifting of price controls, and a liberalization of the economy that led to a huge capital flight. Violence continued to blight political life in the 1970s. Gangs armed by both parties fought for control of urban constituencies. In the election year of 1980 over 800 Jamaicans were killed. Jamaicans were particularly shocked by the violence at that time. In the 1980 Jamaican general election, Seaga's JLP won 51 of the 60 seats, and he became Prime Minister. Opposition As Leader of the Opposition Manley became an outspoken critic of the new conservative administration. He strongly opposed intervention in Grenada after Prime Minister Maurice Bishop was overthrown and executed. Immediately after committing Jamaican troops to Grenada in 1983, Seaga called a snap election – two years early – on the pretext that Dr Paul Robertson, General Secretary of the PNP, had called for his resignation. Manley, who may have been taken by surprise by the maneuver, led his party in a boycott of the elections, and so the Jamaica Labour Party won all seats in parliament against only marginal opposition in six of the sixty electoral constituencies. During his period of opposition in the 1980s, Manley, a compelling speaker, travelled extensively, speaking to audiences around the world. He taught a graduate seminar and gave a series of public lectures at Columbia University in New York. In 1986, Manley travelled to Britain and visited Birmingham. He attended a number of venues including the Afro Caribbean Resource Centre in Winson Green and Digbeth Civic Hall. The mainly black audiences turned out en masse to hear Manley speak. Seaga's failure to deliver on his promises to the US and foreign investors, as well as complaints of governmental incompetence in the wake Hurricane Gilbert's devastation in 1988, contributed to his defeat in the 1989 elections. The PNP won 45 seats to the JLP's 15. Re-election By 1989, some right-wing critics had begun to assert that Manley had softened his socialist rhetoric, explicitly advocating a role for private enterprise. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, he also supposedly ceased his support for a variety of international causes. In the election of that year he campaigned on what appeared to be a more moderate platform. Seaga's Government had fallen out of favour – both with the electorate and the US – and the PNP was elected. He was sworn in as a Member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom in 1989. Manley's second term focused on liberalizing Jamaica's economy, with the pursuit of a neoliberal programme that stood in marked contrast to the more social democratic economic policies pursued by Manley's first government. Various measures were, however, undertaken to cushion the negative effects of austerity and structural adjustment. A Social Support Programme was introduced to provide welfare assistance for poor Jamaicans. In addition, the programme focused on creating direct employment, training, and credit for much of the population. The government also announced a 50% increase in the amount of nutritional assistance for the most vulnerable groups (including pregnant women, nursing mothers, and children). A small number of community councils were also created. In addition, a limited land reform programme was carried out that leased and sold land to small farmers, and land plots were granted to hundreds of farmers. The government had an admirable record in housing provision, while measures were also taken to protect consumers from illegal and unfair business practices. In 1992, citing health reasons, Manley stepped down as Prime Minister and PNP leader. His former Deputy Prime Minister, P. J. Patterson, assumed both offices. Family Manley was married five times. In 1946, he married Jacqueline Kamellard, but the marriage was dissolved in 1951. In 1955 he married Thelma Verity the adopted daughter of Sir Philip Sherlock OM and his wife Grace Verity; in 1960, this marriage was also dissolved. In 1966, Manley married Barbara Lewars (died in 1968); in 1972, he married Beverley Anderson, but the marriage was dissolved in 1990. Beverley wrote The Manley Memoirs in June 2008. Michael Manley's final marriage was to Glynne Ewart in 1992. Manley had five children from his five marriages: Rachel Manley, Joseph Manley, Sarah Manley, Natasha Manley, and David Manley. Retirement and death Manley wrote seven books, including the award-winning A History of West Indies Cricket, in which he discussed the links between cricket and West Indian nationalism. The other books he wrote include The Politics of Change (1974), A Voice in the Workplace (1975), The Search for Solutions, The Poverty of Nations, Up the Down Escalator, and Jamaica: Struggle in the Periphery. On 6 March 1997, Michael Manley died of prostate cancer, the same day as another Caribbean politician, Cheddi Jagan of Guyana. He is interred at the National Heroes Park, where his father Norman Manley is also interred. Photographer Maria LaYacona's portrait of Manley appears on the Jamaican $1,000 note. References Bibliography Henke, Holger (2000). Between Self-Determination and Dependency: Jamaica's foreign relations, 1972–1989. Kingston: University of the West Indies Press, 2000. Levi, Darrell E. (1990). Michael Manley: the making of a leader. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1990. External links Michael Norman Manley The Word Is Love: Jamaica's Michael Manley – documentary on the life and career of Michael Manley 1924 births 1997 deaths Prime Ministers of Jamaica Alumni of the London School of Economics Jamaican people of English descent Jamaican people of Irish descent Jamaican socialists Jamaican Roman Catholics Royal Canadian Air Force personnel of World War II Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Columbia University faculty Deaths from cancer in Jamaica Deaths from prostate cancer People's National Party (Jamaica) politicians North American democratic socialists Members of the Order of Jamaica Recipients of the Order of Merit (Jamaica) Children of national leaders Michael Royal Canadian Air Force officers Jamaican expatriates in Antigua and Barbuda Jamaican expatriates in the United Kingdom

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia%20confrontation

Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation

The Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation or Borneo confrontation (also known by its Indonesian / Malay name, Konfrontasi) was a violent conflict from 1963 to 1966 that stemmed from Indonesia's opposition to the creation of the Federation of Malaysia. After Indonesian president Sukarno lost power in October 1965, the dispute ended peacefully and the nation of Malaysia was born. The creation of Malaysia was a merger of the Federation of Malaya (now Peninsular Malaysia), Singapore and the British crown colonies of North Borneo and Sarawak (collectively known as British Borneo, now East Malaysia) in September 1963. Vital precursors to the conflict included Indonesia's policy of confrontation against Netherlands New Guinea from March–August 1962 and the Brunei Revolt in December 1962. Malaysia had direct military support from Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand. Indonesia had indirect support from the USSR and China, thus making it an episode of the Cold War in Asia. The confrontation was an undeclared war with most of the action occurring in the border area between Indonesia and East Malaysia on the island of Borneo (known as Kalimantan in Indonesia). The conflict was characterised by restrained and isolated ground combat, set within tactics of low-level brinkmanship. Combat was usually conducted by company- or platoon-sized operations on either side of the border. Indonesia's campaign of infiltrations into Borneo sought to exploit the ethnic and religious diversity in Sabah and Sarawak compared to that of Malaya and Singapore, with the intent of unravelling the proposed state of Malaysia. The jungle terrain of Borneo and lack of roads straddling the Malaysia–Indonesia border forced both Indonesian and Commonwealth forces to conduct long foot patrols. Both sides relied on light infantry operations and air transport, although Commonwealth forces enjoyed the advantage of better helicopter deployment and resupply to forward operating bases. Rivers were also used as a method of transport and infiltration. Although combat operations were primarily conducted by ground forces, airborne forces played a vital support role and naval forces ensured the security of the sea flanks. The British provided most of the defensive effort, although Malaysian forces steadily increased their contributions, and there were periodic contributions from Australian and New Zealand forces within the combined Far East Strategic Reserve stationed then in West Malaysia and Singapore. Initial Indonesian attacks into East Malaysia relied heavily on local volunteers trained by the Indonesian Army. Over time, infiltration forces became more organised with the inclusion of a more substantial component of Indonesian forces. To deter and disrupt Indonesia's growing campaign of infiltrations, the British responded in 1964 by launching their own covert operations into Indonesian Kalimantan under the code name Operation Claret. Coinciding with Sukarno announcing a 'year of dangerous living' and the 1964 race riots in Singapore, Indonesia launched an expanded campaign of operations into West Malaysia on 17 August 1964, albeit without military success. A build-up of Indonesian forces on the Kalimantan border in December 1964 saw the UK commit significant forces from the UK-based Army Strategic Command and Australia and New Zealand deployed roulement combat forces from West Malaysia to Borneo in 1965–66. The intensity of the conflict began to subside following the coup d'etat of October 1965 and Sukarno's loss of power to General Suharto. A serious peace negotiations between Indonesia and Malaysia began on May 1966, and a final peace agreement was signed on 11 August 1966 with Indonesia formally recognising Malaysia. Background Political situation Before Indonesia's Confrontation of Malaysia, Sukarno had sought to develop an independent Indonesian foreign policy, focused on the acquisition of Netherlands New Guinea as a residual issue from the Indonesian National Revolution, and establishing Indonesia's credentials as a notable international power operating distinct interests from those of the West and East. Indonesia had relentlessly pursued its claim to Netherlands New Guinea during the period 1950–1962, despite facing multiple setbacks in the UN General Assembly to have its claim recognised by the international community. Indonesia was an important country in developing the Non-Aligned Movement, hosting the Bandung Conference in 1955. Following the Indonesian crisis in 1958, which had included the Permesta rebellion in eastern Indonesia and the declaration of the PRRI, a rebel revolutionary government based in Sumatra; Indonesia had emerged as a notable and rising military power in Southeast Asia. With the influx of Soviet arms aid, Indonesia was able to advance its diplomatic claims to Netherlands New Guinea more forcefully. The diplomatic dispute reached its climax in 1962 when Indonesia launched a substantial campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations upon Netherlands New Guinea. While the infiltration forces were soundly defeated by Dutch and indigenous forces, Indonesia was able to lend credence to the threat of an Indonesian invasion of Netherlands New Guinea. The Dutch, facing mounting diplomatic pressure from the Indonesians and the Americans, who were anxious to keep Indonesia from becoming Communist aligned, yielded and agreed to a diplomatic compromise, allowing the Indonesians to gain control of the territory in exchange for pledging to hold a self-determination plebiscite (the Act of Free Choice) in the territory by 1969. Thus by the close of 1962, Indonesia had achieved a considerable diplomatic victory, which possibly emboldened its self-perception as a notable regional power. It was in the context of this recent diplomatic victory that Indonesia cast its attention to the British proposal for a unified Malaysian state. Before the British government announcing the East of Suez policy in 1968, they had begun to re-evaluate in the late 1950s their force commitment in the Far East. As a part of its withdrawal from its Southeast Asian colonies, the UK moved to combine its colonies in North Borneo with the Federation of Malaya (which had become independent from Britain in 1957), and Singapore (which had become self-governing in 1959). In May 1961, the UK and Malayan governments proposed a larger federation called Malaysia, encompassing the states of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, Brunei, and Singapore. Initially, Indonesia was mildly supportive of the proposed federation, although the PKI (Partai Komunis Indonesia — Indonesian Communist Party) was firmly opposed to it. In Brunei, it was unclear whether the Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III would support Brunei joining the proposed Malaysian state because of the implied reduction of his political office, and Brunei's oil revenues ensured Brunei's financial viability were it to choose independence. Furthermore, a Brunei politician, Dr. AM Azahari bin Sheikh Mahmud, while supporting a unified North Borneo, also opposed a wider Malaysian federation. In 1961, he had sounded out Indonesia about possible aid in training Borneo recruits; General Abdul Nasution hinted at moral support, and Soebandrio, the Indonesian foreign minister and head of intelligence, hinted at supplying more substantial aid. Azahari was a leftist who had fought in Indonesia in their war for independence. Following these meetings, Indonesia began training in Kalimantan a small volunteer force, the North Kalimantan National Army (TNKU). On 8 December 1962, the TNKU staged an insurrection—the Brunei Revolt. The insurrection was an abject failure, as the poorly trained and equipped forces were unable to capture key objectives such as the Sultan of Brunei, the Brunei oil fields, or European hostages. Within hours of the insurrection being launched, British forces based in Singapore were mobilised for a prompt response. The failure of the insurrection was evident within 30 hours when Gurkha troops airlifted from Singapore secured Brunei town and ensured the Sultan's safety. The degree of Indonesian support for the TNKU remains a subject of debate. While Indonesia at the time denied direct involvement, it did sympathise with the TNKU's objectives to destabilise the proposed Malaysian state. Following the TNKU's military setback in Brunei, on 20 January 1963 Indonesian Foreign Minister Subandrio announced that Indonesia would pursue a policy of Konfrontasi with Malaysia, reversing Indonesia's previous policy of compliance with the British proposal. This was followed by the first recorded infiltration of Indonesian forces on 12 April 1963 when a police station in Tebedu, Sarawak, was attacked. People and terrain In 1961, the island of Borneo was divided into four separate states. Kalimantan, comprising four Indonesian provinces, was located in the south of the island. In the north, separated from Kalimantan by a border some 1000 miles long, were the Sultanate of Brunei (a British protectorate) and two colonies of the United Kingdom (UK)—British North Borneo (later renamed Sabah) and Sarawak. The three UK territories totalled some 1.5 million people, about half of them Dayaks. Sarawak had a population of about 900,000, while Sabah's was 600,000 and Brunei's was around 80,000. Among Sarawak's non-Dayak population, 31% were Chinese, and 19% were Malay. Among non-Dayaks in Sabah, 21% were Chinese, and 7% were Malay; Brunei's non-Dayak population was 28% Chinese and 54% Malay. There was a large Indonesian population in Tawau in southern Sabah and a large and economically active Chinese one in Sarawak. Despite their population size, Dayaks were spread through the country in village longhouses and were not politically organised. Sarawak was divided into five administrative divisions. Sabah, whose capital city was Jesselton (Kota Kinabalu) on the north coast, was divided into several Residencies; those of the Interior and Tawau were on the border. Apart from either end, the border generally followed a ridgeline throughout its length, rising to almost 2,500 metres in the Fifth Division. In the First Division, there were some roads, including a continuous road from Kuching to Brunei and around to Sandakan on the east coast of Sabah. There were no roads in the Fourth and Fifth Divisions or the Interior Residency, and in Third Division, there was only the coast road, which was some 150 miles from the border. Mapping was generally poor, as British maps of the country only showed tiny topographic detail. Indonesian maps were worse; veterans recall "a single black and white sheet for all of Kalimantan torn from a school textbook" in 1964. Kalimantan was divided into four provinces, of which East Kalimantan and West Kalimantan face the border. The capital of the West is Pontianak on the west coast, about from the border, and the capital of the East is Samarinda on the south coast, some from the border. There were no roads in the border area other than some in the west, and no road existed linking West and East Kalimantan. The lack of roads and tracks suitable for vehicles on both sides of the border meant that movement was limited to foot tracks mostly unmarked on any map, as well as water and air movement. There were many large rivers on both sides of the border, and these were the primary means of movement, including hovercraft by the UK. There were also quite a few small grass airstrips suitable for light aircraft, as dropping zones for parachuted supplies, and helicopters. The equator lies about 100 miles south of Kuching, and most of northern Borneo receives over 3000 mm of rain each year. Borneo is naturally covered by tropical rainforests. This covers the mountainous areas cut by many rivers with very steep-sided hills and hilltop ridges often only a few metres wide. The high rainfall means large rivers; these provide a principal means of transport and are formidable tactical obstacles. Dense mangrove forest covering vast tidal flats intersected with numerous creeks is a feature of many coastal areas, including Brunei and either end of the border. There are cultivated areas in valleys and around villages. In the vicinity of abandoned and current settlements are areas of dense secondary regrowth. Sarawakian opposition The end of the Second World War had brought an end to the Brooke Dynasty rule in Sarawak. Believing it to be in the best interest of the people of Sarawak, Charles Vyner Brooke ceded the state to the British Crown. Sarawak became a Crown colony, ruled from the Colonial Office in London, which in turn dispatched a governor for Sarawak. The predominantly Malay anti-cession movement, which rejected the British takeover of Sarawak in 1946 and had assassinated Duncan Stewart, the first British High Commissioner of Sarawak, may have been the forerunner of the subsequent anti-Malaysia movement in Sarawak, headed by Ahmad Zaidi Adruce. According to Vernon L. Porritt and Hong-Kah Fong, Left-wing and communist cell groups had been present among Sarawak's urban Chinese communities since the 1930s and 1940s. Some of the earliest Communist groups in Sabah included the Anti-Fascist League, which later became the Races Liberation Army, and the Borneo Anti-Japanese League, which was made up of the North Borneo Anti-Japanese League and the West Borneo Anti-Japanese League. The latter was led by Wu Chan, who was deported by the Sarawak colonial government to China in 1952. Other Communist groups in Sarawak included the Overseas Chinese Youth Association, which was formed in 1946, and the Liberation League along with its youth wing, the Advanced Youth Association, which emerged during the 1950s. These organisations became the nuclei for two Communist guerrilla movements: the anti-Malaysia North Kalimantan People's Army (PARAKU) and the Sarawak People's Guerrillas (PGRS). These various Communist groups were designated by various British and other Western sources as the Clandestine Communist Organisation (CCO) or the Sarawak Communist Organisation (SCO). The Sarawak Communist Organisation was predominantly dominated by ethnic Chinese but also included Dayak supporters. However, the Sarawak Communist Organisation had little support from ethnic Malays and other indigenous Sarawak peoples. At its height, the SCO had 24,000 members. During the 1940s and 1950s, Maoism had spread among Chinese vernacular schools in Sarawak. Following the Second World War, Communist influence also penetrated the labour movement and the predominantly Chinese Sarawak United People's Party, the state's first political party which was founded in June 1959. The Sarawak Insurgency began after the Brunei Revolt in 1962 and SCO would fight alongside the Bruneian rebels and Indonesian forces during the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation (1963–1966). The Sarawak Communist Organisation and the Bruneian rebels supported and propagated the unification of all British Borneo territories to form an independent leftist North Kalimantan state. This idea was originally proposed by A. M. Azahari, leader of the Parti Rakyat Brunei (Brunei People's Party), who had forged links with Sukarno's nationalist movement, together with Ahmad Zaidi, in Java in the 1940s. However, the Brunei People's Party was in favour of joining Malaysia on the condition it was as the unified three territories of northern Borneo with their own sultan, and hence was strong enough to resist domination by Malaya, Singapore, Malay administrators or Chinese merchants. The North Kalimantan (or Kalimantan Utara) proposal was seen as a post-decolonisation alternative by local opposition against the Malaysia plan. Local opposition throughout the Borneo territories was primarily based on economic, political, historical and cultural differences between the Borneo states and Malaya, as well as the refusal to be subjected under peninsular political domination. Both Azahari and Zaidi went into exile in Indonesia during the confrontation. While the latter returned to Sarawak and had his political status rehabilitated, Azahari remained in Indonesia until his death on 3 September 2002. In the aftermath of the Brunei Revolt, the remnants of the TNKU reached Indonesia. Possibly fearing British reprisals (which never eventuated), many Chinese communists, possibly several thousand, also fled Sarawak. Their compatriots remaining in Sarawak were known as the CCO by the UK but called the PGRS—Pasukan Gelilya Rakyat Sarawak (Sarawak People's Guerrilla Force) by Indonesia. Soebandrio met with a group of their potential leaders in Bogor, and Nasution sent three trainers from Resimen Para Komando Angkatan Darat (RPKAD) Battalion 2 to Nangabadan near the Sarawak border, where there were about 300 trainees. Some three months later, two lieutenants were sent there. The PGRS numbered about 800, based in West Kalimantan at Batu Hitam, with a contingent of 120 from the Indonesian intelligence agency and a small cadre trained in China. The PKI (Indonesian Communist Party) was firmly in evidence and led by an ethnic Arab revolutionary, Sofyan. The PGRS ran some raids into Sarawak but spent more time developing their supporters in Sarawak. The Indonesian military did not approve of the leftist nature of the PGRS and generally avoided them. Conflict Beginning of hostilities Sukarno's motives for beginning the Confrontation are contested. Former Indonesian Foreign Minister Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung argued years later that Sukarno intentionally muted Indonesia's opposition to the proposed Malaysian state while Indonesia was preoccupied with advancing its claim to West New Guinea. Following Indonesia's diplomatic victory in the West New Guinea dispute, Sukarno may have been emboldened to extend Indonesia's dominance over its weaker neighbours. Conversely, Sukarno may have felt compelled by the ongoing pressure of the PKI and the general instability of Indonesian politics to divert attention towards a new foreign conflict. In the late 1950s, Sukarno argued that Malaysia was a British puppet state, a neo-colonial experiment and that any expansion of Malaysia would increase British control over the region, with implications for Indonesia's national security. Sukarno strongly opposed the British decolonisation initiative involving the formation of the Federation of Malaysia that would comprise the Malay Peninsula and North Borneo. On the other side, Sukarno accused the new nation of Malaysia of being a British puppet state aimed at establishing neo-imperialism and neo-colonialism in Southeast Asia, and also at containing Indonesian ambition to be the regional hegemonic power. However, it was also suggested that Sukarno's campaign against the formation of Malaysia was actually motivated by a desire to unite the Malay Peninsula and the whole island of Borneo under Indonesian rule and to complete the previously abandoned idea of Greater Indonesia or Greater Malay, a concept that aims to unite the Malay race created by Sukarno and Kesatuan Melayu Muda, Ibrahim Yaacob. Similarly, the Philippines claimed eastern North Borneo, arguing that the Borneo colony had historical links with the Philippines through the Sulu archipelago. However, while Sukarno made no direct claims to incorporate northern Borneo into Indonesian Kalimantan, he saw the formation of Malaysia as an obstacle to the Maphilindo, a non-political, irredentist union spanning Malaya, Philippines and Indonesia. President of the Philippines Diosdado Macapagal initially did not oppose the concept and even initiated the Manila Accord. However, while the Philippines did not engage in hostilities, Malaysia severed diplomatic ties after the former deferred recognising it as the successor state of Malaya. In April 1963, the first recorded infiltration and attack occurred in Borneo. An infiltration force training at Nangabadan was split in two and prepared for its first operation. On 12 April 1963, one infiltration force attacked and seized the police station at Tebedu in the 1st Division of Sarawak, about 40 miles from Kuching and 2 miles from the border with Kalimantan. The other group attacked the village of Gumbang, South West of Kuching, later in the month. Only about half returned. The Confrontation could be said to have started from a military perspective with the Tebedu attack. Before Indonesia's declaration of Confrontation against the proposed Malaysian state on 20 January 1963, the Cobbold Commission in 1962 had reported on the viability of a Malaysian state, finding that there was sufficient support in the Borneo colonies for the creation of a larger Malaysian state. However, due to firming Indonesian and Philippine opposition to the Malaysia proposal, a new round of negotiations was proposed to hear the Indonesian and Philippine points of opposition. To resolve the dispute the would-be member states of Malaysia met representatives of Indonesia and the Philippines in Manila for several days, starting on 30 July 1963. Just days before the summit, on 27 July 1963, President Sukarno had continued his inflammatory rhetoric, declaring that he was going to "crush Malaysia" (). At the Manila meeting, the Philippines and Indonesia formally agreed to accept the formation of Malaysia if a majority in North Borneo and Sarawak voted for it in a referendum organised by the United Nations. While the fact-finding mission by the UN was expected to begin on 22 August, Indonesian delaying tactics forced the mission to start on 26 August. Nevertheless, the UN expected the report to be published by 14 September 1963. Before the Manila meeting, the Malayan Government had set 31 August as the date on which Malaysia would come into existence (coinciding with Malaya's independence day celebrations of 31 August). However, at the Manila negotiations, it was persuaded by the Indonesian and Philippine Governments to postpone Malaysia's inauguration until 15 September 1963 by which time a UN mission was expected to report on whether the two Borneo colonies supported the Malaysia proposal. However, following the conclusion of the Manila talks, the Malayan Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman announced that the proposed Malaysian state would come into existence on 16 September 1963, apparently irrespective of the latest UN report. North Borneo and Sarawak, anticipating a pro-Malaysian UN report, declared their independence as part of Malaysia on the sixth anniversary of Merdeka Day, 31 August 1963, even before the UN report had been published. On 14 September the UN report was published, once again providing general endorsement of the proposed Malaysian state. Malaysia was formally established on 16 September 1963. Indonesia immediately reacted by expelling the Malaysian Ambassador from Jakarta. Two days later, rioters organised by the PKI burned the British embassy in Jakarta. Several hundred rioters ransacked the Singapore embassy in Jakarta and the homes of Singaporean diplomats. In Malaysia, Indonesian agents were captured, and crowds attacked the Indonesian embassy in Kuala Lumpur. Ongoing campaign of infiltrations Even as peace talks progressed and stalled, Indonesia maintained its campaign of infiltrations. On 15 August, a headman reported an incursion in the 3rd Division and a follow-up indicated they were about 50 strong. A series of contacts ensued as 2/6 Gurkhas deployed patrols and ambushes, and after a month, 15 had been killed and three captured. The Gurkhas reported that they were well trained and professionally led, but their ammunition expenditure was high, and their fire discipline broke down. The prisoners reported 300 more invaders within a week and 600 in a fortnight. The Battle of Long Jawai was the first major incursion for the centre of the 3rd Division, directed by an RPKAD Major Mulyono Soerjowardojo, who had been sent to Nangabadan earlier in the year. The proclamation of Malaysia in September 1963 meant that Malaysian Army units deployed to Borneo (now East Malaysia). The deliberate attack by Indonesian forces on Malaysian troops did not enhance Sukarno's "anti-imperialist" credentials, although the Indonesian government tried blaming the KKO as enthusiastic idealists acting independently. They also produced Azahari, who claimed that Indonesian forces were playing no part in active operations. Sukarno next launched a peace offensive and, in late January, declared he was ready for a ceasefire (despite having denied direct Indonesia involvement). Talks started in Bangkok, but border violations continued, and the talks soon failed. They resumed mid-year in Tokyo and failed within days but allowed time for a Thai mission to visit Sarawak and witness smart, well-equipped Indonesian soldiers withdrawing across the border, which they had crossed a short distance away earlier in the day. Meanwhile, the Indonesian armed forces led by Lt. General Ahmad Yani became increasingly concerned with the worsening domestic situation in Indonesia and began to secretly contact the Malaysian government, while managing to obstruct the confrontation to a minimal level. This was implemented to preserve an already exhausted army recently conducted the Operation Trikora in Western New Guinea, while also maintaining its political position in Indonesian politics, especially against the Communist Party of Indonesia, the ardent supporters of the confrontation. Expansion of the conflict to the Malaysian Peninsula Co-ordinated to coincide with Sukarno announcing a 'Year of Dangerous Living' during Indonesian Independence Day celebrations, Indonesian forces began a campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations of the Malaysian Peninsula on 17 August 1964. On 17 August 1964, a seaborne force of about 100, composed of air force Komando Pasukan Gerak Tjepat/PGT (Rapid Response Troop Commandos, later known as "Kopasgat"; current spelling: Komando Pasukan Gerak Cepat/PGC, today known as Korps Pasukan Khas "Paskhas") paratroopers, KKO and about a dozen Malaysian communists, crossed the Malacca Straits by boat, landing at Pontian in three parties in the night. Instead of being greeted as liberators, however, they were contained by various Commonwealth forces, and all but four of the infiltrators were captured within a few days. On 2 September, three Lockheed C-130 Hercules aircraft set off from Jakarta for Peninsular Malaysia, flying low to avoid detection by radar. The following night, two of the C-130 managed to reach their objective with their onboard PGT paratroopers, who jumped off and landed around Labis in Johore (about 100 miles north of Singapore). The remaining C-130 crashed into the Malacca Straits while trying to evade interception by an RAF Javelin FAW 9 launched from RAF Tengah. Due to a lightning storm, the drop of 96 paratroopers was widely dispersed. This resulted in them landing close to 1/10 Gurkhas, who were joined by 1st Battalion, Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment (1 RNZIR) stationed near Malacca with 28 (Commonwealth) Brigade. Operations were commanded by four Malaysian Brigade, but it took a month for the security forces to capture or kill 90 of the 96 parachutists, for the loss of two men killed during the action. Indonesia's expansion of the conflict to the Malaysian Peninsula sparked the Sunda Straits Crisis, involving the anticipated transit of the Sunda Strait by the British aircraft carrier HMS Victorious and two destroyer escorts. Commonwealth forces were readied for airstrikes against Indonesian infiltration staging areas in Sumatra if further Indonesian infiltrations of the Malaysian Peninsula were attempted. A tense three-week standoff occurred before the crisis was peacefully resolved. By the concluding months of 1964, the conflict once again appeared to have reached a stalemate, with Commonwealth forces having placed in check for the moment Indonesia's campaign of infiltrations into Borneo, and more recently, the Malaysian Peninsula. However, the fragile equilibrium looked likely to change once again in December 1964 when Commonwealth intelligence began reporting a build-up of Indonesian infiltration forces in Kalimantan opposite Kuching, which suggested the possibility of an escalation in hostilities. Two additional British battalions were subsequently deployed to Borneo. Meanwhile, due to the landings in Malaysia and Indonesia's continued troop build-up, Australia and New Zealand also agreed to begin deploying combat forces to Borneo in early 1965. Operation Claret Operation Claret was a long-running series of secretive cross-border raids conducted by British Commonwealth forces in Borneo from June 1964 to early 1966. These raids were undertaken by special forces—including the British Special Air Service, Australian Special Air Service Regiment, and New Zealand Special Air Service—as well as regular infantry. During the early phases of the conflict, British Commonwealth and Malaysian troops had attempted only to control the border and to protect population centres from Indonesian attacks. However, by 1965 they had decided to take more aggressive action, crossing the border to obtain information and in "hot pursuit" of withdrawing Indonesian infiltrators. First approved in May 1965, later they were expanded to include cross-border ambushing in July. These patrols—which were highly classified at the time—often involved small reconnaissance teams crossing the border from the Malaysian states of Sarawak or Sabah into Indonesian Kalimantan in order to detect Indonesian forces about to enter East Malaysia. Initially, penetration was limited to but was later extended to , and again to after the Battle of Plaman Mapu in April 1965. Conventional follow-up forces of platoon and company size were then directed into position to ambush the Indonesians, either as they crossed the border or often while they were still in Kalimantan. Such operations were to be "deniable" and were conducted under a policy of "aggressive defence". Given the sensitivity of these operations and the potential consequences if they were exposed, they were controlled at the highest level and conducted within strict parameters known as the "Golden Rules", while the participants were sworn to secrecy. Claret was largely successful in gaining the initiative for the British Commonwealth forces before being suspended late in the war, inflicting significant casualties on the Indonesians and keeping them on the defensive on their side of the border. The operations were only publicly disclosed by Britain in 1974, while the Australian government did not officially acknowledge its involvement until 1996. Easing of tensions On the night of 30 September 1965, an attempted coup took place in Jakarta. Six senior Indonesian military leaders were killed, while General Nasution narrowly escaped from his would-be captors. In the ensuing confusion, Sukarno agreed to allow Suharto to assume emergency command and control of Jakarta and the armed forces stationed there. Blame for the failed coup was attributed to the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), and in the following weeks and months a campaign of imprisonment and lynching of PKI members and sympathisers broke out across Jakarta and Indonesia. With Suharto's grip on power in Jakarta and Indonesia delicately poised, the scale and intensity of Indonesia's campaign of infiltrations into Borneo began to ease. The train of events set off by the failed coup led to Suharto's gradual consolidation of power and marginalisation of Sukarno. At the same time, the anti-communist purge spread throughout Indonesia. Suharto's steady consolidation of power after 30 September events allowed him to form a new government and in March 1967 Suharto was able to form a new cabinet that excluded Sukarno. On 28 May 1966, at a conference in Bangkok, the Malaysian and Indonesian governments declared the conflict was over. However, it was unclear if Suharto was in full control of Indonesia (rather than Sukarno), and vigilance in Borneo could not be relaxed. With Suharto's co-operation a peace treaty was signed on 11 August and ratified two days later. During Suharto's rise to power Claret operations continued and, in March 1966, a Gurkha battalion was involved in some of the fiercest fighting of the campaign during two raids into Kalimantan. Minor action by Indonesian forces continued in the border area, including an attempt at counter-battery fire against a 105 mm gun position in Central Brigade (reports from locals said the British return fire had turned over the Indonesian gun, thought to be 76 mm). At the beginning of 1966, with Indonesia's political hiatus beginning to stabilise (it had stopped a major RPKAD operation to capture a British prisoner), the RPKAD linked up with PGRS to establish guerrilla forces in Sabah and Sarawak. The Sabah effort never crossed the border; however, two groups entered Sarawak in February and May and obtained support from local sympathisers. The first group, despite losses in several contacts, lasted until June and exfiltrated on hearing about the end of Konfrontasi. Survivors of the second, after contact with Australian troops, also made it back to Indonesia. However, the final Indonesian incursion was in May and June. Signs of a substantial force were found crossing into Central Brigade. This was some 80 strong, mostly volunteers, led by Lt Sombi (or Sumbi) and a team from 600 Raider Company. They moved fast towards Brunei with 1/7 Gurkhas pursuing and ambushing them; almost all were accounted for. In response to this, a final Claret operation was launched, which was an artillery ambush by 38 Light Battery. Counter-measures Command arrangements In early January 1963, the military forces in northern Borneo, having arrived in December 1962 in response to the Brunei Revolt, were under the command of Commander British Forces Borneo (COMBRITBOR), Major General Walter Walker, who was Director of Borneo Operations (DOBOPS) based on Labuan Island and reported directly to the Commander in Chief Far East Forces, Admiral Sir David Luce. Luce was routinely replaced by Admiral Sir Varyl Begg in early 1963. In the middle of 1963, Brigadier Pat Glennie, normally the Brigadier General Staff in Singapore, arrived as Deputy DOBOPS. Politico-military authority lay with the Emergency Committees in Sarawak and North Borneo, including their Governors, who were the Commanders in Chief for their colonies. In Brunei, there was a State Advisory Council answerable to the Sultan. After independence, supreme authority changed to the Malaysian National Defence Council in Kuala Lumpur with State Executive Committees in Sabah and Sarawak. Military direction was from the Malaysian National Operations Committee jointly chaired by the Chief of the Malaysian Armed Forces Staff, General Tunku Osman, and the Inspector General of Police, Sir Claude Fenner. The British Commander in Chief Far East Forces was a member. DOBOPS regularly attended its meetings. Commonwealth order of battle British forces in Borneo included Headquarters (HQ) 3 Commando Brigade in Kuching with responsibility for the western part of Sarawak, 1st, 2nd and 3rd Divisions, and HQ 99 Gurkha Infantry Brigade in Brunei responsible for the East, 4th and 5th Divisions, Brunei and Sabah. These HQs had deployed from Singapore in late 1962 in response to the Brunei Revolt. The ground forces were initially limited to just five UK and Gurkha infantry battalions usually based in Malaya, Singapore and Hong Kong, and an armoured car squadron. The police also deployed several light infantry of Police Field Force companies. However, as additional resources became available the size of the force available to Walker expanded, and by the end of 1964 British forces had grown to approximately 14,000 troops organised into three brigades (increased to four in 1965). The naval effort, under DOBOPS command, was primarily provided by minesweepers used to patrol coastal waters and larger inland waterways around Wallace Bay. A guardship – a frigate or destroyer – was stationed off Tawau. Before Confrontation, no British military units had been stationed in Sabah or Sarawak. As Confrontation developed increasing numbers of troops were required. There were three types of British Army deployment: Units stationed in the Far East for two years did a single 4-month tour (this applied to Australian and NZ); Gurkha units (all permanently stationed in the Far East) did 6 month tours, generally once every twelve months; UK based units (from Army Strategic Command) did 12 month tours including 6 weeks jungle warfare training in West Malaysia. The initial air component based in Borneo consisted of detachments from squadrons stationed in Malaya and Singapore. These included Twin Pioneer and Single Pioneer transport aircraft, probably two or three Blackburn Beverley and Handley Page Hastings transports, and about 12 helicopters of various types. One of Walker's first "challenges" was curtailing the RAF's centralised command and control arrangements and insisting that aircraft tasking for operations in Borneo was by his HQ, not by the RAF Air Command Far East HQ in Singapore. Other aircraft of many types stationed in Malaya and Singapore provided sorties as necessary, including routine transport support into Kuching and Labuan. Rotary wing support included 60 naval and air force troop-lift helicopters and another 40 smaller army variants. Patrols within Malaysia were supplied while in the field by RN Wessex and RAF Whirlwind helicopters, initially dropping supplies to the patrols from low level, and later after the patrols had cleared a landing area in the dense jungle, by landing. A test Joint Service deployment of a Westland SR.N5 hovercraft at Tawau was also trialled under Major John Simpson. In addition to the ground and air force units, between 1963 and 1966 there were up to 80 ships from the Royal Navy, Royal Australian Navy, Royal Malay Navy, Royal New Zealand Navy and the Royal Fleet Auxiliary. Most of these were patrol craft, minesweepers, frigates and destroyers patrolling the coast-line to intercept Indonesian insurgents. One of the two Commando Carriers, HMS Albion and HMS Bulwark, was also committed throughout Confrontation usually in their transport role for troops, helicopters and army aircraft between Singapore and Borneo. In the early stages of the conflict, Indonesian forces were under the command of Lieutenant General Zulkipli in Pontianak, on the coast of West Kalimantan about from the border. The Indonesian irregulars, led by Indonesian officers, were thought to number about 1500, with an unknown number of regular troops and local defence irregulars. They were deployed the entire length of the border in eight operational units, mostly facing the 1st and 2nd Divisions. The units had names such as "Thunderbolts", "Night Ghosts" and "World Sweepers". However, as the conflict developed, the poorly trained and equipped 'volunteers' had been replaced by regular units. Indonesian forces deployed along the border in Kalimantan increased significantly towards the end of 1964, with estimates of between 15,000 and 30,000 men, up from around 2,500 men in mid-1964. Intelligence A useful factor in the containment of the Indonesian forces was the use of intelligence. The Royal Signals were able to intercept the Indonesian military communications. The cyphers were decrypted by the Intelligence Corps based at Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) listening stations in Singapore, one of which was RAF Chia Keng which was linked directly to the RAF Far East Air Force headquarters at RAF Changi. Intelligence from this may have been used in planning some aspects of Claret cross-border operations. British tactics Soon after assuming command in Borneo, General Walker issued a directive listing the ingredients for success, based on his experience in the Malayan Emergency: Unified operations (army, navy and air force operating fully together) Timely and accurate information (the need for continuous reconnaissance and intelligence collection) Speed, mobility and flexibility Security of bases Domination of the jungle Winning the hearts and minds of the people (this was added several months later). Walker recognised the difficulties of limited forces and a long border and, in early 1963, was reinforced with a SAS squadron from the UK, which rotated with another mid-year. When the SAS temporarily adopted 3-man instead of 4-man patrols, they could not closely monitor the border. Increasing the capability of the infantry to create a surveillance network was also considered essential. Walker raised the Border Scouts, building on Harrison's force of Kelabits, who had mobilised to help intercept the fleeing TNKU forces from the Brunei Revolt. He also utilised the experience of the Royal Marines as well as knowledge of the skill and usefulness of the Sarawak Rangers in the Malayan Emergency. This was approved by the Sarawak government in May as "auxiliary police". Walker selected Lieutenant Colonel John Cross, a Gurkha officer with immense jungle experience, for the task. A training centre was established in a remote area at Mt. Murat in the 5th Division and staffed mainly by SAS. Border Scouts were attached to infantry battalions and evolved into an intelligence-gathering force by using their local knowledge and extended families. In addition, the Police Special Branch, which had proved so effective during the Malayan Emergency in recruiting sources in the communist organisation, was expanded. British jungle tactics were developed and honed during the Malayan Emergency against a clever and elusive enemy. They emphasised travelling lightly, being undetectable and going for many days without resupplying. Being undetectable meant being silent (hand signals, no rattling equipment) and 'odour free'—perfumed toiletries were forbidden (they could be detected a kilometre away by good jungle fighters), and sometimes eating food cold to prevent cooking smells. In about 1962, at the end of National Service, British infantry battalions had reorganised into three rifle companies, a support company and an HQ company with logistic responsibilities. Battalion HQ included an intelligence section. Each rifle company was composed of 3 platoons of 32 men each, equipped with light machine guns and self-loading rifles. The support company had a mortar platoon with six medium mortars (3-inch mortar until replaced by 81-mm mortar around the end of 1965) organised into three sections, enabling a section to be attached to a rifle company if required. Similarly organised was an anti-tank platoon; there was also an assault pioneer platoon. The machine gun platoon was abolished, but the impending delivery of the 7.62 mm GPMG, with sustained fire kits held by each company, was to provide a medium machine gun capability. In the meantime, the Vickers machine gun remained available. The innovation in the new organisation was the formation of the battalion reconnaissance platoon, in many battalions a platoon of "chosen men". In Borneo, mortars were usually distributed to rifle companies, and some battalions operated the rest of their support company as another rifle company. The basic activity was platoon patrolling; this continued throughout the campaign, with patrols being deployed by helicopter, roping in and out as necessary. Movement was usually single file; the leading section rotated but was organised with two lead scouts, followed by its commander and then the remainder in a fire support group. Battle drills for "contact front" (or rear), or "ambush left" (or right) were highly developed. Poor maps meant navigation was important; however, the local knowledge of the Border Scouts in Borneo compensated for the poor maps. So tracks were sometimes used unless ambush was considered possible, or there was the possibility of mines. Crossing obstacles such as rivers was also handled as a battle drill. At night, a platoon harboured in a tight position with all-round defence. Contact while moving was always possible. However, offensive action usually took two forms: either an attack on a camp or an ambush. The tactic for dealing with a camp was to get a party behind it then charge the front. However, ambushes were probably the most effective tactic and could be sustained for many days. They targeted tracks and, particularly in parts of Borneo, waterways. Track ambushes were close range, , with a killing zone typically long, depending on the expected strength of the target. The trick was to remain undetected when the target entered the ambush area and then open fire all together at the right moment. Fire support was limited for the first half of the campaign. A commando light battery with 105 mm Pack Howitzers had deployed to Brunei at the beginning of 1963 but returned to Singapore after a few months when the mopping-up of the Brunei Revolt ended. Despite the escalation in Indonesian attacks after the formation of Malaysia, little need was seen for fire support: the limited range of the guns (), the limited availability of helicopters and the size of the country meant that having artillery in the right place at the right time was a challenge. However, a battery from one of the two regiments stationed in Malaysia returned to Borneo in early to mid-1964. These batteries rotated until the end of the confrontation. In early 1965, a complete UK-based regiment arrived. The short-range and substantial weight of the 3-inch mortars meant they were of minimal use. Artillery had to adopt new tactics. Almost all guns were deployed in single gun sections within a company or platoon base. The sections were commanded by one of the battery's junior officers, warrant officers or sergeants. Sections had about ten men and did their own technical fire control. They were moved underslung by Wessex or Belvedere helicopters as necessary to deal with incursions or support operations. Forward observers were in short supply, but it seems that they always accompanied normal infantry Claret operations and occasionally special forces ones. However, artillery observers rarely accompanied patrols inside Sabah and Sarawak unless they were in pursuit of a known incursion and guns were in range. Observation parties were almost always led by an officer, but only two or three men strong. Communications were a problem; radios were not used within platoons, only rearwards. Ranges were invariably beyond the capability of manpack VHF radios (A41 and A42, copies of AN/PRC 9 and 10), although the use of relay or rebroadcast stations helped where they were tactically possible. Patrol bases could use the World War II vintage HF No 62 Set (distinguished by having its control panel labelled in English and Russian). Until the manpack A13 arrived in 1966, the only lightweight HF set was the Australian A510, which did not provide voice, only Morse code. British psychological operations The role of the United Kingdom's Foreign Office and Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) during the confrontation was brought to light in a series of exposés by Paul Lashmar and Oliver James in The Independent newspaper beginning in 1997 and has also been covered in journals on military and intelligence history. The revelations included an anonymous Foreign Office source stating that the decision to unseat President Sukarno was made by Prime Minister Harold Macmillan and then executed under Prime Minister Harold Wilson. According to the exposés, the UK had already become alarmed with the announcement of the "Konfrontasi" policy. It has been claimed that a Central Intelligence Agency memorandum of 1962 indicated that Macmillan and US President John F. Kennedy were increasingly alarmed by the possibility of the Confrontation with Malaysia spreading, and agreed to "liquidate President Sukarno, depending on the situation and available opportunities". To weaken the regime, the UK Foreign Office's Information Research Department (IRD) coordinated psychological operations (psyops) in concert with the British military, to spread black propaganda casting the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), Chinese Indonesians, and Sukarno in a bad light. These efforts were to duplicate the successes of the British psyop campaign in the Malayan Emergency. These efforts were coordinated from the British High Commission in Singapore, where the BBC, Associated Press, and The New York Times filed their reports on the Crisis in Indonesia. According to Roland Challis, the BBC correspondent who was in Singapore at the time, journalists were open to manipulation by IRD due to Sukarno's stubborn refusal to allow them into the country: "In a curious way, by keeping correspondents out of the country Sukarno made them the victims of official channels, because almost the only information you could get was from the British ambassador in Jakarta." These manipulations included the BBC reporting that communists were planning to slaughter the citizens of Jakarta. The accusation was based on a forgery planted by Norman Reddaway, a propaganda expert with the IRD. He later bragged in a letter to the British ambassador in Jakarta, Sir Andrew Gilchrist, that it "went all over the world and back again", and was "put almost instantly back into Indonesia via the BBC". Gilchrist himself informed the Foreign Office on 5 October 1965: "I have never concealed from you my belief that a little shooting in Indonesia would be an essential preliminary to effective change." In April 2000, Denis Healey, Secretary of State for Defence at the time of the war, confirmed that the IRD was active during this time. He officially denied any role by MI6, and denied "personal knowledge" of the British arming of the Army's right-wing faction, though he did comment that if there were such a plan, he "would certainly have supported it". Although the British MI6 is strongly implicated in this scheme by the use of the Information Research Department (seen as an MI6 office), any role by MI6 itself is officially denied by the UK government, and papers relating to it have yet to be declassified by the Cabinet Office. British Army One squadron of the British Army's 22 Special Air Service regiment was deployed to Borneo in early 1963 in the aftermath of the Brunei Revolt to gather information in the border area about Indonesian infiltration. There was a British Army presence until the end of the campaign. Faced with a border of 971 miles, they could not be everywhere, and, at this time, 22 SAS had only three squadrons. Also present were the Special Boat Service (SBS) of the Royal Marine Commandos. They had two sections based in Singapore. Tactical HQ of 22 SAS deployed to Kuching in 1964 to take control of all SAS and SBS operations. The shortage of SAS and SBS personnel was exacerbated by the need for them in South Arabia, in many ways, a far more demanding task in challenging conditions against a cunning and aggressive opponent. The solution was to create new units for Borneo. The first to be employed in Borneo were the Pathfinder Platoon of the Guards Independent Parachute Company, which already existed as the pathfinder force of 16th Parachute Brigade. Next, the Gurkha Independent Parachute Company was raised. Sections of the SBS were also used, but mostly for amphibious tasks. Finally, the Parachute Regiment battalions formed patrol companies (C in the 2nd and D in the 3rd). The situation eased in 1965 when the Australian and New Zealand governments agreed that their forces could be used in Borneo, enabling both Australian and New Zealand SAS squadrons to rotate through Borneo. SAS activities were mostly covert reconnaissance and surveillance patrols by four-person teams. However, some larger scale raiding missions took place, including amphibious ones by the SBS. Once Claret operations were authorised, most missions were inside Kalimantan, although they conducted operations over the border before Claret from about early 1964. Aftermath Casualties The conflict lasted nearly four years; however, following General Suharto's replacement of Sukarno, Indonesian interest in pursuing the war with Malaysia declined, and combat eased. Peace negotiations were initiated during May 1966 before a final peace agreement was ratified on 11 August 1966. Although the Indonesians had conducted a few amphibious raids and an airborne operation against Malaya, the war remained limited throughout its duration and remained largely a land conflict. For either side to have escalated to large scale air or naval attacks "would have incurred disadvantages greatly outweighing the marginal military effect that they might have produced". The UK Secretary of State for Defence at the time, Denis Healey, described the campaign as "one of the most efficient uses of military forces in the history of the world". British Commonwealth forces peaked at 17,000 deployed in Borneo, with another 10,000 more available in Malaya and Singapore. Total British Commonwealth military casualties were 248 killed and 180 wounded, the greatest number of them were British. Gurkha losses were 43 killed and 83 wounded, losses among other British armed forces were 19 killed and 44 wounded. Australian casualties were 16 killed, of whom 7 were killed in action, and 9 wounded. New Zealand casualties were 7 killed and another 7 wounded or injured. The remaining casualties were that of the Malaysian military, police, and Border Scouts. A significant number of British casualties occurred during helicopter accidents, including a Belvedere crash that killed several SAS commanders and a Foreign Office official, possibly a member of MI6. A Wessex collision also killed several men from 2nd Parachute Battalion, and a Westland Scout crash, on 16 July 1964, near Kluang airfield, killed the two crewmen from 656 Sqn AAC. Finally, in August 1966, there remained two British and two Australian soldiers missing and presumed dead, with the Australians (both from the SASR) probably drowned while crossing a swollen river. The remains of a Royal Marine were recovered some 20 years later. Altogether, 36 civilians were killed, 53 wounded and 4 captured, with most being local inhabitants. Indonesian casualties were estimated at 590 killed, 222 wounded and 771 captured. Awards A number of gallantry awards were made for actions during the campaign. No Distinguished Flying Cross or naval awards were made. Gallery See also British military history Brunei Revolt Communist insurgency in Sarawak Operation Claret Cold War in Asia Combat operations in 1963 during the Indonesian-Malaysian Confrontation Combat operations in 1964 during the Indonesian-Malaysian Confrontation Combat operations in 1965 during the Indonesian-Malaysian Confrontation Far East Strategic Reserve History of Brunei History of Indonesia History of Malaysia Military history of New Zealand in Malaysia Indonesia–New Zealand relations#The Sukarno Era MacDonald House bombing References Notes Bibliography Poulgrain, G. J. (2014). The genesis of konfrontasi: Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia, 1945-1965. Further reading General Assembly 15th Session – The Trusteeship System and Non-Self-Governing Territories (pages:509–510) General Assembly 18th Session – the Question of Malaysia (pages:41–44) Anonymous. 1964. Gelora Konfrontasi Mengganjang Malaysia. Djakarta: Departemen Penerangan. (Contains Joint Statements of the Manila Agreements, Indonesian presidential decrees and all transcripts of Sukarno's public speeches from July 1963 to May 1964 pertaining the Konfrontasi) External links Britain's Small Wars – Borneo Scourge of Sukarno: the Gurkhas in Borneo 20th-century conflicts Guided Democracy in Indonesia History of Brunei Military history of Indonesia Military history of Singapore Sukarno Wars involving Indonesia Wars involving Australia Wars involving New Zealand Wars involving Malaysia Wars involving the United Kingdom Wars involving the United States History of the Royal Marines Articles containing video clips Protests in Malaysia Proxy wars History of Borneo

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven%20%281995%20film%29

Seven (1995 film)

Seven (stylized as SE7EN) is a 1995 American neo-noir psychological crime thriller film directed by David Fincher and written by Andrew Kevin Walker. It stars Brad Pitt, Morgan Freeman, Gwyneth Paltrow, Kevin Spacey, R. Lee Ermey and John C. McGinley. The film tells the story of David Mills (Pitt), a detective who partners with the retiring William Somerset (Freeman) to track down a serial killer who uses the seven deadly sins as a motif in his murders. The screenplay was influenced by the time Walker spent in New York City trying to make it as a writer. Principal photography took place in Los Angeles, with the last scene filmed near Lancaster, California. The film's budget was $33 million. Released on September 22, 1995 by New Line Cinema, Seven was the seventh-highest-grossing film of the year, grossing over $327 million worldwide. It was well received by critics and was nominated for Best Film Editing at the 68th Academy Awards, losing to Apollo 13. Plot Soon-to-retire Detective Lieutenant William Somerset is partnered with short-tempered but idealistic Detective David Mills, who has recently moved to an unnamed large city with his wife Tracy. After forming a friendship with Somerset, Tracy confides to him that she is pregnant and has yet to tell Mills, as she is unhappy with the city and feels it is no place to raise a child. Somerset sympathizes, having had a similar situation with his ex-girlfriend many years earlier, and advises her to tell Mills only if she plans to keep the child. Somerset and Mills investigate a set of murders inspired by the seven deadly sins: a morbidly obese man forced to eat until his stomach burst, representing gluttony, and a criminal defense attorney killed after being forced to cut a pound of flesh from himself, representing greed. Clues at the murder scenes lead them to a suspect's apartment, where they find a third victim, a drug dealer and child molester, strapped to a bed, emaciated and barely alive, representing sloth. The third victim is in critical condition and unable to respond to Somerset and Mills' questioning. Daily photographs of the victim, taken over a year, show the crimes were planned far in advance. The detectives use library records to identify a John Doe and track him to his apartment. Doe flees and Mills gives chase, during which Mills falls from a fire escape and injures his arm. Mills searches a truck before being struck in the head with a tire iron. While Mills is incapacitated, Doe walks up and holds him at gunpoint for a moment before escaping. The apartment contains hundreds of notebooks revealing Doe's psychopathy, as well as a clue to another murder. The detectives arrive too late to stop a man forced by Doe at gunpoint to kill a prostitute by raping her with a custom-made, bladed strap-on, representing lust. The following day, they attend the scene of a fifth victim, a model whose face has been mutilated by Doe; she was given the option to call for help and live disfigured or commit suicide by taking pills, and chose the latter option, representing pride. As Somerset and Mills return to the police station, Doe unexpectedly turns himself in, covered in the blood of an unidentified victim. Doe offers to confess to his crimes, but only on the condition that he escort Somerset and Mills to a secret location where the victims representing envy and wrath are presumably buried, otherwise he will plead insanity. Somerset is wary, but Mills agrees. During the drive, Doe expresses his lack of remorse for his crimes, declaring that his victims deserved to die, and professes himself to be a martyr chosen by a higher power to shock the world out of its state of apathy. Doe also makes cryptic, threatening remarks towards Mills, who maintains his belief that Doe is simply insane. Doe's directions lead the detectives to a remote deserted location. Minutes after their arrival, a delivery van approaches. Mills holds Doe at gunpoint while Somerset goes to intercept the driver, who says he was instructed to deliver a box to their coordinates. Somerset opens the box and, in a sudden panic, tells Mills to stay back. Doe reveals that he himself represents the sin of envy, as he envied Mills’ life with Tracy, and implies that the box contains Tracy’s decapitated head. He goads Mills, telling him that Tracy begged for her life and the life of her unborn child, and reacts with surprise and delight when he realizes Mills was unaware that Tracy was pregnant. Despite Somerset’s warnings, an enraged Mills fulfills his own role as wrath and shoots Doe fatally and repeatedly, completing Doe’s plan. Somerset and the police captain watch as the devastated Mills is taken away. When the captain asks where he'll be, Somerset says he will be around, implying that he will not retire. In a voiceover, he says: "Ernest Hemingway once wrote 'The world is a fine place and worth fighting for.' I agree with the second part." Cast Production Pre-production The primary influence for the film's screenplay came from Andrew Kevin Walker's time spent in New York City while trying to make it as a screenwriter. "I didn't like my time in New York, but it's true that if I hadn't lived there I probably wouldn't have written Seven." He envisioned actor William Hurt as Somerset and named the character after his favorite author, W. Somerset Maugham. Jeremiah S. Chechik was attached to direct at one point. During pre-production, Al Pacino was considered for the Detective Somerset role, but he decided to do City Hall instead. Denzel Washington and Sylvester Stallone decided to turn down the role of Mills. Washington later regretted turning down the role. Robert Duvall and Gene Hackman also turned down the role of Detective Somerset. Christina Applegate turned down the role of Tracy. Ned Beatty, Val Kilmer and Michael Stipe were considered for the role of John Doe. The ending of the screenplay, with the head in the box, was originally part of an earlier draft that New Line had rejected, instead opting for an ending that involved more traditional elements of a detective thriller film with more action-oriented elements. But when New Line sent David Fincher the screenplay to review for his interest in the project, they accidentally sent him the original screenplay with the head-in-the-box ending. At the time, Fincher had not read a script for a year and a half since the frustrating experience of making Alien 3; he said, "I thought I'd rather die of colon cancer than do another movie". Fincher eventually agreed to direct Seven because he was drawn to the script, which he found to be a "connect-the-dots movie that delivers about inhumanity. It's psychologically violent. It implies so much, not about why you did but how you did it". He found it more a "meditation on evil" rather than a "police procedural". When New Line realized that they had sent Fincher the wrong draft, the President of Production, Michael De Luca, met with Fincher and noted that there was internal pressure to retain the revised version; De Luca stated that if Fincher promised to direct the movie, they would be able to stay with the head-in-a-box ending. Despite this, producer Kopelson refused to allow the film to include the head-in-a-box scene. Actor Pitt joined Fincher in arguing for keeping this original scene, noting that his previous film Legends of the Fall had its emotional ending cut after negative feedback from test audiences, and refusing to do Seven unless the head-in-the-box scene remained. Filming The film was shot over a long period of 55 days. Fincher approached making Seven like a "tiny genre movie, the kind of movie Friedkin might have made after The Exorcist." He worked with cinematographer Darius Khondji and adopted a simple approach to the camerawork, which was influenced by the television show COPS, "how the camera is in the backseat peering over people's shoulder". Fincher allowed Walker on the set while filming for on-the-set rewrites. According to the director, "Seven is the first time I got to carry through certain things about the camera – and about what movies are or can be". The crowded urban streets filled with noisy denizens and an oppressive rain that seems to fall without respite were integral parts of the film, as Fincher wanted to show a city that was "dirty, violent, polluted, often depressing. Visually and stylistically, that's how we wanted to portray this world. Everything needed to be as authentic and raw as possible." To this end, Fincher turned to production designer Arthur Max to create a dismal world that often eerily mirrors its inhabitants. "We created a setting that reflects the moral decay of the people in it", says Max. "Everything is falling apart, and nothing is working properly." The film's brooding, dark look was achieved through a chemical process called bleach bypass, wherein the silver in the film stock was not completely removed, which in turn deepened the dark, shadowy images in the film and increased its overall tonal quality. The 'head in a box' ending continued to worry the studio after filming was completed. After the first cut of the film was shown to the studio, they attempted to mitigate the bleakness of the ending by replacing Mills' wife's head with that of a dog, or by not having Mills fire on John Doe. However, both Fincher and Pitt continued to fight for the original ending. The final scenes of Mills being taken away and Somerset's quote from Ernest Hemingway were filmed by Fincher after initial filming was complete as a way to placate the studio (the original intention was for the film to suddenly end after Mills shot John Doe). Title sequence Originally, Fincher planned the title sequence of the film to show Freeman's character buying a house in a remote country area and traveling back into the city. However, days before a test screening, they had yet to film the sequence and had no budget to do it in that time. Fincher approached Kyle Cooper to suggest a replacement. Cooper recognized the amount of money used to make John Doe's notebooks (created by Clive Piercy and John Sabel), and used the sequence to display them in a slideshow set to a remix of Nine Inch Nails' "Closer". The hand-drawn credits font was used to suggest that Doe had written the credits himself. The studio liked the sequence and suggested he stay with that. Fincher instead asked Cooper to "pretend we've never met and come back and propose something else", according to Cooper. Cooper came up with a more detailed version of this photographic sequence: "The idea was that this is John Doe's job: he gets up, makes his books, plans his murders, drinks his tea." Fincher liked this approach, but cautioned Cooper, "Well, that would be neat, but that's kind of a 2D glimpse. Figure out a way for it to involve John Doe, to show that somewhere across town somebody is working on some really evil shit. I don't want it to be just flipping through pages, as beautiful as they are." Cooper reworked the idea, working with Wayne Coe to create a storyboard for a live-action shot and adding in filming along with photographs of the books, new props include film reels and additional notebooks, visual effects for the title credits, and elements inspired by Doe's behavior in the movie, such as cutting his fingertips. Fincher liked this approach, and considered getting Mark Romanek, the director of the "Closer" music video, to produce the sequence, but Cooper insisted he direct it. Cooper was assisted by film editor Angus Wall and cinematographer Harris Savides in making the final title sequence. The filming took two days and five further weeks to edit. The credits were hand-etched onto black scratchboard and manipulated by the camera, rather than using digital effects, and scroll from top to bottom, instead of the conventional bottom to top. The final sequence used a remix of "Closer" created by the band Coil. Reception Box office Seven was released on September 22, 1995, in 2,441 theaters where it grossed US$13.9 million on its opening weekend. It went on to gross $100.1 million in North America and $227.1 million in the rest of the world for a total of $327.3 million, making Seven the seventh-highest-grossing film in 1995. The film also spent 4 consecutive weeks in the top spot at the U.S. box office in 1995. Critical response On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 82% based on 83 reviews, with an average rating of 7.90/10. The site's critics' consensus reads: "A brutal, relentlessly grimy shocker with taut performances, slick gore effects, and a haunting finale." At Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 65 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale. Gary Arnold, in The Washington Times, praised the cast: "The film's ace in the hole is the personal appeal generated by Mr. Freeman as the mature, cerebral cop and Mr. Pitt as the young, headstrong cop. Not that the contrast is inspired or believable in itself. What gets to you is the prowess of the co-stars as they fill out sketchy character profiles." Sheila Johnston, in her review for The Independent, praised Freeman's performance: "The film belongs to Freeman and his quiet, carefully detailed portrayal of the jaded older man who learns not to give up the fight." James Charisma, in a list of Spacey's greatest film performances for Paste, wrote: "Spacey's portrayal is a perfect balancing act: John Doe is detached from the murders he commits, yet deliberate and meticulous in his execution ... Unemotional yet smug. Analytical, violent, patient, impenetrable." In his review for Sight and Sound, John Wrathall wrote, "Seven has the scariest ending since George Sluizer's original The Vanishing ... and stands as the most complex and disturbing entry in the serial killer genre since Manhunter." In his "Great Movies" list review, film critic Roger Ebert commented on Fincher's direction: "None of his films is darker than this one." The scholar Jeremy Tambling examined the film as an example of allegory. Accolades New Line Cinema re-released Seven in Westwood, Los Angeles, California, on Christmas Day and in New York City on December 29, 1995, in an attempt to generate Academy Award nominations for Freeman, Pitt, and Fincher, which was ultimately unsuccessful. American Film Institute recognition 2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains John Doe – Nominated Villain Home media For the DVD release, Seven was remastered and presented in the widescreen format, preserving the 2.40:1 aspect ratio of its original theatrical exhibition. Audio options include Dolby Digital EX 5.1, DTS ES Discrete 6.1, and Stereo Surround Sound. The Seven DVD features four newly-recorded, feature-length audio commentaries featuring the stars, director, and other key contributors to the film, who talk about their experiences making Seven. Disc one features a printable screenplay with links to the film. A Blu-ray version of the film was released on September 14, 2010 by Warner Home Video and retained nearly all of the special features from the DVD. Novelization and comic books In 1995, a novelization with the same title was written by Anthony Bruno based on the original film. Between September 2006 and October 2007, a series of seven comic books were published by Zenescope Entertainment with each of the seven issues dedicated to one of the seven sins. It told the story from the perspective of John Doe rather than the two homicide detectives as in the film, and gave Doe a backstory. Each issue included contributions by a group of creators independent of each other. All seven issues were collected in trade paperback form, released on January 15, 2008, as SE7EN, edited by David Seidman and Ralph Tedesco. Soundtrack The opening credit music is a spliced sample of an uncredited remix of the Nine Inch Nails song "Closer", available as "Closer (Precursor)" (remixed by Coil). The song during the end credits is David Bowie's song "The Hearts Filthy Lesson", found on his album Outside. The film's original score is by Howard Shore. The soundtrack was released in 1995 by TVT Records in conjunction with the movie. Shore's score was finally released by the Warner Archive Collection in 2016. "In the Beginning" – The Statler Brothers "Guilty" – Gravity Kills "Trouble Man" – Marvin Gaye "Speaking of Happiness" – Gloria Lynne – written by Buddy Scott & Jimmy Radcliffe "Suite No. 3 in D Major, BWV 1068 Air" – written by Johann Sebastian Bach, performed by Stuttgarter Kammerorchester / Karl Münchinger "Love Plus One" – Haircut One Hundred "I Cover the Waterfront" – Billie Holiday "Now's the Time" – Charlie Parker "Straight, No Chaser" – Thelonious Monk (taken from Monk in Tokyo) "Portrait of John Doe" – Howard Shore "Suite from Seven" – Howard Shore See also Samay: When Time Strikes - 2003 Indian film inspired by Seven References Further reading External links 1995 films 1995 drama films 1995 crime drama films 1995 crime thriller films 1995 independent films 1990s chase films 1990s English-language films 1990s police films 1990s serial killer films 1990s thriller drama films American films American chase films American crime drama films American crime thriller films American independent films American neo-noir films American police detective films American serial killer films American thriller drama films Films about murder Films about religion Films about psychopaths Films directed by David Fincher Films produced by Arnold Kopelson Films scored by Howard Shore Films shot in California Films with screenplays by Andrew Kevin Walker New Line Cinema films Seven deadly sins in popular culture

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Bronson

Charles Bronson

Charles Bronson (born Charles Dennis Buchinsky; November 3, 1921 – August 30, 2003) was an American actor who was often cast in roles of police officers, gunfighters, or vigilantes in revenge-oriented plot lines. He had long-term collaborations with film directors Michael Winner and J. Lee Thompson and appeared in 15 films with his second wife, Jill Ireland. At the height of his fame in the early 1970s, he was the world's No. 1 box office attraction, commanding $1 million per film. Early life and war service Bronson was born Charles Dennis Buchinsky, the eleventh of fifteen children, into a Roman Catholic family of Lithuanian descent in Ehrenfeld, Pennsylvania, in the coal region of the Allegheny Mountains north of Johnstown, Pennsylvania. His father, Valteris P. Bučinskis, a Lipka Tatar, who later adjusted his name to Walter Buchinsky to sound more American, was from Druskininkai in southern Lithuania. Bronson's mother, Mary (née Valinsky), whose parents were from Lithuania, was born in the coal mining town of Tamaqua, Pennsylvania. Bronson did not speak any English at home during his childhood in Pennsylvania, like many children he grew up with. He recalled that even back when he was in the army, his accent was strong enough to make his comrades think he came from another country (despite Bronson having been born in the US). Besides English, he could also speak Lithuanian, Russian and Greek. In a 1973 interview, Bronson said that he did not know his father very well and "I'm not even sure if I loved him or hated him." He said that all he could remember was that when his mother said that his father was coming home, the children would hide. When Bronson was 10 years old, his father died and he went to work in the coal mines, first in the mining office and then in the mine. He later said he earned one dollar for each ton of coal that he mined. In another interview, he said that he had to work double shifts to earn $1 a week. Bronson later recounted that he and his brother engaged in dangerous work removing "stumps" between the mines, and that cave-ins were common. The family suffered extreme poverty during the Great Depression, and Bronson recalled going hungry many times. His mother could not afford milk for his younger sister, so she was fed warm tea instead. His family was so poor that he once had to wear his sister's dress to school for lack of clothing. Bronson was the first member of his family to graduate from high school. Bronson worked in the mine until he enlisted in the United States Army Air Forces in 1943 during World War II. He served in the 760th Flexible Gunnery Training Squadron, and in 1945 as a Boeing B-29 Superfortress aerial gunner with the Guam-based 61st Bombardment Squadron within the 39th Bombardment Group, which conducted combat missions against the Japanese home islands. He flew 25 missions and received a Purple Heart for wounds received in battle. Acting career Acting training (1946–1951) After the end of World War II, Bronson worked at many odd jobs until joining a theatrical group in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He later shared an apartment in New York City with Jack Klugman while both were aspiring to play on the stage. In 1950, he married and moved to Hollywood, where he enrolled in acting classes and began to find small roles. Early film roles (1951–1954) Until 1954, Bronson's credits were all as Charles Buchinsky. His first film role – an uncredited one – was as a sailor in You're in the Navy Now in 1951, directed by Henry Hathaway. Other early screen appearances were in The Mob (1951); The People Against O'Hara (1951), directed by John Sturges; Bloodhounds of Broadway (1952); Battle Zone (1952); Pat and Mike (1952), as a boxer and mob enforcer; Diplomatic Courier (1952), another for Hathaway; My Six Convicts (1952); The Marrying Kind (1952); and Red Skies of Montana (1952). In 1952, Bronson boxed in a ring with Roy Rogers in Rogers' show Knockout. He appeared on an episode of The Red Skelton Show as a boxer in a skit with Skelton playing "Cauliflower McPugg". He appeared with fellow guest star Lee Marvin in an episode of Biff Baker, U.S.A., an espionage series on CBS starring Alan Hale Jr. In the following year, he had small roles in Miss Sadie Thompson (1953); House of Wax (1953), directed by Andre DeToth; The Clown (1953); Torpedo Alley (1953); and Riding Shotgun, starring Randolph Scott and again directed by DeToth. In 1954, during the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) proceedings, he changed his surname from Buchinsky to Bronson at the suggestion of his agent, who feared that an Eastern European surname might damage his career. Still as Buchinsky, he had a notable support part as an Apache, "Hondo", in the film Apache (1954) for director Robert Aldrich, followed by roles in Tennessee Champ (1954) for MGM, and Crime Wave (1954) directed by de Toth. As Charles Bronson (1954–1958) His first film as Charles Bronson was Vera Cruz (1954), again working for Aldrich. Bronson then made a strong impact as the main villain in the Alan Ladd western Drum Beat, directed by Delmer Daves, as a murderous Modoc warrior, Captain Jack (based on a real person), who relishes wearing the tunics of soldiers he has killed. He was in Target Zero (1955), Big House, U.S.A. (1955), and had a significant role in the Daves western Jubal (1956), starring Glenn Ford. He had the lead role in the episode "The Apache Kid" of the syndicated crime drama The Sheriff of Cochise, starring John Bromfield; Bronson was subsequently cast twice in 1959 after the series was renamed U.S. Marshal. He guest-starred in the short-lived CBS situation comedy, Hey, Jeannie! and in three episodes of Alfred Hitchcock Presents: "And So Died Riabouchinska" (1956), "There Was an Old Woman" (1956), and "The Woman Who Wanted to Live" (1962). In 1957, Bronson was cast in the Western series Colt .45 as an outlaw named Danny Arnold in the episode "Young Gun". He had a support role in Sam Fuller's Run of the Arrow (1957). In 1958, Bronson appeared as Butch Cassidy on the TV western Tales of Wells Fargo in the episode titled "Butch Cassidy". Leading man (1958–1960) Bronson scored the lead in ABC's detective series Man with a Camera (1958–1960), in which he portrayed Mike Kovac, a former combat photographer freelancing in New York City. He was cast in leading man roles in some low budget films, notably, Machine-Gun Kelly (1958), a biopic of a real life gangster directed by Roger Corman. He also starred in Gang War (1958), When Hell Broke Loose (1958), and Showdown at Boot Hill (1959). On television, he played Steve Ogrodowski, a naval intelligence officer, in two episodes of the CBS military sitcom/drama, Hennesey, starring Jackie Cooper, and he played Rogue Donovan, an escaped murderer in Yancy Derringer (episode: "Hell and High Water"). Bronson starred alongside Elizabeth Montgomery in a Twilight Zone episode ("Two"; 1961). He appeared in five episodes of Richard Boone's Have Gun – Will Travel (1957–63). Bronson had a support role in an expensive war film, Never So Few (1959), directed by John Sturges. Bronson was cast in the 1960 episode "Zigzag" of Riverboat, starring Darren McGavin. That same year, he was cast as "Dutch Malkin" in the episode "The Generous Politician" of The Islanders. Bronson appeared as Frank Buckley in the TV western Laramie in the 1960 episode "Street of Hate." Leading support actor in Hollywood (1960–1968) In 1960, he garnered attention in John Sturges' The Magnificent Seven, in which he was cast as one of seven gunfighters taking up the cause of the defenseless. During filming, Bronson was a loner who kept to himself, according to Eli Wallach. He received $50,000 for this role. This role made him a favorite actor of many in the former Soviet Union, such as Vladimir Vysotsky. The following year, Bronson could be seen, again in the role of a boxer, in an episode of One Step Beyond (S3E16, titled "The Last Round"), aired January 10, 1961. AIP put Bronson in the romantic lead of Master of the World (1961), supporting Vincent Price. He had a support role in MGM's A Thunder of Drums (1961) but a bigger part in X-15 (1961). In 1961, Bronson was nominated for an Emmy Award for his supporting role in an episode entitled "Memory in White" of CBS's General Electric Theater, hosted by Ronald Reagan. In 1962, he appeared alongside Elvis Presley in Kid Galahad. In 1963, he co-starred in the series Empire. Sturges cast Bronson for another Hollywood production, The Great Escape (1963), as claustrophobic Polish prisoner of war Flight Lieutenant Danny Velinski, nicknamed "The Tunnel King" (coincidentally, Bronson really was claustrophobic because of his childhood work in a mine). The film was a huge hit and Bronson had one of the leads, but he still found himself playing a villain in 4 for Texas (1963) for Robert Aldrich. During the 1963–64 television season Bronson portrayed Linc, the stubborn wagon master in the ABC western series The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters. In 1964, Bronson guest-starred in an episode of the western TV series Bonanza as Harry Starr ("The Underdog"). Bronson had the lead in Guns of Diablo (1965), a Western. In the 1965–1966 season, he guest-starred in an episode of The Legend of Jesse James. In 1965, Bronson was cast as Velasquez, a demolitions expert, in the third-season episode "Heritage" on ABC's WW II drama Combat!. He had a relatively minor role in Battle of the Bulge (1965) and was billed fourth in MGM's The Sandpiper (1966), which the popularity of stars Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor propelled to a big success. He was billed third in This Property Is Condemned (1966). In 1967, he guest-starred as Ralph Schuyler, an undercover government agent in the episode "The One That Got Away" on ABC's The Fugitive. That year Aldrich gave Bronson an excellent role in The Dirty Dozen (1967), where he played an Army death row convict conscripted into a suicide mission. It was a massive box office success but Bronson was only the third lead. He seemed unable to make the transition to star of major studio films in Hollywood. In Villa Rides (1968) he supported Robert Mitchum and Yul Brynner, playing the real-life Rodolfo Fierro. Stardom in Europe (1968–1972) Bronson made a serious name for himself in European films. He was making Villa Rides when approached by the producers of a French film Adieu l'ami looking for an American co-star for Alain Delon. Bronson's agent Paul Kohner later recalled the producer pitched the actor "on the fact that in the American film industry all the money, all the publicity, goes to the pretty boy hero types. In Europe... the public is attracted by character, not face." The film was a big success in Europe. Even more popular was Once Upon a Time in the West (1968) where Bronson played Harmonica. The director, Sergio Leone, once called him "the greatest actor I ever worked with", and had wanted to cast Bronson for the lead in 1964's A Fistful of Dollars. Bronson turned him down and the role launched Clint Eastwood to film stardom. The film was the biggest hit of 1969 in France. Bronson appeared in a French action film, Guns for San Sebastian (1968) alongside Anthony Quinn. In Britain, he was cast in the lead of Lola (1969), playing a middle-aged man in love with a 16-year-old girl. He then made a buddy comedy with Tony Curtis in Turkey, You Can't Win 'Em All (1970). Bronson then played the lead in a French thriller, Rider on the Rain (1970) which was a big hit in France. It won a Hollywood Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Bronson starred in some French-Italian action films, Violent City (1970) and Cold Sweat (1970), the latter directed by Terence Young. He was in a French thriller, Someone Behind the Door (1971) alongside Anthony Perkins, then starred in another directed by Young, the French-Spanish-Italian Western, Red Sun (1971). The Valachi Papers (1972) was a third with Young; Bronson played Joseph Valachi. That year, this overseas fame earned him a special Golden Globe Henrietta Award for "World Film Favorite – Male" together with Sean Connery. Return to the U.S. and stardom (1972–1974) In 1972, Bronson began a string of successful action films for United Artists, beginning with Chato's Land (1972), although he had done several films for UA before this in the 1960s (The Magnificent Seven, etc.). Chato's Land was the first film Bronson made with director Michael Winner. Winner was reunited with Bronson in The Mechanic (1972) and The Stone Killer (1973). Bronson worked with Sturges on Chino (1973), then did Mr. Majestyk (1974) with Richard Fleischer based on a book by Elmore Leonard. One film UA brought into the domestic mainstream was Violent City, an Italian-made film originally released overseas in 1970, but not issued in the U.S. until 1974 under the title The Family. By 1973, Bronson was considered to be the world's top box office attraction, and commanded $1 million per film. Death Wish series and departure from United Artists (1974–1980) Bronson's most famous role came at age 52, in Death Wish, his most popular film, with director Michael Winner. He played Paul Kersey, a successful New York architect who turns into a crime-fighting vigilante after his wife is murdered and his daughter sexually assaulted. This movie spawned four sequels over the next two decades, all starring Bronson. Bronson starred in two films directed by Tom Gries: Breakout (1975), and Breakheart Pass (1975), a Western adapted from a novel by Alistair MacLean, which was a box office disappointment. He also starred in the directorial debut of Walter Hill, Hard Times (1975), playing a Depression-era street fighter making his living in illegal bare-knuckled matches in Louisiana. He earned good reviews. Bronson reached his pinnacle in box-office drawing power in 1975, when he was ranked 4th, behind only Robert Redford, Barbra Streisand, and Al Pacino. Bronson did a Western comedy for UA, From Noon till Three (1976) but it was not well received. At Warner Bros he made St. Ives (1976), his first film with director J. Lee Thompson. He played Dan Shomron in Raid on Entebbe (1977), then was reunited with Thompson in The White Buffalo (1977), produced by Dino de Laurentiis for UA. UA also released Telefon (1977), directed by Don Siegel. Bronson went on to make two films for ITC, Love and Bullets (1979) and Borderline (1980). He was reunited with Thompson on Caboblanco (1980), and played Albert Johnson in Death Hunt (1981), opposite Lee Marvin. Cannon Films era (1982–1989) In the years between 1976 and 1994, Bronson commanded high salaries to star in numerous films made by smaller production companies, most notably Cannon Films, for whom some of his last films were made. Bronson was paid $1.5 million by Cannon to star in Death Wish II (1982), directed by Michael Winner. In the story, architect Paul Kersey (Bronson) moves to Los Angeles with his daughter. After she is murdered at the hands of several gang members, Kersey once again becomes a vigilante. The film was a big success at the box office. Cannon Films promptly hired Bronson for 10 to Midnight (1983), in which he played a cop chasing a serial killer. The film marks the fourth collaboration between Bronson and director J. Lee Thompson. The supporting cast includes Lisa Eilbacher, Andrew Stevens, Gene Davis, Geoffrey Lewis, and Wilford Brimley. ITC Entertainment hired Thompson and Bronson for The Evil That Men Do (1984), co-starring Theresa Saldana and Joseph Maher. The film was adapted by David Lee Henry and John Crowther from the novel of the same name by R. Lance Hill. Bronson plays a former assassin, who comes out of retirement to avenge the death of his journalist friend. Cannon reunited Bronson and Winner for Death Wish 3 (1985). It is the last to be directed by Winner. Kersey returns to battle with New York street punk gangs while receiving tacit support from an NYPD lieutenant (Ed Lauter). In Murphy's Law (1986), directed by Thompson, Bronson plays Jack Murphy, a hardened, antisocial LAPD detective who turns to alcohol to numb the pain of harsh reality. His ex-wife, played by Angel Tompkins, has become a stripper and his career is going nowhere. His world is turned upside down when an ex-convict, played by Carrie Snodgress, frames him for putting her in prison earlier in his career. Bronson next appeared in the TV movie Act of Vengeance (1986), directed by John Mackenzie, playing real-life union leader Joseph Yablonski. It premiered on April 21, 1986. More typical of this period were four Cannon action films: Assassination (1987) directed by Peter Hunt, and three with Thompson: Death Wish 4: The Crackdown (1988), Messenger of Death (1989) and Kinjite: Forbidden Subjects (1989). Final years Bronson's appeared in 1991's The Indian Runner, directed by Sean Penn, followed by the TV movies Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus (1991) and The Sea Wolf (1993). Bronson's last starring role in a theatrically released film was 1994's Death Wish V: The Face of Death. His final films were a trilogy of TV movies which were Family of Cops (1995), Breach of Faith: A Family of Cops 2 (1997) and Family of Cops 3 (1999). Screen persona and technique At the time of his death, film critic Stephen Hunter said that Bronson "oozed male life-force, stoic toughness, capability, strength." and "always projected the charisma of ambiguity: Was he an ugly handsome man or a handsome ugly man? You were never sure, so further study was obligatory." Hunter said, "he never became a great actor, but he knew exactly how to dominate a scene quietly." Bronson "was the man with the name ending in a vowel ... who never left the position, never complained, never quit, never skulked. He simmered, he sulked, he bristled with class resentments, but he hung in there, got the job done and expected no thanks. His nobility was all the more palpable for never having to be expressed in words." Bronson told critic Roger Ebert in 1974 that "I'm only a product like a cake of soap, to be sold as well as possible." He said that in the action pictures he was producing at the time, there was not much time for acting. He said: "I supply a presence. There are never any long dialogue scenes to establish a character. He has to be completely established at the beginning of the movie, and ready to work." Director Michael Winner said that Bronson did not have to "go into any big thing about what he does or how he does it" because he had a "quality that the motion-picture camera seems to respond to. He has a great strength on the screen, even when he's standing still or in a completely passive role. There is a depth, a mystery – there is always the sense that something will happen." Missed roles Sergio Leone offered Bronson the part of "Man with No Name" in A Fistful of Dollars. Bronson declined, arguing that the script was bad. Bronson was again approached for a starring role in the sequel For a Few Dollars More but he passed, citing that the sequel's script was like the first film. Bronson was offered both the roles of Tuco and Angel Eyes in The Good, the Bad and the Ugly. Bronson wanted to accept but he had to decline both, as he was in England filming The Dirty Dozen. Bronson would later star in Leone's Once Upon a Time in the West (1968). Ingmar Bergman wanted to make a film with Bronson but the actor turned him down. "Everything is weakness and sickness with Bergman," he said. He was considered for the role of Snake Plissken in Escape from New York (1981), but director John Carpenter thought he was too tough looking and too old for the part, and decided to cast Kurt Russell instead. Bronson auditioned for the role of Superman for the 1978 film adaptation, but producer Ilya Salkind turned him down for being too earthy and decided to cast Christopher Reeve. Personal life Character and personality Bronson was scarred by his early deprivation and his early struggle as an actor. A 1973 newspaper profile said that he was so shy and introverted he could not watch his own films. Bronson was described as "still suspicious, still holds grudges, still despises interviews, still hates to give anything of himself, still can't believe it has really happened to him." He was embittered that it took so long for him to be recognized in the U.S., and after achieving fame he refused to work for a noted director who had snubbed him years before. Critic Roger Ebert wrote in 1974 that Bronson does not volunteer information, does not elaborate, and has no theories about his films. He wrote that Bronson threatened to "get" Time magazine critic Jay Cocks, who had written a negative review he viewed as a personal attack, and that unlike other actors who projected violence on film, Bronson seemed violent in person. Marriages His first marriage was to Harriet Tendler, whom he met when both were fledgling actors in Philadelphia. They had two children, Suzanne and Tony, before divorcing in 1965. She was 18 years old when she met the 26-year-old Charlie Buchinsky at a Philadelphia acting school in 1947. Two years later, with the grudging consent of her father, a successful, Jewish dairy farmer, Tendler wed Buchinsky, a Catholic and a former coal miner. Tendler supported them both while she and Charlie pursued their acting dreams. On their first date, he had four cents in his pocket — and went on, now as Charles Bronson, to become one of the highest paid actors in the country. Bronson was married to English actress Jill Ireland from October 5, 1968, until her death in 1990. He had met her in 1962, when she was married to Scottish actor David McCallum. At the time, Bronson (who shared the screen with McCallum in The Great Escape) reportedly told him, "I'm going to marry your wife". The Bronsons lived in a grand Bel Air mansion in Los Angeles with seven children: two by his previous marriage, three by hers (one of whom was adopted), and two of their own, Zuleika and Katrina, the latter of whom was also adopted. After they married, she often played his leading lady, and they starred in fifteen films together. To maintain a close family, they would load up everyone and take them to wherever filming was taking place, so that they could all be together. They spent time in a colonial farmhouse on in West Windsor, Vermont, where Ireland raised horses and provided training for their daughter Zuleika so that she could perform at the higher levels of horse showing. The family frequented Snowmass, Colorado in the 1980s and early 1990s for the winter holidays. On May 18, 1990, aged 54, after a long battle with breast cancer, Jill Ireland died of the disease at their home in Malibu, California. In the 1991 television film Reason for Living: The Jill Ireland Story, Bronson was portrayed by actor Lance Henriksen. In December 1998, Bronson was married for a third time to Kim Weeks, a former employee of Dove Audio who had helped record Ireland in the production of her audiobooks. The couple were married for five years until Bronson's death in 2003. Death Bronson's health deteriorated in his later years, and he retired from acting after undergoing hip-replacement surgery in August 1998. Bronson died at age 81 on August 30, 2003, at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. Although pneumonia and Alzheimer's disease have been cited as his cause of death, neither appears on his death certificate, which cites "respiratory failure", "metastatic lung cancer", with, secondarily, "chronic obstructive pulmonary disease" and "congestive cardiomyopathy" as the causes of death. He was interred at Brownsville Cemetery in West Windsor, Vermont. Filmography References External links New publication with private photos of the shooting & documents of 2nd unit cameraman Walter Riml Photos of the filming The Great Escape 1921 births 2003 deaths 20th-century American male actors American male film actors American male television actors American people of Lithuanian descent American people of Tatar descent Burials in Vermont Deaths from cancer in California Deaths from lung cancer Deaths from respiratory failure Male Spaghetti Western actors Male Western (genre) film actors Male actors from Malibu, California Male actors from Pennsylvania Military personnel from Pennsylvania People from Cambria County, Pennsylvania United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II United States Army Air Forces soldiers Western (genre) television actors

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wounded%20Knee%20Massacre

Wounded Knee Massacre

The Wounded Knee Massacre, also known as the Battle of Wounded Knee, was a massacre of nearly three hundred Lakota people by soldiers of the United States Army. It occurred on December 29, 1890, near Wounded Knee Creek (Lakota: Čhaŋkpé Ópi Wakpála) on the Lakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in the U.S. state of South Dakota, following a botched attempt to disarm the Lakota camp. The previous day, a detachment of the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment commanded by Major Samuel M. Whitside approached Spotted Elk's band of Miniconjou Lakota and 38 Hunkpapa Lakota near Porcupine Butte and escorted them westward to Wounded Knee Creek, where they made camp. The remainder of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, led by Colonel James W. Forsyth, arrived and surrounded the encampment. The regiment was supported by a battery of four Hotchkiss mountain guns. On the morning of December 29, the U.S. Cavalry troops went into the camp to disarm the Lakota. One version of events claims that during the process of disarming the Lakota, a deaf tribesman named Black Coyote was reluctant to give up his rifle, claiming he had paid a lot for it. Simultaneously, an old man was performing a ritual called the Ghost Dance. Black Coyote's rifle went off at that point; the U.S. Army began shooting at the Indians. The Lakota warriors fought back, but many had already been stripped of their guns and disarmed. By the time the massacre was over, more than 250 men, women and children of the Lakota had been killed and 51 were wounded (4 men and 47 women and children, some of whom died later); some estimates placed the number of dead as high as 300. Twenty-five soldiers also died and thirty-nine were wounded (six of the wounded later died). Twenty soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor. In 2001, the National Congress of American Indians passed two resolutions condemning the military awards and called on the federal government to rescind them. The Wounded Knee Battlefield, site of the massacre, has been designated a National Historic Landmark by the U.S. Department of the Interior. In 1990, both houses of the U.S. Congress passed a resolution on the historical centennial formally expressing "deep regret" for the massacre. Prelude In the years leading up to the conflict, the U.S. government had continued to seize Lakota lands. The once-large bison herds, a staple of the Great Plains indigenous peoples, had been hunted to near-extinction. Treaty promises to protect reservation lands from encroachment by settlers and gold miners were not implemented as agreed. As a result, there was unrest on the reservations. During this time, news spread among the reservations of a Paiute prophet named Wovoka, founder of the Ghost Dance religion. He had a vision that the Christian Messiah, Jesus Christ, had returned to Earth in the form of a Native American. According to Wovoka, the white invaders would disappear from Native lands, the ancestors would lead them to good hunting grounds, the buffalo herds and all the other animals would return in abundance, and the ghosts of their ancestors would return to Earth—hence the "Ghost Dance". They would then live in peace. All this would be brought about by the performance of the slow and solemn Ghost Dance, performed as a shuffle in silence to a slow, single drumbeat. Lakota ambassadors to Wovoka, Kicking Bear and Short Bull, taught the Lakota that while performing the Ghost Dance, they would wear special Ghost Dance shirts, as had been seen by Black Elk in a vision. Kicking Bear misunderstood the meaning of the shirts, and said that the shirts had the power to repel bullets. Some tribes, including the Sioux, believed that a great earthquake and flood would occur which would drown all the whites. The Ghost Dance movement was a result of the slow but ever present destruction of the Native American's way of life. Tribal land was being seized at alarming rates. The once great bison herds were nearly hunted to extinction. The plains tribes entire way of life revolved around the bison, and without the bison, Native American tribes rapidly lost stability and security, forcing them to rely on the government to provide rations to keep them from starving. The way of life of these independent people was rapidly fading. The Ghost Dance brought hope: the white man would soon disappear; the buffalo herds would return; people would be reunited with loved ones who had since passed away; the old way of living before the white man would return. This was not just a religious movement but a response to the gradual cultural destruction of their way of life. U.S. settlers were alarmed by the sight of the many Great Basin and Plains tribes performing the Ghost Dance, worried that it might be a prelude to armed attack. Among them was the U.S. Indian agent at the Standing Rock Agency where Chief Sitting Bull lived. U.S. officials decided to take some of the chiefs into custody in order to quell what they called the "Messiah craze". The military first hoped to have Buffalo Bill—a friend of Sitting Bull—aid in the plan, to reduce the chance of violence. Standing Rock agent James McLaughlin overrode the military and sent the Indian police to arrest Sitting Bull. On December 15, 1890, 40 Native American policemen arrived at Sitting Bull's house to arrest him. When Sitting Bull refused to comply, the police used force on him. The Lakota in the village were enraged. Catch-the-Bear, a Lakota, shouldered his rifle and shot Lt. Bullhead, who reacted by firing his revolver into the chest of Sitting Bull. Another police officer, Red Tomahawk, shot Sitting Bull in the head, and he dropped to the ground. He died between 12 and 1 p.m. After Sitting Bull's death, 200 members of his Hunkpapa band, fearful of reprisals, fled Standing Rock to join Chief Spotted Elk (later known as "Big Foot") and his Miniconjou band at the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation. Spotted Elk and his band, along with 38 Hunkpapa, left the Cheyenne River Reservation on December 23 to journey to the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation to seek shelter with Red Cloud. Former Pine Ridge Indian agent Valentine T. McGillycuddy was asked his opinion of the "hostilities" surrounding the Ghost Dance movement, by General Leonard Wright Colby, commander of the Nebraska National Guard (portion of letter dated January 15, 1891): "As for the 'Ghost Dance' too much attention has been paid to it. It was only the symptom or surface indication of a deep-rooted, long-existing difficulty; as well treat the eruption of smallpox as the disease and ignore the constitutional disease." "As regards disarming the Sioux, however desirable it may appear, I consider it neither advisable, nor practicable. I fear it will result as the theoretical enforcement of prohibition in Kansas, Iowa and Dakota; you will succeed in disarming and keeping disarmed the friendly Indians because you can, and you will not succeed with the mob element because you cannot." "If I were again to be an Indian agent, and had my choice, I would take charge of 10,000 armed Sioux in preference to a like number of disarmed ones; and furthermore agree to handle that number, or the whole Sioux nation, without a white soldier. Respectfully, etc., V.T. McGillycuddy." "P.S. I neglected to state that up to date there has been neither a Sioux outbreak or war. No citizen in Nebraska or Dakota has been killed, molested or can show the scratch of a pin, and no property has been destroyed off the reservation." Fight and ensuing massacre After being called to the Pine Ridge Agency, Spotted Elk of the Miniconjou Lakota nation and 350 of his followers were making the slow trip to the agency on December 28, 1890, when they were met by a 7th Cavalry detachment under Major Samuel M. Whitside southwest of Porcupine Butte. John Shangreau, a scout and interpreter who was half Lakota, advised the troopers not to disarm the Indians immediately, as it would lead to violence. The troopers escorted the Native Americans about five miles westward (8 km) to Wounded Knee Creek where they told them to make camp. Later that evening, Colonel James W. Forsyth and the remainder of the 7th Cavalry arrived, bringing the number of troopers at Wounded Knee to 500. In contrast, there were 350 Lakota: 230 men and 120 women and children. The troopers surrounded Spotted Elk's encampment and set up four rapid-fire Hotchkiss-designed M1875 mountain guns. December 29, 1890 At daybreak on December 29, 1890, Forsyth ordered the surrender of weapons and the immediate removal of the Lakota from the "zone of military operations" to awaiting trains. A search of the camp confiscated 38 rifles, and more rifles were taken as the soldiers searched the Indians. None of the old men were found to be armed. A medicine man named Yellow Bird allegedly harangued the young men who were becoming agitated by the search, and the tension spread to the soldiers. Specific details of what triggered the massacre are debated. According to some accounts, Yellow Bird began to perform the Ghost Dance, telling the Lakota the falsehood that their "ghost shirts" were "bulletproof". As tensions mounted, Black Coyote refused to give up his rifle; he spoke no English and was deaf, and had not understood the order. Another Indian said: "Black Coyote is deaf," and when the soldier persisted, he said, "Stop. He cannot hear your orders." At that moment, two soldiers seized Black Coyote from behind, and (allegedly) in the struggle, his rifle discharged. At the same moment, Yellow Bird threw some dust into the air, and approximately five young Lakota men with concealed weapons threw aside their blankets and fired their rifles at Troop K of the 7th. After this initial exchange, the firing became indiscriminate. Eyewitness accounts state that Black Coyote's gun went off when he was seized from behind by soldiers. Survivor Wasumaza, one of Big Foot's warriors who later changed his name to Dewey Beard, recalled Black Coyote was unable to hear. “If they had left him alone he was going to put his gun down where he should. They grabbed him and spinned him in the east direction. He was still unconcerned even then. He hadn’t his gun pointed at anyone. His intention was to put that gun down. They came on and grabbed the gun that he was going to put down. Right after they spun him around there was the report of a gun, was quite loud. I couldn’t say that anyone was shot, but following that was a crash". Theodor Ragnar of the 7th Cavalry also stated that Black Coyote was deaf. The account of Turning Hawk, an American Indian who was present at the massacre and was sympathetic to the U.S. government, made no mention of Black Coyote's supposed deafness, instead calling him "a crazy man, a young man of very bad influence, and in fact a nobody." According to commanding General Nelson A. Miles, a "scuffle occurred between one deaf warrior who had [a] rifle in his hand and two soldiers. The rifle was discharged and a battle occurred, not only the warriors but the sick Chief Spotted Elk, and a large number of women and children who tried to escape by running and scattering over the prairie were hunted down and killed." Modern historians, including Dee Brown, author of Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, have supported that Black Coyote was deaf, and that he owned a new Winchester rifle. Historian David Grua wrote, "Portraying the young warrior as deaf and confused rather than 'treacherous', substantially altered how the lead-up to Wounded Knee would be remembered". At first all firing was at close range; half the Indian men were killed or wounded before they had a chance to get off any shots. Some of the Indians grabbed rifles from the piles of confiscated weapons and opened fire on the soldiers. With no cover, and with many of the Indians unarmed, this lasted a few minutes at most. While the Indian warriors and soldiers were shooting at close range, other soldiers used the Hotchkiss guns against the tipi camp full of women and children. It is believed that many of the soldiers were victims of friendly fire from their own Hotchkiss guns. The Indian women and children fled the camp, seeking shelter in a nearby ravine from the crossfire. The officers had lost all control of their men. Some of the soldiers fanned out and finished off the wounded. Others leaped onto their horses and pursued the Natives (men, women, and children), in some cases for miles across the prairies. In less than an hour, at least 150 Lakota had been killed and 50 wounded. Historian Dee Brown, in Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, mentions an estimate of 300 of the original 350 having been killed or wounded and that the soldiers loaded 51 survivors (4 men and 47 women and children) onto wagons and took them to the Pine Ridge Reservation. Army casualties numbered 25 dead and 39 wounded. Black Coyote died at Wounded Knee. Eyewitness accounts Aftermath Following a three-day blizzard, the military hired civilians to bury the dead Lakota. The burial party found the deceased frozen; they were gathered up and placed in a mass grave on a hill overlooking the encampment from which some of the fire from the Hotchkiss guns originated. It was reported that four infants were found alive, wrapped in their deceased mothers' shawls. In all, 84 men, 44 women, and 18 children reportedly died on the field, while at least seven Lakota were mortally wounded. Miles denounced Forsyth and relieved him of command. An exhaustive Army Court of Inquiry convened by Miles criticized Forsyth for his tactical dispositions but otherwise exonerated him of responsibility. The Court of Inquiry, however, was not conducted as a formal court-martial. The Secretary of War concurred with the decision and reinstated Forsyth to command of the 7th Cavalry. Testimony had indicated that for the most part, troops attempted to avoid non-combatant casualties. Miles continued to criticize Forsyth, whom he believed had deliberately disobeyed his commands in order to destroy the Indians. Miles promoted the conclusion that Wounded Knee was a deliberate massacre rather than a tragedy caused by poor decisions, in an effort to destroy the career of Forsyth. This was later whitewashed and Forsyth was promoted to major general. Many non-Lakota living near the reservations interpreted the battle as the defeat of a murderous cult; others confused Ghost Dancers with Native Americans in general. In an editorial response to the event, the young newspaper editor L. Frank Baum, later the author of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, wrote in the Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer on January 3, 1891: The Pioneer has before declared that our only safety depends upon the total extermination of the Indians. Having wronged them for centuries, we had better, in order to protect our civilization, follow it up by one more wrong and wipe these untamed and untamable creatures from the face of the earth. In this lies future safety for our settlers and the soldiers who are under incompetent commands. Otherwise, we may expect future years to be as full of trouble with the redskins as those have been in the past. Soon after the event, Dewey Beard, his brother Joseph Horn Cloud, and others formed the Wounded Knee Survivors Association, which came to include descendants. They sought compensation from the U.S. government for the many fatalities and injured. Today the association is independent and works to preserve and protect the historic site from exploitation, and to administer any memorial erected there. Papers of the association (1890–1973) and related materials are held by the University of South Dakota and are available for research. It was not until the 1990s that a memorial to the Lakota was included in the National Historic Landmark. More than 80 years after the massacre, beginning on February 27, 1973, Wounded Knee was the site of the Wounded Knee incident, a 71-day standoff between militants of the American Indian Movement—who had chosen the site for its symbolic value—and federal law enforcement officials. Stranded 9th Cavalry The battalion of 9th Cavalry was scouting near the White River (Missouri River tributary) about 50 miles north of Indian agency at Pine Ridge when the Wounded Knee Massacre occurred, and rode south all night to reach the reservation. In the early morning of December 30, 1890, F, I, and K Troops reached the Pine Ridge agency, however, their supply wagon guarded by D Troop located behind them was attacked by 50 Lakota warriors near Cheyenne Creek (about 2 miles from the Indian agency). One soldier was immediately killed. The wagon train protected itself by circling the wagons. Corporal William Wilson volunteered to take a message to the agency at Pine Ridge to get help after the Indian scouts refused to go. Wilson took off through the wagon circle with Lakota in pursuit and his troops covering him. Wilson reached the agency and spread the alarm. The 9th Cavalry within the agency came to rescue the stranded troopers and the Lakota dispersed. For his actions, Corporal Wilson received the Medal of Honor. Drexel Mission Fight Historically, Wounded Knee is generally considered to be the end of the collective multi-century series of conflicts between colonial and U.S. forces and American Indians, known collectively as the Indian Wars. It was not however the last armed conflict between Native Americans and the United States. The Drexel Mission Fight was an armed confrontation between Lakota warriors and the United States Army that took place on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation on December 30, 1890, the day following Wounded Knee. The fight occurred on White Clay Creek approximately 15 miles north of Pine Ridge, where Lakota fleeing from the continued hostile situation surrounding the massacre at Wounded Knee had set up camp. Company K of the 7th Cavalry—the unit involved at Wounded Knee—was sent to force the Lakotas to return to the areas they were assigned on their respective reservations. Some of the "hostiles" were Brulé Lakota from the Rosebud Indian Reservation. Company K was pinned down in a valley by the combined Lakota forces and had to be rescued by the 9th Cavalry, an African American regiment nicknamed the "Buffalo Soldiers". Among the Lakota warriors was a young Brulé from Rosebud named Plenty Horses, who had recently returned from five years at the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania. A week after this fight, Plenty Horses shot and killed army lieutenant Edward W. Casey, commandant of the Cheyenne Scouts (Troop L, 8th Cavalry). The testimony introduced at the trial of Plenty Horses and his subsequent acquittal also helped abrogate the legal culpability of the U.S. Army for the deaths at Wounded Knee. Winter guards The 9th Cavalry were stationed on the Pine Ridge reservation through the rest of the winter of 1890–1891 until March 1891, lodging in their tents. By then, the 9th Cavalry was the only regiment on the reservation after being the first to arrive in November 1890. Medals of Honor For this 1890 campaign, the US Army awarded 20 Medals of Honor, its highest commendation. In the Nebraska State Historical Society's summer 1994 quarterly journal, Jerry Green construes that pre-1916 Medals of Honor were awarded more liberally; however, "the number of medals does seem disproportionate when compared to those awarded for other battles." Quantifying, he compares the three awarded for the Battle of Bear Paw Mountain's five-day siege, to the twenty awarded for this short and one-sided action. Historian Will G. Robinson notes that, in contrast, only three Medals of Honor were awarded among the 64,000 South Dakotans who fought for four years of World War II. Native American activists have urged the medals be withdrawn, calling them "medals of dishonor". According to Lakota tribesman William Thunder Hawk, "The Medal of Honor is meant to reward soldiers who act heroically. But at Wounded Knee, they didn't show heroism; they showed cruelty." In 2001, the National Congress of American Indians passed two resolutions condemning the Medals of Honor awards and called on the U.S. government to rescind them. A small number of the citations on the medals awarded to the troopers at Wounded Knee state that they went in pursuit of Lakota who were trying to escape or hide. Another citation was for "conspicuous bravery in rounding up and bringing to the skirmish line a stampeded pack mule." In February 2021, the South Dakota Senate unanimously called upon the United States Congress to investigate the 20 medals of honor awarded to members of the 7th Cavalry for their participation in the massacre. Lawmakers argued that the medals given to the soldiers of the 7th Cavalry Regiment tarnished Medals of Honor given to soldiers for genuine acts of courage. Previous efforts to rescind the medals have failed. In March 2021, Senators Elizabeth Warren (D-MA) and Jeff Merkley (D-OR) and Congressman Kaiali'i Kahele (D-HI) answered the South Dakota Senate's call and reintroduced a bill to revoke the Medals of Honor awarded to the soldiers who perpetrated the Wounded Knee massacre. Remembrance Commemorations of Native American deaths In 1891 The Ghost Shirt, thought to have been worn by one who died in the massacre, was brought to Glasgow, Scotland, by George C Crager, a Lakota Sioux interpreter with Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show. He sold it to the Kelvingrove Museum, which displayed the shirt until it was returned to Wounded Knee Survivors Association in 1998. St. John's Episcopal Mission Church was built on the hill behind the mass grave in which the victims had been buried, some survivors having been nursed in the then-new Holy Cross Mission Church. In 1903, descendants of those who died in the battle erected a monument at the gravesite. The memorial lists many of those who died at Wounded Knee along with an inscription that reads: "This monument is erected by surviving relatives and other Ogalala and Cheyenne River Sioux Indians in memory of the Chief Big Foot massacre December 29, 1890. Col. Forsyth in command of US troops. Big Foot was a great chief of the Sioux Indians. He often said, 'I will stand in peace till my last day comes.' He did many good and brave deeds for the white man and the red man. Many innocent women and children who knew no wrong died here." The Wounded Knee Battlefield was declared a U.S. National Historic Landmark in 1965 and was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 1966. Beginning in 1986, the group named "Big Foot Memorial Riders" was formed where they will go to continue to honor the dead. The ceremony has attracted more participants each year and riders and their horses live with the cold weather, as well as the lack of food and water, as they retrace the path that their family members took to Wounded Knee. They carry with them a white flag to symbolize their hope for world peace, and to honor and remember the victims so that they will not be forgotten. Seventh Cavalry Regiment When the 7th Cavalry Regiment returned to duty at Fort Riley from Pine Ridge, South Dakota, the soldiers of the regiment raised money for a monument for members of the regiment killed at Wounded Knee. About $1,950 was collected, and on July 25, 1893, the monument was dedicated with 5,500 people in attendance. Today, the stone edifice still stands near Waters Hall. Popular culture Massacre or battle The incident was initially referred to as the "Battle of Wounded Knee". Some American Indian groups have objected to this description and refer to it as the "Wounded Knee Massacre". The location of the conflict is officially known as the "Wounded Knee Battlefield". The U.S. Army currently refers to it as "Wounded Knee". Bury my heart at Wounded Knee In his 1931 poem "American Names", Stephen Vincent Benet coined the phrase "Bury my heart at Wounded Knee". The poem is about his love of American place names, not making reference to the "battle." However, when the line was used as the title of historian Dee Brown's 1970 best-selling book, awareness was raised and Benet's phrase became popularly associated with the incident. Since the publication of the book, the phrase "Bury my heart at Wounded Knee" has been used many times in reference to the battle, especially in music. In 1972, Robbie Basho released the song "Wounded Knee Soliloquy" on the album The Voice of the Eagle. In 1973, Stuttgart, Germany's Gila released a krautrock/psychedelic folk album by the same name. In 1992, Beverly (Buffy) Sainte-Marie released her song titled "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" on Coincidence and Likely Stories. In other music Artists who have written or recorded songs referring to the battle at Wounded Knee include: Walela "Wounded Knee" from the 1997 self-titled album. Nightwish ("Creek Mary's Blood" from their 2004 album "Once" featuring John Two-Hawks); Manowar ("Spirit Horse Of The Cherokee" from the 1992 album The Triumph Of Steel ); Grant Lee Buffalo ("Were You There?" from the album Storm Hymnal 2001); Johnny Cash (1972's "Big Foot," which is strongly sympathetic); Gordon Lightfoot ("Protocol" from his 1976 album Summertime Dream); Indigo Girls (a 1995 cover of Sainte-Marie's song); Charlie Parr ("1890" on his 2010 album When the Devil Goes Blind); Nik Kershaw ("Wounded Knee" on his 1989 album The Works); 1982 Single by Southern Death Cult ("Moya"); The Waterboys ("Bury My Heart"); Uriah Heep; Primus; Nahko and Medicine for the People; Patti Smith; Robbie Robertson; Five Iron Frenzy wrote the 2001 song "The Day We Killed" with mentions of Black Kettle, and quotes Black Elk's account from Black Elk Speaks on the album Five Iron Frenzy 2: Electric Boogaloo; Toad the Wet Sprocket; Marty Stuart; Bright Eyes; and "Pocahontas" by Neil Young. On Sam Roberts' 2006 Chemical City album, the song "The Bootleg Saint" contains line critical of Knee Massacre. There is also a Welsh song titled "Gwaed Ar Yr Eira Gwyn" by Tecwyn Ifan on this incident. The song "American Ghost Dance" by the Red Hot Chili Peppers makes extensive reference to the massacre as well. In 2010, composer Roland Barrett published a song titled "Ghost Dances" for concert band. It was acclaimed as one of his better works, and it includes traditional music and rhythms. In 1973, the American rock band Redbone, formed by Native Americans Patrick and Lolly Vasquez, released the song "We Were All Wounded at Wounded Knee". The song ends with the subtly altered sentence "We were all wounded by Wounded Knee." The song reached the number-one chart position across Europe. In the U.S., the song was initially withheld from release and then banned by several radio stations. Richard Stepp's 2008 Native American Music Awards Native Heart nominated album The Sacred Journey, has "Wounded Knee" as its final track. In film The massacre has been referred to in films, including Thunderheart (1992), Legends of the Fall (1994), Hidalgo (2004), and Hostiles (2017). The 2005 TNT mini-series Into the West included scenes of the massacre. In 2007, HBO Films released a film adaptation of the Dee Brown bestseller Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee. The 2016 film Neither Wolf Nor Dog has its climax at the massacre site and was filmed on location there. Other In the 1992 video game Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Turtles in Time, one level is called "Bury My Shell at Wounded Knee." It takes place in 1885 AD on a train in the Old American West. In the 1996 DC comic book Saint of Killers, written by Garth Ennis, the main character becomes a surrogate Angel of Death, reaping souls whenever men kill other men violently. The story is set in the 1880s, and near the end of chapter 4, it is said that "four years later" he was called upon at Wounded Knee. In the 2013 video game BioShock Infinite, several main characters are veterans of Wounded Knee. The protagonist, Booker DeWitt, is haunted by his deeds during the battle and at one point confronts one of his (fictional) superiors from the event. The Wounded Knee Massacre, and the events leading to it, constitute the final chapter of Złoto Gór Czarnych (Gold of the Black Hills), a trilogy of novels told from the perspective of the Santee Dakota tribe by Polish author Alfred Szklarski and his wife Krystyna Szklarska. Order of battle 7th U.S. Cavalry Col James W. Forsyth Adjutant: 1st Lt. Lloyd S. McCormick Quartermaster: 1st Lt. Ezra B. Fuller Assistant Surgeon & Medical Director: Cpt. John Van Rennselaer Hoff Assistant Surgeon: 1st Lt. James Denver Glennan First Squadron Maj Samuel Whitside Adjutant: 1st Lt. William Jones Nicholson Troop A: Cpt. Myles Moylan, 1st Lt. Ernest A. Garlington Troop B: Cpt. Charles A. Varnum, 1st Lt. John C. Gresham Troop I: Cpt. Henry J. Nowlan, 2nd Lt. John C. Waterman Troop K: Cpt. George D. Wallace (k), 1st Lt. James D. Mann Second Squadron Cpt. Charles S. Isley Adjutant: 1st Lt. W.W. Robinson II Troop C: Cpt. Henry Jackson, 2nd Lt. T.Q. Donaldson Troop D: Cpt. Edward S. Godfrey, 2nd Lt. S.R.J. Tompkins Troop E: Cpt. Charles S. Isley, 1st Lt. Horatio G. Sickel, 2nd Lt. Sedgwick Rice Troop G: Cpt. Winfield S. Edgerly, 1st Lt. Edwin P. Brewer Battery E, 1st U.S. Artillery Captain Allyn Capron 2nd Lt. Harry L. Hawthorne (2nd U.S. Artillery) 4 Hotchkiss Breech-Loading Mountain Rifles Troop A, Indian Scouts 1st Lt. George W. Taylor (9th U.S. Cavalry) 2nd Lt. Guy H. Preston (9th U.S. Cavalry) Lakota 120 men, 230 women and children Gallery See also Wounded Knee Incident (1973) List of events named massacres Indian massacres in the United States Genocide of indigenous peoples History of South Dakota Plains Indians Wars List of battles fought in South Dakota Manifest Destiny Wounded Knee of Alaska Thomas Quinton Donaldson Jr. Notes References L. Frank Baum editorial that appeared in the Aberdeen (SD) Saturday Review on January 3, 1891, just five days after the massacre. The author wrote about those terrible "Redskins," his favorite word for Indians. He wrote, "The Pioneer has before declared that our only safety depends upon the total extermination of the Indians. Having wronged them for centuries we had better, in order to protect our civilization, follow it up by one or more wrong and wipe these untamed and untamable creatures from the face of the earth." Further reading Andersson, Rani-Henrik. The Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2009.. Brown, Dee. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West, Owl Books (1970). . Craft, Francis M. At Standing Rock and Wounded Knee: The Journals and Papers of Father Francis M. Craft, 1888–1890, edited and annotated by Thomas W. Foley, Norman, Oklahoma: The Arthur H. Clark Company (2009). . Champlin, Tim. A Trail To Wounded Knee : A Western Story. Five Star (2001). Coleman, William S.E. Voices of Wounded Knee, University of Nebraska Press (2000). . Cozzens, Peter. The Earth is Weeping: The Epic Story on the Indian wars for the American West, Atlantic Books (2016) . Foley, Thomas W. Father Francis M. Craft, Missionary to the Sioux, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (2002). . Gage, Justin. We Do Not Want the Gates Closed between Us: Native Networks and the Spread of the Ghost Dance. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2020. . Greene, Jerome A. American Carnage: Wounded Knee, 1890. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014. Hämäläinen, Peka. Lakota America: A New History of Indigenous Power, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press (2019). . Smith, Rex Alan. Moon of Popping Trees. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (1981). . Treuer, David. The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee : Native America from 1890 to the Present. New York: Riverhead Books (2019). Utley, Robert M. Last Days of the Sioux Nation. 2nd Edition New Haven, CT: Yale University Press (2004). . Utley, Robert M. The Indian Frontier 1846–1890. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press (2003). . Utley, Robert M. Frontier Regulars The United States Army and the Indian 1866–1891. New York: Macmillan Publishing (1973). . Yenne, Bill. Indian Wars: The Campaign for the American West, Westholme (2005). . External links The Wounded Knee Museum in Wall, South Dakota "Walter Mason Camp Collection," includes photographs from the Battle of Wounded Knee Creek, Brigham Young University "A Dark Day" – Education Resource, Dakota Pathways "The Ghost Dance; How the Indians Work Themselves up to Fighting Pitch", eyewitness account by reporter, New York Times, November 22, 1890 Army at Wounded Knee Remember the Massacre at Wounded Knee. Jacobin. December 29, 2016. Conflicts in 1890 Conflicts in 1891 Mass murder in 1890 Massacres in the 1890s Battles involving the Sioux History of South Dakota Native American history of South Dakota Lakota Mass graves Last stands Massacres of Native Americans 1890 in South Dakota 1890 in the United States 19th-century colonization of the Americas Battles involving Native Americans Sioux Wars Native American genocide United States war crimes December 1890 events United States military killing of American civilians

211982

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie%20Money

Eddie Money

Edward Joseph Mahoney (March 21, 1949 – September 13, 2019), known professionally as Eddie Money, was an American singer and songwriter who, in the 1970s and 1980s, had eleven Top 40 songs, including "Baby Hold On", "Two Tickets to Paradise", "Think I'm in Love", "Shakin'", "Take Me Home Tonight", "I Wanna Go Back", "Walk on Water", and "The Love in Your Eyes". Critic Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times called him a working-class rocker and Kristin Hall of the Associated Press stated he had a husky voice. In 1987, he was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance for "Take Me Home Tonight". Early life Edward Joseph Mahoney was born in Brooklyn, New York City on March 21, 1949, to a large family of Irish Catholics. His parents were Dorothy Elizabeth (née Keller), a homemaker, and Daniel Patrick Mahoney, a police officer. He grew up in Levittown, New York, but spent some teenage years in Woodhaven, Queens. Money was a street singer since the age of 11. As a teenager, he played in rock bands, in part to get dates from cheerleaders. He was thrown out of one high school for forging a report card. In 1967, he graduated from Island Trees High School. At the age of 18, he tried to follow in the footsteps of his grandfather, father, and brother as a New York City Police Department trainee. However, after working as a clerk and typist, he left in 1968 to pursue a career in music, as the police did not allow him to grow his hair long. "I couldn't see myself in a police uniform for 20 years of my life, with short hair," he later said. His bandmates also fired him because they did not want a police officer in the group. His father was not happy with the decision to play music and tore the Jimi Hendrix posters from his wall. In 1968, Money moved to Berkeley, California. There, he studied with vocal coach Judy Davis, and took on the stage name Eddie Money, dropping a few letters from his name and sarcastically referencing the fact that he was always broke. Career Music career Money became a regular performer at clubs in the San Francisco Bay Area. After gaining the attention of Bill Graham, he secured a recording contract with Columbia Records, releasing his debut album in 1977. He charted with singles such as "Baby Hold On" and "Two Tickets to Paradise", about visiting his girlfriend despite not having money. In 1978, Money opened for Santana at Boston's Music Hall. The following year, he sang backing vocals on the bridge section on "I'm Alright", a song written and performed by Kenny Loggins. In 2014, Money claimed that Loggins never gave him credit for his contribution. In 1982, Money took advantage of the MTV music video scene with his humorous narrative videos for "Think I'm in Love", performed at The Mission Inn Hotel & Spa, and "Shakin'". In the early 1980s, he appeared on The Midnight Special, Fridays, and Solid Gold. In 1978 and 1984, he appeared on American Bandstand. Money's career began to decline following an unsuccessful 1983 album (Where's the Party?) and struggles with drug addiction. However, he made a comeback in 1986 with the album Can't Hold Back, which received a music recording certification of platinum. "Take Me Home Tonight", a single from the album, peaked at No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the United States. Money only agreed to perform the song—which included a line from "Be My Baby", a song Ronnie Spector performed as part of The Ronettes—after Spector agreed to sing the line herself. In 1987, Money was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance for "Take Me Home Tonight". "I Wanna Go Back" and "Endless Nights"—two other singles from the Can't Hold Back album—peaked at No. 14 and No. 21, respectively. In 1988, Money released Nothing to Lose, which featured the Top 10 hit "Walk on Water" and the Top 40 hit "The Love in Your Eyes". Beginning in 1992, Money opened the summer concert season for the Pine Knob (now the DTE Energy Music Theatre) in Clarkston, Michigan. In 1996, he wrote the theme music to Quack Pack, a Disney cartoon. Money was inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame in 2008. In January 2010, he performed a medley of his hit singles during the halftime performance at the Liberty Bowl. Money wrote and performed original songs for the films Americathon (1979), Over the Top, Back to the Beach (both 1987), and Kuffs (1992), along with the television series Hardball (1989–1990). On May 10, 2019, Money released the track "Brand New Day" as the lead single from his album of the same name. It was originally set to be released on July 19, 2019, but was postponed following the announcement of Money's illness and subsequent death. On April 17, 2020, Brand New Day, was released as a 5-song EP. A second EP containing the remaining six songs from the intended album will be released at a later date according to Money's wife Laurie who said "These will be his last recordings. The other half is a little more vintage. There's a big difference so they needed to be separated." In the three days following Money's death, fans streamed "Take Me Home Tonight" more than 3.1 million times, which was an increase of 349% compared to the previous three-day period. Fans also streamed his other songs by 931% more than the three previous days. Television, film, and radio career Money made several screen appearances. In 1997, he appeared in Wonderland, a documentary film about Levittown, New York, where Money went to high school. In the film, he said if he had "two tickets to paradise, I'd probably get back to Levittown". Money played a fictionalized version of himself on a 1999 episode of season 5 of The Drew Carey Show. In the episode, he had been Mimi's first husband early in his career and they never made their divorce official. In May 2002, he played himself on an episode of the sitcom The King of Queens. In October 2011, Money became the host of "Money in the Morning", a radio show on WSRV. The gig lasted about three months. He appeared in a 2012 GEICO insurance commercial in which he is depicted as a travel agency owner who sings "Two Tickets to Paradise" to a family that wants tickets for a vacation. In January 2016, Money partnered with Howard Perl Entertainment, MTV VJ Nina Blackwood, and Hard Rock Rocksino to produce "Money for the Animals", a show designed to raise funds and adopt rescue animals in need. In 2018, Money appeared in episode 6 of The Kominsky Method as a fictionalized version of himself who is indebted to the Internal Revenue Service and portrays the character Freddie Money in an eponymous tribute act at a casino to avoid further tax problems. On April 8, 2018, Real Money, a reality television series about Money and his family, debuted on AXS TV. An episode sharing his cancer diagnosis aired on AXS TV the day before he died. The show's second season was expected to follow Money's "journey as he tells his family about the disease and undergoes treatment." In late April 2018, Weekly Alibi's August March interviewed Money, who waxed poetic about his career, his family and his new television show. Personal life and death In 1980, after drinking vodka, Money overdosed on a synthetic barbiturate that he mistook for cocaine. He suffered damage to the sciatic nerve on his left leg, was unable to walk for months, and had a permanent limp thereafter. On Valentine's Day 1984 in Moraga, California, Money married Margo Lee Walker, a student from Los Angeles. He and his bride tried to keep the wedding private, "but a crowd of screaming teenage fans showed up." Money married Laurie Harris in 1989. Together, they had five children: Zachary, Jessica, Joseph, Julian, and Desmond. They were married for 30 years and had renewed their vows three months prior to his death. In March 2000, Money purchased a home in Westlake Village, California, where he lived with his family. At one point in the early 2000s, Money also had a home in Island Estates, a gated community in Palm Coast, Florida, which he called "my place to play golf, be creative, go fishing, go surfing and have fun". In 2001, Money joined a 12-step program to deal with his drinking and made a promise to his wife and children that he would change. In 2003, he reported that he was clean and sober. In July 2019, Money underwent heart valve surgery and contracted pneumonia, causing him to cancel tour dates. He had been a cigarette smoker for years. On August 24, 2019, he revealed that he had been diagnosed with stage 4 esophageal cancer. Complications from the cancer resulted in his death at Keck Hospital of USC in Los Angeles on September 13, 2019, at age 70. A year later, his family filed a lawsuit alleging wrongful death against the hospital, with an additional allegation of medical malpractice. Discography Studio albums Eddie Money (1977) Life for the Taking (1978) Playing for Keeps (1980) No Control (1982) Where's the Party? (1983) Can't Hold Back (1986) Nothing to Lose (1988) Right Here (1991) Love and Money (1995) Ready Eddie (1999) Wanna Go Back (2007) References External links 1949 births 2019 deaths 20th-century American singers 20th-century American male singers 21st-century American singers 21st-century American male singers American people of Irish descent American rock guitarists American rock singers Deaths from cancer in California Deaths from esophageal cancer Guitarists from New York (state) Musicians from Brooklyn Participants in American reality television series People from Seaford, New York

213585

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcastle-under-Lyme

Newcastle-under-Lyme

Newcastle-under-Lyme ( , ) is a large market town and the administrative centre of the Borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme in Staffordshire, England. Its 2011 census population was 75,082, covered by the borough had a population of 128,264 in 2016, up from 123,800 in the 2011 Census. History Etymology The "Newcastle" name derives from a new castle in the 12th century. "Lyme" could refer to the Lyme Brook or (as in the family name Lindhurst) the extensive Forest of Lyme covered with lime trees and elm trees in the Middle Ages. 12th–19th centuries Newcastle is not mentioned in the 1086 Domesday Book, as it grew up round a 12th-century castle, but it must have gained rapid importance, as a charter, known solely through a reference in another charter to Preston, was given to the town by Henry II in 1173. The new castle superseded an older fortress at Chesterton, about to the north, whose ruins were visible up to the end of the 16th century. In 1235 Henry III turned the town into a free borough, granting a guild and other privileges. In 1251 he leased it under a fee farm grant to the burgesses. In 1265 Newcastle was granted by the Crown to Simon de Montfort and later to Edmund Crouchback, through whom it passed to Henry IV. In John Leland's time the castle had disappeared "save one great Toure". Newcastle did not feature much in the English Civil War, except as a victim of Royalist plundering. However, it was the home town of Major General Thomas Harrison, a Cromwellian army officer and leader of the Fifth Monarchy Men. The governing charter in 1835, which created the Newcastle-under-Lyme Municipal Borough, absorbed the previous borough created by the charters of 1590 and 1664, under which the title of the corporation was the "mayor, bailiffs and burgesses of Newcastle-under-Lyme". Newcastle sent two members to Parliament from 1355 to 1885, then lost one of its seats. 20th century When Stoke-on-Trent was formed by the 1910 amalgamation of the "six towns" (Stoke, Hanley, Fenton, Longton, Burslem and Tunstall), Newcastle remained separate. Despite its close proximity, it was not directly involved in the pottery industry and it strongly opposed attempts to join the merger in 1930, with a postcard poll showing residents opposing the Stoke-on-Trent Extension Bill by a majority of 97.4 per cent. Although passed by the House of Commons, the bill was rejected by the House of Lords. After the Local Government Act 1972, Newcastle became the principal settlement of the Borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme. Economy Like neighbouring Stoke-on-Trent, Newcastle's early economy was based around the hatting trade, silk and cotton mills. Later coal mining, brick manufacture, iron casting and engineering rose to prominence. Fine red earthenware and soft-paste porcelain tableware (the first such production in Staffordshire) was produced in Newcastle at Samuel Bell's factory in Lower Street in 1724–1754, when production ceased. Except for a failed enterprise in 1790–1797, which then switched to brewing, there was no further commercial production of pottery within the town. Production of earthenware tiles, however, continued at several locations in the borough. Manufacture of fine bone china was re-established in the borough in 1963 by Mayfair Pottery at Chesterton. The manufacture in the borough of clay tobacco-smoking pipes started about 1637 and grew rapidly, until it was second only to hatting as an industry. Nationally, the town ranked with Chester, York and Hull as the four major pipe producers. The industry continued until the mid-19th century, when decline set in rapidly, so that by 1881 it had only one tobacco-pipe maker left. In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, the town had a flourishing felt hat manufacturing industry, probably at its peak locally in the 1820s, when a third of the town's population were involved in over 20 factories, but by 1892 there was only one still in production. In 1944, the Rolls-Royce Derwent engine for the Gloster Meteor fighter was made in the borough. Newcastle's 20th-century industries include: iron-working, construction materials, clothing (especially military, police and transport uniforms), computers, publishing, electric motors and machinery. Near the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the town received major redevelopment to incorporate a new street (Castle Walk) into the town centre, providing Newcastle with a new bus station and bringing in more companies. Various business centres in the town provide offices for companies that operate in the service sector. The town was classed as a BID (Business Improvement District) in 2015, reiterated in 2021. Newcastle-Under-Lyme BID. This business-led vision of investment seeks "to build on... traditions by creating a safe, welcoming, forward thinking town for the whole community." Politicians The town has been the birthplace of several notable politicians and activists. Fanny Deakin was a campaigner for better nourishment for babies and young children and better maternity care for mothers. The former chairwoman of Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), Janet Bloomfield (née Hood) is a peace and disarmament campaigner. Vera Brittain writer, feminist (and mother of Liberal Democrat Shirley Williams) was born in the town. There have been two particularly notable Members of Parliament (MPs). Josiah Wedgwood IV was a Liberal, Independent and Labour Party MP, who served as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in the cabinet of Ramsay MacDonald, in the first ever Labour government. He was an MP from 1909 to 1942. John Golding was elected a Labour MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme at a by-election in 1969. He served in the governments of Harold Wilson and Jim Callaghan, as PPS to Eric Varley as Minister of Technology, a Labour whip in opposition, and Minister for Employment, stepping down in 1986. The current MP is Aaron Bell. Transport The town was once served by the North Staffordshire Railway, its station being on a branch from Stoke-on-Trent via Newcastle, Silverdale and Keele, to Market Drayton in Shropshire. Newcastle-under-Lyme railway station opened in September 1852, after numerous construction difficulties involving the two tunnels of and at Hartshill. There were also two halts to the west of Newcastle railway station, located at Brampton and Liverpool Road. The section from Silverdale to Market Drayton closed to passengers in May 1956 and the rest of the line in March 1964. Only small sections remained from Madeley to Silverdale, and from Silverdale to Holditch, for coal traffic from the local collieries. The line from Newcastle Junction to Silverdale has been removed, and the site of Newcastle railway station and the Hartshill tunnels filled in. Newcastle was on the national canal network, but the Newcastle-under-Lyme Canal running from the Trent and Mersey Canal at Stoke-on-Trent to Sir Nigel Gresley's Canal has been disused since 1935 and mostly filled in. Today the town relies on buses for public transport. FirstGroup runs a network of services connecting Newcastle to the towns of the Potteries and to Stafford. Arriva buses run to Shrewsbury via Market Drayton Geography Situated in a valley alongside the Lyme Brook, the town is just west of the city of Stoke-on-Trent, its suburbs running together. Newcastle town centre is less than from Stoke-on-Trent City Centre and about north of the county town of Stafford. Green belt Newcastle and Stoke form the main urban area at the centre of the Stoke-on-Trent Green Belt, which is an environmental and planning area that regulates the rural space in Staffordshire, to prevent urban sprawl and minimise convergence with outlying settlements. First defined in 1967, most of the area extends into the wider borough, but some landscape features and places of interest within that are covered or surrounded. They include the Michelin Sports Facility, Newcastle golf course, Keele University, Apedale Winding Wheel, Watermills Chimney and Bignall Hill. The West Coast Main Line forms the western boundary of the green belt. Environment The gas hydrogen sulphide emanates from Walleys Quarry, managed by Red Industries Ltd. A "record number" of people have reported "nauseating" fumes to the Environment Agency, similar in smell to rotten eggs or a gas leak. Hydrogen sulphide fumes escaping from Walleys Quarry landfill can be smelt for miles around. The Environment Agency installed four air-quality monitors for three months from March 2021, at Silverdale Road, Galingale View, Silverdale Cemetery and Newcastle Community fire station. Data gathered between April and September 2021 was evaluated by Public Health England, which concluded that the concentrations of hydrogen sulphide were below the World Health Organization 24-hour health-acute-based guideline value. Values at two of the air monitoring stations were at times above the WHO's 30-minute annoyance guideline levels. The PHE conclusion is that the risk to health is minimal. Demography Of the 73,944 residents recorded in the 2001 census, 51.7 per cent (38,210) were female and 48.3 per cent (35,734) male. Of these, 78.2 per cent (57,819) stated that their religion was Christian, and 12.9 per cent (9,570) said they had no religion. Islam, Judaism, Buddhism and Sikhism each covered less than 1 per cent of the population. Racially, 97.8 per cent of the population defined themselves as white, with the balance being mixed race – 0.6 per cent), Indian – 0.4 per cent, Pakistani – 0.2 per cent, black – 0.2 per cent, Chinese – 0.2 per cent, and other ethnic groups – 0.4 per cent. In employment, 62.2 per cent (21,586) of the population work full-time and 19.4 per cent (6,746) part time. The largest employment types are manufacturing with 7,058 (21.5 per cent), wholesale and retail 6,157 (18.7 per cent), health and social work 4,097 (12.5 per cent) and finance, real estate and business activity 3,823 (11.6 per cent). Jewish residency of the area stretches back into the 19th century. In 1873 the community purchased an old Welsh chapel to be used as a synagogue. In 1923 a new synagogue was built in Hanley. This was closed in 2004 and the congregation moved to a smaller synagogue in Newcastle. Transport Newcastle-under-Lyme is served by the M6 motorway to the south and west of Newcastle and by the A500 road to the north and east. There are access points from the M6 at junctions 15 and 16, to the south and north respectively. The A34 trunk road runs through Newcastle from north to south and was the main road between Birmingham and Manchester until the M6 motorway opened. There is a large bus station in the town centre. Newcastle-under-Lyme railway station, which was not within the town but towards Water Street on the Stoke to Market Drayton Line, closed in 1964 under the Beeching cuts. The line from Silverdale to Pipe Gate remained open to serve Silverdale Colliery and a creamery at Pipe Gate until 1998, when the line closed to all stone and mineral traffic. It now forms part of a green way from Silverdale to Newcastle-Under-Lyme, with the station site being called "Station Walks". The nearest station to the town is Stoke-on-Trent railway station which is between the town centre of Newcastle and city centre of Stoke-on-Trent and serves the Potteries as a whole. Newcastle is the third-largest town in England (by population) to have no railway station. Most of the bus network is run by First Potteries Limited and D&G Bus. Education The town has an independent school: Newcastle-under-Lyme School, which was established in the 17th century, whose alumni includes T. E. Hulme, John Wain and William Watkiss Lloyd. It has a number of primary and secondary schools in the state-funded sector. The latter include Newcastle Community Academy, Clayton Hall Academy, St John Fisher Catholic College, Sir Thomas Boughey Academy and Orme Academy (formerly Wolstanton High School). There is a private Edenhurst Preparatory School, founded in 1961. The town's largest sixth-form college is Newcastle-under-Lyme College, which was established in 1966. Keele University main campus is situated from the centre of the town. Sites and attractions Parks and gardens Newcastle excels in the Royal Horticultural Society Britain in Bloom competition. In 2005 it was national winner in the "small city/large town" category (35K–100K). The town features several parks, including the Queen's Gardens at the east end of Ironmarket, which won the Britain in Bloom Judges' Award for Horticultural Excellence in 2003. Queens Gardens contains a statue of Queen Victoria funded by Sir Alfred Seale Haslam and unveiled by Grand Duke Michael Mikhailovich of Russia on 5 November 1903. It is the only park within the ring road. Grosvenor Gardens is in the centre of one of the town's roundabouts, but hidden away below road level. Queen Elizabeth Garden is located outside the town centre and was due for refurbishment using National Lottery Heritage Fund money. To the north-west of the town centre is Brampton Park, home to a museum and art gallery. Traditional market Dating back to 1173 Newcastle's market, known as the Stones, operates on the High Street. The market was originally held on Sunday; in the reign of John it was changed to Saturday; by the charter of Elizabeth it was fixed on Monday. Grants of fairs were given by Edward I, Edward III and Henry VI. Today the market is open six days a week and has over 80 stalls. Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays and Saturdays have a general market, Tuesdays an antiques market and Thursdays a sale of bric-a-brac. A cattle and livestock market was held on Mondays until the early 1990s; the site of it is now a branch of Morrison's supermarket. The Guildhall The current Guildhall was built in 1713 and has undergone a number of changes. Originally the ground floor was open and was used for markets, until the Market Hall was built in 1854. In 1860, to provide more space, the ground floor arches were bricked up and a clock tower with four clocks added. The top rooms in the Guildhall were used for meetings by the Borough council. It is now a grade II listed building. The Barracks The Italian-style Militia Barracks were built in 1855 of red brick. They were the headquarters of the 3rd King's Own Staffordshire Rifle Regiment until 1880. In 1882 W. H. Dalton bought the Barracks and settled them in trust for use by the Rifle Volunteers of Newcastle, which became the Territorial Force in 1907. In 2002 the Barracks were let to small businesses. Culture The New Vic Theatre was Europe's first purpose-built theatre in the round. Just outside the town centre, it offers a programme that includes modern and classic plays and concert performances. The Borough Museum and Art Gallery (Brampton Museum) depicts the civic history of the Borough and an authentic, life-size Victorian street-scene. The art gallery hosts work by local and national artists, and travelling exhibitions. Notable residents who contributed to the arts and entertainment include Philip Astley, founder of the modern circus. Jackie Trent, the singer and songwriter, was born in the town. Arnold Bennett, the novelist, playwright, and essayist, completed his schooling at the Middle School, and called the town Oldcastle in his Clayhanger trilogy of novels. Dinah Maria Mulock, who wrote under her married name of Mrs Craik, lived in the town (in Lower Street and Mount Pleasant) and attended Brampton House Academy. E. S. Turner, social commentator, was educated in the town. Newcastle was home to Dr Philip Willoughby-Higson (1933–2012), poet, translator, historian, and author of 33 books. He founded and was president (1974–1992) of the Chester Poets, the oldest poetry group in the North-West. He was also President of the Baudelaire Society of France from 1992 to 2012 – the only Englishman ever to hold that position. Sport The sports clubs and associations include Newcastle Town F.C., playing association football in the Northern Premier League Division One South East. Rugby is represented by Newcastle Staffs Rugby Union Club. Cycle Staffordshire organises local cycling events, as does the Newcastle Track Cycling Association. The town has a velodrome used by the Lyme Racing Club, Newcastle Athletic Club is based at the Ashfield Road track next to Newcastle College. This ash track was constructed in 1964. The club competes in the North Staffs XC League and the Local, National and Heart of England League 3. The town is home to a nationally prominent volleyball club: Newcastle (Staffs) Volleyball Club. Founded in 1980, it has teams in the National Volleyball League, producing numerous England and Great Britain international players over the years. Newcastle under Lyme College is home to Castle Korfball Club, one of the nation's older such clubs. The town has a swimming club; Newcastle (Staffs) Swimming Club, which was founded in 1908. There are golf courses at Kidsgrove, Wolstanton, Keele and Westlands. Keele University is home to one of the UK's first quidditch teams, the Keele Squirrels. It hosted the first ever quidditch game in the UK in 2011 against the Leicester Thestrals. Religion The town was the birthplace of John James Blunt, a divine and Anglican priest. Josiah Wedgwood was a Unitarian and he and his family attended meetings at the Old Meeting House, adjacent to St Giles' Church, which is still in use for the purpose. The town has a number of Anglican churches, including St Giles, a medieval parish church dating from 1290. There are several Catholic churches, notably Holy Trinity, whose style is Gothic in blue engineering bricks, described as "the finest modern specimen of ornamental brickwork in the kingdom" at the time. In the 18th century John Wesley made repeated visits to the area, which was becoming industrialised, and recruited many residents to Methodism. This is reflected in a number of Methodist churches. There is a Baptist church in Clayton. Of interest is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), across from Brampton Park, which serves as the "Stake Centre" for the church in the region and has an on-site Family History Centre, where the public can research their ancestry at little or no charge. International network The town is part of a worldwide network of towns and cities with the name Newcastle. These include well-known Newcastle upon Tyne (also in England), Neuburg an der Donau (Germany), Neuchâtel (Switzerland), Neufchâteau (France), New Castle, Indiana (US), New Castle, Pennsylvania (US), New Castle, Delaware (US), Newcastle, KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) and Shinshiro (Japan). This small international network of eight towns, formed in 1998, is designed to encourage friendship and cooperation between them. Accordingly, a school in the South African town benefited in 2004 from gifts of computing equipment surplus to Newcastle-under-Lyme's needs. The annual Newcastles of the World Summit was held in Newcastle-under-Lyme for six days from 17 June 2006. Neuburg an der Donau, Germany Neuchâtel, Switzerland Neufchâteau, France New Castle, Delaware, United States New Castle, Indiana, United States New Castle, Pennsylvania, United States Newcastle upon Tyne, England Newcastle, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Shinshiro, Japan Notable people 17th and 18th centuries Humphrey Wollrich (1633–1707), Quaker writer Philip Astley (1742–1814), equestrian, inventor and father of the modern circus Silvester Harding (1745–1809), artist and publisher, who joined a company of strolling actors at age 14 John James Blunt (1794–1855), Anglican priest who wrote studies of the early Church. 19th century Henry Moseley (1801–1872), churchman, mathematician and scientist Joseph Mayer (1803–1886), goldsmith, antiquary and collector Emma Darwin (née Wedgwood) (1808–1896), granddaughter of Josiah Wedgwood and wife of Charles Darwin Hungerford Crewe, 3rd Baron Crewe FSA, FRS (1812–1894), landowner and peer, inherited the Jacobean Crewe Hall and failed to prevent the construction of a Silverdale and Madeley Railway Company line Sir Oliver Lodge (1851–1940), physicist, inventor and writer Arthur Howard Heath TD (1856–1930), industrialist, cricketer, Rugby Union international and local Conservative MP Sir Joseph Cook, GCMG, PC (1860 in Silverdale – 1947), worked in the local coalmines before emigrating in 1885; Prime Minister of Australia, 1913–1914 Grand Duke Michael Mikhailovich of Russia, (1861–1929), lived in Keele Hall in 1900–1909. Arnold Bennett (1867–1931), writer, went to school in Newcastle Ada Nield Chew (1870–1945), suffragist and social activist Fanny Deakin (1883–1968), local politician born in Silverdale, campaigned for child nourishment and maternity care. Vera Brittain (1893–1970), author, reformer and pacifist, and mother of Shirley Williams Reginald Mitchell (1895–1937), designer of the Spitfire fighter plane Robert W. Tebbs (1875–1945), architectural photographer 20th century E. S. Turner (1909–2006), journalist and author, went to school in the town. Fred Kite (1921–1993), only Second World War British soldier to receive the Military Medal three times Freddie Garrity (1936–2006), singer, lived in the town near the end of his life. Jackie Trent (1940–2015), singer, songwriter and actress Neil Baldwin (born 1946), clown, Stoke City kit-man and honorary graduate of Keele University Kevin John Dunn (1950–2008), twelfth Roman Catholic Bishop of Hexham and Newcastle Professor Alan Sinclair (born 1952), clinical scientist and diabetes specialist Janet Bloomfield (1953–2007), peace and disarmament campaigner. Fran Unsworth (born 1957), journalist, head of BBC News since January 2018 Andrew Van Buren (living), illusionist, showman, co-founder of the Philip Astley Project Hugh Dancy, (born 1975), actor played Will Graham in Hannibal (TV series) Charlotte Salt, (born 1985), actress as Sam Nicholls in Casualty (TV series)Dan Croll (born 1991), singer-songwriter. Politics Robert Needham, 2nd Viscount Kilmorey (1587/88–1653), supporter of Charles I; MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme in the Addled Parliament in 1614. Sir Richard Leveson (1598–1661), MP for Newcastle in the Long Parliament, rebuilt Trentham Hall 1630-1638 Samuel Terrick (1602–1675), local politician. In 1658 he went bankrupt for £20,000. Major-General Thomas Harrison (1606–1660) sided with Parliament in the English Civil War. In 1649 he signed the death warrant of Charles I and in 1660, after the Restoration, was found guilty of regicide and hanged, drawn and quartered. Sir Alfred Seale Haslam (1844–1927) engineer, three times Mayor of Newcastle, MP for Newcastle, 1900–1906 Josiah Wedgwood, 1st Baron Wedgwood (1872–1943), Josiah Wedgwood IV'', great-great-grandson of Josiah Wedgwood and Liberal MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme, 1906–1919, then its Labour MP, 1919–1942 Sir Oswald Mosley (1896–1980), founder of British Union of Fascists, lived in Apedale Hall in early 1900s Stephen Swingler (1915–1969) Labour MP for Stafford, 1945–1950, and for Newcastle-under-Lyme 1951–1969 John Golding (1931–1999), Labour MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme 1969–1986 Llin Golding, Baroness Golding (born 1933), Labour MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme 1986–2001 Jeremy Lefroy (born 1959) Westlands councillor, MP for Stafford 2010–2019 Paul Farrelly (born 1962), MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme 2001–2017, journalist Karen Bradley (born 1970), MP for Staffordshire Moorlands Aaron Bell (born 1980) politician, MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme since 2019 Sport Dick Ray (1876–1952) professional footballer and manager with Port Vale and Manchester City, 239 club caps Frederick Bailey (1919–1985), left-handed English cricketer Don Ratcliffe (1934–2014), footballer with Stoke City, 438 club caps Mike Pejic (born 1950), footballer with Stoke City and Everton, 360 club caps Ian Moores (1954–1998) footballer with Stoke City and Tottenham Hotspur, 359 club caps Robbie Earle (born 1965), footballer with Port Vale and Wimbledon, 578 club caps Graham Shaw (born 1967) footballer with Stoke City, 284 club caps, now a solicitor Dominic Cork, (born 1971) cricketer Simon Wakefield (born 1974), professional golfer Alan Richardson (born 1975), cricketer Lizzie Neave (born 1987), slalom canoeist in women's kayak, competed in 2012 Summer Olympics Oliver Sadler (born 1987), first-class cricketer Peter Wilshaw (born 1987), cricketer Eddie Hall (born 1988), professional strongman Danielle Wyatt (born 1991), professional England cricketer Curtis Nelson (born 1993), footballer for Plymouth Argyle F.C., 387 club caps See also Listed buildings in Newcastle-under-Lyme References Bibliography External links Newcastle-under-Lyme borough council Towns in Staffordshire Market towns in Staffordshire Unparished areas in Staffordshire Borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoconservatism

Neoconservatism

Neoconservatism is a political movement that was born in the United States during the 1960s among liberal hawks who became disenchanted with the increasingly pacifist foreign policy of the Democratic Party and with the growing New Left and counterculture of the 1960s, particularly the Vietnam protests. Some also began to question their liberal beliefs regarding domestic policies such as the Great Society. Neoconservatives typically advocate the promotion of democracy and interventionism in international affairs, including peace through strength, and are known for espousing disdain for communism and political radicalism. Prominent neoconservatives in the George W. Bush administration included Paul Wolfowitz, Elliott Abrams, Richard Perle and Paul Bremer. While not identifying as neoconservatives, senior officials Vice President Dick Cheney and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld listened closely to neoconservative advisers regarding foreign policy, especially the defense of Israel and the promotion of American influence in the Middle East. Many of its adherents became politically influential during the Republican presidential administrations of the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, peaking in influence during the administration of George W. Bush, when they played a major role in promoting and planning the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan and the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Critics of neoconservatism have used the term to describe foreign policy and war hawks who support aggressive militarism or neo-imperialism. Historically speaking, the term neoconservative refers to those who made the ideological journey from the anti-Stalinist left to the camp of American conservatism during the 1960s and 1970s. The movement had its intellectual roots in the magazine Commentary, edited by Norman Podhoretz. They spoke out against the New Left and in that way helped define the movement. Terminology The term neoconservative was popularized in the United States during 1973 by the socialist leader Michael Harrington, who used the term to define Daniel Bell, Daniel Patrick Moynihan, and Irving Kristol, whose ideologies differed from Harrington's. The neoconservative label was used by Irving Kristol in his 1979 article "Confessions of a True, Self-Confessed 'Neoconservative'". His ideas have been influential since the 1950s, when he co-founded and edited the magazine Encounter. Another source was Norman Podhoretz, editor of the magazine Commentary, from 1960 to 1995. By 1982, Podhoretz was terming himself a neoconservative in The New York Times Magazine article titled "The Neoconservative Anguish over Reagan's Foreign Policy". During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the neoconservatives considered that liberalism had failed and "no longer knew what it was talking about", according to E. J. Dionne. Seymour Lipset asserts that the term neoconservative was used originally by socialists to criticize the politics of Social Democrats, USA (SDUSA). Jonah Goldberg argues that the term is ideological criticism against proponents of modern American liberalism who had become slightly more conservative (both Lipset and Goldberg are frequently described as neoconservatives). In a book-length study for Harvard University Press, historian Justin Vaisse writes that Lipset and Goldberg are in error, as "neoconservative" was used by socialist Michael Harrington to describe three men – noted above – who were not in SDUSA, and neoconservatism is a definable political movement. The term "neoconservative" was the subject of increased media coverage during the presidency of George W. Bush, with particular emphasis on a perceived neoconservative influence on American foreign policy, as part of the Bush Doctrine. History Through the 1950s and early 1960s, the future neoconservatives had endorsed the civil rights movement, racial integration and Martin Luther King Jr. From the 1950s to the 1960s, liberals generally endorsed military action in order to prevent a communist victory in Vietnam. Neoconservatism was initiated by the repudiation of the Cold War and the "New Politics" of the American New Left, which Norman Podhoretz said was too sympathetic to the counterculture and too alienated from the majority of the population; Black Power advocates, who accused white liberals and Northern Jews of hypocrisy on integration and also accused them of supporting perceived settler colonialism in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict; and "anti-anticommunism", which included substantial endorsement of Marxist–Leninist politics during the late 1960s. Many neoconservatives were particularly alarmed by what they believed were the antisemitic sentiments of Black Power advocates. Irving Kristol edited the journal The Public Interest (1965–2005), featuring economists and political scientists, which emphasized ways that government planning in the liberal state had produced unintended harmful consequences. Many early neoconservative political figures were disillusioned Democratic politicians and intellectuals, such as Daniel Patrick Moynihan, who served in the Nixon and Ford administrations, and Jeane Kirkpatrick, who served as United States Ambassador to the United Nations in the Reagan administration. Many left-wing academics such as Frank Meyer and James Burnham eventually became associated with the conservative movement at this time. A substantial number of neoconservatives were originally moderate socialists who were originally associated with the moderate wing of the Socialist Party of America (SP) and its successor party, Social Democrats, USA (SDUSA). Max Shachtman, a former Trotskyist theorist who developed a strong feeling of antipathy towards the New Left, had numerous devotees among SDUSA with strong links to George Meany's AFL-CIO. Following Shachtman and Meany, this faction led the SP to oppose immediate withdrawal from the Vietnam War, and oppose George McGovern in the Democratic primary race and, to some extent, the general election. They also chose to cease their own party-building and concentrated on working within the Democratic Party, eventually influencing it through the Democratic Leadership Council. Thus the Socialist Party dissolved in 1972, and SDUSA emerged that year. (Most of the left-wing of the party, led by Michael Harrington, immediately abandoned SDUSA.) SDUSA leaders associated with neoconservatism include Carl Gershman, Penn Kemble, Joshua Muravchik and Bayard Rustin. Norman Podhoretz's magazine Commentary, originally a journal of liberalism, became a major publication for neoconservatives during the 1970s. Commentary published an article by Jeane Kirkpatrick, an early and prototypical neoconservative, albeit not a New Yorker. Rejecting the American New Left and McGovern's New Politics As the policies of the New Left made the Democrats increasingly leftist, these intellectuals became disillusioned with President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society domestic programs. The influential 1970 bestseller The Real Majority by Ben Wattenberg expressed that the "real majority" of the electorate endorsed economic interventionism, but also social conservatism; and warned Democrats it could be disastrous to adopt liberal positions on certain social and crime issues. The neoconservatives rejected the countercultural New Left and what they considered anti-Americanism in the non-interventionism of the activism against the Vietnam War. After the anti-war faction took control of the party during 1972 and nominated George McGovern, the Democrats among them endorsed Washington Senator Henry "Scoop" Jackson instead for his unsuccessful 1972 and 1976 campaigns for president. Among those who worked for Jackson were incipient neoconservatives Paul Wolfowitz, Doug Feith, and Richard Perle. During the late 1970s, neoconservatives tended to endorse Ronald Reagan, the Republican who promised to confront Soviet expansionism. Neoconservatives organized in the American Enterprise Institute and The Heritage Foundation to counter the liberal establishment. Author Keith Preston named the successful effort on behalf of neoconservatives such as George Will and Irving Kristol to cancel Reagan's 1980 nomination of Mel Bradford, a Southern Paleoconservative academic whose regionalist focus and writings about Abraham Lincoln and Reconstruction alienated the more cosmopolitan and progress-oriented neoconservatives, to the leadership of the National Endowment for the Humanities in favor of longtime Democrat William Bennett as emblematic of the neoconservative movement establishing hegemony over mainstream American conservatism. In another (2004) article, Michael Lind also wrote: Leo Strauss and his students C. Bradley Thompson, a professor at Clemson University, claims that most influential neoconservatives refer explicitly to the theoretical ideas in the philosophy of Leo Strauss (1899–1973), although there are several writers who claim that in doing so they may draw upon meaning that Strauss himself did not endorse. Eugene Sheppard notes: "Much scholarship tends to understand Strauss as an inspirational founder of American neoconservatism". Strauss was a refugee from Nazi Germany who taught at the New School for Social Research in New York (1938–1948) and the University of Chicago (1949–1969). Strauss asserted that "the crisis of the West consists in the West's having become uncertain of its purpose". His solution was a restoration of the vital ideas and faith that in the past had sustained the moral purpose of the West. The Greek classics (classical republican and modern republican), political philosophy and the Judeo-Christian heritage are the essentials of the Great Tradition in Strauss's work. Strauss emphasized the spirit of the Greek classics and Thomas G. West (1991) argues that for Strauss the American Founding Fathers were correct in their understanding of the classics in their principles of justice. For Strauss, political community is defined by convictions about justice and happiness rather than by sovereignty and force. A classical liberal, he repudiated the philosophy of John Locke as a bridge to 20th-century historicism and nihilism and instead defended liberal democracy as closer to the spirit of the classics than other modern regimes. For Strauss, the American awareness of ineradicable evil in human nature and hence the need for morality, was a beneficial outgrowth of the pre-modern Western tradition. O'Neill (2009) notes that Strauss wrote little about American topics, but his students wrote a great deal and that Strauss's influence caused his students to reject historicism and positivism as morally relativist positions. They instead promoted a so-called Aristotelian perspective on America that produced a qualified defense of its liberal constitutionalism. Strauss's emphasis on moral clarity led the Straussians to develop an approach to international relations that Catherine and Michael Zuckert (2008) call Straussian Wilsonianism (or Straussian idealism), the defense of liberal democracy in the face of its vulnerability. Strauss influenced The Weekly Standard editor Bill Kristol, William Bennett, Newt Gingrich, Antonin Scalia and Clarence Thomas, as well as Paul Wolfowitz. Jeane Kirkpatrick A theory of neoconservative foreign policy during the final years of the Cold War was articulated by Jeane Kirkpatrick in "Dictatorships and Double Standards", published in Commentary Magazine during November 1979. Kirkpatrick criticized the foreign policy of Jimmy Carter, which endorsed détente with the Soviet Union. She later served the Reagan Administration as Ambassador to the United Nations. Skepticism towards democracy promotion In "Dictatorships and Double Standards", Kirkpatrick distinguished between authoritarian regimes and the totalitarian regimes such as the Soviet Union. She suggested that in some countries democracy was not tenable and the United States had a choice between endorsing authoritarian governments, which might evolve into democracies, or Marxist–Leninist regimes, which she argued had never been ended once they achieved totalitarian control. In such tragic circumstances, she argued that allying with authoritarian governments might be prudent. Kirkpatrick argued that by demanding rapid liberalization in traditionally autocratic countries, the Carter administration had delivered those countries to Marxist–Leninists that were even more repressive. She further accused the Carter administration of a "double standard" and of never having applied its rhetoric on the necessity of liberalization to communist governments. The essay compares traditional autocracies and Communist regimes: Kirkpatrick concluded that while the United States should encourage liberalization and democracy in autocratic countries, it should not do so when the government risks violent overthrow and should expect gradual change rather than immediate transformation. She wrote: "No idea holds greater sway in the mind of educated Americans than the belief that it is possible to democratize governments, anytime and anywhere, under any circumstances ... Decades, if not centuries, are normally required for people to acquire the necessary disciplines and habits. In Britain, the road [to democratic government] took seven centuries to traverse. ... The speed with which armies collapse, bureaucracies abdicate, and social structures dissolve once the autocrat is removed frequently surprises American policymakers". 1990s During the 1990s, neoconservatives were once again opposed to the foreign policy establishment, both during the Republican Administration of President George H. W. Bush and that of his Democratic successor, President Bill Clinton. Many critics charged that the neoconservatives lost their influence as a result of the end of the Soviet Union. After the decision of George H. W. Bush to leave Saddam Hussein in power after the first Iraq War during 1991, many neoconservatives considered this policy and the decision not to endorse indigenous dissident groups such as the Kurds and Shiites in their 1991–1992 resistance to Hussein as a betrayal of democratic principles. Some of those same targets of criticism would later become fierce advocates of neoconservative policies. During 1992, referring to the first Iraq War, then United States Secretary of Defense and future Vice President Richard Cheney said: Within a few years of the Gulf War in Iraq, many neoconservatives were endorsing the ousting of Saddam Hussein. On 19 February 1998, an open letter to President Clinton was published, signed by dozens of pundits, many identified with neoconservatism and later related groups such as the Project for the New American Century, urging decisive action to remove Saddam from power. Neoconservatives were also members of the so-called "blue team", which argued for a confrontational policy toward the People's Republic of China and strong military and diplomatic endorsement for the Republic of China (also known as Formosa or Taiwan). During the late 1990s, Irving Kristol and other writers in neoconservative magazines began touting anti-Darwinist views as an endorsement of intelligent design. Since these neoconservatives were largely of secular origin, a few commentators have speculated that thisalong with endorsement of religion generally – may have been a case of a "noble lie", intended to protect public morality, or even tactical politics, to attract religious endorsers. 2000s Administration of George W. Bush The Bush campaign and the early Bush administration did not exhibit strong endorsement of neoconservative principles. As a presidential candidate, Bush had argued for a restrained foreign policy, stating his opposition to the idea of nation-building. Also early in the administration, some neoconservatives criticized Bush's administration as insufficiently supportive of Israel and suggested Bush's foreign policies were not substantially different from those of President Clinton. Bush's policies changed dramatically immediately after the 11 September 2001 attacks. During Bush's State of the Union speech of January 2002, he named Iraq, Iran and North Korea as states that "constitute an axis of evil" and "pose a grave and growing danger". Bush suggested the possibility of preemptive war: "I will not wait on events, while dangers gather. I will not stand by, as peril draws closer and closer. The United States of America will not permit the world's most dangerous regimes to threaten us with the world's most destructive weapons". Some major defense and national-security persons have been quite critical of what they believed was a neoconservative influence in getting the United States to go to war against Iraq. Former Nebraska Republican U.S. senator and Secretary of Defense, Chuck Hagel, who has been critical of the Bush administration's adoption of neoconservative ideology, in his book America: Our Next Chapter wrote: Bush Doctrine The Bush Doctrine of preemptive war was stated explicitly in the National Security Council (NSC) text "National Security Strategy of the United States". published 20 September 2002: "We must deter and defend against the threat before it is unleashed ... even if uncertainty remains as to the time and place of the enemy's attack. ... The United States will, if necessary, act preemptively". The choice not to use the word "preventive" in the 2002 National Security Strategy and instead use the word "preemptive" was largely in anticipation of the widely perceived illegality of preventive attacks in international law via both Charter Law and Customary Law. In this context, disputes over the non-aggression principle in domestic and foreign policy, especially given the doctrine of preemption, alternatively impede and facilitate studies of the impact of libertarian precepts on neo-conservatism. Policy analysts noted that the Bush Doctrine as stated in the 2002 NSC document had a strong resemblance to recommendations presented originally in a controversial Defense Planning Guidance draft written during 1992 by Paul Wolfowitz, during the first Bush administration. The Bush Doctrine was greeted with accolades by many neoconservatives. When asked whether he agreed with the Bush Doctrine, Max Boot said he did and that "I think [Bush is] exactly right to say we can't sit back and wait for the next terrorist strike on Manhattan. We have to go out and stop the terrorists overseas. We have to play the role of the global policeman. ... But I also argue that we ought to go further". Discussing the significance of the Bush Doctrine, neoconservative writer Bill Kristol claimed: "The world is a mess. And, I think, it's very much to Bush's credit that he's gotten serious about dealing with it. ... The danger is not that we're going to do too much. The danger is that we're going to do too little". 2008 presidential election and aftermath John McCain, who was the Republican candidate for the 2008 United States presidential election, endorsed continuing the second Iraq War, "the issue that is most clearly identified with the neoconservatives". The New York Times reported further that his foreign policy views combined elements of neoconservatism and the main competing conservative opinion, pragmatism, also known as realism: Barack Obama campaigned for the Democratic nomination during 2008 by attacking his opponents, especially Hillary Clinton, for originally endorsing Bush's Iraq-war policies. Obama maintained a selection of prominent military officials from the Bush Administration including Robert Gates (Bush's Defense Secretary) and David Petraeus (Bush's ranking general in Iraq). 2010s and 2020s By 2010, U.S. forces had switched from combat to a training role in Iraq and they left in 2011. The neocons had little influence in the Obama White House, and neo-conservatives have lost much influence in the Republican party since the rise of the Tea Party Movement. Several neoconservatives played a major role in the Stop Trump movement in 2016, in opposition to the Republican presidential candidacy of Donald Trump, due to his criticism of interventionist foreign policies, as well as their perception of him as an "authoritarian" figure. Since Trump took office, some neoconservatives have joined his administration, such as Elliott Abrams. Neoconservatives have supported the Trump administration's hawkish approach towards Iran and Venezuela, while opposing the administration's withdrawal of troops from Syria and diplomatic outreach to North Korea. Although neoconservatives have served in the Trump administration, they have been observed to have been slowly overtaken by the nascent populist and national conservative movements, and to have struggled to adapt to a changing geopolitical atmosphere. The Lincoln Project, a political action committee consisting of current and former Republicans with the purpose of defeating Trump in the 2020 United States presidential election and Republican Senate candidates in the 2020 United States Senate elections, has been described as being primarily made of neoconservative activists seeking to return the Republican party to Bush-era ideology. Although Trump was not reelected and the Republicans failed to retain a majority in the Senate, surprising success in the 2020 United States House of Representatives elections and internal conflicts led to renewed questions about the strength of neoconservatism. Evolution of opinions Usage and general views During the early 1970s, socialist Michael Harrington was one of the first to use "neoconservative" in its modern meaning. He characterized neoconservatives as former leftistswhom he derided as "socialists for Nixon"who had become more conservative. These people tended to remain endorsers of social democracy, but distinguished themselves by allying with the Nixon administration with respect to foreign policy, especially by their endorsement of the Vietnam War and opposition to the Soviet Union. They still endorsed the welfare state, but not necessarily in its contemporary form. Irving Kristol remarked that a neoconservative is a "", one who became more conservative after seeing the results of liberal policies. Kristol also distinguished three specific aspects of neoconservatism from previous types of conservatism: neo-conservatives had a forward-looking attitude from their liberal heritage, rather than the reactionary and dour attitude of previous conservatives; they had a meliorative attitude, proposing alternate reforms rather than simply attacking social liberal reforms; and they took philosophical ideas and ideologies very seriously. During January 2009 at the end of President George W. Bush's second term in office, Jonathan Clarke, a senior fellow at the Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs and prominent critic of Neoconservatism, proposed the following as the "main characteristics of neoconservatism": "a tendency to see the world in binary good/evil terms", a "low tolerance for diplomacy", a "readiness to use military force", an "emphasis on US unilateral action", a "disdain for multilateral organizations" and a "focus on the Middle East". Opinions concerning foreign policy In foreign policy, the neoconservatives' main concern is to prevent the development of a new rival. Defense Planning Guidance, a document prepared during 1992 by Under Secretary for Defense for Policy Paul Wolfowitz, is regarded by Distinguished Professor of the Humanities John McGowan at the University of North Carolina as the "quintessential statement of neoconservative thought". The report says: Our first objective is to prevent the re-emergence of a new rival, either on the territory of the former Soviet Union or elsewhere, that poses a threat on the order of that posed formerly by the Soviet Union. This is a dominant consideration underlying the new regional defense strategy and requires that we endeavor to prevent any hostile power from dominating a region whose resources would, under consolidated control, be sufficient to generate global power. According to Lead Editor of e-International Relations Stephen McGlinchey: "Neo-conservatism is something of a chimera in modern politics. For its opponents it is a distinct political ideology that emphasizes the blending of military power with Wilsonian idealism, yet for its supporters it is more of a 'persuasion' that individuals of many types drift into and out of. Regardless of which is more correct, it is now widely accepted that the neo-conservative impulse has been visible in modern American foreign policy and that it has left a distinct impact". Neoconservatives claim the "conviction that communism was a monstrous evil and a potent danger". After 1996, many self-identified "neocons" endorsed ending the welfare state "as we know it," but did not advocate for its removal. The Project for a New American Century (see below) and its petitions to the Clinton Administration proved instrumental in prompting Operation Desert Fox, although the Clinton Doctrine's concluding iteration of what became a National Security Strategy proved pivotal as well. The "social welfare" associated with neoconservative ideas has been critiqued as a revival of social imperialism, particularly in the contexts of overseas assets, security interests, oil, oil technologies, and the doctrine of preemption. Disputes over the non-aggression principle in domestic and foreign policy, especially given the doctrine of preemption (related to, but distinct from, deterrence), impede and facilitate studies of the impact of libertarian precepts on neo-conservatism. In a similar vein, disparate neoconservative conceptions of "social welfare" in foreign policy, or lack thereof, collided during the prolonged deployment in Iraq. This factionalism engulfed U.S. and world print cultures, most notably in a series of articles by Francis Fukuyama and unitary executive theory statements by litigators such as John Yoo. Statements by Wolfowitz and additional members of the George W. Bush Administration revealed persistent disagreements as well. In 2004, for instance, Colin Powell announced in the January–February Foreign Affairs that "pundits claim that U.S. foreign policy is too focused on unilateral preemption. But George W. Bush's vision---enshrined in his 2002 National Security Strategy---is far broader and deeper than that. The president has promoted bold and effective policies to combat terrorism, intervened decisively to prevent regional conflicts, and embraced other major powers such as Russia, China, and India. Above all, he has committed the United States to a strategy of partnerships, which affirms the vital role of international alliances while advancing American interests and principles." Powell reiterated that pundits "exaggerated the centrality of preemption in U.S. strategy...the breadth of U.S. strategy transcends the war on terrorism." Powell resigned as Secretary of State later that year. After 2008, he publicly endorsed Democratic Party candidates---Barack Obama, Hillary Clinton, and Joe Biden---for President of the United States. He also supported federal review of "Don't ask, don't tell" policy, confessing that "attitudes and circumstances have changed" since his previous opposition to "gays in the military." Powell never protested his name listed among "allies" of same-sex marriage until his death, yet he stopped short at explicit endorsement of the repeal process for "Don't ask, don't tell." Neoconservatism first developed during the late 1960s as an effort to oppose the radical cultural changes occurring within the United States. Irving Kristol wrote: "If there is any one thing that neoconservatives are unanimous about, it is their dislike of the counterculture". Norman Podhoretz agreed: "Revulsion against the counterculture accounted for more converts to neoconservatism than any other single factor". Neoconservatives began to emphasize foreign issues during the mid-1970s. In 1979, an early study by liberal Peter Steinfels concentrated on the ideas of Irving Kristol, Daniel Patrick Moynihan and Daniel Bell. He noted that the stress on foreign affairs "emerged after the New Left and the counterculture had dissolved as convincing foils for neoconservatism ... The essential source of their anxiety is not military or geopolitical or to be found overseas at all; it is domestic and cultural and ideological". Neoconservative foreign policy is a descendant of so-called Wilsonian idealism. Neoconservatives endorse democracy promotion by the U.S. and other democracies, based on the claim that they think that human rights belong to everyone. They criticized the United Nations and détente with the Soviet Union. On domestic policy, they endorse reductions in the welfare state, like European and Canadian conservatives. According to Norman Podhoretz, "'the neo-conservatives dissociated themselves from the wholesale opposition to the welfare state which had marked American conservatism since the days of the New Deal' and ... while neoconservatives supported 'setting certain limits' to the welfare state, those limits did not involve 'issues of principle, such as the legitimate size and role of the central government in the American constitutional order' but were to be 'determined by practical considerations'". In April 2006, Robert Kagan wrote in The Washington Post that Russia and China may be the greatest "challenge liberalism faces today": In July 2008, Joe Klein wrote in Time that today's neoconservatives are more interested in confronting enemies than in cultivating friends. He questioned the sincerity of neoconservative interest in exporting democracy and freedom, saying: "Neoconservatism in foreign policy is best described as unilateral bellicosity cloaked in the utopian rhetoric of freedom and democracy" as well as social welfare policy. In February 2009, Andrew Sullivan wrote he no longer took neoconservatism seriously because its basic tenet was defense of Israel: Views on economics While neoconservatism is concerned primarily with foreign policy, there is also some discussion of internal economic policies. Neoconservatism generally endorses free markets and capitalism, favoring supply-side economics, but it has several disagreements with classical liberalism and fiscal conservatism. Irving Kristol states that neocons are more relaxed about budget deficits and tend to reject the Hayekian notion that the growth of government influence on society and public welfare is "the road to serfdom". Indeed, to safeguard democracy, government intervention and budget deficits may sometimes be necessary, Kristol argues. After the so-called "reconciliation with capitalism," self-identified "neoconservatives" frequently favored a reduced welfare state, but not its elimination. Neoconservative ideology stresses that while free markets do provide material goods in an efficient way, they lack the moral guidance human beings need to fulfill their needs. They say that morality can be found only in tradition and that markets do pose questions that cannot be solved solely by economics, arguing: "So, as the economy only makes up part of our lives, it must not be allowed to take over and entirely dictate to our society". Critics consider neoconservatism a bellicose and "heroic" ideology opposed to "mercantile" and "bourgeois" virtues and therefore "a variant of anti-economic thought". Political scientist Zeev Sternhell states: "Neoconservatism has succeeded in convincing the great majority of Americans that the main questions that concern a society are not economic, and that social questions are really moral questions". Friction with other conservatives Many conservatives oppose neoconservative policies and have critical views on it. Disputes over the non-aggression principle in domestic and foreign policy, especially given the doctrine of preemption, can impede (and facilitate) studies of the impact of libertarian precepts on neo-conservatism, but that of course didn't, and still doesn't, stop pundits from publishing appraisals. For example, Stefan Halper and Jonathan Clarke (a libertarian based at Cato), in their 2004 book on neoconservatism, America Alone: The Neo-Conservatives and the Global Order, characterized the neoconservatives at that time as uniting around three common themes: Responding to a question about neoconservatives in 2004, William F. Buckley Jr. said: "I think those I know, which is most of them, are bright, informed and idealistic, but that they simply overrate the reach of U.S. power and influence". Friction with paleoconservatism Starting during the 1980s, disputes concerning Israel and public policy contributed to a conflict with paleoconservatives. Pat Buchanan terms neoconservatism "a globalist, interventionist, open borders ideology". Paul Gottfried has written that the neocons' call for "permanent revolution" exists independently of their beliefs about Israel, characterizing the neoconservatives as "ranters out of a Dostoyevskian novel, who are out to practice permanent revolution courtesy of the U.S. government" and questioning how anyone could mistake them for conservatives. What make neocons most dangerous are not their isolated ghetto hang-ups, like hating Germans and Southern whites and calling everyone and his cousin an anti-Semite, but the leftist revolutionary fury they express.He has also argued that domestic equality and the exportability of democracy are points of contention between them. Paul Craig Roberts, United States Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Economic Policy during the Reagan administration and associated with paleoconservatism stated in 2003 that "there is nothing conservative about neoconservatives. Neocons hide behind 'conservative' but they are in fact Jacobins. Jacobins were the 18th century French revolutionaries whose intention to remake Europe in revolutionary France's image launched the Napoleonic Wars". Trotskyism allegation Critics have argued that since the founders of neo-conservatism included ex-Trotskyists, Trotskyist traits continue to characterize neo-conservative ideologies and practices. During the Reagan administration, the charge was made that the foreign policy of the Reagan administration was being managed by ex Trotskyists. This claim was cited by , who was a neoconservative and former Trotskyist himself. This "Trotskyist" charge was repeated and widened by journalist Michael Lind during 2003 to assert a takeover of the foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration by former Trotskyists; Lind's "amalgamation of the defense intellectuals with the traditions and theories of 'the largely Jewish-American Trotskyist movement' [in Lind's words]" was criticized during 2003 by University of Michigan professor Alan M. Wald, who had discussed Trotskyism in his history of "the New York intellectuals". The charge that neoconservativism is related to Leninism has also been made by Francis Fukuyama. He argued that both believe in the "existence of a long-term process of social evolution", though neoconservatives seek to establish liberal democracy instead of communism. He wrote that neoconservatives "believed that history can be pushed along with the right application of power and will. Leninism was a tragedy in its Bolshevik version, and it has returned as farce when practiced by the United States. Neoconservatism, as both a political symbol and a body of thought, has evolved into something I can no longer support". However, these comparisons ignore anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist positions central to Leninism, which run contradictory to core neoconservative beliefs. Criticism Critics of neoconservatism take issue with neoconservatives' support for interventionistic foreign policy. Critics from the left take issue with what they characterize as unilateralism and lack of concern with international consensus through organizations such as the United Nations. Critics from both the left and right have assailed neoconservatives for the role Israel plays in their policies on the Middle East. Neoconservatives respond by describing their shared opinion as a belief that national security is best attained by actively promoting freedom and democracy abroad as in the democratic peace theory through the endorsement of democracy, foreign aid and in certain cases military intervention. This is different from the traditional conservative tendency to endorse friendly regimes in matters of trade and anti-communism even at the expense of undermining existing democratic systems. Republican Congressman Ron Paul has been a longtime critic of neoconservativism as an attack on freedom and the Constitution, including an extensive speech on the House floor addressing neoconservative beginnings and how neoconservatism is neither new nor conservative. In a column named "Years of Shame" commemorating the tenth anniversary of 9/11 attacks, Paul Krugman criticized the neoconservatives for causing a war unrelated to 9/11 attacks and fought for wrong reasons. Imperialism and secrecy John McGowan, professor of humanities at the University of North Carolina, states after an extensive review of neoconservative literature and theory that neoconservatives are attempting to build an American Empire, seen as successor to the British Empire, its goal being to perpetuate a "Pax Americana". As imperialism is largely considered unacceptable by the American media, neoconservatives do not articulate their ideas and goals in a frank manner in public discourse. McGowan states: Notable people associated with neoconservatism The list includes public people identified as personally neoconservative at an important time or a high official with numerous neoconservative advisers, such as George W. Bush and Dick Cheney. Politicians George W. Bush – 43rd U.S. President, 46th U.S. Governor of Texas Jeb Bush – 43rd U.S. Governor of Florida, 2016 Republican presidential candidate Dick Cheney – 46th U.S. Vice President, former White House Chief of Staff, former U.S. Representative from Wyoming, former U.S. Secretary of Defense - described as a practitioner of neoconservative foreign policy or allied with neoconservatives but not one himself, and without a historical background in the ideological neoconservative movement Liz Cheney – U.S. Representative for Wyoming's at-large district. Chris Christie – 56th Governor of New Jersey, former United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey, 2016 Republican presidential candidate; though he rejects the term Tom Cotton – U.S. Senator from Arkansas, former U.S. Representative from Arkansas Lindsey Graham – U.S. Senator from South Carolina, former United States Air Force Colonel, former U.S. Representative from South Carolina, 2016 Republican presidential candidate John McCain – former U.S. Representative & U.S. Senator from Arizona, 2000 Republican presidential candidate, 2008 Republican presidential nominee Mitch McConnell – U.S. Senator from Kentucky, Senate Minority Leader, former Senate Majority Whip, former Senate Majority Leader Mike Pompeo – former U.S. Representative for Kansas’s 4th district, 6th Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, 70th U.S. Secretary of State. Marco Rubio – U.S. Senator from Florida, 2016 Republican presidential candidate Condoleezza Rice — U.S. Secretary of State (2005 - 2009) Nikki Haley — U.S. Ambassador to UN (2017 - 2019) Mike Turner - U.S. representative for since 2003 Michael McCaul - U.S. representative for since 2005 Government officials Elliot Abrams – foreign policy adviser Kenneth Adelman – former Director of Arms Control and Disarmament Agency Richard Armitage – former United States Deputy Secretary of State William Bennett – former chairman of the National Endowment for the Humanities, former Director of the National Drug Control Policy and former U.S. Secretary of Education John R. Bolton – former Ambassador to the United Nations, and former National Security Advisor; though he rejects the term Eliot A. Cohen – former State Department Counselor, now Robert E. Osgood Professor of Strategic Studies at the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies at the Johns Hopkins University Douglas J. Feith – former Under Secretary of Defense for Policy Frank Gaffney – former Acting Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs, founder and president of the Center for Security Policy Jeane Kirkpatrick – former Ambassador to the United Nations under Ronald Reagan Bill Kristol – former Chief of Staff to the Vice President of the United States, co-founder and former editor of The Weekly Standard, professor of political philosophy and American politics and political adviser Scooter Libby – former Chief of Staff to the Vice President of the United States Richard Perle – former Assistant Secretary of Defense and lobbyist Paul Wolfowitz – former State and Defense Department official R. James Woolsey Jr. – former Undersecretary of the Navy, former Director of Central Intelligence, green energy lobbyist Academics Nathan Glazer – Professor of sociology at UC Berkeley and Harvard, columnist and author. Donald Kagan – Sterling Professor of Classics and History at Yale University. Andrew Roberts – Professor of History at King's College in London. Leo Strauss - Professor of political science and classicist at the University of Chicago. Public figures Fred Barnes – co-founder and former executive editor of The Weekly Standard Max Boot – author, consultant, editorialist, lecturer, and military historian; though wishes to retire label Arthur Brooks – president of the American Enterprise Institute David Brooks – Columnist Midge Decter – journalist, author David Frum – journalist, Republican speechwriter and columnist Reuel Marc Gerecht – writer, political analyst and senior fellow at the Foundation for Defense of Democracies Bruce P. Jackson – activist, former U.S. military intelligence officer Frederick Kagan – historian, resident scholar at the American Enterprise Institute Robert Kagan – senior fellow at the Brookings Institution, scholar of U.S. foreign policy, founder of the Yale Political Monthly, adviser to Republican political campaigns and one of 25 members of an advisory board to Hillary Clinton at the State Department (Kagan calls himself a "liberal interventionist" rather than "neoconservative") Charles Krauthammer – Pulitzer Prize winner, columnist and psychiatrist Irving Kristol – publisher, journalist, columnist and former Marxist Eli Lake – journalist and columnist Michael Ledeen – historian, foreign policy analyst, scholar at the American Enterprise Institute Clifford May – founder and president of the Foundation for Defense of Democracies Joshua Muravchik – resident scholar at the American Enterprise Institute Douglas Murray – British writer, journalist and political commentator Daniel Pipes (former neoconservative) – historian, writer and political commentator Danielle Pletka – American Enterprise Institute vice president John Podhoretz – editor-at-large of Commentary, presidential speech writer and author Norman Podhoretz – editor-in-chief of Commentary Yuval Levin-founding editor of National Affairs (2009–present) and director of Social, Cultural, and Constitutional Studies at the American Enterprise Institute. Tom Rogan – journalist and political analyst Michael Rubin – resident scholar at the American Enterprise Institute Gary Schmitt – resident scholar at the American Enterprise Institute Ben Shapiro – political commentator, public speaker, author, lawyer, founder and editor emeritus of The Daily Wire. Bret Stephens – journalist and columnist for The New York Times Irwin Stelzer – economist and writer George Will – writer for The Washington Post Related publications and institutions Institutions American Enterprise Institute Foundation for Defense of Democracies Henry Jackson Society Hudson Institute Project for the New American Century Publications Commentary The Public Interest (out of circulation) The Washington Free Beacon The Weekly Standard (out of circulation) The Bulwark See also British neoconservatism Democratic peace theory Factions in the Republican Party (United States) Globalization Intellectual dark web Interventionism (politics) Liberal hawk Liberal internationalism Neoconservatism and paleoconservatism Neoconservatism in Japan Neoconservatism in the Czech Republic New Conservatism (China) Neoliberalism Neo-libertarianism New Right in the United States Paleoconservatism Project for a New American Century Tory socialism Trotskyism Notes References Albanese, Matteo. The Concept of War in Neoconservative Thinking, IPOC, Milan, 2012. Translated by Nicolas Lewkowicz. Buchanan, Patrick J.. "Whose War", The American Conservative, 24 March 2003. Retrieved 16 September 2006. Bush, George W., Gerhard Schroeder, et al., "Transcript: Bush, Schroeder Roundtable With German Professionals", The Washington Post, 23 February 2005. Retrieved 16 September 2006. Critchlow, Donald T. The conservative ascendancy: how the GOP right made political history (2nd ed., 2011) Dean, John. Worse Than Watergate: The Secret Presidency of George W. Bush, Little, Brown, 2004. (hardback). Critical account of neo-conservatism in the administration of George W. Bush. Frum, David. "Unpatriotic Conservatives", National Review, 7 April 2003. Retrieved 16 September 2006. Gerson, Mark, ed. The Essential Neo-Conservative Reader, Perseus, 1997. (paperback), (hardback). Gerson, Mark. "Norman's Conquest: A Commentary on the Podhoretz Legacy", Policy Review, Fall 1995, Number 74. Retrieved 16 September 2006. Gray, John. Black Mass, Allen Lane, 2007. . Hanson, Jim The Decline of the American Empire, Praeger, 1993. . Halper, Stefan and Jonathan Clarke. America Alone: The Neo-Conservatives and the Global Order, Cambridge University Press, 2004. . Kagan, Robert, et al., Present Dangers: Crisis and Opportunity in American Foreign and Defense Policy. Encounter Books, 2000. . Kristol, Irving. Neo-Conservatism: The Autobiography of an Idea: Selected Essays 1949-1995, New York: The Free Press, 1995. (10). (13). (Hardcover ed.) Reprinted as Neoconservatism: The Autobiography of an Idea, New York: Ivan R. Dee, 1999. (10). (Paperback ed.) Kristol, Irving. "What Is a Neoconservative?", Newsweek, 19 January 1976. Lara Amat y León, Joan y Antón Mellón, Joan, "Las persuasiones neoconservadoras: F. Fukuyama, S. P. Huntington, W. Kristol y R. Kagan", en Máiz, Ramón (comp.), Teorías políticas contemporáneas, (2ªed.rev. y ampl.) Tirant lo Blanch, Valencia, 2009. . Ficha del libro Lara Amat y León, Joan, "Cosmopolitismo y anticosmoplitismo en el neoconservadurismo: Fukuyama y Huntington", en Nuñez, Paloma y Espinosa, Javier (eds.), Filosofía y política en el siglo XXI. Europa y el nuevo orden cosmopolita, Akal, Madrid, 2009. . Ficha del libro Lasn, Kalle. "Why won't anyone say they are Jewish?", Adbusters, March/April 2004. Retrieved 16 September 2006. Lewkowicz, Nicolas. "Neoconservatism and the Propagation of Democracy", Democracy Chronicles, 11 February 2013. Mann, James. Rise of the Vulcans: The History of Bush's War Cabinet, Viking, 2004. (cloth). Mascolo, Georg. "A Leaderless, Directionless Superpower: interview with Ex-Powell aide Wilkerson" , Spiegel Online, 6 December 2005. Retrieved 16 September 2006. Muravchik, Joshua. "Renegades", Commentary, 1 October 2002. Bibliographical information is available online, the article itself is not. Muravchik, Joshua. "The Neoconservative Cabal", Commentary, September 2003. Bibliographical information is available online, the article itself is not. Prueher, Joseph. U.S. apology to China over spy plane incident, 11 April 2001. Reproduced on sinomania.com. Retrieved 16 September 2006. Podoretz, Norman. The Norman Podhoretz Reader. New York: Free Press, 2004. . Roucaute Yves. Le Neoconservatisme est un humanisme. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2005.. Roucaute Yves. La Puissance de la Liberté. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2004.. Ruppert, Michael C.. Crossing the Rubicon: The Decline of the American Empire at the End of the Age of Oil, New Society, 2004. . Ryn, Claes G., America the Virtuous: The Crisis of Democracy and the Quest for Empire, Transaction, 2003. (cloth). Stelzer, Irwin, ed. Neoconservatism, Atlantic Books, 2004. Smith, Grant F. Deadly Dogma: How Neoconservatives Broke the Law to Deceive America. . Solarz, Stephen, et al. "Open Letter to the President", 19 February 1998, online at IraqWatch.org. Retrieved 16 September 2006. Strauss, Leo. Natural Right and History, University of Chicago Press, 1999. . Strauss, Leo. The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism, University of Chicago Press, 1989. . Tolson, Jay. "The New American Empire?", U.S. News and World Report, 13 January 2003. Retrieved 16 September 2006. Wilson, Joseph. The Politics of Truth. Carroll & Graf, 2004. . Woodward, Bob. Plan of Attack, Simon and Schuster, 2004. . Further reading Arin, Kubilay Yado: Think Tanks: The Brain Trusts of US Foreign Policy. Wiesbaden: VS Springer 2013. Balint, Benjamin V. Running Commentary: The Contentious Magazine that Transformed the Jewish Left into the Neoconservative Right (2010). Dorrien, Gary. The Neoconservative Mind. , n attack from the Left. Ehrman, John. The Rise of Neoconservatism: Intellectual and Foreign Affairs 1945 – 1994, Yale University Press, 2005, . Eisendrath, Craig R. and Melvin A. Goodman. Bush League Diplomacy: How the Neoconservatives are Putting The World at Risk (Prometheus Books, 2004), . Franczak, Michael. 2019. "Losing the Battle, Winning the War: Neoconservatives versus the New International Economic Order, 1974–82."Diplomatic History Friedman, Murray. The Neoconservative Revolution: Jewish Intellectuals and the Shaping of Public Policy. Cambridge University Press, 2006. . Grandin, Greg."Empire's Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism." Metropolitan Books Henry Holt & Company, 2006.. Heilbrunn, Jacob. They Knew They Were Right: The Rise of the Neocons, Doubleday (2008) . Heilbrunn, Jacob. "5 Myths About Those Nefarious Neocons", The Washington Post, 10 February 2008. Kristol, Irving. "The Neoconservative Persuasion". Lind, Michael. "How Neoconservatives Conquered Washington", Salon, 9 April 2003. MacDonald, Kevin. "The Neoconservative Mind", review of They Knew They Were Right: The Rise of the Neocons by Jacob Heilbrunn. Vaïsse, Justin. Neoconservatism: The Biography of a Movement (Harvard U.P. 2010), translated from the French. McClelland, Mark, The unbridling of virtue: neoconservatism between the Cold War and the Iraq War. Shavit, Ari, "White Man's Burden", Haaretz, 3 April 2003. Singh, Robert. "Neoconservatism in the age of Obama." in Inderjeet Parmar, ed., Obama and the World (Routledge, 2014). 51–62. online Identity "Neocon 101: What do neoconservatives believe?", Christian Science Monitor, 2003 Rose, David, "Neo Culpa", Vanity Fair, 2006 Steigerwald, Bill. "So, what is a 'Neocon'?". Lind, Michael, "A Tragedy of Errors". Critiques Fukuyama, Francis. "After Neoconservatism", The New York Times, 2006. Thompson, Bradley C. (with Yaron Brook). Neoconservatism. An Obituary for an Idea. Boulder/London: Paradigm Publishers, 2010. . External links Adam Curtis, The Power of Nightmares, BBC. Archive. "Why Neoconservatism Still Matters" by Justin Vaïsse. "Neoconservativism in a Nutshell" by Jim Lobe. Neoconservatism Neoconservatism History of United States expansionism Neoconservatism Political ideologies

217784

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Adventures%20of%20Elmo%20in%20Grouchland

The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland

The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland is a 1999 American musical adventure comedy film directed by Gary Halvorson in his feature film debut. This was the second film to be based on the children's television series Sesame Street, after Sesame Street Presents: Follow That Bird (1985). It stars Mandy Patinkin and Vanessa Williams alongside Muppet performers Kevin Clash, Jerry Nelson, Frank Oz, and Steve Whitmire. Produced by Jim Henson Pictures and Children's Television Workshop, the film was released by Columbia Pictures on October 1, 1999. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, but was a box office bomb, grossing $12 million against a budget of more than $26 million. The film was one of the few Sesame Street productions directly produced by The Jim Henson Company. Alongside Muppets from Space (which was released the same year), this was the final Muppet feature film to involve Oz, who retired from being a full-time puppeteer the following year. This was also the final theatrical Muppet film to feature Caroll Spinney before his retirement in 2018 and his death in 2019. Plot Elmo plays with his blanket in his bedroom. He spills orange juice on his blanket and takes it to the laundromat where he encounters his friend Zoe. Zoe wants to hold the blanket, but Elmo does not consent to share it resulting in a tug of war that rips it. Telly Monster, rollerskating out of control, accidentally swipes the blanket leading to a chase around Sesame Street. The blanket falls into the hands of Oscar the Grouch, who sneezes on it and drops it in his trash can. Elmo dives into the bottom of Oscar's trash can, where he finds his blanket snagged on a door. Attempting to retrieve it, he and his blanket are teleported through a colorful swirling tunnel to Grouchland, a city filled with Grouches, trash, and Huxley, a greedy man who steals anything he can grab, including Elmo's blanket. A kind Grouch girl named Grizzy tells Elmo that his blanket is in Huxley's house at the top of the faraway Mount Pickanose. A plant named Stuckweed encourages Elmo that he will make it if he just takes his first step, so Elmo sets out on a quest to retrieve his blanket. With Oscar's help, the Sesame Street residents go to Grouchland to find Elmo, but when they ask a Grouch police officer for help, they end up arrested as they are informed that it is against the law to ask for help in Grouchland. Huxley has his sidekick, Bug the bug and his minions, the Pesties, trap Elmo in a tunnel. Elmo gets out with the help of fireflies. Huxley then has Bug and the Pesties misdirect Elmo into a garbage dump where he is brought before the Queen of Trash for trespassing. The Queen tests him, requesting that he blows 100 raspberries for her in 30 seconds. Elmo succeeds with some help from the audience and the Queen allows him to pass through. Huxley sends his huge chicken to stop Elmo, who tosses Elmo far away. Elmo decides to give up on retrieving his blanket for the night. Meanwhile, Grizzy sneaks into the jail where she informs Elmo's friends that he has decided to travel all the way to Huxley's castle on top of Mount Pickanose. After finally admitting that Elmo is his friend, Oscar convinces all the Grouches to cooperate just once, since it is the only way they can stop Huxley from stealing any more of their trash. The police officer decides to release the Sesame Street residents and the Grouches so that they can go to Huxley's castle to fight for their trash and rescue Elmo. A caterpillar wakes Elmo the next morning. He convinces Elmo that he has what it takes to be brave. Elmo then arrives at Huxley's castle and rescues his blanket as Huxley sends the Pesties to stop him. But Elmo falls into a basket as Huxley decides to make him and his blanket both his property by using a claw to put them on his conveyor stamper. The Sesame Street and Grouchland citizens arrive and the Pesties flee in panic. Huxley tries to escape with Elmo's blanket only to have Elmo's blanket sucked up with the vacuum cleaner nozzle on his helicopter. Elmo launches a basket over Huxley's shoulders, incapacitating him. Bug is revealed to be at the controls of the helicopter, and refuses Huxley's demand for the blanket, instead returning it to Elmo. Elmo returns to Sesame Street with his friends, where he apologizes to Zoe and allows her to hold his blanket. She accepts his apology, agreeing that they can resume their friendship. Elmo says goodbye to the audience and thanks them for helping and goes to dance with his friends. Throughout the movie, Ernie and Bert serve as hosts, and interrupt the film at certain points to explain things to the audience. Cast Muppet performers Kevin Clash as Elmo, Lyle, Grouch Jailer and Grouch Taxicab Driver Fran Brill as Zoe, Tanya and Prairie Dawn Stephanie D'Abruzzo as Grizzy and M'Lady Joseph Mazzarino as Bug Jerry Nelson as Howard, Count von Count, Mr. Johnson, Grouch Mayor and Grouch Cop Martin P. Robinson as Telly Monster and Little Ricky David Rudman as Sydney, Baby Bear, Collander Stenchman, Caterpillar, Grouch Customer, Grouch Prisoner and Alarm Clock Bird Caroll Spinney as Big Bird and Oscar the Grouch Dave Goelz as Humongous Chicken Steve Whitmire as Ernie, Stuckweed, Football Stenchman, Grouch Ice Cream Vendor and Grouch Bird Frank Oz as Bert, Cookie Monster and Grover Carmen Osbahr as Rosita Additional characters performed by: Drew Allison, Bruce Lanoil, Bill Barretta, Bob Lynch, John Boone, Ed May, R. Lee Bryan, Tim Parati, Leslie Carrera, Annie Peterle, Lisa Consolo, Andy Stone, Jodi Eichelberger, Lisa Sturz, Rowell Gormon, Kirk Thatcher, Mary Harrison, Matt Vogel, Rob Killen and Matt Yates Background Muppets Anything Muppets, Mr. Honker, Dinger, AM Monsters, Herry Monster, Two-Headed Monster Humans of Sesame Street Sonia Manzano as Maria Rodriguez Roscoe Orman as Gordon Robinson Alison Bartlett-O'Reilly as Gina Jefferson Loretta Long as Susan Robinson Bob McGrath as Bob Johnson Emilio Delgado as Luis Rodriguez Ruth Buzzi as Ruthie Other humans Mandy Patinkin as Huxley Vanessa Williams as Queen of Trash Production Casting All the puppeteers who performed the primary Sesame Street characters (such as Kevin Clash, Jerry Nelson, Caroll Spinney and Fran Brill) were called to Wilmington, North Carolina for the table read on May 19, 1998. The regular puppets were used for the normal Sesame Street characters, and puppets for assorted Grouches (including Grizzy) were designed and built by Mark Zezsotek. Paul Andrejco, Muppet designer for Bear in the Big Blue House, also designed Humungous Chicken. Sonia Manzano reprised her role as Maria and Roscoe Orman reprised his role as Gordon. Vanessa Williams was cast as the Queen of Trash and the hairstylist colored her hair green for the role. Mandy Patinkin was a last-minute replacement for the original actor hired to play Huxley. For the role, the makeup artist designed false eyebrows for Patinkin to wear to make him seem like he had bushier eyebrows than normal. Filming The film was shot over a 30-day period (starting May 26, 1998) at the EUE/Screen Gems studio in Wilmington. The set was raised so that puppeteers would be able to stand up instead of squatting below street level like usual. Filming wrapped and visual effects by D.Rez were added during the following month, and the Ernie and Bert scenes were later shot in New York in 1999, with Matt Vogel assisting Steve Whitmire in performing Ernie and Eric Jacobson assisting Frank Oz on Bert. Music Songs "Together Forever" – Elmo, Blanket, Frazzle, Big Bird, Rosita, Prairie Dawn, Hoots The Owl, Count von Count, Baby Bear, Sock Quartet, Savin, Celina, Miles, Gabi, Gordon, Gina, Susan, Luis, Jamal, Angela, Bob (Written by Michael Silversher and Patty Silversher; produced by Jeff Elmassian and Siedah Garrett) "Welcome to Grouchland" – The Grouchland Ensemble (Written by Martin Erskine and Seth Friedman; produced by Martin Erskine) "Take the First Step" – Stuckweed (Written by Michael Reagan and Greg Matheson; produced by Jeff Elmassian and Siedah Garrett) "Make It Mine" – Mandy Patinkin, Fran Brill, Stephanie D’Abruzzo (Written by Martin Erskine and Seth Friedman; produced by Martin Erskine) "I See a Kingdom" – Vanessa Williams (Written by Siedah Garrett, Jeff Elmassian, and Andy Rehfeldt; produced by Jeff Elmassian and Siedah Garrett) "Precious Wings" – Tatyana Ali (Written by Siedah Garrett, Jeff Elmassian, and Andy Rehfeldt; produced by Keith Thomas) Soundtrack This album, released in 1999, is the soundtrack to The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland. This album won the Grammy Award for Best Musical Album for Children in 2000. "Make It Mine" is excluded from the soundtrack. Track list "Welcome to Grouchland" "Together Forever" "I See a Kingdom" - Vanessa Williams "Take the First Step" "Precious Wings" - Tatyana Ali Elmo Tells His Grouchland Story (Spoken Word) "The Grouch Song" - Elmo, Grizzy, Oscar the Grouch (Written by Jeff Moss) "There's a Big Heap of Trash at the End of the Rainbow" - The Stenchmen (Written by Tony Geiss) "I Love Trash" - Steven Tyler Reception Critical response The film has a rating of 77% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 43 reviews, with an average rating of 6.72/10. The film's consensus states, "This fun and moral tale entertains both first-time Sesame Street watchers and seasoned veterans." On Metacritic, which uses an average of critics' reviews, the film holds a 59/100, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Box office The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland was the only family film playing in most theaters at the time of its release. Sony had planned a scaled-back release, making it difficult to make its money back. The film opened at #8 with a weekend gross of $3,255,033 from 1,210 theaters, averaging $2,690 per venue. In total, The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland earned back less than half its $26 million budget, grossing $11,683,047 during its two-and-a-half-month theatrical run. It is currently the lowest-grossing Muppet film to date. Home media On December 21, 1999, the film was released on VHS and DVD by Columbia TriStar Home Video. In 2007, the film was released as part of a double feature with Thomas and the Magic Railroad. Book series The film inspired a trilogy of children's books, published in 1999: Happy Grouchy Day, The Grouchiest Lovey, and Unwelcome to Grouchland. The book series was written by Suzanne Weyn and illustrated by Tom Brannon. See also The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland (video game) Notes References External links 1999 films 1990s English-language films 1990s adventure comedy films 1990s children's comedy films 1990s fantasy adventure films 1990s musical comedy films 1990s children's films American adventure comedy films American children's adventure films American children's comedy films American children's fantasy films American films American fantasy adventure films American musical comedy films American musical fantasy films Films featuring puppetry Films set in New York City Films shot in New York City Films shot in North Carolina Films scored by John Debney Columbia Pictures films The Jim Henson Company films Sesame Street features 1999 directorial debut films 1999 comedy films

222534

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fierce%20Creatures

Fierce Creatures

Fierce Creatures is a 1997 British-American farcical comedy film. While not literally a sequel, Fierce Creatures is a spiritual successor to the 1988 film A Fish Called Wanda. Both films star John Cleese, Jamie Lee Curtis, Kevin Kline and Michael Palin. Fierce Creatures was written by John Cleese and directed by Robert Young and Fred Schepisi. The film was dedicated to Gerald Durrell and Peter Cook. Some scenes were filmed at Jersey Zoo, a zoological park founded by Durrell. Plot Willa Weston arrives in Atlanta to take a high-ranking position in a company recently acquired by Octopus Inc.'s owner, Rod McCain. But Rod informs her that he has already sold the company where she was to work. Willa then agrees to run another recent acquisition, Marwood Zoo, in an attempt to create a business model that can be used for multiple zoos in the future. Rod McCain's son Vincent, who feels an unreciprocated attraction to Willa, announces that he will join her at the zoo. The newly appointed director of the zoo is a retired Hong Kong Police Force officer and former Octopus Television employee, Rollo Lee. In order to meet Octopus's revenue target of 20% from all assets, Rollo institutes a "fierce creatures" theme on the assumption that dangerous and violent animals will attract more visitors. All animals not meeting those requirements must go. All the animal keepers, including spider-handler Bugsy, make various attempts to get Rollo to change his mind. One such attempt involves getting Rollo to kill some of the cutest animals himself, but Rollo, seeing through their prank, fakes the animals' extermination. Rollo keeps the animals in his bedroom which later causes Willa and Vincent to misunderstand that Rollo is having an orgy with the female staff. Rollo discovers that several staff members are faking animal attack injuries. Rollo fires several warning shots at those responsible and Reggie rushes in, thinking mistakenly that one of them is shot. Rollo then finds a visitor who has had a genuine accident but, not believing it is real, tastes the blood of the visitor whilst loudly proclaiming that it is fake. Just then Willa and Vincent arrive and this fiasco sees Rollo demoted to middle management. Vince even threatens to fire him if his apparent activities with the female staff do not cease. Vince covers both the zoo and animals alike with advertisements after secretly garnering sponsors, dresses the staff in ridiculous outfits, and installs an artificial panda in one of the enclosures. His continued attempts to seduce Willa fail, while she comes to enjoy working at the zoo after having a close encounter with a silverback gorilla. She finds herself attracted to Rollo after becoming fascinated by his apparent ability to attract multiple women. When Rollo attempts to have a discussion about Vince's marketing plan, she suggests they have dinner, but she is forced to postpone when she remembers Rod is coming from Atlanta to discuss the running of the zoo. Worried that the visit might be part of a plan to close the zoo, Rollo and the zookeepers bug Rod's hotel room to find out. Although the plan goes awry, they learn that Rod wants to turn the zoo into a golf course and is not actually expecting to die soon. Upon discovering that Vince has stolen sponsorship money he raised, Willa warns him to return it, or else she will tell Rod. When Rollo attempts to work out how the theft can be traced, he and Willa finally kiss, just as Vince arrives to return the money. A confrontation takes place first at the zoo office, and then outside as Willa, Rollo, Bugsy, and several others attempt to stop Vince from running off with the money. Bugsy refuses to shut up, so Vince loses his temper and grabs a pistol from the management office. Rod arrives just as Vince is being subdued and announces the police are on their way to arrest Vince for stealing. Vince tries and fails to shoot his father, but then Bugsy takes the pistol and accidentally shoots Rod between the eyes. In the panic that follows, a plan emerges to fool Neville and the arriving police. The keepers work together to dress Vince up as Rod, since he can imitate his father's accent fairly well. When the police and Neville arrive, Vince (as Rod) tells them that he has rewritten Rod's will, specifying that the zoo will become a trust of the caretakers while Vince will inherit everything else, and he wants all of them to be witnesses. After signing the new will, Vince locks himself in a caretaker hut where he feigns Rod's suicide. Although Neville becomes suspicious, he is left dumbstruck when he discovers the dead body of his boss in the hut. Now free, the zookeepers destroy the evidence of McCain's ownership. Vince becomes the new CEO of Octopus, while Willa and Rollo happily begin a new life together while continuing to run the zoo. Cast John Cleese as Rollo Lee Jamie Lee Curtis as Willa Weston Kevin Kline as Rod McCain/Vince McCain Michael Palin as Adrian 'Bugsy' Malone Robert Lindsay as Sydney Lotterby Ronnie Corbett as Reggie Sea Lions Carey Lowell as Cub Felines Bille Brown as Neville Derek Griffiths as Gerry Ungulates Maria Aitken as Di Harding Cynthia Cleese as Pip Small Mammals Richard Ridings as Hugh Primates Gareth Hunt as Inspector Masefield Production Cleese began writing the script in 1992 and shooting began on 15 May 1995. It was completed in August and the film was previewed in November of that year. Preview audiences expressed dissatisfaction with the ending, and in February 1996 the decision was made to reshoot the ending and some other sequences. These additional scenes could not be shot until August 1996 because of the availability of the cast, in particular Michael Palin who was making Full Circle with Michael Palin. In the meantime, Cleese and Johnstone worked on a new ending with William Goldman. The delay meant that director Robert Young was busy on pre-production for Jane Eyre, so Cleese hired Fred Schepisi, with whom he had been discussing making a version of Don Quixote. The reshoots took five weeks and cost $7 million. Schepisi claims he tried to get the producers to take out the opening 15 minutes, which was done for a test screening, but then some of this footage was put back in, which Schepisi thought killed the movie. Reception On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a score of 55% based on 33 reviews with an average rating of 5.58/10. The site's critical consensus reads "Fierce Creatures reunites A Fish Called Wanda'''s talented ensemble for a comedy that, while not without its moments, suffers from diminishing returns". Roger Ebert awarded the film two and a half out of four stars, and compared it unfavourably to A Fish Called Wanda, stating: "It lacks the hair-trigger timing, the headlong rush into comic illogic, that made Wanda so special." The film grossed $9 million in the United States and Canada and $31 million in the rest of the world, for a worldwide total of $40 million. Cleese has since stated that following up A Fish Called Wanda with a second film had been a mistake. When asked in 2008 by his friend, director and restaurant critic Michael Winner what he would do differently if he could live his life again, Cleese responded, "I wouldn't have married Alyce Faye Eichelberger and I wouldn't have made Fierce Creatures''." References External links 1997 films 1997 comedy films English-language films British comedy films British films Films directed by Fred Schepisi Films directed by Robert Young Films shot at Pinewood Studios Films with screenplays by John Cleese Universal Pictures films Films scored by Jerry Goldsmith Films set in zoos

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Jones

Jim Jones

James Warren Jones (May 13, 1931 – November 18, 1978) was an American cult leader, political activist, preacher, and faith healer who led the Peoples Temple, a new religious organization which existed between 1955 and 1978. In what he described as "revolutionary suicide", Jones and his inner circle orchestrated a mass murder–suicide in his remote jungle commune at Jonestown, Guyana, on November 18, 1978. As a youth, Jones developed an affinity for pentecostalism and a desire to be a preacher. He was ordained as a Christian minister in the Independent Assemblies of God and attracted his first followers while participating in the Pentecostal Latter Rain movement and the Healing Revival during the 1950s. Jones' initial popularity arose from his joint campaign appearances and endorsement by the movements' prominent leaders, William Branham and Joseph Mattsson-Boze. With their support, Jones took a leadership role in multiple international conventions where he recruited many new members for his church. Jones founded the organization that would become the Peoples Temple in Indianapolis in 1955. Jones distinguished himself through civil rights activism, founding the Temple as a fully integrated congregation, and promoting Christian socialism. In 1964, Jones joined and was ordained a minister by the Disciples of Christ; his attraction to the Disciples was largely due to the autonomy and tolerance they granted to differing views within their denomination. In 1965, Jones moved the Temple to California, where the group established its headquarters in San Francisco and became heavily involved in political and charitable activity throughout the 1970s. Jones developed connections with prominent California politicians and was appointed as chairman of the San Francisco Housing Authority Commission in 1975. Beginning in the late 1960s, Jones became increasingly vocal in his rejection of traditional Christianity and began promoting his teachings as "Apostolic Socialism" and making claims of his own divinity. Jones became progressively more controlling of the members of Peoples Temple, which at its peak had over 3,000 members. Jones's followers engaged in a communal lifestyle in which they turned over all their income and property to Jones and Peoples Temple who directed all aspects of community life. Following a period of negative media publicity and reports of abuse at Peoples Temple, Jones ordered the construction of a commune called Jonestown in Guyana in 1974, and convinced or compelled many of his followers to live there with him. Jones claimed that he was constructing a socialist paradise free from the oppression of the United States government. By 1978, media reports had surfaced of human rights abuses and accusations that people were being held in Jonestown against their will. U.S. Representative Leo Ryan led a delegation to the commune in November of that year to investigate these reports. While boarding a return flight with some former Temple members who had wished to leave, Ryan and four others were murdered by gunmen from Jonestown. Jones then ordered a mass murder-suicide that claimed the lives of 909 commune members, 304 of them children; almost all of the members died by drinking Flavor Aid laced with cyanide. Early life James Warren Jones was born on May 13, 1931, in the rural community of Crete, Indiana, to James Thurman Jones and Lynetta Putnam. Jones went by the nickname Jimmy during his youth. Jones was of Irish and Welsh descent; he and his mother both claimed partial Cherokee ancestry, but there is no evidence of such ancestry. Jones's father was a disabled World WarI veteran who suffered from severe breathing difficulties from a chemical weapons attack. The military pension he received for his injuries was not sufficient to support his family, and he attempted to supplement his income by periodically working on local road repair projects. Childhood poverty The financial difficulties caused by his father's illness led to marital problems between Jones's parents. In 1934, in the midst of the Great Depression, the Jones family was evicted from their home for failure to make mortgage payments. Their relatives purchased a shack for them to live in at the nearby town of Lynn. The new home, where Jones grew up, lacked plumbing and electricity. In Lynn, the family attempted to earn an income through farming, but again met with failure when Jones's father's health further deteriorated. The family often lacked adequate food and relied on financial support from their extended family. They sometimes had to resort to foraging in the nearby forest and fields to supplement their diet. According to multiple Jones biographers, his mother had "no natural maternal instincts" and frequently neglected her son. Her pregnancy had been unwanted, and she expressed disappointment at becoming a mother and was often bitter and unhappy about their family's financial and social position. When Jones began attending school, his extended family threatened to cut off their financial assistance unless his mother took a job, forcing her to work outside the home. Meanwhile, Jones's father was hospitalized multiple times due to his illness. As a result, Jones's parents were frequently absent during his childhood. His aunts and uncles who lived nearby provided some supervision, but Jones often wandered the streets of the town (sometimes naked) with no one caring for him. Many women in Lynn felt sorry for Jones, and he was frequently invited into the homes of his neighbors who provided him with meals, clothing, and other gifts. Early religious and political influences Myrtle Kennedy, the wife of the pastor of the local Nazarene Church, developed a special attachment to Jones. Jones often stayed overnight in the Kennedys' home to be cared for by them. Kennedy, known in the community for her religious zeal, took Jones to church multiple times a week. She gave Jones a Bible and encouraged him to study it and taught him to follow the holiness code of the Nazarene Church. Jones was able to quote Bible passages from an early age. As Jones grew older, he attended services at most of the churches in Lynn, often going to multiple churches each week, and he was also baptized in several of them. Jones began to develop a desire to become a preacher as a youth and started to practice preaching in private. His mother claimed that she was disturbed when she caught him imitating the pastor of the local Apostolic Pentecostal Church and she unsuccessfully attempted to prevent him from attending the church's services. In his early teenage years, Jones spent several months evangelizing in his community on behalf of the local Pentecostal church. Although they had sympathy for Jones because of his poor circumstances, his neighbors reported that he was an unusual child who was obsessed with religion and death. He regularly visited a casket manufacturer in Lynn and held mock funerals for roadkill that he had collected. When he could not get any children to attend his funerals, he would perform the services alone. Jones claimed that he had been given special powers, including the ability to fly. To prove his powers to the other children, he once jumped from the roof of a building and fell, breaking his arm. Despite the fall, he continued to claim that he had special powers. One Jones biographer suggested that he developed his unusual interests because he found it difficult to make friends. Although his strange religious practices stood out the most to his neighbors, they also reported that he misbehaved in more serious ways. He frequently stole candy from merchants in the town; his mother was required to pay for his thefts. Jones regularly used offensive profanity, commonly greeting his friends and neighbors by saying, "Good morning, you son of a bitch" or, "Hello, you dirty bastard". At different times, he would put other children into life-threatening situations and tell them he was guided by the Angel of Death. In later years, Jones claimed that he had performed numerous sacrilegious pranks at the churches he attended as a child. He claimed that he stole the Pentecostal pastor's bible and put cow manure on Acts 2:38. He also claimed that at a Catholic church, he replaced the holy water with a cup of his own urine. Jones's mother beat him with a leather belt in order to punish his misbehavior. When World War II broke out, Jones became enamored with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. He was intrigued by their pageantry, their unity, and the absolute power wielded by Hitler. The people in his community found his idolization of Nazi Germany disturbing. Jones played dictator with the other children, forcing them to goosestep in unison and hitting the children who failed to obey his orders. One childhood acquaintance recalled that Jones gave the Nazi salute and shouted "Heil Hitler!" when he met German prisoners of war passing through their community en route to a detention facility. Jones developed an intense interest in religion and social doctrines. He became a voracious reader who studied Hitler, Joseph Stalin, Karl Marx, Mao Zedong and Mahatma Gandhi. He spent hours in the community library, and he brought books home so he could read them in the evenings. Although he studied different political systems, Jones did not espouse any radical political views in his youth. Commenting on his childhood, Jones stated, "I was ready to kill by the end of the third grade. I mean, I was so aggressive and hostile, I was ready to kill. Nobody gave me love, any understanding. In those days a parent was supposed to go with a child to school functions. There was some kind of school performance, and everybody's parent was there but mine. I'm standing there, alone. Always was alone." Tom Reiterman, a biographer of Jones, wrote that Jones's attraction to religion was strongly influenced by his desire for a family. In 1942, the Kennedy family moved to Richmond, Indiana, for the summer and Jones visited them. They attended a summer religious convention at a nearby Pentecostal church, participating in services four times a week. When Jones returned to Lynn in the autumn, he offended his community by giving explicit explanations of sexual reproduction to young children. Many people in Lynn demanded that Jones' mother curtail his behavior, but she refused. The situation caused many of the other parents to keep their children away from him. By the time he entered high school, he had become an outcast among his peers and was increasingly disliked by the members of his community. Education and marriage In high school, Jones continued to stand out from his peers. He enjoyed debating his teachers, and he was also a good student. He developed a habit of refusing to answer anyone who spoke to him first, he only spoke to people when he initiated conversations with them. Jones was known to wear his Sunday church attire every day of the week, while his peers dressed more casually. He almost always carried his bible with him. His religious views alienated many of his peers. He frequently confronted them for drinking beer, smoking, and dancing. At times, he would interrupt other young people's events and insist that they read the bible with him. Jones disliked playing sports because he hated losing, so he served as coach on sports teams he organized with younger children. In 1945, Jones organized an entire league of teams for a summer baseball tournament. While he was attending a baseball game in Richmond, Jones was bothered by the treatment of African Americans who attended the game. The events at the ball game brought discrimination against African Americans to Jones's attention and influenced his strong aversion to racism. Jones's father was associated with the Indiana branch of the Ku Klux Klan, which had become very popular in Depression-era Indiana. Jones recounted how he and his father argued about the issue of race, and he also stated that he did not speak to his father for "many, many years" after he refused to allow one of Jones's black friends to enter his house. The unhappy marriage of Jones's parents came to an end when the couple finally separated in 1945 and eventually divorced. Jones relocated to Richmond with his mother, where he continued his high school education. Jones and his mother lost the financial support of their relatives following the divorce. To support himself, Jones began working as an orderly at Richmond's Reid Hospital in 1946. Jones was well-regarded by the senior management, but staff members later recalled that Jones exhibited disturbing behavior towards some patients and coworkers. Jones began dating a nurse-in-training named Marceline Baldwin while he was working at Reid Hospital. In December 1948, Jones graduated from Richmond High School early with honors. He relocated to Bloomington, Indiana in November 1948, where he attended Indiana University Bloomington with the intention of becoming a doctor, but changed his mind shortly thereafter. During his time at University, Jones was impressed by a speech which Eleanor Roosevelt delivered about the plight of African-Americans, and he began to espouse support for communism and other radical political views for the first time. Jones and Marceline Baldwin continued their relationship while he attended college, and the couple married on June 12, 1949. Their first home was in Bloomington, where Marceline worked in a nearby hospital while Jones attended college. Marceline was Methodist, and she and Jones immediately fell into arguments about church. Jones insisted on attending Bloomington's Full Gospel Tabernacle, but eventually compromised and began attending a local Methodist church on most Sunday mornings while attending Pentecostal churches Sunday evenings and weekdays. Jones's strong opposition to the Methodist church's racial segregationist practices continued the strain their marriage. Through the years, their relationship was affected by Jones's insecurity. He often felt the need to test Marceline's love and loyalty, and at times he used sadistic methods to do so. In 1950, the couple unofficially adopted Marceline's nephew Ronnie, who they cared for over a four year period. After attending Indiana University for two years, the couple relocated to Indianapolis in 1951. Jones took night classes at Butler University to continue his education, finally earning a degree in secondary education in 1961—ten years after enrolling. In 1951, the 20-year-old Jones began attending gatherings of the Communist Party USA in Indianapolis. During the McCarthy hearings, Jones and his family faced harassment from government authorities. In one event, Jones's mother was harassed by FBI agents in front of her co-workers because she had attended an event with her son. Jones also became frustrated with the persecution of open and accused communists in the U.S., especially during the trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Reflecting back on his participation in the Communist Party, Jones said that he asked himself, "How can I demonstrate my Marxism? The thought was, infiltrate the church." Peoples Temple Beginnings in Indianapolis In early 1952, Jones heard a sermon preached in the Methodist church that emphasized loving members of all races. Jones announced to his wife and her family that he would become a Methodist minister since he believed the church was ready to "put real socialism into practice." Jones was surprised when a Methodist district superintendent helped him get a start in the church, even though he knew Jones to be a communist. In the summer of 1952, Jones was hired as student pastor to the children at the Sommerset Southside Methodist Church. Jones launched a project to create a playground that would be open to children of all races. Jones continued to visit and speak at Pentecostal churches while serving as Methodist student pastor. In early 1954 Jones was dismissed from his position in the Methodist Church, ostensibly for stealing church funds, though he later claimed he left the church because its leaders forbade him from integrating blacks into his congregation. Around this time in 1953, Jones visited a Pentecostal Latter Rain convention in Columbus, Indiana where a woman at the convention prophesied that Jones was a prophet with a great ministry. Jones was surprised by the prophecy, but gladly accepted the call to preach and rose to the podium to deliver a message to the convention. Pentecostalism was in the midst of the Healing Revival and Latter Rain movements during the 1950s. Jones began to press his wife to leave the Methodist church, believing that the Latter Rain movement, which was growing in size and racially integrated, offered him a greater opportunity to become a preacher. He convinced his wife by arguing that the Pentecostal churches were more accommodating to his views on racial integration. In 1953, Jones began attending and preaching at the Laurel Street Tabernacle in Indianapolis, a Pentecostal Assemblies of God church. The pastor of the church allowed Jones to hold healing revivals until 1955. Jones began to travel and speak and other churches in the Latter Rain movement, and was invited to speak at a Latter Rain convention in Detroit in 1953. The Assemblies of God was strongly opposed to the Latter Rain movement. In 1955, they assigned a new pastor to the Laurel Street Tabernacle who enforced their denominational ban on healing revivals. This led Jones to leave the church and establish Wings of Healing, a charitable organization to promote his own ministry that would later be renamed Peoples Temple. Jones's new church only attracted twenty members who had come with him from the Laurel Street Tabernacle and was not able to financially support his vision. Jones saw a need for publicity, and began seeking a way to popularize his ministry and recruit members. Latter Rain movement Jones began closely associating with the Independent Assemblies of God (IAoG), an international group of churches that had embraced the Latter Rain movement. The IAoG had few requirements for ordaining ministers and were accepting of divine healing practices. In June 1955, Jones held his first joint meetings with William Branham, a healing evangelist and Pentecostal leader in the global Healing Revival. In 1956, Jones was ordained as an IAoG minister by Joseph Mattsson-Boze, a leader in the Latter Rain movement and the IAoG. Jones quickly rose to prominence in the group. Working with the IAoG, Jones organized and hosted a healing convention to take place June 11–15, 1956, in Indianapolis's Cadle Tabernacle. Needing a well-known figure to draw crowds, he arranged to share the pulpit again with Reverend Branham. Branham was known to tell supplicants their name, address, and why they came for prayer, before pronouncing them healed. Jones was intrigued by Branham's methods and began performing the same feats. Jones and Branham's meetings were very successful and attracted an audience of 11,000 at their first joint campaign. At the convention, Branham issued a prophetic endorsement of Jones and his ministry, saying that God had used the convention to send forth a new great ministry. Many attendees in the campaign believed Jones's performance indicated that he had a supernatural gift, and coupled with Branham's endorsement, it led to rapid growth of People's Temple. Jones was particularly effective at recruitment among the African American attendees at the conventions. According to a newspaper report, regular attendance at Peoples Temple swelled to 1,000 thanks to the publicity Branham provided to Jones and Peoples Temple. Following the convention, Jones renamed his church the "Peoples Temple Christian Church Full Gospel" to associate it with Full Gospel Pentecostalism; the name was later shortened to the Peoples Temple. Jones participated in a series of multi-state revival campaigns with Branham and Mattsson-Boze in the second half of the 1950s, making multiple joint appearances with them. Jones claimed to be a follower and promoter of Branham's "Message" during the period. Peoples Temple hosted a second international Pentecostal convention in 1957 which was again headlined by Branham. With the support of Branham and Mattsson-Boze, Jones was elected as President of the Pentecostal Convention Board in 1957, helping Jones secure connections throughout the movement. During his time in the Latter Rain movement, Jones adopted one of their key doctrines which he would continue to promote for the rest of his life: the Manifested Sons of God, also known as the Joel's Army Prophecy. William Branham and the Latter Rain movement promoted the belief that God would be manifested in lives of humans by giving them supernatural gifts and superhuman abilities. They believed that such a manifestation was a sign of the end of the world, and that the people endowed with these special gifts would usher in a millennial age of heaven on earth. Jones was fascinated with the idea, and adapted it to promote his own utopian ideas and eventually the idea that he was himself a manifestation of God. By the late 1960s, Jones came to teach he was a manifestation of the "Christ the Revolution". Branham was a major influence on Jones, and Jones subsequently adopted much of Branham's methods, doctrine, and style. Like Branham, Jones would later claim to be a return of Elijah the Prophet, the voice of God, and a manifestation of Christ, and promote the belief that the end of the world was imminent. Jones learned some of his most successful recruitment tactics from Branham. Jones eventually separated from the Latter Rain movement following a bitter disagreement with Branham in which Jones prophesied Branham's death. Their disagreement was possibly related to Branham's racial teachings or Branham's increasingly vocal opposition to communism. Disciples of Christ Through the Latter Rain movement, Jones became aware of Father Divine, an African American spiritual leader who was often derided by Latter Rain for his claims to divinity. In 1956, Jones made his first visit to investigate Father Divine's Peace Mission in Philadelphia. Jones was careful to explain that his visit the Peace Mission was so he could "give an authentic, unbiased, and objected statement" about its activities to his fellow ministers. Divine served as another important influence on the development of Jones's ministry, particularly in how he structured the Peoples Temple leadership and organized mission work. After returning to Indianapolis, while publicly disavowing many of Father Divine's teachings, Jones began to implement many of the outreach practices he witnessed at the Peace Mission, including setting up a soup kitchen and providing free groceries and clothing to people in need. At a second visit to Father Divine in 1958, Jones spent time learning how to manipulate members of the Peoples Temple. Divine told Jones to "find an enemy" and "to make sure they know who the enemy is" as it would unify those in the group and make them subservient. Jones bragged to his congregation that he would like to be the successor of Father Divine and made many comparisons between their two ministries, primarily focusing on their community outreach programs. Jones also began progressively implementing the communal lifestyle and disciplinary practices he learned from Father Divine which increasingly took control over the lives of members of Peoples Temple. As Jones gradually separated from Pentecostalism and the Latter Rain movement, he began seeking an organization that would be open to all of his beliefs. In 1960, Peoples Temple joined the Disciples of Christ denomination, whose headquarters was nearby in Indianapolis. In 1964, Archie Ijames, who had assured Jones that the organization would tolerate his political beliefs, participated in the ceremony to ordain Jones a Disciples of Christ minister. Jones was ordained as a Disciples minister at a time when the requirements for ordination varied greatly and Disciples membership was open to any church. In both 1974 and 1977 the Disciples leadership received allegations of abuse at Peoples Temple. They conducted investigations at the time, but they found no evidence of wrongdoing, and Jones and Peoples Temple remained part of the Disciples until the Jonestown massacre. Disciples of Christ found Peoples Temple to be "an exemplary Christian ministry overcoming human differences and dedicated to human services." Peoples Temple contributed $1.1 million ($ in 2020 dollars) to the denomination between 1966 and 1977. Racial integrationist The New York Times reported that, in 1953:[D]eclaring that he was outraged at what he perceived as racial discrimination in his white congregation, Mr. Jones established his own church and pointedly opened it to all ethnic groups. To raise money, he imported monkeys and sold them door to door as pets. In 1960, Indianapolis Mayor Charles Boswell appointed Jones director of the local human rights commission. Jones ignored Boswell's advice to keep a low profile, however, finding new outlets for his views on local radio and television programs. The mayor and other commissioners asked him to curtail his public actions, but he resisted. Jones was wildly cheered at a meeting of the NAACP and Urban League when he yelled for his audience to be more militant, capping his speech with, "Let my people go!". During this time, Jones also helped to racially integrate churches, restaurants, the telephone company, the Indianapolis Police Department, a theater, an amusement park, and the Indiana University Health Methodist Hospital. When swastikas were painted on the homes of two black families, Jones walked through the neighborhood comforting the local black community and counseling white families not to move. He also set up sting operations to catch restaurants refusing to serve black customers and wrote to American Nazi Party leaders, passing their responses to the media. Jones was accidentally placed in the black ward of a hospital after a collapse in 1961, but refused to be moved; he began to make the beds and empty the bedpans of black patients. Political pressures resulting from Jones's actions caused hospital officials to desegregate the wards. Jones received considerable criticism in Indiana for his integrationist views. Peoples Temple became a target of white supremacists. Among several incidents, a swastika was placed on the Temple, a stick of dynamite was left in a Temple coal pile, and a dead cat was thrown at Jones's house after a threatening phone call. Nevertheless, the publicity generated by Jones's activity helped attract a larger congregation. By the end of 1961, Indianapolis was a far more racially integrated city, and "Jim Jones was almost entirely responsible." "Rainbow Family" Jones and his wife adopted several non-white children, referring to the household as his "rainbow family", and stating: "Integration is a more personal thing with me now. It's a question of my son's future." He also portrayed the Temple as a "rainbow family". In 1954 the Joneses adopted Agnes, who was part Native American. In 1959, they adopted three Korean-American children named Lew, Stephanie, and Suzanne, the latter of whom was adopted at age six, and encouraged Temple members to adopt orphans from war-ravaged Korea. Jones was critical of U.S. opposition to North Korean leader Kim Il-sung, calling the Korean War a "war of liberation" and stating that South Korea "is a living example of all that socialism in the north has overcome." In June 1959, Jones and his wife had their only biological child, naming him Stephan Gandhi. In 1961, they became the first white couple in Indiana to adopt a black child, naming him Jim Jones Jr. (or James Warren Jones Jr.). They also adopted a white son, originally named Timothy Glen Tupper (shortened to Tim), whose birth mother was a member of the Temple. Jones also fathered Jim Jon (Kimo) with Temple member Carolyn Layton. Relocating Peoples Temple In 1961, Jones began to warn his congregation that he had received visions of a nuclear attack that would devastate Indianapolis. Jones's wife confided to her friends that he was becoming increasingly paranoid and fearful. Like other followers of William Branham who moved to South America during the 1960s, Jones may have been influenced by Branham's 1961 prophecy concerning the destruction of the United States in a nuclear war. Jones had begun to look for a way to escape the destruction he believed was imminent. In January 1962 he read an Esquire magazine article that purported South America to be the safest place to reside to escape any impending nuclear war, leading Jones to travel to South America to scout for a potential site to relocate the Peoples Temple. Jones traveled with his family to Belo Horizonte, Brazil, with the idea of setting up a new Peoples Temple location. On his way to Brazil, Jones made his first trip to Guyana, which at the time was still a British colony. Jones's family rented a modest three-bedroom home in town. Jones studied the local economy and receptiveness of racial minorities to his message, although language remained a barrier. He also explored local Brazilian syncretistic religions. Careful not to portray himself as a communist in a foreign territory, he spoke of an apostolic communal lifestyle rather than of Castro or Marx. Ultimately, the lack of resources in Belo Horizonte led the family to move to Rio de Janeiro in mid-1963, where they worked with the poor in the favelas. While scouting the region, Jones stopped briefly in Georgetown, Guyana where he held revival meetings. Unable to find a location he deemed suitable for People's Temple, Jones became plagued by guilt for effectively abandoning the civil rights struggle in Indiana and possibly losing what he had tried to build there. During the year of his absence, Peoples Temple attendance declined from 400 to less than 100. Jones had demanded the Peoples Temple sent all its revenue to him in South America to support his efforts. The church went into debt to continue to support his mission until Archie Ijames sent word that the Temple was about to collapse without him, and threatened to resign if Jones did not soon return. Jones reluctantly returned to Indiana. Jones returned from Brazil in December 1963 to find Peoples Temple bitterly divided. Financial issues and much smaller congregation forced Jones to sell the Peoples Temple church building and relocate to a smaller church nearby. To raise money, Jones briefly returned to the revival circuit, traveling and holding healing campaigns. After dealing with the issues at Peoples Temple, and possibly in part to distract from them, he told his Indiana congregation that the world would be engulfed by nuclear war on July 15, 1967, leading to a new socialist Eden on Earth, and that the Temple had to move to Northern California for safety. With Jones's return, the majority of his congregation returned to Peoples Temple, dramatically improving their financial situation. During 1964 Jones made multiple trips to California to locate a suitable location to relocate. In July 1965, Jones and his followers began moving to their new location in Redwood Valley, California, near the city of Ukiah. Jones's assistant pastor, Russell Winberg, strongly resisted Jones's efforts to move the congregation and warned members of Peoples Temple that Jones was abandoning Christianity. Winberg took over leadership of the Indianapolis church when Jones departed. The move resolved the divisions within the Indianapolis church through separation. About 140 of Jones's most loyal followers made the move to California, while the rest remained behind with Winberg. In California, Jones was able to use his education degree from Butler University to secure a job as a history and government teacher at an adult education school in Ukiah. Jones used his position to recruit for Peoples Temple, teaching his students the benefits of Marxism and lecturing on religion. Jones planted loyal members of Peoples Temple in the classes to help him with recruitment. His efforts were successful, and Jones recruited 50 new members to Peoples Temple in the first few months. In 1967, Jones's followers coaxed another 75 members of the Indianapolis congregation to move to California. In 1968, the Peoples Temple's California location was admitted to the Disciples of Christ. Jones began to use the denominational connection to promote Peoples Temple as part of the 1.5 million member denomination. He played up famous members of the Disciples, including Lyndon Johnson and J. Edgar Hoover, and misrepresented the nature of his position in the denomination. By 1969, Jones had increased the membership in Peoples Temple in California to 300. Apostolic Socialism Jones developed a theology that was significant influenced by the teachings of the Latter Rain movement, William Branham, and Father Divine, and infused with Jones's personal communist worldview. Jones referred to his belief as "Apostolic Socialism". Following the relocation of Peoples Temple to California, Jones began to gradually introduce the concepts of his doctrine to his followers. According to religious studies professor Catherine Wessinger, Jones always spoke of the Social Gospel's virtues, but chose to conceal that his gospel was actually communism until the late 1960s. By that time, he began partially revealing the details of his "Apostolic Socialism" concept in Temple sermons. Jones taught that "those who remained drugged with the opiate of religion had to be brought to enlightenment", which he defined as socialism. Jones asserted that traditional Christianity had an incorrect view of God. By the early 1970s, Jones began deriding traditional Christianity as "fly away religion", rejecting the Bible as being a tool to oppress women and non-whites, and referring to their belief in a "Sky God" who was "no God at all". Jones claimed to be following the true God who created all things. Jones taught that ultimate reality was called the "Divine Principle", and this principle was the true God. Jones equated the principle with love, and he equated love with socialism. Jones asserted he was a savior sent by the true God, to rescue humanity from their sufferings. Jones insisted that accepting the "Divine Principle" was equivalent to being "crucified with Christ". Jones increasingly promoted the idea of his own divinity, going so far as to tell his congregation that "I am come as God Socialist." Jones carefully avoided claiming divinity outside of Peoples Temple, but he expected to be acknowledged as god-like among his followers. Former Temple member Hue Fortson Jr. quoted him as saying: What you need to believe in is what you can see.... If you see me as your friend, I'll be your friend. As you see me as your father, I'll be your father, for those of you that don't have a father.... If you see me as your savior, I'll be your savior. If you see me as your God, I'll be your God. Further criticizing traditional Christianity, Jones wrote a booklet titled "The Letter Killeth", criticizing the King James Bible, and dismissing King James as a slave owner and a capitalist who was responsible for the corrupt translation of scripture. Jones claimed he was sent to share the true meaning of the gospel which had been hidden by corrupt leaders. Jones rejected even the few required tenants of the Disciples of Christ denomination. Instead of implementing the sacraments as proscribed by the Disciples, Jones followed Father Divine's holy communion practices. Jones created his own baptismal formula, baptizing his converts "in the holy name of Socialism". While in the United States, Jones remained fearful of the public discovering the full extent of his communist views. He believed that if the true nature of his views became widely known, he would quickly lose the support of political leaders and even face the possibility of Peoples Temple being ejected from the Disciples of Christ. Jones also feared losing the church's tax-exempt status and having to report his financial dealings to the Internal Revenue Service. Jones took care to always couch his socialist views in religious terms, such as "apostolic social justice". "Living the Acts of the Apostles" was his euphemism for living a communal lifestyle. Jones warned his followers that an apocalyptic race war, genocide, and nuclear war was imminent. He said that Nazi fascists and white supremacists would put people of color into concentration camps. Jones claimed he was the messiah sent to save the people by giving them a place of refuge in his church. Drawing on a prophecy in the Book of Revelation, he taught that American capitalist culture was irredeemable "Babylon". Explaining the nature of sin, Jones stated, "If you're born in capitalist America, racist America, fascist America, then you're born in sin. But if you're born in socialism, you're not born in sin." He taught his followers the only way to escape the supposed imminent catastrophe was to accept his teachings, and that after the apocalypse was over, they would emerge to establish a perfect communist society. Historian Jeff Guinn said, "It is impossible to know whether Jones gradually came to think he was God's earthly vessel, or whether he came to that convenient conclusion" to enhance his authority over his followers. In a 1976 phone conversation with John Maher, Jones alternately said he was an agnostic and an atheist. Marceline admitted in a 1977 New York Times interview that Jones was trying to promote Marxism in the U.S. by mobilizing people through religion, citing Mao Zedong as his inspiration: "Jim used religion to try to get some people out of the opiate of religion." She told the reporter that Jones had once slammed the Bible on the table yelling "I've got to destroy this paper idol!" Jones doctrines taught his followers that the ends justify the means and authorized them to achieve Jones's vision by any means necessary. Outsiders would later point to this aspect of Jones's teachings to allege that he was "morally bankrupt" and manipulating religion and other elements of society "to achieve his own selfish ends". Jones continued to use fear to control and manipulate his followers in California. He frequently prophesied that fires, car accidents, and death or injuries would come upon anyone unfaithful to him and his teachings. Jones began using illicit drugs after moving to California, which further heightened his paranoia. He constantly told his followers that they needed to be crusaders in promoting and fulfilling his beliefs. Jones frequently warned his followers that there was an enemy seeking to destroy them. The identify of that enemy changed over time from the Ku Klux Klan, to Nazis, to redneck vigilantes, to later the American government. Through his tactics, he successfully implemented a communal lifestyle among his followers that was directed by him and his lieutenants who were part of a committee called the Planning Commission. Jones, through the Planning Commission, began controlling all aspects of the lives of his followers. Members who joined Peoples Temple were required to turn over all their assets to the church in exchange for free room and board. Members were also required to turn over all their income to be used for the benefit of the community. Jones directed groups of his followers to work on various projects to earn income for the People Temple and set up an agricultural operation in Redwood Valley to grow food. Jones organized large community outreach projects, taking his followers by bus to perform work community service across the region. The first cases of serious abuse in Peoples Temple arose in California as the Planning Commission carried out discipline against members who were not fulfilling Jones's vision or following the rules. Jones's control over the members of Peoples Temple extended to their sex lives and who could be married. Some members were coerced to get abortions. Jones began to require sexual favors from the wives of some members of the church. Jones also raped several male members of his congregation. Members who rebelled against Jones's control were punished with reduced food rations, harsher work schedules, public ridicule and humiliations, and sometimes with physical violence. As the Temple's membership grew, Jones created a security group to ensure order among his followers and to ensure his own personal safety. The group purchased security squad cars and armed their guards with rifles and pistols. Focus on San Francisco By the end of 1969, Peoples Temple was growing rapidly. Jones's message of economic socialism and racial equality, along with the integrated nature of Peoples Temple, proved attractive to many in California, especially students and racial minorities. By 1970, the Temple had opened branches in cities including San Fernando, San Francisco, and Los Angeles as Jones began shifting his focus to major cities across California because of limited expansion opportunities in Ukiah. He eventually moved the Temple's headquarters to San Francisco, which was a major center for radical protest movements. By 1973, Peoples Temple had reached 2,570 members, with 36,000 subscribers to its fundraising newsletter. Jones also grew the Temple by purposefully targeting other churches. In 1970, Jones and 150 of his followers took a trip to San Francisco's Missionary Baptist Church. Jones held a faith healing revival meeting wherein he impressed the crowd by claiming to heal a man of cancer; his followers later admitted to helping him stage the "healing". At the end of the event, he began attacking and condemning Baptist teachings and encouraging the members to abandon their church and join him. The event was successful, and Jones recruited about 200 new members for Peoples Temple. In a less successful attempt in 1971, Jones and a large number of his followers visited the tomb and shrine erected for Father Divine shortly after his death. Jones confronted Divine's wife and claimed to be the reincarnation of Father Divine. At a banquet that evening, Jones's followers seized control of the event and Jones addressed Divine's followers, again claiming that he was Father Divine's successor. Divine's wife rose up and accused Jones of being the devil in disguise and demanded he leave. Jones managed to recruit only twelve followers through the event. Thanks to their growing numbers, Jones and Peoples Temple became influential in San Francisco politics, culminating in the Temple's instrumental role in George Moscone's election as mayor in 1975. Moscone subsequently appointed Jones as the chairman of the San Francisco Housing Authority Commission. Jones was able to gain contact with prominent politicians at the local and national level. For example, he and Moscone met privately with vice presidential candidate Walter Mondale on his campaign plane days before the 1976 election, leading Mondale to publicly praise the Temple. First Lady Rosalynn Carter also met with Jones on multiple occasions, corresponded with him about Cuba, and spoke with him at the grand opening of the San Francisco headquarters—where he received louder applause than she did. Jones also forged alliances with key columnists and others at the San Francisco Chronicle and other press outlets that gave Jones favorable press during his early years in California. In September 1976, Assemblyman Willie Brown served as master of ceremonies at a large testimonial dinner for Jones attended by Governor Jerry Brown and Lieutenant Governor Mervyn Dymally. At that dinner, Brown touted Jones as "what you should see every day when you look in the mirror" and said he was a combination of Martin Luther King Jr., Angela Davis, Albert Einstein, and Mao. Harvey Milk spoke to audiences during political rallies held at the Temple, and he wrote to Jones after one such visit:Rev Jim, It may take me many a day to come back down from the high that I reach today. I found something dear today. I found a sense of being that makes up for all the hours and energy placed in a fight. I found what you wanted me to find. I shall be back. For I can never leave.Jones hosted local political figures, including Davis, at his San Francisco apartment for discussions. He spoke with publisher Carlton Goodlett of the Sun-Reporter newspaper about his remorse over not being able to travel to socialist countries such as China and the Soviet Union, speculating that he could be Chief Dairyman of the U.S.S.R. Jones's criticisms led to increased tensions with the Nation of Islam, so he spoke at a large rally in the Los Angeles Convention Center that was attended by many of his closest political acquaintances, hoping to close the rift between the two groups. Jonestown Publicity problems Jones began to receive negative press beginning in October 1971 when reporters covered one of Jones's divine healing services during a visit to his old church in Indianapolis. The news report led to an investigation by the Indiana State Psychology Board into Jones's healing practices in 1972. A doctor involved in the investigation accused Jones of "quackery" and challenged Jones to give tissue samples of the material he claimed fell off people when they were healed of cancer. The investigation caused alarm within the Temple. Jones announced he was terminating his ministry in Indiana because it was too far from California for him to attend to and downplayed his healing claims to the authorities. The issue only escalated however, and Lester Kinsolving began running a series of articles targeting Jones and Peoples Temple in the San Francisco Examiner in September 1972. The stories reported on Jones's claims of divinity and exposed fraudulent "miracles" performed by Jones. To suppress the story, Jones had his followers purchase every copy of the Examiner from the stores in Ukiah to prevent the local community from seeing it. In 1973, Ross Case, a former follower of Jones, began working with an informal Christian prayer group in Ukiah to investigate what was happening at Peoples Temple. They uncovered a staged healing, the abusive treatment of a woman in the church, and evidence that Jones raped a male member of his congregation. Case began reporting his findings to the local police, but they took no action. However, reports of Case's activity reached Jones, who became increasingly paranoid that the authorities were after him. Shortly after, eight members of Peoples Temple made accusations of abuse against the Planning Commission and Peoples Temple staff members. They accused the members of Planning Commission of being homosexuals and questioned their true commitment to socialism, before leaving the Peoples Temple. Jones became convinced he was losing control and needed to relocate Peoples Temple to escape the mounting threats and allegations. On December 13, 1973, Jones was arrested and charged with lewd conduct for allegedly masturbating in the presence of a male undercover LAPD vice officer in a movie theater restroom near Los Angeles's MacArthur Park. Jones allegedly motioned to the undercover officer to join him on the theater balcony where Jones was, but later followed the officer into the bathroom where the alleged incident occurred. On December 20, 1973, the charge against Jones was dismissed, though the details of the dismissal are not clear. Furthermore, the court file was sealed, and the judge ordered that records of the arrest be destroyed. Formation In the fall of 1973 Jones and the Planning Commission devised a plan escape the United States in the event of a raid by the government, and began to develop a longer-term plan to relocate Peoples Temple. The group decided on Guyana as a favorable location, citing its recent revolution and socialist government, and the favorable reaction Jones had received when he traveled there in 1963. In October, the group voted unanimously to set up an agricultural commune in Guyana. In December Jones and Ijames traveled to Guyana to find a suitable location. By the summer of 1974 Peoples Temple had purchased land and supplies and Ijames was put in charge of preparing their new site for the first arrivals. Ijames oversaw the installation of a power generation station, clearance of fields for farming, and the construction of dormitories. In December 1974 Jones and the first group of settlers arrived in Guyana to start operating the commune that would become known as Jonestown. Jones returned to the United States, leaving Ijames in charge of Jonestown, to continue his efforts to combat the negative press. His efforts were largely unsuccessful and more stories of the abuses at Peoples Temple began to leak to public. In March 1977, Marshall Kilduff published a story in New West magazine exposing abuses at the Peoples Temple. The article included allegations by Temple defectors of physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. The article convinced Jones that it was time to permanently relocate to South America, and he began to compel members of Peoples Temple to make the move with him. Jones promoted the commune as a means to create both a "socialist paradise" and a "sanctuary" from the media scrutiny in San Francisco. Jones purported to establish it as a model communist community, adding that the Temple comprised "the purest communists there are". Jones did not permit members to leave the settlement. Jonestown had about 50 settlers at the start of 1977 who were expanding the commune, but it was not yet ready to handle a large influx of settlers. Jones's lieutenant in Jonestown warned him that the facilities could only support 200 people, but Jones believed the need to relocate was urgent and was determined to begin moving. In May 1977, Jones and about 600 of his followers arrived in Jonestown; about 400 more would follow in the subsequent months. Jones also began moving the Temple's financial assets overseas and started to sell off property in the United States. The Peoples Temple had over $10 million ($ in 2020 dollars) in assets at the time. Religious scholar Mary McCormick Maaga argues that Jones's authority among his followers decreased after the exodus to Jonestown because he was with them every day and he could not hide his drug addiction from rank-and-file members. In spite of the allegations prior to Jones's departure, he was still respected by some for setting up a racially integrated church which helped the disadvantaged; 68% of Jonestown residents were black. Jones began to propagate his belief in what he termed "Translation" once his followers settled in Jonestown, claiming that he and his followers would all die together, move to another planet, and live blissfully. Mounting pressure and waning political support Among the followers Jones took to Guyana was John Stoen. John's birth certificate listed Timothy Stoen and Grace Stoen as his parents. Jones had had a sexual relationship with Grace Stoen, and claimed he was the biological father of John. Grace Stoen left Peoples Temple in 1976, leaving her child behind. Jones ordered the child to be taken to Guyana in February 1977 to avoid a custody dispute with Grace. After Timothy Stoen also left Peoples Temple in June 1977, Jones kept the child at his own home in Jonestown. In the autumn of 1977, Timothy Stoen and other Temple defectors formed a "Concerned Relatives" group because they had family members in Jonestown who were not being permitted to return to the United States. Stoen traveled to Washington, D.C., in January 1978 to visit with State Department officials and members of Congress, and wrote a white paper detailing his grievances against Jones and the Temple and to attempt to recover his son. His efforts aroused the curiosity of California Congressman Leo Ryan, who wrote a letter on Stoen's behalf to Guyanese Prime Minister Forbes Burnham. The Concerned Relatives also began a legal battle with the Temple over the custody of Stoen's son. Most of Jones's political allies broke ties after his departure, though some did not. Willie Brown spoke out against the Temple's purported enemies at a rally that was attended by Harvey Milk and Assemblyman Art Agnos. On February 19, 1978, Milk wrote a letter to U.S. President Jimmy Carter defending Jones as "a man of the highest character", and claimed that Temple defectors were trying to "damage Rev. Jones's reputation" with "apparent bold-faced lies". Mayor Moscone's office issued a press release saying Jones had broken no laws. On April 11, 1978, the Concerned Relatives distributed a packet of documents, letters, and affidavits to the Peoples Temple, members of the press, and members of Congress which they titled an "Accusation of Human Rights Violations by Rev. James Warren Jones". In June 1978, escaped Temple member Deborah Layton provided the group with a further affidavit detailing crimes by the Temple and substandard living conditions in Jonestown. Jones was facing increasing scrutiny in the summer of 1978 when he hired JFK assassination conspiracy theorists Mark Lane and Donald Freed to help make the case of a "grand conspiracy" against the Temple by U.S. intelligence agencies. Jones told Lane that he wanted to "pull an Eldridge Cleaver", referring to a fugitive member of the Black Panthers who was able to return to the U.S. after rebuilding his reputation. White Nights Jones's paranoia and drug usage increased in Jonestown and he became fearful of a government raid on Jonestown. Concerned that the community would not be able to resist such an attack, he began holding drills to test their readiness. He called the drills "White Nights". Jones would call "Alert, Alert, Alert" over the community loudspeaker to call the community together in the central pavilion. He kept guards armed with guns and crossbows to protect the pavilion. His followers would remain at the pavilion throughout the drill, in which he told them that evil agents had their community surrounded and were preparing to destroy them. Jones led them in prayers, chanting, and singing to ward off the impending attack. Sometimes he would have his guards hide in the forest and shoot their firearms to simulate an attack. Jones's followers were only told the attacks were a drill when the event was over, and were often terrified by the drills. One drill lasted for six days. The drills served to keep the members of Jonestown fearful of venturing into the jungle outside of their commune. Following two visits by United States Embassy personnel to check on the situation at Jonestown, and an IRS investigation in early 1978, Jones became increasingly convinced that the attack he feared was imminent. In one 1978 White Night drill, Jones told his followers he was going to distribute poison for everyone to drink in an act of suicide. A batch of fruit punch was served to everyone in the pavilion who sat by waiting for their death, many crying. After some time passed, Jones informed his followers that it had all been a drill and there was not really any poison in their drink. Through the White Nights, Jones convinced his followers that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was actively working to destroy their community. The situation at Jonestown was deteriorating in 1978. The majority of the community were minors or the elderly, and the few people of working age found it difficult to keep up with the work required to support the community. Healthcare, education, and food rations were all in limited supply and the situation was worsening. Jones's personal health was poor and his drug usage was becoming noticeable. His orders were increasingly erratic. He could often be seen staggering and his speech became slurred. His behavior also became more unusual, and he was seen urinating in public. His health became so poor that he found it difficult to walk without assistance. Murder of Congressman Ryan In November 1978, Congressman Ryan led a fact-finding mission to Jonestown to investigate allegations of human-rights abuses. His delegation included relatives of Temple members, an NBC camera crew, and reporters for several newspapers. The group arrived in the Guyanese capital of Georgetown on November 15. Two days later, they traveled by airplane to Port Kaituma, then were transported to Jonestown in a tractor transporter. Jones hosted a reception for the delegation that evening at the central pavilion in Jonestown, during which Temple member Vernon Gosney passed a note meant for Ryan to NBC reporter Don Harris, requesting assistance for himself and another Temple member, Monica Bagby, in leaving the settlement. Tensions began to rise as news spread through the community that some members were attempting to leave. Ryan's delegation left hurriedly the afternoon of November 18, after Temple member Don Sly attacked the congressman with a knife, though the attack was thwarted. Ryan and his delegation managed to take along fifteen Temple members who had expressed a wish to leave, and Jones made no attempt to prevent their departure at that time. As members of Ryan's delegation boarded two planes at the Port Kaituma airstrip, Jones's armed guards, called the "Red Brigade" led by Joe Wilson, Thomas Kice Sr. and Ronnie Dennis arrived on a tractor and trailer and began shooting at them. The gunmen killed Ryan and four others near a Guyana Airways Twin Otter aircraft. At the same time, one of the supposed defectors, Larry Layton, drew a weapon and began firing on members of the party inside the other plane, a Cessna, which included Gosney and Bagby. NBC cameraman Bob Brown was able to capture footage of the first few seconds of the shooting at the Otter, just before he himself was killed by the gunmen. The five killed at the airstrip were Ryan, Harris, Brown, San Francisco Examiner photographer Greg Robinson, and Temple member Patricia Parks. Surviving the attack were future Congresswoman Jackie Speier, a Ryan staff member; Richard Dwyer, Deputy Chief of Mission from the U.S. Embassy in Georgetown; Bob Flick, an NBC producer; Steve Sung, an NBC sound engineer; Tim Reiterman, an Examiner reporter; Ron Javers, a Chronicle reporter; Charles Krause, a Washington Post reporter; and several defecting Temple members. They escaped into the jungle to avoid being killed. Mass murder-suicide in Jonestown Later the same day, November 18, 1978, Jones received word that his security guards had failed to kill all of Ryan's party. Jones concluded the escapees would soon inform the United States of the attack and they would send the military to seize Jonestown. Jones called the entire community to the central pavilion. He informed the community that Ryan was dead and it was only a matter of time before military commandos descended on their commune and killed them all. Jones recorded the entire event on audio tape. On that tape, Jones tells Temple members that the Soviet Union, with whom the Temple had been negotiating a potential exodus for months, would not give them passage after the airstrip shooting. According to Jones, men would "parachute in here on us", "shoot some of our innocent babies," and "they'll torture our children, they'll torture some of our people here, they'll torture our seniors." With that reasoning, Jones and several members argued that the group should commit "revolutionary suicide" by drinking cyanide-laced grape-flavored Flavor Aid. Jones had taken large shipments of cyanide into Jonestown for several years prior to November 1978, having obtained a jeweler's license that would allow him to purchase the compound in bulk to purportedly clean gold. One Temple member, Christine Miller, dissented toward the beginning of the tape. When members apparently cried, Jones counseled, "Stop these hysterics. This is not the way for people who are socialists or communists to die. No way for us to die. We must die with some dignity." Jones can be heard saying, "Don't be afraid to die", adding that death is "just stepping over into another plane", and adding that death is "a friend". Jones's wife Marceline apparently protested killing the children. She was forcibly restrained and then joined the other adults in poisoning herself. At the end of the tape, Jones concludes: "We didn't commit suicide; we committed an act of revolutionary suicide protesting the conditions of an inhumane world." Eighty-five members of the community survived the event. Some members slipped into the jungle just as the death ritual began; one man hid in a ditch. One elderly woman hid in her dormitory and slept through the event, awaking to find everyone dead. The Jonestown basketball team was away at a game and survived. Others hid in the dormitories or were away from the community on business when the death ritual unfolded. A drink consisting of Flavor Aid mixed with cyanide was created and handed out to the members of the community to drink. Those who refused to drink were injected with cyanide via syringe. The mass murder-suicide left dead 909 inhabitants of Jonestown, 304 of them children, mostly in and around the central pavilion. This resulted in the greatest single loss of American civilian life in a deliberate act until September 11, 2001. The FBI later recovered a 45-minute audio recording of the mass poisoning in progress. Death and aftermath Following the mass murder-suicide, Jones was found dead at the stage of the central pavilion; he was resting on a pillow near his deck chair with a gunshot wound to his head which Guyanese coroner Cyril Mootoo said was consistent with suicide. Jones's body was later moved outside the pavilion for examination and embalming. The official autopsy conducted in December 1978 confirmed Jones's cause of death as suicide. His son Stephan speculated that his father may have directed someone else to shoot him. The autopsy showed high levels of the barbiturate pentobarbital in Jones's body, which may have been lethal to humans who had not developed physiological tolerance. Jones's body was cremated and his remains were scattered in the Atlantic Ocean. The military of Guyana arrived in Jonestown after the massacre to find the dead. The United States military organized an airlift to bring the dead back to the United States to be buried. Lew, Agnes, and Suzanne Jones Jones's children Lew and Agnes Jones both died at Jonestown. Agnes was 35 years old at the time of her death. Her husband Forrest, and four children, Billy, Jimbo, Michael and Stephanie, all died at Jonestown. Lew, who was 21 years old at the time of his death, died alongside his wife Terry and son Chaeoke. Stephanie Jones had died at age five in a car accident in May 1959. Suzanne Jones and her husband Mike Cartmell had both turned against the Temple and were not in Jonestown on the day of the murder-suicide. After her decision to abandon the Temple, Jones referred to Suzanne openly as "my damned, no-good-for-nothing daughter" and said she was not to be trusted. In a signed note found at the time of her death, Marceline directed that Jones's funds were to be given to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and specified: "I especially request that none of these are allowed to get into the hands of my adopted daughter, Suzanne Jones Cartmell." Cartmell had two children and died of colon cancer in November 2006. John Stoen and Kimo Specific references to Timothy Stoen, the father of John Victor Stoen, including the logistics of possibly murdering him, are made on the Temple's final "death tape", as well as a discussion over whether the Temple should include John Victor among those committing "revolutionary suicide". At Jonestown, John Victor Stoen was found poisoned inside Jones's cabin. Jim Jon (Kimo) and his mother, Carolyn Layton, both died during the events at Jonestown. Surviving sons Stephan, Jim Jr., and Tim Jones survived the events of November 18, 1978, because they were members of the Peoples Temple's basketball team; they were playing an away game in Georgetown at the time of the mass poisoning. Stephan and Tim were both 19, and Jim Jones Jr. was 18. Tim's biological family, the Tuppers, which consisted of his three biological sisters, Janet, Mary and Ruth, biological brother, Larry and biological mother, Rita, all died at Jonestown. Three days before the tragedy, Stephan refused, over the radio, to comply with an order by his father to return the team to Jonestown for Ryan's visit. During the events at Jonestown, Stephan, Tim, and Jim Jones Jr. drove to the U.S. Embassy in Georgetown in an attempt to receive help. Guyanese soldiers guarding the embassy refused to let them in after hearing about the shootings at the Port Kaituma airstrip. Later, the three returned to the Temple's headquarters in Georgetown to find the bodies of Sharon Amos and her three children, Liane, Christa and Martin. Guyanese soldiers kept the Jones brothers under house arrest for five days, interrogating them about the deaths in Georgetown. Stephan was accused of being involved in the Georgetown deaths and was placed in a Guyanese prison for three months. Tim and Johnny Cobb, another member of the Temple basketball team, were asked to go to Jonestown and help identify bodies. After returning to the U.S., Jim Jones Jr. was placed under police surveillance for several months while he lived with his older sister, Suzanne, who had previously turned against the Temple. When Jonestown was first being established, Stephan had avoided two attempts by his father to relocate him to Jonestown. He eventually moved to Jonestown after a third attempt. He has since stated that he gave in to his father's wishes because of his mother. Stephan later became a businessman, married, and had three daughters. Although he appeared in the documentary Jonestown: Paradise Lost, which aired on the History Channel and Discovery Channel, he has stated he will not watch it and has never grieved for his father. One year later, Stephan appeared in the documentary Witness to Jonestown where he responds to rare footage shot inside the Temple. Jim Jones Jr., who lost his wife and unborn child at Jonestown, returned to San Francisco. He remarried and has three sons from this marriage, including Rob Jones, a high-school basketball star who went on to play for the University of San Diego before transferring to Saint Mary's College of California. Reactions and legacy The events at Jonestown were immediately subject to extensive news coverage. As news of the Jonestown reached the public, outsiders refused to accept Jones's attempt to blame them for the deaths. Critics and apologists offered a variety of explanations for the events that transpired among Jones's followers. The Soviet Union publicly distanced itself from Jones and what they referred to his "bastardization" of the concept of revolutionary suicide. American Christian leaders denounced Jones as Satanic and asserted that he and his teachings were in no way connected to traditional Christianity. In an article entitled "On Satan and Jonestown", Billy Graham argued that it would be a mistake to identify Jones and his cult as Christian. Graham was joined by other prominent Christian leaders in alleging that Jones was demonically possessed. The Disciples of Christ issued a press release disavowing Jones and reported that the community Jonestown was not affiliated with their denomination. They subsequently created a procedure to remove congregations from their denomination, which they used to expel Peoples Temple. Disciples responded to the Jonestown deaths with significant changes for ministerial ethics and with a process to remove ministers. In the immediate aftermath, rumors arose that surviving members of Peoples Temple in San Francisco had organized hit squads to target critics and enemies of the church. Law enforcement intervened to protect the media and other figures who were purported to be targeted. Peoples Temple's San Francisco headquarters was besieged by the media, angry protestors, and family members of the dead. Archie Ijames, who had returned to take leadership in San Francisco earlier in 1978 was left to address the public. At first he denied that Jones had any connection to the deaths and alleged the events were a plot by enemies of the church. Ijames later came to acknowledge the truth. The supporters of the church, especially politicians, had a difficult time explaining their connections to Jones following the deaths. After a period of reflection, some admitted they had been tricked by Jones. President Carter and the first lady sought to minimize their connections to Jones. San Francisco Mayor George Moscone said he vomited when he heard of the massacre, and called the friends and families of many of the victims to apologize and offer his sympathies. Moscone was assassinated only a short time later. Investigations into the Jonestown massacre were conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the United States Congress. Although individual and groups had contacted the FBI about Peoples Temple over the year, the FBI had never launched any investigation before the massacre occurred. Their investigation primarily focused on the failure of authorities, especially the United States State Department, to have been aware of the abuses in Jonestown. Although Peoples Temple collapsed shortly after the events of 1978, some individuals still continued to follow Jones teachings and look to his prophecies for guidance during the 1980s. Since the events of the Jonestown Massacre, a massive amount of literature and study has been produced on the subject. Jim Jones and the events at Jonestown have had a defining influence on society's perception of cults. The widely known expression "Drinking the Kool-Aid" originated in the events at Jonestown, although the specific beverage used at the massacre was Flavor Aid rather than Kool-Aid. In popular culture Documentaries Jonestown: Mystery of a Massacre (1998) Jonestown: The Life and Death of Peoples Temple (2006) Jonestown: Paradise Lost (2007) CNN Presents: Escape From Jonestown (2008) Seconds from Disaster, episode (season 6, episode 1) "Jonestown Cult Suicide" (2012) Witness to Jonestown (2013) Jonestown: The Women Behind the Massacre (2018) Jonestown: Terror in the Jungle (2018) 605 Adults 304 Children (2019), short documentary filmed entirely by the Peoples Temple at Jonestown Television Guyana Tragedy: The Story of Jim Jones (1980), fact-based miniseries. Powers Boothe won an Emmy for his portrayal of Jones. American Horror Story: Cult (2017) Jonestown: Terror in the Jungle (2018), a documentary produced for Sundance TV. Very Scary People (season 1, episode 6) "Jim Jones: Unholy Massacre" (2019) Corrupt Crimes (season 1, episode 79) "Deadly Religion" (2016) Film Guyana: Crime of the Century a.k.a. Guyana: Cult of the Damned (1979), fictionalized exploitation film (depicted here as 'Reverend James Johnson') The Sacrament (2013), a found-footage horror film (depicted here simply as 'Father'; in addition, Jonestown has been renamed 'Eden Parish') Jonestown (2013), an independent short film which dramatizes the last 24 hours in the lives of Jones (played here by Leandro Cano) and The Peoples Temple Church through the eyes of a reporter. The Jonestown Haunting (2020) Two biopics are in the works about Jones and Jonestown, one, Jim Jones, starring Leonardo DiCaprio as Jones, and another, titled White Night, based on Deborah Layton's memoir Seductive Poison, starring Joseph Gordon-Levitt as Jones and Chloë Grace Moretz as Layton. Fiction literature Jonestown, by Wilson Harris. London: Faber and Faber, 1996. We Agreed to Meet Just Here, by Scott Blackwood. Kalamazoo, Michigan: West Michigan University Press, 2009. Children of Paradise, by Fred D'Aguiar. New York: HarperCollins, 2014. Before White Night, by Joseph Hartmann. Richmond, Virginia: Belle Isle Books, 2014. White Nights, Black Paradise, by Sikivu Hutchinson. Infidel Books, 2015. Beautiful Revolutionary, by Laura Elizabeth Woollett. London: Scribe. 2018. Music "Brother Jonesie" by The Citations from their album Taking a Cruise with The Citations (1980) "Ballad of Jim Jones" by The Brian Jonestown Massacre from their album Thank God for Mental Illness (1996) "Carnage in the Temple of the Damned" by Deicide from their album Deicide (1990) "Guyana (Cult of the Damned)" by Manowar from their album Sign of the Hammer (1984) "Hypnotized" by Heathen from their album Victims of Deception (1991) "Jimmie Jones" by The Vapors from their album, Magnets (1981) "Jonestown" by The Acacia Strain, from their album Wormwood (2010) "Jonestown" by Concrete Blonde, from their album Mexican Moon (1993) "Jonestown" by Evan Williams, at the University of Cincinnati's College-Conservatory of Music (2015) "Jonestown" by Frank Zappa, from his album Boulez Conducts Zappa: The Perfect Stranger (1984) "Koolaid" by Accept, from their album The Rise of Chaos (2017) "Last Call in Jonestown" by Polkadot Cadaver, from their album Last Call in Jonestown (2013) "Reverend" by Church of Misery, from their album Early Works Compilation (2011) "Guyana Punch" by The Judy's, from their album Washarama (1981) "Jim Jones" by SKYND from their EP Chapter 2 (2019) Poetry Bill of Rights, by Fred D'Aguiar. London: Chatto & Windus, 1998. The Jonestown Arcane, by Jack Hirschman. Los Angeles: Parentheses Writing Series, 1991. Jonestown Lullaby, by Teri Buford O'Shea. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse, 2011. Jonestown and Other Madness, by Pat Parker. Ithaca, NY: Firebrand Books, 1985. I. at Jonestown, by Lucille Clifton. Next. Brockport: BOA, 1989. Theater The Peoples Temple. Written by Leigh Fondakowski, with Greg Pierotti, Stephen Wangh, and Margo Hall. Premiered in 2005 See also Jonestown Peoples Temple Drinking the Kool-Aid Messiah complex Doomsday Cult Notes Footnotes References Further reading Bebelaar, Judy and Ron Cabral. "And Then They Were Gone: Teenagers of Peoples Temple". Sugartown Publishing, 2018. . Brinton, Maurice. "Suicide for socialism?" Brinton's analysis of the bizarre mass suicide of a socialist cult led by American Jim Jones in Jonestown, Guyana, which discusses the dynamics of political sects in general. Fagan, Kevin. November 12, 1998. "Haunted by Memories of Hell. San Francisco Chronicle. Hatfield, Larry D. November 8, 1998. "Utopian nightmare Jonestown: What did we learn?", with contributions by Gregory Lewis, Eric Brazil, and Judy Canter. San Francisco Examiner. Isaacson, Barry. "From Silver Lake to Suicide: One Family's Secret History of the Jonestown Massacre ". LA Weekly. Kahalas, Laurie Efrein. April 8, 1999. "Jonestown: Dismantling the Disinformation". New Dawn 53. Kahalas is an -year member of the Peoples Temple who was living in the Temple building in San Francisco when tragedy struck. Kilduff, Marshall, and Phil Tracy. August 1, 1977. "Inside Peoples Temple". Used by permission of authors for the San Francisco Chronicle. Lattin, Don. February 2, 2012. "The End To Innocent Acceptance Of Sects Sharper scrutiny is Jonestown legacy". San Francisco Chronicle. Litke, Larry Lee. [1980] 2019. "The Downfall of Jim Jones". Alternative Considerations of Jonestown & Peoples Temple. Nakao, Annie. January 23, 2012. "The ghastly Peoples Temple deaths shocked the world. Berkeley Rep takes on the challenge of coming to terms with it". SF Chronicle. Rapaport, Richard. Jonestown and City Hall slayings eerily linked in time and memory Both events continue to haunt city a quarter century later. Szasz, Thomas S. February 5, 1979. "The Freedom Abusers". Inquiry. Taylor, Michael. November 12, 1998. "Jonestown: 25 Years Later How spiritual journey ended in destruction: Jim Jones led his flock to death in jungle". San Francisco Chronicle. — "Jones Captivated S.F.'s Liberal Elite: They were late to discover how cunningly he curried favor". San Francisco Chronicle. Taylor, Michael and Don Lattin. February 3, 2012. And Most Peoples Temple Documents Still Sealed". San Francisco Chronicle Zane, Maitland. November 13, 1998. "Surviving the Heart of Darkness: Twenty years later, Jackie Speier remembers how her companions and rum helped her endure the night of the Jonestown massacre". San Francisco Chronicle. External links The Jonestown Institute FBI No. Q 042 The "Jonestown Death Tape", recorded November 18, 1978 (Internet Archive) Transcript of Jones's final speech, just before the mass suicide Jonestown Audiotape Primary Project: Transcripts "Jim Jones". Encyclopædia Britannica. [2002] 2020. The first part of a series of articles about Jim Jones published in the San Francisco Examiner in 1972. History Channel Video and Stills "Mass Suicide at Jonestown: 30 Years Later". Time. Jonestown 30 Years Later, photo gallery published Friday, October 17, 2008. American Experience. 2007. Jonestown: The Life and Death of Peoples Temple. US: PBS. Retrieved June 20, 2020. Alternative Considerations of Jonestown & Peoples Temple 20th-century American criminals 20th-century apocalypticists 1931 births 1978 deaths 1978 suicides Activists for African-American civil rights Activists from Indiana American agnostics American anti-war activists American anti–Vietnam War activists American atheists American communists American conspiracy theorists American emigrants to Brazil American emigrants to Guyana American faith healers American former Christians American male criminals American mass murderers American murderers of children American people of Welsh descent American rapists American revolutionaries American socialists Bisexual men Butler University alumni Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) clergy Converts from Methodism Criminals from Indiana Deaths by firearm in Guyana Founders of new religious movements Founders of utopian communities People from Randolph County, Indiana People from Richmond, Indiana Peoples Temple Religious leaders from the San Francisco Bay Area Self-declared messiahs Suicides by firearm Suicides in Guyana LGBT people from Indiana American people of Irish descent LGBT Protestant clergy Anti-Americanism

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Louisiana

List of people from Louisiana

The following are notable people who were either born, raised, or have lived for a significant period of time in the American state of Louisiana. A Mark Abraham (born 1953) – state representative for Calcasieu Parish, effective 2016; incoming state senator, 2020; Lake Charles businessman Bo Ackal (1934–1999) – state representative for Iberia Parish (1972–96) Danneel Ackles (born 1979) – actress, model, One Life to Live, One Tree Hill, Friends with Benefits, Supernatural Bert A. Adams (1916–2003) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from Vernon Parish (1956–68) Bryan Adams (born 1963) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from Jefferson Parish Jamar Adcock (1917–1991) – politician and banker Joe Adcock (1927–1999) – major league baseball player from Coushatta Trace Adkins (born 1962) – singer-songwriter originally from Sarepta Joe W. Aguillard (born 1956) – president of Louisiana College (2005–14) Kermit Alexander (born 1941) – NFL player; president of NFL Players Association (1971–72) Robert Alford (born 1988) – cornerback for the Atlanta Falcons Bret Allain (born c. 1958) – politician David Allen (born 1945) – productivity consultant, author of Getting Things Done Louise Alley (1927–2015) – KWKH radio personality and Shreveport advertising agency owner August Alsina (born 1992) – singer William Alston (1921–2009) – philosopher Jacques Amans (1801–1888) – neoclassical portrait artist Andy Anders (born 1956) – state representative from Concordia Parish Charles Anding (1928–2004) – state representative from Ouachita Parish (1988–96) David Andrews (born 1952) – actor, Gordon Cresswell on JAG J. Burton Angelle (1924–1997) – politician from Breaux Bridge Scott Angelle (born 1961) – member of the Louisiana Public Service Commission, son of J. Burton Angelle Phil Anselmo (born 1968) – singer-songwriter, Pantera George Arceneaux (1928–1993) – judge James Armes (born 1951) – state representative for Beauregard and Vernon parishes (since 2008) Louis Armstrong (1901–1971) – musician and entertainer Jeff Arnold (born 1967) – politician Daniel F. Ashford (1879–1929) – politician and planter Evelyn Ashford (born 1957) – Olympic sprint champion Elizabeth Ashley (born 1939) – actress, films and television's Evening Shade Nnamdi Asomugha (born 1981) – cornerback for the Philadelphia Eagles James Benjamin Aswell (1869–1931) – US Representative and college president William B. Atkins (born 1947) – member of both houses of the state legislature from Concordia Parish Douglas F. Attaway (1910–1994) – newspaper publisher and television station owner in Shreveport; advocate of Red River navigation D. J. Augustin (born 1987) – point guard for the Chicago Bulls Lisa Aukland (born 1957) – professional bodybuilder and powerlifter Lonnie O. Aulds (1925–1984) – politician Ray Authement (1928–2020) – longest-serving public university president in the United States; president of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette (1974–2008) The Axeman (fl. 1918–1919) – serial killer Clarence C. "Taddy" Aycock (1915–1987) – speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives (1952–56) and lieutenant governor (1960–72) B Keith Babb (born 1944) – Monroe television personality; auctioneer of American Quarter Horses J. S. Bacon (1858–1939) – former state representative from Webster Parish Odon Bacqué (born 1944) – former state representative from Lafayette Algernon Sidney Badger (1839–1905) – politician Austin Badon (born 1964) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Orleans Parish (since 2004) Larry Bagley (born 1949) – state representative for DeSoto Parish Diana Bajoie (born 1948) – Democratic politician Richard Baker (born 1948) – former U.S. Representative from Louisiana's 6th congressional district Scott Baker (born 1981) – starting pitcher for the Minnesota Twins George Ballas (1925–2011) – inventor of the string trimmer Larry S. Bankston (born 1951) – politician; son of Jesse Bankston Charles C. Barham (1934–2010) – state senator from Ruston; son of C. E. Barham Edwards Barham (1937–2014) – first Republican elected to Louisiana state senate since Reconstruction (1976–80) Mack Barham (1924–2006) – Judge of the Louisiana Supreme Court Robert J. Barham (born 1949) – Secretary of the Department of Wildlife and Fisheries; Republican former state senator Danny Barker (1909–1994) – singer-songwriter, musician, writer Taylor Barras (born 1957) – Speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives, effective January 11, 2016 Amy Coney Barrett (born 1972) – Associate Justice of the Supreme Court Regina Barrow (born 1966) – state representative for East and West Baton Rouge parishes (since 2005) Dave Bartholomew (1918–2019) – musician, composer, promoter Robert E. "Bob" Barton (born 1948) – state representative from Bossier Parish (1996–2000) Brandon Bass (born 1985) – power forward for the Boston Celtics Robert W. Bates (born 1941) – former agent of the United States Secret Service J. D. Batton (1911–1981) – sheriff of Webster Parish (1952–64) Carl W. Bauer (1933–2013) – politician Ralph Norman Bauer (1899–1963) – politician Bryan Batt (born 1963) – actor, Sal Romano on Mad Men Arnaz Battle (born 1980) – wide receiver for the Pittsburgh Steelers Hazel Beard (born 1930) – mayor of Shreveport (1990–94) P. G. T. Beauregard (1818–1893) – general, inventor Odell Beckham Jr. (born 1992) – wide receiver for the New York Giants Lottie Beebe (born 1953) – politician and educator Geoffrey Beene (1927–2004) – fashion designer Sidney Bechet (1897–1959) – musician Clyde F. Bel Jr. (c. 1932–2014) – businessman and stare representative for Orleans Parish Demetress Bell (born 1984) – offensive tackle for the Philadelphia Eagles V.J. Bella (born 1927) – state legislator and fire marshal E. J. Bellocq (1873–1949) – photographer Judah P. Benjamin (1811–1884) – U.S. Senator, Confederate cabinet member, lawyer in Great Britain Michael Bennett (born 1985) – defensive end for the Seattle Seahawks Sherman A. Bernard (1925–2012) – politician Louis Berry (1914–1998) – civil rights attorney from Alexandria Johnny Berthelot (born 1951) – politician Henry Bethard (born 1924) – attorney and former state representative from Red River Parish B.G. (born 1980) – rapper, musician Joseph A. Biedenharn (1866–1952) – entrepreneur, first to bottle Coca-Cola; settled in Monroe in 1913 Rene J. Bienvenu (1923–1983) – university president Bienville (Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne) (1680–1767) – French colonial governor, founder of New Orleans Robert Billiot (born 1953) – state representative for Jefferson Parish (since 2008) Stuart Bishop (born 1975) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Lafayette Wesley T. Bishop (born 1967) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Orleans Parish Evelyn Blackmon (1924–2014) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from West Monroe (1984–88) Morton Blackwell (born 1939) – Louisiana Republican political activist, since relocated to Virginia Brian Blade (born 1970) – award-winning, Grammy-nominated, jazz musician, bandleader, conductor Newton C. Blanchard (1849–1922) – governor of Louisiana (1904–08); U.S. senator (1894–97) Terrence Blanchard (born 1962) – musician, composer Kathleen Blanco (1942–2019) – Governor of Louisiana (2004–08) Alexander Boarman (1839–1916) – politician Walter Boasso (born 1960) – politician, businessman Hale Boggs (1914–1972) – U.S. representative for Louisiana's 2nd congressional district Lindy Boggs (1916–2013) – wife of Hale Boggs and his successor in Congress, Ambassador to the Vatican Thomas Hale Boggs Jr. (1940–2014) – lawyer and lobbyist, son of Hale and Lindy Boggs William Benton Boggs (1854–1922) – first mayor of Plain Dealing (1890); state senator for Bossier and Webster parishes (1908–16) Brandon Bolden (born 1990) – running back for the New England Patriots Buddy Bolden (1877–1930) – musician, "inventor of jazz"(?) Skip Bolen – photographer James E. Bolin (1914–2002) – former state representative; former district court judge; retired appeal court judge Donald G. Bollinger (1915–2000) – shipbuilder and Republican state chairman George Washington Bolton (1841–1931) – state representative and Speaker of the Louisiana House from Alexandria James C. Bolton (1899–1974) – Alexandria banker and civic figure James W. Bolton (1869–1936) – Alexandria banker and politician Peggy Bolton (1917–1987) – Alexandria civic and community leader George W. Bond (1891–1974) – president of Louisiana Tech University (1928–36) James Booker (1939–1983) – musician Curtis Boozman (1898–1979) – state representative from Natchitoches Parish Edward S. Bopp (1930–2015) – state representative for Orleans and St. Bernard parishes (1977–84) Calvin Borel (born 1966) – jockey, winner of 2007, 2009 and 2010 Kentucky Derby Pierre Bossier (1797–1844) – first U.S. representative from Louisiana's 4th congressional district (1843–44) Savannah Smith Boucher (born 1943) – actress Sherry Boucher (born 1945) – actress Gerald Boudreaux – African-American state senator for Lafayette, St. Landry, and St. Martin parishes, effective 2016 Joseph Bouie Jr. (born 1946) – African-American educator and politician MacKenzie Bourg (born 1992) – singer-songwriter and contestant on American Idol season 15 Charles Boustany (born 1956) – US Representative Denise Boutte (born 1982) – model, actress, Meet the Browns John Boutté (born 1958) – jazz singer Shirley D. Bowler (born 1949) – state representative Jimmy Boyd – state representative for Bossier Parish from 1944 to 1952 Thomas Duckett Boyd (1854–1932) – president of Northwestern State University (1888–96) and LSU (1896–1926) Betsy Vogel Boze (born 1953) – University President at Kent State University Stark Campus Harley Bozeman (1891–1971) – politician, journalist, and historian Henry Braden (1944–2013) – African-American politician Terry Bradshaw (born 1948) – Super Bowl champion Pittsburgh Steelers quarterback, Fox television commentator Mike Branch (born 1968) – politician and commercial pilot Allen Bradley (born 1951) – former state representative from DeRidder Tim Brando (born 1956) CBS Sports – announcer Elward Thomas Brady Jr. (c. 1926–2007) – politician Thomas "Bud" Brady (1938–2011) – politician Parey Branton (1918–2011) – politician Wellman Braud (1891–1966) – musician Donna Brazile (born 1959) – author, professor, political analyst for the Democratic Party Delvin Breaux (born 1989) – cornerback for the New Orleans Saints John Breaux (born 1944) – U.S. Senator Phanor Breazeale (1858–1934) – U.S. Representative Owen Brennan (1910–1954) – restaurateur, Brennan's in New Orleans Richard Brennan Sr. – restaurateur, Commander's Palace in New Orleans Rick Brewer (born 1956) – president of Louisiana College in Pineville since 2015 Reid Brignac (born 1986) – shortstop for the Tampa Bay Rays Armand Brinkhaus (1935–2017) – former member of both houses of the Louisiana State Legislature from St. Landry Parish Pat Brister (1946–2020) – Republican politician T. C. Brister (1907–1976) – state representative from Rapides Parish (1940–44, 1948–52 and 1968–72) Poppy Z. Brite (born 1967) – writer Chris Broadwater (born 1972) – politician Clifford Cleveland Brooks (1886–1944) – politician Overton Brooks (1897–1961) – politician; planter Jared Brossett (born 1982) – New Orleans politician Edwin S. Broussard (1870–1934) – U.S. senator, 1921–1933 Marc Broussard (born 1982) – singer-songwriter Robert F. Broussard – U.S. representative for Louisiana's 3rd congressional district 1897–1915 and U.S. senator 1915–1918 Campbell Brown (born 1968) – journalist Chad M. Brown (born 1970) – state representative for Iberville and Assumption parishes, effective January 2016 Dee Brown (1908–2002) – novelist, historian, author of Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee Markel Brown (born 1992) – basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League H. Rap Brown (born 1943) – black activist imprisoned in Georgia Henry Newton Brown Jr. (born 1941) – state appeals court chief judge J. Marshall Brown (1924–1995) – politician Sharon Brown – 1961 Miss USA Terry R. Brown – state representative from Grant Parish since 2012 Tom Brown (1888–1958) – musician Troy E. Brown (born 1971) – former member of the Louisiana State Senate from Assumption Parish W. K. Brown (1923–2011) – state representative Roy Brun (born 1953) – state representative and judge from Caddo Parish Stanley Brundy (born 1967) – basketball player Peppi Bruneau (born 1942) – state representative from Orléans Parish George Brunies (1902–1974) – musician C.L. Bryant (born 1956) – African-American Baptist minister and conservative talk show host over KEEL radio in Shreveport Sherri Smith Buffington (born 1966) – politician George E. Burch (1910–1986) – cardiologist and Tulane Medical School professor Dewey E. Burchett Jr. (1939–2009) – state court judge for Bossier and Webster parishes (1988–2008) James Lee Burke (born 1936) – crime novelist, born in Texas, raised in Louisiana Paul Burke (1926–2009) – actor: Naked City, Twelve O'Clock High, The Thomas Crown Affair James Burton (born 1939) – guitarist C.E. Byrd (1859–1926) – educator, founder of C.E. Byrd High School C George Washington Cable (1844–1925) – writer Burl Cain (born 1942) – warden of the Louisiana State Penitentiary (since 1995) Etienne J. Caire (1868–1955) – Republican candidate for governor of Louisiana in 1928 against Huey P. Long Riemer Calhoun (1909–1994) – state senator from DeSoto and Caddo parishes (1944–52) Bill Callegari (born 1941) – member of the Texas House of Representatives from Harris County; native of Avoyelles Parish Jefferson Caffery (1886–1974) – US ambassador; cousin of Patrick T. Caffery and Donelson Caffery Patrick T. Caffery (1932–2013) – US Representative; cousin of Jefferson Caffery and grandson of Donelson Caffery Donelson Caffery (1835–1906) – US Senator; grandfather of Patrick T. Caffery Chris Cagle (born 1968) – country music artist George A. Caldwell (1892–1966) – building contractor; designed twenty-six public buildings in Louisiana Jorrick Calvin (born 1987) – cornerback for the Philadelphia Eagles Foster Campbell (born 1947) – politician William Derwood Cann Jr. (1919–2010) – World War II lieutenant colonel; mayor of Monroe (1978–79) Billy Cannon (1937–2018) – football player for LSU, Heisman Trophy winner Joseph Cao (born 1968) – former U.S. representative; lawyer Tom Capella (born 1965) – assessor of Jefferson Parish and former state representative and Jefferson Parish Council member Truman Capote (1924–1984) – writer, author of In Cold Blood and Breakfast at Tiffany's Lindsey Cardinale (born 1985) – American Idol finalist, country singer Harvey Locke Carey (1915–1984) – lawyer and United States District Attorney Kitty Carlisle (1910–2007) – entertainer and television personality; married to playwright Moss Hart W. W. Carloss (1833–1900) – first state representative from Webster Parish (1874–78); fought in the Siege of Port Hudson Thomas G. Carmody (born 1961) – state representative Edward M. Carmouche (1921–1990) – politician Liz Carmouche (born 1984) – mixed martial arts fighter Paul Carr (1934–2006) – actor Lane Carson (born 1947) – first Vietnam War veteran to serve in Louisiana House of Representatives Gary Carter Jr. (born 1974) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from the Algiers neighborhood in New Orleans, effective 2016 J. J. Carter (1832–1907) – politician from Webster Parish Robby Carter (born 1960) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for East Feliciana, St. Helena, and Tangipahoa parishes, 1996–2008 and since 2016 James Carville (born 1944) – political consultant and television commentator Tommy Casanova (born 1950) – football player, ophthalmologist, politician Edgar Cason (born 1952) – businessman and philanthropist Bill Cassidy (born 1957) – U.S. representative, physician Don Cazayoux (born 1964) – politician Leonard J. Chabert (c. 1932–1991) – politician Marty J. Chabert (born c. 1956) – politician Norby Chabert (born 1976) – politician Tina Chandler (born 1974) – IFBB professional bodybuilder Pokey Chatman (born 1969) – basketball player, WNBA head coach Clifton Chenier (1925–1987) – Zydeco musician Claire Chennault (1893–1958) – aviator, general Jimmy Childress (1932–2015) – state and national championship high school football coach Jay Chevalier (1936–2019) – singer Monnie T. Cheves (1902–1988) – educator and state legislator Kate Chopin (1851–1904) – author Benny Gay Christian (1925–1982) – state representative for Richland, Caldwell, and Madison parishes, 1964–74 Philip Ciaccio (1927–2015) – state representative, New Orleans City Council member, state circuit judge from 1982 to 1998 Ben Claassen III (born 1978) – illustrator and comics artist, DIRTFARM Morris Claiborne (born 1990) – cornerback for the Dallas Cowboys William C. C. Claiborne (1775–1817) – first US Governor of Louisiana Ryan Clark (born 1979) – safety for the Pittsburgh Steelers Clem S. Clarke (1897–1967) – oilman and politician from Shreveport Patricia Clarkson (born 1959) – Emmy Award-winning and Academy Award-nominated actress Sally Clausen (born 1945) – university president and commissioner of higher education Thomas G. Clausen (1939–2002) – last elected Louisiana state superintendent of education Michael Clayton (born 1982) – wide receiver for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers A.C. "Ace" Clemons Jr. (1921–1992) – first Republican state senator since Reconstruction; switched parties in 1970 Bill Cleveland (1902–1974) – Crowley real estate developer and member of both houses of Louisiana state legislature (1944–64); defeated for third term in state Senate in 1964 by Edwin Edwards Van Cliburn (1934–2013) – classical pianist George Henry Clinton – politician Carl B. Close (1907–1980) – politician James E. Cofer (born 1949) – president of University of Louisiana at Monroe, 2002–2010 J. Frank Colbert (1882–1949) – politician Luther F. Cole (1925–2013) – state representative and associate justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court Elliot D. Coleman (1881–1963) – sheriff and bodyguard at the assassination of Huey P. Long Jr. Hamilton D. Coleman (1845–1926) – U.S. representative from Louisiana's 2nd congressional district (1889–1991) Vincent Coleman (1901–1971) – actor Ashton B. Collier (1910–1973) – state representative from Winn Parish La'el Collins (born 1993) – offensive tackle for the Dallas Cowboys Landon Collins (born 1994) – safety for the New York Giants Tazzie Colomb (born 1966) – IFBB professional female bodybuilder and powerlifter Marshall Colt (born 1948) – actor Amie Comeaux (1976–1997) – country singer Ward Connerly (born 1939) – political activist, businessman, and former University of California Regent Harry Connick Jr. (born 1967) – musician, entertainer, actor Harry Connick Sr. (born 1926) – district attorney, singer Patrick Connick (born 1961) – politician John R. Conniff (1874–1957) – educator Charlie Cook (born 1953) – political analyst John Cooksey (born 1941) – US Representative Donnie Copeland (born 1961) – Republican member of the Arkansas House of Representatives; Pentecostal pastor in North Little Rock, native of Monroe, Louisiana Charles C. Cordill (1845–1916) – politician Daniel Cormier (born 1979) – UFC fighter and Olympic freestyle wrestler Lance Cormier (born 1980) – relief pitcher for the Tampa Bay Rays Jeff Cox (born 1962) – judge Kenny Ray Cox (born 1957) – state representative for Natchitoches, Red River and Desoto parishes (since 2012); former United States Army lieutenant colonel Robert Crais (born 1953) – crime novelist Clifford Ann Creed (born 1938) – pro golfer Scott Crichton (born 1954) – state district court judge in Shreveport Greg Cromer (born 1958) – state representative from St. Tammany Parish Brenham C. Crothers (1905–1984) – politician John David Crow (1935–2015) – football player and coach, born in Union Parish Marvin T. Culpepper (1908–1970) – politician Robert C. Culpepper (1873–1950) – state senator for Jackson and Ouachita parishes and judge from Alexandria William A. Culpepper (1916–2015) – judge based in Alexandria, son of Robert C. Culpepper Charles Milton Cunningham (1877–1936) – educator, lawyer, newspaperman, politician Milton Joseph Cunningham (1842–1916) – state representative and state senator; state attorney general (1884–88 and 1892–1900) William Tharp Cunningham (1871–1952) – planter, attorney, state representative, and judge from Natchitoches Parish W. Peyton Cunningham (1901–1971) – newspaper publisher and member of the Louisiana House from Natchitoches Parish (1932–40) Cupid (born 1982) – R&B singer Currensy (born 1981) – rapper Robert Houston Curry (1842–1992) – state representative for Bossier Parish; wounded Confederate Army soldier Joseph T. Curry (1895–1961) – politician; planter Israel "Bo" Curtis (1932–2012) – African-American politician from Alexandria Jacob Cutrera (born 1988) – middle linebacker for the Jacksonville Jaguars D Casey Daigle (born 1981) – former MLB pitcher Mike Danahay (born 1957) – state representative for Calcasieu Parish (since 2008) William Daniel (born 1955) – state representative for East Baton Rouge Parish (1996–2008) Stormy Daniels (born 1979) – porn actress, stripper Jay Dardenne (born 1954) – former state senator, Louisiana secretary of state, and lieutenant governor (since 2010); candidate for governor (2015) George W. D'Artois (1925–1977) – Shreveport public safety commissioner (1962–76) Buster Davis (born 1985) – wide receiver for the San Diego Chargers Edwin Adams Davis (1904–1994) – historian Glen Davis (born 1986) – power forward and center for LSU and the Los Angeles Clippers Jackson B. Davis (1918–2016) – attorney and former state senator Jimmie Davis (1899–2000) – singer, Governor of Louisiana Willie Davis (1934–2020) – Hall of Fame defensive end for the Cleveland Browns and Green Bay Packers Keyunta Dawson (born 1985) – defensive end for the Indianapolis Colts Jay Dean (born 1953) – mayor of Longview, Texas, 2005–15; incoming Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives, effective 2017; reared in Opelousas Cleveland Dear (1888–1950) – politician Michael E. DeBakey (1908–2008) – pioneering cardiovascular surgeon Edmond Dede (1827–1903) – musician, composer Jesse C. Deen (1922–2015) – state representative for Bossier and Webster parishes, 1972–88 Larry Deen (born 1948) – sheriff of Bossier Parish, 1988–2012 Ellen DeGeneres (born 1958) – comedian, actress, television personality Kitty DeGree (1922–2012) – Monroe real estate developer and philanthropist Joe Delaney (1958–1983) – running back for Northwestern State University and for the Kansas City Chiefs; died saving children from swimming hole Jake Delhomme (born 1975) – quarterback for University of Louisiana at Lafayette and for Carolina Panthers in Super Bowl XXXVIII David Dellucci (born 1973) – MLB outfielder, played primarily with the Arizona Diamondbacks Numa T. Delouche (1888–1965) – state representative from Natchitoches Parish (1944–48) George Dement (1922–2014) – politician Tim Dement (born 1958) – amateur boxer who competed at the 1972 Summer Olympics James L. Dennis (born 1936) – judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit; former judge of the Louisiana Supreme Court; former state representative Catherine Dent (born 1965) – actress, Danni Sofer on The Shield Natalie Desselle-Reid (born 1967) – actress Henry C. Dethloff (1934–2019) – historian Charles W. DeWitt Jr. (born 1947) – politician and rancher F.O. "Potch" Didier (1919–2007) – sheriff Juba Diez (born 1944) – state representative from Ascension Parish (1976–2004) Herbert B. Dixon (born 1949) – former state representative and school board member from Rapides Parish Lurita Doan (born 1958) – Administrator of the General Services Administration under President George W. Bush James Dobson (born 1936) – evangelical Christian author, psychologist, founder of Focus on the Family William Joseph "Bill" Dodd (1909–1991) – politician John J. Doles Jr. (1922–2004) – banker John J. Doles Sr. (1895–1970) – Plain Dealing banker and state senator (1952–56) James R. Domengeaux (1907–1988) – U.S. representative; French language cultural activist Ronald Dominique (born 1964) serial killer Fats Domino (1928–2017) – musician Vol Dooley (1927–2014) – sheriff of Bossier Parish (1976–88) Caroline Dormon (1888–1971) – naturalist, horticulturist, promoter of Kisatchie National Forest Glenn Dorsey (born 1985) – defensive end for the San Francisco 49ers E. S. Dortch (1841–1943) – planter and politician from Bossier Parish Lorenzo Doss (born 1994) – cornerback for the Denver Broncos Cat Doucet (1899–1975) – sheriff Early Doucet (born 1985) – wide receiver for the Arizona Cardinals Eddie Doucet (1924–2008) – state representative for Jefferson Parish (1972–88); businessman Donna Douglas (born 1933–2015) – actress, "The Beverly Hillbillies Hunt Downer (born 1946) – politician; National Guard officer C. H. "Sammy" Downs (1911–1985) – member of both houses of the Louisiana legislature from Rapides Parish James Crawford "Jam" Downs (born 1940) – former district attorney for Rapides Parish James U. Downs (born 1941) – retired superior court judge in western North Carolina, born and reared in Shreveport Gil Dozier (1934–2013) – Louisiana Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry (1976–80) Dee D. Drell (born 1947) – U.S. district judge in Alexandria R. Harmon Drew Sr. (1916–1995) – city judge, state representative Richard Maxwell Drew (1822–1850) – judge and state representative Clyde Drexler (born 1962) – basketball player, University of Houston, NBA and U.S. Olympic team, member of Basketball Hall of Fame Francis Dugas (1919–2008) – politician John Malcolm Duhé Jr. (born 1933) – retired state court, U.S. district, and appellate court judge from New Iberia and Lafayette Chris Duhon (born 1982) – NBA point guard David Duke (born 1950) – former state representative, former Ku Klux Klansman Lance Dunbar (born 1990) – running back for the Dallas Cowboys Ken Duncan (born 1945) – state treasurer from 1996 to 2000; Baton Rouge lawyer and businessman Warrick Dunn (born 1975) – NFL running back Mark Duper (born 1959) – Miami Dolphins wide receiver Adrian G. Duplantier (1929–2007) – U.S. District Judge and former state senator from Orleans Parish Jay Duplass (born 1973) – film director Gilbert L. Dupré (1858–1946) – politician from St. Landry Parish H. Garland Dupré (1873–1924) – politician Champion Jack Dupree (–1992) – boxer, musician Chad Durbin (born 1977) – MLB pitcher Joey Durel (born 1953) – mayor of Lafayette (since 2004) Stanwood Duval (born 1942) – federal judge in New Orleans Stephen Dwight (born 1977) – member of the Louisiana House for Calcasieu and Beauregard parishes Wilbur Dyer (1907–1985) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from Rapides Parish (1974–80) W.E. "Bill" Dykes (1925–2015) – politician E Richard Eastham (1916–2005) – actor William C. Edenborn (1848–1926) – railroad magnate, steel industrialist, inventor Rick Edmonds (born 1956) – state representative for East Baton Rouge Parish; Baptist minister Mike Edmonson (born 1958) – superintendent of the Louisiana State Police (since 2008) Edwin Edwards (1927–2021) – Governor of Louisiana Lavar Edwards (born 1990) – defensive end for the Dallas Cowboys Ronnie Edwards (c. 1952 – 2016) – Baton Rouge politician Troy Edwards (born 1977) – football player Charles Wheaton Elam (1866–1917) – politician Joseph Barton Elam Sr. (1821–1885) – politician Allen J. Ellender (1890–1972) – Member of Congress, United States Senator and President Pro Tem of the Senate Frank Burton Ellis (1907–1969) – politician Faye Emerson (1917–1983) – actress Julie Emerson (born 1988) – state representative for Lafayette and St. Landry parishes E. D. Estilette (1833–1919) – politician from St. Landry Parish Albert Estopinal (1845–1919) – politician James R. Eubank (1914–1952) – lawyer and member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Rapides Parish John D. Ewing (1892–1952) – newspaper executive Robert Wilson Ewing III (1935–2007) – newspaper executive; photographer F Jamie Fair (born 1946) – former state representative Jimmy Faircloth (born 1964) – former executive counsel to Governor Bobby Jindal; attorney in Alexandria-Pineville Reid Falconer (born 1956) – state representative for St. Tammany Parish, effective 2016 Ralph Falsetta (1914–1999) – politician from Ascension Parish Rick L. Farrar – state representative from Rapides Parish Dillon Farrell (born 1990) – center for the San Francisco 49ers Chris Faser Jr. (1917–2004) – politician Robert Faucheux (born 1950) – state representative for St. John the Baptist and St. James parishes, 1996–2004; attorney in LaPlace Ron Faucheux (born 1950) – state representative for Orleans Parish, 1976–84; political pundit Clarence Faulk (1909–2010) – publisher, broadcaster, businessman from Ruston Kevin Faulk (born 1976) – New England Patriots running back, LSU Hall of Famer Marshall Faulk (born 1973) – Hall of Fame running back, television commentator Trev Faulk (born 1981) – St. Louis Rams linebacker William C. Feazel (1895–1965) – interim U.S. Senator in 1948; former state representative from Ouachita Parish Lionel Ferbos (1911–2014) – jazz musician from New Orleans Jimmy Field (born 1940) – Louisiana Public Service Commissioner (1996–2012) T. T. Fields (1912–1994) – politician David Filo (born 1966) – co-founder of Yahoo! Olaf Fink (1914–1973) – educator and state senator for Orleans Parish from 1956 to 1972 Valerie Fitzenreiter (born 1955) – author, unschooling advocate Jimmy Fitzmorris (1921–2021) – politician, lieutenant governor Sean Patrick Flanery (born 1965) – actor John C. Fleming (born 1952) – U.S. representative; medical doctor Dan Flores (born 1948) – historian of the American West D. J. Fluker (born 1991) – offensive tackle for the San Diego Chargers Cheston Folkes (1863–1941) – politician Warren Davis Folkes (1898–1997) – politician Jerry Fontenot (born 1966) – assistant coach for the Green Bay Packers Mary Alice Fontenot (1910–2003) – author Mike Fontenot (born 1980) – second baseman for the San Francisco Giants Elizabeth Erny Foote (born 1953) – judge Faith Ford (born 1964) – actress Frankie Ford (1939–2015) – singer C. B. Forgotston (1945–2016) – state government watchdog Barbara Forrest (born 20th century) – philosopher and prominent critic of the intelligent design movement Matt Forte (born 1985) – running back for the Chicago Bears Ezola B. Foster (1938–2018) – conservative political activist, writer, and politician Mike Foster (1930–2020) – Governor of Louisiana Murphy J. Foster (1849–1921) – Governor of Louisiana Pete Fountain (1930–2016) – musician Mike Francis (born 1946) – businessman, Republican former state party chairman A. B. Franklin (born 1948) – state representative for Calcasieu Parish (since 2008) Tillman Franks (1920–2006) – country musician and manager Anthony Freeman (1988-2018) – Catholic religious and author Mannie Fresh (born 1974) – record producer, musician J. Isaac Friedman (1877–1949) – state representative and state senator from Natchitoches Parish Leon Friedman (1886–1948) – state representative from Natchitoches Parish (1932–40) W. C. Friley (1845–1911) – educator and Baptist clergyman Lawrence T. Fuglaar (1895–1972) – state representative from Rapides Parish (1948–52); drowning victim Hoffman Franklin Fuller (born 1932) – professor emeritus at Tulane University Law School, authority on tax law Samuel B. Fuller (1905–1988) – founder and president of the Fuller Products Company, publisher of the New York Age and Pittsburgh Courier Henry L. Fuqua (1865–1926) – Governor of Louisiana (1924–26, his death) J. B. Fuselier (1901–1975) – Cajun musician from Oberlin, Louisiana Mike Futrell (born 1960) – politician G Ernest Gaines (1933–2019) – author Randal Gaines (born 1955) – African American; lawyer; educator; state representative for St. Charles and St. John the Baptist parishes (since 2012) Gerald J. Gallinghouse (1920–2007) – U.S. Attorney for the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana Daniel F. Galouye (1920–1976) – science fiction writer Count Bernardo de Gálvez (1746–1786) – Spanish governor; viceroy of New Spain John Sidney Garrett (1921–2005) – former Speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives from Claiborne Parish Jim Garrison (1921–1992) – former New Orleans district attorney; later a state judge Robert T. Garrity Jr. (born 1949) – former member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Jefferson Parish James Garvey Jr. (born 1964) – member since 2012 of the Louisiana Board of Elementary and Secondary Education for District 1; a Metairie lawyer Chad Gaudin (born 1983) – MLB pitcher Randall Gay (born 1982) – cornerback for the New Orleans Saints Terry W. Gee (1940–2014) – state representative and businessman Johnny Giavotella (born 1987) – second baseman for the Los Angeles Angels Philip H. Gilbert (1870–1932) – politician; former lieutenant governor Mickey Gilley (born 1936) – musician; singer; nightclub owner David 'Bo' Ginn (1951–2006) – state senator or Morehouse Parish (1980–88) George Girard (1930–1957) – musician Leslie Glasgow (1914–1980) – professor; conservationist; government administrator Hap Glaudi (1912–1989) – New Orleans sports journalist Mary Smith Gleason (1899–1967) – state representative Edgar Godbold (1879–1952) – president of Louisiana College (1942–51) H. N. Goff (1910–1978) – state representative from Rapides Parish (1952–56) Victor Gold (1928–2017) – journalist and political consultant John Goodman (born 1952) – actor Alfred Goodwill (1830–1905) – businessman from Minden; owned largest general store in Louisiana in the 1880s in Minden Cletis Gordon (born 1982) – cornerback for the United Football League's Florida Tuskers James M. Goslin (1915–2001) – sheriff of Caddo Parish (1966–76) Stephen Gostkowski (born 1984) – placekicker for the New England Patriots Louis Moreau Gottschalk (1829–1869) – pianist; composer Lucille May Grace (1900–1957) – first woman in statewide elected office as register of state lands R. W. "Buzzy" Graham (1937–2014) – state representative from Rapides Parish (1968–72) Shirley Ann Grau (1929–2020) – writer Webster "Webbie" Gradney Jr. (born 1985) – rapper Danny Granger (born 1983) – small forward for the Philadelphia 76ers Veleka Gray (born 1951) – actress; writer; producer Douglas D. "Doug" Green (born c. 1950) – politician Howard Green (born 1979) – nose tackle for the Green Bay Packers BenJarvus Green-Ellis (born 1985) – running back for the New England Patriots Thomas A. "Tom" Greene (born 1948) – former state senator John Grenier (1930–2007) – Republican politician in Alabama; born in New Orleans Grits Gresham (1922–2008) – sportsman; journalist J. D. Grey (1906–1985) – clergyman Bob Griffin (born 1934) – broadcast journalist; from Shreveport Robert Groves (born 1948) – sociologist; Director of the United States Census Bureau under U.S. President Barack Obama Anthony Guarisco Jr. (born 1938) – politician Dudley A. Guglielmo (1909–2005) – insurance commissioner Dick Guidry (1929–2014) – politician; businessman from Lafourche Parish Greg G. Guidry (born 1960) – member of the Louisiana Supreme Court Jesse J. Guidry (c. 1921–1987) – state representative and secretary of the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries; from St. Martin Parish John Michael Guidry (born 1962) – circuit court judge; former member of both houses of the state legislature from Baton Rouge Richard Guidry (1949–2008) – advocate of French language in Louisiana Ron Guidry (born 1950) – Cy Young Award-winning pitcher for the New York Yankees Brandon Guillory (born 1985) – businessman Elbert Guillory (born 1944) – politician Mickey Guillory (born 1940) – retired state police officer; state representative for Acadia, Evangeline, and St. Landry parishes (since 2004) G. Earl Guinn (1912–2004) – president of Louisiana College (1951–75) Bryant Gumbel (born 1948) – television journalist Greg Gumbel (born 1946) – sportscaster Buddy Guy (born 1936) – blues musician H Billy Hagan (1932–2007) – NASCAR owner and racer, businessman Richard T. Haik (born 1950) – United States District Judge for the Western District of Louisiana Ted Haik (born 1945) – politician Jeff Hall (born 1951) – state representative for Rapides Parish (since 2015) Pike Hall Jr. (1931–1999) – judge from Shreveport William Pike Hall Sr. (1896–1945) – lawyer and politician in Shreveport Jan Hamer (1927–2008) – organic chemist Rusty Hamer (1947–1990) – child actor John Martin Hamley (1883–1942) – politician Paul Jude Hardy (born 1942) – state senator, secretary of state, lieutenant governor Henry E. Hardtner (1870–1935) – lumberman, conservationist, politician, founder of Urania George W. Hardy Jr. (1900–1967) – mayor of Shreveport and judge of the state circuit court of appeal John Spencer Hardy (1913–2012) – lieutenant general in the United States Air Force Robert Harling (born 1951) – playwright, screenwriter and film director, wrote Steel Magnolias Winsor Harmon (born 1963) – actor, The Bold and the Beautiful Lance Harris (born 1961) – state representative Mary Johnson Harris (born 1963) – educator from Shreveport Will Harris (born 1984) – relief pitcher for the Houston Astros Damon Harrison (born 1988) – nose tackle for the New York Giants Joe Harrison (born c. 1952) – state representative Ryan Harrison (born 1992) – professional tennis player Leonard R. "Pop" Hataway (born 1939) – former sheriff of Grant Parish Torrence "Lil Boosie" Hatch (born 1982) – rapper Jason Hatcher (born 1982) – defensive end for the Dallas Cowboys Don Hathaway (born 1928) – Shreveport public works commissioner (1970–78); Caddo Parish sheriff (1980–2000) Richmond C. Hathorn (1893–1941) – state representative from Rapides Parish (1936–40) Kenny Havard (born 1971) – politician Elvin Hayes (born 1945) – Hall of Fame basketball player Hunter Hayes (born 1991) – country singer Rufus D. Hayes (1913–2002) – first state insurance commissioner, East Baton Rouge Parish district attorney and judge, Democratic state chairman O. H. Haynes Jr. (1920–1996) – Webster Parish sheriff (1964–80) William Wright Heard (1853–1926) – governor of Louisiana (1900–04) Bobby Hebert (born 1960) – New Orleans Saints quarterback known as "Cajun Cannon" Dennis Paul Hebert (1926–2015) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Tangipahoa Parish, 1972–96 Felix Edward Hébert (1901–1979) – journalist, politician Paul M. Hebert (1907–1977) – judge, Louisiana State University Law Center dean Troy Hebert (born 1966) – politician Lee Hedges (born 1929) – champion football coach in Shreveport Fred Heebe (born 1952) – New Orleans real estate developer Jennifer Sneed Heebe (born 1966) – politician Talmadge L. Heflin (born 1940) – former member of the Texas House of Representatives Marie Alice Heine (1858–1925) – first American Princess of Monaco Betty Heitman (1929–1994) – Republican politician David Heitmeier (born 1961) – state senator for Orleans Parish (since 2008); optometrist Francis C. Heitmeier (born 1950) – former state senator for Orleans Parish; lawyer and lobbyist Knute Heldner (1875–1952) – impressionist artist Lillian Hellman (1905–1984) – playwright and screenwriter Devery Henderson (born 1982) – wide receiver for the New Orleans Saints Lloyd Hendrick (1908–1951) – Shreveport lawyer and state senator for DeSoto and Caddo parishes (1940–48) Ellis Henican (born 1958) – journalist, commentator, talk show host Jeff Hennessy – trampoline coach Leigh Hennessy – world champion gymnast and movie stuntwoman Shelley Hennig (born 1987) – actress, Days of Our Lives Charlie Hennigan (1935–2017) – football player Gilbert Franklin Hennigan (1883–1960) – politician Cameron Henry (born 1974) – politician Clarence "Frogman" Henry (born 1937) – singer, musician Gloria Henry (1923–2021) – actress, CBS's Dennis the Menace Bob Hensgens (born 1955) – state representative George Herriman (1880–1944) – Krazy Kat cartoonist Charles R. Herring (born 1945) – chiropractor; served in the Louisiana House of Representatives from Rapides Parish (1988–92) Louis Herthum (born 1956) – actor, Murder, She Wrote Jacob Hester (born 1985) – fullback for the San Diego Chargers Theodore M. Hickey (1910–1993) – New Orleans City Council member and state senator; introduced bill establishing the University of New Orleans W. W. Hicks (1843–1925) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Webster Parish (1900–04) Andrew Higgins (1886–1952) – shipbuilder, industrialist Clay Higgins (born 1961) – U.S. representative for Louisiana's 3rd congressional district, beginning 2017 Stephanie Hilferty (born 1985) – state representative for Orleans and Jefferson parishes since 2016 Dorothy Sue Hill (born 1939) – state representative for Allen, Beauregard, and Calcasieu parishes since 2008 Herman Ray Hill (born 1937) – state representative for Allen, Beauregard, and Calcasieu parishes (1996–2008) Kenny Hill (born 1958) – NFL defensive back Corey Hilliard (born 1985) – offensive tackle for the Detroit Lions Quin Hillyer (born 1964) – columnist and editor Donald E. Hines (1933–2019) – politician and physician Walker Hines (born 1984) – state representative from Orleans Parish Al Hirt (1922–1999) – musician Valarie Hodges (born 1955) – politician Melvin L. Holden (born 1952) – first African-American mayor of Baton Rouge Cheryl Holdridge (1944–2009) – actor Trindon Holliday (born 1986) – wide receiver and return specialist for the New York Giants Earl Holliman (born 1928) – actor Harry Hollins (1932–1989) – state representative for Calcasieu Parish from 1964 to 1980 Ken Hollis (1942–2010) – state senator from Jefferson Parish (1982–2008) Paul Hollis (born 1972) – state representative from St. Tammany Parish Clyde C. Holloway (1943–2016) – former US Representative; member of the Louisiana Public Service Commission Ben F. Holt (1925–1995) – politician Jay F. Honeycutt (born 1937) – former director of the Kennedy Space Center Dalton W. Honoré (born 1943) – politician Russel L. Honoré (born 1947) – general during Hurricane Katrina relief Taylor Horn (born 1992) – singer and actress Dodie Horton – state representative for Bossier Parish, effective 2016 Son House (1902–1988) – blues singer and guitarist TJ House (born 1989) – pitcher for the Cleveland Indians Alton Hardy Howard (1925–2006) – co-founder of Howard Brothers Discount Stores; gospel songwriter Jaye Howard (born 1988) – nose tackle for the Kansas City Chiefs V. E. Howard (1911–2000) – Church of Christ clergyman, founder of radio International Gospel Hour W. L. "Jack" Howard (1921–2004) – mayor of Monroe and partner of Howard Brothers Discount Stores Arlene Howell (born 1939) – Miss USA 1958 and actress: Bourbon Street Beat Jerry Huckaby (born 1941) – US Representative Thomas H. Hudson (born 1946) – Baton Rouge attorney and former state senator Jefferson D. Hughes III (born 1952) – associate justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court since 2013 William Clark Hughes (1868–1930) – Speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives (1926–28); Bossier Parish farmer Guy E. Humphries Jr. (1923–2010) – state court judge in Alexandria Melvin Hunt (born 1969) – assistant coach of the Dallas Mavericks Clementine Hunter (c. 1886–1988) – folk artist Jeffrey Hunter (1926–1969) actor – The Searchers, King of Kings; born in New Orleans; reared in Wisconsin Marcus Hunter (born 1979) – politician Carolyn Huntoon (born 1940) – scientist John Brennan Hussey (born 1934) – mayor of Shreveport from 1982 to 1990 Mike "Pete" Huval (born c. 1956) – politician I Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville (1661–1706) – founder of the French colony of Louisiana of New France Iron Eyes Cody (1904–1999) – actor; native of Kaplan Melvin Irvin (1942–2014) – state representative from Gonzales in Ascension Parish (1984–92) Walter Isaacson (born 1952) – author; journalist; president and chief executive officer, Aspen Institute Barry Ivey (born 1979) – politician J George W. Jack (1875–1924) – federal judge Wellborn Jack (1907–1991) – state representative from Caddo Parish (1940–64) Whitfield Jack (1906–1989) – Shreveport attorney and United States Army colonel in World War II and United States Army Reserve major general Alphonse J. Jackson (1927–2014) – educator, civil rights activist, and member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from Caddo Parish (1972–92) Girod Jackson III (born 1972) – former state representative for Jefferson Parish John E. Jackson (1892–1989) – chairman of the Louisiana Republican Party, 1929–34; Republican national committeeman, 1934–52; practice law in New Orleans John M. Jackson (born 1950) – actor, JAG Lisa Jackson (born 1962) – administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency under Barack Obama Mahalia Jackson (1911–1972) – gospel singer Randy Jackson (born 1956) – musician, entrepreneur, television personality Randy Jackson (born 1955) – guitarist and lead singer of rock band Zebra Tyson Jackson (born 1986) – defensive tackle for the Atlanta Falcons Brandon Jacobs (born 1982) – running back for the New York Giants Angie Jakusz (1980–2021) – Contestant on Survivor: Palau Bradie James (born 1981) – linebacker for the Houston Texans Edward C. James – state representative for East Baton Rouge Parish (since 2012) Antawn Jamison (born 1976) – NBA player for the Los Angeles Lakers Rajarsi Janakananda (1892–1955) – former president of the Self-Realization Fellowship Lemuel Jeanpierre (born 1987) – center for the Seattle Seahawks Patrick O. Jefferson (born 1968) – state representative for Bienville, Claiborne, and Lincoln parishes (since 2012); lawyer in Arcadia Eddie Jemison (born 1963) – actor, Hung, Bruce Almighty, and Ocean's Eleven and its sequels Faith Jenkins (born 20th century) – attorney, legal commentator, Miss Louisiana 2000 Mykel Shannon Jenkins (born 1969) – actor, The Bold and the Beautiful Woody Jenkins (born 1947) – politician, newspaper publisher J. Thomas Jewell (1909–1993) – politician from New Roads Bobby Jindal (born 1971) – Governor of Louisiana Ronnie Johns (born 1949) – politician Andrew R. Johnson (1856–1933) – state senator and mayor of Homer; named Ashland, Louisiana Avery Johnson (born 1965) – NBA player and coach Bernette Joshua Johnson (born 1943) – Chief Justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court since 2013; associate justice, 1994–2013 Bill Johnson (1872–1972) – jazz musician Damaris Johnson (born 1989) – wide receiver and punt returner for the Philadelphia Eagles Mike Johnson (born 1972) – U.S. Representative for Louisiana's 4th congressional district since 2017; former state representative and constitutional attorney from Bossier Parish Quinn Johnson (born 1986) – fullback for the Green Bay Packers John Bennett Johnston Jr. (born 1932) – U.S. Senator (1972–97); lobbyist (since 1997); state senator (1968–72); state representative (1964–68) Bert Jones (born 1951) – football quarterback, LSU and NFL's Baltimore Colts Chad Jones (born 1988) – safety for the New York Giants Deion Jones (born 1994) – linebacker for the Atlanta Falcons Donald Edward Jones (born 1949) – mayor of Bossier City (1984–89) Donnie Jones (born 1980) – punter for the Philadelphia Eagles Dub Jones (born 1924) – NFL and AAFC running back Edgar Jones (born 1984) – linebacker for the Kansas City Chiefs E. Holman Jones (1926–2014) – state representative Fred W. Jones Jr. (1924–2000) – city, district and state circuit court judge from Ruston Gary Lee Jones (born 1946) – Republican member of the Louisiana Board of Elementary and Secondary Education Jacoby Jones (born 1984) – wide receiver for the Baltimore Ravens Perry Jones III (born 1991) – player for the Oklahoma City Thunder Ralph Waldo Emerson Jones (1905–1982) – president and baseball coach at Grambling State University (1936–77) Sam Houston Jones (1897–1978) – Governor of Louisiana Sam S. Jones (born 1953) – politician, businessman Henderson Jordan (1896–1958) – Bienville Parish sheriff, in posse that ambushed Bonnie and Clyde Michael I. Jordan (born 1956) – Professor at University of California, Berkeley, researcher in machine learning and artificial intelligence J. E. Jumonville Jr. (born 1942) – state senator and horse breeder from Pointe Coupee Parish J. E. Jumonville Sr. (1919–1983) – state senator and natural gas developer from Pointe Coupee Parish Juvenile (born 1975) – rapper K Harnett Kane (1910–1984) – New Orleans-based author of southern history, geography, culture, and fiction Kelly Keeling (born 1966) – singer-songwriter from Houma Perry Keith (1847–1935) – politician William P. Kellogg (1830–1918) – Member of Congress; Governor; United States Senator Iris Kelso (1926–2003) – New Orleans journalist Bolivar E. Kemp (1871–1933) – U.S. representative (1925–33) Bolivar Edwards Kemp Jr. (1904–1965) – Louisiana Attorney General (1948–52) John Neely Kennedy (born 1951) – Louisiana State Treasurer Robert F. Kennon (1902–1988) – Governor of Louisiana (1952–56) James Peter Kent (1866–1937) – newspaper publisher; politician from Minden in Webster Parish Doug Kershaw (born 1936) – musician, singer Sammy Kershaw (born 1958) – musician; singer; candidate for Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana Ernie K-Doe (1936–2001) – singer; billed himself as the "Emperor of the Universe" DJ Khaled (born 1975) – record producer; radio personality; DJ; record label executive Nat G. Kiefer (1939–1985) – state senator from New Orleans John Sidney Killen (1826–1903) – farmer; state representative from Claiborne and Webster parishes Catherine D. Kimball (born 1945) – retired chief justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court Clyde Kimball (born 1942) – state representative for Pointe Coupee and West Baton Rouge parishes (1976–92) Claude King (1923–2013) – country singer-songwriter; known for "Wolverton Mountain" Earl King (1934–2003) – musician Ralph E. King (1902–1974) – physician; state senator from Franklin Parish Edith Killgore Kirkpatrick (1918–2014) – music educator; former member of Louisiana Board of Regents Mark Klein (born 1993) – singer Neil Haven Klock (1896–1978) – sugar planter; politician from Rapides Parish Jeannette Knoll (born 1943) – associate justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court Jesse Monroe Knowles (1919–2006) – politician; survivor of the Bataan Death March during World War II L John LaBruzzo (born 1970) – politician Eddie Lacy (born 1990) – running back for the Green Bay Packers Adolphe Lafargue (1855–1917) – newspaper publisher; state legislator; judge; from Marksville Malcolm Lafargue (1908–1963) – U.S. attorney in Shreveport (1940s) Ed Lafitte (1886–1971) – baseball player Jean Lafitte (c. 1780 – c. 1826) – blacksmith; pirate Juan LaFonta (born 1972) – former state representative for Orleans Parish and New Orleans lawyer Papa Jack Laine (1873–1966) – bandleader Maxie Lambright (1924–1980) – football coach Dorothy Lamour (1914–1996) – actress Edgar H. Lancaster Jr. (1918–2009) – former state representative and interim judge Katherine LaNasa (born 1966) – actress, Judging Amy Mary Landrieu (born 1955) – US Senator Mitch Landrieu (born 1960) – politician Moon Landrieu (born 1930) – judge, politician Ali Landry (born 1973) – actress; model; Miss USA (1996) Jarvis Landry (born 1992) – wide receiver for the Miami Dolphins Jeff Landry (born 1970) – politician Lisa Landry (born 1977) – comedian Nancy Landry (born 1962) – politician Terry Landry – state representative for Lafayette, Iberia, and St. Martin parishes since 2012; former superintendent of the Louisiana State Police Eric Laneuville (born 1952) – actor; television director, St. Elsewhere, Room 222 Nick LaRocca (1889–1961) – self-proclaimed "inventor of jazz" John Larroquette (born 1947) – actor Hank Lauricella (1930–2014) – football player; state senator Marie Laveau (c 1794 – c. 1881) – Voodoo priestess Theodore K. Lawless (1892–1971) – dermatologist, medical researcher, and philanthropist Rollo C. Lawrence (1894–1968) – mayor of Pineville, 1930–46; first superintendent of Louisiana State Penitentiary, 1948–51 Claude "Buddy" Leach (born 1934) – politician; businessman Lead Belly (1885–1949) – musician Alexander McIntyre Leary (1873–1937) – mayor of Minden (1903–05); director of the Home Owners Loan Corporation in Shreveport (1935–37) Ronald Leary (born 1989) – guard for the Dallas Cowboys Bernard LeBas (born 1943) – pharmacist; state representative for Evangeline and St. Landry parishes (since 2008) Dudley J. LeBlanc (1894–1971) – politician; businessman; made a fortune in the patent medicine Hadacol Fred S. LeBlanc – politician Jerry Luke LeBlanc (born 1956) – politician Samuel A. LeBlanc I (1886–1955) – lawyer; state representative; state court judge; grandfather of Sam A. LeBlanc III Conway LeBleu (1918–2007) – state representative for Calcasieu and Cameron parishes, 1964–88 Richard Leche (1898–1965) – Governor of Louisiana Joseph E. LeDoux (born 1949) – neuroscientist David Lee (born 1943) – football player Harry Lee (1932–2007) – Jefferson Parish sheriff Rory Lee (born 1949) – president of Louisiana College (1997–2004) Swords Lee (1859–1929) – businessman and politician in Grant Parish and Alexandria Walter C. Lee (born 1934) – member of the Louisiana Board of Elementary and Secondary Education (1991–2014); retired educator in Shreveport Walter L. Lee (1921–2015) – Clerk of Court in Evangeline Parish (1956–2012) W. Burch Lee (1883–1939) – state representative for Webster Parish (1914–16); clerk of the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana (1918–33) Keith Lehr (born 1963) – two-time World Series of Poker bracelet winner, born and resides in Bossier City John A. Lejeune (1867–1942) – Marine Corps general Don Lemon (born 1966) – journalist and television anchor; host of CNN Newsroom Countess Leon (1798–1881) – founder of Germantown Colony in Webster Parish Elmore Leonard (1925–2013) – crime and western novelist; born in New Orleans Joe LeSage (1928–2015) – former state senator for Caddo Parish; LSU supervisor and Shreveport attorney Jim Leslie (1937–1976) – journalist; advertising executive; assassinated in Baton Rouge Jared Leto (born 1971) – actor; lead singer and guitarist of the alternative rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars Shannon Leto (born 1970) – drummer of the alternative rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars, occasional actor Zachary Levi (born 1980) – actor, Less than Perfect, Chuck Jerry Lee Lewis (born 1935) – musician Keenan Lewis (born 1986) – cornerback for the New Orleans Saints Michael Lewis (born 1960) – author; financial journalist; Moneyball, The Blind Side Patrick Lewis (born 1991) – center for the Seattle Seahawks Rashard Lewis (born 1979) – forward for the Orlando Magic Lil Wayne (born Dwayne Michael Carter Jr.) – rapper Coleman Lindsey (1892–1968) – politician Meghan Linsey (born 1985) – musician, singer/songwriter, and contestant on The Voice season 8 F. A. Little Jr. (born 1936) – judge of the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana Little Walter (1930–1968) – blues harmonica player Lloyd Harlin Polite (born 1986) – R&B singer Nate Livings (born 1982) – guard for the Dallas Cowboys Bob Livingston (born 1943) – Member of Congress (1977–99) Edward Livingston (1764–1836) – Member of Congress; United States Secretary of State Lloyd (born 1986) – contemporary R&B and hip hop artist Bennie Logan (born 1989) – nose tackle for the Philadelphia Eagles Earl Kemp Long (1895–1960) – Governor of Louisiana (1939–40, 1948–52 and 1956–60) George S. Long (1883–1958) – US Representative Gerald Long (born 1944) – Republican state senator from Natchitoches; only elected Republican official of the Long family Huey Pierce Long Jr. (1893–1935) – Governor of Louisiana; US Senator Jimmy D. Long (1931–2016) – politician Russell Long (1918–2003) – US Senator Speedy O. Long (1928–2006) – US Representative; district attorney from La Salle Parish Professor Longhair (1918–1980) – musician John L. Loos (1918–2011) – historian Joseph Lopinto (born c. 1976) – state representative from Jefferson Parish Morris Lottinger Jr. (born c. 1938) – politician Morris Lottinger Sr. (1902–1978) – politician Lance Louis (born 1985) – offensive guard for the Indianapolis Colts Aaron Loup (born 1987) – relief pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays Margaret Lowenthal (1929–2003) – first woman state representative for Calcasieu Parish, service from 1980 to 1988 Fred L. Lowery (born 1943) – clergyman; author J. A. W. Lowry (1848–1899) – politician in Bossier Parish Bobby Lowther (1923–2015) – only two-sport (basketball and track and field) All-American at Louisiana State University (1946) Cornelius Lucas (born 1991) – offensive tackle for the Detroit Lions Jay Luneau (born 1962) – state senator and lawyer from Alexandria, effective 2016 Robert L. Lynn (1931–2020) – president of Louisiana College from 1975 to 1997 Hall Lyons (1923–1998) – oilman; politician Ted Lyons (1900–1986) – Hall of Fame baseball player M Sherman Q. Mack (born 1972) – politician Anthony Mackie (born 1979) – actor, Million Dollar Baby, The Hurt Locker, Captain America Magic Sam (1937–1969) – blues music pioneer John Maginnis (1948–2014) – journalist; author Mikie Mahtook (born 1989) – outfielder for the Tampa Bay Rays Karl Malone (born 1963) – Hall of Fame basketball player, mainly with the Utah Jazz Jeff Mangum (born 1970) – musician; founder of Neutral Milk Hotel Robert "Bob" Mann (born 1958) – journalist, historian Archie Manning (born 1949) – former New Orleans Saints quarterback; father of Eli, Cooper and Peyton Cooper Manning (born 1974) – television personality; brother of Eli and Peyton Eli Manning (born 1981) – New York Giants quarterback; son of Archie Manning; brother of Peyton and Cooper Peyton Manning (born 1976) – retired Denver Broncos quarterback; son of Archie Manning; brother of Eli and Cooper Tommy Manzella (born 1983) – shortstop for the Colorado Rockies "Pistol" Pete Maravich (1947–1988) – basketball player, LSU and NBA Hall of Famer Paul Mares (1900–1949) – musician Anna Margaret (born 1996) – singer Angélica María (born 1944) – Mexican actress and singer Robert M. Marionneaux (born 1968) – politician Branford Marsalis (born 1960) – musician Ellis Marsalis Jr. (1934–2020) – musician; educator Ellis Marsalis Sr. (1908–2004) – poultry farmer; jazz musician; hotelier; civil rights activist Wynton Marsalis (born 1961) – musician Leonard Marshall (born 1961) – former defensive end, primarily for the New York Giants Samuel W. Martien (1854–1946) – planter; politician Wade O. Martin Jr. (1911–1990) – secretary of state Danny Martiny (born 1951) – politician Charles A. Marvin (1929–2003) – district attorney; judge Rod Masterson (1945–2013) – actor Tyrann Mathieu (born 1992) – free safety and cornerback for the Arizona Cardinals Frank H. Mayer (1850–1954) – American frontiersman born in New Orleans; most associated with Park County, Colorado Vance McAllister (born 1974) – U.S. representative from Louisiana's 5th congressional district W. T. McCain (1913–1993) – politician from Grant Parish Jay McCallum (born 1960) – state district court judge since 2003; former state representative for Lincoln and Union parishes James T. McCalman (1914–1977) – state senator from Claiborne and Bienville parishes (1960–64) Todd McClure (born 1977) – center for the Atlanta Falcons John McConathy (1930–2016) – professional basketball player and educator Mike McConathy (born 1955) – basketball coach at Northwestern State University since 1999; son of John McConathy Billy McCormack (1928–2012) – Southern Baptist clergyman; national director of the Christian Coalition of America C. L. McCrary (1905–1989) – state representative for Bienville Parish (1960–64) Jim McCrery (born 1949) – US Representative Sidney McCrory (1911–1985) – Louisiana Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry (1956–60) Charles R. McDonald (born 1938) – former state representative from Morehouse and Ouachita parishes Jack McFarland (born 1969) – state representative from Winn Parish, effective 2016 Eugene McGehee (1928–2014) – state legislator; judge; from East Baton Rouge Parish Tim McGraw (born 1967) – country musician; actor John McKeithen (1918–1999) – Governor of Louisiana (1964–72) W. Fox McKeithen (1946–2005) – Louisiana secretary of state (1988–2005) Charles E. McKenzie (1896–1956) – U.S. representative Baylus Benjamin McKinney (1886–1952) – Christian singer-songwriter Joe McKnight (born 1988) – tailback for the New York Jets James M. McLemore (1907–1997) – politician; businessman A. J. McNamara (1936–2014) – state representative; U.S. District Judge from Jefferson Parish Gil Meche (born 1978) – MLB pitcher Leon C. Megginson (1921–2010), LSU professor noted for his clarifying statements about Darwinism D. L. Menard (1932–2017) – Cajun musician from Erath Adah Isaacs Menken (1835–1868) – actress Mildred Methvin (born 1952) – judge Emile Meyer (1910–1987) – actor Jerome Meyinsse (born 1988) – basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Quintin Mikell (born 1980) – safety for the St. Louis Rams Lizzie Miles (1895–1963) – singer Wade Miley (born 1986) – relief pitcher for the Houston Astros Gregory A. Miller (born 1962) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from St. Charles Parish Roderick Miller (1924–2005) – politician; lawyer Percy "Master P" Miller (born 1967) – musician; actor; record producer; athlete Fred H. Mills Jr. (born 1955) – politician, pharmacist, banker Jordan Mills (born 1990) – offensive tackle for the Chicago Bears Newt V. Mills (1899–1996) – U.S. representative Paul Millsap (born 1985) – power forward for the Utah Jazz Alexander Milne (1742–1838) – businessman; slave trader; philanthropist Barkevious Mingo (born 1990) – outside linebacker for the New England Patriots H. Lane Mitchell (1895–1978) – Shreveport commissioner of public works (1934–68) RJ Mitte (born 1992) – actor, Walt Jr. on Breaking Bad Beth Mizell (born 1952) – state senator for St. Tammany, Tangipahoa, and Washington parishes since 2016 Randy Moffett (born 1947) – educator Bill Monroe (1920–2011) – journalist, host of Meet the Press (1975–84) Greg Monroe (born 1990) – center for the Detroit Pistons Billy Montgomery (born 1937) – politician; former educator Little Brother Montgomery (c. 1906–1985) – musician Chris Mooney (born 1977) – journalist and author A. Brown Moore (1911–1987) – businessman; politician Cleo Moore (1923–1973) – actress (1950s) Danny Roy Moore (1925–c. 2020) – state senator from Claiborne Parish (1964–68) Ellen Bryan Moore (1912–1999) – Register of State Lands; captain in Women's Army Corps during World War II Mewelde Moore (born 1982) – running back for the Indianapolis Colts W. Henson Moore (born 1939) – US Representative T. J. Moran (1930–2015) – businessman; restaurateur; philanthropist; from Baton Rouge Jackie Moreland (1938–1971) – professional basketball player Aaron Morgan (born 1988) – outside linebacker and defensive end for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers Cecil Morgan (1898–1999) – state legislator; led the impeachment forces against Huey Pierce Long Jr.; executive with Standard Oil Company; dean of Tulane University Law School Elemore Morgan Jr. (1931–2008) – landscape painter and photographer Lewis L. Morgan (1876–1950) – U.S. representative; gubernatorial runoff candidate (1944) S. M. Morgan Jr. (1922–1982) – state representative from Red River Parish (1964–68) Dutch Morial (1929–1989) – judge; mayor of New Orleans Arthur A. Morrell (born 1943) – New Orleans clerk of the criminal court (since 2006); state representative (1984–2006) Cynthia Hedge-Morrell (born 1947) – member of the New Orleans City Council Jean-Paul Morrell (born 1978) – New Orleans lawyer and member of both houses of the Louisiana State Legislature Jay Morris (born 1958) – state representative from Ouachita and Morehouse parishes deLesseps Morrison Jr. (1944–1996) – state representative from Orleans Parish deLesseps S. "Chep" Morrison (1912–1964) – mayor of New Orleans; ambassador to the Organization of American States; three-time gubernatorial candidate Logan Morrison (born 1987) – outfielder and first baseman for the Seattle Mariners Morgus the Magnificent – fictional horror host (1950s–1980s) Paul Morphy (1837–1884) – world chess champion Garrett Morris (born 1937) – actor and comedian, Saturday Night Live Isaac Edward Morse (1809–1866) – Attorney General of Louisiana; US Member of Congress Jelly Roll Morton (1890–1941) – musician; composer; self-proclaimed "inventor of jazz" Alicia Morton (born 1987) – actress Alexander Mouton (1804–1885) – Governor; United States Senator Jonas Mouton (born 1988) – linebacker for the San Diego Chargers Bernhard Müller (1788–1834) – colonizer of Grand Ecore in Natchitoches Parish Robert J. Munson (1912–1996) – state representatives from Rapides Parish (1956–73) W. Spencer Myrick (1913–2001) – state legislator from West Carroll Parish N Ray Nagin (born 1956) – mayor of New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina; convicted felon George Nattin (1918–2002) – mayor of Bossier City (1961–73) Edward F. Neild (1884–1955) – architect; from Shreveport Ed Nelson (1928–2014) – actor, Peyton Place Sydney B. Nelson (1935-2022) – state senator Aaron Neville (born 1941) – singer Arthel Neville (born 1962) – anchor for Fox News Drake Nevis (born 1989) – defensive tackle for the Dallas Cowboys Josephine Louise Newcomb (1816–1901) – philanthropist (Newcomb College) Malik Newman (born 1997), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Randy Newman (born 1943) – singer-songwriter; pianist Francis T. Nicholls (1834–1912) – Governor of Louisiana Lance E. Nichols (born 1955) – actor, Treme Elwyn Nicholson (1923–2014) – state senator from Jefferson Parish (1972–88) J. Kelly Nix (born 1934) – politician; businessman Taurean Nixon (born 1991) – cornerback for the Denver Broncos James A. Noe (1890–1976) – Governor of Louisiana (for five months in 1936); oil driller; broadcaster Rico Noel (born 1989) – outfielder for the New York Yankees Aaron Nola (born 1993) – MLB All Star baseball pitcher Dave Norris (born 1942) – mayor of West Monroe (1978–2018) William Wiley Norris III (1936–2016) – city, district, and circuit court judge from West Monroe Solomon Northrup (1807–1863) – abolitionist Barbara Norton (born 1946) – state representative for Caddo Parish (since 2008) Alcide Nunez (1884–1934) – musician Samuel B. Nunez Jr. (1930–2012) – politician William Harold "Billy" Nungesser (born 1959) – Republican politician O Prentiss Oakley (1905–1957) – Bienville Parish sheriff (1940–52); in posse that ambushed Bonnie and Clyde in 1934 Frank Ocean (born 1987) – Grammy Award-nominated R&B singer Alton Ochsner (1896–1981) – surgeon; medical researcher Kenneth L. Odinet Sr. (born 1930) – state representative for Orleans and St. Bernard parishes (1988–2008) Bob Odom (1935–2014) – state agriculture commissioner (1980–2008); longest-serving individual in that office Ethma Odum (1931–2009) – pioneer woman television personality at KALB-TV in Alexandria Arthur J. O'Keefe Sr. (1876–1943) – mayor of New Orleans (1926–29) Michael H. O'Keefe (1931–2021) – politician; convicted felon Henry Warren Ogden (1842–1905) – politician Taylor W. O'Hearn (1907–1997) – politician Shaquille O'Neal – former LSU and NBA player, Basketball Hall of Famer Joe "King" Oliver (1885–1938) – jazz musician Virgil Orr (1923–2021) – state representative; vice president, Louisiana Tech University Joe Osborn (1937–2018) – musician Kenneth Osterberger (1930–2016) – state senator from East Baton Rouge Parish, 1972 to 1992; former opponent of David Duke Lee Harvey Oswald (1939–1963) – presumed assassin of U.S. President John F. Kennedy Lionel Ott (1894–1987) – politician; businessman George T. Oubre (1918–1998) – politician; from St. James Parish Darrell Ourso (born 1964) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from East Baton Rouge Parish (since 2015) Jessel Ourso (1932–1978) – sheriff of Iberville Parish John H. Overton (1875–1948) – US Senator Mel Ott (1909–1958) – Hall of Fame baseball player Don Owen (1930–2012) – news anchor; politician P Robert Pack (born 1969) – NBA player and coach Frank Page (1925–2013) – radio broadcaster, KWKH in Shreveport James George Palmer (1875–1952) – Mayor of Shreveport (1930–32); Judge, Louisiana Circuit Court of Appeals (1932–33) Jonathan Papelbon (born 1980) – closer for the Philadelphia Phillies Robert Parish (born 1953) – Hall of Fame basketball player Hugh G. Parker Jr. (1934–2007) – architect Larry Parker (1922–1996) – businessman; state representative from Rapides Parish John M. Parker (1863–1939) – Governor of Louisiana (1920–24) John Victor Parker (1928–2014) – federal judge (1979–2014) Mel Parnell (1922–2012) – pitcher for the Boston Red Sox Edward Grady Partin (1924–1990) – Teamsters Union business agent in Baton Rouge Otto Passman (1900–1988) – U.S. Representative Paul Pastorek (born 1954) – politician, lawyer, educational specialist William S. Patout III (1932–2017) – sugar grower in Iberia Parish David I. Patten (1920–1998) – politician Carly Patterson (born 1988) – Olympic gold medalist in gymnastics B. R. Patton (1920–1999) – state senator from Lincoln and Union parishes (1956–64) Felix Octave Pavy (1879–1962) – physician and politician from St. Landry Parish James E. Paxton (born 1963) – district attorney of Louisiana 6th Judicial District E. N. Payne (1873–1951) – state representative for Webster Parish (1932–36) Elfrid Payton (born 1994) – Point guard for the Orlando Magic of the National Basketball Association Nicholas Payton (born 1973) – musician Joe Raymond Peace (born 1945) – football coach Dave L. Pearce (1904–1984) – politician Kevin Pearson (born 1959) – politician Jesse Pearson (1930–1979) – actor and screenwriter Charles B. Peatross (1940–2015) – circuit court judge in Shreveport William S. Peck Jr. (1916–1987) – politician William S. Peck Sr. (1873–1946) – politician Harvey Peltier Jr. (1923–1980) – politician Harvey Peltier Sr. (1899–1977) – politician Leander Perez (1891–1969) – District judge; political boss of St. Bernard and Plaquemine parishes (1919–69) Tony Perkins (born 1963) – conservative politician; head of the Family Research Council Ralph Perlman (1917–2013) – state budget director (1967–88) Pauley Perrette (born 1969) – singer and actress (NCIS) Ryan Perrilloux (born 1987) – quarterback Jonathan W. Perry (born 1973) – politician Tyler Perry (born 1969) – television and film producer, writer, actor, director Jace Peterson (born 1990) – second baseman for the Atlanta Braves Bob Pettit (born 1932) – Hall of Fame basketball player (1954–65) Andy Pettitte (born 1972) – former starting pitcher for the New York Yankees and Houston Astros Marguerite Piazza (1921–2012) – operatic soprano John S. Pickett Jr. (1920–2014) – state representative; state court judge; from Sabine Parish Abe E. Pierce III (1934–2021) – politician; educator Webb Pierce (1921–1991) – singer Wendell Pierce (born 1962) – actor, Bunk Moreland on The Wire Juan Pierre (born 1977) – outfielder for the Miami Marlins Vincent Pierre (born 1964) – state representative for Lafayette Parish (since 2012) P.B.S. Pinchback (1837–1921) – politician, Governor of Louisiana Glen Pitre (born 1955) – filmmaker Loulan Pitre Jr. (born 1961) – lawyer in New Orleans; former state representative for Lafourche Parish Montgomery Pittman (1917–1962) – actor, screenwriter, producer, known for 77 Sunset Strip Vance Plauché (1897-1976) - U.S. Representative, 1941 to 1943 Dustin Poirier (born 1989) – UFC fighter Leonidas Polk (1806–1864) – Confederate general; Episcopal bishop; founder of Sewanee: The University of the South Tracy Porter (born 1986) – cornerback for the Oakland Raiders Dante Powell, stand-up comedian Henry "Tank" Powell (born 1945) – politician Mike Powell (born 1961) – Shreveport politician Robert E. Powell (1923–1997) – mayor of Monroe from 1979 to 1996 Julien de Lallande Poydras (1740–1824) – poet, politician Steve Prator (born 1951) – Caddo Parish sheriff Phil Preis (born 1950) – politician Sister Helen Prejean (born 1938) – activist Arthur T. Prescott (1863–1942) – educator and founding president of Louisiana Tech University Dak Prescott (born 1993) – quarterback for the Dallas Cowboys Edward J. Price (born 1953) – state representative for Ascension, Iberville, and St. James parishes (since 2012) Louis Prima (1910–1978) – musician, entertainer Professor Longhair (1918–1980) – musician Albin Provosty (1865–1932) – politician from New Roads Paul Prudhomme (1940–2015) – chef Keith M. Pyburn (1910–1967) – state representative for Caddo Parish (1948–52) Q Chris Quinn (born 1983) – point guard for the New Jersey Nets R Paul Rae (born 1968) – actor Max Rafferty (1917–1982) – author ;educator; California politician Henry Ragas (1897–1919) – early jazz pianist Kevin Rahm (born 1971) – actor Tanner Rainey (born 1992) – relief pitcher for the Washington Nationals Melvin Rambin (1941–2001) – politician; banker Rueben Randle (born 1991) – wide receiver for the New York Giants Kevin Rankin (born 1976) – actor, Friday Night Lights, Trauma, Unforgettable Ed Rand (1920–1999) – state representative from Rapides Parish (1960–64) Joseph E. Ransdell (1858–1954) – U.S. representative from Louisiana's 5th congressional district; U.S. senator (1913–31) John Rarick (1924–2009) – US Representative; state court judge Clyde V. Ratcliff (1879–1952) – politician; planter Eddy Raven (born 1944) – singer-songwriter Donald Rawson (1925–2014) – historian Shawn Reaves (born 1978) – actor Mac "Dr John" Rebbenack (born 1940) – pianist, singer-songwriter Ed Reed (born 1978) – NFL free safety Willis Reed (1941–2019) – Hall of Fame basketball player with the New York Knicks; NBA head coach Pee Wee Reese (1918–1999) – Hall of Fame shortstop for the Brooklyn and Los Angeles Dodgers Terry Reeves (1946–2005) – district attorney for Winn Parish (1991–2005, his death) Godfrey Reggio (born 1940) – filmmaker Eric Reid (born 1991) – safety for the San Francisco 49ers Sean Reilly (born 1961) – state representative; chief operating officer of Lamar Advertising Company Ed Renwick (1938–2020) – political scientist Darius Reynaud (born 1985) – wide receiver and running back for the Tennessee Titans Gene Reynolds (born 1950) – state representative Slater Rhea (Shuai De, ) – American singer and TV personality famous in China; born in Alexandria Doris Lindsey Holland Rhodes (1909–1997) – politician Anne Rice (1941–2021) – author Jerome "Dee" Richard (born 1955) – politician Teddy Riley (1924–1992) – jazz trumpeter Norbert Rilleaux (1806–1894) – inventor; engineer Edward Ripoll (1924–2006) – state representative; bar owner in New Orleans Neil Riser (born 1962) – state senator, 2008 to 2020; state representative since 2020 Randy Roach (born 1951) – mayor of Lake Charles since 2000 Joel Robideaux (born 1962) – politician Cokie Roberts (1943–2019) – television journalist; author; daughter of Hale Boggs and Lindy Boggs Robert Roberts Jr. (1872 – date of death missing) – politician from Union and Webster parishes Kay Robertson (born 1950) – television personality Phil Robertson (born 1946) – television personality Si Robertson (born 1948) – television personality Scotty Robertson (1930–2011) – basketball coach Greg Robinson (born 1992) – offensive tackle for the St. Louis Rams W. C. Robinson (1861–1914) – educator George Rodrigue (1944–2013) – "Blue Dog" artist Buddy Roemer (1943–2021) – governor of Louisiana (1988–92) Charles E. Roemer II (1923–2012) – state commissioner of administration (1972–80) Chas Roemer (born 1970) – president of the Louisiana Board of Elementary and Secondary Education (since 2012) Ned Romero (1925–2017) – actor; originally from Franklin Ralph L. Ropp (1897–1982) – president of Louisiana Tech University (1949–62) Leon Roppolo (1902–1943) – musician Jacques Roy (born 1970) – mayor of Alexandria (since 2006) Alvin Benjamin Rubin (1920–1991) – federal judge Barry Rubin (born 1957) – Head Strength and Conditioning Coach of the Kansas City Chiefs in the NFL Robert Edwin Russ (1830–1902) – founder of Ruston, Louisiana Bill Russell (born 1934) – Hall of Fame center for the Boston Celtics; NBA coach Weldon Russell (born 1946) – politician; businessman S Jeffrey D. Sadow (born 1962) – political scientist; columnist; educator Larry Sale (1893–1977) – sheriff of Claiborne Parish Joe R. Salter (born 1943) – politician, educator A. T. "Apple" Sanders Jr. (1926–1989) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from East Baton Rouge Parish (1956–64) Roy Sanders (1904–1976) – educator; state legislator from Natchitoches Parish John N. Sandlin (1872–1957) – U. S. representative from Louisiana's 4th congressional district (1921–37) McIntyre H. Sandlin (c. 1870–1955) – politician in Minden Nicholas J. Sandlin (1832–1896) – politician in Webster Parish Jean Oliver Sartor (1918–2007) – artist Kurtis Scaletta – writer Clay Schexnayder (born 1969) – state representative; businessman John Schroder (born 1961) – former state representative from Covington; businessman Mike Scifres (born 1980) – punter for the San Diego Chargers Ashley Scott (born 1977) – actress, model, Jericho, Dark Angel, Birds of Prey Nauman Scott (1916–2001) – U.S. District Court judge Pat Screen (1943–1994) – mayor-president of East Baton Rouge Parish (1981–88) Alan Seabaugh (born 1967) – state representative J.C. Seaman (1898–1964) – state representative from Tensas Parish (1944–64) Sam Seamans (born 1967) – Anglican Church bishop in Mountain Home, Arkansas; born in Morgan City Aaron Selber Jr. (1927–2013) – businessman and philanthropist Joe Sevario (born 1944) – state senator from Ascension Parish, 1976–94 Henry Clay Sevier (1896–1974) – politician V. C. Shannon (1910–1989) – politician Amanda Shaw (born 1990) – actress; singer; fiddler B. L. Shaw (1933-2018) - former state senator, educator Rhonda Shear (born 1954) – beauty queen; television host Ben Sheets (born 1978) – MLB pitcher Virginia Shehee (1923-2015) -first woman elected to Louisiana Senate Clarence Shelmon (born 1952) – NFL offensive coordinator Kenny Wayne Shepherd (born 1977) – musician Alana Shipp (born 1982) – American-Israeli IFBB professional bodybuilder Chris Shivers (born 1978) – professional bull rider Henry Miller Shreve (1785–1854) – inventor; steamboat captain Phil Short (born 1947) – state senator; relocated to Virginia Rockin' Sidney (1938–1998) – Zydeco musician Richard Simmons (born 1948) – fitness authority; television personality Scott M. Simon (born 1961) – state representative Tharold Simon (born 1991) – cornerback for the Seattle Seahawks Frank P. Simoneaux (born 1933) – state representative from East Baton Rouge Parish (1972–82) C. O. Simpkins Sr. (1925–2019) – state representative from Shreveport; civil rights activist, and dentist Cuthbert Ormond Simpkins Jr. (born 1947) – physician and historian, reared in Shreveport Oramel H. Simpson (1870–1932) – Governor of Louisiana (1926–28) Fulwar Skipwith (1765–1839) – diplomat; politician Eric Skrmetta (born 1958) – politician John Slidell (1793–1871) – U.S. Senator; Confederate diplomat Soulja Slim (1977–2003) – musician Donald Sloan (born 1988) – guard for the Atlanta Hawks LeRoy Smallenberger (1912–2002) – Republican lawyer; politician Argile Smith (born 1955) – interim president of Louisiana College (2014–15) Dorothy Garrett Smith (c. 1932–1990) – first woman president of the Louisiana Board of Elementary and Secondary Education George Luke Smith (1837–1884) – U.S. representative from Louisiana's 4th congressional district Howard K. Smith (1914–2002) – television journalist; reporter James Peyton Smith (1925–2006) – politician Jasper K. Smith (1905–1992) – politician John R. Smith (born 1945) – politician Otis Smith (born 1965) – New England Patriots cornerback; Kansas City Chiefs assistant coach Patricia Haynes Smith (born 1946) – state representative from Baton Rouge Ada Jack Carver Snell (1890–1972) – short story writer Jefferson B. Snyder (1859–1951) – politician Robert H. Snyder (1855–1905) – politician Guy Sockrider (1921–2011) – politician Steven Soderbergh (born 1963) – film producer; screenwriter; cinematographer; director Floyd Soileau (born 1938) – record producer Ian Somerhalder (born 1978) – actor; model Art Sour (1924–2000) – State Representative from Shreveport (1972–92) James Z. Spearing (1864–1942) – politician Britney Spears (born 1981) – singer; actress Bryan Spears (born 1977) – film and television producer Jamie Lynn Spears (born 1991) – actress; singer Lynne Spears (born 1955) – author Marcus Spears (born 1983) – defensive end for the Dallas Cowboys Freddie Spencer (born 1961) – world motorcycle champion Mason Spencer (1892–1962) – politician Tommy Spinks (1948–2007) – football player Tam Spiva (1932–2017) – screenwriter Frank Spooner (born 1937) – businessman and politician David Theophilus Stafford (1849–1926) – sheriff of Rapides Parish, 1888–1904 Grove Stafford (1897–1975) – state senator for Rapides Parish, 1940–48 Leroy Augustus Stafford (1822–1864) – Confederate brigadier general Tom Stagg (1923–2015) – Judge of the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana Richard Stalder (born 1951) – secretary of the Louisiana Department of Public Safety & Corrections Rusty Staub (1944–2018) – MLB right fielder, designated hitter, and first baseman Edward J. Steimel (1922–2016) – lobbyist and founder of Louisiana Association of Business and Industry Craig Steltz (born 1986) – safety for the Chicago Bears Alton Sterling (1979–2016) – black man fatally shot by a police officer in Baton Rouge E. L. Stewart (1872–1956) – Minden lawyer and state representative for Webster Parish from 1904 to 1908 Kordell Stewart (born 1972) – NFL quarterback and wide receiver Karen St. Germain (born c. 1957) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Iberville and Assumption parishes (since 2004) Dennis Stine (born 1952) – businessman and politician from Lake Charles Tim Stine (born 1956) – businessman and politician from Sulphur in Calcasieu Parish Ford E. 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Williams (born 1934) – retired football coach Brian "Baby" Williams (born 1969) – record executive; record producer; entrepreneur; musician Chris Williams (born 1985) – offensive guard for the Chicago Bears Doug Williams (born 1955) – NFL quarterback, led Washington Redskins to Super Bowl XXII championship Duke Williams (born 1990) – safety for the Buffalo Bills Gerald Williams (born 1966) – former Major League Baseball outfielder Hank Williams Jr. (born 1949) – singer Kyle Williams (born 1983) – defensive tackle for the Buffalo Bills Lucinda Williams (born 1963) – singer-songwriter; musician Patrick C. Williams (born 1963) – state representative for Caddo Parish T. Harry Williams (1909–1979) – historian Tramon Williams (born 1983) – cornerback for the Green Bay Packers Norris C. Williamson (1874–1949) – politician Edwin E. Willis (1904–1972) – US Representative (1949–69) Tom Willmott (born 1960) – state representative from Jefferson Parish (since 2008) Harry D. Wilson (1869–1948) – Louisiana Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry (1916–48) Justin E. Wilson (1914–2001) – Cajun; raconteur; chef; humorist; politician Peggy Wilson (born 1937) – Republican politician; former member of the New Orleans City Council Riley J. Wilson (1871–1946) – U.S. representative Rush Wimberly (1873–1943) – politician Stephen J. Windhorst (born 1957) – judge; state representative John D. Winters (1917–1998) – historian Tommy Wiseau (born 1968) – screenwriter; director; producer; executive producer; actor Reese Witherspoon (born 1976) – Academy Award-winning actress A. Baldwin Wood (1879–1956) – inventor; engineer Susan Ward (born 1976) – actress; model Ebony Woodruff (born 1980) – state representative for Jefferson Parish from 2013 to 2016 Xavier Woods (born 1995) – safety for the Dallas Cowboys J. Robert Wooley (born 1953) – politician Orlando Woolridge (1959–2012) – NBA power forward for several teams G. L. P. Wren (1836–1901) – member of both houses of the Louisiana legislature; farmer in Webster Parish Zelma Wyche (1918–1999) – politician; civil rights activist Y Andrew Young (born 1932) – politician and civil rights advocate Lester Young (1909–1959) – musician Thaddeus Young (born 1988) – small forward for the Philadelphia 76ers Peter Youree (1843–1914) – Shreveport businessman Z Samuel Zemurray (1877–1961) – businessman; philanthropist Jerome Zeringue (born 1962) – state representative for Lafourche and Terrebonne parishes, effective 2016 Buckwheat Zydeco (1947–2016) – musician See also Lists of Americans List of people from New Orleans, Louisiana Notes

227880

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passau

Passau

Passau (; ) is a city in Lower Bavaria, Germany, also known as the Dreiflüssestadt ("City of Three Rivers") as the river Danube is joined by the Inn from the south and the Ilz from the north. Passau's population is approx. 50,000, of whom about 12,000 are students at the University of Passau, renowned in Germany for its institutes of economics, law, theology, computer science and cultural studies. History In the 2nd century BC, many of the Boii tribe were pushed north across the Alps out of northern Italy by the Romans. They established a new capital called Boiodurum by the Romans (from Gaulish Boioduron), now within the Innstadt district of Passau. Passau was an ancient Roman colony called Batavis, Latin for "for the Batavi." The Batavi were an ancient Germanic tribe often mentioned by classical authors, and they were regularly associated with the Suebian marauders, the Heruli. Batavis (Passau-Altstadt) was a Roman castrum in the province of Raetia, while another late Roman castrum, Boiotro (Passau-Innstadt), was in the province of Noricum. During the second half of the 5th century, St. Severinus established a monastery here. The site was subject to repeated raids by the Alemanni. In 739, the recently consecrated English archbishop Boniface founded the diocese of Passau, which for many years was the largest diocese of the German Kingdom/Holy Roman Empire, covering territory in southern Bavaria and most of what is now Upper and Lower Austria. From the 10th century the bishops of Passau also exercised secular authority as Prince-Bishops in the immediate area around Passau (see ). In the Treaty of Passau (1552), Archduke Ferdinand I, representing Emperor Charles V, secured the agreement of the Protestant princes to submit the religious question to a diet. This led to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. During the Renaissance and early modern period, Passau was one of the most prolific centres of sword and bladed weapon manufacture in Germany (after Solingen). Passau smiths stamped their blades with the Passau wolf, usually a rather simplified rendering of the wolf on the city's coat-of-arms. Superstitious warriors believed that the Passau wolf conferred invulnerability on the blade's bearer, and thus Passau swords acquired a great premium. According to the , aside from the wolf, some cabalistic signs and inscriptions were added. As a result, the whole practice of placing magical charms on swords to protect the wearers came to be known for a time as "Passau art". (See Eduard Wagner, Cut and Thrust Weapons, 1969.) Other cities' smiths, including those of Solingen, recognized the marketing value of the Passau wolf and adopted it for themselves. By the 17th century, Solingen was producing more wolf-stamped blades than Passau was. In 1662, a devastating fire consumed most of the city. Passau was subsequently rebuilt in the Baroque style. Passau was secularised and divided between the Electorate of Bavaria and the Electorate of Salzburg in 1803. The portion belonging to Salzburg became part of Bavaria in 1805. From 1892 until 1894, Adolf Hitler and his family lived in Passau. The city archives mention Hitler being in Passau on four occasions in the 1920s for speeches. In addition, Heinrich Himmler spent some time there. In November 1933, the building of (Hall of the Nibelungs) was announced. Intended to hold 8,000 to 10,000 guests, and another 30,000 in front of it, in 1935 the hall also became quarters for a unit of the Austrian Legion. Beginning in 1934, these troops had occupied a building that belonged to Sigmund Mandl, a Jewish merchant. That building, in turn, was referred to as SA barracks. Beginning in 1940, Passau offered the building at Bräugasse 13 to Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle. During World War II, the city also housed three sub-camps of the infamous Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp: Passau I (Oberilzmühle), Passau II (Waldwerke Passau-Ilzstadt) and Passau III (Jandelsbrunn). From January to May 1945, refugees from East Prussia and Silesia passed the city, after May, as the result of ethnic cleansing of neighboring Bohemia and Moravia of their German populace, further waves of refugees arrived in the city. On May 3, 1945, a message from Major General Stanley Eric Reinhart’s 261st Infantry Regiment stated at 3:15 am: "AMG Officer has unconditional surrender of PASSAU signed by Burgermeister, Chief of Police and Lt. Col of Med Corps there. All troops are to turn themselves in this morning." It was the site of a post World War II American sector displaced persons camp. On 2 June 2013, the old town suffered from severe flooding as a result of several days of rain and its location at the confluence of three rivers Peak elevations of floods as early as 1501 are displayed on a wall at the Old City Hall. Flood water reaches the base of that wall on average once every 5 years. Subdivisions Until 2013, the City of Passau was subdivided into eight statistical districts, which in general coincide with formerly separate municipalities. Since 2013, the city is divided in 16 so-called areas of open council ("Bürgerversammlungsgebiete"). Main sights Many river cruises down the Danube start at Passau and there is a cycling path all the way down to Vienna. It is on the designated heritage route, the Route of Emperors and Kings. Passau is notable for its gothic and baroque architecture. The city is dominated by the Veste Oberhaus and the Veste Niederhaus, both parts of the former fortress of the Bishop, on the mountain crest between the Danube and the Ilz. Tourism in Passau focuses mainly on the three rivers, the St. Stephen's Cathedral (Der Passauer Stephansdom) and the "Old City" (Die Altstadt). With 17,774 pipes and 233 registers, the organ at St. Stephen's was long held to be the largest church pipe organ in the world and is today second in size only to the organ at First Congregational Church of Los Angeles, which was expanded in 1994. Organ concerts are held daily between May and September. St.Stephen's is a true masterpiece of Italian Baroque, built by Italian architect Carlo Lurago and decorated in part by Carpoforo Tencalla. Among many other churches are the Jesuits church of St. Michael, the oldest parish church of St. Paul and the pilgrim church Mariahilf on the hill south of the rivers Inn and Danube. Before the cathedral is a large square (Domplatz) with the Lamberg-Palais, where the Peace of Passau was concluded. The medieval Old Residence south of the cathedral and the baroque New Residence further west at Residenzplatz were the palaces of the Prince-Bishops within the city. Right beside the 14th century Gothic city hall with its neo Gothic tower and the big 19th century former Hauptzollamtsgebäude (Main Customs Office) at the Danube is the Scharfrichterhaus, an important jazz and cabaret stage on which political cabaret is performed. Image gallery Migrant entry point Due to its location on the German-Austrian border, and in the south-east of the country, Passau has become a major migrant entry point into Germany. Refugees and economic migrants from the Middle East, Asia and Africa who have reached Europe, often entering either overland via Greece or across the sea via the Mediterranean (see Operation Triton), then head north and sometimes enter Germany. In 2015 the BBC reported that traffickers drive migrants and refugees through Austria and leave them on the side of the autobahn. The migrants and refugees then often walk unaccompanied into Passau, the first German town northwards. This situation has caused the government of Passau to divert funds from flood prevention to housing and feeding the refugees and migrants, around 10% of whom are unaccompanied children. Abortion controversy A traditionally very Catholic region, Passau and Lower Bavaria have made national news for a lack of access to safe abortion. Due to a political decision in the city council, staff at the Municipal Clinic are prevented from performing abortions in accordance with §218a (1) of the German Penal Code, which permits abortions up to 12 weeks of pregnancy after mandatory counselling. After the last gynaecologist performing abortions retired in early 2020, women had to travel more than 100km to get an abortion. This development fits into a wider pattern of declining numbers of gynaecologists performing abortions, often due to the harassment of pro-life activists protesting in front of doctor's offices and reporting doctors who perform abortions to the police. In order to improve access to abortions in Passau and fight for a complete legalisation and destigmatisation of abortions, in 2019 several political and civic groups founded the Coalition For Bodily Autonomy. Since the 1990s, there have been protests in favour of the right to abortion. In recent years, the "Coalition For Bodily Autonomy" staged counter-protests against an anti-abortion campaigner who regularly takes part in the international campaign 40 Days for Life protesting in front of the pro familia counselling centre that women seeking an abortion are mandated to visit in order to have an abortion. Twin towns - sister cities Passau is twinned with: Hackensack, United States (1952) Cagnes-sur-Mer, France (1973) Krems an der Donau, Austria (1974) Akita, Japan (1984) Málaga, Spain (1987) České Budějovice, Czech Republic (1993) Liuzhou, China (1999) Veszprém, Hungary (1999) Montecchio Maggiore, Italy (2003) Notable people Otto of Passau (died after 1383/86), clerical author Gottlieb Muffat (1690–1770), organist and composer Joseph Ferdinand Damberger (1795–1859), historian Joseph Maximilian von Maillinger (1820–1901), general and war minister Hans Fruhstorfer (1866–1922), explorer and entomologist Georg Philipp Wörlen (1886–1954), painter Christian Rub (1886–1956), actor Adolf Hitler (1889−1945), lived here in 1892–1894 with his family Henry Gerber (1892−1972), early U.S. gay rights activist Ludwig Schmidseder (1904–1971), composer and pianist Albert Ganzenmüller (1905–1996), Nazi politician Alfred Dick (1927–2005), politician Nicolaus A. Huber (born 1939), composer Heidi Schüller (born 1950), athlete Bruno Jonas (born 1952), cabaret artist and actor Anna Rosmus (born 1960), author, Third Reich historian Andreas Scheuer (born 1974), politician (CSU) Florian Silbereisen (born 1981), singer and television presenter Gisela Mashayekhi-Beer (born before 1983), Austrian flautist Michael Ammermüller (born 1986), race car driver See also University of Passau Athanor Academy of Performing Arts Passau References Further reading Passau, Universität, Dissertation, 2005 External links Passau Wiki Passau at Flickr Passau Cathedral, which is famous for its organ with 17,774 pipes and 233 registers - the biggest church organ on Earth - Zoomable map and satellite overview (Google Maps). First stop for new arrivals in Germany: bureaucracy (My Way news, September 16th, 2015) Passau (district) Populated places on the Danube Populated places on the Inn (river) Roman fortifications in Raetia

228615

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel%20Mansell

Nigel Mansell

Nigel Ernest James Mansell, (; born 8 August 1953) is a British former racing driver who won both the Formula One World Championship (1992) and the CART Indy Car World Series (1993). Mansell was the reigning F1 champion when he moved over to CART, becoming the first person to win the CART title in his debut season, and making him the only person to hold both the World Drivers' Championship and the American open-wheel National Championship simultaneously. His career in Formula One spanned 15 seasons, with his final two full seasons of top-level racing being spent in the CART series. Mansell is the second most successful British Formula One driver of all time in terms of race wins with 31 victories, (behind Lewis Hamilton with wins), and is seventh overall on the Formula One race winners list, behind Hamilton, Michael Schumacher, Sebastian Vettel, Alain Prost, Ayrton Senna and Fernando Alonso. He held the record for the most poles set in a single season, which was broken in by Sebastian Vettel. He was rated in the top 10 Formula One drivers of all time by longtime Formula One commentator Murray Walker. In 2008, ESPN.com ranked him 24th on their "Top 25 Drivers of All Time" list. He was also ranked No. 9 of the 50 greatest F1 drivers of all time by the Times Online on a list that also included such drivers as Prost, Senna, Jackie Stewart and Jim Clark. Mansell raced in the Grand Prix Masters series in 2005, and won the championship title. He later signed a one-off race deal for the Scuderia Ecosse GT race team to drive their number 63 Ferrari F430 GT2 car at Silverstone on 6 May 2007. He has since competed in additional sports car races with his sons Leo and Greg, including the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans, and was inducted to the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2005. Early life and career Nigel Ernest James Mansell was born on 8 August 1953 in Upton-upon-Severn, Worcestershire, the son of Eric, an engineer, and Joyce Mansell. He grew up in Hall Green, Birmingham. Mansell had a fairly slow start to his racing career, using his own money to help work his way up the ranks. After considerable success in kart racing, he moved to the Formula Ford series to the disapproval of his father. In 1976, Mansell won six of the nine races he took part in, including his debut event at Mallory Park. He entered 42 races the following year and won 33 to become the 1977 British Formula Ford champion, despite suffering a broken neck in a qualifying session at Brands Hatch. Doctors told him he had been perilously close to quadriplegia, that he would be confined for six months and would never drive again. Mansell discharged himself from the hospital and returned to racing. Three weeks before the accident he had resigned from his job as an aerospace engineer, having previously sold most of his personal belongings to finance his foray into Formula Ford. Later that year he was given the chance to race a Lola T570 Formula 3 car at Silverstone. He finished fourth and decided that he was ready to move into the higher formula. Mansell raced in Formula Three in 1978–1980. Mansell's first season in Formula Three started with a pole position and a second-place finish. However, the car was not competitive, as a commercial deal with Unipart required his team to use Triumph Dolomite engines that were vastly inferior to the Toyota engines used by the leading teams. After three seventh-place finishes and a fourth in his last race, he parted from the team. The next season saw him drive for David Price Racing. Following a first win in the series at Silverstone in March, he went on to finish eighth in the championship. His racing was consistent, but a collision with Andrea de Cesaris resulted in a huge cartwheeling crash which he was lucky to survive. Again he was hospitalised, this time with broken vertebrae. His driving was noticed by Colin Chapman, owner of Lotus, and shortly after his accident, hiding the extent of his injury with painkillers, Mansell performed well enough during a tryout at the Paul Ricard circuit with Lotus, where he was pitted against a number of other drivers to determine who was going to take the second seat for the 1980 season alongside Mario Andretti, as Argentinean Carlos Reutemann was leaving to go to Williams. Driving a 79, the seat eventually went to Italian driver Elio de Angelis, but Mansell was selected to become a test driver for the Norfolk-based Formula One team. Formula One 1980–1984: Lotus 1980 and 1981 Mansell's skill as a test driver, including setting the fastest lap around Silverstone in a Lotus car at the time, impressed Chapman enough to give him a trio of starts in F1 in , driving a development version of the Lotus 81 used by the team, the Lotus 81B. In his Formula One debut at the 1980 Austrian Grand Prix, a fuel leak in the cockpit that developed shortly before the start of the race left him with painful first and second degree burns on his buttocks. An engine failure forced him to retire from that race and his second, however an accident at his third event at Imola meant he failed to qualify. Team leader Mario Andretti wrote his car off in a start-line accident during the Canadian Grand Prix at Montreal, so Mansell had to give up his car for Andretti to compete in for his home race, the final race of the season at Watkins Glen in the United States. Andretti announced he was leaving to move to Alfa Romeo at the end of the season leaving Lotus with a vacant race seat. Despite Mansell being unpopular with sponsor David Thieme of Essex Petroleum, and much speculation in the press that Jean-Pierre Jarier would fill the vacancy, Chapman announced at the start of the season that the seat would be filled by Mansell. Mansell's four years as a full-time Lotus driver were a struggle, as the cars were unreliable and he was continually out-performed by teammate Elio de Angelis. Out of 59 race starts with the team, he finished just 24 of them. He managed a best finish of third place, which he achieved five times during the four years, including Lotus's fifth race of the season, and only the seventh of Mansell's Formula One career. Teammate Elio de Angelis took a surprise win at the 1982 Austrian Grand Prix, and was frequently faster than his less-experienced colleague Mansell. 1982 During the season, Mansell planned to race in the 24 Hours of Le Mans sportscar event in order to earn extra money. At the time Mansell was paid £50,000 a year and was offered £10,000 to take part in Le Mans. Chapman believed that by entering the Le Mans race, Mansell was exposing himself to unnecessary risk and paid him £10,000 not to take part in the race. Chapman extended Mansell's contract to the end of the season in a deal that made him a millionaire. As a result of the gestures, such as described above, Mansell became very close to Chapman, who made him equal number one in the team with de Angelis, and was devastated by Chapman's sudden death in 1982. In his autobiography Mansell stated that when Chapman died, "The bottom dropped out of my world. Part of me died with him. I had lost a member of my family." Following Chapman's death, relationships at Lotus became strained, as replacement team principal Peter Warr did not have a high regard for him as a driver or person. Warr in his book titled Team Lotus – My View From The Pit Wall stated about the 1982 season: "After carefully analysing the season just finished, it was completely clear who was the number one. It was Elio. He was faster, he had out-qualified Nigel ten times to three. Elio had seven points scoring finishes to Nigel's two and in addition to Elio's win in Austria, had a tally of more than three times the number of points gained by Nigel. What is more, the margin by which Elio eclipsed his team-mate in qualifying overall was a huge 4.5 per cent. And all this in the year when, as near as can be reasonably achieved, the two drivers were given equal equipment and treatment." 1983 De Angelis was then promoted back to outright number one for the 1983 season. This was demonstrated by the fact that he had exclusive use of the quick but unreliable Renault turbo-charged 93T for the whole season, and Mansell did not get to drive a turbocharged car until the ninth round, the British Grand Prix at Silverstone, a race where he climbed from 16th to second and eventually finished fourth in a brand-new, hastily designed 94T. Due to their tumultuous relationship and a lack of decent results, Warr was not keen on honouring the last year of the contract that Mansell had signed with Chapman. However, with encouragement from Lotus's sponsors, John Player Special (who allegedly preferred a British driver), and with the only other remaining top British driver (Derek Warwick, after John Watson's retirement) already confirmed to be joining the factory Renault team, it was announced Mansell would be staying with the team. 1984 In 1984, Mansell finished in the championship top 10 for the first time, and took his first career pole position but still finished behind teammate de Angelis, who finished third, in the championship. At the 1984 Monaco Grand Prix Mansell surprised many by overtaking Alain Prost in a wet race for the lead, but soon after retired from the race after losing control on the slippery painted lines on the road surface on the run up the hill on lap 15. Late in the season, Lotus announced the recruitment of Ayrton Senna for the following year, leaving Mansell with no race seat at Lotus. After receiving offers from Arrows and Williams, and first turning down Williams's offer, it was announced before the Dutch Grand Prix that he would indeed be joining Williams. Mansell was remembered by many that year when he collapsed while pushing his car to the finish line after the transmission failed on the last lap of the 1984 Dallas Grand Prix. The race was one of the hottest on record, and after two hours of driving in 104 °F (about 40 °C) conditions Mansell fainted while pushing his car over the line to salvage a sixth-place finish (and thus one championship point) in a race of which he had led half, having started from pole. In his autobiography, Mansell claimed that his final race with the Lotus team—the 1984 Portuguese Grand Prix—was heavily compromised by Warr's unwillingness to give Mansell the brake pads he desired for the race. With 18 laps of the race remaining, and with Mansell in second position, the brakes on his car failed. On Mansell's departure, Warr was quoted as saying "He'll never win a Grand Prix as long as I have a hole in my arse". 1985–1988: Williams 1985 In Frank Williams hired Mansell to drive alongside Keke Rosberg as part of the Williams team, Mansell later saying "We have the greatest respect for each other." Mansell was given the "Red 5" number on his car, which he carried on subsequent Williams and Newman/Haas cars and which was brought to the public's attention mainly through commentator Murray Walker for the BBC. Rosberg, the World Champion who was heading into his fourth season with the team, was initially against Williams signing Mansell based on the clash the pair had at Dallas the previous year (Rosberg won that race and in an interview while on the podium publicly berated Mansell's blocking tactics while leading early in the race, which earned Rosberg a round of boos from the crowd who had appreciated Mansell's courage in trying to push his Lotus to the finish in the extreme heat). Other factors were what Rosberg later said in a 1986 interview was second-hand information about Mansell which ultimately proved to be false. The drivers found they got along well and from early in the pre-season formed a good working and personal relationship. 1985 initially appeared to provide more of the same for Mansell, although he was closer to the pace than before, especially as the Honda engines became more competitive by mid-season. During practice for the 1985 French Grand Prix, Mansell unwillingly broke the record for the highest speed crash in Formula One history. At the end of the Paul Ricard Circuit's 1.8 km long Mistral Straight he went off at the fast Courbe de Signes at over in his Williams FW10. Mansell suffered concussion which kept him out of the race. Teammate Rosberg claimed the pole for the race and finished second behind the Brabham-BMW of Nelson Piquet. Mansell achieved second place at the Belgian Grand Prix at Spa-Francorchamps, and followed this with his first victory in 72 starts at the European Grand Prix at Brands Hatch in England. He achieved a second straight victory at the South African Grand Prix in Kyalami. These triumphs helped turn Mansell into a Formula One star. 1986 Going into , the Williams-Honda team had a car, the FW11 which was capable of winning regularly, and Mansell had a new confidence that led to establishing himself as a potential World Championship contender. He also had a new teammate in twice World Champion Nelson Piquet who had joined Williams looking to be a regular winner and contender again after the Brabham-BMWs had become increasingly unreliable and uncompetitive. The Brazilian publicly described Mansell as "an uneducated blockhead" and had also criticised Mansell's wife Roseanne's looks, later retracting these statements following threats of legal action. Mansell won five Grand Prix in 1986 and also played a part in one of the closest finishes in Formula One history, finishing second to Ayrton Senna in the Spanish Grand Prix at Jerez by a mere 0.014 seconds (Mansell later jokingly said they should give himself and Senna 7½ points each). The 1986 season was led mostly by Mansell in championship points, and it went down to the wire in Adelaide, Australia for the Australian Grand Prix with Prost, Piquet and Mansell all still in contention for the title. The equation was simple, Prost and Piquet needed to win and have Mansell finish no higher than fourth. After aiming for a third-place finish which would guarantee him the title, Mansell would narrowly miss out on winning it after his left-rear tyre exploded in spectacular fashion on the main straight with only 19 laps of the race to go. In a 2012 interview for Sky Sports Legends of F1 Mansell revealed that, had he hit the wall rather than wrestling the car safely to a halt in the run-off area at the end of the straight, the stewards would most likely have red flagged the race. As the race was over two thirds distance, he would have kept his position and won his first F1 world title. Instead Mansell ended the season as runner-up to Alain Prost. His efforts in 1986 led to his being voted the BBC Sports Personality of the Year. 1986 proved to be a tough year for both Mansell and the Williams team, off the track at least. After a pre-season test session at the Paul Ricard Circuit in the south of France, team owner Frank Williams was involved in a horrific road accident which left him a tetraplegic. Williams would not return to the scene until making a surprise appearance at the British Grand Prix at Brands Hatch where Mansell and Piquet finished 1–2. Williams's absence from the day-to-day running of the team actually created tension between the team and engine supplier Honda. The Japanese giant regarded dual World Champion Nelson Piquet as the team's number one driver (they were reportedly paying the bulk of Piquet's multimillion-dollar retainer) and were reportedly unhappy that the team's co-owner and Technical Director Patrick Head did not rein in Mansell during races and allowed him to take both points and wins from Piquet. As it was, while Williams dominated the Constructors' Championship, the two drivers took enough points from each other to allow McLaren's Alain Prost to sneak through and win the Drivers' Championship. Before the season had started Honda had reportedly attempted to persuade Frank Williams to replace Mansell with their own test driver Satoru Nakajima. Williams, who was always more interested in the Constructors' title than the Drivers' as it showed that his team was the best, refused to do this, rightly believing that having two proven F1 winners in Piquet and Mansell would better-serve the team than Nakajima would as an F1 rookie. 1987 Six more wins followed in , including an emotional and hugely popular victory at Silverstone for the British Grand Prix in which he came back from 28 seconds behind in 30 laps to beat teammate Piquet, with his car running out of fuel on the slowing down lap. A serious qualifying accident at Suzuka in Japan for the penultimate race of the season severely injured Mansell's back (a spinal concussion). Trying to beat Piquet's lap time, Mansell made a mistake and hit the guardrail. As a result of Mansell's absence from the remaining two races, Piquet became champion for the third time. Piquet called his win over Mansell "a win of intelligence over stupidity". The Brazilian also added that he won because he was more consistent than his teammate, racking up points and podiums where Mansell often ran into trouble. Piquet's was a percentage driving policy which worked well in the ultra-competitive Williams-Honda, whereas Mansell was a hard charger who many felt often pushed his luck too far. 1988 In , for the first time in his career, Mansell was a team's first driver, having won more races in the previous two seasons than any other driver. However, Williams lost the turbo power of Honda to McLaren, and had to settle with a naturally aspirated Judd V8 engine in its first season in F1. A dismal season followed, which saw Mansell's Williams team experiment with a terribly unreliable (but extremely innovative) active suspension system (the system had worked well when introduced by the team in 1987 where it could draw on approximately 5% of the reported produced by the Honda turbo, but struggled with the Judd V8). Mansell would complete only two of the 14 races in which he appeared in 1988, both being podium finishes. One of these was a second place at the British Grand Prix at Silverstone where, overnight, the team had stopped using its active suspension (after months of Patrick Head telling Mansell and teammate Riccardo Patrese that it would take many months of work to do so), and reverted to a passive suspension set-up. Mansell contracted chickenpox in the summer of 1988 and after a competitive (but ill-advised) drive in the very hot conditions of the 1988 Hungarian Grand Prix the illness became worse, forcing him to miss the next two Grands Prix in Belgium where he was replaced by Martin Brundle, and Italy where he was replaced by Frenchman Jean-Louis Schlesser. By missing the Italian Grand Prix at Monza, Mansell missed the traditional welcome by the Tifosi for a newly signed Ferrari driver after he had announced he would be leaving Williams to join the Maranello-based team for . 1989–1990: Ferrari 1989 In preparation for the season, Mansell became the last Ferrari driver to be personally selected by Enzo Ferrari before his death in August 1988, an honour Mansell described as "one of the greatest in my entire career". Enzo Ferrari presented a 1989 Ferrari F40 as a gift to Mansell. In Italy he became known as "il leone" ("the lion") by the tifosi because of his fearless driving style. The season was one of change in the sport, with the banning of turbo engines by the FIA and the introduction of the electronically controlled semi-automatic transmission by Ferrari. Mansell believed that 1989 would be a development year and that he would be able to challenge for the championship the following season. In his first appearance with the team he scored a very unlikely win in the 1989 Brazilian Grand Prix at the Autódromo Internacional Nelson Piquet in Rio de Janeiro; his least favourite track, and the home race of his bitter rival Piquet. He later joked that he had booked an early flight home for halfway through the race as he predicted the car's new electronic gearbox would last only a few laps (as it had done throughout pre-season testing and in qualifying for the race). Mansell became the first driver to win a race in a car with a semi-automatic gearbox. The race saw him as the first driver to win in their debut race for the Scuderia since Mario Andretti had won the 1971 South African Grand Prix and he would remain the last man to win on his Ferrari debut until Kimi Räikkönen won the 2007 Australian Grand Prix. The rest of 1989 was characterised by gearbox and various other problems, including a disqualification at the Canadian Grand Prix and a black-flagged incident at the Portuguese Grand Prix for reversing in the pit lane, which resulted in a ban for the next race in Spain. However, Mansell finished fourth in the Championship with the help of a second win for Ferrari at the tight and twisty Hungaroring for the Hungarian Grand Prix. Early in practice Mansell had seen that trying to qualify the car high on the grid was a pointless exercise and he decided instead to concentrate on a good race set-up. After qualifying 12th (0.681s behind teammate Gerhard Berger in sixth and 2.225s behind pole man Riccardo Patrese in his Williams-Renault) and not even being considered a chance for the race, he charged his way through the field until he pulled off a sensational passing manoeuvre on the McLaren-Honda of World Champion Ayrton Senna on lap 58 to take a lead he would not lose. 1990 A tough followed with Ferrari, in which his car suffered more reliability problems, forcing him to retire from seven races. He was paired with Alain Prost, (who was also the reigning World Champion), and who took over as the team's lead driver. Mansell recalls one incident where at the 1990 British Grand Prix, the car he drove did not handle the same as in the previous race where he had taken pole position. On confronting the mechanics, it transpired that Prost saw Mansell as having a superior car and as a result, they were swapped without telling Mansell. After retiring from the race, he announced he was retiring from the sport altogether at the end of the season. This, combined with the fact that Frenchman Prost was not only a triple World Champion and the winner of more Grands Prix than anyone in history, but also spoke fluent Italian, whereas Mansell's Italian was only conversational at best, gave Prost greater influence within the Maranello-based team. According to Prost, Mansell only attended two or three mechanical briefings throughout the season, preferring playing golf. One notable highlight of the season was a daring pass on Gerhard Berger around the daunting high speed Peraltada corner that was later renamed in his honour. Approaching the corner for the penultimate time Mansell was bobbing from side to side in Berger's mirrors. Heading into one of the quickest corners on the calendar at the time, where the Ferraris had registered forces of 4.7g during practice, Mansell launched to the outside of Berger and flashed past to take second place. Mansell scored only a single win, at the 1990 Portuguese Grand Prix, and finished a thrilling second to Nelson Piquet in Australia, and finished fifth in the World Championship. His retirement plans were halted when Frank Williams again stepped in. Williams signed Mansell on 1 October 1990 after Mansell was assured the contract stated that he would be the focus of the team, having experienced being the 'Number Two' driver at Ferrari. Mansell would be paid £4.6 million a season, a deal which made him the highest paid British sportsman at the time. 1991–1992: Return to Williams 1991 Mansell's return to Williams was not straightforward. He would agree to return only if a list of demands were met, including undisputed number one status over Riccardo Patrese (who had remained with the team through 1989 and 1990), guarantees of support in a wide variety of areas with each guarantee in writing, and assurances from suppliers such as Renault and Elf that they would do everything necessary to help him win. Frank Williams said the demands were 'impossible'; Mansell concluded that if that were the case he would be happy to retire. Three weeks later the impossible had happened and Mansell was a Williams driver. His second stint with Williams was even better than the first. Back in the familiar 'Red 5', he won five races in , including the Spanish Grand Prix. In this race he went wheel-to-wheel with Ayrton Senna, with only centimetres to spare, at over on the main straight. Quite a different spectacle was offered following Mansell's victory in the British Grand Prix at Silverstone. Senna's car had stopped on the final lap, but, rather than leave his rival stranded out on the circuit (the two had come to blows in the pits following their first lap tangle during the 1987 Belgian Grand Prix and were hardly close friends), Mansell pulled over on his victory lap and allowed Senna to ride on the Williams sidepod back to the pits. The Williams team's decision to develop their new semi-automatic gearbox by racing with it at the start of the season was at the cost of points in the opening rounds of the championship. Senna was on 40 points with four straight wins to open the season by the time Mansell gained his first finish with a second in Monaco. Mansell then had the next race in Canada practically won when his Williams FW14 stopped half a lap from the finish with what was reported to be transmission failure, though it was claimed that Mansell had let his engine revs drop too low while he was waving to the crowd in celebration and stalled his engine. This handed Nelson Piquet his 23rd and last F1 race win. Despite a good mid-season, which included a hat-trick of victories, Senna's consistency and Mansell's retirements at key races meant that he finished second in the Championship for the third time in his career, this time behind Senna. 1992 Mansell started the season with five straight victories (a record not equalled until Michael Schumacher in ). At the sixth round of the season in Monaco, he took pole and dominated much of the race. However, with seven laps remaining, Mansell suffered a loose wheel nut and was forced into the pits, emerging behind Ayrton Senna's McLaren-Honda. Mansell, on fresh tyres, set a lap record almost two seconds quicker than Senna's and closed from 5.2 to 1.9 seconds in only two laps. The pair duelled around Monaco for the final four laps but Mansell could find no way past, finishing just 0.2 seconds behind the Brazilian. Mansell became the most successful British driver of all time when he won the British Grand Prix at Silverstone, as he surpassed Jackie Stewart's record of 27 wins with his 28th. Mansell was finally crowned Formula One World Champion at the age of 39 early in the season at the Hungarian Grand Prix, the 11th round of that season, where his second-place finish clinched the Drivers' Championship, securing the title in the fewest Grands Prix since the 16-race season format started. Mansell also set the then-record for the most wins in one season (9); both records stood until broken by Schumacher in 2002. He managed 14 pole positions that year, a record only broken by Sebastian Vettel in 2011 in the Brazilian Grand Prix on 26 November. He also held the record for the most races before becoming World Champion with 180 races; this record was broken by Nico Rosberg in 2016 with 206 races. Other Formula One records set in 1992 that he still holds are the highest percentage of pole positions in a season (88%), most wins from pole position in a season (nine) and most runner-up championship finishes before becoming World Champion (three). Mansell also holds the record for obtaining pole position and scoring the fastest lap and subsequently retiring from the race (1987 German Grand Prix, 1990 British Grand Prix, 1992 Japanese Grand Prix, and 1992 Italian Grand Prix). He is the driver having the most wins (31) without ever winning Monaco. He won the BBC Sports Personality of the Year award again in 1992, one of only four people to have won the award twice. During this season, Mansell gained a reputation for a psychological competitiveness and mind games. After the announcement by the FIA that the organization would be weighing drivers, Mansell, known for ignoring diet, starved and dehydrated himself the day prior to weigh-ins. This measure led to Mansell weighing less than his teammate Riccardo Patrese by half a kilogram. CART IndyCar World Series Despite being world champion, Mansell had a public disagreement with Williams. In his autobiography Mansell writes that this was because of a deal made at the previous Hungarian Grand Prix, which Williams reneged on, and the prospect of his former teammate Alain Prost, who had sat out the 1992 season, joining the Renault-powered team. Despite Mansell's early and subsequent success during 1992, his contract was due to expire at the end of the season. According to Patrick Head (in an interview many years later), Mansell pushed for a contract extension to be agreed early in the season. Despite this being unusual for the team, Mansell's perseverance purportedly paid off, and met with both Frank Williams and Patrick Head at the Williams Motorhome in Jerez, where they discussed and subsequently shook hands on a deal for a further two seasons (1993 and 1994). They followed this up with a written contract sent to Nigel's home address in the Isle of Man for final review and signature. According to Head, Mansell procrastinated on returning the signed agreement however, whilst winning back-to-back races over the upcoming months, finally resulting in Mansell asking for more money, which infuriated and frustrated the Williams leadership team. According to Mansell however, Williams had initially neglected to tell him that Prost had signed for 1993 at only the second race of the 1992 season in Mexico, a position that Mansell felt would be similar to their days together at Ferrari. To boot, Ayrton Senna had expressed a strong desire to drive for Williams and even offered to drive for them at no salary (only to later be rebuffed as Prost, whose rivalry with the Brazilian was just as intense as the one he had with Mansell, had a clause written into his contract which enabled him to block Senna's effort). Williams decided that there was little sense in paying the high fees Mansell went on to demand, and told him that he needed to sign on the original deal or Senna was ready to instead. When Mansell discovered this to be untrue and a ruse, he decided to move on and called a press conference to announce his retirement. An 11th hour offer was made to him at the Italian Grand Prix, but by then the damage was done - Mansell retired from F1. Mansell then signed with Newman/Haas Racing to pair with Mario Andretti in the CART series, replacing Mario's son Michael who moved to F1 and McLaren. At the season opener at Surfers Paradise, Australia, he became the first "rookie" to take pole position and win his first race. A few weeks later however, he suffered a substantial crash at the Phoenix International Raceway, severely injuring his back. At the 1993 Indianapolis 500, Mansell would lead the race only to finish third after losing the lead to Emerson Fittipaldi and Arie Luyendyk after a poor restart. On his 40th birthday, however, Mansell would avenge his loss at Indianapolis to score a 200-mile race victory at New Hampshire International Speedway, perhaps his most exciting CART victory. He would go on to score five wins for the 1993 CART season, which, with more high-placed finishes, was good enough to earn him the championship. This enabled Mansell to become the only driver in history to hold both the Formula One and CART championships at the same time; when he won the 1993 CART championship he was still the reigning F1 world champion, the 1993 F1 championship not yet having been decided. Following this successful season in CART, Mansell received several awards, including a Gold Medal from the Royal Automobile Club and the 1994 ESPY Award for Best Driver. His Newman/Haas car was much less reliable the following year, 1994, and results suffered. It was during this season that Mansell "wore out his welcome" in the United States with glimpses of rude behaviour, particularly after he was knocked out of the Indianapolis 500. After the crash, he stormed out of the track hospital, and refused medical care. When reporter Dr. Jerry Punch asked Mansell if he had spoken with Dennis Vitolo, the driver who had crashed into him, Mansell replied, "You speak to him" and shoved the camera away. Subsequently, Mansell was due to sign autographs at a K-mart store (the primary sponsor of his car), but because of a lack of demand the event was cancelled. Mansell was also the catalyst for the breakdown in the relationship between himself and Mario Andretti. Mario has since remarked "I guess if Ronnie Peterson was the best team-mate I ever had, Nigel Mansell was the worst" and "I had a lot of respect for him as a driver, but not as a man". Brief return to Formula One 1994: Williams In , after the CART season ended, Mansell returned to F1 and re-joined the Williams team. Since he had left it in 1993, the team had undergone some significant changes. Damon Hill had been promoted from test driver and was running full-time in one car. Prost, Mansell's replacement, won the 1993 Drivers' Championship and then retired after the season. This allowed Williams and Ayrton Senna to finally work out an agreement, and the team received a new sponsor in Rothmans International for a season in which they were expected to remain as champions. However, the car proved unreliable and tricky to handle early in the season, leading Senna to retire from the opening rounds despite claiming pole. In the third race at Imola, Senna was killed in a crash on the Tamburello curve. Williams test driver David Coulthard took over Senna's seat for the majority of 1994 and Williams got permission from Newman/Haas Racing to bring back Mansell at the French Grand Prix and the final three races of 1994 in Europe, Japan and Australia. Mansell was paid approximately £900,000 per race, compared to teammate Damon Hill being paid £300,000 for the entire season. Mansell's return was helped by Bernie Ecclestone helping unravel his contracts in the United States. It was important for F1 to have a world champion driving that season and with worldwide TV viewing figures starting to decline, they needed Mansell. The 41-year-old was not as quick as Hill in race trim but signs that his speeds were coming back were evident in Japan during a battle with the Ferrari of Jean Alesi. Mansell took his final Grand Prix victory in Adelaide, the last race of the season, having out-qualified the two title contenders at the time, Damon Hill and Michael Schumacher, in the process (helped out by the second qualifying session being held on a wet track, with the times from the first session making up the grid). The plan initially was for Mansell to protect Hill from Schumacher, but both drivers passed him at the start and eventually collided (causing the retirement of both), handing Schumacher his first world title. Mansell purportedly agreed a new contract to drive for Williams again in 1995, but later claimed this was rescinded. Williams ultimately opted for youth over experience and hired Coulthard for the 1995 season. 1995: McLaren After losing the Williams seat to David Coulthard, Mansell signed to drive for McLaren in . McLaren's title sponsors Marlboro wanted a world champion, whereas McLaren and their engine suppliers Mercedes wanted a lower-profile driver for what was Mercedes' second year back in Formula One since abandoning it in . Before the season started, Mansell could not fit into the narrow car and was deputised by Mark Blundell for the opening two rounds in Brazil and Argentina. Mansell's car was completed in 33 days and in time for Imola, where despite being in the top six late in the race, a clash with Eddie Irvine saw him finish 10th and out of the points. The Spanish Grand Prix saw Mansell become frustrated over his car's handling characteristics, he chose to retire after just two races with the team. Mansell cited the decision to retire as his not wanting to make up the numbers and with no hope of the McLaren MP4/10 being competitive. In 2015, Mansell stated that he was wrong to leave McLaren so soon and that in hindsight he should have continued with the team for the season and help improve the car. Comeback considered A few testing sessions with F1 teams including Jordan suggested another comeback could be on the cards, but it never happened. Reports at the time suggested that the Mansell–Jordan partnership for 1997 was a real possibility with Eddie Jordan's title sponsor willing to pay for the deal. The Jordan team said after the tests in Barcelona in December 1996 that Mansell decided against it. British Touring Car Championship Mansell took part in the 1993 TOCA Shootout, held at Donington Park. Mansell drove a Ford Mondeo with his usual red number 5. The race ended in disaster for Mansell; he was knocked unconscious following a crash with six laps remaining. He lost control of his car through the exit of the Old Hairpin, over-corrected the slide and collided with Tiff Needell's Vauxhall Cavalier, resulting in a spin and a bad crash into the tyre wall under the bridge. Mansell made a return to racing in 1998 in the British Touring Car Championship, driving in a Ford Mondeo for three rounds. With the number 5 already taken by James Thompson, Mansell raced with the red number 55. At his first event at Donington Park, he retired three laps into the sprint race, meaning he would start the feature race in 19th position on the grid. As the conditions changed and the track became wetter, Mansell found himself leading the race for several laps, and he finished in fifth position. The race was regarded by many fans as one of the greatest in touring car history. It was to be his best finish in the series, as he failed to finish either race at the next round he participated in at Brands Hatch, and at his final race at Silverstone he finished in 14th and 11th place. Having competed in three of the 13 rounds, he finished 18th out of 21 in the Drivers' Championship. Subsequent appearances On 16 July 2005, Mansell took part in a Race of Legends exhibition event at the Norisring round of the DTM. He competed against other Formula One World Champions Jody Scheckter, Alain Prost and Emerson Fittipaldi, as well as Motorcycle Grand Prix World Champions Mick Doohan and Johnny Cecotto (himself a former F1 driver), each driver having an opportunity to drive Audi, Mercedes and Opel cars. Prost was announced as the winner by the DTM organisers. Mansell became a financial stakeholder and a driver in the new Grand Prix Masters series. Following a period of testing and developing the car, Mansell made a successful race comeback by winning the inaugural race of the series in Kyalami in November 2005 (Mansell had won at the old Kyalami circuit in 1985 and had also won at the new circuit in 1992). After the success of the race at Kyalami, four dates were scheduled for the GP Masters Series in 2006, including one at Silverstone. Mansell won the season opener at Qatar in April from pole position. The Monza round of the series was cancelled due to noise limitations at the venue, whilst technical issues quickly ruled him out of the Silverstone race. Also in 2006 he appeared at Brands Hatch, scene of his first Grand Prix win, in October 1985, driving some demonstration laps in the BMW M3 GTR that Andy Priaulx drove to victory in the 2005 24 Hours Nürburgring, as part of the World Touring Car Championship event. On the weekend of 6 May 2007 he made an appearance in the second round of the FIA GT Championship at Silverstone driving a Ferrari 430 GT2 for the Scuderia Ecosse team. He was paired with Chris Niarchos, finishing seventh in class and 21st overall. Mansell, with his son Leo, tested a Chamberlain-Synergy team Le Mans prototype Lola-AER B06/10 during the week commencing 14 July 2008, at the Estoril circuit. The pair were said to be considering a drive in the American Le Mans series, possibly commencing as soon as October 2008 in the Petit Le Mans event, although neither driver was in the final field. On 3 July 2009, Mansell tested his other son Greg's World Series by Renault car at the Silverstone Circuit, setting a best time six seconds off the pace of the fastest driver in the session. Mansell took part in the last round of the 2009 Le Mans Series, the 1000 km of Silverstone, driving Team LNT's Ginetta-Zytek GZ09S alongside his son Greg and team boss Lawrence Tomlinson. Mansell raced a Ginetta-Zytek GZ09S in the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans, alongside his two sons. According to the BBC, this was the first time a father has raced at Le Mans in the same car as his two sons. However, in the race he crashed after only five laps, following a tire puncture. Reports at the time indicated that he had suffered a concussion, but Mansell later revealed that the accident left him unable to talk or recognize his wife and children. To recover, he took up magic in order to “get [his] brain to work in different ways.” Since taking up the hobby, Mansell has become a member of the Magic Circle and gone on to perform around the world. For the 2010 Formula One season, the Sporting Regulations were changed so that a former driver sits on the stewards' panel. Mansell took this role at the 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016 British Grands Prix. Also Monaco GP 2012, US GP 2013, Brazil GP 2015. Biographies Mansell has written several autobiographies and books on racing in general: In the Driving Seat (1989) (with Derick Allsop) Driven to Win (1990) Mansell and Williams: Challenge for the Championship (1991) Indycar Racing (1993) (with Jeremy Shaw) My Story (1995) (with James Allen) Staying on Track (2015) Television and video games Mansell participated in Prince Edward's charity television special The Grand Knockout Tournament (1987). There were three video games endorsed by Mansell: Nigel Mansell's Grand Prix (1988, Martech), Nigel Mansell's World Championship Racing (1993, Gremlin Graphics), and Newman/Haas IndyCar (1994). Mansell also appeared as a playable driver for Williams in Codemasters' F1 2013. Personal life Mansell has been married to Roseanne since 1975 after meeting as students. He lived in Port Erin on the Isle of Man during most of his F1 career until 1995. Mansell currently lives in Jersey, Channel Islands. He spent 11 years of his life as a Special Constable on the Isle of Man during his driving career, and in Devon after he retired from racing. During this period, he also developed a golf course in Devon. A keen golfer, Mansell revealed a desire to compete in the British Open Golf Championship and briefly participated in the 1988 Australian Open. Mansell is the owner of the Team UK Youth cycling team. Mansell appeared without his moustache in the first half of the 1988 season. After his official retirement from Formula One in 1995, he shaved it off. The moustache made a re-appearance when Mansell was interviewed by the BBC at the 2014 Japanese Grand Prix. His sons Leo and Greg are also former racing drivers, while his daughter Chloe is a designer. Helmet Mansell raced with a blue helmet with two red and white arrows on each side forming on the front a drawing resembling the Union Jack with the upper angles of the arrows united by a red and white 'U' with the white chin area, when he entered Williams, a blue ring was added on the white part of the helmet. His sons Leo and Greg inherited his helmet design, but Leo's helmet has the red chin area and the white part that envelops the visor (not counting the top) is red with white outline, while Greg's helmet has the blue chin area and the white area that envelopes the visor is blue with white outline. "Red 5" Although teams in motor racing series are generally allocated numbers, Mansell has been associated with the number 5 for many years. This began when he joined Williams in 1985 and was allocated car number 5, as at the time Formula One racing numbers were allocated by constructor and Williams received numbers 5 and 6. For the first four races of the 1985 season, both Williams cars had white numbers, but from a distance the numerals "5" and "6" resembled each other. As a consequence, it was decided to give Mansell's car a red number to make it more distinctive. While this was initially just for recognition, BBC F1 commentator Murray Walker began describing Mansell's car as "Red Five", leading to Mansell retaining the red coloured number throughout his first spell at Williams. On his return to the team in 1991, Williams had retained the number 5 car, allowing Mansell to race as "Red Five" once again. After his departure to CART in 1993 to drive for Newman/Haas, he again retained the red number 5. In addition, "Red Five" fit well into the livery of his Indy car, as Newman Haas's main sponsors Texaco and Kmart both shared corporate colors of black, white and red. When he returned to Williams for four races in 1994 the team's numbers were 0 and 2 as they had won the Drivers' and Constructors' titles in 1993 but would not run #1 as Alain Prost had retired. Damon Hill drove car #0 while Mansell raced the #2 with the number on the nose of the car painted red. So associated with the red 5 is Mansell that, in 2004, he purchased a yacht from Sunseeker, one of his longtime sponsors, which he named Red 5. Awards and honours Mansell was awarded the title of BBC Sports Personality of the Year in both 1986 and 1992. Only four other people have won the award more than once, including fellow racing drivers and former F1 World Champions Damon Hill and Lewis Hamilton. Mansell was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2005. Mansell won the Hawthorn Memorial Trophy, an award for the leading British or Commonwealth driver in F1 each year seven times. Already an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE), Mansell was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to children and young people (as president of UK Youth). In 2015 turn 17 of the Autodromo Hermanos Rodríguez was renamed in honour of Mansell, twice winner of the Mexican Grand Prix (1987 and 1992). He received The London Classic Car Show Icon Award in 2018. He was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2006. Racing record Career summary Complete European Formula Two Championship results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Complete Formula One World Championship results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap) Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance. American open-wheel racing (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) PPG Indy Car World Series Indianapolis 500 Complete British Touring Car Championship results (key; Races in bold indicate pole position – 1-point awarded all races; Races in italics indicate fastest lap; * signifies that driver led feature race for at least one lap – 1-point awarded) Complete Grand Prix Masters results (key) Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap. Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results Notes References Hamilton, Maurice Frank Williams Macmillan Mansell, Nigel My Autobiography Collins Willow Warr, Peter Team Lotus – My View From The Pit Wall Haynes Publishing BTCC Pages Crash.net External links 1953 births Living people People from Upton-upon-Severn Jersey athletes English racing drivers BBC Sports Personality of the Year winners European Formula Two Championship drivers British Formula Three Championship drivers Champ Car champions Champ Car drivers International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees Indianapolis 500 Rookies of the Year Indianapolis 500 drivers English Formula One drivers Ferrari Formula One drivers Team Lotus Formula One drivers McLaren Formula One drivers Williams Formula One drivers Formula One race winners Formula One World Drivers' Champions FIA GT Championship drivers British Touring Car Championship drivers Sportspeople from Birmingham, West Midlands Segrave Trophy recipients Commanders of the Order of the British Empire BRDC Gold Star winners Grand Prix Masters drivers Formula Ford drivers British special constables 24 Hours of Le Mans drivers European Le Mans Series drivers Manx police officers Sportspeople from Worcestershire

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy%20Wood%20%28In%20the%20Shadow%20of%20the%20Valley%20of%20Death%29

Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death)

Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death) is the fourth studio album by American rock band Marilyn Manson. It was released on November 11, 2000, by Nothing and Interscope Records. A rock opera concept album, it is the final installment of a triptych that also included Antichrist Superstar (1996), and marked a return to the industrial metal style of the band's earlier work, after the glam rock-influenced production of Mechanical Animals (1998). After its release, the band's eponymous vocalist said that the overarching story within the trilogy is presented in reverse chronological order: Holy Wood, therefore, begins the narrative. In the aftermath of the Columbine High School massacre on April 20, 1999, national news media reported that the perpetrators were wearing the band's T-shirts during the rampage, and had been influenced by their music. As their first release after the massacre, the record was Manson's rebuttal to the accusations leveled against him and the group, and was described by the vocalist as a "declaration of war". It was written in the singer's former home in the Hollywood Hills and recorded in several undisclosed locations, including Death Valley and Laurel Canyon. His ambitions for Holy Wood initially included an eponymous film exploring its backstory—a project which has since been abandoned and was modified into the as-yet-unreleased Holy Wood novel. The album was released to generally positive reviews. Several writers praised it as the band's finest work, and multiple publications ranked it as one of the best albums of 2000. British rock magazine Kerrang! went on to include it on its list of the best albums of the decade. In the US, Holy Wood was not as commercially successful as the band's preceding records, debuting at number 13 on the Billboard 200. However, it became their most successful album internationally, debuting in the top twenty of numerous national charts. It was certified gold in several countries, including Canada, Japan, Switzerland and the UK. Three singles were released from the record: "Disposable Teens", "The Fight Song" and "The Nobodies", and the band embarked on the worldwide Guns, God and Government Tour. In 2010, Kerrang! published a 10th-anniversary commemorative piece in which they called the album "Manson's finest hour ... A decade on, there has still not been as eloquent and savage a musical attack on the media and mainstream culture ... [It is] still scathingly relevant [and] a credit to a man who refused to sit and take it, but instead come out swinging." Background and development In the late 1990s, Marilyn Manson and his eponymous band established themselves as a household name, and as one of the most controversial rock acts in music history. Their albums Antichrist Superstar (1996) and Mechanical Animals (1998) were both critical and commercial successes, and by the time of their Rock Is Dead Tour in 1999, the frontman had become a culture war iconoclast and a rallying icon for alienated youth. As their popularity increased, the confrontational nature of the group's music and imagery outraged social conservatives. Numerous politicians lobbied to have their performances banned, citing false and exaggerated claims that they contained animal sacrifices, bestiality and rape. Their concerts were routinely picketed by religious advocates and parent groups, who asserted that their music had a corrupting influence on youth culture by inciting "rape, murder, blasphemy and suicide". On April 20, 1999, Columbine High School students Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold shot dead 12 students and a teacher and wounded 21 others, before committing suicide. In the aftermath of the school shooting, the band were widely reported to have influenced the killings; early media reports alleged that the shooters were fans, and were wearing the group's T-shirts during the massacre. Although these claims were later proven to be false, speculation in national media and among the public continued to blame Manson's music and imagery for inciting Harris and Klebold. Later reports revealed that the two were not fans—and, on the contrary, had disliked the band's music. Despite this, Marilyn Manson (as well as other bands and forms of entertainment, such as movies and video games) were widely criticized by religious, political, and entertainment-industry figures. Under mounting pressure in the days after Columbine, the group postponed their last five North American tour dates out of respect for the victims and their families. On April 29, ten US senators (led by Sam Brownback of Kansas) sent a letter to Edgar Bronfman Jr. – the president of Seagram (the owner of Interscope) – requesting a voluntary halt to his company's distribution to children of "music that glorifies violence". The letter named Marilyn Manson for producing songs which "eerily reflect" the actions of Harris and Klebold. Later that day, the band cancelled their remaining North American shows. Two days later, Manson published his response to these accusations in an op-ed piece for Rolling Stone, titled "Columbine: Whose Fault Is It?", where he castigated America's gun culture, the political influence of the National Rifle Association, and the media's irresponsible coverage, which he said facilitated the placing of blame on a scapegoat, instead of debating more relevant societal issues. On May 4, a hearing on the marketing and distribution of violent content to minors by the television, music, film and video-game industries was held by the United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation. The committee heard testimony from former Secretary of Education (and co-founder of conservative violent entertainment watchdog group Empower America) William Bennett, the Archbishop of Denver Charles J. Chaput, professors and mental-health professionals. Speakers criticized the band, its label-mate Nine Inch Nails, and the 1999 film The Matrix for their alleged contribution to a cultural environment enabling violence such as the Columbine shootings. The committee requested that the Federal Trade Commission and the United States Department of Justice investigate the entertainment industry's marketing practices to minors. After concluding the European and Japanese legs of their tour on August 8, the band withdrew from public view. The early development of Holy Wood coincided with Manson's three-month seclusion at his home in the Hollywood Hills, during which he considered how to respond to the controversy. Manson said the maelstrom made him re-evaluate his career: "There was a bit of trepidation, [in] deciding: 'Is it worth it? Are people understanding what I'm trying to say? Am I even gonna be allowed to say it?' Because I definitely had every single door shut in my face ... there were not a lot of people who stood behind me." He told Alternative Press that he felt his safety was threatened to the point that he "could be shot Mark David Chapman-style." He began work on the album as a counterattack. Recording and production Several of the tracks that appear on Holy Wood date back to 1995, prior to the release of Antichrist Superstar, although much of this material consisted of "scattered ideas". Manson, the band's vocalist, developed this material into more substantial compositions during his three-month period of seclusion. Following this, the full band worked for a year on re-writing and developing the material. The record is the group's most collaborative effort to date; all members contributed to the songwriting process. Most of the compositional work was done by Manson alongside guitarists Twiggy Ramirez and John 5. The vocalist contrasted his songwriting sessions between the two, calling sessions with the latter "very focused", saying that most of their compositions would be completed before being taken to the rest of the band for consideration. In contrast, his sessions with Ramirez were less demanding, and the pair frequently experimented with absinthe. Drummer Ginger Fish worked constantly on new material, and is credited with performing keyboards and programming, while keyboardist Madonna Wayne Gacy provided input on "President Dead" and "Cruci-Fiction in Space". Altogether, the band wrote 100 musical fragments, of which between 25 and 30 became songs. Band members maintained a low profile during the album's recording. Manson indicated that their website would be their "only contact with humanity" during this period. The album was recorded at several locations, including Death Valley, Manson's home in the Hollywood Hills, and Rick Rubin's Mansion Studio in Laurel Canyon. Locations were chosen for the atmosphere they were intended to impart to the music, and the band visited Death Valley a number of times to "imprint the feeling of the desert into [their] minds", and to avoid composing artificial-sounding songs. Manson co-produced the album alongside mixing engineer Dave Sardy, while Bon Harris of electronic body music group Nitzer Ebb is credited with programming and pre-production editing. Experimental sound effects and acoustic songs were recorded using live instrumentation. Harris' programming skills would prove invaluable during the recording process, as he would take the natural sounds the band had been recording and reconstruct them into processed background effects. Manson also explained that the acoustic songs were "acoustic" in the sense that they were not recorded with electronic instruments, but he said the album's sonic landscape would be "intrinsically electronic". Manson announced on December 16, 1999, that the album was progressing under the working title In the Shadow of the Valley of Death, and that its logo would be the alchemical symbol for mercury. Expanding on the symbol's relationship to the album's concept, Manson said "It represents both the androgyne and the prima materia, which has been associated with Adam, the first man." The band spent considerable time at the Mansion Studio, where the bulk of Ginger Fish's live drumming would be recorded, with its cavernous rooms particularly suitable for recording percussion. On February 23, 2000, Manson delivered a 20-minute lecture via satellite to a current-events convention, "DisinfoCon 2000", aimed at exposing disinformation wherein he posed the question, "White teenagers, why are they mad? They’re white. They’re spoiled. Is it because they know that America’s a lie? ... Is adult entertainment killing our children? Or is killing our children entertaining adults?" Six days later, it was announced that their upcoming album had been re-titled Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death). By April, the album was in the final stages of recording, and Manson began posting footage of the band from the studio. Novel and film Manson's ambitions for the project initially included an eponymous film exploring the album's backstory. In July 1999, he had reportedly begun negotiating with New Line Cinema to produce and distribute the film and its soundtrack. At the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards in Dublin (where the band performed on November 11), he disclosed the film's title and his production plans. Manson met Chilean avant-garde filmmaker Alejandro Jodorowsky at the event to discuss work on the film, although no final decision was made. By February 29, 2000, the deal fell through when Manson had reservations that New Line Cinema would take the film in a direction which would not have "retained his artistic vision". Abandoning his attempt to bring Holy Wood to the screen, Manson announced plans to publish two books accompanying the album. The first was a "graphic and phantasmagoric" novel intended for release shortly after the album by ReganBooks (a division of HarperCollins). The novel's style was inspired by William S. Burroughs, Kurt Vonnegut, Aldous Huxley and Philip K. Dick, and would be followed by a coffee table book of images created for the project. In a December 2000 interview with Manson, novelist Chuck Palahniuk mentioned the Holy Wood novel (due for release in spring 2001) and complimented its style. Neither book has been released, reportedly due to a publishing dispute. Concept and themes Manson described Holy Wood as a "declaration of war." The album's plot is a parable, which he told Rolling Stone was semi-autobiographical. While it can be viewed on several levels, he said its simplest interpretation is to see it as a story about an idealistic man whose revolution is commercialized, leading him to "destroy the thing he has created, which is himself." It takes place in a thinly-veiled satire of modern America called "Holy Wood", which Manson described as a Disney-esque city-sized amusement park where the main attractions are death and violence, and where consumerism is taken to hyperbolic extreme. Its literary foil is "Death Valley", which is used as a "metaphor for the outcast and the imperfect of the world." The central character is the protagonist Adam Kadmon—a name derived from the Kabbalah which means "original man". The story follows him as he goes in search of a better life out of Death Valley and into Holy Wood. Disenchanted by what he finds, he fashions a counterculture revolution, only to have it usurped and co-opted by Holy Wood's consumer culture, and he finds himself appropriated as a figure of Holy Wood's ideology of "Celebritarianism": an ideology in which fame is the primary moral value of a religion deeply rooted in celebrity worship and martyrdom; where dead celebrities are revered as saints, and John F. Kennedy is idolized as the contemporary Jesus Christ. Holy Wood's religion parallels Christianity, in that it juxtaposes the dead-celebrity phenomenon in American culture with the crucifixion of Jesus. The phrase "guns, god and government" is repeated multiple times throughout the album. It is suggested that these are the root cause of violence, and the album examines the role conservative American culture supposedly played in the Columbine massacre: specifically, what Manson perceived as its advocacy of gun culture, the inadequacies of traditional family values, the American inclination toward war-mongering solely for profit, and the Christian right's proclivity for moral panic. This glorification of violence within mainstream American culture is the central theme of the record. A substantive portion of the record analyzes the cultural role of Jesus Christ, specifically Manson's view that the image of his crucifixion was the origin of celebrity. Manson said that while his previous work argued against the Bible's content, for the purpose of Holy Wood, he instead looked for things in the Bible to which he could relate. He developed an opinion that Christ was a revolutionary figure—a person who was killed for having dangerous opinions, and whose image was later exploited and merchandised for financial gain in the name of free market capitalism. Christ's death is also compared to Abraham Zapruder's film of the assassination of John F. Kennedy, which Manson called "the only thing that's happened in modern times to equal the crucifixion." He watched the clip many times as a child, and said it was the most violent thing he had ever seen. John Lennon is also referred to on the album as an assassinated icon murdered by a born-again Christian, Mark David Chapman, who was incensed by Lennon's "more popular than Jesus" remark. While recording Holy Wood, Manson was drawn to The Beatles' 1968 White Album, due to its alleged role in inspiring the Charles Manson "Family" murders, and the parallels he observed between that incident and Columbine, saying: "To my knowledge, it's the first rock n' roll record that's been blamed and linked to violence. When you've got "Helter Skelter" [taken from the Beatles song of the same name] written in blood on someone's wall, it's a little more damning than anything I've been blamed for." Composition and style The record is primarily an industrial metal album, although it has also been described as hard rock, and gothic rock. The vocalist claimed in a pre-release interview with Kerrang! that the album would contain some of the heaviest material the band had recorded to date. Holy Wood combines the glam rock-influenced production of Mechanical Animals with the industrial rock soundscape of the band's earlier work. He also called the record "arrogant, in an art rock sense" and said that, as a result of the lyrical content, most of the songs contained three or four distinct parts, although the band took great care to avoid being "self-indulgent". He also said that the record was intended to be the "industrial White Album", and that he wrote Holy Wood in the same house where The Rolling Stones wrote their 1970 single "Let It Bleed"—another source of inspiration. Like Antichrist Superstar before it, Holy Wood uses a song cycle structure, dividing the album into four movements. These movements are titled A: In the Shadow, D: The Androgyne, A: Of Red Earth, and M: The Fallen. Manson described the record as "the final piece of a triptych that I began with Antichrist Superstar." Despite being the last of the three albums to be released, Manson explained that the triptych's storyline takes place in reverse chronological order; Holy Wood began the story, and Mechanical Animals and Antichrist Superstar were sequels. The storyline unfolds in a multi-tiered series of metaphors and allusions; for example, the album's title refers not only to the Hollywood Sign, but also to "the tree of knowledge that Adam took the first fruit from when he fell out of paradise, the wood that Christ was crucified on, the wood that [Lee Harvey] Oswald's rifle is made from, and the wood that so many coffins are made of." A: In the Shadow "GodEatGod" is the first song on the record. It opens with the sound of a focal-plane shutter in slow-motion capturing gunshots ringing in the background amid screaming onlookers before transitioning into the song. The song is driven by keyboards, synthesizers and a synth bass. "The Love Song" was described by Manson as about "America's romance with guns", and its title originated from his observation that "Love Song" is one of the most common titles in music. The lyrics are composed around an elaborate metaphor about guns. Manson explained: "I was suggesting with the lyrics that the father is the hand, the mother is the gun, and the children are the bullets. Where you shoot them is your responsibility as parents." The chorus is a rhetorical take on a popular American bumper sticker: "Do you love your God, gun, government?" Kerrang! described "The Fight Song" as a "playground punk anthem", and Manson revealed that its theme is Adam's desire to be a part of Holy Wood, saying that it is about "a person who's grown up all his life thinking that the grass is greener on the other side, but when he finally [gets there], he realizes that it's worse than where he came from." "Disposable Teens" is a "signature Marilyn Manson song" with a bouncing guitar riff composed of staccato articulation. Its lyrics juxtapose the disenfranchisement of contemporary millennial youth with the revolutionary idealism of their baby boomer parents' generation. The Beatles' influence is evident in this song; the chorus echoes the disillusionment of the White Album "Revolution 1". D: The Androgyne Manson singled out "Target Audience (Narcissus Narcosis)" as his favorite song on the album and said that it describes every person's desire for self-actualization. The song features an optigan and is propelled by flanged arpeggiated chords, building into heavy guitar chugs and string bending during the chorus. Drowned In Sound described the song as "a shining moment" on the record. "President Dead" is a guitar-driven song showcasing John 5's technical skills and writing credits from John 5, Twiggy Ramirez, and Madonna Wayne Gacy. Manson also plays a mellotron. It opens with a sample of Don Gardiner's ABC News Radio broadcast announcing the death of John F. Kennedy. The song is 3:13 long, which is a deliberate numerological reference to frame 313 of the Zapruder film—the frame displaying the moment of impact of the fatal head shot which killed Kennedy. "In the Shadow of the Valley of Death" is an introspective song with Adam at his most emotionally vulnerable. The song is divided into two parts. The first portion consists of samples and a 'death loop' over a simple strum from John 5's 1952 Gibson acoustic guitar that make way for a bass guitar and drums over plucked chords in the second portion. "Cruci-Fiction in Space" further explores American gun culture, postulating that Americans took an alternate evolutionary path; from monkeys to men to firearms. Its composition is slow but heavy—bereft of "speed or intricacy." It has a mixed meter drum beat middle 8 in 4/4 time with two additional eighth notes at the end; "it doesn't start in 4/4, it doesn't end in 4/4, so it's confusing." "A Place in the Dirt" is another personal song, characterized by Adam's self-analysis of his place in Holy Wood. A: Of Red Earth "The Nobodies" is a mournful, elegiac dirge constructed over a clavecin électrique and synthesized-drums. Its title is taken from a quote by Mark David Chapman. The verse "Today I am dirty and I want to be pretty, tomorrow I'll know that I'm just dirt" has an Iggy Pop-style vocal delivery, building to the "adrenaline-fueled" chorus. CMJ noted that the song could be interpreted as a tribute to the Columbine shooters, but its point was not to glorify violence; rather, it was to depict a society drenched in its children's blood. "The Death Song" is the turning point for Adam; he no longer cares. Manson described it as sarcastic and nihilistic: "it's like 'We have no future and we don't give a fuck'." Kerrang! described it as one of the album's heaviest songs. The bridge of "Lamb of God" paraphrases the chorus of "Across the Universe" (from 1970's Let It Be), whose lyric "Nothing's gonna change my world" inspired the song. Manson elaborated that: "Mark David Chapman came along and proved him very wrong. That was always something growing up that was very sad and tragic to me". The song uses the assassinations of John F. Kennedy and John Lennon to criticize the media's veneration of death, and for turning tragedy into televised spectacle. It is keyboard-heavy and feature a variety of instrumentation ranging from a piano, a minipiano, a leslie speaker, and multiple synthesizers. Unusual recording techniques were employed for its rhythm and acoustic guitar parts. "Born Again" is the second song on the record to use the synth bass and is the only other song, apart from "The Nobodies", to use the drum machine. The song's guitar tracks were led by Ramirez and supplemented by contributions from John 5. "Burning Flag" is a pounding heavy-metal song reminiscent of American industrial metal band Ministry. M: The Fallen Ramirez and John 5 collaborated on the guitar compositions for "Coma Black"; the song alternates between Ramirez's "warped guitar" and the phaze guitar employed by John 5, with Manson providing additional rhythm guitar support. The album ends with an interlocking group of songs: "Valentine's Day", "The Fall of Adam", "King Kill 33°" and "Count to Six and Die (The Vacuum of Infinite Space Encompassing)" each end abruptly before being instantaneously followed by the introduction of the proceeding track. "Valentine's Day" was composed by Ramirez and Manson and feature Gacy playing the mellotron—the second time the eccentric instrument appears on the record. John 5 recorded guitar parts for "The Fall of Adam" in the pouring rain in an effort to extract a unique sound and deliberately mistuned his Gibson for the song's intro to "produce a sweeter sound." Bon Harris contributed the piano work for the final song "Count to Six and Die (The Vacuum of Infinite Space Encompassing)" while Gacy exchanged his mellotron for this track in favor of a string synthesizer. It concludes on a cliffhanger; it ends with the sound of a solitary bullet being loaded into a revolver against a background of distant fireworks followed by the chamber being spun repeatedly. Its hammer is cocked six times, although its trigger is pulled only five times. The result of the sixth and final chamber is left for the listener to determine. Release and artwork Manson posted a four-minute video clip on the band's website on December 16, 1999, featuring clips of two previously unreleased songs. The first clip was of a rock song which later became "Disposable Teens", while the second was a rough demo of a cover of Frankie Laine and Jimmy Boyd's 1953 single "The Little Boy and the Old Man" (composed by Wayne Shanklin a year earlier as "Little Child"; it was most popularly performed under the title "Mommy Dear" in the 1964 movie The Naked Kiss). As a Valentine's Day gift for fans, Manson posted a download of the band's cover of Charles Manson's "Sick City", from his 1970 album Lie: The Love and Terror Cult. In August, he announced an October 24 release date for the record, and posted a partial track listing containing 13 song titles, while also indicating that their website would be updated weekly. Within three weeks, the album's full track listing had been revealed, and sound files of "Burning Flag", "Cruci-Fiction in Space" and "The Love Song" had been released for free download, along with the cover of the Holy Wood novel. On September 18, Manson announced that the album's US release would be postponed until November 14 (to fine-tune the final mix), and that its first single would be "Disposable Teens". The album was released on three formats on November 13 in the UK by Nothing and Interscope Records. Versions of the enhanced CD edition released in the UK featured an acoustic version of "The Nobodies" as a bonus track, while Japanese editions also included a live version of "Mechanical Animals". The album was released on double-LP and cassette. Universal Music Japan released a remastered version of the album on Super High Material CD (SHM-CD) on March 23, 2013. Artwork for the album was designed by Manson and P. R. Brown. Manson began conceptualizing it as he wrote the songs, and Brown and Manson worked in tandem to realize the imagery after deciding to do the work themselves. The cover art, which portrays Manson as a crucified Christ with his jawbone torn off, is intended as a criticism of censorship and America's obsession with martyrs. It is a cropped reinterpretation of The Hanged Man Tarot card. Underneath is an obscured portion of John F. Kennedy's coroner report, displaying the words "clinical record" and "autopsy". The typeface used on the band's name is the same font used on the Disney World logo in the 1960s. The cover was controversial; editions of the album sold at Circuit City came housed in a cardboard sleeve featuring an alternative cover, while Walmart and Kmart refused to stock the album at all. A pastor in Memphis, Tennessee threatened to go on a hunger strike unless the album was pulled from shelves. Manson described these actions as attempts at censorship: "The irony is that my point of the photo on the album was to show people that the crucifixion of Christ is, indeed, a violent image. My jaw is missing as a symbol of this very kind of censorship. This doesn't piss me off as much as it pleases me, because those offended by my album cover have successfully proven my point." In 2008, Gigwise ranked it at number ten on their list of "The 50 Most Controversial Album Covers of All Time". A set of fourteen redesigned Major Arcana tarot cards, based on the Rider–Waite deck, were commissioned by the singer for the album's artwork. The cards depict band members in surrealistic tableau. Each card was reinterpreted to reflect the iconography of the album's lyrical content: The Fool is stepping off a cliff, with grainy images of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis and a JFK campaign poster in the background; The Emperor, with prosthetic legs, is sitting in a wheelchair clutching a rifle in front of an American flag; Justice weighs the Bible against the brain on his balance scale. The album's inner sleeve contains these three images, along with a further nine: The Magician, The High Priestess, The Hierophant, The Hermit, Death, The Devil, The Tower, The Star and The World. The cover itself represents The Hanged Man. Promotion and singles Three singles were released to promote the album, with "Disposable Teens" being released as its lead single. The band made their debut appearance on BBC One's Top of the Pops to perform the song. Its music video was directed by Samuel Bayer, which debuted on MTV's Total Request Live on October 25. The single was released in the UK on November 6, and featured several B-sides, including covers of Lennon's "Working Class Hero" and The Doors' "Five to One", as well as original tracks "Diamonds & Pollen" and "Astonishing Panorama of the Endtimes". The latter had been released the previous year on the soundtrack to Celebrity Deathmatch. The band performed "Disposable Teens" on the MTV New Year's Eve celebration in 2000, along with a cover of Cheap Trick's "Surrender". It was also performed at the 2001 American Music Awards. From November 1, the UK division of Interscope held a contest to promote the album. The contest invited fans to log onto the band's website daily to pick up a series of coded clues which led to a hidden message. Fans who solved the riddle received an exclusive download, and were entered into a drawing for a one-week trip for two to meet the band in Hollywood. On November 14, the band took a break from the Guns, God and Government Tour to celebrate the album's US release date with a brief, invitation-only acoustic set at the Saci nightclub in New York City. Tickets for the show were given out via their website, in radio contests, and to the first 100 album buyers at Tower Records on Broadway in New York. The set consisted of four songs, including their cover "Suicide Is Painless" – the theme of the film (and TV series) M*A*S*H – which they had recently contributed to the soundtrack of Book of Shadows: Blair Witch 2. The following day, the vocalist appeared on Total Request Live in a segment entitled "Mothers Against Marilyn Manson". "The Fight Song" was released as the album's second single on February 19, 2001, in the UK. A remix of the song by Joey Jordison of Slipknot appeared as its B-side. Its music video was directed by Manson and W.I.Z. and sparked controversy for its violent depiction of an American football game between jocks and goths, with NME accusing it of being exploitative of the Columbine tragedy. Manson dismissed the claims as hype, and said: "I'm trying to show that sports as well as music can be seen as violent, so I chose a traditional black vs white, good vs evil theme for the video." Manson appeared on an April 2001 episode of The O'Reilly Factor, where he once again denied that the band's music was responsible for Columbine. Bill O'Reilly argued that "disturbed kids" without direction from responsible parents could misinterpret the message of his music as endorsing the belief that "when I'm dead [then] everybody's going to know me." Manson responded: In mid-2001, Universal Music Group was criticized for airing commercials promoting the album during episodes of Total Request Live. Manson suspected that former Democratic vice-presidential candidate Joseph Lieberman played a role in the criticism. Lieberman and Hillary Clinton had recently introduced the Media Marketing Accountability Act of 2001 before the 107th United States Congress. This legislation proposed to ban the entertainment-industry from marketing suspected violent or explicit material to minors. Manson announced prior to the release of "The Fight Song" that "The Nobodies" would be issued as the album's third single, whilst indicating a desire to film its video in Russia because "the atmosphere, the desolation, the coldness and the architecture would really suit the song." Another early plan was to incorporate the MTV series Jackass, as the song was included in the show's soundtrack. The idea was later abandoned, however, when the show drew the ire of Lieberman. The music video was directed by Paul Fedor and premiered on MTV in June, and the single was released in the UK on September 3. Its release was timed to coincide with the band's appearance at the Reading Festival, and was accompanied by another competition on the band's website—the winner was awarded two full-weekend passes to the festival, as well as unrestricted backstage access and a private sleeping area. A remix of the song later appeared in the 2001 Johnny Depp film From Hell. Tour The album was promoted by the worldwide Guns, God and Government Tour, which began in North America in 3–6,000-capacity venues on October 27, 2000, at the Orpheum Theatre in Minneapolis. Typically for the band, the concerts were highly theatrical. The tour's imagery was mainly derived from the concept and themes found on the album; its logo was a rifle, with handguns arranged to resemble the Christian cross. Sets were designed with communist, religious and "celebritarian" imagery. Manson had a number of costume changes during each show: a bishop's dalmatic and mitre (often confused with papal regalia); a costume made from animals (including epaulettes made from a horse's tail and a shirt made from skinned goat heads and ostrich spines); his signature black leather corset, g-string and garter stockings; an elaborate Roman legionary-style imperial galea; an Allgemeine SS-style peaked police cap; a black-and-white fur coat, and a large conical skirt which lifted him in the air. The Ozzfest leg of the tour marked the band's first performance in Denver, Colorado (on June 22, 2001, at Mile High Stadium) after the Columbine High School massacre in Littleton. After initially canceling due to a scheduling conflict, the band changed their plans to play the Denver date. The group's decision met resistance from conservative groups; Manson received death threats and demands to cancel the band's performance. A group of church leaders, businesses and families related to Columbine formed an ad hoc organization opposing the show. Citizens for Peace and Respect, which was supported by Colorado governor Bill Owens and representative Tom Tancredo, claimed on their website that the band "promotes hate, violence, death, suicide, drug use, and the attitudes and actions of the Columbine killers". In response, Manson issued a statement: Two films of the concert tour were made. The Guns, God and Government DVD was released on October 29, 2002, by Eagle Rock Entertainment, and featured live footage taken from several different performances in Los Angeles, Russia, Japan, and throughout Europe. It also included a 30-minute behind-the-scenes featurette, The Death Parade, with guest appearances from Ozzy Osbourne and Eminem. This was followed seven years later by a Blu-ray titled Guns, God and Government – Live in L.A. Released by Eagle Rock on November 17, 2009, it depicts the band's entire sixteen-song set from their January 13, 2001, performance at the Grand Olympic Auditorium—the final headlining show of the North American leg of the tour. Critical reception Holy Wood received generally positive reviews from music critics at the time of its release. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 72 based on 14 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews", and is the 88th best-reviewed album of the year. The record was praised by several publications as being the band's finest work: Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described it as their definitive record; a writer for Entertainment Weekly called it their "most potent effort yet", and April Long of NME said it was "by far the best thing Manson has ever set his warped mind to, [it] ultimately inspires something far more potent than fear or hatred—respect." The band received acclaim for the quality of their songwriting. Daniel Durchholz of Wall of Sound called Holy Wood their most ambitious and musically accomplished record to date. LA Weekly said that "almost all [of the songs] contain a double-take chord change or a textural overdose or a mind-blowing bridge, and they'll be terroristic in concert." Hot Press praised the band for their inventive musical arrangements, and said that "Holy Wood is a far better record than many would have dared to expect." Drowned in Sound rated the album 10 out of 10 and praised the band's performance, saying that they "play tighter than [ever] before (looking at the credits show it to be much more of a team effort) ... and, musically, it has a lot more variation and scope than the Limp Bizkits of the world." The band's vocalist was also applauded for his lyricism; Barry Walters of Rolling Stone commended him for "addressing real-life issues with a theatrical verve and genuine vitriol that no other mainstream act can match." Billboard magazine was similarly impressed, calling Manson one of the most skilled lyricists of his generation. Revolver editor Christopher Scapelliti compared his lyrics to those of John Lennon's, writing: "What comes across loudest on the album is not the music, but the sense of injury expressed in Manson's lyrics. Like Plastic Ono Band, Holy Wood screams with a primal fury that's evident even in its quietest moments." The album also received some mixed reviews. Several publications criticized its length, as well as the band for abandoning the glam rock-influenced production of Mechanical Animals. PopMatters argued that the album was too long, and claimed it would have been a more consistent record if subject matter was addressed literally, instead of through a 'concept album' format. Joshua Klein of The A.V. Club rated Holy Wood a B−, but was overall critical of the lack of glam rock-influenced songs on the album. Robert Hilburn, in a review for the Los Angeles Times, was also disappointed that the album did not live up to "the promise of Mechanical Animals". He viewed the musical cross-pollination of Antichrist Superstar and Mechanical Animals as confusion on the band's part as to which of the two albums appealed most to casual listeners. Accolades The album appeared in numerous publication's lists of best albums of 2000. It appeared at number nine on Kerrang!s list of albums of the year, and went on to rate it the 11th best album of the 2000–2009 decade, while NME ranked it at number 34 in their critic's pick of the 50 best albums of 2000 in their "Decade in Music" series. German magazine Musik Express/Sounds listed the album at number 30 in their critics' top 50, and at number nine in the popular poll of their "Albums of 2000" list. The French edition of British magazine Rock Sound ranked Holy Wood 15th in their Le choix de la rédaction (editors choice) and 5th in Le choix des lecteurs (readers choice) of their 2000 Albums de l'année (albums of the year). Record Collector also included it on their "Best of 2000" list. It went on to win the "Best Album" accolade at the 2001 Kerrang! Awards. Retrospective commentary on the album has been highly positive. In November 2010, Kerrang! published a tenth-anniversary commemorative issue dedicated to Holy Wood titled Screaming For Vengeance, calling it "Manson's finest hour". In 2014, Metal Hammer identified the album as a modern classic, calling it the band's "creative zenith"; later, in 2020, the magazine named it one of the 20 best metal albums of 2000. Manson said in a June 2015 Reddit AMA that he considered the record to be his best work, and, that same month, NME referred to it as the band's best album. A 2016 feature in Houston Press called Holy Wood "the album that really cemented the band as more than just shock-rockers, but true musical mavericks with an intelligent perspective on social issues." Metal Hammer referred to the record as "perfect", saying: "Manson has yet to better Holy Wood and that's fine—nobody's really bettered it. The flow of the record, the delivery of its concept, the clarity with which it strikes its opponents. A gargantuan artistic feat that will go down in history as Manson's defining statement." Commercial performance Prior to the record's release, several critics and retailers openly questioned whether the band still had significant commercial appeal with mainstream consumers, with rap rock emerging as the predominant rock genre of the early 2000s. Furthermore, according to Metal Hammer, "By the turn of the century, Manson was no longer America's demon dog. White trash superstar Eminem had clocked his position and supplanted him." A clean version of the album was never manufactured. This resulted in Holy Wood being banned from sale at major retailers such as Walmart and Kmart, who enforce a strict policy on not stocking albums labeled with a Parental Advisory sticker. Best Buy's sales projections estimated its first-week sales at about 150,000 units nationally, significantly less than the 223,000 copies sold by Mechanical Animals during its first week. Holy Wood debuted and peaked at number 13 on the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 117,279—an initial commercial disappointment. It spent 13 consecutive weeks on the chart before dropping off – far short of the 52 and 33 weeks Antichrist Superstar and Mechanical Animals spent on the chart, respectively – making it the shortest-charting full-length LP by the band until The High End of Low (2009). It took over two years to be certified gold by the RIAA (in March 2003), denoting shipments in excess of 500,000 units. The album sold over 573,000 copies in the US by 2010, according to Nielsen SoundScan. Manson attributed its lack of commercial appeal to the musical climate of the time, and argued that, at the height of the band's popularity, their US album sales peaked between one and two million units, so "it's not such a disaster as if we were coming down from seven or eight million records." He also said that the drop in US sales was off-set by increasing international success. The record reached the top 20 of numerous international markets, including Canada, where it peaked at number 13 and was certified gold by the CRIA for shipments of over 50,000 units. The record was more successful in continental Europe than preceding albums, peaking at number nine on Billboards Eurochart. It entered the top 10 of the national charts in Austria, Italy, and Sweden, and the top 20 in a further six countries: France, Norway, Poland, and Spain. It debuted at number 11 on the German Albums Chart and spent over five months on the chart—their second-longest chart run there, behind The Golden Age of Grotesque (2003). It also reached the top 20 in Switzerland, where it was certified gold by the IFPI almost five years after its release for shipments in excess of 25,000 units. Similarly, despite peaking at number 23 and spending just four weeks on the UK Albums Chart, it would be certified gold by the BPI in July 2013 for sales in excess of 100,000 copies. In Australasia, Holy Wood peaked at number eight on the Australian Albums Chart, and reached the top twenty in New Zealand, peaking at number 18. The album also peaked at number 13 on the Japanese Oricon chart, where it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan for shipments of over 100,000 units. Track listing All lyrics written by Marilyn Manson. Notes Enhanced CD editions of the album contain a data track of a video titled "Autopsy". Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of the vinyl edition of Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death). Marilyn Manson Marilyn Manson – lead vocals, backing vocals keyboards , synthesizer , synthesizer bass , lead guitar , optigan , mellotron , syncussion , distorted flute , piano , ambient effects , clavecin électrique , minipiano , rhythm guitar , arrangements, production, art direction, concept Twiggy Ramirez – lead guitar , bass , rhythm guitar , Leslie guitar , keyboards , drum loops , warped guitar , additional electric guitar John 5 – guitars , lead guitar , rhythm guitar , acoustic guitar , slide guitar , phaze guitar , synth guitar Madonna Wayne Gacy – ambiance , keyboards , samples , loops , synthesizer , synthesizer bass , mellotron , synth string Ginger Fish – live drums , siren loop , drum loops , death loop , drum machine Production P.R. Brown – art direction, design, photography Greg Fidelman – engineer, Pro Tools Kevin Guarnieri – assistant engineer Bon Harris – pre-production editing, programming, synthesizer , drum programming , electronic percussion , insect hi-hat , sleigh bells , manipulation , synthesizer bass , piano Stephen Marcussen – mastering Paulie Northfield – additional engineering Nick Raskulinecz – assistant engineer Danny Saber – additional loops Dave Sardy – rhythm guitar , drum programming , production, mixing Alex Suttle – backing vocals Joe Zook – assistant engineer Charts and certifications Weekly charts Certifications Release history References Notes References Bibliography External links Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death) at Interscope Records 2000 albums Albums produced by Dave Sardy Albums produced by Marilyn Manson Albums recorded at Westlake Recording Studios Albums recorded in a home studio Concept albums Gothic rock albums by American artists Interscope Geffen A&M Records albums Interscope Records albums Marilyn Manson (band) albums Nothing Records albums Political music albums by American artists Rock operas Universal Music Group albums Works about the assassination of John F. Kennedy Albums recorded at The Mansion (recording studio)